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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Women of Modern France, by Hugo P.  Thieme
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Women of Modern France
+       Woman In All Ages And In All Countries
+
+Author: Hugo P.  Thieme
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2005 [EBook #17159]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOMEN OF MODERN FRANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, William Flis and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team Europe at http://dp.rastko.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: The Table of Contents was added by the
+Transcriber.
+
+
+
+WOMAN
+
+In all ages and in all countries
+
+
+WOMEN OF MODERN FRANCE
+
+by
+
+HUGO P. THIEME, Ph.D.
+
+Of the University of Michigan
+
+
+THE RITTENHOUSE PRESS PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+
+
+Copyrighted at Washington and entered at Stationer's Hall, London,
+
+1907—1908
+
+and printed by arrangement with George Barrie's Sons.
+
+
+PRINTED IN U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                PREFACE
+
+     Chapter I. Woman in politics
+
+    Chapter II. Woman in Family Life, Education, and Letters
+
+   Chapter III. The Seventeenth Century: Woman at Her Best
+
+    Chapter IV. Woman in Society and Literature
+
+     Chapter V. Mistresses and Wives of Louis XIV
+
+    Chapter VI. Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. Dacier,
+                Mme. de Caylus
+
+   Chapter VII. Woman in Religion
+
+  Chapter VIII. Salon Leaders Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme.
+                du Deffand, Mlle. de Lespinasse, Mme. du Châtelet
+
+    Chapter IX. Salon Leaders—(Continued): Mme. Necker, Mme.
+                d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis: Minor Salons
+
+
+     Chapter X. Social Classes
+
+    Chapter XI. Royal Mistresses
+
+   Chapter XII. Marie Antoinette and the Revolution
+
+  Chapter XIII. Women of the Revolution and the Empire
+
+   Chapter XIV. Women of the Nineteenth Century
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Among the Latin races, the French race differs essentially in one
+characteristic which has been the key to the success of French
+women—namely, the social instinct. The whole French nation has always
+lived for the present time, in actuality, deriving from life more of
+what may be called social pleasure than any other nation. It has been
+a universal characteristic among French people since the sixteenth
+century to love to please, to make themselves agreeable, to bring joy
+and happiness to others, and to be loved and admired as well. With
+this instinctive trait French women have always been bountifully
+endowed. Highly emotional, they love to charm, and this has become
+an art with them; balancing this emotional nature is the mathematical
+quality. These two combined have made French women the great leaders
+in their own country and among women of all races. They have developed
+the art of studying themselves; and the art of coquetry, which
+has become a virtue, is a science with them. The singular power of
+discrimination, constructive ability, calculation, subtle intriguing,
+a clear and concise manner of expression, a power of conversation
+unequalled in women of any other country, clear thinking: all these
+qualities have been strikingly illustrated in the various great women
+of the different periods of the history of France, and according to
+these they may by right be judged; for their moral qualities have not
+always been in accordance with the standard of other races.
+
+According as these two fundamental qualities, the emotional and
+mathematical, have been developed in individual women, we meet the
+different types which have made themselves prominent in history. The
+queens of France, in general, have been submissive and pious, dutiful
+and virtuous wives, while the mistresses have been bold and frivolous,
+licentious and self-assertive. The women outside of these spheres
+either looked on with indifference or regret at the all-powerfulness
+of this latter class, unable to change conditions, or themselves
+enjoyed the privilege of the mistress.
+
+It must be remembered that in the great social circles in France,
+especially from the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries,
+marriage was a mere convention, offences against it being looked upon
+as matters concerning manners, not morals; therefore, much of the
+so-called gross immorality of French women may be condoned. It will
+be seen in this history that French women have acted banefully on
+politics, causing mischief, inciting jealousy and revenge, almost
+invariably an instrument in the hands of man, acting as a disturbing
+element. In art, literature, religion, and business, however, they
+have ever been a directing force, a guide, a critic and judge, an
+inspiration and companion to man.
+
+The wholesome results of French women's activity are reflected
+especially in art and literature, and to a lesser degree in religion
+and morality, by the tone of elegance, politeness, _finesse_,
+clearness, precision, purity, and a general high standard which man
+followed if he was to succeed. In politics much severe blame and
+reproach have been heaped upon her—she is made responsible for
+breaking treaties, for activity in all intrigues, participating in
+and inciting to civil and foreign wars, encouraging and sanctioning
+assassinations and massacres, championing the Machiavelian policy and
+practising it at every opportunity.
+
+It has been the aim of this history of French women to present the
+results rather than the actual happenings of their lives, and
+these have been gathered from the most authoritative and scholarly
+publications on the subject, to which the writer herewith wishes to
+give all credit.
+
+Hugo Paul Thieme.
+
+_University of Michigan._
+
+
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+Woman in politics
+
+
+French women of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries,
+when studied according to the distinctive phases of their influence,
+are best divided into three classes: those queens who, as wives,
+represented virtue, education, and family life; the mistresses, who
+were instigators of political intrigue, immorality, and vice; and the
+authoresses and other educated women, who constituted themselves the
+patronesses of art and literature.
+
+This division is not absolute by any means; for we see that in the
+sixteenth century the regent-mother (for example, Louise of Savoy and
+Catherine de' Medici), in extent of influence, fills the same position
+as does the mistress in the eighteenth century; though in the former
+period appears, in Diana of Poitiers, the first of a long line of
+ruling mistresses.
+
+Queen-consorts, in the sixteenth as in the following centuries,
+exercised but little influence; they were, as a rule, gentle and
+obedient wives—even Catherine, domineering as she afterward showed
+herself to be, betraying no signs of that trait until she became
+regent.
+
+The literary women and women of spirit and wit furthered all
+intellectual and social development; but it was the mistresses—those
+great women of political schemes and moral degeneracy—who were vested
+with the actual importance, and it must in justice to them be said
+that they not infrequently encouraged art, letters, and mental
+expansion.
+
+Eight queens of France there were during the sixteenth century,
+and three of these may be accepted as types of purity, piety, and
+goodness: Claude, first wife of Francis I.; Elizabeth of France, wife
+of Charles IX.; and Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III. These
+queens, held up to ridicule and scorn by the depraved followers of
+their husbands' mistresses, were reverenced by the people; we find
+striking contrasts to them in the two queens-regent, Louise of Savoy
+and Catherine de' Medici, who, in the period of their power, were
+as unscrupulous and brutal, intriguing and licentious, jealous and
+revengeful, as the most wanton mistresses who ever controlled a
+king. In this century, we find two other remarkable types: Marguerite
+d'Angoulême, the bright star of her time; and her whose name comes
+instantly to mind when we speak of the Lady of Angoulême—Marguerite
+de Navarre, representing both the good and the doubtful, the broadest
+sense of that untranslatable term _femme d'esprit_.
+
+The first of the royal French women to whom modern woman owes a great
+and clearly defined debt was Anne of Brittany, wife of Louis XII.
+and the personification of all that is good and virtuous. To her
+belongs the honor of having taken the first step toward the social
+emancipation of French women; she was the first to give to woman an
+important place at court. This precedent she established by requesting
+her state officials and the foreign ambassadors to bring their wives
+and daughters when they paid their respects to her. To the ladies
+themselves, she sent a "royal command," bidding them leave their
+gloomy feudal abodes and repair to the court of their sovereign.
+
+Anne may be said to belong to the transition period—that period in
+which the condition of slavery and obscurity which fettered the
+women of the Middle Ages gave place to almost untrammelled liberty.
+The queen held a separate court in great state, at Blois and Des
+Tournelles, and here elegance, even magnificence, of dress was
+required of her ladies. At first, this unprecedented demand caused
+discontent among men, who at that time far surpassed women in
+elaborateness of costume and had, consequently, been accustomed to
+the use of their surplus wealth for their own purposes. Under Anne's
+influence, court life underwent a complete transformation; her
+receptions, which were characterized by royal splendor, became the
+centre of attraction.
+
+Anne of Brittany, the last queen of France of the Middle Ages and
+the first of the modern period, was a model of virtuous conduct,
+conjugal fidelity, and charity. Having complete control over her own
+immense wealth, she used it largely for beneficent purposes; to her
+encouragement much of the progress of art and literature in France was
+due. Hers was an example that many of the later queens endeavored to
+follow, but it cannot be said that they ever exerted a like influence
+or exhibited an equal power of initiation and self-assertion.
+
+The first royal woman to become a power in politics in the period that
+we are considering was Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., a type
+of the voluptuous and licentious female of the sixteenth century. Her
+pernicious activity first manifested itself when, having conceived
+a violent passion for Charles of Bourbon, she set her heart upon
+marrying him, and commenced intrigues and plots which were all the
+more dangerous because of her almost absolute control over her son,
+the King.
+
+At this time there were three distinct sets or social castes at the
+court of France: the pious and virtuous band about the good Queen
+Claude; the lettered and elegant belles in the coterie of Marguerite
+d'Angoulême, sister of Francis I.; and the wanton and libertine young
+maids who formed a galaxy of youth and beauty about Louise of Savoy,
+and were by her used to fascinate her son and thus distract him from
+affairs of state.
+
+Louise used all means to bring before the king beautiful women through
+whom she planned to preserve her influence over him. One of these
+frail beauties, Françoise de Foix, completely won the heart of the
+monarch; her ascendency over him continued for a long period, in spite
+of the machinations of Louise, who, when Francis escaped her control,
+sought to bring disrepute and discredit upon the fair mistress.
+
+The mother, however, remained the powerful factor in politics. With an
+abnormal desire to hoard money, an unbridled temper, and a violent and
+domineering disposition, she became the most powerful and dangerous,
+as well as the most feared, woman of all France. During her regency
+the state coffers were pillaged, and plundering was carried on on all
+sides. One of her acts at this time was to cause the recall of Charles
+of Bourbon, then Governor of Milan; this measure was taken as much
+for the purpose of obtaining revenge for his scornful rejection of her
+offer of marriage as for the hope of eventually bringing him to her
+side.
+
+Upon the return of Charles, she immediately began plotting against
+him, including in her hatred Françoise de Foix, the king's mistress,
+at whom Bourbon frequently cast looks of pity which the furiously
+jealous Louise interpreted as glances of love. As a matter of fact,
+Bourbon, being strictly virtuous, was out of reach of temptation by
+the beauties of the court, and there were no grounds for jealousy.
+
+This love of Louise for Charles of Bourbon is said to have owed most
+of its ardor to her hope of coming into possession of his immense
+estates. She schemed to have his title to them disputed, hoping that,
+by a decree of Parliament, they might be taken from him; the idea in
+this procedure was that Bourbon, deprived of his possessions, must
+come to her terms, and she would thus satisfy—at one and the same
+time—her passion and her cupidity.
+
+Under her influence the character of the court changed entirely;
+retaining only a semblance of its former decency, it became utterly
+corrupt. It possessed external elegance and _distingué_ manners, but
+below this veneer lay intrigue, debauchery, and gross immorality. In
+order to meet the vast expenditures of the king and the queen-mother,
+the taxes were enormously increased; the people, weighed down by the
+unjust assessment and by want, began to clamor and protest. Undismayed
+by famine, poverty, and epidemic, Louise continued her depredations
+on the public treasury, encouraging the king in his squanderings;
+and both mother and son, in order to procure money, begged, borrowed,
+plundered.
+
+Louise was always surrounded by a bevy of young ladies, selected
+beauties of the court, whose natural charms were greatly enhanced by
+the lavishness of their attire. Always ready to further the plans of
+their mistress, they hesitated not to sacrifice reputation or honor to
+gratify her smallest whim. Her power was so generally recognized that
+foreign ambassadors, in the absence of the king, called her "that
+other king." When war against France broke out between Spain and
+England, Louise succeeded in gaining the office of constable for the
+Duc d'Alençon; by this means, she intended to displace Charles of
+Bourbon (whom she was still persecuting because he continued cold to
+her advances), and to humiliate him in the presence of his army; the
+latter design, however, was thwarted, as he did not complain.
+
+To the caprice of Louise of Savoy were due the disasters and defeats
+of the French army during the period of her power; by frequently
+displacing someone whose actions did not coincide with her plans, and
+elevating some favorite who had avowed his willingness to serve her,
+she kept military affairs in a state of confusion.
+
+Many wanton acts are attributed to her: she appropriated forty
+thousand crowns allowed to Governor Lautrec of Milan for the
+payment of his soldiers, and caused the execution of Samblancay,
+superintendent of finances, who had been so unfortunate as to incur
+her displeasure. It was Charles of Bourbon, who, with Marshal Lautrec,
+investigated the episode of the forty thousand crowns and exposed the
+treachery and perfidy of the mother of his king.
+
+Finding that Bourbon intended to persist in his resistance to her
+advances, Louise decided upon drastic measures of retaliation. With
+the assistance of her chancellor (and tool), Duprat, she succeeded in
+having withheld the salaries which were due to Bourbon because of the
+offices held by him. As he took no notice of these deprivations, she
+next proceeded to divest him of his estates by laying claim to them
+for herself; she then proposed to Bourbon that, by accepting her hand
+in marriage, he might settle the matter happily. The object of her
+numerous schemes not only rejected this offer with contempt, but added
+insult to injury by remarking: "I will never marry a woman devoid of
+modesty." At this rebuff, Louise was incensed beyond measure, and when
+Queen Claude suggested Bourbon's marriage to her sister, Mme. Renée
+de France (a union to which Charles would have consented gladly), the
+queen-mother managed to induce Francis I. to refuse his consent.
+
+After the death of Anne of Beaujeu, mother-in-law of Charles of
+Bourbon, her estates were seized by the king and transferred to
+Louise while the claim was under consideration by Parliament. When
+the judges, after an examination of the records of the Bourbon estate,
+remonstrated with Chancellor Duprat against the illegal transfer, he
+had them put into prison. This rigorous act, which was by order of
+Louise, weakened the courage of the court; when the time arrived for a
+final decision, the judges declared themselves incompetent to decide,
+and in order to rid themselves of responsibility referred the matter
+to the king's council. This great lawsuit, which was continued for a
+long time, eventually forced Charles of Bourbon to flee from France.
+Having sworn allegiance to Charles V. of Spain and Henry VIII. of
+England against Francis I., he was made lieutenant-general of the
+imperial armies.
+
+When Francis, captured at the battle of Pavia, was taken to Spain,
+Louise, as regent, displayed unusual diplomatic skill by leaguing the
+Pope and the Italian states with Francis against the Spanish king.
+When, after nearly a year's captivity, her son returned, she welcomed
+him with a bevy of beauties; among them was a new mistress, designed
+to destroy the influence of the woman who had so often thwarted the
+plans of Louise—the beautiful Françoise de Foix whom the king had
+made Countess of Châteaubriant.
+
+This new beauty was Anne de Pisseleu, one of the thirty children of
+Seigneur d'Heilly, a girl of eighteen, with an exceptional education.
+Most cunning was the trap which Louise had set for the king. Anne was
+surrounded by a circle of youthful courtiers, who hung upon her words,
+laughed at her caprices, courted her smiles; and when she rather
+confounded them with the extent of the learning which—with a sort of
+gay triumph—she was rather fond of showing, they pronounced her "the
+most charming of learned ladies and the most learned of the charming."
+
+The plot worked; Francis was fascinated, falling an easy prey to the
+wiles of the wanton Anne. The former mistress, Françoise de Foix, was
+discarded, and Louise, purely out of revenge and spite, demanded the
+return of the costly jewels given by the king and appropriated them
+herself.
+
+The duty assigned to the new mistress was that of keeping Francis
+busy with fêtes and other amusements. While he was thus kept under the
+spell of his enchantress, he lost all thought of his subjects and the
+welfare of his country and the affairs of the kingdom fell into the
+hands of Louise and her chancellor, Duprat. The girl-mistress, Anne,
+was married by Louise to the Duc d'Etampes whose consent was gained
+through the promise of the return of his family possessions which,
+upon his father's departure with Charles of Bourbon, had been
+confiscated.
+
+The reign of Louise of Savoy was now about over; she had accomplished
+everything she had planned. She had caused Charles of Bourbon, one
+of the greatest men of the sixteenth century, to turn against his
+king; and that king owed to her—his mother—his defeat at Pavia, his
+captivity in Spain, and his moral fall. Spain, Italy, and France were
+victims of the infamous plotting and disastrous intrigues of this one
+woman whose death, in 1531, was a blessing to the country which she
+had dishonored.
+
+At the time of the marriage of Francis I. to Eleanor of Portugal
+(one of the last acts of Louise), Europe was beginning to look upon
+France as ahead of all other nations in the "superlativeness of
+her politeness." The most rigid etiquette and the most punctilious
+politeness were always observed, fines being imposed for any
+discourtesy toward women.
+
+After the death of Louise, the lot of managing the king and directing
+his policy fell to the share of his mistress, the Duchesse d'Etampes,
+who at once became all-powerful at court; her influence over him was
+like that of the drug which, to the weak person who begins its use,
+soon becomes an absolute necessity.
+
+After the death of the dauphin, all the court flatteries were directed
+toward Henry, the eldest son of Francis. Though his mistress, Diana of
+Poitiers, ruled him, she exercised no influence politically; that
+she was not lacking in diplomacy, however, was proved by her attitude
+toward Henry's wife, Catherine, whom she treated with every indication
+of friendship and esteem, in marked contrast to the disdain exhibited
+by other ladies of the court. These two women became friends, working
+together against the mistress of the king—the Duchesse d'Etampes—and
+causing, by their intrigues, dissensions between father and son.
+
+The duchess was not a bad woman; her dissuasion of Francis I. from
+undertaking war with Solyman II. against Charles V. is one instance of
+the use of her influence in the right direction. By some historians,
+she is accused of having played the traitress, in the interest of
+Emperor Charles V., during the war of Spain and England against
+France. It was she who urged the Treaty of Crépy with Charles V.; by
+it, through the marriage of the French king's second son, the Duke of
+Orleans, to the niece of Charles V., the duchess was sure of a safe
+retreat when her bitter enemy, Henry's mistress, should reign after
+the king's death. Her plans, however, did not materialize, as the duke
+died and the treaty was annulled.
+
+The death of Francis I. occurred in 1547; with his reign ends the
+first period of woman's activity—a period influenced mainly by Louise
+of Savoy, whose relations to France were as disastrous as were those
+of any mistress. The influence exerted by her may in some respects be
+compared with that of Mme. de Pompadour; though, were the merits and
+demerits of both carefully tested, the results would hardly be
+in favor of Louise. Strong in diplomacy and intrigue, she was
+unscrupulous and wanton—morally corrupt; she did nothing to further
+the development of literature and art; if she favored men of genius it
+was merely from motives of self-interest.
+
+With the accession of Henry II. his mistress entered into possession
+of full power. The absolute sway of Diana of Poitiers over this
+weakest of French kings was due to her strong mind, great ability,
+wide experience, fascination of manner, and to that exceptional beauty
+which she preserved to her old age. Immediately upon coming into
+power, she dispatched the Duchesse d'Etampes to one of her estates
+and at the same time forced her to restore the jewels which she had
+received from Francis I., a usual procedure with a mistress who knew
+herself to be first in authority.
+
+After being thus displaced, the duchess spent her time in doing
+charitable work, and is said to have afforded protection to the
+Protestants. Eventually, hers was the fate of almost all the
+mistresses. Compelled to give up many of her possessions, miserable
+and forgotten by all, her last days were most unhappy.
+
+Early in her career, Henry made Diana Duchesse de Valentinois. So
+powerful did she become that Sieur de Bayard, secretary of state,
+having referred in jest to her age (she was twenty years the king's
+senior), was deprived of his office, thrown into prison, and left to
+die. In her management of Queen Catherine, Diana was most politic;
+she never interfered, but constituted herself "the protectress of the
+legitimate wife, settling all questions concerning the newly born,"
+for which she received a large salary. When, while the king was in
+Italy, the queen became ill, she owed her recovery to the watchful
+care of the mistress. The latter appointed to the vacant estates and
+positions members of her house—that of Guise. In time, this house
+gained such an ascendency that it conceived the project of setting
+aside all the princes of the blood royal.
+
+Having (through one of her favorites) gained control of the royal
+treasury, Diana appropriated everything—lands, money, jewels. Her
+influence was so astonishing to the people that she was accused of
+wielding a magic power and bewitching the king who seemed, verily,
+to be leading an enchanted existence; he had but one thought, one
+aim—that of pleasing and obeying his aged mistress. To make
+amends for his adultery, he concluded to extirpate heretics. Such
+a combination of luxury and extravagance with licentiousness and
+brutality, such wholesale murder, persecution, and burning at the
+stake have never been equalled, except under Nero.
+
+Michelet reveals the character of Diana in these words: "Affected by
+nothing, loving nothing, sympathizing with nothing; of the passions
+retaining only those which will give a little rapidity to the
+blood; of the pleasures preferring those that are mild and without
+violence—the love of gain and the pursuit of money; hence, there was
+absence of soul. Another phase was the cultivation of the body, the
+body and its beauty uniquely cared for by virile treatment and a rigid
+régime which is the guardian of life—not weakly adored as by women
+who kill themselves by excessive self-love." M. Saint-Amand continues,
+after quoting the above: "At all seasons of the year, Diana plunges
+into a cold bath on rising. As soon as day breaks, she mounts a horse,
+and, followed by swift hounds, rides through dewy verdure to her royal
+lover to whom—fascinated by her mythological pomp—she seems no
+more a woman but a goddess. Thus he styles her in verses of burning
+tenderness:
+
+  "'Hélas, mon Dieu! combien je regrette
+  Le temps que j'ai perdu en ma jeunesse!
+  Combien de fois je me suis souhaité
+  Avoir Diane pour ma seule maîtresse.
+  Mais je craignais qu'elle, qui est déesse,
+  Ne se voulût abaisser jusque là.'"
+
+[Alas, my God! how much I regret the time lost in my youth! How often
+have I longed to have Diana for my only mistress! But I feared that
+she who is a goddess would not stoop so low as that.]
+
+Catherine remained quietly in the palace, preferring her position,
+unpleasant as it was, to the persecution and possible incarceration in
+a convent which would result from any interference on her part between
+the king and his mistress. Without power or privileges, she was a mere
+figurehead—a good mother looking after her family. However, she
+was not idle; without taking part in the intrigues, she was
+studying them—planning her future tactics; in all relations she was
+diplomatic, her conversation ever displaying exquisite tact.
+
+While France groaned under the burdens of seemingly interminable wars
+and exorbitant taxes, her king revelled in excessive luxury; the aim
+of his favorite mistress seemed to be to acquire wealth and spend
+it lavishly for her own pleasure. Voluptuousness, cruelty, and
+extravagance were the keynotes of the time. All means were used to
+procure revenues, the king easing any pangs of conscience by burning a
+few heretics whose estates were then quickly confiscated.
+
+Diana, even at the age of sixty, still held Henry in her toils; an
+easy prey for the wiles of the flatterer, he was kept in ignorance of
+the hatred and anger heaping up against him. In the midst of riotous
+festivity, Henry II. died, a victim of the lance of Montgomery;
+and the twelve years' reign of debauchery, cruelty, and shameless
+extravagance came to an end.
+
+Whatever else may be said of Diana, she proved to be a liberal
+patroness of art and letters; this was possible for her, since, in
+addition to inherited wealth and the gifts of lands and jewels
+from the king, she procured the possessions of many heretics whose
+confiscated wealth was assigned to her as a faithful servant and
+supporter of the church.
+
+Her hotel at Anet was one of the most elaborate, tasteful, and elegant
+in all France; there the finest specimens of Italian sculpture,
+painting, and woodwork were to be seen. The king, upon making her
+a duchess, presented her with the beautiful château of Chenonceaux,
+which was so much coveted by Catherine. The latter attempted to make
+Diana pay for the château, thus interrupting her plans for building;
+upon discovering this, Henry sent his own artists and workmen to carry
+out Diana's desires. Such was the power of his mistress over the weak
+king that he respected her wishes far more than he did those of his
+queen. This was one of those instances in which Catherine saw fit to
+remain silent and plan revenge.
+
+The death of Diana of Poitiers was that common to all women of her
+position. She died in 1566, forgotten by the world—her world. In her
+will she made "provision for religious houses, to be opened to
+women of evil lives, as if, in the depth of her conscience, she had
+recognized the likeness between their destiny and her own." Like
+the former mistresses, she had been required to give up the jewels
+received from Henry II.; but as this order was from Francis II.
+instead of from his mistress, the gems were returned to the
+crown after having passed successively through the hands of three
+mistresses.
+
+Catherine's time had not yet come, for she dared not interfere
+when Mary Stuart (a beautiful, inexperienced, and impetuous girl of
+seventeen) gained ascendency over Francis II.—a mere boy. The house
+of Guise was then supreme and began its bloody campaign against its
+enemies; fortunately, however, its power was short-lived, for in 1560
+the king died after reigning only seventeen months. At this point,
+Catherine enters upon the scene of action. Jealous of Mary Stuart
+and fearing that the young king, Charles IX., then but ten years old,
+might become infatuated with her and marry her, she promptly returned
+the fair young woman to Scotland.
+
+The task before the regent was no light one; her kingdom was
+divided against itself, the country was overburdened with taxes, and
+discontent reigned universally. All who surrounded her were full of
+prejudice and actuated solely by personal aspirations—she realized
+that she could trust no one.
+
+Her first act of a political nature was to rescue the house of Valois
+and solidify the royal authority. Some critics maintain that she
+began her reign with moderation, gentleness, impartiality, and
+reconciliation. This view finds support in the fact that during the
+first years she favored Protestantism; finding, however, that the
+latter was weakening royal power and that the country at large was
+opposed to it, she became its most bitter enemy. To the Protestants
+and their plottings she attributed all the disastrous effects of the
+civil war, all thefts, murders, incests, and adulteries, as well
+as the profanation of the sepulchres of the ancestors of the royal
+family, the burning of the bones of Louis XI. and of the heart of
+Francis II.
+
+The Machiavellian policy was Catherine's guide; bitter experience had
+robbed her of all faith in humanity—she had learned to despise it
+and the judgment of her contemporaries. At first she was amiable and
+polite, seemingly intent upon pleasing those with whom she talked;
+in fact, it is said that she was then more often accused of excessive
+mildness and moderation than of the violence and cruelty which later
+characterized her. Experience having taught her how to deal with
+people, she never lost her self-control.
+
+Subsequent history shows that any gentle and conciliatory policy of
+Catherine was merely a method of furthering her own interests, and was
+therefore not the outcome of any inborn feeling of sympathy or
+womanly tenderness. Whether her signing of the Edict of Saint-Germain,
+admitting the Protestants to all employments and granting them the
+privilege of Calvinistic worship in two cities of every province, and
+her refusal, upon the urgent solicitations of her son-in-law, Philip
+II., to persecute heretics were really snares laid for the Huguenots,
+is a matter which historians have not decided.
+
+Inasmuch as the entire history of France plays about the personality
+of Catherine de' Medici, no attempt will be made to give a detailed
+chronological account of her career; the results, rather than the
+events themselves, will be given. M. Saint-Amand, in his work on
+_French Women of the Valois Court_, presents one of the strongest
+pictures drawn of Catherine. We shall follow him in the greater part
+of this sketch.
+
+According to some historians, Catherine was a mere intriguer, without
+talent or ability, living but in the moment, often caught in her
+own snares; according to others, by her intelligence, ability, and
+strength of character she advanced a cause truly national—that of
+French unity; thus, she worked either the ruin or the salvation of
+France. Michelet calls her a nonentity, a stage queen with merely the
+externals—the attire—of royalty, remaining exactly on a level
+with the rulers of the smaller Italian principalities, contriving
+everything and fearing everything, with no more heart than she had
+sense or temperament. Being a female, she loved her young; she loved
+the arts, but cared to cultivate only their externalities. In this,
+however, Michelet goes to an extreme; for no woman ever lived who had
+so great a talent for intrigues and politics as she—a very type of
+the deceit and cunning which were inherent in her race. If she were
+not important, had not wielded so much influence and decided the fate
+of so many great men, women, and even states, she would not be the
+subject of so much writing, of such fierce denunciation and
+strong praise. To her family, France owes her finest palaces,
+her masterpieces of art—painting, bookmaking, printing, binding,
+sculpture.
+
+M. Saint-Amand declares that "isolated from her contemporaries,
+Catherine de' Medici is a monster; brought back within the circle of
+their passions and their theories, she once more becomes a woman."
+But Catherine was the instigator, the embodiment of all that is vice,
+deceit, cunning, trickery, wickedness, and bold intrigue; she set
+the example, and her ladies followed her in all that she did; "the
+heroines bred in her school (and what woman was not in her school?)
+imitate, with docility, the examples she gives them." She was not
+only the type of her civilization,—brutal, gross, immoral, elegant,
+polished, and _mondain_,—but she was also its leader.
+
+Greatness of soul, real moral force, strict virtue, are not attributes
+of the sixteenth-century woman—they are isolated and rare exceptions;
+these Catherine did not possess. Nor was she influenced deeply by her
+environments; the latter but encouraged and developed those
+qualities which were hers inherently,—will, intelligence, inflexible
+perseverance, tenacity of purpose, unscrupulousness, cruelty;
+hence, to say "She is the victim rather than the inspiration of the
+corruption of her time" is misleading, to say the least. If, upon
+her arrival at court, "she at once pleased every one by her grace and
+affability, modest air, and, above all, by her extreme gentleness,"
+she could not have changed, say her defenders, into the perfidious,
+wicked, and cruel creature she is said to have become as soon as she
+stepped into power. "During the reign of Henry II., she wisely avoided
+all danger; faithful to her wifely duties, she gave no cause for
+scandal, and, realizing that she was not strong enough to overcome her
+all-powerful rival, she bided her time. She was loved and respected by
+everyone for her personal qualities and her benevolence." But why
+may it not be true that all this was but part of her politics, the
+politics in which she had been educated? Wise from experience, she
+foresaw the future and what was in store for her if she remained
+prudent and made the best of the surroundings until the time should
+come when she could strike suddenly and boldly.
+
+Brought up from infancy amidst snares, intrigues, the clash of arms,
+the furious shouts of popular insurrections, tempests, and storms, she
+could not escape the influence of her early environment. Her talent
+for studying and penetrating the designs of her enemies, for facing or
+avoiding dangers with such sublime calmness and prudence, was partly
+inherited, partly acquired. That spirit she took with her to France,
+where her experience was widened and her opportunities for the study
+of human nature were increased.
+
+It is not generally known that her mother was a French woman—a
+Madeleine de La Tour d'Auvergne, daughter of Jean, Count of Boulogne,
+and Catherine of Bourbon, daughter of the Count of Vendôme; thus, her
+gentler nature was a French product. Her mother and father both died
+when she was but twenty-two days old, and from that time until her
+marriage she was cast about from place to place. But from the very
+first she showed that talent of adapting herself to her surroundings,
+living amidst intrigues and discords and yet making friends. She
+has been called "the precocious heiress of the craftiness of her
+progenitors."
+
+In her thirteenth year, after being sought by many powerful princes,
+Clement VII. (her greatuncle), in order to secure himself against the
+powerful Charles V., married her to Henry, Duke of Orleans, the second
+son of Francis I. Even at that early age she was fully aware of all
+the dreariness and danger attached to positions of power, and knew
+that the art of governing was not an easy one. She had studied
+Machiavelli's famous work, _The Prince_, which had been dedicated to
+her father, and it was from it, as well as from her ancestors, that
+she derived her wisdom and astuteness. Her childhood had prepared
+her for the work of the future, and she went at it with caution and
+reserve until she was sure of her ground.
+
+She first proceeded to study the king, Francis I., watching his
+actions, extracting his secrets; a fine huntress and at his side
+constantly, she pleased him and gained his favor. Brantôme says
+she was subtle and diplomatic, quickly learning the craft of her
+profession; she sought friends among all classes and ranks, directing
+her overtures specially toward the ladies of the court, whom she soon
+won and gathered about her.
+
+In 1536 the dauphin died, and Catherine's husband became heir to
+the throne of France. Though they had been married three years,
+no offspring had resulted, which unfortunate circumstance made her
+position a most uncertain one, especially as Diana of Poitiers was
+then at the height of her power, controlling Henry absolutely. A
+furious rivalry sprang up between the Duchesse d'Etampes, mistress
+of Francis I., and Diana and Catherine; the two mistresses formed two
+parties, and a war of slanders, calumnies, and unpleasant epigrams
+ensued. Queen Eleanor, the second wife of Francis I., took no active
+part, thus leaving all power in the hands of the mistress of her
+husband. (It was at this time that the Emperor Charles V. gained the
+Duchesse d'Etampes over to his cause.) Poets and artists, politicians
+and men of genius took sides, extolling the beauty of the one they
+championed. Catherine, although befriended and treated with apparent
+respect by Diana, remained a good friend to both women, thus evincing
+her tact. By keeping her own personality in the background, she won
+the esteem of both her husband and the king.
+
+Brantôme leaves a picture of Catherine at this time: "She was a fine
+and ample figure; very majestic, yet agreeable and very gentle when
+necessary; beautiful and gracious in appearance, her face fair and her
+throat white and full, very white in body likewise.... Moreover, she
+dressed superbly, always having some pretty innovation. In brief,
+she had beauties fitted to inspire love. She laughed readily, her
+disposition was jovial, and she liked to jest." M. Saint-Amand
+continues: "The artistic elegance that surrounded her whole person,
+the tranquil and benevolent expression of her countenance, the good
+taste of her dress, the exquisite distinction of her manners, all
+contributed to her charm. And then she was so humble in the presence
+of her husband! She so carefully avoided whatever might have the
+semblance of reproach! She closed her eyes with such complaisance!
+Henry told himself that it would be difficult to find another woman
+so well-disposed, another wife so faithful to her duties, another
+princess so accomplished in point of instruction and intelligence. The
+_ménage à trois_ (household of three) was continued, therefore, and if
+the dauphin loved his mistress, he certainly had a friendship for his
+wife. And, on her part, whenever she felt an inclination to complain
+of her lot, Catherine bethought herself that if she quitted her
+position she would probably find no refuge but the cloister, and
+that—taking it all around—the court of France (in spite of the
+humiliations and vexations one might experience there) was an abode
+more desirable than a convent;" this, then, is the secret of her
+submission. In spite of her beauty, mildness, and distinction of
+manner, she could not overcome the prestige of Diana.
+
+After nine years, Catherine was still without children and began to
+fear the fate in store for her; but when she gave birth to a son in
+1543, she felt assured that divorce no longer threatened her and she
+resolved that as soon as she came into power she would be revenged
+upon her enemies and Diana of Poitiers. When, in 1547, her husband
+succeeded his father as King of France, she did not feel that the time
+had yet arrived to interfere in any social or domestic arrangements
+or affairs of state; not until ten years later did she show the first
+sign of remarkable statesmanship or ability as a politician.
+
+After the battle and capture of Saint-Quentin, France was in a most
+deplorable state; the enemy was believed to be beneath the walls of
+Paris; everybody was fleeing; the king had gone to Compiègne to muster
+a new army. Catherine was alone in Paris "and of her own free will
+went to the Parliament in full state, accompanied by the cardinals,
+princes, and princesses; and there, in the most impressive language,
+she set forth the urgent state of affairs at the moment.... With so
+much sentiment and eloquence that she touched the heart of everybody,
+the queen then explained to the Parliament that the king had need of
+three hundred thousand livres, twenty-five thousand to be paid every
+two months; and she added that she would retire from the place of
+session, so as not to interfere with the liberty of discussion;
+accordingly, she retired to another room. A resolution to comply with
+the wishes of her majesty was voted, and the queen, having resumed her
+place, received a promise to that effect. A hundred nobles of the
+city offered to give at once three thousand francs apiece. The queen
+thanked them in the sweetest form of words, and thus terminated this
+session of Parliament—with so much applause for her majesty and such
+lively marks of satisfaction at her behavior, that no idea can be
+given of them. Throughout the city, nothing was spoken of but the
+queen's prudence and the happy manner in which she proceeded in this
+enterprise" (Guizot). From this act dates Catherine's entrance into
+political consideration.
+
+During the reign of Francis II., Catherine de' Medici exercised no
+influence at court, the king being completely under the dominion
+of his wife and the Duke of Guise, who was not favorable to the
+queen-mother's schemes and policies. Catherine, however, was plotting;
+caring little about religion so long as it did not further her plans,
+she connected herself with the Huguenots; her scheme was to bring the
+Guises to destruction and to form a council of regency which, while
+composed of the Huguenot leaders, was to be under her guidance. As
+this plan failed, bringing ruin to many princes, she deserted the
+Huguenots and allied herself with the Catholics.
+
+She is next found attempting the assassination of the Duke of Condé,
+but she failed to accomplish that crime because her son, the king,
+refused his consent. Soon after, Francis II. died, it is said from
+the effect of poison dropped into his ear while he was sleeping; it
+is probable that this crime was committed at the instigation of the
+mother, since by his death and the accession of Charles IX. she became
+regent (1560). She was then all-powerful and in a position to exercise
+her long dormant talents.
+
+Her first plan was to incapacitate all her children by plunging them
+"into such licentious pleasure and voluptuous dissipation that
+they were speedily unfitted for mental activity or exertion."
+Most unprejudiced historians credit her with the Massacre of Saint
+Bartholomew; she is said to have boasted about it to Catholic
+governments and excused it to Protestant powers. For a number of
+years, she had been planning the destruction of the Huguenot princes,
+and as early as 1565 she and Charles IX. had an interview with the
+Duke of Alva (representative of Philip II), to consult as to the means
+of delivering France from heretics. It was decided that "this great
+blessing could not have accomplishment save by the deaths of all the
+leaders of the Huguenots."
+
+That fearful crime, the bloody Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, is
+familiar to everyone. The only excuse offered for this most heinous of
+Catherine's many offences is her intense sentiment of national unity;
+the actual reason for it is to be sought in the fact that as long as
+the Protestants retained their prestige and influence, Catherine
+and her Catholic party could not do as they pleased, could not
+gain absolute control over the government. History holds her more
+responsible than it does her weak son. The climax came on the occasion
+of the wedding of Marguerite of Valois with the Prince of Navarre,
+which meant the union of the branches—the Catholic and the
+Protestant. This resulted in the first breach between the king and
+Catherine; the latter at that time perpetrated one of her dastardly
+deeds by poisoning the mother of the Prince of Navarre—Jeanne
+d'Albret, her bitter enemy.
+
+After the death of Charles IX., Henry III. was the sole survivor of
+the four sons of Catherine. Although her power was limited during his
+reign, she managed to continue her murderous plans and accomplished
+the death of Henry of Guise and his brother the cardinal, which crime
+united the majority of the Catholics of France against the king and
+was the cause of his assassination in 1589. This ended the power of
+Catherine de' Medici; when she died, no one rejoiced, no one lamented.
+Wherever she had turned her eyes, she had seen nothing but occasions
+for uneasiness and sadness; she had retired from court, feeling her
+helplessness and disgrace as well as the decline in power of that son
+in whom her hopes were centred. She decided to reënter the scene of
+action and save Henry. The stormy scenes of the Barricades and the
+League and the murder of the Duke of Guise hastened her death, which
+occurred in 1589.
+
+Catherine de' Medici may rightfully be called the initiator and
+organizer of social and court etiquette and courtesy—of conventional
+and social laws. However great her political activity, she made
+herself deeply felt in the social and moral worlds also. She taught
+her husband the secret of being king; she introduced the _lever_
+audience; in the afternoon of every day, she held a reunion of all the
+ladies of the court, at which the king was to be found after dinner
+and every lord entertained the lady he most loved; two hours were
+spent in this pleasure which was continued after supper if there were
+no balls; bitter railleries and anything that passed the restrictions
+of good company were forbidden.
+
+Her ladies of honor obeyed her as they would their God. Marguerite
+of Valois said of her: "I did not dare to speak to her, and when
+she looked at me I trembled for fear of having done something that
+displeased her." Ladies who had been delinquent were stripped and
+beaten with lashes; for correction—frequently for mere pastime—she
+would have them undressed and slapped vigorously with the back of
+the hand. Françoise of Rohan, cousin of Jeanne d'Albret, wrote the
+following poem:
+
+  "Plus j'ai de toi souvent esté battue,
+  Plus mon amour s'efforce et s'évertue
+  De regretter ceste main qui me bat;
+  Car ce mal-là m'estait plaisant esbat.
+  Or, adieu done la main dont la rigueur
+  Je préferais à tout bien et honneur."
+
+[The more often I have been struck by you, the more my love struggles
+and strives to regret the hand that beats me; for that punishment
+was a pleasant pastime for me. Now farewell to the hand whose rigor I
+preferred to every fortune and honor.]
+
+The following portrait and poetry, taken from M. Saint-Amand, does
+the subject full justice: "Catherine de' Medici represented with a
+sinister glance, deadly mien, mysterious and savage aspect—a spectre,
+not a woman—is not true to nature. Her self-possession, cool cunning,
+supreme elegance, imperturbable tranquillity, calmness, moderation,
+noble serenity, and dignified poise, gave her an individuality such as
+few women ever possessed. Gentle in crime and tragedy, polite like an
+executioner toward his victim—this Machiavellianism which is equal
+to every trial, which nothing alarms or surprises, and which
+with tranquil dexterity makes sport of every law of morality and
+humanity—this is the real character of Catherine de' Medici." The
+following burlesque poetry was composed for her:
+
+  "La reine qui ci-git fut un diable et un ange,
+  Toute pleine de blâme et pleine de louange,
+  Elle soutint l'Etat, et l'Etat mit à bas;
+  Elle fit maints accords et pas moins de débats;
+  Elle enfanta trois rois et trois guerres civiles,
+  Fit bâtir des châteaux et ruiner des villes,
+  Fit bien de bonnes lois et de mauvais édits.
+  Souhaite-lui, passant, enfer et paradis."
+
+[The queen lying here was both devil and angel, blamed and praised;
+she both put down and upheld the state; she caused many an agreement
+and no end of disputes; she produced three kings and three civil wars;
+she built castles and ruined cities, made many good laws and many bad
+decrees. Wish her, passer-by, hell and paradise.]
+
+With the reign of Henry IV.—the first king of the house of Bourbon,
+and the first king of the sixteenth century with a will of his own and
+the courage to assert it—begins a period of revelling, debauch, and
+the most depraved immorality. Three mistresses in turn controlled
+him—morally, not politically.
+
+Henry was master of his own will, and, had he desired to do so, could
+have overcome his evil tendencies; instead, he openly countenanced and
+even encouraged dissoluteness and elegant debauchery, as long as he
+himself was not deprived of the lady upon whom his capricious fancy
+happened to fall. His advances were but seldom repulsed; but upon
+making his usual audacious proposals to the Marquise de Guercheville,
+he was informed that she was of too insignificant a house to be the
+king's wife and of too good a race to be his mistress; and when the
+king, in spite of this rebuff, made her lady of honor to his wife,
+Marie de' Medici, she continued to resist him and remained virtuous.
+Such types of purity, honor, and moral courage were very exceptional
+during this reign.
+
+The three principal mistresses of this sovereign represent three
+phases of influence and three periods of his life. Corisande
+d'Andouins, Comtesse de Guiche and Duchesse de Gramont, fascinated him
+for eight years, while he was King of Navarre (1582-1590); to her he
+was deeply attached, and recompensed her for her devotion; this is
+called his _chevaleresque_ period. The beautiful Gabrielle d'Estrées,
+Duchesse de Beaufort, was called his mate after victory; "she refined,
+sharpened, softened, and tamed his customs; she made him king of the
+court instead of the field." It was she who ventured to meddle in his
+politics, she whom Marguerite of Valois, his wife, so detested that
+she refused to consent to a divorce as long as Gabrielle (by whom he
+had several children) remained his mistress. The latter even went so
+far as to demand the baptism, as a child of France, of her son by the
+king. Sully, in a rage, declared there were no "children of France,"
+and took the order to the king, who had it destroyed; he then asked
+his minister to go to his mistress and satisfy her, "in so far as you
+can." To his efforts she replied: "I am aware of all, and do not care
+to hear any more; I am not made as the king is, whom you persuade that
+black is white." Upon receiving this report, the king said: "Here,
+come with me; I will let you see that women have not the possession
+of me that certain malignant spirits say they have." Accompanied by
+Sully, he immediately went to the Duchesse de Beaufort, and, taking
+her by the hand, said: "Now, madame, let us go into your room, and let
+nobody else enter except Rosny. I want to speak to you both and teach
+you how to be good friends." Then, having closed the door, holding
+Gabrielle with one hand and Rosny with the other, he said: "Good God,
+madame! What is the meaning of this? So you would vex me from sheer
+wantonness of heart in order to try my patience? By God, I swear to
+you that, if you continue these fashions of going on, you will find
+yourself very much out in your expectations! I see quite well that you
+have been put up to all this pleasantry in order to make me dismiss
+a servant whom I cannot do without, and who has served me loyally for
+five-and-twenty years. By God, I will do nothing of the kind! And I
+declare to you that if I were reduced to such a necessity as to
+choose between losing one or the other, I could better do without ten
+mistresses like you than one servant like him." Shortly after this
+episode, Gabrielle died so suddenly that she was supposed to have been
+poisoned. Immediately after her death the divorce was granted, and
+Henry married Marie de' Medici.
+
+The third mistress, Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues, Marquise de
+Verneuil, who led Henry IV. along a path of the worst debauchery,
+gained control over him by lewd, lascivious methods. While
+negotiations were being carried on for his divorce from Marguerite,
+only a few weeks after the death of Gabrielle, he signed a promise to
+marry Henriette; this, however, he failed to keep. She, more than any
+other of his mistresses, was the cause of national distress and of
+more than one ruinous war. When, after the marriage of the king
+to Marie de' Medici, Henriette began to nag, rail, intrigue, and
+conspire, she was disgraced by Henry, who at least had the courage to
+honor his own family above that of his mistresses. She is accused of
+having had, solely from motives of revenge, a hand in the death of the
+king.
+
+Thus, around the queens-regent and the mistresses of the kings of
+France in the sixteenth century there is constant intriguing, murder,
+assassination, immorality, and debauchery, jealousy and revenge,
+marriage and divorce, honor and disgrace, despotism and final
+repentance and misery. The greatest and lowest of these women
+was Catherine de' Medici; Diana of Poitiers was famed as the most
+marvellously beautiful woman in France, and she was the most powerful
+and intelligent mistress until the time of Mme. de Pompadour. Amid all
+this bribery and corruption, elegant and refined immorality, there
+are some few types that represent education, family life, purity, and
+culture.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter II
+
+Woman in Family Life, Education, and Letters
+
+
+The queens of France exerted little or no influence upon the cultural
+or political development of that country. Frequently of foreign
+extraction and reared in the strict religious discipline of
+Catholicism, they spent their time in attending masses, aiding the
+poor and, with the little money allowed them, erecting hospitals and
+other institutions for the weak and needy. Thus, they are, as a rule,
+types of gentleness, virtue, piety, and self-sacrifice.
+
+The little information which history gives concerning them is confined
+mainly to their matrimonial alliances. To them, marriage represented
+nothing more than a contract—a union entered into for the purpose of
+settling some political negotiation; thus they were often cast upon
+strange and unfriendly soil where intrigues and jealousy immediately
+affected them.
+
+Seldom did they venture to interfere with the intrigues of the
+mistress; in their uncertain position, any manifestation of resentment
+or opposition resulted in humiliation and disgrace; if wise, they
+contented themselves with quietly performing their functions as
+dutiful wives. Such women were Claude, daughter of Louis XII., and
+Eleanor of Spain—wives of Francis I.; lacking the power to act
+politically, both passed uneventful and virtuous lives in comparative
+obscurity. The wife of Charles IX.—Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of
+Maximilian II.—had absolutely no control over her husband; however,
+he condescended to flatter himself with having, as he said, "in an
+amiable wife, the wisest and most virtuous woman not only of France
+and Europe, but of the universe." Her nature is well portrayed in
+the answer she gave to the remark made to her, after the death of her
+husband: "Ah, Madame, what a misfortune that you have no son! Your
+lot would be less pitiful and you would be queen-mother and regent."
+"Alas, do not suggest such a disagreeable thing!" she replied. "As
+if France had not afflictions enough without my producing another to
+complete its ruin! For, if I had a son, there would be more divisions
+and troubles, more seditions to obtain the administration and
+guardianship during his infancy and minority; all would try to profit
+themselves by despoiling the poor child—as they wanted to do with the
+late king, my husband." Returning to Austria, she erected a convent,
+treated the nuns as friends and refused to marry again even to ascend
+the throne of Spain.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III, was a French woman by
+birth and blood. After the death of the Princess of Condé, whom he
+passionately loved and desired to marry, Henry conceived an intense
+affection for Louise, daughter of Nicholas of Lorraine, Count of
+Vaudemont—a young lady of education and culture—"a character of
+exquisite sweetness lends distinction to her beauty and her piety;
+her thorough Christian modesty and humility are reflected in her
+countenance." Brantôme wrote: "This princess deserves great praise;
+in her married life she comported herself so wisely, chastely, and
+loyally toward the king that the nuptial tie which bound her to him
+always remained firm and indissoluble,—was never found loosened or
+undone,—even though the king liked and sometimes procured a change,
+according to the custom of the great who keep their full liberty."
+Soon after the marriage, however, Henry began to make life unpleasant
+for the queen, one of his petty acts being to deprive her of the moral
+ladies in waiting whom she had brought with her.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont was a striking contrast to the perverted woman of
+the day; the latter, no longer charmed by the gentler emotions, sought
+the exaggerated and the eccentric, extraordinary incidents, dramatic
+situations, unexpected crises, finding all amusements insipid unless
+they involved fighting and romantic catastrophes. "_Billets doux_ were
+written in blood and ferocity reigned even in pleasure."
+
+In the midst of this turmoil, Louise busied herself with charity,
+appearing among the poor and distributing all the funds which her
+father gave her for pocket money; the evils of her surroundings threw
+her virtues, by contrast, into so much the brighter light. Though she
+held herself aloof from intrigues and rivalries, favoring no one and
+encouraging no slander, she was, strange to say, respected, admired
+and honored by Protestants and Catholics alike.
+
+Calumny and all the agitations about her did not disturb Louise in her
+prayers. "The waves of the angry ocean broke at the foot of the
+altar as the queen knelt; but Huguenots and Catholics, leaguers and
+royalists, united to pay her homage. They were amazed to see such
+purity in an atmosphere so corrupt, such gentleness in a society so
+violent. Their eyes rested with satisfaction on a countenance whose
+holy tranquillity was undisturbed by pride and hatred. The famous
+women of the century, wretched in spite of all their amusements and
+their feverish pursuit of pleasure, made salutary reflections as they
+contemplated a woman still more highly honored for her virtues than
+for her crown." That she was not a mother was, with her, an enduring
+sorrow; even that, however, did not alter her calmness and benign
+resignation.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont was indeed a bright star in a heaven of
+darkness—one of the best queens of whom French history can boast;
+she is an example of goodness and gentleness, of purity, charity, and
+fidelity in a world of corruption, cruelty, hatred, and debauch—where
+sympathy was rare and chastity was ridiculed. Although a highly
+educated woman, the faithful performance of her duties as queen and
+as a devout Catholic left her little time for literature and art; she
+remains the type of piety and purity—an ideal queen and woman.
+
+A heroine in the fullest sense of that word was Jeanne d'Albret, the
+great champion of Protestantism; she was the mother of Henry IV. and
+the wife of the Duke of Bourbon, Count of Vendôme, a direct descendant
+of Saint Louis. This despotic, combative, and war-loving queen reigned
+as absolute monarch, and was as autocratic and severe as Calvin
+himself, confiscating church property, destroying pictures and
+altars—even going so far as to forbid the presence of her subjects
+at mass or in religious processions. "Her natural eloquence, the
+lightning flashes from her eyes, her reputation as a Spartan matron
+and an intractable Calvinist, all contributed to give her great
+influence with her party. The military leaders—Coligny, La
+Rochefoucauld, Rohan, La Noue—submitted their plans of campaign to
+her."
+
+Though Jeanne was, perhaps, as fanatical, intolerant, and cruel as her
+adversaries, she was driven to this by the hostility shown her by
+the Catholic party—a party in which she felt she could place no
+confidence. Her retreat was amid rocks and inaccessible peaks, whence
+she defied both the pope and Philip II. She brought up her son—the
+future Henry IV.—among the children of the people, exercising toward
+him the severest discipline, and inuring him to the cold of the winter
+and the heat of the summer; she taught him to be judicious, sincere,
+and compassionate—qualities which she possessed to a remarkable
+degree. Chaste and pure herself, she considered the court of France
+a hotbed of voluptuousness and debauchery, and at every opportunity
+strengthened herself against its possible influence.
+
+The political and religious troubles of Jeanne d'Albret began when
+Pope Paul IV. invested Philip II. of Spain with the sovereignty of
+Navarre—her territory; she resisted, and, following the impulses of
+her own nature, formally embraced Calvinism, while her weak husband
+acceded to the commands of the Church, and, applying to the pope for
+the annulment of his marriage, was prepared, as lieutenant-general of
+the kingdom, a position he accepted from the pontiff, to deprive
+his wife of her possessions. His death before the realization of his
+project made it possible for Jeanne to retain her sovereignty; alone,
+an absolute monarch, she declared Calvinism the established religion
+of Navarre. After the assassination of Condé she remained the champion
+of the Huguenots, defying her enemies and scorning the court of
+France.
+
+So great were her power and influence over the soldiery that Catherine
+de' Medici, her bitter enemy, desiring to bring her into her power,
+or, at least, to conciliate her, planned a marriage between Jeanne's
+son and Marguerite of Valois—sister of Charles IX. When the
+suggestion that the marriage should take place came from the king of
+France, Jeanne d'Albret suspected an ambush; with the determination
+to supervise personally all arrangements for the nuptials, she set
+out for the French court. Venerated by the Protestants, and hated but
+admired by the Catholics, she had become celebrated throughout Europe
+for her beauty, intelligence, and strength of mind; thus, her arrival
+at Paris created a sensation.
+
+She was so scandalized at the luxury and bold debauchery at court that
+she decided to give up the marriage; she had detected the intrigues
+and falsity of both the king and Catherine, and had a foreboding of
+evil. She wrote to her son Henry:
+
+"Your betrothed is beautiful, very circumspect and graceful, but
+brought up in the worst company that ever existed (for I do not see
+a single one who is not infected by it) ... I would not for anything
+have you come here to live; this is why I desire you to marry and
+withdraw yourself and your wife from this corruption which (bad as I
+supposed it to be) I find still worse than I thought. Here, it is not
+the men who invite the women, but the women who invite the men. If you
+were here, you could not escape contamination without a great grace
+from God."
+
+In the meantime, Catherine, undecided whether to strike immediately or
+to wait, was redoubling her kindness and courtesy and her affectionate
+overtures; her enemies were in her hands. Although Jeanne suspected
+that Catherine was capable of every perfidy, she at times believed
+that her suspicions were unjust or exaggerated. The situation between
+these two great women was indeed a dramatic one: both were tactful,
+powerful, experienced in war and diplomacy; both were mothers with
+children for whose future they sought to provide. Jeanne's hesitancy,
+however, was fatal; physically exhausted from suffering and sorrow,
+worry and excitement, she suddenly died, in the midst of her
+preparations for the marriage. While it is not absolutely certain that
+her death was due to poison, subsequent events lead strongly to the
+belief that Catherine was instrumental in causing it—that, probably,
+being but the first act toward the awful catastrophe she was planning.
+
+"A few hours before her agony, Jeanne dictated the provisions of her
+will. She recommended her son to remain faithful to the religion
+in which she had reared him, never to permit himself to be lured by
+voluptuousness and corruption, and to banish atheists, flatterers, and
+libertines.... She begged him to take his sister, Catherine, under his
+protection and to be, after God, her father. 'I forbid my son ever
+to use severity towards his sister; I wish, to the contrary, that he
+treat her with gentleness and kindness; and that—above all—he have
+her brought up in Béarn, and that she shall never leave there until
+she is old enough to be married to a prince of her own rank and
+religion, whose morals shall be such that the spouses may live happily
+together in a good and holy marriage.'" D'Aubigné wrote of her:
+"A princess with nothing of a woman but sex—with a soul full of
+everything manly, a mind fit to cope with affairs of moment, and a
+heart invincible in adversity."
+
+It was in deep mourning that her son, then King of Navarre, arrived at
+Paris; the eight hundred gentlemen who attended him were all likewise
+in mourning. "But," says Marguerite de Valois, "the nuptials took
+place in a few days, with triumph and magnificence that none others,
+of even my quality, had ever beheld. The King of Navarre and his troop
+changed their mourning for very rich and fine clothes, I being dressed
+royally, with crown and corsage of tufted ermine all blazing with
+crown jewels, and, the grand blue mantle with a train four ells long
+borne by three princesses. The people down below, in their eagerness
+to see us as we passed, choked one another." (Thus quickly was Jeanne
+d'Albret forgotten.) The ceremonies were gorgeous, lasting four days;
+but when Admiral Coligny, the Huguenot leader, was struck in the hand
+by a musket ball, the festive aspect of affairs suddenly changed.
+On the second day after the wounding of Coligny, and before the
+excitement caused by that act had subsided, Catherine accomplished
+the crowning work of her invidious nature, the tragedy of Saint
+Bartholomew.
+
+Peace and quiet never appeared upon the countenance of Catherine
+de' Medici—that woman who so faithfully represents and pictures the
+period, the tendencies of which she shaped and fostered by her own
+pernicious methods; and Charles IX., her son, was no better than his
+mother. Saint-Amand, in his splendid picture of the period, gives a
+truthful picture of Catherine as well: "It is interesting to observe
+how curiously the later Valois represented their epoch. Francis I. had
+personified the Renaissance; Charles IX. sums up in himself all the
+crises of the religious wars—he is the true type of the morbid and
+disturbed society where all is violent; where the blood is scorched
+by the double fevers of pleasure and cruelty; where the human soul,
+without guide or compass, is tossed amid storms; where fanaticism
+is joined to debauchery, superstition to incredulity, cultured
+intelligence to depravity of heart. This wholly unbalanced
+character—which stretches evil to its utmost limits while preserving
+the knowledge of what is good, which mistrusts everybody and yet
+has at least the aspiration toward friendship and love, if not its
+experience—is it not the symbol and living image of its time?"
+
+Marguerite de Valois, sister of Charles IX. and wife of Henry IV., by
+her own actions and intrigues exercised little influence politically;
+she was, above all else, a woman of culture and may be taken as an
+example of the type which was largely instrumental in developing
+social life in France. Famous for her beauty, talents, and profligacy,
+it seems that historians are prone to dwell too exclusively upon the
+last quality, overlooking her principal rôle—that of social leader.
+
+She first came into prominence through her relations with the Duke of
+Guise who paid assiduous court to her for some time; for a while, no
+topic was more discussed than that of their marriage. When, however,
+Charles IX. heard that the duke had been carrying on a secret
+correspondence with his sister, he exclaimed, savagely: "If it be so,
+we will kill him!" Thereupon, the duke hurriedly contracted a marriage
+with Catherine of Clèves. That Marguerite, at this early date, had
+become the mistress of Henry of Guise is hardly likely and becomes
+even less probable when it is considered how closely she was watched
+by her mother, Catherine de' Medici.
+
+Her marriage, previously mentioned, to Henry of Navarre was a mere
+political match, there being absolutely no love, no affection, no
+sympathy. This union was looked upon as the surest covenant of peace
+between Catholicism and Protestantism and put an end to the disastrous
+religious wars that had been carried on uninterruptedly for years;
+both the parties to this contract lived at court, leading an existence
+of pleasure and immorality. Remarkably intelligent, Marguerite was a
+scholar of no mean ability; she displayed much wit and talent, but
+no judgment or discretion; though conveying the impression of being
+rather haughty and proud, she lacked both self respect and true
+dignity. Her beauty was marvellous, but "calculated, to ruin and damn
+men rather than to save them."
+
+Henry, the husband of Marguerite, was constantly sneered at and
+taunted by the Catholics; although Catholic in name he was Protestant
+at heart and keenly felt his false position. During Catherine's short
+term as queen-regent, he was held in captivity until the arrival
+of Henry III., when he escaped to his own Béarn people; for this,
+Marguerite was held responsible and kept under guard.
+
+Although hating his religion, his wife went to live with him,
+tolerating his infidelities while he refused to tolerate her religion.
+The unhappiness of this marriage was not due to Marguerite alone; the
+first trouble arose when she discovered his love for his mistress,
+Gabrielle d'Estrées, and, thinking herself equally privileged,
+she began to indulge in the same excesses. The result of so many
+annoyances and debaucheries, so much vexation, was an illness; as soon
+as she became convalescent, she returned to her mother at court where
+she speedily gained the ill will of the king by her profligate habits,
+her quarrels with both Catholics and Protestants, her intimacy with
+the Duke of Guise, her plottings with her younger brother, her cutting
+satires on court favorites.
+
+She was sent back to Henry, upon the way meeting with the mishap of
+being insulted by archers and, with her maids, led away prisoner. Her
+husband was with difficulty persuaded to receive her, and, finding him
+all attentive to his mistress, Marguerite fled to Agen, where she
+made war upon him as a heretic; unable to hold her position there on
+account of her licentious manner of living and the exorbitant taxes
+imposed upon the inhabitants, she fled again and continued moving
+from one place to another, causing mischief everywhere, "consuming the
+remainder of her youth in adventures more worthy of a woman who had
+abandoned her husband than of a daughter of France." At last, she was
+seized and imprisoned in the fortress of Usson; here she was supported
+mainly by Elizabeth of Austria, widow of Charles IX.
+
+When her husband became King of France, he refused to liberate her
+until she should renounce her rank; to this condition she refused
+to accede until after the death of her rival, the mistress of
+Henry—Gabrielle d'Estrées, Duchess de Beaufort. After the annulment
+of the marriage, Marguerite said: "If our household has been little
+noble and less bourgeois, our divorce was royal." She was permitted
+to retain the title of queen, her debts were paid and other great
+concessions granted. Her subsequent relations with Henry IV. were very
+cordial and fraternal; she even revealed political plots to him.
+
+When, after nearly twenty years of captivity, Marguerite returned to
+Paris (1605), she gained the favor of everybody—the king, dauphin,
+and court ladies. She was present at the coronation of Marie de'
+Medici, and, by being tactful enough to keep apart from all intrigues,
+quarrels, and jealousies, she managed to win the good will of the
+king's favorites. She became the social leader, the queen inviting her
+to all court ceremonies and consulting her on all disputed questions
+of etiquette—even going so far as to intrust her with the reception
+of the Duke of Pastrana, who had come to ask the hand of Elizabeth
+of France. It is reported that in her last years she led a worse life
+than in her earlier days—she had become a woman of the bad world,
+resorting to every possible means to hide her age and to gain any
+vantage ground. In order to be well supplied with blond wigs, she kept
+fair-haired footmen who were shorn from time to time to furnish
+the supply. In the latter part of her life, spent at Paris and its
+vicinity, she fell a victim to hypochondria, suffering the most bitter
+pangs of remorse and terrible fear at approaching death. To alleviate
+this, she founded a convent where she taught the children music. She
+died in 1615, in Paris, "in that blended piety and coquetry which
+formed the basis of a character unable to give up gallantries and
+love."
+
+One of the very few historians who give due credit to her social
+importance and assign her the position she may rightfully command
+among French women of the sixteenth century is M. Du Bled. According
+to him, she was the leader of fashion, and in all its components
+she showed excellent taste and judgment. Forced to marry the king of
+Navarre, she said, after the ceremony: "I received from marriage all
+the evil I ever received, and I consider it the greatest plague of my
+life. They tell me that marriages are made in heaven; heaven did not
+commit such an injustice;" and this seems to be the secret of her
+"vicious life."
+
+As soon as she discovered that the king's favorites were determined
+to make life hard and disagreeable for her, she sought consolation in
+love and the toilette, in balls and fêtes, in ballets and hunting, in
+promenades and gallant conversations, in tennis and carousals, and in
+an infinite variety of ingeniously planned pleasures. The spirit of
+chivalry, the habits of exalted devotion, were again in full sway
+about her. She worried little about virtue: "She had the gift of
+pleasing, was beautiful, and made full use of the liberality of the
+gods. Whatever may be said of her morals, it can truthfully be stated
+that she showed art in her love and practised it more in spirit than
+with the body." Music was a favorite art with her; she encouraged
+and rewarded singing, especially in the convent which she founded and
+where she spent almost all of her later days instructing the children.
+
+Her court at Usson, where, as a prisoner, she lived for twenty years,
+was the most brilliant and least material of all France; there poets,
+artists, and scholars were held in high esteem, and were on familiar
+footing with Marguerite; the latter showed no despotism, but, with the
+most consummate skill, directed conversations and proposed subjects,
+encouraging discussion, and skilfully drawing from her friends the
+most brilliant repartees. She received people of distinction without
+ceremony.
+
+She introduced the two elements which were combined in the
+eighteenth-century salon: a fine cuisine and freedom among her friends
+from the restraint usually imposed by distinction. She was, also,
+one of the first to have a circle—well organized according to modern
+etiquette—where the highest aristocracy, men of letters, magistrates,
+artists, and men of genius met on equal terms and in familiar and
+social intercourse; Montaigne, Brantôme, and other great writers
+dedicated their works to her. She also directed a select few, an
+academy, to instruct and distract herself. It is said that every
+coquette, every bourgeois woman, and almost every court lady
+endeavored to imitate her. When she died, at the age of sixty-two,
+poets and preachers sang and chanted her merits, and all the poor wept
+over their loss; she was called the queen of the indigent. Richelieu
+mentioned her devotion to the state, her style, her eloquence, the
+grace of her hospitality, her infinite charity. "She remains, _par
+excellence_, the one great sympathetic woman of the sixteenth century;
+her admirers, during life and after death, were legion. She shared
+in the lesser evils of the century, but it cannot be said that she
+participated in the brutalities, grossness, or glaring immoralities
+of her time; her weaknesses, compared with the great debauches of the
+age, seemed like virtues."
+
+Such is this great woman of the sixteenth century, who has received
+almost universal condemnation at the hands of historians. It is to be
+taken into consideration that she was forced to marry a man whom she
+did not love, and to live in a country utterly uncongenial to
+her nature and opposed to the religion in which she was reared;
+furthermore, that her husband first defiled the marital union, thus
+driving her to follow the general tendencies of the time or to seek
+solace in religious activity, for which she had too much energy. After
+due consideration of the extenuating circumstances, her faults and
+vices, such as they were, may easily be condoned. Because she was the
+wife of a powerful Protestant king, she was condemned by Catholics and
+by them regarded with suspicion; and, in order to save herself, she
+was forced to commit unwise acts and even follies.
+
+In fine, whatever may be said against Marguerite de Valois, whom
+despair drove to acts which are not generally pardoned, she stands
+foremost among the social leaders and cultured women of the sixteenth
+century, a century whose prominent women were notorious for their
+licentiousness and lack of conscience rather than famous for their
+virtue and womanly accomplishments. Undeniably powerful and brilliant,
+these unscrupulous women were never happy; usually proud, they finally
+suffered the most cruel humiliations; "voluptuous, they found anguish
+underlying pleasure." Their misfortunes are, possibly more interesting
+than those successes of which chagrin anxiety, and heavy hearts were
+the inseparable associates.
+
+Religion, which in the sixteenth century was so badly understood, and
+practised even worse—obscured and falsified by fanaticism, disfigured
+and exaggerated by passion and hatred—was the secret cause of all
+downfalls crimes, horrors, intrigues, and brutality. Yet, it alone
+survives, and all the important figures of history return to it after
+a period of negligence and forgetfulness. In their religious aspect,
+the women of the sixteenth century differ as a rule, from those of
+the eighteenth, who, though equally powerful, witty, refined, sensual,
+frivolous, and scoffing, were far less devout; for "'tis religion
+which restores the great female sinners of the sixteenth century 'tis
+religion which saves a society ploughed up by so many elements of
+dissolution and so many causes of moral and material ruin, rescuing
+it from barbarism, vandalism, and from irretrievable decay;" but the
+women of the eighteenth century clung, to the end, to the scepticism
+and material philosophy which served them as their religion, their
+God.
+
+Among the conspicuous women of the sixteenth century to whom, thus
+far, we have been able to attribute so little of the wholesome
+and pleasing, the womanly or love-inspiring, there is one striking
+exception in Marguerite d'Angoulême, a representative of letters, art,
+culture, and morality. With the study of this character we are taken
+back to the beginning of the century and carried among men of letters
+especially, for she formed the centre of the literary world. She, her
+mother, Louise of Savoy, and her brother, Francis I., were called a
+"trinity," to the existence of which Marguerite bore witness in the
+poem:
+
+  "Such boon is mine—to feel the amity
+  That God hath putten in our trinity
+  Wherein to make a third, I, all unfitted
+  To be that number's shadow, am admitted."
+
+Marguerite inherited many of her qualities from her mother, "a most
+excellent and a most venerable dame," though anything but moral and
+conscientious; she, upon discovering that her daughter possessed rare
+intellectual gifts, provided her with teachers in every branch of the
+learning of the age. "At fifteen years of age, the spirit of God
+began to manifest itself in her eyes, in her face, in her walk, in her
+speech, and in all her actions generally." Brantôme says: "She had
+a heart mightily devoted to God and she loved mightily to compose
+spiritual songs. She devoted herself to letters, also, in her young
+days and continued them as long as she lived, in the time of her
+greatness, loving and conversing with the most learned folks of her
+brother's kingdom, who honored her so greatly that they called her
+their Mæcenas." Tenderness, particularly for her brother, seemed to
+develop in her as a passion.
+
+Marguerite was a rare exception in a period described by M.
+Saint-Amand as one in which women were Christian in certain aspects
+of their character and pagan in others, taking an active part in
+every event, ruling by wit and beauty, wisdom and courage; an age of
+thoughtless gaiety and morbid fanaticism, and of laughter and tears,
+still rough and savage, yet with an undercurrent of subtle grace and
+exquisite politeness; an age in which the extremes of elegance and
+cruelty were blended, in which the most glaring scepticism and intense
+superstitions were everywhere evident; an age which was religious as
+well as debauched and whose women were both good and evil, innocent
+and intriguing. Everything was fluctuating; there was inconstancy
+even in the things most affected: pleasure, pomp, display. The natural
+outcome of this undefined restlessness was dissatisfaction; and when
+dissatisfaction brought in its train the inevitable reaction against
+falseness and immorality, Marguerite d'Angoulême stood at the head of
+the movement.
+
+With her begins the cultural and moral development of France. It was
+she who encouraged that desire for a new phase of existence,
+which arose through contact with Italian culture. The men of
+learning—poets, artists, scholars—who soon gathered about the French
+court received immediate recognition from the king's sister, who had
+studied all languages, was gay, brilliant, and æsthetic. While her
+mother and brother were in harmony with the age, no better, no worse
+than their environment, Marguerite aspired to the most elevated morals
+and ideals; thus, she is a type of all that is refined, sensitive,
+loving, noble, and generous in humanity, a woman vastly superior to
+her time; in fact, the modern woman, with her highest attributes.
+
+In Marguerite d'Angoulême contemporaries admired prudence, chastity,
+moderation, piety, an invincible strength of soul, and her habit of
+"hiding her knowledge instead of displaying it." "In an age wholly
+depraved, she approached the ideal woman of modern times; in spite
+of her virtue, she was brilliant and honored, the centre of a coterie
+that delighted in music, verse, ingenious dialogues and gossip, story
+telling, singing, rhyming. Deeply afflicted by the sad and odious
+spectacle of the vices, abuses, and crimes which unroll before her,
+she suffers through her imagination, mind and heart." Serious and
+sympathetic, she was interested in every movement, feeling with those
+who were persecuted on account of their religious opinions.
+
+Various are the names by which she is known: daughter of Charles of
+Orléans, Count of Angoulême, Duchesse d'Alençon through her first
+marriage, and Queen of Navarre through her second, she was called
+Marguerite d'Angoulême, Marguerite of Navarre, of Valois, Marguerite
+de France, Marguerite des Princesses, the Fourth Grace, and the Tenth
+Muse. A most appreciative and just account of her life is given by
+M. Saint-Amand, which will be followed in the main outline of this
+sketch.
+
+She was born in 1492, and, as already stated, received a thorough
+education under the direction of her mother, Louise of Savoy. At
+seventeen she was married to Charles III., Duke of Alençon; as he
+did not prove to be her ideal, she sought consolation in love for her
+brother, sharing the almost universal admiration for the young king,
+whose tendency to favor everything new and progressive was stimulated
+by her. She became his constant and best adviser in general affairs
+as well as in those of state. The foreign ambassadors sought her after
+having accomplished their mission, and were referred to her when
+the king was busy; they were enraptured, and carried back wonderful
+reports of Marguerite.
+
+The world of art was opened to the French by a bevy of such painters
+and sculptors as Leonardo da Vinci, Rosso, Primaticcio, Benvenuto
+Cellini, and Bramante, and they were encouraged and fêted by
+Marguerite especially. In those days a new picture from Italy by
+Raphael was received with as much pomp and ceremony as, in olden
+times, were accorded the holiest relics from the East.
+
+Men of letters gathered about the sister of the king, forming what
+might be termed a court of sentimental metaphysics; for the questions
+discussed were those of love. This refined gallantry, empty and vapid,
+formed the foundation of the seventeenth-century salon, where the
+language and fine points of sentiment were considered and cultivated
+until sentiment acquired poise, grandeur, and an air of dignity and
+reserve.
+
+The period was one in which, during times of trial and misfortune, the
+presence of an underlying religious sentiment became unmistakable. In
+such an atmosphere, the propensity toward mysticism, which Marguerite
+had manifested as a child, grew more and more apparent. When Francis
+I. was captured at the battle of Pavia, his sister immediately sought
+consolation in devotion, the nature of which is well illustrated in a
+letter to the captive king:
+
+"Monseigneur, the further they remove you from us, the greater becomes
+my firm hope of your deliverance and speedy return, for the hour
+when men's minds are most troubled is the hour when God achieves His
+masterstroke ... and if He now gives you, on one hand, a share in the
+pains which He has borne for you, and, on the other hand, the grace
+to bear them patiently, I entreat you, Monseigneur, to believe
+unfalteringly that it is only to try how much you love Him and to give
+you leisure to think how much He loves you. For He desires to have
+your heart entirely, as, for love, He has given you His own; He has
+permitted this trial, in order, after having united you to Him by
+tribulation, to deliver you for His own glory—so that, through you,
+His name may be known and sanctified, not in your kingdom alone, but
+in all Christendom and even to the conversion of the infidels. Oh, how
+blessed will be your brief captivity by which God will deliver so many
+souls from that infidelity and eternal damnation! Alas, Monseigneur!
+I know that you understand all this far better than I do; but seeing
+that in other things I think only of you, as being all that God has
+left me in this world,—father, brother, husband,—and not having the
+comfort of telling you so, I have not feared to weary you with a
+long letter, which to me is short, in order to console myself for my
+inability to talk with you."
+
+After his incarceration in the gloomy prison in Spain where he was
+taken ill, Francis asked for the safe conduct of Marguerite; this
+was gladly granted. Ignorant of her future duty in Spain, she wrote:
+"Whatever it may be, even to the giving of my ashes to the winds to do
+you a service, nothing will seem strange, difficult or painful to me,
+but will be only consolation, repose, and honor." So impatient was she
+to arrive at her brother's side that she could not travel fast enough.
+
+Her presence only increased his fever and a serious crisis soon came
+on, the king remaining for some time "without hearing or seeing or
+speaking." Marguerite, in this critical time, implored the assistance
+of God. She had an altar erected in her chamber, and all the French of
+the household, great lords and domestics alike, knelt beside the
+sick man's sister and received the communion from the hands of the
+Archbishop of Embrun, who, drawing near the bed, entreated the king to
+turn his eyes to the holy sacrament. Francis came out of his lethargy
+and asked to commune likewise, saying: "It is my God who will heal my
+soul and body; I entreat you that I may receive him." Then, the
+Host having been divided in two, the king received one half with the
+greatest devotion, and his sister the other half. The sick man felt
+himself sustained by a supernatural force; a celestial consolation
+descended into the soul that had been despairing. Marguerite's prayer
+had not been unavailing—Francis I. was saved.
+
+She then proceeded to visit different cities and royalties,
+endeavoring to secure concessions for her brother. From the people in
+the streets as well as from the lords in their houses, she received
+the most unmistakable proofs of friendly feeling; in fact, her favor
+was so great that Charles V. informed "the Duke of Infantado that, if
+he wished to please the emperor, neither he nor his sons must speak to
+Madame d'Alençon." The latter, unable to secure her brother's release,
+planned a marriage between him and Eleanor of Portugal, sister of
+Charles V.; her successes at court and in the family of the emperor
+furthered this scheme. Brantôme says: "She spoke to the emperor so
+bravely and so courteously that he was quite astonished, and she spoke
+even more to those of his council with whom she had audience; there
+she produced an excellent impression, speaking and arguing with an
+easy grace in which she was proficient, and making herself rather
+agreeable than hateful or tiresome. Her reasons were found good and
+pertinent and she retained the high esteem of the emperor, his court
+and council."
+
+Although she failed in her attempts to free the king, she succeeded,
+by arranging the marriage, in completely changing the rigorous
+captivity to which Charles had subjected him. Finally, by giving his
+two eldest sons as hostages, the king obtained his release, and in
+March, 1526, he again set foot, as sovereign, on French soil. Thus the
+king's life was saved and he was permitted to return to his country,
+Marguerite's devotion having accomplished that in which the most
+skilled diplomatist would have failed.
+
+All historians agree that Marguerite d'Angoulême was a devout
+Catholic, but that she was too broad and liberal, intelligent
+and humane, to sanction the unbridled excesses of fanaticism. The
+acknowledged leader of moral reform, she protected and assisted those
+persecuted on account of their religious views and sympathized with
+the first stages of that movement which revolted against abuses, vice,
+scandals, immorality, and intrigue. With her, the question was not one
+of dogma, but concerned, instead, the religion which she considered
+most conducive to progress and reform. It grieved her to see her
+religion defile itself by cruel and inhuman persecutions and tortures,
+by intolerance and injustice. She felt for, but not with, the heretics
+in their errors. "She typifies her age in all that is good and noble,
+in artistic aspirations, in literary ideals, in pure politics—in
+short,—in humanity; in her is not found the chaotic vagueness which
+so often breaks out in license and licentiousness, cruelty, and
+barbarism."
+
+During the absence in Spain of Francis I. and Marguerite, the
+mother-regent sought to gain the support and favor of Rome by ordering
+imprisonments, confiscations, and punishments of heretics; but upon
+the return of the king and his sister, the banished were recalled and
+tolerance again ruled. When (in 1526) Berquin was seized and tried for
+heresy, he found but one defender. Marguerite wrote to her brother,
+still at Madrid:
+
+"My desire to obey your commands was sufficiently strong without
+having it redoubled by the charity you have been pleased to show poor
+Berquin according to your promise; I feel that He for whom I believe
+him to have suffered will approve of the mercy which, for His honor,
+you have had upon His servant and your own."
+
+Marguerite had saved Berquin and had even taken him into her service.
+Her letter to the constable, Anne de Montmorency, shows her esteem of
+men of genius and especially of Berquin:
+
+"I thank you for the pleasure you have afforded me in the matter of
+poor Berquin whom I esteem as much as if he were myself; and so you
+may say you have delivered me from prison, since I consider in that
+light the favor done me."
+
+When on June 1, 1528, a statue of the Virgin was thrown down and
+mutilated by unknown hands, a reversion of feeling arose immediately,
+and even Marguerite was not able to save poor Berquin, and he was
+burned at the stake. Upon learning of his imminent peril, she wrote to
+Francis from Saint-Germain:
+
+"I, for the last time, very humbly make you a request; it is that
+you will be pleased to have pity upon poor Berquin, whom I know to be
+suffering for nothing other than loving the word of God and obeying
+yours. You will be pleased, Monseigneur, so to act that it be not
+said that separation has made you forget your most humble and obedient
+sister and subject, Marguerite."
+
+Encouraged by their success in that instance, the intolerant party
+began furious attacks upon her, one monk going so far as to say from
+the pulpit that she should be put into a sack and thrown into the
+Seine. Upon her publication of a religious poem, _Miroir de l'âme
+pécheresse_, in which she failed to mention purgatory or the saints,
+she was vigorously attacked by Beda, who had the verses condemned
+by the Sorbonne and caused the pupils of the College of Navarre to
+perform a morality in which Marguerite was represented under the
+character of a woman quitting her distaff for a French translation
+of the Gospels presented to her by a Fury. This was too much even for
+Francis, and he ordered the principal and his actors arrested; it was
+then that Marguerite showed her gentleness, mercy, and humanity by
+throwing herself at her brother's feet and asking for their pardon.
+
+After but a short respite the persecution broke out anew, and with
+the full sanction of the king, who, upon finding at his door a placard
+against the mass, went even so far as to sign letters patent ordering
+the suppression of printing (1535). While away from the soothing
+influence of his sister, Francis I. was easily persuaded to sign, for
+the Catholic party, any permit of execution or cruelty. The life
+of Marguerite herself was constantly in danger, but in spite of
+persistent efforts to turn brother against sister, the king continued
+to protect and defend the latter; and though she gradually drew closer
+to Catholicism, she continued to protect the Protestants. She founded
+nunneries and showed a profound devotion toward the Virgin; although
+realizing the dangers and follies of the new doctrine, she had too
+much humanity to encourage cruelty.
+
+The husband whom the king forced upon her was twelve years her junior,
+poor, and subsidized by Francis; by him she had a daughter, Jeanne
+d'Albret, who became the champion of Protestantism. Her married life
+at Pau, where she had erected beautiful buildings and magnificent
+terraces, was not happy; the subjects of love that formerly had amused
+her had lost their charm; and the incurable disease with which her
+brother was stricken caused her constant worry and mental suffering.
+When banquets, the chase, and other amusements no longer attracted
+Francis, he summoned Marguerite to comfort and console him; her
+devotion and goodness never failed. Unable to recover from the grief
+caused by his death in 1547, she expressed her sorrow in the most
+beautiful poems.
+
+She gave the remainder of her life to religion and charity, abandoning
+her literary ambitions and plans. "The life after death gave her much
+trouble and many moments of perplexity and uneasiness. She survived
+her brother only two years, dying in 1549; the helper and protector
+of good literature, the defence, consolation, and shelter of the
+distressed, she was mourned by all France more than was any other
+queen." Sainte-Marthe says: "How many widows are there, how many
+orphans, how many afflicted, how many old persons, whom she pensioned
+every year, who now, like sheep whose shepherd is dead, wander hither
+and thither, seeking to whom to go, crying in the ears of the wealthy
+and deploring their miserable fate!" Poets, scholars, all learned and
+professional men, commemorated their protectress in poems and funeral
+orations. France was one large family in deep mourning.
+
+Marguerite d'Angoulême must first be considered as the real power
+behind the supreme authority of her period, her brother the king;
+secondly, as a furtherer of the development and encouragement of
+good literature, good taste, high art, and pure morals; thirdly, as
+a critic of importance. She is entitled to the first consideration by
+the fact that as the confidential adviser of Francis I. she moulded
+his opinions and checked his evil tendencies: the affairs of the
+kingdom were therefore, to a large extent, in her hands. She collected
+and partly organized the chaotic mass of material thrown upon the
+sixteenth-century world, leaving its moulding into a classic
+French form to the next century; and by her spirit of tolerance she
+endeavored to further all moral development: thus is she entitled to
+the second consideration. Gifted with rare delicacy of taste, solidity
+of judgment, and the ability to select, discriminate, and adapt, she
+set the standards of style and tone: therefore, she is entitled to the
+third consideration.
+
+The love of Marguerite for her brother, and her unselfish devotion to
+his interests, is a precedent unparalleled in French history until
+the time of Madame de Sévigné. In all her letters we find the same
+tenderness, gentleness, passion, inexhaustible emotion, sympathy, and
+compassion that distinguished her actions.
+
+In her _Contes_ (the _Heptameron_) _de la Reine de Navarre_ we have
+an accurate representation of society, its manners and style of
+conversation; in it we find, also, remnants of the brutality and
+grossness of the Middle Ages, as well as reflections of the higher
+tendencies and aspirations of the later time. In having a thorough
+knowledge of the tricks, deceits, and follies of the professional
+lovers of the day, and of their object in courting women, Marguerite
+was able to warn her contemporaries and thus guard them against
+immorality and its dangers. In her works she upheld the purity of
+ideal love, exposing the questionable and selfish designs of the
+clever professional seducers. A specimen may be cited to show her
+style of writing and the trend of her thought:
+
+"Emarsuite has just related the history of a gentleman and a young
+girl who, being unable to be united, had both embraced the religious
+life. When the story is ended, Hircan, instead of showing himself
+affected, cries: 'Then there are more fools and mad women than there
+ever were!' 'Do you call it folly,' says Oisille, 'to love honestly
+in youth and then to turn all love to God?' ... 'And yet I have the
+opinion,' says Parlemente, 'that no man will ever love God perfectly
+who has not perfectly loved some creature in this world.' 'What do you
+by loving perfectly?' asks Saffredant; 'do you call perfect lovers
+who are bashful and adore ladies from a distance, without daring
+to express their wishes?' 'I call those perfect lovers,' replies
+Parlemente, 'who seek some perfection in what they love—whether
+goodness, beauty or kindness—and whose hearts are so lofty and honest
+that they would rather die than perform those base deeds which honor
+and conscience forbid; for the soul which was created only to return
+to its Sovereign Good cannot, while it is in the body, do otherwise
+than desire to win thither; but because the senses, by which it can
+have tidings of that which it seeks, are dull and carnal on account
+of the sin of our first parents, they can show it only those visible
+things which most nearly approach perfection; and the soul runs after
+them, believing that in visible grace and moral virtues it may find
+the Sovereign Grace, Beauty and Virtue. But without finding whom it
+loves, it passes on like the child who, according to his littleness,
+loves apples, pears, dolls and other little things—the most beautiful
+that his eye can see—and thinks it riches to heap little stones
+together; but, on growing larger he loves living things, and,
+therefore, amasses the goods necessary for human life; but he knows,
+by the greatest experiences, that neither perfection nor felicity is
+attained by possessions only, and he desires true felicity and the
+Maker and Source thereof.'"
+
+In her writings, much apparent indelicacy and grossness are
+encountered; but it must be remembered for whom she was writing, the
+condition of morality and the taste of the public at that time, and
+that she aimed faithfully to depict the society that lay before her
+eyes. It is argued by some critics that these indecencies could not
+have emanated from a pure, chaste woman; that Marguerite must have
+experienced the sins she depicted; but such reasoning is not sound.
+The expressions used by her were current in her time; there
+was greater freedom of manners, and coarseness and drastic
+language—examples of which are found so frequently in the writings of
+Luther—were very common.
+
+Marguerite was less remarkable for what she did than for what she
+aspired to do. "She invoked, against the vices and prejudices of her
+epoch, those principles of morality and justice, of tolerance and
+humanity, which must be the very foundation of all stable society. She
+wished to make her brother the protector of the oppressed, the support
+of the learned, the crowned apostle of the Renaissance, the promoter
+of salutary reforms in the morals of the clergy; in politics, he was
+to follow a straight line and methodically advance the accomplishment
+of the legitimate ambitions of France."
+
+She expressed the most modern ideas on the rights of woman,
+particularly on her relative rights in the married state:
+
+"It is right that man should govern us as our head, but not that he
+should abandon us or treat us ill. God has so well ordered both man
+and woman, that I think marriage, if it is not abused, one of the most
+beautiful and secure estates that can be in this world, and I am sure
+that all who are here, no matter what pretense they make, think as
+much or more; and as much as man calls himself wiser than woman, so
+much the more grievously will he be punished if the fault be on his
+side. Those who are overcome by pleasure ought not to call themselves
+women any longer, but men, whose honor is but augmented by fury and
+concupiscence; for a man who revenges himself upon his enemy and slays
+him for a contradiction is esteemed a better companion for so doing;
+and the same is true if he love a dozen other women besides his wife;
+but the honor of woman has another foundation: it is gentleness,
+patience, chastity."
+
+Désiré Nisard says that Marguerite d'Angoulême was the first to write
+prose that can be read without the aid of a vocabulary; in verse, she
+excels all poets of her time in sympathy and compassion; her poetry
+is "a voice which complains—a heart which suffers and which tells us
+so." "It is not so much her own deep sentiment that is reflected, but
+her emotion, which is both intellectual and sympathetic, volitional
+and spontaneous." Her letters were epoch-making; nothing before
+her time nor after her (until Madame de Sévigné) can equal them in
+precision, purity of language, sincerity and frankness of expression,
+passion and religious fervor.
+
+In spite of what may be said to the contrary, her life was an
+ideal one, an example of perfect moral beauty and elevation; noble,
+generous, refined, pious, and sincere, she possessed qualities which
+were indeed rare in her time. She was attacked for her charity, and is
+to-day the victim of narrow sectarian and biased devotees. Her act of
+renouncing all gorgeous dress, even the robes of gold brocade so much
+worn by every princess, in order to give all her money to the poor;
+her protection of the needy and persecuted; her court of poets and
+scholars; her visits to the sick and stricken; even her untiring love
+for her brother and her acts of clemency—all have frequently been
+misinterpreted.
+
+The greatest poets and men of letters of the sixteenth century
+were encouraged financially and morally or protected by Marguerite
+d'Angoulême—Rabelais, Marot, Pelletier, Bonaventure-Desperiers,
+Mellin de Saint-Gelais, Lefèvre d'Etaples, Amyot, Calvin, Berquin.
+Charles de Sainte-Marthe says: "In seeing them about this good lady,
+you would say it was a hen which carefully calls and gathers her
+chicks and shelters them with her wings."
+
+Many critics believe that her literary work was imitative rather than
+original; even if this be true, it in no measure detracts from her
+importance, which is based upon the fact that she was the leading
+spirit of the time and typified her environment. Her followers, and
+they included all the intellectual spirits, looked up to her as
+the one incentive for writing and pleasing. Her disposition was
+characterized by restlessness, haste—too great eagerness to absorb
+and digest and appropriate all that was unfolded before her. She
+imitated the _Decameron_ and drew up for herself a _Heptameron_; her
+poetry showed much skill and great ease, but little originality.
+Her extreme facility, her wonderfully active mind, her power of
+_causerie_, and her ability to discuss and write upon philosophical
+and religious abstractions, won the deep admiration and respect of her
+followers, who were not only content to be aided financially by her,
+but looked to her for guidance and counsel in their own work, though
+she never imposed her ideas and taste upon others. By her tact,
+she was able practically to control and guide the entire literary,
+artistic, and social development of the sixteenth century. Every form
+of intellectual movement of this period is impregnated with the spirit
+of Marguerite d'Angoulême.
+
+With her affable and loving manners, her refined taste and superior
+knowledge, she was able to influence her brother and, through him,
+the government. Just as her mother controlled in politics, so
+did Marguerite in arts and manners. In her are found the main
+characteristics to which later French women owed their influence—a
+form of versatility which included exceptional tact and enabled the
+possessor to appreciate and sympathize with all forms of activity, to
+deal with all classes, to manage and be managed in turn.
+
+The writings of Marguerite are quite numerous, consisting of six
+moralities or comedies, a farce, epistles, elegies, philosophical
+poems, and the _Heptameron_, her principal work—a collection of prose
+tales in which are reflected the customary conversation, the morals of
+polite society, and the ideal love of the time. They are a medley of
+crude equivocalities, of the grossness of the _fabliaux_, of Rabelais,
+and of the delicate preciosity of the seventeenth century. Love is
+the principal theme discussed—youth, nobility, wealth, power, beauty,
+glory, love for love, the delicate sensation of feeling one's self
+loved, elegant love, obsequious love; perfect love is found in those
+lovers who seek perfection in what they love, either of goodness,
+beauty, or grace—always tending to virtue.
+
+Thoroughly to appreciate Marguerite d'Angoulême's position and
+influence and her contributions to literature, the conditions existing
+in her epoch must be carefully considered. It was in the sixteenth
+century that the charms of social life and of conversation as an art
+were first realized; all questions of the day were treated gracefully,
+if not deeply; woman began to play an important part, to appear
+at court, and, by her wit and beauty, to impress man. From the
+semi-barbaric spirit of the Middle Ages to the Italian and Roman
+culture of the Renaissance was a tremendous stride; in this cultural
+development, Marguerite was of vital importance. In intellectual
+attainments far in advance of the age, among its great women she
+stands out alone in her spirit of humanity, generosity, tolerance,
+broad sympathies, exemplary family life, and exalted devotion to her
+brother.
+
+Of the other literary women of the sixteenth century, mention may be
+made of two who have left little or no work of importance, but who are
+interesting on account of the peculiar form of their activity.
+
+Mlle. de Gournay, _fille d'alliance_ of Montaigne, is a unique
+character. Having conceived a violent passion for the philosopher
+and essayist, she would have no other consort than her honor and good
+books. She called the ladies of the court "court dolls," accusing
+them of deforming the French language by affecting words that had
+apparently been greased with oil in order to facilitate their flow.
+She was one of the first woman suffragists and the most independent
+spirit of the age. In 1592, to see the country of her master, she
+undertook a long voyage, at a time when any trip was fraught with the
+gravest dangers for a woman.
+
+She is a striking example of the effect of sixteenth-century sympathy,
+admiration, and enthusiasm; she was protected by some of the greatest
+literary men of the age—Balzac, Grotius, Heinsius; the French Academy
+is said to have met with her on several occasions, and she is said
+to have participated in its work of purifying and fixing the French
+language. Her adherence to the Montaigne cult has brought her name
+down to posterity.
+
+M. du Bled relates a droll story in connection with her meeting
+Richelieu. Mlle. de Gournay was an old maid, who lived to the ripe age
+of eighty. Being a pronounced _féministe_, she—like her sisters of
+to-day—cultivated cats. The story runs as follows:
+
+"Bois-Robert conducted her to the Cardinal, who paid her a compliment
+composed of old words taken from one of her books; she saw the point
+immediately. 'You laugh over the poor old girl, but laugh, great
+genius, laugh! everybody must contribute something to your diversion.'
+The Cardinal, surprised at her ready wit, asked her pardon, and said
+to Bois-Robert: 'We must do something for Mlle. de Gournay. I give
+her two hundred écus pension.' 'But she has servants,' suggested
+Bois-Robert. 'Who?' 'Mlle. Jamyn (bastard), illegitimate daughter
+of Amadis Jamyn, page of Ronsard.' 'I will give her fifty livres
+annually.' 'There is still dear little Piaillon, her cat.' 'I give her
+twenty livres pension, on condition that Piaillon shall have tripes.'
+'But, Monseigneur, she has had kittens!' The Cardinal added a pistole
+for the little kittens."
+
+A woman of large fortune, she spent it freely in study, in her
+household, and especially in alchemy. Her peculiar ideas about love
+kept her from falling prey to the wealth-seeking gallants of the time.
+She was one of the few women who made a profession of writing; she
+compiled moral dissertations, defences of woman, and treatises on
+language, all of which she published at her own expense; while they
+are of no real importance, they show a remarkable frankness and
+courage.
+
+Mlle. de Gournay was, possibly, the first woman to demand the
+acceptance of woman on an equal status with man; for she wrote two
+treatises on woman's condition and rank, insisting upon a better
+education for her, though she herself was well educated. Following the
+events of the day with a careful scrutiny and interpreting them in her
+writings, she showed a remarkable gift of perspective and deduction
+and an intimate knowledge of politics. The fact that she was severely,
+even spitefully, attacked in both poetry and prose but proves that her
+writings on women were effective.
+
+Some writers claim that the founding of the French Academy had its
+inception at her rooms, where many of the members met and where, later
+on, they discussed the work of the Academy. Her one desire for the
+language was to have it advance and develop, preserving every word,
+resorting to old ones, accepting new ones only when necessary. Thus,
+among French female educators, Mlle. de Gournay deserves a prominent
+place, because of her high ideals and earnest efforts in the study of
+the language, for the courage with which she advanced her convictions
+regarding woman, and for the high moral standard which she set by her
+own conduct.
+
+In Louise Labé—_La Belle Cordière_—we meet a warrior, as well as a
+woman of letters. The great movement of the Renaissance, as it swept
+northward, invaded Lyons; there Louise Labé endeavored to do what
+Ronsard and the Pléiade were doing at Paris. A great part of her youth
+she passed in war, wearing man's apparel and assuming the name of
+"Captain Loys"; at an early age, she left home with a company of
+soldiers passing through Lyons on the way to lay siege to Perpignan,
+where she showed pluck, bravery, and skill. Upon her return, she
+married a merchant ropemaker, whence her sobriquet—_La Belle
+Cordière_.
+
+She soon won a reputation by gathering about her a circle of men, who
+complimented her in the most elegant language and read poetry with
+her. Science and literature were discussed and the praises of love
+sung with passionate, inflamed eloquence. In this circle of congenial
+spirits, "she gave rise to doubts as to her virtue." As her husband
+was wealthy, she was able to collect an immense library and to
+entertain at her pleasure; she could converse in almost any language,
+and all travellers stopped at Lyons and called to see her at her
+salon. Her writings consisted of sonnets, elegies, and dialogues in
+prose; her influence, being too local, is not marked. Her greatest
+claim to attention is that she encouraged letters in a city which was
+beyond the reach of every literary movement. Such were the women of
+the sixteenth century; in no epoch in French history have women played
+a greater rôle; art, literature, morals, politics, all were governed
+by them. They were active in every phase of life, hunting with men,
+taking part in and causing duels, intriguing and initiating intrigues.
+"In the midst of battle, while cannon-balls and musket-shots rained
+about her, Catherine de' Medici was as brave and unconcerned as the
+most valiant of men. Diana of Poitiers was called the most wondrous
+woman, the woman of eternal youth, the beautiful huntress; it was
+she whom Jean Goujon sculptured, nude and triumphant, embracing with
+marble arms a mysterious stag, enamoured like Leda's swan."
+
+In general, the women of that century "liked better to be feared
+than loved; they inspired mad passions, insensate devotions, ecstatic
+admirations. The epoch was one in which life counted for little, when
+balls alternated with massacres; when virtue was befitting only
+the lowly born and ugly (Brantôme recommends the beautiful to be
+inconstant because they should resemble the sun who diffuses his light
+so indiscriminately that everybody in the world feels it). It was the
+age of beauty—a beauty that fascinated and entranced, but the glow
+of which melted and killed; but this glow also reacted upon them
+that caused it and they became victims of their own passions—through
+either jealousy or their own weaknesses. No age was ever more
+luxurious, pompous, elegant, brilliant, and wanton, yet beneath all
+the glitter there were much misery and bitter repentance; amongst the
+violent wickedness there were noble and pure women such as Elizabeth
+of Austria and Louise de Vaudemont."
+
+The whole century seemed to be afire and to tingle with that spirit of
+liberty, imitation, and experimentation, which, so often abused, led
+to much disaster. In spite of that unsettled and excited condition,
+the sixteenth century attained greater development, had more avenues
+of intellectual activity opened to it, imitated, thought and imagined
+more and produced as much as any other century; in every field,
+we find the names of its masters. As M. Faguet says, the sixteenth
+century was, in France, the century _créateur par excellence_; and in
+this, woman's part was, above all, political, her social, moral, and
+literary influence being less marked.
+
+
+
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+The Seventeenth Century: Woman at Her Best
+
+
+In the seventeenth century, the influence exerted by the women of
+France, departing from the political aspect which had characterized it
+in the preceding century, became of a social, literary, religious,
+and moral nature, the last predominating. Inasmuch as the reins of
+government were in the hands of the king and his ministers, political
+affairs were but slightly affected by the feminine element. Woman,
+realizing the uselessness as well as danger of plotting against
+the inviolate person and power of the king, contented herself with
+scheming against those ministers whose attitudes she considered
+unfavorable to her plans.
+
+Of all social and literary movements, however, woman was the
+acknowledged leader; in that institution of culture and development,
+the seventeenth century salon, her undisputed supremacy placed her in
+the position of patroness and protectress of men of letters. In the
+general religious movement her rôle was one of secondary importance;
+and as mistress, she ceased with the sixteenth century to be either
+active politically or disastrous morally and became merely a temporary
+recipient of capriciously bestowed wealth and favors. In order
+to fully comprehend woman's position and the exact nature of her
+influence in this century and the following one, the position and
+constitution of the nobility before, during and after the ministry of
+Richelieu, must be studied.
+
+The great houses of Carolingian origin were those of Alençon,
+Bourgogne, Bourbon, Vendôme, Kings of Navarre, Counts of Valois,
+and Artois; the great gentlemen were the Dukes of Guise, Nemours,
+Longueville, Chevreuse, Nevers, Bouillon, Rohan, Montmorency, and,
+later, Luxembourg, Mortemart, Créqui, Noailles; names which are
+constantly met with in French history. Before the time of Louis XIV.,
+men of such rank, when dissatisfied or discontented, might leave
+court at their will and were requested to return; but with Louis XIV.,
+departure from court was considered a disgrace, and offending parties
+were permitted, not asked, to return.
+
+Outside the army, there was open to the princes of the nobility no
+occupation in which they might expend their surplus energy; thus,
+being free from the burden of taxes, it was but natural that they
+should seek amusement in literature, society, and intrigue. The honor
+of their respective houses and the fear of being damned in the next
+world were their only sources of deep concern; other than these, they
+assumed no responsibilities, desiring absolute freedom from care.
+
+Legal, judicial, and ecclesiastical offices were open to them but were
+little favored except as convenient means of obtaining revenues
+and positions otherwise not procurable. The first requisites toward
+advancement were bravery and skill, not learning; the majority of
+the members of the nobility much preferred buying a regiment to being
+president of a tribunal, and their primary ambition was to acquire a
+reputation for magnificence, heroism, and gallantry. They fought for
+glory, to show their skill and courage; the sentiment of patriotism
+was but weakly developed, and war was indulged in merely for the sake
+of fighting, passing the time, and being occupied. As in the preceding
+century, death was but little feared; in fact, the scorn of it was
+carried to the extreme. "The French went to death as though they were
+to be resuscitated on the morrow."
+
+That man went to war was not sufficient proof of his bravery; in
+addition, he must, upon the smallest pretext, draw his sword, must
+fight constantly, and especially with adversaries better armed and
+larger in force; the love of woman was for such men only. Adventure
+was the fad: it is said of one seigneur that he took pleasure in going
+every night to a certain corner and, from pure malice, striking with
+his sword the first person who chanced that way; this unique pastime
+he continued until he himself was killed.
+
+Marriage, until the eighteenth century, was not a union of affection,
+but merely an alliance between two families and in the interest of
+both; women, to preserve their identity after marriage, signed their
+family names. As maturity was reached at the age of twelve, marriage
+meant simply cohabitation. Until the Revolution, free marriages, or
+liaisons, were recognized as natural if not legitimate institutions,
+and the offspring of such unions, who were said to be more numerous
+than legitimate children, were legitimatized and became heirs simply
+through recognition by the father. (At first, princes were unwilling
+to accept, as wives, the natural daughters of kings; however, the Duke
+of Orleans and the Prince of Conti married the natural daughters
+of Louis XIV.) As a rule, titles could not be transmitted through
+females; when a woman married beneath her rank she lost her titles,
+but they were given to her children.
+
+In the seventeenth century, woman's influence was of a nature vastly
+superior to that exerted by her in the sixteenth century, in that it
+rendered sacred both her and her honor; but, in spite of the refining
+restraint of the salon, brutality was still the main characteristic
+of man. To express beautiful sentiments in the midst of jealousies,
+rivalries, adventures, complaints, and despair, was the _savoir-vivre_
+of the Catherine de' Medici type of elegance brought from Italy in the
+sixteenth century. This caused the extremes of external fastidiousness
+and internal grossness to be embodied in the same individual; in the
+eighteenth century, man was, inwardly as well as outwardly, refined,
+mild, kind, a friend of pleasure; and therein lies the fundamental
+difference between the _honnête homme_ of Louis XIV. and the _homme
+du monde_ of Louis XV. The seventeenth century type of man is midway
+between that of the sixteenth and eighteenth—more polished and less
+gross than the former, yet lacking the knowledge and culture of the
+latter.
+
+When in the seventeenth century the two all-powerful forces, brute
+force and money, of the preceding century were replaced by those of
+money and the pen, the decay of the impoverished and unintellectual
+nobility became but a question of time. The day when great gentlemen
+might scorn men of letters and learning was rapidly passing; with
+the French Academy arose a new spirit, a fresh impulse was given to
+intellectual attainments. Although treated as inferiors, the literary
+men of the seventeenth century spoke of the aristocracy in a spirit
+of raillery, but slightly veiled with respect; and the nobility while
+remaining, in its way, courageous and glorious, lost its prestige,
+force, and influence.
+
+In the seventeenth century, money acquired a certain purchasing value
+which procured advantages and luxuries impossible in the preceding
+period when the brave man was worth infinitely more than the rich
+who, scorned and considered as a rapacious Jew, was isolated and in
+constant fear of being robbed or killed. As the number of government
+officials increased, individual fortunes grew; men became enormously
+wealthy through the various offices bought by them or given to them by
+the government. The financier was a king and many marriages of princes
+and dukes with daughters of men of wealth are recorded. Women of
+station, however, seldom married beneath their rank, because they
+lost their titles by so doing, and titles were still the only road
+to social success. As a rule, titles could not be transmitted through
+females; when a woman made a misalliance her titles were given to her
+children. Almost all rich men of the period, from the time of Louis
+XIII. to the Revolution, became nobles, as almost every brave man was
+made a knight up to the seventeenth century. It was possible for
+the wealthy to buy a marquisate or baronetage and give it to their
+children; a grand-marshal of France was no longer so powerful as a
+rich banker.
+
+The complete change, under Louis XIV., of the customs of the time,
+caused numberless petty jealousies, scandals, and intrigues in the
+aristocracy, which could no longer maintain its old form and yet had
+to be considered by the government. The question of reform arose—how
+to restrict the number of nobles, which increased every year. Rank
+was bestowed for service and, sometimes, even for wealth; the old
+families, being poor, had no distinctive prestige except that given by
+their privileges at court; their titles no longer distinguished them
+from the newcomers, whom they gradually began to disdain, and the
+result was a general lowering of the standing, importance, and
+influence of nobility. Another party which gained prominence was that
+of the bench; the judges, as interpreters of the king's laws, became
+powerful, for law was absolute. A deadly rivalry sprang up between the
+parties of rank with no money or power and of power and money without
+rank.
+
+The desire of every man of rank to be independent, to be a force in
+himself instead of a part of a unit which might be useful to the
+state as a whole, was one of the principal defects of the French
+aristocracy; poverty crushed it, idleness robbed it of its alertness,
+intriguing and gradual oppression reduced it to despair. Appointed to
+offices, its members failed in the performance of their duties; the
+latter fell to the under men who, while the aristocracy was busy at
+fêtes, in society, at the table, became experts in the affairs of the
+government—shrewd politicians and financiers. The new nobility,
+that of the robe, replaced that of the sword in all interests of the
+government except war; gradually, Parliament was made up of men who,
+having been elevated to the rank of nobility, retained their aversion
+to those who were noble by birth, recognizing only the king as their
+superior and refusing precedence to even the princes of the blood.
+Louis XIV., however, objecting to and fearing such a strong class as
+that of the robe, employed, wherever possible, people of lower rank.
+Thus it happened in the seventeenth century that the still powerful
+nobility of higher rank was scorned and kept down; but in the
+eighteenth century, when the gentlemen of the robe had become
+all-powerful and therefore constituted a dangerous party, it was they
+who became the objects of scorn and persecution, while the aristocrats
+of blood, the gentlemen of the court, recovered the royal favors
+through their political powerlessness.
+
+French aristocracy really had no object, no _raison d'être_, after
+its disappearance from all governmental functions; it became an
+encumbrance to the state; having no particular part to play, it did
+nothing; this is one of the causes of its dissolution and of the
+Revolution as well. Thus France gradually passed from inequality of
+classes under the sanction of custom to equality of classes before
+the law: this change in the condition and constitution of the French
+nobility accounts for many intrigues and scandals and explains the
+social and moral actions of French women, as well as the difference
+in the nature of their activities in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries.
+
+The seventeenth was, _par excellence_, the century which can boast
+of that incomparable society the cult of which was the highest in all
+things—art, religion, philosophy, poetry, politics, war, and beauty.
+From the convent of the Carmelites to the Hôtel de Rambouillet, from
+the Place Royale to the various châteaux and salons, we must seek only
+that which is elevating and spiritual, beautiful and religious. In
+the famous society which kept pace with the political reputation
+and influence of France is found a coterie of women who combined
+remarkable beauty and intelligence with a high moral standard, and
+whose names are intimately connected with the history of France.
+Where again can we find such a galaxy of beauties as that formed by
+Charlotte de Montmorency, Mme. de Chevreuse, Mme. de Hautefort, Mme.
+de Montbazon, Mme. de Guémené, Mme. de Châtillon, Mme. de Longueville,
+Marie de Gonzague, Henriette de la Vallière, Mme. de Montespan, Mme.
+de Maintenon, without enumerating such great writers and leaders of
+salons as Mme. de Rambouillet, Mlle. de Scudéry, Mme. de Lambert,
+Mme. de Sévigné, and Mme. de la Fayette? The seventeenth century
+could tolerate no mediocrity; grandeur was in the very atmosphere;
+its political movements were great movements; it produced in art
+a Poussin, in letters a Corneille, in science and philosophy a
+Descartes.
+
+The various movements of which woman was the head may be divided into
+two periods, and each period into two parts. The political women may
+well be grouped about Marie de' Medici,—whose career will not be
+given separate treatment, inasmuch as there was no drop of French
+blood in her veins,—and the social and literary women about Mme.
+de Rambouillet and her salon. In the latter half of the seventeenth
+century and at the beginning of the eighteenth, politics are
+represented by Mme. de Montespan—the mistress—and Mme. de
+Maintenon—the wife; social life and literature have their purest
+representative in Mme. de Lambert. The two queens of the seventeenth
+century, Anne of Austria and Maria Theresa, were without influence;
+the religious movement was represented by the galaxy of women of whom
+we write in a later chapter.
+
+After the death of Henry IV., Marie de' Medici succeeded in having
+herself made queen-regent for Louis XIII., who was then but nine years
+old. A woman of no particular capacity, who had in no way adapted
+herself to French life and customs, she allowed herself to be governed
+by an adventurer, an Italian who understood and appreciated French
+ideals no more than did Marie; these two—the queen and Concini, her
+minister—immediately began to concoct plans to gain control of the
+state. The king was kept in virtual captivity until he reached the age
+of seventeen, when, having asserted his rights, Concini was killed,
+and Marie's dominant power and influence came to an abrupt end.
+
+Louis XIII. reigned, with his minister, the Prince de Luynes, from
+1617 to 1624, when he became reconciled to his mother and appointed
+her favorite, Richelieu, his minister. From 1610 to about 1640,
+Marie de' Medici exercised more or less influence, always of a nature
+disastrous to France.
+
+After the king's death, Anne of Austria, as queen-regent, with
+Mazarin, directed the destinies of France. During the ministry of the
+two cardinals, Richelieu and Mazarin, occurred the political intrigues
+and astute diplomatic movements of Mme. de Chevreuse and the unwise
+and short-sighted aspirations of Mme. de Longueville. These intimate
+friends were women of the highest intelligence, most perfect beauty,
+and uncapitulating devotion, and were working for the same cause,
+though from different motives.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse was the daughter of M. de Rohan, Duke of Montbazon.
+She had married M. de Luynes, the minister of Louis XIII., who
+overthrew the power of Marie de' Medici, and who, by initiating his
+wife into his secrets, gave her the schooling and experience which she
+later used to such advantage. De Luynes presented her at court
+with instructions to ingratiate herself with the queen—Anne of
+Austria—and the king. In this design she succeeded so well that she
+was soon made superintendent of the household of the queen, and became
+as influential with Anne as was her husband with the king.
+
+In 1621 M. de Luynes died; a year later his widow married Claude of
+Lorraine, Duke of Chevreuse; but as that was an unhappy union,
+she soon began her career as an intriguer. On the arrival of Lord
+Kensington, the English ambassador, she fell in love with him, that
+escapade being the first of a long series; the two proceeded to
+inveigle Queen Anne into a liaison with the Duke of Buckingham, which
+scheme, as history so well records, partly succeeded.
+
+When Mme. de Chevreuse accompanied to England the new queen,
+Henriette-Marie, wife of Charles I., both Buckingham and Kensington
+outdid themselves in showing her attention, Richelieu, fearing her
+influence and intrigues at the court of England, hastened the recall
+of her husband, but she received through her friends, from the English
+monarch himself, an invitation to remain; during the time, she gave
+birth to a child.
+
+Her next famous undertaking, which involved the lives of various
+persons of high rank, was the scheme to persuade Monsieur the Dauphin
+to refuse to marry Mlle. de Montpensier; Queen Anne was opposed to
+this union, and Mme. de Chevreuse gained to their cause a number of
+influential friends who were all madly in love with her. The ever
+vigilant Richelieu having discovered the plot, Monsieur confessed.
+In this conspiracy, M. de Chalais lost his head, other plotters lost
+their positions, and some were exiled. Mme. de Chevreuse was forced
+to retire to Lorraine; there she set in movement a vast plan against
+Richelieu and France, allying England and various princes, but, by the
+arrest of Montaigu, the plot was discovered, the alliance broken up,
+and peace restored.
+
+In 1626, by request of England, Mme. de Chevreuse returned to France.
+For a time she was quiet and seemed to favor Richelieu, but she
+soon captivated one of his ministers, the Marquis of Châteauneuf.
+Richelieu discovered the latter's weakness, and, having captured his
+correspondence, sent him to prison, where he remained for ten years.
+The fair intriguer was exiled to Dampierre, the cardinal fearing to
+send her out of France on account of her influence with the Duke
+of Lorraine. She managed to steal into Paris at night and see the
+queen; when discovered, she was sent to Touraine where she began the
+dangerous task of carrying on the correspondence between the Dukes of
+Savoy and Lorraine and England, and between Spain and Queen Anne. Even
+when this correspondence was intercepted and the queen confessed all,
+Richelieu was afraid to banish Mme. de Chevreuse; though he believed
+her to be at the bottom of all the current intrigues, he knew that out
+of France she would stir up the rulers of England and Spain as well as
+the Duke of Lorraine and others hostile to the cardinal.
+
+Violence being out of the question, because of her influence in
+England and of the prominence of her family, he decided to win her
+over by kindness; he even sent her money, but she was too shrewd to
+permit Richelieu to outwit her, always paying him back in his own
+coin. However, that kind of play was too dangerous for her and she
+escaped to Spain. As soon as her departure became known, Richelieu
+set to work every means in his power to bring her back, sending her an
+urgent invitation to return and promising to pardon her past. When his
+messages reached her, she was already in Madrid, where she was royally
+received as the friend of the king's sister, Anne; there, by means of
+her beauty and wonderful intelligence, she conquered every cavalier.
+When the war broke out between France and Spain, she left for England
+where she was welcomed like a visiting queen.
+
+Richelieu, anxious for the support of the Duke of Lorraine in his
+war against Spain and Austria, needed the coöperation of Mme. de
+Chevreuse, and with that end in view sent ambassadors to London
+to arrange for her return; but an agreement was not an easy matter
+between two such astute politicians, and negotiations went on
+unsuccessfully for over a year. Her subtleness, apparent docility
+and invincible precautions were pitted against the artifices and
+dissimulation of the cardinal; both employed all the astute manœuvres
+of diplomacy and exhausted the resources of consummate skill in
+gaining the point desired by each. The cardinal failed to convince her
+of her safety.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse soon formed about her a circle of émigrés—Marie de'
+Medici, Duc La Vallette, Soubèse, La Vieuville, and many others. This
+coterie was in open correspondence with Spain, Austria, and the Duke
+of Lorraine. From every side, Richelieu felt the intriguing hand
+and influence of Mme. de Chevreuse, and decided to put forth another
+effort to get her to return, this time sending her husband; but
+not sure of the latter's sincerity and in fear of him, the duchess
+concluded to leave England for Flanders, and, escorted by a squad of
+dukes and lords, departed like a queen.
+
+At Brussels, she entered into open relations with Spain, drawing
+over the Duke of Lorraine. She was accused of being in the plot of
+Cinq-Mars and the Duke of Bouillon with Spain; when Richelieu exposed
+this to Queen Anne, the latter for the first time became her enemy.
+Just at this time of his triumph, Richelieu died, his death being
+followed soon after by that of Louis XIII., who left a special
+order for the exile forever of Mme. de Chevreuse, whom he called _Le
+Diable_. The queen-regent, however, recalled her, and set at liberty
+her friend, Châteauneuf, who had been imprisoned for ten years.
+
+When Mme. de Chevreuse returned to Paris after an absence of ten
+years, her beauty was still unimpaired, she possessed an experience
+such as no man of the day could boast, was personally acquainted with
+nearly every great statesman and aware of the weak points in every
+court of Europe. While she could now count on the support of
+the majority of the princes, plots were being formed about the
+queen-regent, the object of which was to persuade the latter to give
+up the friends who had served her faithfully for so many years. La
+Rochefoucauld was sent to meet Mme. de Chevreuse and to inform her of
+the change of attitude of the queen-regent; as her devoted friend, he
+advised her to abandon, for the present, all hopes of governing the
+queen and to devote herself entirely to regaining her favor and to
+preparing for the possible fall of Mazarin.
+
+After securing the release of her friend Châteauneuf, Mme. de
+Chevreuse set to work to restore him to his former office of Guard
+of the Seals, but did not succeed. She then turned her attention to
+undermining the power of Mazarin, agitating all émigrés returning to
+France and starting the most outspoken denunciation of the policy
+of the cardinal, his injustice and tyranny against the nobility. The
+cries of disapproval became so general that Mazarin was kept busy
+warding off the blows aimed at him by his enemy; the latter succeeded
+in placing Châteauneuf as _Chancelier des ordres du roi_ and in having
+his estates restored to him, while Alexandre de Campion she placed in
+the household of the queen. Mazarin, living in constant dread of her,
+managed to thwart two of her cherished schemes—the restoration to
+the Duke of Vendôme of the government of Brittany and the placing of
+Châteauneuf in the ministry—upon the success of which depended her
+own influence and power.
+
+Finding that ruse, flattery, insinuation, and ordinary court intrigues
+were of no avail, she turned to other methods. The Importants, a party
+made up of adventurers and a large number of the nobility, were making
+themselves felt more and more; they were opposed to Richelieu and
+Mazarin, and Mme. de Chevreuse became their chief and instigator.
+Failing to succeed with the cardinal's own methods, she decided to
+assassinate him, but the plot was discovered, the Duke of Beaufort
+was arrested and all the princes of the party of the Importants were
+ordered to leave Paris. Mme. de Chevreuse was compelled to depart from
+court and retire to Dampierre, and then to Touraine, where she did
+everything in her power to assist the friends who had compromised
+themselves for her. During her first exile she had had the consolation
+of the friendship of the queen; but now she was banished by the very
+friend whom she had served so well and who had up to this time been
+able and willing to afford her comfort and protection. Through
+Lord Goring, Count Craft, and the Commander de Jars, she opened up
+correspondence and negotiations with England, but was again surprised
+by the vigilant Mazarin and sent to Angoulême; determining to escape,
+after many hardships, she successfully reached Liège; from there, as
+head of all foreign intrigues against France, she continued to thwart
+Mazarin's foreign policy.
+
+As soon as the first signs of the Fronde broke out, Mme. de Chevreuse
+became active and succeeded in attracting to her the young Marquis de
+Laigues with whom, later on, she contracted a _mariage de conscience_.
+As ambassador of the Fronde, she prevailed upon Spain to promise
+troops and subsidies to her party. After the peace of 1649, she went
+to Paris where she found almost all her friends ready to follow
+her and to pay her homage. It was she who conceived the idea of an
+aristocratic league which, under the auspices of the two great princes
+of the blood, the Duke of Orléans and the Prince of Condé, would unite
+the best part of the nobility.
+
+Her plan was to marry her daughter to the Prince de Conti and the
+young Duc d'Enghien to one of the daughters of the Duke of Orléans.
+The contracts were signed and all was in readiness when Mazarin was
+exiled, and the following Frondists came into power: the Duke
+of Orléans at court, Condé and Turenne at the head of the army,
+Châteauneuf in the Cabinet, Molé in Parliament, while Mme. de
+Chevreuse and Mme. de Longueville managed to keep harmony among all.
+Queen Anne in a short time annulled the marriage contracts; and on the
+return of Mazarin, Mme. de Chevreuse took up her work with him, the
+cardinal being wise enough to appreciate the fact that she was a
+greater force with than against him.
+
+Strange as it may seem, Mme. de Chevreuse in time became the great
+acting and controlling force of royalty, winning over the Duke of
+Lorraine and becoming a staunch friend to both the regent and the
+cardinal; after the death of the latter, she became all-powerful, and
+it may be said that she made Colbert what he was. In the fulness of
+her power, she gradually retired, having seen, in turn, the passing
+away or the fall of Richelieu, Mazarin, Louis XIII., Anne of Austria,
+the Queen of England, Châteauneuf, the Duke of Lorraine, her daughter,
+and the Marquis de Laigues. She ceased plotting, renounced politics
+and intrigues, and retired to the country, where she died in 1679.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse was undoubtedly one of the most important political
+characters of the seventeenth century, just as she was also one of its
+greatest beauties—possibly the most seductive and charming woman of
+her epoch. A consummate diplomat and an untiring worker, she was at
+the head of more intrigues and plots, had more thrilling adventures,
+controlled and ruined more men, than any other woman of her century,
+if not of all French history. Thinking little of religion, she was
+yet in the very midst of the Catholic party; unswerving in her
+friendships, she scorned danger, opinion, fortune, for those whom she
+loved or whose cause she espoused; an implacable foe, she was the most
+dreaded enemy of both Richelieu and Mazarin.
+
+With a remarkable ability for grasping the details of an antagonist's
+position she combined all the other qualities of an astute politician;
+thus, upon the desired consummation of her plots she brought to bear
+a sagacity, finesse, and energy that baffled all her adversaries. With
+her, politics became a passion and a necessity; even while in exile,
+her zeal was unflagging and she intrigued over all Europe. Scorning
+peril as well as all petty restraints, and characterized by courage,
+loyalty, and devotion, she was without an equal among the members of
+her sex.
+
+Mme. de Hautefort, while less powerful than Mme. de Chevreuse and of
+quite a different type, is associated with her in the history of the
+time. Pure, beautiful, and virtuous, she everywhere inspired love and
+respect; without political aspirations and seeking neither power nor
+favors, she refused to deliver her soul or betray her friends for
+Richelieu or Mazarin; she was their enemy, but not their rival.
+
+Because of her desire to serve the queen, of whom she was an intimate
+friend, and to further her interests, she was connected with the first
+intrigues of Mme. de Chevreuse, but as an innocent and disinterested
+party. Louis XIII. conceived an ardent attachment for her, and
+Richelieu endeavored to win her over to his policies, but she remained
+faithful to her queen and refused to sacrifice her honor to the king.
+
+The cardinal did not rest until he had prevailed upon the king to
+exile her, ostensibly for only fifteen days; and as her unselfishness
+and generosity had made an impression upon the whole court, her
+departure was much regretted, though no demonstration was made. When,
+after the king's death, Mme. de Hautefort returned to Paris, she soon
+reëstablished herself in the affection, admiration, and respect of her
+associates.
+
+As Mazarin gained ascendency over Queen Anne, that regent changed her
+policy and abandoned her former friends. Mme. de Hautefort was opposed
+to the queen on account of her liaison with her minister and her lack
+of fidelity to those who, in time of trouble, had served her so well.
+As _dame d'atours_, she was forced either to close her eyes to all
+scenes between the cardinal and Anne or to combat the regent and
+resign. She was not to be tempted by the honors and favors with which
+the two sought to purchase her criminal connivance or her silence;
+preferring poverty and exile to a guilty conscience, she soon retired
+to the convent of the Daughters of Sainte-Marie, where she was
+followed by her admirers, who were willing to place themselves and
+their fortunes at her disposal. At the age of thirty she accepted
+the hand of the Duke of Schomberg, and, away from the court and its
+intrigues, lived in peace.
+
+Indifferent to the powerful, but kind and compassionate to the poor
+and oppressed, Mme. de Hautefort is a type of those great women of
+the seventeenth century who stood for honor, courage, generosity,
+sympathy, and virtue; fervently, even austerely, religious, she was
+yet far removed from anything resembling bigotry. Among the ladies
+of the Hôtel de Rambouillet, she was one of the most popular; her
+vivacity, modesty, and reserve, combined with a tall figure, imposing
+bearing, and large, expressive blue eyes, won the hearts of many
+cavaliers, among whom the most prominent were the Dukes of Lorraine
+and La Rochefoucauld.
+
+A close second to Mme. de Chevreuse in influence and power, was Mme.
+de Longueville, a woman of exquisite and aristocratic beauty, of
+brilliant mind, and an adept in the art of conversation. Tender and
+kind, but ambitious, she, like many others of her time and sex, had
+two distinct periods—one of conquest and one of penitence and pious
+devotion.
+
+Born in a prison at Vincennes during the captivity of her father,
+the great Henry of Bourbon, Prince of Condé, she in time developed
+remarkable personal charms. Her early days were spent at the convent
+of the Carmelites and at the Hôtel de Rambouillet, her mind—in these
+opposite worlds of religion and society—being divided between pious
+meditations and romantic dreams. At the time of the execution at
+Toulouse of her uncle, M. de Montmorency, she seriously considered
+entering the Carmelite convent.
+
+Upon making her social début, she immediately became one of the
+leaders about whom all the gallants gathered. She formed a fast
+friendship with Mme. de Sablé, Mme. de Rambouillet, Mme. de
+Bouteville, and Mlle. du Vigean. Her beauty, which was quite
+phenomenal, soon became the subject of poetry. Voltaire wrote:
+
+  "De perles, d'astres et de fleurs,
+  Bourbon, le ciel fit tes couleurs,
+  Et mit dedans tout ce mélange
+    L'esprit d'un ange!
+  L'on jugerait par la blancheur
+  De Bourbon, et par sa fraicheur,
+  Qu'elle a prit naissance des lis."
+
+[The heaven made thy colors, Bourbon, of pearls, of stars, of flowers,
+and to all this mixture added the spirit of an angel. One would judge
+by the whiteness and freshness of Bourbon that she was born of the
+lilies.]
+
+In 1642, at the age of twenty-three, she was married, against her
+will, to M. de Longueville who was, after the princes of the blood,
+the greatest seigneur of France; he was old and indifferent, and
+enamored of another woman, while she was young and full of hopes,
+ambitions, and love. His conduct, being anything but correct,
+immediately set the young wife, with her instincts of refinement and
+principles and habits of the _précieuses_, against her husband. The
+advent of a rival in the person of Mme. de Montbazon, one of the
+most noted beauties of the day, made the state of affairs even more
+unpleasant, the humiliation being so much keener because it was on
+account of her charms that Montbazon was preferred to the wife. The
+latter's fate was a cruel one; she could not respect her husband, and,
+for her, respect was the only road to love. She continued to live at
+the Hôtel de Longueville and to attend all court functions, where,
+through her beauty, she early became the object of much attention from
+the young lords, among whom Coligny seemed to impress her more than
+any other.
+
+About this time occurred the deaths of Richelieu and Louis XIII., and
+the Importants, flocking to Paris to regain their rights and to share
+in the spoils of the new regency, began to make themselves felt. The
+leaders expected great favors from Anne of Austria who had been forced
+into obedience by the cardinal, but she was a great disappointment to
+them. A born lady of leisure, she was only too glad to be relieved
+of the arduous duties of government, and this her minister, Mazarin,
+quickly proceeded to do; his first object was to crush the influence
+of the Importants, who were very powerful in the salons, society, and
+politics.
+
+The house of Condé declared in favor of Mazarin, but at first this
+did not affect Mme. de Longueville, whose kindness of heart and
+indifference to politics and intrigues were generally known. Probably,
+she never would have taken a part in the Fronde had it not been for
+the rival who had been seeking, by every possible means, to injure her
+reputation—a design which Mme. de Montbazon well-nigh accomplished by
+declaring that two letters which, at a reception, had fallen from the
+pocket of Coligny had been written by Mme. de Longueville. In reality,
+they had been written by Mme. de Fouquerolles to the Marquis of
+Maulevrier. Mme. la Princesse, mother of Mme. de Longueville demanded
+full reparation, threatening that unless it was at once granted the
+house of Condé would withdraw from court, and Mazarin managed to
+induce the queen to compel Mme. de Montbazon to apologize publicly. It
+may be of interest to give, in full, the apology, to show the nature
+of court etiquette, hypocrisy, and intrigue of that day. Mme. de
+Montbazon called at the hôtel of the princess and spoke the following
+words, which were written on a paper attached to her fan: "Madame, I
+come here to attest that I am innocent of the spitefulness of which
+they accuse me, there being no person of honor capable of uttering
+such a calumny; and if I had committed such a crime, I would have
+submitted to the punishments that the queen would have imposed upon
+me, would never have shown myself before the world again, and would
+have asked your pardon. I beg you to believe that I shall never be
+lacking in the respect that I owe you because of the opinion which
+I have of the merit and virtue of Mme. de Longueville." To which the
+princess replied: "I very willingly receive the assurance you give
+me of having had no part in the spitefulness that was published,
+deferring all to the order the queen has given me."
+
+After this episode, the princess refused to be in the same place with
+Mme. de Montbazon. On one occasion, Mme. de Chevreuse had invited the
+queen to a collation at a place where the queen enjoyed walking; she
+requested the princess to join her, giving her word of honor that Mme.
+de Montbazon would not be there; she was present, however, and the
+princess was about to leave when the queen ordered Mme. de Montbazon
+to feign illness and retire; this she refused to do and remained,
+whereupon the queen and the princess left, and shortly afterward Mme.
+de Montbazon received orders to leave Paris.
+
+This excited the Importants to fever heat and a plot was formed, with
+Mme. de Chevreuse as the leader, to assassinate the cardinal. Shortly
+after this, Coligny, as champion of the cause of Mme. de Longueville,
+challenged the Duc de Guise to a duel. The whole court was made up
+of two parties: the Importants with Mme. de Montbazon and Mme. de
+Chevreuse; and Condé and Mme. de Longueville with their friends;
+the result was the death of Coligny. Mme. de Longueville was a true
+_précieuse_ and hardly loved Coligny, but allowed him and any other to
+serve and adore her in a respectable way—a principle followed by
+the better women of the age, such as Mme. de Rambouillet and Mme. de
+Sablé.
+
+Some time after these occurrences, Mme. de Longueville was stricken
+with smallpox which, fortunately, did not impair her beauty; it was
+said, on the contrary, that in taking away its first flower it left
+all the brilliancy which, joined to her culture and charming
+languor, made her one of the most attractive persons in France. La
+Rochefoucauld has left the following picture of her: "This princess
+had all the advantages of _esprit_ and beauty to as great a degree as
+if nature had taken pleasure in completing, in her person, a perfect
+work; but these qualities shone less brilliantly on account of one
+characteristic which led her to imbibe so thoroughly the sentiments of
+those who adored her that she no longer recognized her own."
+
+After her twenty-fifth year, Mme. de Longueville became more and more
+imbued with the general spirit of the seventeenth century: coquetry
+and _bel esprit_ became her chief occupation. The glory of her
+brother, the Duc d'Enghien, who was rapidly becoming a power, and the
+probability of the house of Condé becoming dangerous, made Mazarin
+realize that Mme. de Longueville was to be reckoned with, inasmuch as
+she had full control over D'Enghien and was constantly instilling new
+ideas into his mind and requesting from him the distribution of all
+sorts of favors. Mazarin, in 1646, succeeded in causing her withdrawal
+to Münster for one year; there she ruled as queen of the Congress. On
+the death of her father, the Prince of Condé, and at the request
+of her mother to come home for her lying-in, the husband of Mme. de
+Longueville consented to her return to Paris.
+
+In the meantime, everything was being done by the Importants to win
+over the house of Condé and cause a breach between it and Mazarin.
+The court at this time was in full glory; to amuse the queen-regent,
+Mazarin was lavishing money on artists from Italy, and the nobility
+outdid itself in its attempts to rival royalty in elegance and luxury.
+Upon her return, everyone paid homage to Mme. de Longueville; it
+was at this period that La Rochefoucauld, who was anxious about his
+position at court, as he was accused of being in league with the
+Importants and was therefore refused the favors he desired, met Mme.
+de Longueville who was in the height of her glory and in full control
+of the most prominent house of the time—that of the Duc d'Enghien and
+the Prince de Conti, her brothers.
+
+In order to conquer for himself what the cardinal would not grant him,
+La Rochefoucauld put forth every effort to win Mme. de Longueville;
+captivated by his fine appearance, his chivalry and, above all, by his
+powerful intellect, she gave herself up entirely, willing to share his
+destiny, to sacrifice all her interests, even those of her family, and
+the deepest sentiment of her life—the tenderness for her brother.
+
+France at this time, 1648, was in a position to gain for herself a
+peace with the world at her own terms, and her future seemed to be
+without a cloud. It was the Fronde that checked her growth and glory,
+and the cause of this was the estrangement of the house of Condé
+through the action of Mme. de Longueville in passing with her husband
+over to the party of the Importants, she being the first of her family
+to forsake the government. Under the leadership of La Rochefoucauld,
+she cast her lot with the opposing party, allowing herself to be
+identified with the interests of those who had endeavored to tarnish
+her early reputation. Becoming a leader with Mme. de Chevreuse and
+Mme. de Montbazon (her rival), she easily won over her young brother,
+the Prince de Conti. After the imprisonment of her husband and her two
+brothers, she began her real career as a woman of tactics, politics,
+and generalship.
+
+With the connivance of Mme. de Chevreuse and the Princess Palatine, a
+general plan had been formed to create a new government by the union
+of the aristocracy. The marriage, already spoken of, between the Duke
+of Enghien and one of the daughters of the Duke of Orléans and that
+arranged between the Prince of Conti and the daughter of Mme. de
+Chevreuse were to have united the Fronde with the house of Condé. The
+alliances, however, were declared off, and Mme. de Chevreuse went
+over to the cardinal and the queen; Condé's fall and Mazarin's success
+followed, being the result, mainly, of the determination of Mme. de
+Chevreuse to avenge herself upon Condé for having consented to the
+breaking of the marriage contracts.
+
+Mme. de Longueville did all in her power to continue the conflict that
+Condé had undertaken, but, exhausted by continual excitement and ill
+success, she was compelled to retire. After this, her life, spent in
+Normandy, at the Carmelites' convent and at Port Royal, became a long
+penance, which increased in austerity until she died in 1679. Thus,
+her career was at first one of unblemished brilliancy, then a period
+of elegant and intellectual debauch, and finally one of expiation.
+
+"Her politics," says Sainte-Beuve, "considered in the _ensemble_, are
+nothing more than a desire to please, to shine—a capricious love. Her
+character lacked consistency and self-will, her mind was keen, ready,
+subtle, ingenious, but not reasonable."
+
+In her convent life, her crowning virtue was humility. Her enemies did
+not cease to attack her, but she received all their affronts with
+the noblest resignation. The following testimonies are taken from a
+Jansenist manuscript of 1685:
+
+"She never said anything to her own advantage. She made use of as
+many occasions as she could find for humiliating herself without any
+affectation. What she said, she said so well that it could not be
+better said. She listened much, never interrupted, and never showed
+any eagerness to speak. She spoke sensibly, modestly, charitably, and
+without passion. To court her was to speak with equity and without
+passion of everyone and to esteem the good in all. Her whole exterior,
+her voice, her face, her gestures, were a perfect music; and her mind
+and body served her so well in expressing what she wished to make
+heard, that she appeared the most perfect actress in the world."
+
+Her love for La Rochefoucauld was the secret of her failure in life.
+When she experienced the disappointments of her married life and
+discovered that her dream of being loved by her husband could not be
+realized, she looked to other sources for diversion. She was not an
+intriguing woman like Mme. de Chevreuse, but one of ambitions which
+were incited by her love for and interest in the objects of her
+affection. Although she carried on flirtations with Coligny and the
+Duke of Nemours, she really loved no one but La Rochefoucauld, to
+whom she sacrificed her reputation and tranquillity, her duties and
+interests. For him she took up the cause of the Fronde; for him she
+was a mere slave, her entire existence being given up to his love, his
+whims, his service; when he failed her, she was lost, exhausted, and
+retired to a convent at the age of thirty-five and in the full bloom
+of her beauty. Her professed lover simply used her as a means to an
+end, seeking only his own interests in the Fronde, while she sought
+his; and this is the explanation of her seeming inconsistency of
+conduct. In her religious life she was happy and contented; surrounded
+by her friends, she lived peacefully for over twenty years.
+
+Thus, Marie de' Medici, a foreigner, Mme. de Chevreuse, and Mme. de
+Longueville represent the political women of the first half of the
+seventeenth century; Anne of Austria, who was of foreign extraction,
+was a mere tool in the hands of Mazarin, and exerted little influence
+in general.
+
+One of the principal differences between the conspicuous political
+women of the sixteenth and those of the seventeenth centuries lies in
+the possession by the latter of less personal force than that wielded
+by the former, who allowed nothing to thwart their plans. The women
+of both periods were beautiful, but those of the earlier one were of a
+magnetic and sensual type, "inspiring insensate passions and exciting
+a feverish unrest," thus ruling man through his lower instincts. The
+lack of refinement, sympathy, and charity reflected in their actions
+is in glaring contrast to the dignity, repose, reserve, and womanly
+modesty and grace displayed by their less masterful successors of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IV
+
+Woman in Society and Literature
+
+
+At the beginning of the seventeenth century, after the death of Henry
+IV., there were three classes in France,—the nobility, clergy, and
+third estate,—each with a distinct field of action: the nobility
+dominated customs, morality, and the government; the clergy supervised
+instruction and education; the third estate furnished the funds, that
+is, its work made possible the operations of the other classes.
+
+At court, various dialects and diverse pronunciations were in use by
+the representatives of the different provinces; the written language,
+though understood generally, was not used. Warriors were largely
+in evidence among the members of the nobility and court; entirely
+indifferent to decency of expression, purity of morals, and refinement
+of manners, and even boasting of their scorn of all restrictions,
+they took their boisterous rudeness into the drawing room where their
+influence was unlimited. The king, being of the same class, knew no
+better, or, if he did, had not the moral courage to compel a change;
+thus, the institution of a reformatory movement fell to the lot of
+woman.
+
+Then, however, woman was but little better than man; to gain his
+esteem, she would first have to make radical changes in her own
+behavior and become self-respecting. The customs of the time placed
+many disadvantages in the way of her social and moral reform. As
+a rule, the young girl was confined to a convent until she reached
+marriageable age; when that came and with it an undesired husband, she
+was ready for almost any prank that would relieve the monotony of her
+uncongenial marital relations. The convents themselves were so corrupt
+or so easily corruptible, that, very frequently, young girls did not
+leave them with unstained purity. To certain of these institutions,
+women and men of standing often bought the privilege of access at any
+time, to drink, dine, sleep, or attend sacred exercises with other
+persons; thus, libertinage was not uncommon within the walls of those
+so-called religious establishments.
+
+Mme. de Rambouillet felt most keenly the degradation of woman and
+resolved to act against it by combating everything that could offend
+taste or delicacy. As in the beginning of every great age, all things
+tended to greatness. A period of discipline and coördination set
+in, and elegance, grace, and refinement became the most pronounced
+characteristics of the time; rough, crude, robust, vigorous, and
+energetic characteristics, combined with coarseness and brutality,
+were eliminated during the seventeenth century. The women who caused
+this general purification of morals and language were given the name
+of _précieuses_ and the movement that of _préciosité_.
+
+The extent to which the _précieuses_ went in inventing locutions by
+which they were to be recognized as elegant, is generally exaggerated;
+Livet says that out of six hundred women hardly thirty could be
+accused of such fatuity. The wiser and more conservative women
+did adopt a large number of expressions which were necessary for
+refinement of language and these classicisms were exaggerated by some
+of the provincial classes who received their expressions from books
+and the theatre; such authors as Corneille, etc., were studied and
+their poetic licenses introduced into spoken language. These follies,
+pictured by Molière, naturally afforded much amusement in cultured
+circles where every event of the day was discussed, from the vital
+affairs of the government to the æsthetic interests of art and
+literature.
+
+The tremendous vogue of the seventeenth century salons or drawing
+rooms naturally gave a stimulus to literature; but, as they were so
+numerous and as each one claimed its large coterie of literary men,
+they proved to be disastrous to some while helpful to others. Two
+distinct classes of writers arose: the one, serious, elevated,
+thoughtful, classical, and independent of the salon, is well
+represented by Molière, Pascal, Boileau; the other, light, affected,
+gallant, superficial, was composed of the innumerable unimportant
+writers of the day.
+
+The salon movement must not be confounded with two other social
+movements or forces—those of court and society; while at the former
+all was formality, the latter was still gross and brutish. The Marquis
+de Caze, at a supper seized a leg of mutton and struck his neighbor
+in the face with it, sprinkling her with gravy, whereupon she laughed
+heartily; the Count of Brégis, slapped by the lady with whom he was
+dancing, tore off her headdress before the whole company; Louis XIII.,
+noticing in the crowd admitted to see him dine a lady dressed too
+_décolleté_, filled his mouth with wine and squirted the liquid into
+the bosom of the unfortunate girl; the Prince of Condé, indulging in
+customary brutishness, ate dung and had the ladies follow his example;
+these are fair illustrations of social _elegances_.
+
+As will be seen, nothing of this nature occurred in the salon of Mme.
+de Rambouillet, whose object was to charm her leisure hours, distract
+and amuse the husband whom she adored, and be agreeable to her
+friends. Her amusements were most original—concerts, mythological
+representations, suppers, fireworks, comedies, readings, always
+something new, often in the form of a surprise or a joke. Of the
+latter, the best known is the one played on the Count of Guise whose
+fondness for mushrooms had become proverbial; on one occasion when he
+had consumed an immense number of them at table, his valet, who had
+been bribed, took in all his doublets; on trying to put them on again,
+he found them too narrow by fully four inches. "What in the world is
+the matter—am I all swollen—could it be due to having eaten too many
+mushrooms?" "That is quite possible," said Chaudebonne; "yesterday you
+ate enough of them to split." All the accomplices joined in ridiculing
+him, and he began to squirm and show a somewhat livid color. Mass was
+rung, and he was compelled to attend in his chamber robe. Laughing, he
+said: "That would be a fine end—to die at the age of twenty-one from
+having eaten too many mushrooms." In the meantime, Chaudebonne advised
+the use of an antidote which he wrote and handed to the count, who
+read: "Take a good pair of scissors and cut your doublet." Only then
+did the victim comprehend the joke.
+
+One day, Voiture, having met a bear trainer, took him with his animals
+to the room of the Marquise de Rambouillet; she, turning at the noise,
+saw four large paws resting upon her screen. She readily forgave the
+author of the surprise. Du Bled relates many more of these innocent
+jokes.
+
+Among the congenial people of the salons, the relations were always of
+the most cordial, friendly, free, and intimate nature; they were like
+the members of a large family. By them, love was not considered a
+weakness but a mark of the elevation of the soul, and every man had
+to be sensitive to beauty. When the Duchesse d'Aiguillon presented
+to society her nephew, who later became the Duke of Richelieu, she
+advised and encouraged him to complete his education and make of
+himself an _honnête homme_ by association with the elder Mlle. du
+Vigean and other women; the object of this procedure was to polish his
+manners, elevate his instincts, and develop ease in deportment toward
+the ladies. There was no hint of the vulgar or licentious pleasures
+which became the characteristics of love in the eighteenth century.
+
+The woman who inaugurated the movement toward purity of morals,
+decency of language, polish of manners, and courtesy to woman, was
+Mme. de Rambouillet. Cathérine de Vivonne, Marquise de Rambouillet,
+whose mother was a great Roman lady and whose father had been
+ambassador to Rome, inherited that pride of race and independence of
+spirit for which she was so well known. In 1600, she was married, at
+the age of twelve, to the Marquis de Rambouillet who was her senior by
+eleven years, but who treated her with deference and respect rare at
+that time. Husband and wife were perfectly congenial, and their happy
+and peaceful life was a great contrast to that led by the majority of
+the married couples of the day. Absolutely irreproachable in conduct,
+she set a worthy example for all women who knew her.
+
+Her high ideals, independence of character, family duties, and the
+general debauchery, which was incompatible with her rigid chastity and
+"precocious wisdom," caused her to withdraw from the court in 1608;
+two years later, she decided to open her salon to such aristocratic
+and cultured persons as appreciated womanly grace, wit, and taste. Her
+familiarity with Italian and Spanish history and art placed her at
+the head of intellectual as well as moral movements. She surrounded
+herself with the distinguished men and women of the day, and her
+salon, which in every detail was decorated and arranged for pleasure,
+immediately became, through the exquisite charm with which she
+presided, the one goal of the cultured; her blue room was the
+sanctuary of polite society and she was its high priestess.
+
+The highest ambition of the _habitué_ of the salon was to sing, dance,
+and converse artistically and with refinement. A reaction against the
+general social state immediately set in, even the brusque warriors
+acquiring a refinement of speech and manners; and as conversation
+developed and became a power, the great lords began to respect men
+of letters and to cultivate their society. Anyone who possessed good
+manners, vivacity, and wit was admitted to the salon, where a new and
+more elevating sociability was the aspiration.
+
+Mme. de Rambouillet was very particular in the choice of friends, and
+they were always sincere and devoted, knowing her to be undesirous of
+political favors and incapable of stooping to intrigue. Even Richelieu
+could not, as compensation to him for a favor to her husband, induce
+her to act as spy on some of the frequenters of her salon.
+
+While not a woman of remarkable beauty, she was the personification
+of reason and virtue; her unassuming frankness, exquisite tact, and
+exceptional reserve discouraged all advances on the part of those
+gallants who frequented every mansion and were always prepared to lay
+siege to the heart of any fair woman. Her wide culture, versatility,
+modesty, goodness, fidelity, and disinterestedness caused her to be
+universally sought. Mlle. de Scudéry, in her novel _Cyrus_, leaves a
+fine portrait of her:
+
+"The spirit and soul of this marvellous person surpass by far her
+beauty: the first has no limits in its extent and the other has no
+equal in its generosity, goodness, justice, and purity. The intellect
+of Cléomire (Mme. de Rambouillet) is not like that of those whose
+minds have no brilliancy except that which nature has given them, for
+she has cultivated it carefully, and I think I can say that there are
+no _belles connaissances_ that she has not acquired. She knows various
+languages, and is ignorant of hardly anything that is worth knowing;
+but she knows it all without making a display of knowing it; and one
+would say, in hearing her talk, 'she is so modest that she speaks
+admirably of things, through simple common sense only'; on the
+contrary, she is versed in all things; the most advanced sciences
+are not beyond her, and she is perfectly acquainted with the most
+difficult arts. Never has any person possessed such a delicate
+knowledge as hers of fine works of prose and poetry; she judges them,
+however, with wonderful moderation, never abandoning _la bienséance_
+(the seemliness) of her sex, though she is far above it. In the whole
+court, there is not a person with any spirit and virtue that does not
+go to her house. Nothing is considered beautiful if it does not
+have her approval; no stranger ever comes who does not desire to see
+Cléomire and do her homage, and there are no excellent artisans who
+do not wish to have the glory of her approbation of their works. All
+people who write in Phénicie have sung her praises; and she possesses
+the esteem of everyone to such a marvellous degree that there is no
+one who has ever seen her who has not said thousands of favorable
+things about her—who has not been charmed likewise by her beauty,
+_esprit_, sweetness, and generosity."
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry describes the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet in the
+following:
+
+"Cléomire (Mme. de Rambouillet) had built, according to her own
+design, a place which is one of the finest in the world; she has found
+the art of constructing a palace of vast extent in a situation
+of mediocre grandeur. Order, harmony, and elegance are in all the
+apartments, and in the furniture also; everything is magnificent,
+even unique; the lamps are different from those of other palaces, her
+cabinets are full of objects which show the judgment of her who chose
+them. In her palace, the air is always scented; many baskets full of
+magnificent flowers make a continual spring in her room, and the place
+which she frequents ordinarily is so agreeable and so imaginative as
+to make one feel as if she were in some enchanted place."
+
+The very names of the frequenters of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet
+testify to the prominence of her position in the world of culture:
+Mlle. de Scudéry, Mlle. du Vigean; Mmes. de Longueville, de la Vergne,
+de La Fayette, de Sablé, de Hautefort, de Sévigné, de la Suze, Marie
+de Gonzague, Duchesse d'Aiguillon, Mmes. des Houlières, Cornuel,
+Aubry, and their respective husbands; the great literary men: Rotrou,
+Scarron, Saint-Evremond, Malherbe, Racan, Chapelain, Voiture, Conrart,
+Benserade, Pellisson, Segrais, Vaugelas, Ménage, Tallemant des Réaux,
+Balzac, Mairet, Corneille, Bossuet, etc. In the entire period of the
+French salon, no other such brilliant gathering of men and women of
+social standing, princely blood, genuine intelligence, and literary
+ability ever assembled from motives other than those of politics
+or intrigue; here was a gathering purely social and for purposes of
+mutual refinement. The nobility went through a process of polishing,
+and the men of letters sharpened their intelligence and modified their
+manners and customs.
+
+Julie, Duchess of Montausier, and Angélique, daughters of Mme. de
+Rambouillet, were popular, but the former lost much of her charm after
+she sacrificed her independence of thought and action by becoming
+governess of the children of the queen. Julie was the centre of
+attraction for all perfumed rhymesters, all sighers in prose and
+verse, who thronged about her. The stern and unbending Duke of
+Montausier was so under her influence that in 1641 he arranged and
+laid before her shrine the famous _guirlande_ which was illustrated by
+Robert and to which nineteen authors contributed. After her marriage
+to the duke, the Hôtel de Rambouillet may be said to have ceased to
+exist, as madame, who was seventy years of age, had for a number
+of years kept herself in the background, and Julie had become the
+acknowledged leader.
+
+With the outbreak of the Fronde, friends were separated by their
+individual interests and the reunions at the salon were interrupted
+from about 1650 to 1652. After the death of her husband, Mme. de
+Rambouillet retired, to reside with her daughter, Mme. de Montausier;
+after that, she seldom appeared in public. She hardly lived to see the
+spirit of the salon changed to the real _préciosité_—the direction
+and aim she gave to it being gradually abandoned.
+
+In her salon, for nearly fifty years, no pedantry, no loose manners,
+no questionable characters, no social or political intrigues, no
+discourtesies of any kind, were recorded; hers was a reign of dignity
+and grace, of purity of language, manners, and morals. She died in
+1665, at the advanced age of seventy-seven, esteemed and mourned by
+the entire social and intellectual world of France. Her influence
+was incalculable; it was the first time in the history of France
+that refined taste, intellectuality, and virtue had won importance,
+influence, and power.
+
+It must be remembered that in the first period of the salon there were
+no blue-stockings, no pedants: these were later developments. It was,
+primarily, a gathering which found pleasure in parties, excursions,
+concerts, balls, fireworks, dramatic performances, living tableaux;
+the last form of amusement very strongly influenced the development
+of the art, for in the galleries there appeared a surprisingly large
+number of portraits of the women of the day in character—sometimes as
+a nymph, sometimes as a goddess.
+
+The salon, in its first phase, showed and developed tolerance in
+religion as well as in art and literature. It also encouraged progress
+and displayed acute discrimination, keeping pace with the time in all
+that was new and meritorious. It developed individual liberty, public
+interest, criticism, good taste, and the elegant, clear, and precise
+conversational language in which France has excelled up to the present
+day.
+
+When about to build the Hôtel Pisani, Mme. de Rambouillet, having
+no love for architects, planned its construction without their
+assistance. She revolutionized the architecture of the time by
+introducing large and high doors and windows and putting the stairway
+to one side in order to secure a large suite of rooms. She was also
+the first to decorate a room in other colors than red or tan. The
+construction of her hôtel completely changed domestic architecture;
+and it may be noted that when the Luxembourg was to be built,
+the designers were instructed to examine, for ideas, the Hôtel de
+Rambouillet.
+
+Legouvé gives as the object and mission of Mme. de Rambouillet:
+"to combat the sensualism of Rabelais, Villon, and Marot, to reform
+society through love by reforming love through chastity; to place
+women at the head of civilization, by beginning a crusade against vice
+in the disguise of sentiment. The word 'fame' must, in the seventeenth
+century, apply to both man and woman, meaning honor for the one and
+purity for the other. Her ideal falls with the accession of Louis
+XIV.; the dazzling luxury of royalty hardly conceals, under its
+exterior elegance, the profound and deep-seated grossness of
+Versailles and Marly."
+
+To Mme. de Rambouillet, then, belongs the distinction of having
+been the first to bring together men of letters and great lords on
+a footing of social equality and for mutual benefit. Her salon
+and friends continued in the seventeenth century what Marguerite
+d'Angoulême had begun in the first part of the sixteenth—an
+intellectual, social, and moral reform.
+
+Many salons which were all more or less patterned after that of
+Rambouillet sprang into existence. Among these the Academy of the
+Vicomtesse d'Auchy, with Malherbe as president and tyrant, was of
+little influence as far as women were concerned. The members were all
+of second-rate importance, and Malherbe tolerated only the discussion
+of his verses, while Mme. d'Auchy was better known for her splendid
+neck than for any intellectuality. Every salon had a master of
+ceremonies, who performed the rite of presentation; these men were
+frequently abbés, and some of them, such as Du Buisson and Testu,
+became famous.
+
+Among the most noted of these salons was that of the celebrated
+beauty, Ninon de Lenclos, she who called the _précieuses_ the
+"Jansenists of love," an expression which became very popular. Her
+salon was situated on the Rue des Tournelles. Ninon de Lenclos was a
+woman of the most brilliant mind and exquisite taste, and it was at
+her hôtel that Molière first read his _Tartuffe_ before Condé, La
+Fontaine, Boileau, Lulli, Racine, and Chapelle, and it was there that
+he received the principal ideas for his drama.
+
+Ninon became famous for making staunch friends of her former lovers,
+in which connection some interesting tales are told. She was the
+mother of two children; upon the arrival of the first, a heated
+discussion arose between Count d'Estrées and Abbé d'Effiat, both
+claiming the honor of paternity. When the mother was consulted, she
+made no attempt to conceal her amusement; finally, the rivals threw
+dice for "father or not father."
+
+The other child, whose father was the Marquis de Gersay, was the
+victim of an unnatural passion for his mother with whom, when a young
+man, he fell desperately in love, being ignorant of their relation.
+While pleading his cause, he learned from her lips the secret, and, in
+despair, blew out his brains, a tragedy which apparently had no effect
+upon the mother. At one time, at the request of the clergy Ninon was
+sent, for impiety, to the convent of the Benedictines at Lagny.
+
+Among her friends she counted the greatest men and women of the day
+and her salon was the foyer of _savoir-vivre_, of letters and art. At
+the age of sixty she met the Great Condé, who dismounted to greet
+her, something that he very seldom did, as he was not in the habit
+of paying compliments to women. The saying: _Elle eut l'estime de
+Lenclos_ [she had the esteem of Lenclos] became a popular manner of
+expressing the fact that a certain woman was especially esteemed. Even
+to the last (she died at the age of eighty-five), Ninon preserved
+her grace, beauty, and intelligence. Colombey calls her _La mère
+spirituelle de Voltaire_ [the spiritual mother of Voltaire].
+
+The generality of women had their lovers; even the famous Mlle. de
+Scudéry, in spite of her homeliness—she was a dark, large-boned,
+and lean sort of old maid—had admirers galore; among the latter
+was Pellisson who was said to be so ugly "that he really abused the
+privilege—which man enjoys—of being homely."
+
+The hôtel of the famous poet Scarron—Hôtel de
+l'Impécuniosité—received almost all the frequenters of Ninon's salon.
+At the former place there were no restrictions as to the manner of
+enjoyment; after elevating and edifying conversation at the salon
+of Ninon, the members would repair to that of Scarron for a feast of
+_broutilles rabelaisiennes_ [Rabelaisian tidbits].
+
+The salon of Mme. de Montbazon had its frequenters who, however, were
+attracted mainly by her beauty; she was, to use the words of one of
+her friends, "One of those beauties that delight the eye and provoke
+a vigorous appetite." Her salon was one of suitors rather than of
+intellectuality or harmless sociability.
+
+The most famous of the men's salons was the Temple, constructed in
+1667 by Jacques de Souvré and conducted from 1681 to 1720 by Phillipe
+de Vendôme and his intendant, Abbé de Chaulieu. These reunions,
+especially under the latter, were veritable midnight _convivia_; he
+himself boasted of never having gone to bed one night in thirty years
+without having been carried there dead drunk, a custom to which he
+remained "faithful unto death." His boon companion was La Duchesse
+de Bouillon. Most of his frequenters were jolly good persons, utterly
+destitute of the sense of sufficiency in matters of carousing; the
+better people declined his invitations.
+
+After that of Mme. de Rambouillet, there were, in the seventeenth
+century, but two great salons that exerted a lasting influence and
+that were not saturated with the decadent _préciosité_. Of these
+the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry has been called the salon of the
+_bourgeoisie_, because the majority of its frequenters belonged to the
+third estate, which was rapidly acquiring power and influence.
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry, who was born in 1608 and lived through the whole
+century, saw society develop, and therefore knew it better than did
+any of her contemporaries. Having lost her parents early in life, her
+uncle reared her and she received advantages such as fell to the lot
+of few women of her condition; she was given an excellent education in
+literature, art, and the languages.
+
+Until the marriage of her brother, she was his constant and devoted
+companion, exiling herself to Marseilles when he was appointed
+governor of Notre Dame de La Garde, and returning to Paris with him
+in 1647. She first collaborated with him in a literary production of
+about eighty volumes. In their works, the brother furnished the rough
+draft, the dramatic episodes, adventures, and the Romanesque part,
+while she added the literary finish through charming character
+sketches, conversation, sentimental analyses, and letters. With a
+strong inclination toward society, and constantly fulfilling its
+obligations, she would from day to day write up her conversations of
+the evening before.
+
+An interesting anecdote is told in connection with the travels and
+coöperation of Mlle. de Scudéry and her brother; once, on the way to
+Paris, while stopping over night at Lyons, they were discussing the
+fate of one of their heroes, one proposing death and the other rescue,
+one poison and the other a more cruel death; a gentleman from Auvergne
+happened to overhear them and immediately notified the people of the
+inn, thinking it was a question of assassinating the king; the brother
+and sister were thrown into prison and only with great difficulty
+were they able to explain matters the next morning. From this incident
+Scribe drew the material for his drama, _L'Auberge ou les Brigands
+sans le Savoir_.
+
+At the Hôtel de Rambouillet where Mlle. de Scudéry was received early,
+she won everyone by her modesty, simplicity, _esprit_, and lovable
+disposition, and, in spite of her homeliness and poor figure, she
+attracted many platonic lovers. She was one of the few brilliant
+and famous women of the seventeenth century whose popularity was due
+solely to admirable qualities of mind and soul. With her, friendship
+became a cult, and it was in time of trouble that her friends received
+the strongest proof of her affection. She preferred to incur disgrace
+and the disfavor of Mazarin rather than forsake Condé and Madame de
+Longueville; to them she dedicated the ten volumes, successively,
+of her novel, _Cyrus_; the last volume was published after Mme. de
+Longueville's retirement and partial disgrace.
+
+After the brilliant society of the Hôtel de Rambouillet had been
+broken up by the marriage of Julie and the operations of the Fronde,
+and after her brother's marriage in 1654, Mlle. de Scudéry became
+independent and established the custom of receiving her friends on
+Saturday; these receptions became famous under the name of _Samedi_,
+and besides the regular rather bourgeois gathering, the most brilliant
+talent and highest nobility flocked to them, regardless of rank or
+station, wealth or influence. Pellisson, the great master, the prince,
+the Apollo of her Saturdays, was a man of wonderfully inventive
+genius, and possessed in a higher degree than any of his
+contemporaries the art of inventing surprises for the society that
+lived on novelty. When, on account of his devotion to Fouquet, he
+was imprisoned in the Bastille, Mlle. de Scudéry managed to persuade
+Colbert to brighten his confinement by permitting him to see friends
+and relatives. Part of every day she spent in his prison, conversing
+and reading; and this is but one instance of her fidelity and
+friendship.
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry, considering all men as aspirants for authority
+who, when husbands, degenerate into tyrants, preferred to retain
+her independence. Her ideas on love were very peculiar and were
+innovations at the time: she wished to be loved, but her love must be
+friendship—a pure, platonic love, in which her lover must be her all,
+her confidant, the participator in her sorrows and her conversation;
+and his happiness must be in her alone; he must, without feeling
+passion, love her for herself, and she must have the same feeling
+toward him. These sentiments are expressed in her novels, from which
+the following extracts are taken:
+
+"When friendship becomes love in the heart of a lover or when this
+love is mingled with friendship without destroying it, there is
+nothing so sweet as this kind of love; for as violent as it is, it is
+always held somewhat more in check than is ordinary love; it is more
+durable, more tender, more respectful, and even more ardent, although
+it is not subject to so many tumultuous caprices as is that love which
+arises without friendship. It can be said that love and friendship
+flow together like two streams, the more celebrated of which obscures
+the name of the other." ... "They agreed on even the conditions of
+their love; for Phaon solemnly promised Sapho (Mlle. de Scudéry)—who
+desired it thus—not to ask of her anything more than the possession
+of her heart, and she, also, promised him to receive only him in hers.
+They told each other all their thoughts, they understood them even
+without confessing them. Peace, however, was not so completely
+established that their affection could not become languishing or cool;
+for, although they loved each other as much as one can love, they at
+times complained of not being loved enough, and they had sufficient
+little difficulties to always leave something new to wish for; but
+they never had any troubles that were serious enough to essentially
+disturb their repose."
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry was mistress of the art of conversation, speaking
+without affectation and equally well on all affairs, serious, light,
+or gallant; she objected, however, to being called a _savante_, and
+she was far from resembling the false _précieuses_ to whom she was
+likened by her enemies. The occupations of her salon were somewhat
+different from those of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet. M. du Bled
+describes them as follows:
+
+"What they did in the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry you can guess readily:
+they amused themselves as at Mme. de Rambouillet's, they joked quite
+cheerfully, smiled and laughed, wrote farces in prose and
+poetry. There were readings, _loteries d'esprit_, sonnet-enigmas,
+_bouts-rimés_ (rhymes given to be formed into verse), _vers-échos_,
+fine literary joustings, discussions between the casuists. This salon
+had its talkers and speakers, those who tyrannized over the audience
+and those who charmed it, those who shot off fireworks and those who
+prepared them, those who had made a symphony of conversation and those
+who made of it a monologue and had no flashes of silence. They did not
+follow fashion there—they rather made it; in art and literature as
+in toilets, smallness follows the fashion, pretension exaggerates it,
+taste makes a compact with it."
+
+A specimen of the _énigme-sonnets_ may be of interest, to show in what
+intellectual playfulness and trivialities these wits indulged:
+
+  "Souvent, quoique léger, je lasse qui me porte.
+  Un mot de ma façon vaut un ample discours.
+  J'ai sous Louis le Grand commencé d'avoir cours,
+  Mince, long, plat, étroit, d'une étoffe peu forte.
+
+  "Les doigts les moins savants me taillent de la sorte;
+  Sous mille noms divers je parais tous les jours;
+  Aux valets étourdis je suis d'un grand secours.
+  Le Louvre ne voit point ma figure à sa porte.
+
+  "Une grossière main vient la plupart du temps
+  Me prendre de la main des plus honnêtes gens.
+  Civil, officieux, je suis né pour la ville.
+
+  "Dans le plus rude hiver j'ai le dos toujours nu:
+  Et, quoique fort commode, à peine m'a-t-on vu,
+  Qu'ausitôt négligé, je deviens inutile."
+
+[Often, although light, I weary the person who carries me. A word in
+my manner is worth a whole discourse. I began under Louis the Great to
+be in vogue,—slight, long, flat, narrow, of a very slight material.
+
+The most unskilled fingers cut me in their way; under a thousand
+different forms I appear every day; I am a great aid to the astonished
+valets. The Louvre does not see my face at its door.
+
+A coarse hand most of the time receives me from the hand of the nicest
+people. Civil, officious, I am born for the city.
+
+In the coldest weather, my back is always bare; and, although quite
+convenient, scarcely have they seen me, when I am neglected and
+useless.—Visiting card.]
+
+A more interesting one and one that caused no little amusement is the
+following:
+
+  "Je suis niais et fin, honnête et malhonnête,
+  Moins sincère à la cour qu'en un simple taudis.
+  Je fais d'un air plaisant trembler les plus hardis,
+  Le fort me laisse aller, le sage m'arrête.
+
+  "A personne sans moi l'on ne fait jamais fête:
+  J'embellis quelquefois, quelquefois, j'enlaidis.
+  Je dédaigne tantôt, tantôt j'applaudis;
+  Pour m'avoir en partage, il faut n'être pas bête.
+
+  "Plus mon trône est petit, plus il a de beauté.
+  Je l'agrandis pourtant d'un et d'autre côté,
+  Faisant voir bien souvent des défauts dont on jase.
+
+  "Je quitte mon éclat quand je suis sans témoins,
+  Et je me puis vanter enfin d'être la chose
+  Qui contente le plus et qui coûte le moins."
+
+[I am both stupid and bright, honest and dishonest; less sincere at
+court than in a simple hovel; with a pleasant air, I make the boldest
+tremble, the strong let me pass, the wise stop me.
+
+There is no joy to anyone without me; I embellish at times, at times I
+distort; I disdain and I applaud; to share me, one must not be stupid.
+
+The smaller my throne, the greater my beauty; I enlarge it, however,
+on both sides, often showing defects which are made sport of.
+
+I leave my brilliancy when I am without witness, and I can boast
+of being the thing which contents the most and costs the least.—A
+smile.]
+
+Critics often reproach Mlle. de Scudéry for having portrayed
+herself—as Sapho—in a flattering light in her novel _Cyrus_; but it
+must be remembered that at that time this was a common custom, women
+of the highest quality indulging in such pastimes, there even being a
+prominent salon where verbal portraiture was the sole occupation. No
+one has written more or better on the condition of woman, for she,
+above all, had the experience upon which to base her writings. The
+idea of woman's education and aim, which was generally entertained by
+the intelligent and modest women of the seventeenth century, is well
+expressed by Mlle. de Scudéry in the following:
+
+"The difficulty of knowing something with seemliness does not come to
+a woman so much from what she knows as from what others do not know;
+and it is, without doubt, singularity that makes it difficult to be as
+others are not, without being exposed to blame. Seriously, is not the
+ordinary idea of the education of women a peculiar one? They are not
+to be coquettes nor gallants, and yet they are carefully taught all
+that is peculiar to gallantry without being permitted to know anything
+that can strengthen their virtue or occupy their minds. Don't imagine,
+however, that I do not wish woman to be elegant, to dance or to sing;
+but I should like to see as much care devoted to her mind as to her
+body, and between being ignorant and _savante_ I should like to see
+a road taken which would prevent annoyance from an impertinent
+sufficiency or from a tiresome stupidity. I should like very much to
+be able to say of anyone of my sex that she knows a hundred things of
+which she does not boast, that she has a well-balanced mind, that she
+speaks well, writes correctly, and knows the world; but I do not wish
+it to be said of her that she is a _femme savante_. The best women of
+the world when they are together in a large number rarely say anything
+that is worth anything and are more ennuyé than if they were alone; on
+the contrary, there is something that I cannot express, which makes it
+possible for men to enliven and divert a company of ladies more than
+the most amiable woman on earth could do."
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry considered marriage a long slavery and preferred
+virtuous celibacy enlivened by platonic gallantry. When youth and
+adorers had passed away, she found consolation in interchanges of
+wit, congenial conversation, and the cultivation of the mind by study.
+Making of love a doctrine, a manual of morals or _savoir-vivre_, has
+had a refining effect upon civilization; but the process has rendered
+the emotion itself too subtle, select, narrow, enervating, and
+exhausting; it has resulted in the production of splendid books
+with heroes and heroines of the higher type, and has purified the
+atmosphere of social life; this phase of its influence, however,
+is felt by only a set of the élite, and its adherents are scattered
+through every age and every country. Mlle. de Scudéry was a perfect
+representative of that type, but healthy and normal rather than
+morbidly æsthetic.
+
+An opposition party soon arose, formed by those, especially, who
+entertained different ideas of the sphere and duties of woman. Just
+as the type of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet degenerated among the
+aristocracy into those of the Hôtel de Condé, Mme. de Sablé, and Mlle.
+de Luxembourg, so the type of the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry gave rise
+to a number of literary salons among the _bourgeoisie_. The aim of
+the latter institutions was to imitate her example in endeavoring to
+spread the taste for courtesy, elegant manners and the higher forms
+of learning; all these aspirations, however, drifted into mere
+affectation, while the requisites of welcome at the original salon
+were simplicity, freedom from affectation, delicacy, amiability, and
+dignity.
+
+As a writer, Mlle. de Scudéry occupies no mean position in the history
+of French literature of the seventeenth century. Her descriptions
+and anecdotes possess a wonderful charm and display unusual power of
+analysis; in them, Victor Cousin recognizes a truly virile spirit. In
+the history of the French novel, she forms a transition period, her
+productions having both a psychological interest and a historical
+value of a very high degree. Through her finesse and marvellous
+feminine penetration, her truthful, delicate and fine portraitures,
+which were widely imitated later, she has exerted an extensive
+influence.
+
+With Mlle. de Scudéry "we have substance, real character painting,
+true psychological penetration, and realism in observation," while
+previously the novel, under such men as Gomberville and La Calprenède,
+was imaginative and full of fancy. Her talent, then, in that field,
+lay in the analysis and development of sentiments, in delineation of
+character, in the creation and reproduction of refined and ingenious
+conversations, and in her reflections on subjects pertaining to
+morality and literature—in all of which she displayed justness and
+entire liberty and independence of thought. Her poetry, delicate
+compliment or innocent gallantries, was a mere bagatelle of the salon.
+
+Charming as well as accomplished, Mlle. de Scudéry was as intelligent,
+witty, and intellectual a woman as could be found in the seventeenth
+century; and in the history of that period she retains an undisputed
+position as one of its great leaders of thought and progress. Her
+salon, inasmuch as the salon of Mme. de Lambert was not opened until
+1710, and therefore the discussion of it belongs properly to the
+beginning of the eighteenth century, really closes the literary
+progress of the seventeenth century.
+
+The influence of the seventeenth century salon was of a threefold
+nature—literary, moral, and social. According to the salon
+conception, artistic, literary, or musical pleasure being derived
+from form and mode of expression, it possessed a special and unique
+interest in proportion to the efforts made and the difficulties
+surmounted in attaining that form and expression: thus, woman
+introduced a new standard of excellence.
+
+_Préciosité_ treated language not as a work of art, but as a medium
+for the display of individual linguistic dexterity; giving no thing
+its proper name, it delighted in paraphrase, allusion, word play,
+unexpected comparisons and abundance of metaphors, and revelled in
+the elusive, delicate, subtle, and complex. Hence conversation turned
+constantly to love and gallantry; thus woman developed to a wonderful
+degree, unattainable to but few, the art of conversation, politeness
+and courtesy of manners, and social relations, at the same time
+purifying language and enriching it.
+
+French women of the seventeenth century are condemned for having
+treated serious things too lightly; and it is said that "in confining
+the French mind to the observation of society and its attractions, she
+has restricted and retarded a more realistic and larger activity."
+In answer to this it may be asserted that the French mind was not
+prepared for a broader field until it had passed through the process
+of expurgating, refining, drilling, and disciplining. If _préciosité_
+influenced politics, it was by developing diplomacy, for, from
+the time that this spirit began to spread, French diplomacy became
+world-renowned.
+
+The social influence of the movement may be better appreciated
+by considering the condition of woman in earlier periods. Having
+practically no position except that of housewife or mother, she was
+merely a source of pleasure for man, for whom she had little or no
+respect. The _précieuses_, on the contrary, exacted respect, honor,
+and a place beside man, as rights that belonged to them.
+
+As the outcome of their desire to think, feel, and act with greater
+delicacy, women introduced propriety in expression, finesse in
+analysis, keenness of _esprit_, psychological subtleness: qualities
+that surely tended to higher standards of morality, purer social
+relations, finer and more subtle diplomacy, more elegance and
+precision in literature. Therefore, _préciosité_ in France had a
+wholesome influence, which was possible because woman had won for
+herself her rightful position, and her aspirations were toward social
+and moral elevation.
+
+In general, the women of France have always been conscious of their
+duty, their importance, and their limitations, appreciating their
+power and cultivating the characteristics that attract man and retain
+his respect and attention: sociability, morality, _esprit_, artistic
+appreciation, sensitiveness, tact. These qualities became manifest to
+a remarkable degree in French women of the seventeenth century, and
+created in every writer, great or unimportant, the desire to win their
+favor. Thus, Corneille strove to write dramas with which he might
+establish the reign of decency on a stage the liberties of which
+had previously made the theatre inaccessible to woman; hence, his
+characters of humanity (Cid) and politeness (Menteur).
+
+The purpose of the French Academy itself was not different from that
+of the _précieuses_. Richelieu, realizing that every great talent
+accepted the discipline of these women, sought to use this power for
+his own ends by interesting the world of letters in the accomplishment
+of his plans for a general political unity. Thus, when the first
+period of _préciosité_ had reached its highest point and was beginning
+to decline, and other smaller and envious social groups were forming
+about Paris and causing a conflict of ideas, Richelieu conceived
+the scheme of joining all in a union, with strong ideals and with a
+language as dignified as the Latin and the Greek. The result was the
+formation of the French Academy. From this time begins the decline
+of the authority of woman; for while she still exerted a powerful
+influence, it was no longer absolute. After the decline of the Hôtel
+de Rambouillet, feminine influence became more general, expending
+itself in petty rivalries, gossip, intrigues, and partaking of the
+nature of that court life which was filled by the young king with
+parties, feasts, collations, walks, carousals, boating, concerts,
+ballets, and masquerades—a mode of living that gave rise to a new
+standard of politeness, which was freer and looser than that of
+_préciosité_.
+
+As the power of the young king became stronger, his favor became
+the goal of all men of letters. Although woman still to some extent
+controlled the destinies of those who were struggling for recognition
+and reputation, her influence was of a secondary nature, that of the
+king being supreme. Woman seemed to be overcoming the influence of
+woman—Mme. de Montespan replaced Mlle. de La Vallière, and she was in
+turn replaced by Mme. de Maintenon.
+
+The degeneration of the king was accompanied by that of literature,
+society, and morals. The characteristic inclination of the day was
+eagerly to seek and grasp that which was new, and the noble, forceful,
+and dignified style of language of the previous period was replaced
+by one of much lighter description; many female writers directed their
+efforts entirely toward amusing, pleasing, and gaining applause.
+
+In the beginning of the eighteenth century, with Mme. de Lambert as
+its leader, there was a renascence of the _préciosité_ of the Hôtel
+de Rambouillet, women protesting against the prevalent grossness
+and indecency of manners. The salon of Mme. de Lambert was the great
+antechamber to the Academy, election to which was generally gained
+through her. A new aristocracy was forming, a new society arose;
+from about 1720 to 1750, libertinism and atheism, licentiousness and
+intrigue, crept into the salons.
+
+The new aristocracy was of doubtful and impure source, cynical in
+manner, unbridled in habits, over-fastidious in taste, and politically
+powerful. In this society woman began to be felt as a political force.
+M. Brunetière said: "Mme. de Lambert made Academicians; the Marquise
+de Prie made a queen of France; Mme. de Tencin made cardinals and
+ambassadors." Montesquieu wrote: "There is not a person who has any
+employment at the court in Paris or in the provinces, who has not
+the influence (and sometimes the injustices which she can cause) of
+a woman through whom all favors pass;" and M. Brunetière added: "This
+woman is not his wife." The popular spirit in literature was one of
+subtleness, irony, superficial observations on manners and customs.
+From the beginning of the eighteenth century up to the eve of
+the Revolution, woman's influence continued to increase, but that
+influence was mainly in the direction of politics. Thus, in every
+period in French history, a group of women effectively moulds French
+thought and language, and directs intellectual activity in general.
+
+After the death of Louis XIV., society passed under the rule of the
+regent, the Duke of Orléans—the personification of gallantry and
+affability, of depravity which was a mania, and of licentiousness
+which was a disease. From this atmosphere the salon of Mme. de Lambert
+became a refuge to those who still cherished the ideals of the good
+old times of Mme. de Rambouillet; it was distinguished by its
+refined sentiment and polished manners, which were like those of the
+seventeenth century at its best.
+
+Mme. de Lambert believed that the demands of the time were just the
+opposite of those of the seventeenth century: "What a multitude of
+tastes nowadays—the table, play, theatre! When money and luxury are
+supreme, true honor loses its power. Persons seek only those houses
+where shameful luxury reigns." In her own salon, none might enter who
+were not of the small number of the elect.
+
+Very little is known of the life of Mme. de Lambert. She was born in
+1647, and, in spite of the unfavorable surroundings of her youth and
+of a dissolute, extravagant, and unrefined mother, the observance of
+decorum and honor became the actuating principle of her life. Until
+her marriage (in 1666) to Henri de Lambert, Marquis de Bris en
+Auxerrois, she was in the midst of the grossest licentiousness and
+freedom of manners; when married, she entered a family the very
+opposite of her own.
+
+She was a woman who believed in the power of ambitious energy. To her
+son she once said: "Nothing is less becoming to a young man than a
+certain modesty that makes him believe that he is not capable of great
+things. This modesty is a languor of the soul, which prevents it from
+soaring and rapidly carrying itself to glory."
+
+At first she lived in the Hôtel de Lambert (in the Ile Saint-Louis),
+renowned for its splendidly sculptured decorations, painted ceilings,
+panels, and staircases. Her famous Salon des Muses and Cabinet
+d'Amours were filled with the finest works of art and the most
+exquisite paintings. There the élite of all classes were entertained
+until the death of her husband (1686), when the hôtel was closed; it
+was not reopened until 1710.
+
+Though left with immense wealth, her affairs were in a very
+complicated state. While actively employed in untangling her
+difficulties, she at the same time superintended the education of her
+son and daughter. After long and trying lawsuits, she managed to put
+her fortune in order and established herself at Paris, where the Duc
+de Nevers ceded to her, for life, a large portion of the magnificently
+furnished Palais Mazarin, now the National Library. On the completion
+of her work in remodelling this palace and furnishing it with the most
+costly and beautiful panel paintings by Watteau and other artists, she
+inaugurated her Tuesday and Wednesday dinner parties.
+
+One remarkable characteristic of her company was the age of her
+intimate associates—the Marquis de Saint-Aulaire, Fontenelle, Mme.
+Dacier, and her husband, Louis de Sacy, all of whom, as well as Mme.
+de Lambert herself, had passed threescore and more; but they still
+kept alive the cherished memories of the brilliant society of their
+youth. Mme. de Lambert did not personally know Mme. de Rambouillet,
+but she visited the latter's daughter, Julie d'Angennes, from whom
+she learned the customs and etiquette in vogue at the Hôtel de
+Rambouillet.
+
+The Wednesday dinners of Mme. de Lambert were to her intimate friends,
+while every Tuesday afternoon she received a general circle which
+indulged in general conversation and read and discussed books which
+were about to be published; gambling, which seemed to be the principal
+means of entertaining in those days, had no place there. Fontenelle
+says: "It was, with very few exceptions, the only house which had been
+preserved from the epidemic of gambling—the only house where persons
+congregated simply for the sake of talking sensibly and with _esprit_.
+Those who had their reasons for considering it bad taste that
+conversation was still carried on in any place, cast mean reflections,
+whenever they could, against the house of Mme. de Lambert." In the
+evening, she received only a few select friends with whom she talked
+seriously. Her salon soon became the envy of those who were not
+admitted (and they were numerous), and was the object of many
+calumnies and attacks.
+
+During this time she found leisure to write two treatises of practical
+morality, _Avis d'une mère à son fils_, and _Avis d'une mère à sa
+fille_, which appeared without her permission. The manuscripts, lent
+to friends, fell into the hands of a publisher; and although the
+authoress endeavored to prevent the distribution of the works by
+buying up the entire editions, they were published outside of France.
+The two works written to her children form an important contribution
+to the educational literature of the time; in them the religion of the
+eighteenth century is first defined.
+
+"Above all these duties—civil and human (says the mother to her
+son)—is the duty you owe to the Supreme Being. Religion is a commerce
+established between God and man through the grace of God to man and
+through the duty of man to God. Elevated souls have for their God
+sentiments and a cult apart, which do not resemble at all those of the
+people; everything issues from the heart and goes to God."
+
+In these works, she attacked also the fad of free-thinking in vogue
+among the young men of the time. She was one of the few women of that
+age who could not separate themselves from reason and thought, even in
+religion; the latter was a matter for the reason and the intellect to
+decide, and was thus an elevated product of the mind rather than an
+instinct coming from the heart, or a positive revelation as it was in
+the seventeenth century. In this view, Madame de Lambert indicated the
+beginning of the later eighteenth-century spirit.
+
+Mme. de Lambert taught her children to be satisfied with nothing
+but the highest attainable object. She advised her son to choose his
+friends from among men above him, in order to accustom himself to
+respectful and polite demeanor; "with his equals he might cultivate
+negligence and his mind might become dull." She desired her children
+to think differently from the people—"Those who think lowly and
+commonly, and the court is filled with such." To their servants they
+were to be good and kind, for humanity and Christianity make
+all equal. She was the first to use those words, "humanity" and
+"equality," which later became the bywords of everyone, and the first
+to teach that conscience is the best guide. "Conscience is defined as
+that interior sentiment of a delicate honor which assures you that you
+have nothing with which to reproach yourself."
+
+Possibly the most important and lasting effect of Mme. de Lambert's
+influence resulted from the expression of her ideas on the education
+of young women who "are destined to please, and are given lessons
+only in methods of delighting and pleasing." She was convinced that in
+order to resist temptation and be normal, women must be educated, must
+learn to think. Her counsels to her daughter are remarkable for an
+unusual insight into the temperament of her sex and for an extreme
+fear that makes her call to her aid all precautions and resources. She
+thus advises her daughter:
+
+"Try to find resources within yourself—this is a revenue of certain
+pleasures. Do not believe that your only virtue is modesty; there are
+many women who know no other virtue, and who imagine that it relieves
+them of all duties toward society; they believe they are right in
+lacking all others and think themselves privileged to be proud and
+slanderous with impunity. You must have a gentle modesty; a good
+woman may have the advantages of a man's friendship without abandoning
+honesty and faithfulness to her duties. Nothing is so difficult as to
+please without the use of what seems like coquettishness. It is more
+often by their defects than by their good qualities that women please
+men; men seek to profit by the weaknesses of good and kind women,
+for whose virtues they care nothing, and they prefer to be amused by
+persons not very estimable than to be forced merely to admire virtuous
+persons."
+
+This is a most faithful description of the society of her time, and
+it was because her treatises struck home that they were severely
+criticised; but, nothing daunted, she carried out her plans in her own
+way, resorting neither to intrigue nor artifice. Many of her sayings
+became household maxims, such as—"It is not always faults that undo
+us; it is the manner of conducting ourselves after having committed
+them."
+
+Her reflections on women might be called the great plea, at the end
+of the seventeenth century, for woman's right to use her reason. After
+the severe and cruel satire of Molière, attacking women for their
+innocent amusements, they gave themselves up entirely to pleasure.
+"Mme. de Lambert now wrote to avenge her sex and demand for it the
+honest and strong use of the mind; and this was done in the midst of
+the wild orgies of the Regency."
+
+Mme. de Lambert was not a rare beauty, but she possessed recompensing
+charms. M. Colombey asserts that she became convinced of two things,
+about which she became highly enthusiastic: first, that woman was more
+reasonable than man; secondly, that M. Fontenelle, who presided over
+or filled the functions of president of her salon, was always in the
+right. He was indeed in harmony with the tone of the salon, being
+considered the most polished, brilliant, and distinguished member of
+the intellectual society of Paris, as well as one of the most talented
+drawing room philosophers. He made the salon of Mme. de Lambert the
+most sought for and celebrated, the most intellectual and moral of the
+period.
+
+Mme. de Lambert has, possibly, exercised more influence upon men—and
+especially upon the Forty Immortals of her time—than did any woman
+before or after her. The Marquis d'Argenson states that "a person was
+seldom received at the Academy unless first presented at her salon. It
+is certain that she made at least half of our actual Academicians."
+
+Her salon was called a _bureau d'esprit_, which was due to the fact
+that it was about the only social gathering point where culture and
+morality were the primary requisites. As she advanced in years, she
+became even more influential. After her death in 1733, her salon
+ceased to exist, but others, patterned after hers, soon sprang up; to
+those, her friends attached themselves—Fontenelle frequented several,
+Hénault became the leader of that of Mme. du Deffand.
+
+The finest résumé that can be given of Mme. de Lambert, is found in
+the letters of the Marquis d'Argenson: "Her works contain a complete
+course in the most perfect morals for the use of the world and the
+present time. Some affectation of the _préciosité_ is found; but, what
+beautiful thoughts, what delicate sentiments! How well she speaks
+of the duties of women, of friendship, of old age, of the difference
+between actual character and reputation!"
+
+The salon of Mme. de Lambert forms a period of transition from the
+seventeenth century type in which elegance, politeness, courtesy, and
+morality were the first requisites, to the eighteenth century salon in
+which _esprit_ and wit were the essentials demanded. It retained the
+dignity, discipline, refinement, and sentiments of morality of
+the Hôtel de Rambouillet; it showed, also, the first signs of
+pure intellectuality. The salons to follow, will exhibit decidedly
+different characteristics.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter V
+
+Mistresses and Wives of Louis XIV
+
+
+The story of the wives and mistresses of Louis XIV., embraces that
+which is most dramatic morally (or immorally dramatic) in the history
+of French women. The record of the eighteenth century heroines is
+essentially a tragic one, while that of those of the previous century
+is essentially dramatic in its sadness, remorse, and repentance.
+
+The mistress, as a rule, was unhappy; there were few months during the
+period of her glory, in which she was entirely free from anxiety or in
+which her conscience was at rest. Mme. de Montespan "was for so many
+years the sick nurse of a soul worn out with pride, passion, and
+glory." Mme. de Maintenon wrote to one of her friends: "Why cannot
+I give you my experience? Why cannot I make you comprehend the ennui
+which devours the great, and the troubles that fill their days? Do you
+not see that I am dying of sadness, in a fortune the vastness of which
+could not be easily imagined? I have been young and pretty; I have
+enjoyed pleasures; I have spent years in intellectual intercourse;
+I have attained favor; and I protest to you, my dear child, that
+all such conditions leave a frightful void." She said, also, to her
+brother, Count d'Aubigné: "I can hold out no longer; I would like
+to be dead." It was she too, who, after her successes, made
+her confession thus: "One atones heavily for the pleasures and
+intoxications of youth. I find, in looking back at my life, that since
+the age of twenty-two—which was the beginning of my fortune—I
+have not had a moment free from sufferings which have constantly
+increased."
+
+M. Saint-Amand gives a description of the women of Louis XV. which
+well applies to those of his predecessor: "These pretended mistresses,
+who, in reality, are only slaves, seem to present themselves,
+one after the other, like humble penitents who come to make their
+apologies to history, and, like the primitive Christians, to reveal
+publicly the miseries, vexations, and remorses of their souls. They
+tell us to what their doleful successes amounted: even while their
+triumphal chariot made its way through a crowd of flatterers, their
+consciences hissed cruel accusations into their ears; like actresses
+before a whimsical and variable public, they were always afraid that
+the applause might change into an uproar, and it was with terror
+underlying their apparent coolness that they continued to play their
+sorry part.... If among these mistresses of the king there were a
+single one who had enjoyed her shameful triumphs in peace, who had
+called herself happy in the midst of her dearly bought luxury and
+splendor, one might have concluded that, from a merely human point of
+view, it is possible to find happiness in vice. But, no—there is not
+even one!" Massillon, the great preacher of truth and morality,
+said: "The worm of conscience is not dead; it is only benumbed. The
+alienated reason presently returns, bringing with it bitter troubles,
+gloomy thoughts, and cruel anxieties"—a true picture of every
+mistress.
+
+The remarkable power and influence of these women, the love and
+adoration accorded them, ceased with their death; the memory of them
+did not survive overnight. When, during a terrible storm, the remains
+of the glorious Mme. de Pompadour were being taken to Paris, the king,
+seeing the funeral cortége from his window, remarked: "The Marquise
+will not have fine weather for her journey."
+
+Each one of these powerful mistresses represents a complete epoch of
+society, morals, and customs. Mme. de Montespan—that woman whose
+very look meant fortune or disfavor—with all her wit and wealth, her
+magnificence and pomp and superb beauty—she, in all her splendor, is
+a type of the triumphant France, haughty, dictatorial, scornful
+and proud, licentious and decayed at the core. Voluptuousness and
+haughtiness were replaced by religiosity and repentance in Mme. de
+Maintenon, with her temperate character, consistency, and propriety.
+
+The Regency was a period of scandal and wantonness, personified in the
+Duchess of Berry. The licentious and extravagant, yet brilliant and
+exquisite, frivolous but charming, intriguing and diplomatic, was
+represented by the talented and politically influential Mme. de
+Pompadour. Complete degeneracy, vice with all manner of disguise
+thrown off, adultery of the lowest order, were personified in the
+common Mme. du Barry, who might be classed with Louise of Savoy of
+the sixteenth century, while Mme. de Pompadour might be compared with
+Diana of Poitiers.
+
+In this period the queens of France were of little importance, being
+too timid and modest to assert their rights—a disposition which was
+due sometimes to their restricted youth, spent in Catholic countries,
+sometimes to a naturally unassuming and sensitive nature. To this rule
+Maria Theresa, the wife of Louis XIV., was no exception. She inherited
+her sweetness of disposition and her Christian character from her
+mother, Isabella of France, the daughter of Henry IV. and Marie de'
+Medici. She was pure and candid; a type of irreproachable piety and
+goodness, of conjugal tenderness and maternal love; and recompensed
+outraged morality for all the false pride, selfish ambition,
+depravity, and scandals of court. She is conspicuous as a model wife,
+one that loved her husband, her family, and her children.
+
+Around Maria Theresa may be grouped the noble and virtuous women of
+the court of Louis XIV., for she was to that age what Claude of France
+was under Francis I., Elizabeth of Austria under Charles V., Louise de
+Vaudemont under Henry III. However, in extolling these women, it
+must be remembered that they had not, as queens, the opportunity to
+participate in debauchery, licentiousness, and intrigue, as had the
+mistresses of their husbands; they had no power, were not consulted on
+state or social affairs, and had granted to them only those favors to
+the conferring of which the mistresses did not object.
+
+Maria Theresa was a perfect example of the self-sacrificing mother and
+devoted wife. Her feelings toward the king are best expressed by the
+Princesse Palatine: "She had such an affection for the king that she
+tried to read in his eyes whatever would give him pleasure; providing
+he looked kindly at her, she was happy all day." Mme. de Caylus
+wrote: "That poor princess had such a dread of the king and such great
+natural timidity that she dared neither to speak to him nor to run the
+risk of a tête-à-tête with him. One day, I heard Mme. de Maintenon say
+that the king having sent for the queen, the latter requested her to
+go with her so that she might not appear alone in his presence: but
+that she (Mme. de Maintenon) conducted her only to the door of the
+room and there took the liberty of pushing her so as to make her
+enter, and that she observed such a great trembling in her whole
+person that her very hands shook with fright."
+
+From about 1680, especially after the death of Mlle. de Fontanges, his
+last mistress, Louis XIV. began to look with disfavor upon the women
+of doubtful morality and to advance those who were noted for their
+conjugal fidelity. He became more attentive to the queen—a change of
+attitude which was due partly to the influence of Mme. de Maintenon
+and partly to the fact that he was satiated with the excesses of his
+debauches, by which his physical system had been almost wrecked. He
+would not have dared to legitimatize his bastard children, had he not
+been so thoroughly idolized by his greatest heroes and most powerful
+ministers. As an illustration, it may be remarked that the Great Condé
+proposed the marriage of his son to the king's daughter by Mlle. de La
+Vallière.
+
+The queen became so religious that she derived more enjoyment from
+praying at the convents or visiting hospitals than from remaining
+at her magnificent apartments. She waited upon the sick with her own
+hands and carried food to them; she never meddled in political affairs
+or took much interest in social functions.
+
+Timidity, an instinctive shrinking from the slanders, calumnies,
+and intrigues of the court, appeared to be the most pronounced
+characteristic of queens who seemed to believe themselves too inferior
+to their husbands to dare to offer any political counsel. While none
+of them were superior intellectually, they possessed dignity, good
+sense, and tact, "a reverential feeling for the sanctity of religion
+and the majesty of the throne," an admirable resignation, a painful
+docility and submission—qualities which might have been turned to
+the advantage of their owners and the state, had the former been more
+self-assertive.
+
+The infidelities of their husbands caused the queen-consorts constant
+torture; they were forced to behold the kings' favorites becoming part
+of their own households and were compelled to endure the presence,
+as ladies in waiting, of those who, as their rivals, caused them to
+suffer all possible torments of jealousy and outraged conjugal love.
+
+First among the mistresses of Louis XIV. was Mlle. de La Vallière,
+whom Sainte-Beuve mentions as the personification of the ideal of
+a lover, combining disinterestedness, fidelity, unique and delicate
+tenderness with a touching and sincere kindness. When, at the age of
+seventeen, she was presented at court, the king immediately selected
+her as one of his victims. Her beauty was so striking, of such an
+exquisitely tender type, that no woman actually rivalled her as
+queen of beauty. Distinguished by blond hair, dark blue eyes, a most
+sympathetic voice, and a complexion of rare whiteness mingled
+with red, she was guileless, animated, gentle, modest, graceful,
+unaffected, and ingenuous; although slightly lame, she was, by
+everyone, considered charming.
+
+Mlle. de La Vallière was the mother of several children of whom Louis
+XIV. was the father. On realizing that she had rivals in the favor
+of the sovereign, she fled several times from the Tuileries to the
+convent; on her second return, the king, about to go to battle,
+recognized his daughter by her, whom he made a duchess. Remorse
+overcame the mistress so deeply that she, for the third and final
+time, left court. Especially on the rise to power of Mme. de Montespan
+was she painfully humiliated, suffering the most intense pangs of
+conscience. The evening before her final departure to the convent, she
+dined with Mme. de Montespan, to drink "the cup to the dregs and
+to enjoy the rejection of the world even to the last remains of its
+bitterness."
+
+Guizot describes this period most vividly: "When Mme. de Montespan
+began to supplant her in the king's favor, the grief of Mlle. de La
+Vallière was so great that she thought she would die of it. Then she
+turned to God, penitent and in despair; twice she sought refuge in
+a convent at Chaillot. On leaving, she sent word to the king: 'After
+having lost the honor of your good graces I would have left the court
+sooner, if I could have prevailed upon myself never to see you again;
+but that weakness was so strong in me that hardly now am I capable
+of sacrificing it to God. After having given you all my youth, the
+remainder of my life is not too much for the care of my salvation.'"
+The king still clung to her. "He sent M. Colbert to beg her earnestly
+to come to Versailles that he might speak with her. M. Colbert
+escorted her thither and the king conversed for an hour with her and
+wept bitterly. Mme. de Montespan was there to meet her, with open arms
+and tears in her eyes." "It is all incomprehensible," adds Mme. de
+Sévigné; "some say that she will remain at Versailles and at court,
+others that she will return to Chaillot; we shall see."
+
+Mlle. de La Vallière remained three years at court, "half penitent,"
+she said, humbly, detained by the king's express wish, in consequence
+of the tempers and jealousies of Mme. de Montespan who felt herself
+judged and condemned by her rival's repentance. Attempts were made to
+turn Mlle. de La Vallière from her inclination for the Carmelites':
+"Madame," said Mme. Scarron to her, one day, "here are you one
+blaze of gold; have you really considered that, before long, at the
+Carmelites' you will have to wear serge?" She, however, was not to
+be dissuaded from her determination and was already practising, in
+secret, the austerities of the convent. "God has laid in this heart
+the foundation of great things," said Bossuet, who supported her in
+her conflict; "the world puts great hindrances in her way, and God
+great mercies; I have hopes that God will prevail; the uprightness of
+her heart will carry everything before it."
+
+"When I am in trouble at the Carmelites'," said Mlle. de La Vallière,
+as for the last time she quitted the court, "I shall think of what
+those people have made me suffer." "The world itself makes us sick of
+the world," said Bossuet in the sermon which he preached on the day
+she took the veil; "its attractions have enough of illusion, its
+favors enough of inconstancy, its rebuffs enough of bitterness.
+There is enough of bitterness, enough of injustice and perfidy in the
+dealings of men, enough of inconsistency and capriciousness in their
+intractable and contradictory humors—there is enough of it all, to
+disgust us."
+
+When, in 1675, she took the final vows, she cut off her beautiful hair
+and devoted herself to the church and to charity, receiving the veil
+from the queen, whose forgiveness she sought before entering the
+convent. The king showed himself to be such a jealous lover, that when
+Mlle. de La Vallière entirely abandoned him for God, he forgot her
+absolutely, never going to the convent to see her.
+
+She was by far the most interesting and pathetic of the three
+mistresses of Louis XIV.; her heart was superior to that of either
+of her successors, though her mind was inferior; she belonged to a
+different atmosphere—such kindness, charity, penitence, resignation,
+and absolute abandonment to God were rare among the conspicuous French
+women. Sainte-Beuve says: "She loved for love, without haughtiness,
+coquetry, arrogance, ambitious designs, self-interest, or vanity; she
+suffered and sacrificed everything, humiliated herself to expiate her
+wrong-doing, and finally surrendered herself to God, seeking in prayer
+the treasures of energy and tenderness; through her heart, her mental
+powers attained their complete development."
+
+The fate of Mlle. de La Vallière was the same as that of nearly all
+royal mistresses; abandoned and absolutely forgotten by her lover, she
+sought refuge and consolation in religion and God's mercy. "She
+was dead to me the day she entered the Carmelites'," said the king,
+thirty-five years later, when the modest and fervent nun at last
+expired, in 1710, without having ever relaxed the severities of her
+penance.
+
+Of an entirely different type from Mlle. de La Vallière was that
+haughtiest and most supercilious of all French mistresses, Mme. de
+Montespan. The picture drawn by M. Saint-Amand does her full justice:
+"A haughty and opulent beauty, a forest of hair, flashing blue eyes, a
+complexion of splendid carnation and dazzling whiteness, one of those
+alluring and radiant countenances which shed brightness around them
+wherever they appear, an incisive, caustic wit, an unquenchable thirst
+for riches and pleasure, luxury and power, the manners of a goddess
+audaciously usurping the place of Juno on Olympus, passion without
+love, pride without true dignity, splendor without harmony—that was
+Mme. de Montespan." And these qualities were the secret of her success
+as well as of her fall.
+
+From this description it can easily be divined of what nature was her
+influence and how she gained and held her power over the king. She
+won Louis XIV. entirely by her sensual charms, provoked him by her
+imperious exactions, her ungovernable fits of temper, and her daring
+sarcasm; always extravagant and unreasonable, she talked constantly of
+balls and fêtes, the glories of court and its scandals. Most exacting,
+yet never satisfied, she had no regard for the interests or honor of
+the weak king, to whose lower nature only she appealed.
+
+Mme. de Montespan was of noble birth, being the youngest daughter of
+Rochechouart, first Duke of Mortemart. She was born in 1641, at the
+grand old château of Tonnay-Charente, and was educated at the convent
+of Sainte-Marie. Brought up religiously, she at first evinced a much
+greater tendency toward religion than toward worldly ambition and
+vanity. Mme. de Caylus, in her _Souvenirs_, wrote that "far from being
+born depraved, the future favorite had a nature inherently disinclined
+to gallantry and tending to virtue. She was flattered at being
+mistress, not solely for her own pleasure, but on account of the
+passion of the king; she believed that she could always make him
+desire what she had resolved never to grant him. She was in despair at
+her first pregnancy, consoled herself for the second one, and in all
+the others carried impudence as far as it could go."
+
+She was known first as Mlle. Tonnay-Charente, and was maid of honor
+to the Duchess of Orléans. When, at the age of twenty-two, she married
+the Marquis de Montespan and became lady in waiting to the queen, her
+beauty, wit, and brilliant conversational powers at once made her the
+centre of attraction; for several years, however, the king scarcely
+noticed her. Upon secretly becoming his mistress in 1668 and openly
+being declared as such two years later, her husband attempted to
+interfere, and was unceremoniously banished to his estates; in 1676 he
+was legally separated from her. She persuaded the king to legitimatize
+their children, who were confided to Mme. Scarron,—afterward Mme. de
+Maintenon,—who later influenced the king to abandon his mistress.
+
+Mme. de Montespan's power, lasting fourteen years, was almost
+unlimited, and was the epoch of courtiers intoxicated with passion
+and consumed by vice, infatuated with the king and his mistress,
+whose title as _maîtresse-en-titre_ was considered an official one,
+conferring the same privileges and demanding the same ceremonies and
+etiquette as did a high court position. The only opposition incurred
+was from the clergy, who eventually, by uniting their forces with
+the influence of Mme. de Maintenon, brought about the disgrace of the
+mistress.
+
+When, in 1675, she desired to perform her Easter duties publicly at
+Versailles, the priest refused to grant absolution until she should
+discontinue her wanton, adulterous life. She appealed to the king, and
+he referred the decision of the matter to Bossuet, who decided that
+it was an imperative duty to deny absolution to public sinners of
+notorious lives who refused to abandon them. This was immediately
+before her legal separation from her husband.
+
+Influenced by the preaching of men like Bourdaloue and Bossuet,
+the king resolved to abandon his powerful mistress; in 1686 she was
+finally separated from Louis XIV., but did not leave Versailles until
+1691, when, becoming reconciled to her fate, she decided to retire
+to a convent. Bossuet became her spiritual adviser, and described her
+habits in the following letter to the king:
+
+"I find Mme. de Montespan sufficiently tranquil. She occupies herself
+greatly in good works. I see her much affected by the verities I
+propose to her, which are the same I uttered to your majesty. To
+her—as to you—I have offered the words by which God commands us
+to yield our whole hearts to him; they have caused her to shed many
+tears. May God establish these verities in the depths of the hearts of
+both of you, in order that so many tears, so much suffering, so many
+efforts as you have made to subdue yourselves, may not be in vain."
+
+The king did not wholly abandon his mistress; from a material point of
+view, she was more powerful than ever, for Louis XIV. gave orders
+to his minister, Colbert, to do for Mme. de Montespan whatever she
+wished, and her wishes caused a heavy drain upon the treasury. The
+king continued to pay court to other favorites, such as the Princesse
+de Soubèse and Mlle. de Fontanges; the latter was his third mistress,
+but her career was of short duration, as one of the last acts of Mme.
+de Montespan was, it is said, the poisoning of Mlle. de Fontanges;
+this, however, is not generally accepted as true, although the
+Princesse Palatine wrote the following which throws suspicion upon
+the former favorite: "Mme. de Montespan was a fiend incarnate, but the
+Fontanges was good and simple. The latter is dead—because, they say,
+the former put poison in her milk. I do not know whether or not this
+is true, but what I do know well is that two of the Fontanges's
+people died, saying publicly that they had been poisoned." With the
+increasing influence of Mme. de Maintenon, the king completely forgot
+his former mistress.
+
+Mme. de Montespan was possibly the most arrogant and despotic of all
+French mistresses and she was, also, the most humiliated. She had
+inspired no confidence, friendship, love, or respect in Louis XIV.,
+who eventually looked with shame and remorse upon his relations with
+her. It took her sixteen years to overcome her terrible passion and to
+give up the court forever. Not until 1691 did she become reconciled
+to departure from Versailles; thenceforth, penitence conquered immoral
+desires. M. Saint-Amand says she not only "arrived at remorse, but
+at macerations, fasts, and haircloths. She limited herself to the
+coarsest underlinen and wore a belt and garters studded with iron
+points. She came at last to give all she had to the poor;" she also
+founded a hospital in which she nursed the sick.
+
+While at the convent, she tried, in vain, to effect a reconciliation
+with her husband; not until every avenue to a social life was cut
+off from her, did she entirely surrender herself to charity and the
+service of God. In her latest years, she was so tormented by the
+horrors of death that she employed several women whose only occupation
+was to watch with her at night. She died in 1707, forgotten by the
+king and all her former associates; Louis XIV. formally prohibited
+her children, the Duke of Maine, the Comte de Toulouse, the Comte
+de Vexin, and Mlles. de Nantes, de Blois, and de Tours, from wearing
+mourning for her.
+
+A striking contrast to Mme. de Montespan in character, disposition,
+morality, and birth was Mme. de Maintenon, one of the greatest and
+most important women in French history. What is known of her is so
+enveloped in calumny and falsehood and made so uncertain by dispute,
+that to disentangle the actual facts is almost an impossibility,
+despite the glowing tribute paid to her in the immense work published
+recently by the Comte d'Haussonville and M. Gabriel Hanotaux.
+
+It would seem that the more the history of Mme. de Maintenon is
+studied, the more one is led away from a first impression—which
+usually proves to be an erroneous one. Thus, M. Lavallée, in his
+first work, _Histoire des Français_, wrote that she "was of the most
+complete aridity of heart, narrow in the scope of her affections, and
+meanly intriguing. She suggested fatal enterprises and inappropriate
+appointments; she forced mediocre and servile persons upon the king;
+she had, in fine, the major share in the errors and disasters of the
+reign of Louis XIV." A few years later he wrote, in his _Histoire de
+la maison royale de Saint-Cyr_: "Mme. de Maintenon gave Louis XIV.
+none but salutary and disinterested counsels which were useful to
+the state and instrumental in making less heavy the burdens of the
+people."
+
+Opinion in general, especially French opinion, has been very bitter
+toward her. History has even reproached her with having been a
+usurper, a tyrant, and a selfish master. The great preacher, Fénelon,
+wrote to her:
+
+"They say you take too little part in affairs. Your mind is more
+capable than you think. You are, perhaps, a little too distrustful
+of yourself, or, rather, you are too much afraid to enter into
+discussions contrary to the inclination you have for a tranquil and
+meditative life."
+
+Is this picture, left by Emile Chasles and accepted by M. Saint-Amand,
+truthful? "This intelligent woman, far from being too much heeded,
+was not enough so. There was in her a veritable love for the public
+welfare, a true sorrow in the midst of our misfortunes. To-day, it is
+necessary to retrench much from the grandeur of her worldly power and
+add a great deal to that of her soul." M. Saint-Amand believes her
+sincere when she wrote to Mme. des Ursins:
+
+"In whatever way matters turn, I conjure you, madame, to regard me
+as a person incapable of directing affairs, who heard them talked too
+late to be skilful in them, and who hates them more than she ignores
+them.... My interference in them is not desired and I do not desire
+to interfere. They are not concealed from me, but I know nothing
+consecutively and am often badly informed."
+
+The opinions of her contemporaries are not always flattering, but
+such are possibly due to envy and jealousy or to some purely personal
+prejudice. Thus, when the Duchess of Orléans, the Princesse
+Palatine, calls her "that nasty old thing, that wicked devil, that
+shrivelled-up, filthy old Maintenon, that concubine of the king," and
+casts upon her other gross aspersions that are unfit to be repeated,
+one must remember that the calumniator was a German, the daughter of
+the Elector Palatine Charles-Louis, a woman honest in her morals, but
+shameless in her speech, who loved the beauties of nature more than
+those of the palaces; more shocked at hypocrites than at religion or
+irreligion, she took Mme. de Maintenon to be a type of the impostors
+whom she detested. It was her son who became regent, and it was her
+son who married one of the illegitimate daughters of Louis XIV.—an
+alliance of which his mother had a horror.
+
+The memoirs of Saint-Simon are interesting, but the odious picture
+he has drawn of Mme. de Maintenon is hardly in accord with later
+appreciations. M. Saint-Amand sums up the two classes of critics thus:
+
+"The revolutionary school which likes to drag the memory of the great
+king through the mire, naturally detests the eminent woman who was
+that king's companion, his friend and consoler. Writers of this
+school would like to make of her a type not only odious and fatal, but
+ungraceful and unsympathetic, without radiance, charm or any sort of
+fascination. She is too frequently called to mind under the aspect
+of a worn old woman, stiff and severe, with tearless eyes and a
+face without a smile. We forget that in her youth she was one of
+the prettiest women of her time, that her beauty was wonderfully
+preserved, and that in her old age she retained that superiority of
+style and language, that distinction of manner and exquisite tact,
+that gentle firmness of character, that charm and elevation of mind,
+which, at every period of her life, gained her so much praise and so
+many friends."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon was born in prison. Her maiden name was Françoise
+d'Aubigné. She was the granddaughter of Agrippa d'Aubigné, the
+historian. Her father had planned to settle in the Carolinas, and
+his correspondence with the English government, to that effect,
+was treated as treason; he was thrown into prison, where his wife
+voluntarily shared his fate and where the future Mme. de Maintenon
+was born. After the death of her father, she was confided to her aunt,
+Mme. de Villette, a Calvinist, who trained her in the principles of
+Protestantism. Because of the refusal of her daughter to attend mass,
+her mother put her in charge of the Countess of Neuillant who, with
+great difficulty, converted Françoise back to Catholicism.
+
+At the home of the Countess of Neuillant, she often met Scarron, the
+comic poet—a paralytic and cripple—who offered her money with which
+to pay for admission to a convent, a proposition which she refused;
+subsequently, however, the countess sent her to the Ursulines to be
+educated. When, after two years, she lost her mother and was thus left
+without home, fortune, or future prospects, she consented, at the age
+of seventeen, to marry the poet. Thus, born in a prison, without even
+a dowry, harshly reared by a mother who was under few obligations
+to life, more harshly treated in the convent, introduced as a poor
+relation into the society of her aunt and to the friends of her
+godmother, the Countess of Neuillant, she early learned to distrust
+life and suspect man, and to restrain her ambitions.
+
+Exceedingly beautiful, graceful, and witty, she soon won her way to
+the brilliant and fashionable society of the crippled wit, buffoon,
+and poet, who was coarse, profane, ungodly, and physically an
+unsightly wreck. In this society, which the burlesque poet amused by
+his inexhaustible wit and fancy, and his frank, Gallic gayety, she
+showed an infinite amount of tact and soon made his salon the most
+prominent social centre of Paris. There, Scarron, never tolerated a
+stupid person, no matter of what blood or rank.
+
+When asked what settlement he proposed to make upon his wife, he
+replied: "Immortality." At another time, he remarked: "I shall not
+make her commit any follies, but I shall teach her a great many." On
+his deathbed he said: "My only regret is that I cannot leave anything
+to my wife with whom I have every imaginable reason to be content." In
+this free-and-easy salon, a young noble said, soon after the marriage
+of Scarron: "If it were a question of taking liberties with the queen
+or Mme. Scarron, I would not deliberate; I would sooner take them with
+the queen."
+
+The reputation made by the young Mme. Scarron gained her many
+influential friends, especially among court people. At the death of
+her husband, in 1660, to avoid trouble with his family, she renounced
+the marriage dowry of twenty-four thousand livres. Her friends
+procured her a pension of two thousand livres from the queen. Thus
+freed from care, she lived according to her inclination, which tended
+toward pleasing and doing good; taking good cheer and her services
+voluntarily and unaffectedly to all families, she gradually made
+herself a necessity among them—thus she laid the foundation of her
+future greatness. She was received by the best families, grew in favor
+everywhere, and even won over all her enemies. Modest, complaisant,
+promptly and readily rendering a favor, prudent, practical and
+virtuous, her one desire was to make friends, not so much for the
+purpose of using them, but because she realized that a person in
+humble circumstances cannot have too many friends.
+
+Her portrait as a widow is admirably drawn by M. Saint-Amand: "Mme.
+Scarron seeks esteem, not love. To please while remaining virtuous,
+to endure, if need be, privations and even poverty, but to win
+the reputation of a strong character, to deserve the sympathy and
+approbation of honest persons—such is the direction of all her
+efforts. Well dressed, though very simply; discreet and modest,
+intelligent and _distingué_, with that patrician elegance which luxury
+cannot create, but which is inborn and comes by nature only; pious,
+with a sincere and gentle piety; less occupied with herself than with
+others; talking well and—what is much rarer—knowing how to listen;
+taking an interest in the joys and sorrows of her friends, and skilful
+in amusing and consoling them—she is justly regarded as one of the
+most amiable as well as one of the superior women in Paris. Economical
+and simple in her tastes, she makes her accounts balance perfectly,
+thanks to an annual pension of two thousand livres granted her by
+Queen Anne of Austria."
+
+When Mme. Scarron was about to leave Paris because of lack of funds
+and the loss of her pension, after the death of Queen Anne, her friend
+Mme. de Montespan, the king's mistress, interfered in her behalf and
+had the pension renewed, thus inadvertently paving the way for her
+own downfall. Three years later Mme. Scarron was established in an
+isolated house near Paris, where she received the natural children
+of Louis XIV. and Mme. de Montespan, as they arrived, in quick
+succession, in 1669, 1670, 1672, 1673, and 1674. There, acting as
+governess, she hid them from the world. This is the only blemish upon
+the fair record of her life. It is maintained by her detractors that
+a virtuous woman would not have undertaken the education of the
+doubly adulterous children of Louis XIV. (thus, in a way, encouraging
+adultery), and that she would have given up her charge upon the first
+proposals of love.
+
+However deep this stain may be considered, one must remember that
+the standard of honor at the court of Louis XIV. did not encourage
+delicacy in matters of love, and Mme. Scarron knew only the standard
+of society; her morality was no more extraordinary than was her
+intelligence, and it was to her credit that she preserved intact
+her honor and her virtue. At first the king looked with much
+dissatisfaction upon her appointment, not admiring the extreme gravity
+and reserve of the young widow; however, the unusual order of her
+talents and wisdom soon attracted his attention, and her entrance at
+court was speedily followed by quarrels between the mistress and Louis
+XIV. In 1674 the king, wishing to acknowledge his recognition of
+her merits, purchased the estate of Maintenon for her and made her
+Marquise de Maintenon.
+
+Her primary object became the gaining of the favor of Mme. de
+Montespan; for this purpose she taught herself humility, while
+toward the king she directed the forces of her dignity, reserve, and
+intellectual attainments. Being the very opposite of the mistress who
+won and retained him by sensuous charms (in which the king was fast
+losing pleasure and satisfaction), she soon effected a change
+by entertaining her master with the solid attainments of her
+mind—religion, art, literature.
+
+Mme. de Maintenon was always amiable and sympathetic, kind and
+thoughtful, never irritating, crossing, or censuring the king;
+wonderfully judicious, modest, self-possessed, and calm, she was
+irreproachable in conduct and morals, tolerating no improper advances.
+Although the characteristics and general deportment of Mme. de
+Montespan were entirely different from those of Mme. de Maintenon, the
+latter entertained true friendship for her benefactress, displaying
+astonishing tact, shrewdness, and self-control.
+
+If Mme. de Maintenon were not, at first, loved by the king, it was
+because she appeared to him too ideal, sublime, spirituelle, too
+severely sensible. Then came the turning point; at forty years of age
+she was "a beautiful and stately woman with brilliant dark eyes, clear
+complexion, beautiful white teeth, and graceful manners;" sedate,
+self-possessed, and astonished at nothing, she had learned the art of
+waiting, and studied the king—showing him those qualities he desired
+to see.
+
+Her aim became to take the king from his mistress and lead him back
+to the queen. After gaining his confidence by her sincerity and
+trustworthiness, and making herself indispensable to him, she
+succeeded in bringing about the desired separation, through the medium
+of the dauphiness, whom she won over to her cause. Thus, without
+perfidy, hypocrisy, intrigue, or manœuvring, by simply being herself,
+she replaced the haughty and beautiful Mme. de Montespan.
+
+When, after the queen's death, and after having lived about the king
+for fifteen years, "she had succeeded in making the devotee take
+precedence of the lover, when piety had overcome passion, when
+religion had effected its change, then Louis the Great offered his
+hand in marriage to her who had only veneration, gratitude, and
+devotion for him, but no passion or love." Reasons of state demanded
+the secrecy of the marriage; for had he raised her to the throne,
+political complications would have arisen and disturbed his subsequent
+career; Mme. de Maintenon fully appreciated the intricacies of the
+situation, and was therefore content to remain what she was.
+
+She came to the king when he was beginning to feel the effects of his
+former mode of life; he needed fidelity and friendship, and he saw
+these in her. His feelings for her are well described in the following
+extract by M. Saint-Amand:
+
+"To sum up: the king's sentiment for her was of the most complex
+nature. There was in it a mingling of religion and of physical love, a
+calculation of reason and an impulse of the heart, an aspiration after
+the mild joys of family life and a romantic inclination—a sort of
+compact between French good sense, subjugated by the wit, tact, and
+wisdom of an eminent woman, and Spanish imagination allured by the
+fancy of having extricated this elect woman from poverty in order to
+make her almost a queen. Finally, it must be noted that Louis XIV.,
+always religiously inclined, was convinced that Mme. de Maintenon
+had been sent to him by Heaven for his salvation, and that the pious
+counsels of this saintly woman, who knew how to render devotion so
+agreeable and attractive, seemed to him to be so many inspirations
+from on High."
+
+It must not be inferred, however, that the feeling for Mme. de
+Maintenon was purely ideal. "He was unwilling to remarry," says
+the Abbé de Choisy, "because of tenderness for his people. He had,
+already, three grandsons, and wisely judged that the princes of a
+second marriage might, in course of time, cause civil wars. On the
+other hand, he could not dispense with a wife and Mme. de Maintenon
+pleased him greatly. Her gentle and scintillating wit promised him
+an agreeable intercourse which would refresh him after the cares of
+royalty. Her person was still engaging and her age prevented her from
+having children."
+
+As his wife, Mme. de Maintenon took more interest in the king and his
+family than she did in the affairs of the kingdom. To be the wife of
+the hearth and home, to educate the princes, to rear the young Duchess
+of Bourgogne, granddaughter of Louis XIV., to calm and ease the old
+age of the king and to distract and amuse him, became her sole objects
+in life. Her power, thus directed, became almost unbounded; she was
+the dispenser of favors and the real ruler, sitting in the cabinet
+of the king; and her counsels were so wise that they soon became
+invaluable.
+
+At court, she opposed all foolish extravagance, such as the endless
+fêtes and amusements of all kinds which had become so popular
+under Mme. de Montespan—a procedure which caused her the greatest
+difficulties and provoked revolts and quarrels in the royal family. By
+her prudence, tact, wisdom, and the loyalty of her friendship, she won
+and retained the respect and favor—if not the love—of everyone. Her
+reputation was never tarnished by scandal. "When one reflects that
+Louis XIV. was only forty-seven years old and in the prime of life
+and Mme. de Montespan in the full blaze of her marvellous beauty,
+that this woman of humble birth, in her youth a Protestant, poor, a
+governess, the widow of a low, comic poet, should win so proud a man
+as Louis XIV., seems incredible."
+
+When one considers that throughout life her one aspiration was
+an irreproachable conduct, that her manner of action was always
+defensive, never offensive, that her chief aim was to restore the king
+to the queen (who died in her arms) and not to replace his mistress,
+one cannot withhold admiration and esteem from this truly great woman
+who accomplished all those honorable designs.
+
+The obstacles to be conquered before reaching her goal were indeed
+numerous, but she managed them all. There were so many persons hostile
+to her,—mistresses and intriguers, bishops and priests, courtesans
+and valets, princes and members of the royal family,—to overcome whom
+she had to be on her guard, make use of every opportunity, show a
+rare knowledge of society and court, a profound skill and address,
+resolution and will; and she was equal to all occasions.
+
+Her greatest defect was the narrowness of her religious views.
+Entirely in the hands of her spiritual advisers, obeying them
+faithfully and blindly, she was not inclined to theological
+investigation, but was sincerely devout. More interested in the
+various persons than in doctrines, she showed a passion for making
+bishops, abbots, and priests, as well as for negotiating compromises,
+reconciling _amours propres_ and doing away with all religious hatred.
+Lacking, above all else, clearness of conception, promptness and
+firmness of decision, she was finally persuaded to encourage the
+bigotry of Louis XIV. and his intolerance toward those who differed
+from him. Hence, in 1685, she permitted that fearfully destructive
+persecution of the Protestants, which caused over three hundred
+thousand of France's most solid people to leave the country; and by
+her fanaticism and false zeal, she caused the king to be a party to
+that awful catastrophe.
+
+"This one act of hers counterbalances nearly all her virtues, and we
+remember her more as the murderess of thousands of innocents than as
+the calm and virtuous governess. But we must remember the nature of
+her advisers and the eternal policy of the Catholic Church, which
+are ever identical with absolutism. To uphold the institutions and
+opinions already established, was the one sentiment of the age;
+innovation, progress, were destructive—Mme. de Maintenon became the
+watchful guardian of royalty and the Church." Such is the verdict of
+English opinion. M. Saint-Amand judges the affair differently:
+
+"A woman as pious and reasonable as she was, animated always by the
+noblest intentions, loving her country and always showing sympathy for
+the poor people—not merely in words but in deeds as well—detesting
+war and loving justice and peace, always moderate and irreproachable
+in her conduct—such a woman cannot be the mischievous, crafty,
+malicious, and vindictive bigot imagined by many writers; she did not
+encourage such an act, nor would her nature permit to do so.... The
+prayer she uttered every morning, best portrays the woman and her
+rôle: 'Lord, grant me to gladden the king, to console him, to sadden
+him when it must be for Thy glory. Cause me to hide from him nothing
+which he ought to know through me, and which no one else would have
+courage to tell him.' ... To Madame de Glapion she said: 'I would like
+to die before the king; I would go to God; I would cast myself at the
+foot of His throne; I would offer Him the desires of a soul that
+He would have purified; I would pray Him to grant the king greater
+enlightenment, more love for his people, more knowledge of the state
+of the provinces, more aversion for the perfidy of the countries, more
+horror of the ways in which his authority is abused: and God would
+hear my prayers.'"
+
+This pious woman was weary of life before her marriage, and but
+changed the nature of her misery upon reaching the highest goal open
+to a woman. Marly, Versailles, Fontainebleau were only different names
+for the same servitude. When she had attained her desire, she thought
+her repose assured; instead, her ennui, her disgust of life and
+the world, only increased; realizing this, she began to direct her
+thoughts entirely toward God and her aspirations toward things not
+of this earth—hence the almost complete absence of her influence in
+politics.
+
+She was never happy, and that her life was a disappointment to her may
+be gathered from the following words from her pen: "Flee from men as
+from your mortal enemies; never be alone with them. Take no pleasure
+in hearing that you are pretty, amiable, that you have a fine voice.
+The world is a malicious deceiver which never means what it says; and
+the majority of men who say such things to young girls, do it hoping
+to find some means of ruining them."
+
+Her most intense desire seemed to be to please, and be esteemed—to
+receive the _honneur du monde_, which appeared to be her sole motive
+for living. When in power, she did not use her influence as the
+intriguing women of the epoch would have done, because she did
+not possess their qualities—taste, breadth of vision, and selfish
+ambitions. Her objects in life were the reform of a wicked court,
+the extirpation of heresy, the elevation of men of genius, and the
+improvement of the society and religion of France. After the death of
+the king (in 1715), she retired to Saint-Cyr, and spent the remainder
+of her life in acts of charity and devotional exercises.
+
+After the king's death she dismissed all her servants and disposed of
+her carriages as well, "unable to reconcile herself to feeding horses
+while so many young girls were in need," as she said. For almost four
+years she peacefully and happily lived in a very modest apartment. She
+seldom went out and then only to the village to visit the sick and the
+poor. On June 10, 1717, when she was eighty-one years old, Peter the
+Great went to Saint-Cyr for the purpose of seeing and talking to
+the greatest woman of France. He found her confined to her bed; the
+chamber being but dimly lighted, he thrust aside the curtain in order
+to examine the features of the woman who had ruled the destinies of
+France for so many years. The Czar talked to her for some time, and
+when he asked Madame de Maintenon from what she was suffering, she
+replied: "From great old age." She died on August 15, 1719, and was
+buried in the choir of the church of Saint-Cyr, where a modest slab of
+marble indicated the spot where her body reposed until, in 1794, when
+the church was being transformed into hospital wards, "the workmen
+opened the vault, and took out the body and dragged it into the court
+with dreadful yells and threw it, stripped and mutilated, into a hole
+in the cemetery."
+
+The greatest work of Mme. de Maintenon was the founding of the
+Seminary of Saint-Cyr, which the king granted to her about the time
+of their marriage and of his illness; it was probably intended as the
+penance of a sick man who wished to make reparation for the wrongs
+inflicted upon some of the young girls of the nobility, and as a
+wedding gift to Mme. de Maintenon. There, aided by nuns, she cared
+for and educated two hundred and fifty pupils, dowerless daughters of
+impoverished nobles. It was "the veritable offspring of her who was
+never a daughter, a wife, nor a mother." There she was happy and
+content; there she recalled her own youth when she was poor and
+forsaken; there she found respite from the turmoils and agitations of
+Versailles; there she was supreme; there she governed absolutely and
+was truly loved.
+
+For thirty years she was queen at Saint-Cyr, visiting it every other
+day and teaching the young girls for whom it was a protection against
+the world. Since childhood, she had been so accustomed to serve
+herself, to wait upon others and to care for the smallest details of
+the management of the household, that she introduced this spirit into
+society and at Saint-Cyr, where she managed every detail, from the
+linen to the provisions; this showed a reasonable and well-balanced
+mind, but not any high order of intelligence.
+
+Of the young girls in her charge, she desired to make model women,
+characterized by simplicity and piety; they were to be free from
+morbid curiosity of mind, were to practise absolute self-denial and
+to devote their lives to a practical labor. Her advice was: "Be
+reasonable or you will be unhappy; if you are haughty, you will be
+reminded of your misery, but if you are humble, people will recall
+your birth.... Commence by making yourself loved, without which you
+will never succeed. Is it not true that, had you not loved me or had
+you had an aversion for me, you would not have accepted, with such
+good grace, the counsels that I have given you? This is absolutely
+certain—the most beautiful things when taught by persons who
+displease us, do not impress but rather harden us."
+
+A counsel that strikes home forcibly to-day, one which strongly
+attacks the modern fad of neglecting home for church, is expressed
+well in one of her letters: "Your piety will not be right if, when
+married, you abandon your husband, your children and your servants, to
+go to the churches at times when you are not obliged to go there. When
+a young girl says that a woman would do better properly to raise
+her children and instruct her servants, than to spend her morning in
+church, one can accommodate one's self to such religion, which she
+will cause to be loved and respected."
+
+At the hour of leisure, she gave the girls those familiar talks which
+were anticipated by them with so much pleasure, and extracts from
+which are still cherished by the young women of France. She believed
+that the aim of instruction for young girls should be to educate them
+to be Christian women with well-balanced and logical minds. With her
+varied experience of the ups and downs of life, she gradually came to
+the conclusion that, after all, there is nothing in the world so good
+as sound common sense, but one that is not enamored of itself, which
+obeys established laws and knows its own limits. Her sex is intended
+to obey, thus her reason was a Christian reason.
+
+"You can be truly reasonable only in proportion as you are subservient
+to God.... Never tell children fantastic stories, nor permit them to
+believe them; give them things for what they are worth. Never tell
+them stories of which, when they grow to independent reasoning, you
+must disillusion them. You must talk to a girl of seven as seriously
+and with as much reason as to a young lady of twenty. You must take
+part in the pleasures of children, but never accommodate them with a
+childish language or with foolish or puerile ways. You can never be
+too reasonable or too sane. Religion, reason, and truth are always
+good."
+
+To appreciate the importance of Mme. de Maintenon's position and the
+revolutionary effect which her attitude produced upon the customs of
+the time, one must remember with what she had to contend. Hers was a
+period of passion and adventure—a period which was followed by sorrow
+and disaster. The novels of Mlle. de Scudéry, which were at the
+height of their popularity, had over-refined the sentiments; the
+_chevaleresque_ heroes and picturesque heroines turned the heads
+of young girls, who dreamed of an ideal and perfect love; their one
+longing was for the romantic—for the enchantments and delights
+of life. In this stilted and amorous atmosphere, Mme. de Maintenon
+preserved her poise and fought vigorously against the fads of the day.
+The young girls under her care were taught to love just as they were
+taught to do other things—with reason. Also, she guarded against the
+weaknesses of nature and the flesh. "Than Mme. de Maintenon, no one
+ever better knew the evils of the world without having fallen prey to
+them," says Sainte-Beuve; "and no one ever satisfied and disgusted the
+world more, while charming it at the same time."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon's ideal methods of education were not immediately
+effective; there were many periods of hardship, apprehension, and
+doubt. Thus, when Racine's _Esther_ (written at the request of Mme. de
+Maintenon, to be presented by the pupils at Saint-Cyr) was performed,
+there sprang up a taste for poetry, writing, and literature of all
+kinds. The acting turned the girls' thoughts into other channels and
+threatened to counteract the teachings of simplicity and reason; no
+one ever showed more genuine good sense, wholesomeness of mind, and
+breadth of view, than were displayed by Mme. de Maintenon in dealing
+with these disheartening drawbacks.
+
+In endeavoring to impress upon those young minds the correct use of
+language and the proper style of writing, she wrote for them models
+of letters which showed simplicity, precision, truth, facility, and
+wonderful clearness; and these were imitated by them in their replies
+to her.
+
+She wished, above all, to make them realize that her experience
+with that social and court life, for which they longed, was one of
+disappointment: that was a world apart, in which amusing and being
+amused was the one occupation. She had passed wearily through that
+period of life, and sought repose, truth, tranquillity, and religious
+resignation; to make those young spirits feel the fallacy of such
+a mode of existence was her earnest desire, and her efforts in that
+direction were characterized by a zeal, energy, and persistence
+which were productive of wonderful results. That was one phase of her
+greatness and influence.
+
+But Mme. de Maintenon was somewhat too severe, too narrow, too
+strict,—one might say, too ascetic,—in her teaching. There was
+too little of that which, in this world, cheers, invigorates, and
+enlivens. Her instruction was all reason, without relieving features;
+it lacked what Sainte-Beuve calls the _don des larmes_ (gift of
+tears). Hers was a noble, just, courageous, and delicate judgment; but
+it was without the softening qualities of the truly feminine, which
+calls for tears and affection, tenderness and sympathy.
+
+She remains in educational affairs the greatest woman of the
+seventeenth century, if not of all her countrywomen. M. Faguet says:
+"This widow of Scarron, who was nearly Queen of France, was born
+minister of public instruction." She powerfully upheld the cause of
+morality, was a liberal patroness of education and learning, and all
+aspiring geniuses were encouraged and financially aided by her. It was
+she who impressed upon Louis XIV. the truth of the existence of a God
+to whom he was accountable for his acts—a teaching which contributed
+no little to the general purification of morals at court.
+
+The writings of Mme. de Maintenon occupy a very high place in the
+history of French literature; in fact, her letters have often been
+compared with those of Mme. de Sévigné, although, unlike the latter,
+she never wrote merely to please, but to instruct, to convert, and to
+console. In her works there was no pretension to literary style; they
+were sermons on morals, characterized by discretion and simplicity,
+dignity and persuasiveness, seriousness and earnestness; Napoleon
+placed her letters above those of Mme. de Sévigné. M. Saint-Amand
+says of her writings: "More reflection than vivacity, more wisdom
+than passion, more gravity than charm, more authority than grace,
+more solidity than brilliancy—such are the characteristics of a
+correspondence which might justify the expression, the style is the
+woman."
+
+He gives, also, the following discriminating comparison between the
+two writers: "Enjoyment, Gallic animation, good-tempered gayety,
+fall to the lot of Mme. de Sévigné; what marks Mme. de Maintenon is
+experience, reason, profundity. The one laughs from ear to ear—the
+other barely smiles. The one has pleasant illusions about everything,
+admiration which borders on _naïveté_, ecstasies when in the presence
+of the royal sun: the other never permits herself to be fascinated by
+either the king or the court, by men, women, or things. She has seen
+human grandeur too close at hand not to understand its nothingness,
+and her conclusions bear the imprint of a profound sadness. At times
+Mme. de Sévigné, also, has attacks of melancholy, but the cloud
+passes quickly and she is again in the sunshine. Gayety—frank,
+communicative, radiant gayety—is the basis of the character of this
+woman who is more witty, seductive, and amusing than is any other.
+Mme. de Sévigné shines by imagination—Mme. de Maintenon by judgment.
+The one permits herself to be dazzled, intoxicated—the other always
+preserves her indifference. The one exaggerates the splendors of
+the court—the other sees them as they are. The one is more of a
+woman—the other more of a saint."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon may be called "a woman of fate," She was never
+daughter, mother, or wife; as a child, she was not loved by her
+mother, and her father was worthless; married to two men, both aged
+beyond their years, she was, indeed, but an instrument of fate.
+Truthful, candid, and discreet she was entirely free from all morbid
+tendencies, and was modest and chaste from inclination as well as
+from principle. Though outwardly cold, proud, and reserved, yet in
+her deportment toward those who were fortunate enough to possess
+her esteem, she was kind—even loving. While not intelligent to a
+remarkable degree, she was prudent, circumspect, and shrewd, never
+losing her self-control. When once interested, and convinced as to the
+proper course, she displayed marvellous strength of will, sagacity,
+and personal force. Beautiful and witty, she easily adapted herself
+to any position in which she might be placed; though intolerant and
+narrow in her religious views, she was otherwise gentle, charitable,
+and unselfish. Therefore, it is evident that she possessed, to a
+greater degree than did any other woman of her time, unusual as
+well as desirable qualities—qualities that made her powerful and
+incomparable.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VI
+
+Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. Dacier, Mme. de Caylus
+
+
+The seventeenth century was, in French history, the greatest century
+from the standpoint of literary perfection, the sixteenth century the
+richest in naissant ideas, and the eighteenth the greatest in the way
+of developing and formulating those ideas; and each century produced
+great women who were in perfect harmony with and expressed the ideals
+of each period of civilization.
+
+It is not within the limits of reason to expect women to rival, in
+literature, the great writers such as Corneille, Racine, Molière,
+Bossuet, La Fontaine, Descartes, Pascal—most of whom were but little
+influenced by femininity; there were those, however, among the sex,
+who were conspicuous for elevation of thought, dignity in manner and
+bearing, and brilliancy in conversation—attributes which they have
+left to posterity in numberless exquisite and charming letters, in
+interesting and invaluable memoirs, or in consummate psychological and
+social portraitures incorporated into the form of novels. Among female
+writers of letters, Mme. de Sévigné wears the laurel wreath; Mme. de
+La Fayette, with Mlle. de Scudéry, is the representative of the novel;
+Mme. Dacier was the great advocate of the more liberal education
+of women; and the _Souvenirs_ of Mme. de Caylus made that authoress
+immortal.
+
+The association of La Rochefoucauld, the Cardinal de Retz, the
+Chevalier de Meré, Mme. de La Fayette, and Mme. de Sévigné, was
+responsible for almost everything elevating and of interest produced
+in the seventeenth century. Of that highly intellectual circle,
+Mme. de Sévigné was the leading spirit by force of her extraordinary
+faculty for making friends, her wonderful talent as a writer, her
+originality and her charming disposition. She gave the tone to
+letters; M. Faguet says that her epistles were all masterpieces of
+amiable badinage, lively narration, maternal passion, true eloquence.
+More than that, they are important sources of historical knowledge,
+inasmuch as they contain much information concerning the politics of
+the day, and furnish an excellent guide to the etiquette, fashions,
+tastes, and literature of the writer's period.
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was the most important figure of the time, being to
+that third prodigiously intellectual epoch of France what Marguerite
+de Navarre was to the sixteenth century, and the Hôtel de Rambouillet
+to the beginning of the seventeenth century. She represented the
+style, _esprit_, elegance, and _goût_ of this greatest of French
+cultural periods. Her life may be considered as having had two
+distinct phases—one connected with an unhappy marriage and the other
+the period of a restless widowhood.
+
+Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marchioness of Sévigné, was born at Paris,
+in 1626; at the age of eighteen months she lost her father; at seven
+years of age, her mother; at eight, her grandmother; at ten, her
+grandfather on her mother's side; she was thus left with her paternal
+grandmother, Mme. de Chantal, who had her carefully educated under
+the best masters, such as Ménage and Chapelain (court favorites), from
+whom she early imbibed a genuine taste for solid reading; from these
+instructors she learned Spanish, Italian, and Latin.
+
+In 1644, she was married to the Marquis Henri de Sévigné, who was
+killed six years later in a duel, but who had, in the meantime,
+succeeded in making a considerable gap in her immense fortune,
+in spite of the precautions of her uncle, the Abbé of Coulanges.
+Henceforward, her interests in life were centred in the education of
+her two children; to them she wrote letters which have brought her
+name down to posterity as, possibly, the greatest epistolary writer
+that the history of literature has ever recorded.
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was but nineteen years old when, after the marriage of
+Julie d'Angennes, the frequenters of the Hôtel de Rambouillet began
+to disperse, and she was in much demand by the successors of Mme. de
+Rambouillet. While the women of the reign of Louis XIII.—Mmes.
+de Hautefort, de Sablé, de Longueville, de Chevreuse, etc.—were
+exceedingly talented talkers, they were poor writers: but in Mme.
+de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, and Mlle. de Scudéry both arts were
+developed to the highest degree.
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was on the best terms with every great writer of
+her time—Pascal, Racine, La Fontaine, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, La
+Rochefoucauld. She was a woman of such broad affections that numerous
+friends and admirers were a necessary part of her existence. Of all
+the eminent women of the seventeenth century, she had the greatest
+number of lovers—suitors who frequently became her tormentors.
+Ménage, her teacher, who threatened to leave her never to see her
+again, was brought back to her by kind words, such as: "Farewell,
+friend—of all my friends the best." The Abbé Marigny, that "delicate
+epicurean, that improviser of fine triolets, ballads, vaudevilles,
+that enemy of all sadness and sticklers for morality," charmed her, at
+times, with sentimental ballads, such as the following:
+
+  "Si l'amour est un doux servage,
+  Si l'on ne peut trop estimer
+  Les plaisirs ou l'amour engage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+
+  "Mais si l'on se sent enflammer
+  D'un feu dont l'ardeur est extrême,
+  Et qu'on n'ose pas l'exprimer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  "Si dans la fleur de son bel âge,
+  Une qui pourrait tout charmer,
+  Vous donne son cœur en partage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne point aimer!
+
+  "Mais s'il faut toujours s'alarmer,
+  Craindre, rougir, devenir blême,
+  Aussitôt qu'on s'entend nommer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  "Pour complaire au plus beau visage
+  Qu'amour puisse jamais former,
+  S'il ne faut rien qu'un doux langage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+
+  "Mais quand on se voit consumer.
+  Si la belle est toujours de même,
+  Sans que rien la puisse animer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+"L'ENVOI.
+
+  "En amour si rien n'est amer,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+  Si tout l'est au degré suprême,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  [If love is a sweet bondage,
+  If we cannot esteem too much
+  The pleasures in which love engages,
+  How foolish one is not to love!
+
+  But if we feel ourselves inflamed
+  With a passion whose ardor is extreme,
+  And which we dare not express,
+  How foolish we are, then, to love!
+
+  If in the flower of her youth
+  There is one who could charm all.
+  And offers you her heart to share,
+  How very foolish not to love!
+
+  But if we must always be full of alarm—
+  Fear, blush and become pallid,
+  As soon as our name is spoken,
+  How foolish to love!
+
+  If to please the most beautiful countenance
+  That love can ever form,
+  Only a mellow language is necessary,
+  How foolish not to love!
+
+  But if we see ourselves wasting away,
+  If the belle is always the same
+  And cannot be animated,
+  How very foolish to love!
+
+ENVOY.
+
+  If in love, nothing is bitter,
+  How dreadfully foolish not to love!
+  If everything is so to the highest degree,
+  How awfully foolish to love!]
+
+Tréville went so far as to say that the figure of Mme. de Sévigné was
+beautiful enough to set the world afire. M. du Bled divides her lovers
+into three classes: the first was composed of her literary friends;
+the second, of those enamored, impassioned suitors, loving her from
+good motives or from the opposite, who strove to compensate her for
+the unfaithfulness of her husband while alive and for the ennui of her
+widowhood; the third class was composed of her Parisian friends, of
+whom she had hosts, court habitués who were leaders of society.
+
+Representatives of the second class were the Prince de Conti, the
+great Turenne, various counts and marquises, and Bussy-Rabutin, who
+was a type of the sensual lover and the more dangerous on account of
+the privileges he enjoyed because of his close relationship to Mme. de
+Sévigné. His portrait of her is interesting: "I must tell you, madame,
+that I do not think there is a person in the world so generally
+esteemed as you are. You are the delight of humankind; antiquity
+would have erected altars to you, and you would certainly have been a
+goddess of something. In our century, when we are not so lavish with
+incense, and especially for living merit, we are contented to say that
+there is not a woman of your age more virtuous and more amiable than
+are you. I know princes of the blood, foreign princes, great lords
+with princely manners, great captains, gentlemen, ministers of state,
+who would be off and away for you, if you would permit them. Can you
+ask any more?"
+
+Such eulogies came not only from men like the perfidious and cruel
+cousin, but from her friends everywhere. The finest of these is
+the one by her friend Mme. de La Fayette, contained in one of the
+epistolary portraits so much in vogue at that time, and which were
+turned out, _par excellence_, in the salon of Mlle. de Luxembourg:
+"Know, madame,—if by chance you do not already know it,—that your
+mind adorns and embellishes your person so well that there is not
+another one on earth so charming as you when you are animated in a
+conversation in which all constraint is banished. Your soul is great,
+noble, ready to dispense with treasures, and incapable of lowering
+itself to the care of amassing them. You are sensible to glory and
+ambition, and to pleasures you are less so; yet you appear to be born
+for the latter, and they made for you; your person augments pleasures,
+and pleasures increase your beauty when they surround you. Joy is the
+veritable state of your soul, and chagrin is more unlike to you than
+to anyone. You are the most civil and obliging person that ever lived,
+and by a free and calm air—which is in all your actions—the simplest
+compliments of seemliness appear, in your mouth, as protestations of
+friendship."
+
+The originality which gained Mme. de Sévigné so many friends lay
+principally in her force, wealth of resource, intensity, sincerity,
+and frankness. M. Scherer said she possessed "surprises for us,
+infinite energy, inexhaustible variety—everything that eternally
+revives interest."
+
+The interest of the modern world in this remarkable woman is centred
+mainly in her letters. Guizot says: "Mme. de Sévigné is a friend whom
+we read over and over again, whose emotions we share, to whom we go
+for an hour's distraction and delightful chat; we have no desire to
+chat with Mme. de Grignan (her daughter)—we gladly leave her to her
+mother's exclusive affection, feeling infinitely obliged to her for
+having existed, inasmuch as her mother wrote letters to her. Mme.
+de Sévigné's letters to her daughter are superior to all her other
+epistles, charming as they all are; when she writes to M. Pomponne, to
+M. de Coulanges, to M. de Bussy, the style is less familiar, the heart
+less open, the soul less stirred; she writes to her daughter as she
+would speak to her—it is not a letter, it is an animated and charming
+conversation, touching upon everything, embellishing everything with
+an inimitable grace."
+
+She had married her daughter to the Comte de Grignan, a man of
+forty, twice married, and with children, homely, but wealthy and
+aristocratic; writing to her cousin, Bussy-Rabutin, concerning this
+marriage, she said: "All these women (the count's former wives) died
+expressly to make room for your cousin." By marrying her daughter
+to such a man she encouraged all the questionable proprieties of the
+time. Mme. de Sévigné's affection for that daughter amounted almost
+to idolatry; it was to her that most of the mother's letters were
+written, telling her of her health, what was being done at Vichy, and
+about her business and for that child the authoress gave up her life
+at Paris in order to economize and thereby to help Mme. de Grignan in
+her extravagance, her son-in-law being an expert in spending money.
+
+The intensity of her nature is well reflected in her letter upon the
+separation from her daughter: "In vain I seek my darling daughter; I
+can no longer find her, and every step she takes removes her farther
+from me. I went to St. Mary's, still weeping and dying of grief; it
+seemed as if my heart and my soul were being wrenched from me and, in
+truth, what a cruel separation! I asked leave to be alone; I was taken
+into Mme. du Housset's room, and they made me up a fire. Agnes sat
+looking at me, without speaking—that was our bargain. I stayed there
+till five o'clock, without ceasing to sob; all my thoughts were mortal
+wounds to me. I wrote to M. de Grignan (you can imagine in what key).
+Then I went to Mme. de La Fayette's, and she redoubled my griefs by
+the interest she took in them; she was alone, ill, and distressed at
+the death of one of the nuns; she was just as I should have desired,
+I returned hither at eight; but oh, when I came in! can you conceive
+what I felt as I mounted these stairs? That room into which I always
+used to go, alas! I found the doors of it open, but I saw everything
+upturned, disarranged, and your little daughter, who reminded me of
+mine.... The wakenings of the night were dreadful. I think of you
+continuously—it is what devotees call habitual thought, such as one
+should have of God, if one did one's duty. Nothing gives me diversion;
+I see that carriage which is forever going on and will never come
+near me. I am forever on the highways; it seems as if I were sometimes
+afraid that the carriage will upset with me; the rains there for the
+last three days, drove me to despair. The Rhone causes me strange
+alarm. I have a map before my eyes—I know all the places where you
+sleep. This evening you are at Nevers; on Sunday you will be at
+Lyons where you will receive this letter. I have received only two of
+yours—perhaps the third will come; that is the only comfort I desire;
+as for others, I seek none."
+
+The letters of Mme. de Sévigné contain a great number of sayings
+applicable to habits and conduct, and these have had their part
+in shaping the customs and in depicting the time. To be modest and
+moderate, friendly, and conciliatory, to be content with one's lot and
+to bow to circumstances, to be sincere, to cultivate good sense and
+good grace—these counsels have been and still are, according to
+French opinion, the basis of French character: and Mme. de Sévigné's
+own popularity and success attest their wisdom.
+
+She had not the gift of seeing things vividly and reproducing them in
+living form; her talent was a rarer one—it induced the reader to form
+a mental picture of the scene described, so vivid as to be under the
+illusion of being present in reality; and this is done with so much
+grace, charm, happy ease and naturalness, that to read her letters
+means to love the writer. What mother or friend would not fall a
+willing victim to the charm of a woman who could write the following
+letter?
+
+"You ask me, my dear child, whether I continue to be really fond of
+life; I confess to you that I find poignant sorrows in it, but I am
+even more disgusted with death; I feel so wretched at having to end
+all thereby, that, if I could turn back again, I would ask for nothing
+better, I find myself under an obligation which perplexes me; I
+embark upon life without my consent, and so must I go out of it; that
+overwhelms me. And how shall I go? Which way? By what door? When will
+it be? In what condition? Shall I suffer a thousand, thousand pains
+which will make me die desperate? Shall I have brain fever? Shall I
+die of an accident? How shall I be with God? What shall I have to show
+Him? Shall fear, shall necessity bring me back to Him? Shall I have
+sentiment except that of dread? What can I hope? Am I worthy of
+heaven? Am I worthy of hell? Nothing is such madness as to leave one's
+salvation in uncertainty, but nothing is so natural. The stupid life I
+lead is the easiest thing in the world to understand; I bury myself
+in these thoughts and I find death so terrible that I hate life more
+because it leads me thereto, than because of the thorns with which
+it is planted. You will say that I want to live forever, then; not at
+all; but, if my opinion had been asked, I would have preferred to die
+in my nurse's arms; that would have removed me from the vexations of
+spirit and would have given me heaven full surely and easily."
+
+Mme. de Sévigné never bored her readers with her own reflections. She
+differed from her contemporaries, who seemed to be dead to nature's
+beauty, in her striking descriptions of nature. A close observer, she
+knew how to describe a landscape; animating and enlivening it, and
+making it talk, she inspired the reader with love of it.
+
+"I am going to be alone and I am very glad. Provided they do not take
+away from me the charming country, the shore of the Allier, the woods,
+streams, and meadows, the sheep and goats, the peasant girls who dance
+the _bourrée_ in the fields, I consent to say adieu; the country alone
+will cure me.... I have come here to end the beautiful days and to say
+adieu to the foliage—it is still on the trees, it has only changed
+color; instead of being green, it is golden, and of so many golden
+tints that it makes a brocade of rich and magnificent gold, which we
+are likely to find more beautiful than the green, if only it were not
+for the changing part."
+
+If the style of her letters did not make her the greatest prose writer
+of her time, it certainly entitled her to rank as one of the most
+original. The prose of the seventeenth century lacked "easy suppleness
+in lively movement, and imagination in the expression"—two qualities
+which Mme. de Sévigné possessed in a high degree. The slow and grave
+development, the just and harmonious equilibrium, the amplitude, are
+in her supplanted by a quick, alert, and free _saillie_; the detail
+and marvellous exactness are enriched by color, abundance of imagery,
+and metaphors. M. Faguet says she is to prose what La Fontaine is to
+poetry.
+
+The literary style of Mme. de Sévigné is not learned, studied, nor
+labored. In an epoch in which the language was already formed, she did
+what Montaigne did a century before, when, we may almost assert, he
+had to create the French language. Her most striking expressions are
+her own—newly coined, not taken from the vocabulary in usage. Her
+style cannot be duplicated, and for this reason she has few imitators.
+Her letters show that they were improvised—her pen doing, alone, the
+work over which she seemed to have no control when communicating with
+her daughter; to the latter she said: "I write prose with a facility
+that will kill you."
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was possibly not a beautiful woman, but she was a
+charming one; broad in the scope of her affections, she found the
+making of friends no difficult task. M. Vallery-Radot leaves the
+following picture of her: "A blonde, with exuberant health, a
+transparent complexion, blue eyes, so frank, so limpid, a nose
+somewhat square, a mouth ready to smile, shoulders that seem to lend
+splendor to her pearl necklace. Her gayety and goodness are so in
+evidence that there is about her a kind of atmosphere of good humor."
+
+M. du Bled most admirably sums up her character and writings in the
+following: "She is the person who most resembles her writings—that
+is, those that are found; for alas! many (the most confidential, the
+most interesting, I think) are lost forever: in them she is reflected
+as she reflects French society in them. Endowed—morally and
+physically—with a robust health, she is expansive, loyal, confiding,
+impressionable, loving gayety in full abundance as much as she does
+the smile of the refined, as eager for the prattle of the court as
+for solid reading, smitten with nobiliary pride, a captive of the
+prejudices, superstitions and tastes of her caste (or of even her
+coterie), with her pen hardly tender for her neighbor—her daughter
+and intimates excepted. A manager and a woman of imagination, a
+Frondist at the bottom of her soul, and somewhat of a Jansenist—not
+enough, however, not to cry out that Louis XIV. will obscure the glory
+of his predecessors because he had just danced with her—faithful to
+her friends (Retz, Fouquet, Pomponne) in disgrace and detesting their
+persecutors, seeking the favor of court for her children. In the
+salons, she is celebrated for her _esprit_—and this at an age when
+one seldom thinks about reputation, when one is like the princess who
+replied to a question on the state of her soul, 'At twenty one has
+no soul;' and she possesses the qualities that are so essential to
+style—natural _éclat_, originality of expression, grace, color,
+amplitude without pomposity and abundance without prolixity; moreover,
+she invents nothing, but, knowing how to observe and to express in
+perfection everything she had seen and felt, she is a witness and
+painter of her century: also, she loves nature—a sentiment very rare
+in the seventeenth century."
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was endowed with the best qualities of the French
+race—good will and friendliness, which influence one to judge others
+favorably and to desire their esteem; of a very impressionable nature,
+she was gifted with a natural eloquence which enabled her to express
+her various emotions in a light or gay vein which often bordered on
+irony. Affectionate and appreciative and tender and kind to everyone
+in general, toward those whom she loved she was generous to a fault
+and unswerving in her fidelity.
+
+Her last years were spent in the midst of her family. She died in
+1696, of small-pox, thanking God that she was the first to go, after
+having trembled for the life of her daughter, whom she had nursed back
+to health after a long and dangerous illness. Her son-in-law, M. de
+Grignan, wrote to her uncle, M. de Coulanges:
+
+"What calls far more for our admiration than for our regret, is the
+spectacle of a brave woman facing death—of which she had no doubt
+from the first days of her illness—with astounding firmness and
+submission. This person, so tender and so weak towards all whom she
+loved, showed nothing but courage and piety when she believed that her
+hour had come; and, impressed by the use she managed to make of that
+good store in the last moments of her life, we could not but remark
+of what utility and of what importance it is to have the mind stocked
+with the good matter and holy reading for which Mme. de Sévigné had a
+liking—not to say a wonderful hunger."
+
+In order to give an idea of the place that Mme. de Sévigné holds in
+the opinion of the average Frenchman, we quote the final words of M.
+Vallery-Radot:
+
+"To take a place among the greatest writers, without ever having
+written a book or even having thought of writing one—this is what
+seems impossible, and yet this is what happened to Mme. de Sévigné.
+Her contemporaries knew her as a woman distinguished for her _esprit_,
+frank, playful and sprightly humor, irreproachable conduct, loyalty to
+her friends, and as an idolizer of her daughter; no one suspected that
+she would partake of the glory of our classical authors—and she, less
+than any one. She had immortalized herself, without wishing or knowing
+it, by an intimate correspondence which is, to-day, universally
+regarded as one of the most precious treasures and one of the most
+original monuments to French literature. To deceive the _ennui_ of
+absence, she wrote to her daughter all that she had in her heart and
+that came to her mind—what she did, wished to do, saw and learned,
+news of court, city, Brittany, army, everything—sadly or gayly,
+according to the subject, always with the most keen, ardent, delicate,
+and touching sentiments of tenderness and sympathy. She amuses,
+instructs, interests, moves to tears or laughter. All that passes
+within or before her, passes within and before us. If she depicts
+an object, we see it; if she relates an event, we are present at its
+occurrence; if she makes a character talk, we hear his words, see his
+gestures, and distinguish his accent. All is true, real, living: this
+is more than talent—it is enchantment. Generations pass away in turn;
+a single one, or, rather, a group escapes the general oblivion—the
+group of friends of Mme. de Sévigné."
+
+A woman with characteristics the very opposite of those of Mme.
+de Sévigné, but who in some respects resembled her, was Mme. de La
+Fayette. Of her life, very little is to be said, except in regard to
+her lasting friendship and attachment for La Rochefoucauld. She
+was born in 1634, and, with Mme. de Sévigné, was probably the best
+educated among the great women of the seventeenth century. She was
+faithful to her husband, the Count of La Fayette, who, in 1665, took
+her to Paris, where she formed her lifelong attachment for the great
+La Rochefoucauld, and where she won immediate recognition for her
+exquisite politeness and as a woman with a large fund of common sense.
+
+After her marriage, she seemed to have but one interest—La
+Rochefoucauld, just as that of Mme. de Maintenon was Louis XIV. and
+that of Mme. de Sévigné—her daughter. These three prominent
+women illustrate remarkably well that predominant trait of French
+women—faithfulness to a chosen cause; each one of the three
+was vitally concerned in an enduring, a legitimate, and sincere
+attachment, which state of affairs gives a certain distinction to the
+society of the time of Louis XIV.
+
+Mme. de La Fayette, like Mme. de Sévigné, possessed an exceptional
+talent for making and retaining friends. She kept aloof from
+intrigues, in fact, knew nothing about them, and consequently never
+schemed to use her favor at court for purposes of self-interest. Two
+qualities belonged to her more than to any of her contemporaries—an
+instinct which was superior to her reason, and a love of truth in all
+things.
+
+Compared with those of Mme. de Rambouillet, it is said that her
+attainments were of a more solid nature; and while Mlle. de Scudéry
+had greater brilliancy, Mme. de La Fayette had better judgment.
+These qualities combined with an exquisite delicacy, fine sentiment,
+calmness, and depth of reason, the very basis of her nature, are
+reflected in her works. Sainte-Beuve says that "her reason and
+experience cool her passion and temper the ideal with the results of
+observation." She was one of the very few women playing any rôle
+in French history who were endowed with all things necessary to
+happiness—fortune, reputation, talent, intimate and ideal
+friendship. Extremely sensitive to surroundings, she readily received
+impressions—a gift which was the source of a somewhat doubtful
+happiness.
+
+In her later days, notwithstanding terrible suffering, she became more
+devout and exhibited an admirable resignation. A letter to Ménage will
+show the mental and physical state reached by her in her last days:
+"Although you forbid me to write to you, I wish, nevertheless, to tell
+you how truly affected I am by your friendship. I appreciate it as
+much as when I used to see it; it is dear to me for its own worth, it
+is dear to me because it is at present the only one I have. Time and
+old age have taken all my friends away from me.... I must tell you the
+state I am in. I am, first of all, a mortal divinity, and to an excess
+inconceivable; I have obstructions in my entrails—sad, inexpressible
+feelings; I have no spirit, no force—I cannot read or apply myself.
+The slightest things affect me—a fly appears an elephant to me; that
+is my ordinary state.... I cannot believe that I can live long in this
+condition, and my life is too disagreeable to permit me to fear the
+end. I surrender myself to the will of God; He is the All-Powerful,
+and, from all sides, we must go to Him at last. They assure me that
+you are thinking seriously of your salvation, and I am very happy over
+it."
+
+There probably never existed a more ideal friendship between two
+French women, one more lasting, sincere, perfect in every way, than
+that of Mme. de Sévigné and Mme. de La Fayette. The major part of
+the information we possess regarding events in the life of Mme. de La
+Fayette is obtained from their letters. Said Mme. de Sévigné: "Never
+did we have the smallest cloud upon our friendship. Long habit had not
+made her merit stale to me—the flavor of it was always fresh and new.
+I paid her many attentions, from the mere promptings of my affection,
+not because of the propriety by which, in friendships, we are bound. I
+was assured, too, that I was her dearest consolation—which, for forty
+years past, had been the case."
+
+Shortly before her death, she wrote to Mme. de Sévigné: "Here is what
+I have done since I wrote you last. I have had two attacks of fever;
+for six months I had not been purged; I am purged once, I am purged
+twice; the day after the second time, I sit down at the table; oh,
+dear! I feel a pain in my heart—I do not want any soup. Have a little
+meat, then? No, I do not wish any. Well, you will have some fruit? I
+think I will. Very well, then, have some. I don't know—I think I
+will have some by and by. Let me have some soup and some chicken
+this evening.... Here is the evening, and there are the soup and the
+chicken; I don't desire them. I am nauseated, I will go to bed—I
+prefer sleeping to eating. I go to bed, I turn round, I turn back,
+I have no pain, but I have no sleep either. I call—I take a book—I
+close it. Day comes—I get up—I go to the window. It strikes four,
+five, six—I go to bed again, I doze until seven, I get up at eight,
+I sit down to table at twelve—to no purpose, as yesterday.... I lay
+myself down in my bed, in the evening, to no purpose, as the night
+before. Are you ill? Nay, I am in this state for three days and three
+nights. At present, I am getting some sleep again, but I still eat
+mechanically, horsewise—rubbing my mouth with vinegar. Otherwise, I
+am very well, and I haven't so much as a pain in my head."
+
+Her depressing melancholy kept her indoors a great deal; in fact,
+after 1683, after the death of the queen, who was one of her best
+friends, she was seldom seen at court. Mme. de Sévigné gives good
+reason for this in her letter:
+
+"She had a mortal melancholy. Again, what absurdity! is she not the
+most fortunate woman in the world? That is what people said; it needed
+that she should die to prove that she had good reason for not going
+out and for being melancholy. Her reins and her heart were all
+gone—was not that enough to cause those fits of despondency of which
+she complained? And so, during her life she showed reason, and after
+death she showed reason, and never was she without that divine reason
+which was her principal gift."
+
+Her liaison with La Rochefoucauld is the one delicate and tender point
+in her life, a relation that afforded her much happiness and finally
+completed the ruin of her health. M. d'Haussonville said: "It is true
+that he took possession of her soul and intellect, little by little,
+so that the two beings, in the eyes of their contemporaries, were
+but one; for after his death (1680) she lived but an incomplete and
+mutilated existence."
+
+Some critics have ventured to pronounce this liaison one of material
+love solely, others are convinced of its morality and pure friendship.
+In favor of the latter view, M. d'Haussonville suggests the fact
+that Mme. de La Fayette was over thirty years of age when she became
+interested in La Rochefoucauld, and that at that age women rarely ally
+themselves with men from emotions of physical love merely. At that age
+it is reason that mutually attracts two beings; and this feeling was
+probably the predominant one in that case, because her entire career
+was one of the most extreme reserve, conservatism, good sense, and
+propriety. However, other proofs are brought forward to show that
+there was between the two a sort of moral marriage, so many examples
+of which are found in the seventeenth century between people
+of prominence, both of whom happened to have unhappy conjugal
+experiences.
+
+French society, one must remember, was different from any in the
+world; it seems to have been a large family gathering, the members of
+which were as intimate, took as much interest in each other's affairs,
+showed as much sympathy for one another and participated in each
+other's sorrows and pleasures, as though they were children of the
+same parents.
+
+In his early days, La Rochefoucauld found it convenient, for selfish
+purposes, to simulate an ardent passion for Mme. de Longueville,
+of which mention has been made in the chapter relating to Mme. de
+Longueville. In his later period, he had settled down to a normal
+mode of life and sought the friendship of a more reasonable and less
+passionate woman. He himself said:
+
+"When women have well-informed minds, I like their conversation better
+than that of men; you find, with them, a certain gentleness which is
+not met with among us; and it seems to me, besides, that they express
+themselves with greater clearness and that they give a more pleasant
+turn to the things they say."
+
+Mme. de La Fayette exercised a great influence upon La
+Rochefoucauld—an influence that was wholesome in every way. It was
+through her influential friends at court that he was helped into
+possession of his property, and it was she who maintained it for him.
+As to his literary work (his _Maxims_), her influence over him was
+supposed to have somewhat modified his ideas on women and to have
+softened his tone in general. She wrote: "He gave me wit, but I
+reformed his heart." M. d'Haussonville has proved, without doubt, that
+her restraint modified many of his maxims that were tinged with
+the spirit of the commonplace and trivial. While Mme. de
+Sablé—essentially a moralist and a deeply religious woman—was more
+of a companion to him, and though his maxims were, for the greater
+part, composed in her salon, Mme. de La Fayette, by her tenderness and
+judgment, tempered the tone of them before they reached the public.
+
+Mme. de La Fayette will always be known, however, as the great
+novelist of the seventeenth century. Two novels, two stories, two
+historical works, and her memoirs, make up her literary budget. M.
+d'Haussonville claims that her memoirs of the court of France are not
+reliable, because she was so often absent from court; also, in
+them she shows a tendency to avenge herself, in a way, upon Mme. de
+Maintenon, whose friend she was until the trouble between this lady
+and Mme. de Montespan occurred. The latter was the intimate friend
+of Mme. de La Fayette. As for her literary work proper, her desire to
+write was possibly encouraged, if not created, by her indulgence in
+the general fad of writing portraitures, in which she was especially
+successful in portraying Mme. de Sévigné. Her literary effort was,
+besides, a revolt of her own taste and sense against the pompous
+and inflated language of the novels of the day and against the great
+length of the development of the events and adventures in them. Thus,
+Mme. de La Fayette inaugurated a new style of novel; to show her
+influence, it will be well to consider the state of the Romanesque
+novel at the period of her writing.
+
+In the beginning of the century, D'Urfé's novels were in vogue; these
+works were characterized by interminable developments, relieved by an
+infinite number of historical episodes. All characters, shepherds
+as well as noblemen, expressed the same sentiments and in the same
+language. There was no pretension to truth in the portraying of
+manners and customs.—A reaction was natural and took the form of
+either a kind of parody or gross realism. These novels, of which
+_Francion_ and _Berger Extravagant_ were the best known, depicted
+shepherds of the Merovingian times, heroes of Persia and Rome, or
+procurers, scamps, and scoundrels; but no descriptions of the manners
+of decent people (_honnêtes gens_) were to be found.
+
+The novels of Mlle. de Scudéry, while interesting as portraitures, are
+not thoroughly reliable in their representation of the sentiments
+and environment of the times; on the other hand, those of Mme. de La
+Fayette are impersonal—no one of the characters is recognizable; yet
+their atmosphere is that of the court of Louis XIV., and the language,
+never so correct as to be unnatural, is that used at the time. Her
+novels reflect perfectly the society of the court and the manner of
+life there. "Thus," says M. d'Haussonville, "she was the first to
+produce a novel of observation and sentiment, the first to paint
+elegant manners as they really were."
+
+Her first production was _La Princesse de Montpensier_ (1662); in
+1670, appeared _Zayde_, it was ostensibly the work of Segrais, her
+teacher and a writer much in vogue at the time; in 1678, _La Princesse
+de Clèves_, her masterpiece, stirred up one of the first real quarrels
+of literary criticism. For a long time after the appearance of that
+book, society was divided into two classes—the pros and the cons. It
+was the most popular work of the period.
+
+M. d'Haussonville says it is the first French novel which is an
+illustration of woman's ability to analyze the most subtile of human
+emotions. Mme. de La Fayette was, also, the first to elevate, in
+literature, the character of the husband who, until then, was a
+nonentity or a booby; she makes of him a hero—sympathetic, noble, and
+dignified.
+
+In no fictitious tale before hers was love depicted with such rare
+delicacy and pathos. In her novel, _La Princesse de Clèves_, "a novel
+of a married woman, we feel the woman who has loved and who knows what
+she is saying, for she, also, has struggled and suffered." The writer
+confesses her weakness and leaves us witness of her virtue. All
+the soul struggles and interior combats represented in her work the
+authoress herself has experienced. As an example of this we cite the
+description of the sentiments of Mme. de Clèves when she realizes that
+her feeling toward one of the members of the court may develop into an
+emotion unworthy of her as a wife. She falls upon her knees and says:
+
+"I am here to make to you a confession such as has never been made
+to man; but the innocence of my conduct and my intentions give me
+the necessary courage. It is true that I have reasons for desiring to
+withdraw from court, and that I wish to avoid the perils which persons
+of my age experience. I have never shown a sign of weakness, and I
+would not fear of ever showing any, if you permitted me to withdraw
+from court, or if I still had, in my efforts to do right, the support
+of Mme. de Chartres. However dangerous may be the action I take, I
+take it with pleasure, that I may be worthy of your actions, I ask a
+thousand pardons; if I have sentiments displeasing to you, I shall
+at least never displease you by my actions. Remember, to do what I am
+doing, one must have for a husband more friendship and esteem than was
+ever before had. Have pity on me and lead me away—-and love me still,
+if you can."
+
+_La Princesse de Clèves_ is a novel of human virtue purely, and
+teaches that true virtue can find its reward in itself and in the
+austere enjoyment of duty accomplished. "It is a work that will
+endure, and be a comfort as well as a guide to those who aspire to a
+high morality which necessitates a difficult sacrifice."
+
+M. d'Haussonville regards the novels of Mmes. de Charrière, de Souza,
+de Duras, de Boigne, as mere imitations or as having been inspired by
+that masterpiece of Mme. de La Fayette. He says: "In fact, novels in
+general, that depict the struggle between passion and duty, with the
+victory on the side of virtue, emanate more or less from it."
+
+Taine wrote: "She described the events in the careers of society
+women, introducing no special terms of language into her descriptions.
+She painted for the sake of painting and did not think of attempting
+to surpass her predecessors. She reflects a society whose scrupulous
+care was to avoid even the slightest appearance of anything that might
+displease or shock. She shows the exquisite tact of a woman—and a
+woman of high rank."
+
+Mme. de La Fayette is one of the very rare French writers that have
+succeeded in analyzing love, passion, and moral duty, without becoming
+monotonous, vulgar, brutal, or excessively realistic. Her creations
+contain the most minute analyses of heart and soul emotions, but these
+never become purely physiologic and nauseating, as in most novels.
+This achievement on her part has been too little imitated, but it,
+alone, will preserve the name of Mme. de La Fayette.
+
+Mme. de Motteville is deserving of mention among the important
+literary women of the seventeenth century. She is regarded as one
+of the best women writers in French literature, and her memoirs are
+considered authority on the history of the Fronde and of Anne of
+Austria. The poetry of Mme. des Houlières was for a long time much
+in vogue; to-day, however, it is not read. The memoirs of Mlle. de
+Montpensier are more occupied with herself than with events of the
+time or the numerous princes who tarried about her as longing lovers.
+Guizot says: "She was so impassioned and haughty, with her head
+so full of her own greatness, that she did not marry in her youth,
+thinking no one worthy of her except the king and the emperor, and
+they had no fancy for her." The following portrait of her was sketched
+by herself:
+
+"I am tall, neither fat nor thin, of a very fine and easy figure.
+I have a good mien, arms and hands not beautiful, but a beautiful
+skin—and throat, too. I have a straight leg and a well-shaped foot;
+my hair is light and of a beautiful auburn; my face is long, its
+contour is handsome, nose large and aquiline; mouth neither large
+nor small, but chiselled and with a very pleasing expression; lips
+vermilion, not fine, but not frightful, either; my eyes are blue,
+neither large nor small, but sparkling, soft, and proud like my mien.
+I talk a great deal, without saying silly things or using bad words. I
+am a very vicious enemy, being very choleric and passionate, and that,
+added to my birth, may well make my enemies tremble; but I have, also,
+a noble and kindly soul. I am incapable of any base and black deed;
+and so I am more disposed to mercy than to justice. I am melancholic,
+and fond of reading good and solid books; trifles bore me—except
+verses, and them I like, of whatever sort they may be; and undoubtedly
+I am as good a judge of such things as if I were a scholar."
+
+Possibly the greatest female scholar that France ever produced was
+Mme. Dacier, a truly learned woman and one of whom French women are
+proud; during her last years she enjoyed the reputation of being one
+of the foremost scholars of all Europe. It was Mme. de Lambert who
+wrote of her:
+
+"I esteem Mme. Dacier infinitely. Our sex owes her much; she has
+protested against the common error which condemns us to ignorance.
+Men, as much from disdain as from a fancied superiority, have denied
+us all learning; Mme. Dacier is an example proving that we are capable
+of learning. She has associated erudition and good manners; for, at
+present, modesty has been displaced; shame is no longer for vices,
+and women blush over their learning only. She has freed the mind,
+held captive under this prejudice, and she alone supports us in our
+rights."
+
+Tanneguy-Lefèvre, the father of Mme. Dacier, was a savant and a type
+of the scholars of the sixteenth century. He brought up his sons to be
+like him—instructing them in Greek, Latin, and antiquities. The young
+daughter, present at all the lessons given to her brothers, acquired,
+unaided, a solid education; her father, amazed at her marvellous
+faculty for comprehending and remembering, soon devoted most of his
+energy to her. He was, at that time, professor at the College of
+Saumur; and he was conspicuous not only for the liberty he exhibited
+in his pedagogical duties, but for his general catholicity.
+
+After the death of her father, the young daughter went to Paris where
+her family friends, Chapelain and Huet, encouraged her in her studies,
+the latter, who was assistant preceptor to the dauphin, even going so
+far as to request her to assist him in preparing the Greek text for
+the use of the dauphin. She soon eclipsed all scholars of the time by
+her illuminating studies of Greek authors and of the quality of
+the new editions which she prepared of their works, but she was
+continually pestered on account of her erudition and her religion, the
+Protestant faith, to which she clung while realizing that it had been
+the cause of the failure of her father's advancement.
+
+From that time appeared her famous series of translations of Terence
+and Plautus, which were the delight of the women of the period and
+which gave her the reputation of being the most intellectual woman of
+the seventeenth century. In 1635, when nearly thirty years of age, she
+married M. Dacier, the favorite pupil of her father, librarian to
+the king and translator of Plutarch—a man of no means, but one who
+thoroughly appreciated the worth of Mlle. Lefèvre. This union was
+spoken of by her contemporaries as "the marriage of Greek and Latin."
+
+Two years after their marriage, after long and serious deliberation,
+both abjured Protestantism, adopted the Catholic religion, and
+succeeded in converting the whole town of Castres—an act which
+gained them royal favor, and Louis XIV. granted them a pension of
+two thousand livres. Sainte-Beuve states that their conversion was
+perfectly sincere and conscientious. In all their subsequent works
+were seen traces of Mme. Dacier's powerful intellect, which was much
+superior to that of her husband. Boileau said: "In their production of
+_esprit_, it is Mme. Dacier who is the father."
+
+Besides her translations of the plays of Plautus, all of Terence, the
+_Clouds_ and _Plutus_ of Aristophanes, she published her translation
+of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ (1711-1716), which gave her a prominent
+place in the history of French literature, especially as it appeared
+at the time of the "quarrels of the ancients and moderns," which
+concerned the comparative merits of ancient and modern literature.
+
+Mme. Dacier thoroughly appreciated the grandeur of Homer and knew the
+almost insurmountable difficulties of a translation; therefore,
+when in 1714 the _Iliad_ appeared in verse (in twelve songs by La
+Motte-Houdart), preceded by a discourse on Homer, in which the author
+announced that his aim was to purify and embellish Homer by ridding
+him "of his barbarian crudeness, his uncivil familiarities, and his
+great length," the ire of Mme. Dacier was aroused, and in defence of
+her god she wrote her famous _Des Causes de la Corruption du Goût_
+(Causes of the Corruption of Taste), a long defence of Homer, to which
+La Motte replied in his _Réflexions de la Critique_ This rekindled the
+whole controversy, and sides were immediately formed.
+
+Mme. Dacier was not politic; although she sustained her ideas well
+and displayed much erudition and depth of reason, she is said to have
+injured her cause by the violence of her polemic. Her immoderate tone
+and bitter assaults upon the elegant and discerning favorite only
+detracted from his opponent's favor and grace. Voltaire said: "You
+could say that the work of M. de La Motte was that of a woman of
+_esprit_, while that of Mme. Dacier was of a _homme savant_. He
+translated the _Iliad_ very poorly, but attacked very well." Mme.
+Dacier's translation remained a standard for two centuries. She and
+her adversary became reconciled at a dinner given by M. de Valincour
+for the friends of both parties; upon that festive occasion, "they
+drank to the health of Homer, and all was well."
+
+Mme. Dacier died in 1720. "She was a _savante_ only in her study or
+when with savants; otherwise, she was unaffected and agreeable
+in conversation, from the character of which one would never have
+suspected her of knowing more than the average woman." She was an
+incessant worker and had little time for social life; in the evening,
+after having worked all morning, she received visits from the literary
+men of France; and, to her credit may it be added, amid all her
+literary work, she never neglected her domestic and maternal duties.
+
+A woman of an entirely different type from that of Mme. Dacier, one
+who fitly closes the long series of great and brilliant women of the
+age of Louis XIV., who only partly resembles them and yet does not
+quite take on the faded and decadent coloring of the next age, was
+Mme. de Caylus, the niece of Mme. de Maintenon. It was she who, partly
+through compulsion, partly of her own free will, undertook the rearing
+of the young and beautiful Marthe-Marguerite de Villette. Mme. de
+Maintenon was then at the height of her power, and naturally her
+beautiful, clever, and witty niece was soon overwhelmed by proposals
+of marriage from the greatest nobles of France. To one of these, M. de
+Boufflers, Mme. de Maintenon replied: "My niece is not a sufficiently
+good match for you. However, I am not insensible to the honor you pay
+me; I shall not give her to you, but in the future I shall consider
+you my nephew."
+
+She then married the innocent young girl to the Marquis de Caylus, a
+debauched, worthless reprobate—a union whose only merit lay in the
+fact that her niece could thus remain near her at court. At the latter
+place, her beauty, gayety, and caustic wit, her adaptable and somewhat
+superficial character and her freedom of manners and speech, did
+not fail to attract many admirers. Her frankness in expressing her
+opinions was the source of her disgrace; Louis XIV. took her at her
+word when she exclaimed, in speaking of the court: "This place is so
+dull that it is like being in exile to live here," and forbade her to
+appear again in the place she found so tiresome. Those rash words
+cost her an exile of thirteen years, and only through good behavior,
+submission, and piety was she permitted to return.
+
+She appeared at a supper given by the king, and, by the brilliancy
+of her beauty and _esprit_, she attracted everyone present and soon
+regained her former favor and friends. From that time she was the
+constant companion of Mme. de Maintenon, until the king's death, when
+she returned to Paris; at that place her salon became an intellectual
+centre, and there the traditions of the seventeenth century were
+perpetuated.
+
+Sainte-Beuve said that Mme. de Caylus perfectly exemplified what
+was called urbanity—"politeness in speech and accent as well as in
+_esprit_." In her youth she was famous for her extraordinary acting in
+the performance, at Saint-Cyr, of Racine's _Esther_. Mme. de Sévigné
+wrote: "It is Mme. de Caylus who makes Esther." Her brief and witty
+_Souvenirs_ (Memoirs), showing marvellous finesse in the art of
+portraiture, made her name immortal. M. Saint-Amand describes her work
+thus:
+
+"Her friends, enchanted by her lively wit, had long entreated her
+to write—not for the public, but for them—the anecdotes which she
+related so well. Finally, she acquiesced, and committed to paper
+certain incidents, certain portraits. What a treasure are these
+_Souvenirs_—so fluently written, so unpretentious, with neither dates
+nor chronological order, but upon which, for more than a century, all
+historians have drawn! How much is contained in this little book
+which teaches more in a few lines than interminable works do in many
+volumes! How feminine it is, and how French! One readily understands
+Voltaire's liking for these charming _Souvenirs_. Who, than Mme. de
+Caylus, ever better applied the famous precept: 'Go lightly, mortals;
+don't bear too hard.'"
+
+She belonged to that class of spontaneous writers who produce artistic
+works without knowing it, just as M. Jourdain wrote prose, and who do
+not even suspect that they possess that chief attribute of literary
+style—naturalness. What pure, what ready wit! What good humor,
+what unconstraint, what delightful ease! What a series of charming
+portraits, each more lifelike, more animated, still better than all
+the others! "These little miniatures—due to the brush of a woman
+of the world—are better worth studying than is many a picture or
+fresco."
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VII
+
+Woman in Religion
+
+
+The entire religious agitation of the seventeenth century was due to
+women. Port-Royal was the centre from which issued all contention—the
+centre where all subjects were discussed, where the most important
+books were written or inspired, where the genius of that great century
+centred; and it was to Port-Royal that the greatest women of France
+went, either to find repose for their souls or to visit the noble
+members of their sex who had consecrated their lives to God—Mère
+Angélique, Jacqueline Pascal. Never in the history of the world had
+a religious sect or party gathered within its fold such an array of
+great minds, such a number of fearless and determined heroines and
+_esprits d'élite_. A short account of this famous convent must precede
+any story of its members.
+
+The original convent, Port-Royal des Champs, near Versailles, was
+founded as early as 1204, by Mathieu of Montmorency and his wife, for
+the Cistercian nuns who had the privileges of electing their abbess
+and of receiving into their community ladies who, tired of the social
+world, wished to retire to a religious asylum, without, however, being
+bound by any religious vows. Later on, the sisters were permitted to
+receive, also, young ladies of the nobility.
+
+These privileges were used to such advantage that the institution
+acquired great wealth; and through its boarders, some of whom belonged
+to the most important families of France, it became influential to an
+almost incalculable degree. For four centuries this convent had been
+developing liberal tendencies and gradually falling away from its
+primitive austerity, when, in 1605, Sister Angélique Arnauld became
+abbess and undertook a thorough reform. So great was her success in
+this direction that, after having effected similar changes at the
+Convent of Maubuisson and then returned to Port-Royal des Champs, the
+latter became so crowded that new and more commodious quarters had to
+be obtained.
+
+The immense and beautiful Hôtel de Cluny, at Paris, was procured, and
+a portion of the community moved thither, establishing an institution
+which became the best known and most popular of those French convents
+which were patronized by women of distinction. The old abbey buildings
+near Versailles were later occupied by a community of learned and
+pious men who were, for the most part, pupils of the celebrated Abbé
+of Saint-Cyran, who, with Jansenius, was living at Paris at the time
+that Mère Angélique was perfecting her reforms; she, attracted by the
+ascetic life led by the abbé, fell under his influence, and the whole
+Arnauld family, numbering about thirty, followed her example.
+
+Soon "the nuns at Paris, with their numerous and powerful connections,
+and the recluses at Port-Royal des Champs, together with their pupils
+and the noble or wealthy families to which the latter belonged, were
+imbued with the new doctrines of which they became apostles." The
+primary aim was to live up to a common ideal of Christian perfection,
+and to react against the general corruption by establishing thoroughly
+moral schools and publishing works denouncing, in strong terms, the
+glaring errors of the time, the source of which was considered, by
+both the Abbé of Saint-Cyran and Jansenius, to lie in the Jesuit
+Colleges and their theology. Thus was evolved a system of education in
+every way antagonistic to that of the Jesuits.
+
+At this time the convent at Paris became so crowded that Mère
+Angélique withdrew to the abbey near Versailles, the occupants of
+which retired to a neighboring farm, Les Granges; there was opened
+a seminary for females, which soon attracted the daughters of the
+nobility. An astounding literary and agricultural activity resulted,
+both at the abode of the recluses and at the seminary: by the recluses
+were written the famous Greek and Latin grammars, and by the nuns, the
+famous _Memoirs of the History of Port-Royal_ and the _Image of the
+Perfect and Imperfect Sister_; a model farm was cultivated, and here
+the peasants were taught improved methods of tillage. During the
+time of the civil wars the convent became a resort where charity and
+hospitality were extended to the poor peasants.
+
+"The mode of life at Port-Royal was distinguished for austerity. The
+inmates rose at three o'clock in the morning, and, after the common
+prayer, kissed the ground as a sign of their self-humiliation before
+God. Then, kneeling, they read a chapter from the Gospels and one from
+the Epistles, concluding with another prayer. Two hours in the morning
+and a like number in the afternoon were devoted to manual labor in the
+gardens adjoining the convent; they observed, with great strictness,
+the season of Lent." Their theories and practices, and especially
+their sympathy with Jansenius, whose work _Mars Gallicus_ attacked
+the French government and people, aroused the suspicions of Richelieu.
+When in 1640 the Port-Royalists openly and enthusiastically received
+the famous work, _Augustinus_, of Jansenius, the government became the
+declared opponent of the convent. Saint-Cyran had been imprisoned
+in 1638, and not until after the death of Richelieu, in 1642, was
+he liberated. After the appearance, in 1643, of Arnauld's _De la
+Fréquente Communion_, in which he attacked the Jesuits for admitting
+the people to the Lord's Supper without due preparation, two parties
+formed—the Jesuits, supported by the Sorbonne and the government, and
+the Port-Royalists, supported by Parliament and illustrious persons,
+such as Mme. de Longueville.
+
+In 1644, the nuns were dispersed by order of Louis XIV., against whose
+despotic caprices two Jansenist bishops had fought in support of the
+rights of the pope. The Paris convent remained closed until 1669, when
+it and the one at Chevreuse, near Versailles were made independent
+of each other, a proceeding which resulted in the two institutions
+becoming opponents. In 1708 the Convent of Port-Royal des Champs
+was suppressed, and, a year later, the beautiful and once prosperous
+community was destroyed, the buildings being levelled to the ground.
+In 1780 the Paris convent was abolished; five years later the
+structure was converted into a hospital, and in 1814 it became the
+lying-in asylum of _La Maternité_.
+
+In those two convents, which were practically one, was fomented and
+developed the entire religious movement of the seventeenth century,
+to which period belong the general study and development of theology,
+metaphysics, and morality. Such great, good, and brilliant women as
+the Countess of Maure, Mlle. de Vandy, Anne de Rohan, Mme. de Brégy,
+Mme. de Hautefort, Mme. de Longueville, Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La
+Fayette, and Mme. de Sablé were inmates of Port-Royal, or its friends
+and constant visitors.
+
+Port-Royal may have been the cause of the civil war waged by the
+Frondists against the government. It did bring on the struggle between
+the Jesuits, who were all-powerful in the Church, and the Jansenists.
+The latter denied the doctrine of free will, and taught the absolutism
+of religion, the "terrible God," the powerlessness of kings and
+princes before God—a doctrine which brought down upon them the wrath
+of Louis XIV., for whom their notion of virtue was too severe, their
+use of the Gospel too excessive, and their Christianity impossible.
+
+In its purest form, Port-Royalism was a return to the sanctity of the
+primitive church—an attempt at the use, in French, of the whole body
+of Scriptures and the writings of the Church Fathers; it aimed to
+maintain a vigorous religious reaction in the shape of a reform, and
+that reform was vigorously opposed by the Catholic Church.
+
+One family that is associated with Port-Royal gave to its cause no
+less than six sisters; the latter all belonged to the Convent of
+Port-Royal and were attached to the Jansenist party; of them, the
+Archbishop of Paris said that they were "as pure as angels, but as
+proud as devils." They were related to the one great Arnauld family,
+of which Antoine and his three sons—Robert, Henri, and the younger
+Antoine, called "the great Antoine"—were illustrious champions of
+Port-Royal.
+
+Marie Jacqueline Angélique, the oldest among the three abbesses, was
+born in 1591, and, at the early age of fourteen, was made abbess
+of Port-Royal des Champs; it was she who, after having instituted
+successful reforms at Port-Royal, was sent to reform the system of
+the Abbey of Maubuisson, thus initiating the important movement which
+later involved almost all France. She became convinced that she had
+not been lawfully elected abbess and resigned, securing, however, a
+provision which made the election of abbesses a triennial event. To
+her belongs the honor of having made Port-Royal anew. She was a woman
+capable of every sacrifice,—a wonderful type in which were blended
+candor, pride, and submission,—and she exhibited indomitable strength
+of will and earnest zeal for her cause.
+
+Her sister, Agnes, but three years younger than Marie, also entered
+the convent, and, at the age of fifteen, was made mistress of the
+novices; during the absence of her sister, at Maubuisson, she was
+at the head of the convent; from that time, she governed Port-Royal
+alternately with her sister, for twenty-seven years. Her work, _The
+Secret Chapter of the Sacrament_, was suppressed at Rome, but without
+bringing formal censure upon her.
+
+The last of those great abbesses was Mère Angélique, who lived through
+the most troublous and critical times of Port-Royal (1624 to 1684). At
+the age of twenty she became a nun, having been reared in the convent
+by her aunt, Marie, who was the most perfect disciple of Saint-Cyran.
+Mère Angélique was especially conspicuous for her obstinacy, and when
+the nuns were forced to accept the formulary of Pope Alexander VI.,
+she, alone, was excepted, because of that well known characteristic.
+Upon the reopening of Port-Royal (in 1689), her powerful protectress,
+Mme. de Longueville, died and the persecutions were renewed; Mère
+Angélique endeavored to avert the storm, but all in vain; amidst her
+efforts, she collapsed. She was also a writer, her _Memoirs of
+the History of Port Royal_ being the most valuable history of that
+institution.
+
+Thus, about those three women is formed the religious movement which
+involved both the development of religious liberty, free will, and
+morality, and of the philosophical literature of the century—a
+century which boasts such writers and theologians as Nicole, Pascal,
+Racine, etc.
+
+The mission of Port-Royal seems to have been preparation of souls for
+the struggles of life, teaching how to resist oppression or to bear it
+with courage, and how, for a righteous cause, to brave everything,
+not only the persecutions of power—violence, prison, exile,—but
+the ruses of hypocrisy and the calumny of opposing opinion. The
+Port-Royalist nun combated and taught how to combat; she lacked
+humility, but possessed an abundance of courage which often bordered
+upon passion.
+
+One of the most pathetic and striking illustrations of the fervent
+devotion which was a characteristic product of Port-Royal, is supplied
+by Jacqueline Pascal, sister of the great Blaise Pascal. Young,
+_spirituelle_, very much sought after and the idol of brilliant
+companions, at the age of twenty-six she abandoned the world to devote
+herself to God. At thirty-six years of age she died of sorrow and
+remorse for having signed an equivocal formulary of Pope Alexander
+VI., "through pure deference to the authority of her superiors." The
+papal decision concerning Jansenius's book, already mentioned, was
+drawn up in a formula "turned with some skill, and in such a way
+that subscription did not bind the conscience; however, the nuns of
+Port-Royal refused to sign." Jacqueline Pascal wrote:
+
+"That which hinders us, what hinders all the ecclesiastics who
+recognize the truth from replying when the formulary is presented to
+them to subscribe is: I know the respect I owe the bishops, but my
+conscience does not permit me to subscribe that a thing is in a
+book in which I have not seen it—and after that, wait for what will
+happen. What have we to fear? Banishment and dispersion for the nuns,
+seizure of temporalities, imprisonment, and death if you will; but
+is not that our glory and should it not be our joy? Let us either
+renounce the Gospel or faithfully follow the maxims of that Gospel
+and deem ourselves happy to suffer somewhat for righteousness' sake.
+I know that it is not for daughters to defend the truth, though,
+unfortunately, one might say that since the bishops have the courage
+of daughters, the daughters must have the courage of bishops; but,
+if it is not for us to defend the truth, it is for us to die for the
+truth and to suffer everything rather than abandon it."
+
+She subscribed, "divided between her instinctive repugnance and her
+desire to show herself an humble daughter of the Catholic Church."
+She said: "It is all we can concede; for the rest, come what
+may,—poverty, dispersion, imprisonment, death,—all those seem to
+me nothing in comparison with the anguish in which I should pass the
+remainder of my life, if I had been wretch enough to make a covenant
+with death on the occasion of so excellent an opportunity for proving
+to God the sincerity of the vows of fidelity which our lips have
+pronounced." According to Mme. Périer, the health of the writer of the
+above epistle was so undermined by the shock which all that commotion
+had caused her, that she became dangerously ill, dying soon after.
+Thus was sacrificed the first victim of the formulary.
+
+Cousin says that few women of the seventeenth century were as
+brilliantly endowed as Jacqueline Pascal; possessing the finesse,
+energy, and sobriety of her brother, she was capable of the most
+serious work, and yet knew perfectly how to lead in a social circle.
+Also, she was most happily gifted with a talent for poetry, in
+relation to which her reputation was everywhere recognized; at
+the convent, she consulted her superiors as to the advisability of
+continuing her verse making; and upon being told that such occupation
+was not a means of winning the grace of Jesus Christ, she abandoned
+it.
+
+Cousin maintained that the avowed principle of the Port-Royalists was
+the withdrawal from all worldly pleasure and attachment. "'Marriage is
+a homicide; absolute renunciation is the true régime of a Christian.'
+Jacqueline Pascal is an exaggeration of Port-Royal, and Port-Royal is
+an exaggeration of the religious spirit of the seventeenth century.
+Man is too little considered; all movement of the physical world comes
+from God; all our acts and thoughts, except those of crime and error,
+come from and belong to Him. Nothing is our own; there is no free
+will; will and reason have no power. The theory of grace is the source
+of all truth, virtue, and merit—and for this doctrine Jacqueline
+Pascal gives up her life."
+
+Among the great spirits of Port-Royal, the women especially were
+strong in their convictions and high in their ideals. They naturally
+followed the ideas of man and naturally fell into religious errors;
+but their firmness, constancy, and heroism were striking indeed. Their
+aspiration was the imitation of Christ, and they approached their
+model as near as ever was done by man. In an age of courtesans, when
+convictions were subservient to the pleasure of power, they set a
+worthy example of strength of mind, firmness of will, purity, and
+womanliness. M. du Bled says:
+
+"Port-Royal was the enterprise of the middle-class aristocracy of
+France; you can see here an anticipated attempt of a sort of superior
+third estate to govern for itself in the Church and to establish a
+religion not Roman, not aristocratic and of the court, not devout
+in the manner of the simple people, but freer from vain images and
+ceremonies, and freer, also, as to the temporal in the face of worldly
+authority—a sober, austere, independent religion which would have
+truly founded a Gallican reform. The illusion was in thinking that
+they could continue to exist in Rome—that Richelieu and Louis XIV.
+would tolerate the boldness of this attempt."
+
+A celebrated woman of the seventeenth century, one who really belongs
+to the circle of Mme. de Longueville and Mme. de La Fayette, but who
+early in life, like Mme. de Longueville, devoted herself to religion
+and retired to live at Port-Royal, and is therefore more intimately
+associated with the religious movement, was Mme. de Sablé, a type of
+the social-religious woman.
+
+Mme. de Sablé is a heroine of Cousin, whom we closely follow in this
+account of her career. According to that writer, she is a type of the
+purely social woman, a woman who did less for herself than for others,
+in aiding whom she took delight, a woman who was the inspiration of
+many writers and many works.
+
+Mlle. de Souvré married the wealthy Marquis of Sablé, of the house of
+Montmorency, of whom little is known. He soon abandoned her; and she,
+most unhappy over unworthy rivals, fell very ill, retired from society
+for a time, and then reappeared; her career as a society woman then
+began. At an early age, by force of her decided taste for the high
+form of Spanish gallantry, then so much in vogue, and her inclination
+to all things intellectual, she became one of the leaders of the
+Hôtel de Rambouillet. She, Mmes. de Sévigné, de Longueville, and de La
+Fayette formed that circle of women who idealized friendship.
+
+Within a few years she lost her father, husband, two of her brothers,
+and her second son; and after putting her financial affairs into
+order, she and her friend, the Countess of Maure, took up their
+quarters at the famous Place Royale; there they decided to devote
+their lives to letters, and there assembled their friends, men and
+women, regardless of rank or party, personal merit being the only
+means of access. Mmes. de Sablé and de Rambouillet were called the
+arbiters of elegance and good taste.
+
+To her friends, Mme. de Sablé was always accommodating and showed no
+partiality; well informed, she was constantly approached for counsel
+and favors; discreet and trustworthy, the most important secrets were
+intrusted to her—a confidence which she never betrayed. During the
+Fronde she remained faithful to the queen and Mazarin, but did not
+become estranged from her friends, so many of whom were Frondists, and
+who chose her as their counsellor, arbitrator, and pacifier.
+
+About 1655 she began to realize her unsettled position in the world
+and to long for a place where she might, modestly and becomingly,
+spend her declining years. She was then fifty-five years of age. The
+ideas of Jansenism had so impressed the great people of the day, that
+she decided to retire to Port-Royal, to end her days with sympathizers
+of the spiritual life around her and her former friends whenever she
+desired them. There she gathered about her the most exclusive and
+aristocratic people of the day: La Rochefoucauld, the Prince and
+Princess of Conti, Condé, Monsieur,—brother of Louis XIV.,—Mme. de
+La Fayette, Mme. de Hautefort, and others.
+
+At her apartments, not only were religious and literary affairs
+discussed, but the most delicate and delicious dishes were prepared
+and elixirs and remedies for disease compounded. Famous people were
+led to seek her, through her reputation and influence, and through
+friendship, for she seldom left her house. Mme. de Sablé possessed all
+the qualities that attract and hold, nothing extraordinary or rare,
+but abundant politeness and elegance.
+
+It was not long before she began to withdraw from even her friends,
+still continuing, however, her fine cuisine, the remarkable care
+of her health, and her medical experiments. Her dinners became
+celebrated, and invitations to them were much in demand; about them
+there were no signs of opulence, but her gatherings were distinguished
+for refinement and taste. Her friends were constantly asking her for
+her recipes, of the preparation of which no one but herself knew the
+secret.
+
+At the salon of Mme. de Sablé originated many famous literary works,
+such as the _Conférences sur le Calvinisme_, works on Cartesian
+philosophy, the _Logique de Port-Royal_, _Questions sur l'Amour_, _Les
+Maximes_, etc. She will be remembered as the initiator of many maxims,
+in the composition of which she excelled. A number of her sayings
+concerning friendship have been preserved. Two treatises, in the
+form of maxims, on the education of children and on friendship,
+respectively, are supposed to have come from her pen; from them La
+Rochefoucauld conceived the ideas he utilized in his famous _Maxims_.
+
+La Rochefoucauld's maxims were composed according to the chance of
+conversation, which gave rise to various subjects and led to his
+serious reflection upon them. Cousin even goes so far as to say that
+the _Pensées_ of Pascal would never have been published in that
+form had not the _Maxims_ enjoyed such favor. Pascal often visited
+Port-Royal and naturally followed the general reflective tendency
+of its society. His _Discours sur les Passions de l'Amour_ possibly
+originated at the salon of Mme. de Sablé, because the subject of which
+that work treated was one much discussed there. La Rochefoucauld was
+in the habit of sending his maxims to Mme. de Sablé with the message:
+"As you do nothing for nothing, I ask of you a carrot soup or mutton
+stew."
+
+When La Rochefoucauld entered the society of Mme. de Sablé, he had
+seen much of life, was familiar with most of the adventures and
+intrigues of the Fronde and the society of the time; he himself had
+acted his part in all, and at the age of fifty was ready to put his
+experience into a permanent form of reflection. His _Maxims_ created
+a stir, through the clearness and elegance of their character, their
+fine analyses of man as he was in the seventeenth century, and through
+their truthfulness and general applicability to men of every country.
+From all the illustrious women of the day, either he or Mme. de
+Sablé received letters of criticism or suggestion—eulogies and
+condemnations of which he took notice in his next edition. This
+shows the intense interest felt in the appearance of any new literary
+production.
+
+Cousin says that the whole literature of maxims and reflections issued
+directly from the salon of a kind and good woman who had retired to a
+convent with no other desire than to live over her life, to recall
+her past and what she had seen and felt therein; and upon her society,
+that woman impressed her own tastes, elegance, and seriousness. Her
+great act of benevolence was her protection of Port-Royal. When, after
+the death in 1661 of Mother Angélique Arnauld, that institution became
+the object of persecution and its tenants were either imprisoned or
+compelled to seek refuge in the various families of Paris, Mme. de
+Sablé remained faithful to its principles; she lived with her friends,
+Mme. de Longueville and Mme. de Montausier, until 1669, when, with the
+coöperation of Mme. de Longueville, who exerted all her influence for
+Port-Royal, she finally succeeded in bringing about its reopening. At
+least, Cousin ascribes this result to Mme. de Sablé, but he may have
+somewhat exaggerated her influence in this respect. From her retreat
+at Port-Royal, she kept up a constant correspondence with her friends
+all over France; she lived there until 1678, with but one intimate
+friend, Mme. de Longueville.
+
+Mme. de Sablé had remarkable gifts; her mission in politics, religion,
+and literature seems to have been to excite to action, to stimulate
+and to bring out to its fullest value, the talents and genius of
+others. In her modest salon, she inspired the great and illustrious
+work which will keep her memory alive as long as the _Maxims_ and
+_Pensées_ are read. Her name will be connected with that of Mme.
+de Longueville, because of their ideal friendship, and with that of
+Port-Royal because of her ardent and self-sacrificing support of it
+in the time of its direst persecution, when any exhibition of sympathy
+was dangerous in the extreme; and finally, her name will always be
+connected with that small circle of French society of the seventeenth
+century, which was noble, moral, and elevating to an unusual degree.
+
+Somewhat later in the century a different movement was started by a
+woman, which involved many of the highest in rank at court. This took
+the form of a kind of mystical enthusiasm, running into a theory of
+pure love, and was instigated by Mme. Guyon, a widow, still young, and
+gifted with a lofty and subtile mind. After losing her husband, whom
+she had converted to her religious views, she went, in 1680, to Paris
+to educate her children. Becoming interested in religion, she went
+to Geneva, where she became very intimate with a priest who was
+her spiritual director, and whom she soon wholly subjected to her
+influence. On account of their views on sanctification, they were
+ordered to leave.
+
+After travelling over Europe for a number of years, and writing
+several works, including _Spiritual Torrents_ and _Short and Easy
+Method of Making Orison with the Heart_, the widow returned to Paris,
+with the intention of living in retirement; but so many persons of all
+ranks sought her out, that she organized, for ladies of rank, meetings
+for purposes of prayer and religious conversation. The Duchess of
+Beauvilliers, the Duchess of Béthune, the Countess of Guiche, the
+Countess of Chevreuse, and many others, with their husbands, became
+her devoted adherents.
+
+According to Mme. Guyon, prayer should lose the character of
+supplication, and become simply the silence of a soul absorbed in God.
+"Why are not simple folks so taught? Shepherds, keeping their flocks,
+would have the spirit of the old anchorites; and laborers, whilst
+driving the plow, would talk happily with God. In a little while, vice
+would be banished and the kingdom of God would be realized on earth."
+Thus, her doctrine was directly opposite to the theories of the
+Jansenists.
+
+At that time, 1687 to 1688, all religious movements, however quiet,
+were condemned at Rome; and the teachings of Mme. Guyon were found to
+differ very little from those of the Spanish priest Molinas. The first
+arrest, that of her friend Lacombe, was soon followed by that of
+Mme. Guyon herself, by royal order; she was released through the
+intercession of Mme. de Maintenon, who was fascinated by her to the
+extent of permitting her to teach her doctrines at Saint-Cyr, Upon the
+appearance of her _Method of Prayer_, an examination was instituted
+by Bossuet and Fénelon, who marked out a few passages as erroneous—a
+procedure to which she submitted. However, Bossuet himself wrote a
+treatise against her _Method of Prayer_, in which he cast reflections
+upon her character and conduct; to that work Fénelon refused to
+subscribe, which antagonistic proceeding brought on the great quarrel
+between those two absolute ecclesiasts. In fact, Fénelon became imbued
+with the doctrines of Mme. Guyon.
+
+She was imprisoned at various times; and when a letter was received
+from Lacombe, who had been imprisoned at Vincennes for a long time,
+exhorting her to repent of their criminal intimacy, Mme. Guyon's cause
+was hopeless. She was sent to the Bastille, her son was dismissed
+from the army, and many of her friends were banished. In 1702 she was
+released from prison and banished to Diziers; she passed the remainder
+of her life in complete retirement at Blois.
+
+Fénelon had written a treatise, _Maxims of the Saints_, which was
+said to favor Mme. Guyon's doctrines, and which was sent to Rome for
+examination. He defined her doctrine of divine love in the following
+maxim, which was condemned at Rome:
+
+"There is an habitual state of love of God, which is pure charity
+without any taint of the motive of self-interest. Neither fear of
+punishment nor desire of reward has, any longer, part in this love;
+God is loved, not for the merit, but for the happiness to be found in
+loving Him."
+
+Such a doctrine made repentance unnecessary, destroyed all effort to
+withstand evil, and did not acknowledge the need of a Redeemer. This
+the great Bossuet foresaw; consequently, he, as the supreme religious
+potentate of his inferior in rank, Fénelon, demanded the condemnation
+by the latter of the works of Mme. Guyon. The refusal cost Fénelon
+exile for life. To Mme. de Maintenon he wrote a letter which shows the
+sincerity of his devotion to a friend in disgrace, even though his own
+reputation was thereby endangered:
+
+"So it is to secure my own reputation that I am wanted to subscribe
+that a lady—my friend—would plainly deserve to be burned, with all
+her writings, for an execrable form of spirituality which is the only
+bond of our friendship. I tell you, madame, I would burn my friend
+with my own hands, and I would burn myself joyfully, rather than
+let the Church be imperilled; but here is a poor, captive woman,
+overwhelmed with sorrows; there is none to defend her, none to excuse
+her; all are afraid to do so. I maintain that this stroke of the pen,
+given from a cowardly policy and against my conscience, would render
+me forever infamous and unworthy of my ministry and my position."
+
+Thus, in the seventeenth century, religious agitations and religious
+reform were the work preëminently of women; but that reform and those
+agitations were productive of good results to a far greater degree
+than was any similar movement in any other century, with the possible
+exception of the nineteenth. The seventeenth century was, as mentioned
+before, a century of stability, one that toned down and crushed all
+violations and abuses of the standard established by authority. Woman,
+in her constant striving for the complete emancipation and gradual
+purification of her sex, rebelled against the power of established
+authority; she did not consciously or intentionally violate law and
+order, but in her intense desire to act for good as she saw it, and
+in her noble efforts to ameliorate all undesirable conditions, she
+created commotion and confusion. The seventeenth-century woman is
+conspicuous as a champion of religion, moral purity, and social
+reform; therefore, her influence was mainly social, religious, moral,
+and literary, while that of the woman of the sixteenth century was
+mainly political. This difference was the result of the greater
+advantages of education and training enjoyed by the females of the
+later period.
+
+In the beginning of the seventeenth century, young girls were granted
+greater privileges and received more attention from men and society
+than did their predecessors; they thus had more opportunities for
+mental development, more occasion to become aware of the temptations
+and injustices of life, without falling prey to them. Such young girls
+as Julie d'Angennes, Mlle. d'Arquenay, and Mlle. de Pisani, took
+part in the balls, fêtes, garden parties, and all amusements in which
+society indulged. They met young men of their own age and became
+intimately acquainted with them, morals were purer, marriages of
+affection were much more frequent, and the state of married life was
+much more congenial, than in any other century. Young men paid
+court to the older ladies, to refine their manners and sharpen their
+intellects, but not for any immoral purpose. To a certain extent
+women were more world-wise when they reached the marriageable age, and
+inspired respect and admiration rather than passion and desire as in
+the next century.
+
+Young girls of the seventeenth century were early placed in a convent,
+and when they left it they were ready for marriage; in the meantime,
+they frequently visited home and associated with their parents and
+brothers; at the convents intellectual intercourse with people of high
+rank and men of letters was encouraged. Yet the discipline at those
+institutions was very rigid, the boarders being more carefully watched
+then than later on; two nuns always accompanied them on their walks,
+and when not busy with their studies, to prevent the mind from
+wandering, they were kept busy with their hands; "the transports of
+the soul of the young girl, as every reflection of the intelligence,
+are watched and held in check, every one of her inclinations opposed,
+all originality suppressed."
+
+At first the convents were reproached for stifling all culture and
+development and applying only correction and mortification of the
+flesh. Mme. de Maintenon opposed such a state of affairs, but her
+methods discouraged true independence. The happiness of her charges
+was her one aim, but they had no voice in the matter. When of
+marriageable age, they were given a trousseau and a husband; however,
+they were taught to be reasonable.
+
+In that century, the young girl, mixing more generally in society,
+received greater consideration—hence, she became more active and
+conspicuous. It will be seen that the rôle played by the eighteenth
+century woman was not so much played by the young woman as it was
+by the woman of mature years, of the mother, the counsellor—the
+indispensable element of society. There were three classes of
+women—young women, mature women who sought consideration, and old
+women who received respect and deference, and who, as arbiters of
+culture, upheld the principles already established.
+
+A young man making his début had to find favor with one of those
+classes which decided his future reputation and the extent of his
+favor at court, and assigned him his place and grade, upon which
+depended his marriage. All education was directed to the one
+end—social success. The duty of the tutor charged with the
+instruction of a young son was to give a well-rounded, general
+education; by the mother, he was taught politeness, grace,
+amiability—a part of his training to which more importance was
+attached than to the intellectual portion. Whenever a young man was
+guilty of misconduct toward a woman, his mother was notified of
+the occurrence, on the same evening, and he promptly received his
+reprimand. This spirit naturally fostered that rare politeness,
+exquisite taste and tact in conversation, in which the eighteenth
+century excels.
+
+But where did the young girls receive the education which gave them
+such prestige—that consummate art of conversation exemplified in
+Mme. de Boufflers, Mme. de Luxembourg, Mme. de Sabran, the Duchess
+of Choiseul, the Princess of Beauvau, the Countess of Ségur? The sons
+were educated in the usages of the _bonne compagnie_ by the mothers,
+but the daughters did not enjoy that attention, for, at the age of
+five or six years, they were sent to the convent; there the mother's
+influence could not have reached them, and they never left the convent
+except to marry. The middle class imitated the higher class, and
+family life became practically impossible. All men of any importance
+had a charge at court or a grade in the army, and lived away from
+their families. A large number of women were attached to the queen,
+spending the greater part of their time at Versailles; the little time
+passed at their homes was entirely occupied in preparation for the
+evening _causeries_ at the salons, in reading new books, acquiring
+information upon current events, and in superintending the making of
+the many necessary and always elaborate gowns; as M. Perey so well
+says, "as the toilettes and hairdressing took up the greater part
+of the morning, they devoted the time used by the _coiffeur_, in
+constructing complicated edifices that crushed down the heads of
+women, to the reading of new books."
+
+Nearly every large establishment kept open house, dining from twenty
+to thirty persons every day. They dined at one, separated at three,
+were at the theatre at five, and returned with as many friends as
+possible—the more, the greater the reputation for hospitality and
+popularity. Under such circumstances, the mother had no time for the
+daughters, nor were the conversations at those dinners food for
+young, innocent girls—and innocence was the first requirement of a
+marriageable young woman.
+
+The great convents were the Abbaye-aux-Bois and Penthemont, where the
+daughters of the wealthiest and highest families were educated. In
+those convents or seminaries, strange to say, the young girls were
+taught the most practical domestic duties, as well as dancing, music,
+painting, etc. Such teachers as Molé and Larrive gave instruction in
+declamation and reading, and Noverre and Dauberval in dancing; the
+teaching nuns were all from the best families. The most complete
+costumes, scenic decorations, and other equipments of a complete
+theatre were supplied, special hours being set aside for the play.
+However, much intriguing went on there, and many friendships and
+lifelong enmities were formed, which later led to serious troubles.
+
+Often, from the midst of a group of young girls of from ten to fifteen
+years of age, one would be notified of her coming marriage with a man
+she had never seen, and whom, in all probability, she could not
+love, having given her heart to another. If it turned out to be an
+uncongenial marriage, a separate life would be the result, and, while
+still absolutely ignorant of the world, those young married women
+would fall prey to the charms of young gallants or men of quality, and
+a liaison would follow.
+
+The difference between a liaison of the seventeenth century and one
+of the eighteenth led to one essential difference in the standards
+of social and moral etiquette; in the former period, a liaison meant
+nothing more censurable than an intimate friendship, a purely platonic
+love; the lover simply paid homage to the lady of his choice; it was
+an attraction of common intellectual interests and usually lasted for
+life; in the eighteenth century, a liaison was essentially immoral,
+rarely a union of interests, but rather one of passions and physical
+propensities. Such relations developed and fostered deceit, intrigues,
+infidelity, and rivalry, one woman endeavoring to allure the lover of
+another; affairs of that nature were the chief topic of conversation
+in social circles, and were soon reflected in every phase of the
+intelligent world. This will be seen in the study of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VIII
+
+Salon Leaders Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, Mme. du Châtelet
+
+
+In studying the vast numbers of salons of the eighteenth century,
+three types are discernible, each of which was prominent and in full
+sway throughout the century up to the Revolution. To the first class
+belong the great literary and philosophical salons which, though not
+political in nature, finally changed politics; such were the
+circles of Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis; with these
+every literary student is familiar. The second class includes the
+smaller and less important literary, philosophical, and social
+salons—those of Mme. de Marchais, Mme. de Persan, Mme. de Villars,
+Mme. de Vaines, and of D'Alembert, D'Holbach, Helvétius. The third
+class is of a social nature exclusively, good breeding and good tone
+being the essentials; its conspicuous features were the dinners
+and suppers of Suard, Saurin, the Abbés Raynal and Morellet, of the
+Palais-Royal of Mme. de Blot, of the Temple of the Prince of Conti,
+those of Mme. de Beauvau, Mme. de Gramont, M. de La Popeliniére, and
+others.
+
+The distinctions thus made will not hold throughout, but they
+facilitate the presentation of a subject that is exceedingly
+complicated. It may almost be said that each generation of the
+eighteenth century had a salon with a different physiognomy; those
+of 1710, 1730, 1760, and 1780 were all inspired by different motives,
+causes, and events, and were all led by women of different histories
+and aspirations, whose common idol was man, but whose ideas of what
+constituted a hero were as widely different as was the constitution of
+society in the respective periods. Not until the middle of the reign
+of Louis XIV. did social life become detached from Versailles, and,
+spreading out and circulating in a thousand hôtels, showed itself in
+all its force, splendor, and elegance. The celebrated women of the
+regency—Mme. de Prie, Mme. de Parabère, Mme. de Sabran—had no salon,
+while those of the Marquis d'Alluys and the Hôtels de Sully, de Duras,
+de Villars, and the suppers of Mme. de Chauvelin were of a distinctly
+different type from those of the earlier and the later periods.
+
+In a certain sense, the salons changed the complexion of the age. The
+eighteenth century itself was friendly and generous; it was, also,
+impatient and inexperienced, seeing things not as they were but as it
+wished them to be, compelling science and art to serve its purpose.
+It was frank, often brutally frank, a characteristic due partly to the
+conversational license of the salons. With its Fontenelle, Voltaire,
+Piron, etc., it was indeed a happy century. A _bon mot_ was the event
+of the day and travelled over all the civilized world.
+
+Feeling keenly the need of a guiding principle, the need of a more
+substantial foundation in education, the women of the century thought
+and wrote much on that subject; such was, for the most part, the work
+of the great salons, but in them the philosophical tenets of the
+age were also discussed. The spirit of criticism thus created and
+cultivated, which finally spread through all classes of society,
+gradually conquered the new power in the state—public opinion which,
+at the end of the century, ruled supreme in all its strength and
+vehemence, defying every effort of the government to stifle it. The
+highest form of agreeable and intellectual society which the world has
+ever seen attained to its most complete development in these salons.
+
+Every century has had its specialty: the twelfth had its crusades, the
+sixteenth its religious struggles, the seventeenth its grand _goût_,
+the eighteenth its conversation and love of reason, the nineteenth
+its political struggles; and each one displayed the French passion for
+_esprit_; the eighteenth, however, was, _par excellence_, the century
+of _esprit_, and it was most remarkably developed in woman.
+
+"Such astonishingly loquacious people as lived in Paris in the
+eighteenth century! ineffective, sardonic, verbose, sociable,
+intellectual, elegant, immoral—grand gentlemen and ladies, with tears
+for mimic woes and none for actual ones, praise for wit, rewards
+for cleverness, and absolute ignorance of the destinies they were
+preparing for themselves;" such is the story of women and society of
+the eighteenth century. Among these women the salon leaders will be
+found the most attractive, and the most influential in literature,
+theory of government, and social and moral development; to the
+mistresses belongs the title of "politicians."
+
+_La Ménagerie de Mme. de Tencin_ was one of the earliest of the
+eighteenth-century salons, although, in the strict sense of the word,
+Mme. de Tencin's salon was of a political rather than a literary
+nature. Successively nun, mistress, mother, she was one of the
+shrewdest women of the century. Born in 1681, she early became a nun;
+but such was the character of her life at the convent that it was not
+long before she became a mother. In 1714 she abandoned her conventual
+life and went to Paris, where she rose to influence as the mistress of
+Cardinal Dubois and of the regent, the Duke of Orléans. At Paris her
+real activity began; she arrived at that gay capital with no other
+collateral than a pretty face and an extraordinary cunning, which
+soon brought her a fortune. Fertile in resources of all kinds, she
+succeeded immediately, and gained for her nephew the cardinal's hat.
+In 1717 was born to her the afterward famous d'Alembert, whom she left
+upon the steps of the church Saint-Jean-le-Rond; afterward, when he
+had become eminent and her power was waning, she unsuccessfully used
+every means at her command to gain his favor and recognition; the
+father of that child was the Chevalier Destouches.
+
+About 1726, when lovers were numerous and friends plentiful, the death
+of Lafresnaye occurred at her salon. In his testament he stated that
+his death was caused by Mme. de Tencin; however, she was too shrewd,
+cunning, and careful to be guilty of permitting any weak points to
+appear in her plots, and it was not difficult for her to clear herself
+of that charge by the verdict of the judges, who considered the
+accusation a posthumous vengeance.
+
+The great literary men whom Mme. de Tencin gathered about her,
+Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Mairan, Marivaux, Helvétius, Marmontel, were
+called her menagerie, or her _bêtes_. Among them, Marivaux received
+a pension of one thousand écus from her, besides drawing at will upon
+the exchequer of an old maid by the name of Saint-Jean. Marmontel,
+desirous of writing tragedies, took lessons from the famous Mlle.
+Clairon—at his friend's expense. To give a correct idea of the
+character of woman's influence upon the literary style of that
+century, the words of Marmontel may be quoted: "He who wishes to write
+with precision, energy, and vigor, may live with man only; but he who
+in his style wishes to have subtleness, amenity, charm, flexibility,
+will do well, I think, to live with woman."
+
+Mme. de Tencin exerted an immense influence upon the men of her
+circle, especially socially; for example, she married the wealthy M.
+de La Popelinière to Mlle. Dancourt. She was one of the few really
+consummate diplomats; later on, she became less associated with
+intrigues, and gave lessons in current diplomacy, with which she was
+perfectly familiar. Her counsel to her pupils was to gain friends
+among women rather than among men. "For," she would say, "we do
+whatever we wish with men; they are so dissipated, or so preoccupied
+with their personal interests, that to give attention to them would be
+to neglect your own interests."
+
+Every New Year's Day the _bêtes_ of her menagerie received two yards
+of velvet, to make knickerbockers to be worn at her receptions; this
+custom was observed up to the last year of the existence of her salon.
+Her receptions were among the first of the kind in France. Like the
+majority of salon leaders, she was an authoress of no mean ability.
+Her novels were widely read at the time—_Le Siège de Calais_ and _Les
+Malheurs de l'Amour_. Her memoirs, throwing light upon the intrigues
+and plots, social animosities, and general state of the society of the
+time, are historically valuable. She died in Paris, in 1749.
+
+Among all the great salons, that of Mme. de Tencin was the only one in
+which gambling was indulged in on a wholesale scale; fortunes changed
+hands every evening, a large part of the gains always falling to
+the lot of the hostess, as a sort of "rake off." She herself was a
+professional at the business, and by receiving private
+information from headquarters, through her famous friend Law, the
+_contrôleur-général_, and her lover Dubois, she was able to acquire
+an immense fortune which she distributed freely among her friends and
+favorites. Her place among the literary salon leaders depends mainly
+upon her endeavors to advance the interests of the aspiring young
+authors who were willing to place themselves under her protection.
+
+After the death of Mme. de Tencin and that of Mme. de Châtelet, who
+had received many of the celebrities of the time, there remained but
+two distinguished, purely literary and philosophical salons open in
+Paris. By right of precedence, the _bêtes_ should have gone over to
+the salon of Mme. du Deffand, as she had been established some years
+when Mme. Geoffrin began to receive at her residence, which gained
+its first renown through the exquisite dinners served there. But the
+_bêtes_ all flocked to the _salon bourgeois_, and consequently a more
+brilliant gathering never assembled in a salon; here sat, enjoying
+the liberal hospitalities, Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Mairan, Marmontel,
+Helvétius, Diderot, D'Alembert, Thomas, D'Holbach, Hume, Morellet,
+Mlle. de Lespinasse, the Marquis de Duras, Comtesses d'Egmont and de
+Brionne. Here, conversation—which, in the eighteenth century, was not
+only a discussion or a dissertation, but an art—reached its highest
+development; the members did not need to be eloquent, to expatiate
+upon some theory or science; the conversation moved about the members,
+and they had to be a part of it.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was born in Paris in 1699, and was the daughter of M.
+Rodet, _valet de chambre_ of the dauphiness, Duchesse de Bourgogne,
+mother of Louis XV. When barely fifteen she was married to the wealthy
+M. Geoffrin, the so-called founder of the celebrated _Manufacture
+des Glaces de Gobelins_. Through his wealth and his associations with
+people of nobility who bought his ware, she was soon encouraged in
+her desire to entertain the nobility; and her _esprit_, tact,
+intelligence, and admirable taste in dress were all effective in
+bringing about the desired results.
+
+Her career was one of continual successes. When she opened her salon,
+in 1741, she instituted the custom of receiving her friends at table,
+not only men of letters, but artists, architects, builders, painters,
+sculptors, all men of genius and prominence. Monday was the day
+reserved for artists exclusively; Marmontel, who lived with Mme.
+Geoffrin for ten years "as her tenant," and the indispensable Abbé
+Morellet were the exceptions who might be present upon that day. From
+the very beginning she formed the habit of permitting conversation
+to go just so far, then cutting it off with her famous: _Voil qui est
+bien!_
+
+Her husband was the _maître d'hôtel_, of whom many interesting
+anecdotes are told; the best and one that illustrates well the
+appreciation of individuals in those days is the following, which is
+so admirably told by Lady Jackson that we quote from her: "For some
+years, there sat at the bottom of Mme. Geoffrin's dinner and supper
+table a dignified-looking, white-haired old gentleman, bland in
+manner, but very modest and retiring, speaking only when spoken to,
+but looking very happy when the guests seemed to enjoy the good cheer
+set before them. When, at last, his customary place became vacant, and
+some brilliant butterfly of madame's circle of _visiteurs flottants_,
+who, perhaps, had smiled patronizingly upon the silent old gentleman,
+becoming aware of his absence, would, perchance, carelessly inquire
+what had become of her constant dinner guest, madame would reply:
+_Mais, c'était mon mari. Hélas! il est mort, le bon homme._ [Why, that
+was my husband! alas, he is dead, poor man!] Just so little was the
+consideration shown this worthy creature in his own house! Yet it both
+pleased and amused him to sit there silently and gaze at the throng
+of rank, fashion, and learning, assembled in his wife's salon, and to
+witness her social success."
+
+After the death of Mme. Geoffrin's husband, the immense fortune passed
+under her own management, whereupon began her real career as a social
+arbitress, during which she is said to have tempered both opinions
+and characters. Thomas said of her that "she was, in morals, like that
+divinity of the ancients which maintained or reëstablished limits."
+She was a great patroness of arts and her rooms were decorated with
+pictures by Vanloo, Greuze, Vernet, Robert, etc. She and her salon
+became, in time, the acknowledged judge and dictator of matters
+literary and artistic. Whenever a financier wished to purchase a
+certain work of art, it was taken to her Monday dinner, where the
+artists determined its artistic value and fixed the price. Her house
+was a real museum; there the precious Mariette collection was on
+permanent exhibition.
+
+Besides her Monday dinners to artists and her Wednesday dinners to the
+literary world, she gave private luncheons to a select few who were
+especially congenial. At those functions, such celebrities as the
+Comtesses d'Egmont and de Brionne, the Marquise de Duras, and the
+Prince de Rohan were frequent guests.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was shrewd and tactful enough to avoid politics and not
+to permit discussions of a political nature at her salon—precautions
+which she observed to keep the government from interfering with her
+fortune and mode of living. Her salon and dinners became so famous
+that every foreigner going to Paris had the ambition to be received at
+Mme. Geoffrin's; when any aspirant was successful in this, she would
+say to her friends: _Soyons aimables_ [Let us be kind]. She spent
+freely of her immense fortune constantly seeking and aiding the poor.
+Persons who refused to accept her charity found little favor with her;
+Rousseau was one of these. It was her habit to go frequently to see
+friends, merely to ascertain their wants and to satisfy them. The Abbé
+Morellet, Thomas, D'Alembert, and Mlle. de Lespinasse (the only lady
+admitted to her Wednesdays) were given liberal pensions. Upon each
+New Year's Day, in commemoration of Mme. de Tencin, she sent each
+Wednesday guest a velvet cap. Her motto was: _Donner et pardonner_
+[Give and forgive].
+
+Stanislas, King of Poland, her _protégé_, whom she had rescued from
+the debtor's prison in Paris, and to whom she had shown many favors,
+upon being elected King of Poland in 1764, said to her: _Maman, votre
+fils est roi_ [Mamma, your son is king]. Two years later, when she
+paid him a visit, the leading members of the Polish nobility met her
+on the road, and the king had a special residence prepared for her.
+As she passed through Vienna, Joseph II. received her, and the Empress
+Maria entertained her at dinner. Upon her return to Paris, after this
+triumphal tour through Europe, the members of the world of literature
+and art, and even the ministers and the nobility, flocked to see her;
+this demonstration was the more remarkable from the fact that she
+wielded no political influence, her only desire and pleasure seeming
+to lie in aiding her friends.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was too practical and had too much good common sense to
+be vain. The majority of men were influenced by and favored her, and,
+which seemed strange, she had few enemies among her own sex. Mme.
+Necker said: "The old age of Mme. Geoffrin is like that of old trees,
+whose age we know by the space they cover and the quantity of roots
+they spread. She has seen all the illustrious men of the century; she
+has discovered, with sagacity, their peculiarities and their defects.
+She judges them by their conduct, never by their talents."
+
+In her best years, she was intimately associated with the
+Encyclopædists, to whom she paid over one hundred thousand francs for
+the publication of their work. Of all the great women of that century,
+she was the closest friend of the philosophers and free-thinkers,
+being called _La Fontenelle des Femmes_. She was always ready with
+an answer; one day a friend pointed out to her the house of the
+farmer-general Bouvet, and asked her: "Have you ever seen anything as
+magnificent and in better taste?" She replied: "I would have nothing
+to say if Bouvet were the _frotteur_ [floor polisher] of it."
+
+Mme. Geoffrin, more than any other woman of the salons, possessed the
+three essential qualifications of a salon leader,—good sense,
+tact, and intelligence. She had also _esprit_, perfect simplicity,
+precision, and faultless taste; though a sceptic, she was a diplomat
+who perfectly understood the art of manœuvring. In short, Mme.
+Geoffrin was an intellectual authority, a sort of minister to society,
+and her salon was the great centre and rendezvous, a veritable
+institution of the eighteenth century. This seems the more remarkable
+when we consider that she belonged to the bourgeoisie, and that
+by dint of her exquisite tact, her almost infallible judgment, her
+admirable taste in dress, and her keen intelligence, she created for
+herself a position which was the envy of all Europe. Such women are
+rare. During the last eighteen months of her life, though suffering
+from paralysis and rheumatism, which she contracted at a religious
+fête at Notre-Dame, she was unremitting in her attention to her
+friends and the poor; and up to her death, in 1777, her friends were
+faithful to her.
+
+That spirit, or malady, which penetrated and ruled almost every
+creature in the eighteenth century found its most notable victim in
+Marie de Vichy-Chamrond—Mme. du Deffand. She, so to speak, yawned
+out her life in a blasé society without faith or ideal. That horrible
+affliction, with all its painful symptoms, ennui, whose origin was
+seen to lie in an excess and abuse of _esprit_ in a society that
+based all its pleasures and happiness upon the mind without any higher
+interest than the self, infected a whole century with an "irremediable
+disenchantment of others and one's self." This self-cult, or life
+in and for the mind, developed sagacity, justness of views, and an
+incomparable penetration, but it neglected all the elements necessary
+to contentment and those other pleasures, of which the first is love
+for one's fellow beings. Mme. du Deffand exemplified this stage
+of mental unbalance; and when she wrote of her former friend and
+companion: "Mlle. de Lespinasse died to-day at two o'clock; formerly,
+that would have been an event for me; to-day, it is nothing at all,"
+she gave an idea of the indifference which was characteristic of the
+society of the time—an indifference which developed into an incurable
+malady and an all-consuming egoism, stifling the heart-beat of that
+world which was weary of everything and yet was unwilling to close its
+eyes.
+
+Marie de Vichy-Chamrond was born in 1697, of a noble family. She began
+the same manner of life as that followed by most French women, being
+reared in the Convent of Madeleine de Frénel, where, when quite young,
+she evinced a strong spirit of impiety, giving expression to the most
+sceptical opinions upon religious subjects, to the great dismay of
+her superiors and parents. At the age of twenty she was married to the
+Marquis du Deffand, who had but his brevet of colonel of a regiment of
+dragoons, and whose intelligence and fortune were of a _nullité rare_.
+However, her marriage was a sort of emancipation which enabled her to
+enter society; and it is asserted that she soon became the mistress of
+Philippe of Orléans, the regent, from whom she received six thousand
+francs life income.
+
+As the result of a disagreement, she separated from her husband, and
+then began a life of pleasure among the gayest of the most fashionable
+world, where, through the power of her brilliancy, wit, charm, and
+fascinating beauty, she immediately became a leader. After passing
+through all the phases of social life and its varied experiences—from
+the society of Mme. de Prie, the type of the dissolute woman of
+the Regency, from the famous suppers of the regent, whose ingenious
+inventions of lewd and wanton pleasures made him notorious, from an
+association with the intriguing Duchesse de Maine, to all the great
+and influential social centres of Paris—in short, after pursuing
+a career of fashionable dissipation, she became reconciled to her
+husband, and lived with him in peace and happiness for a short time;
+but six months of regular life affected her behavior toward the poor
+marquis to such a degree that he thought it best to leave her. After
+that episode, she returned to her lover; and, rejected by him and her
+friends, and becoming the subject of the gossip of the entire city,
+she sought consolation from one acquaintance after another, and was
+miserable all the time.
+
+At the age of about thirty-four, Mme. du Deffand returned to a kind
+of regular life, and, in time, won a reputation for _esprit_, regained
+her honorable friends and established for herself a kind of accepted
+authority. Thus, when she opened a salon in 1742, she was able to
+attract a brilliant company, which became famous after 1749, when she
+took apartments in the Convent Saint-Joseph. Here wit and polished
+manners, taste, vivacity, and good sense were the requisites;
+literature, politics, and philosophy were not tolerated, but
+"sparkling _bons mots_, glancing epigrams, witty verses, were the
+avenues to social success."
+
+Until her dotage this woman, who, from a natural selfishness and lack
+of sympathy, was incapable of loving with the characteristic ardor
+of the women of her time, by knowing how to inspire love in others,
+controlled and held near her the famous men and women of her age.
+When she began to realize the calamity of her failing sight, which was
+probably due to her general state of restlessness and the resultant
+physical decay, she received, as companion, a relative, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, who undertook the most difficult, disagreeable, and
+ungrateful task of waiting on the marquise. As Mme. du Deffand arose
+in time to receive at six, mademoiselle soon announced to the friends
+that she herself would be visible at an earlier hour. Thus, it
+happened that Marmontel, Turgot, Condorcet, and d'Alembert regularly
+assembled in mademoiselle's room—a proceeding which soon led to a
+rupture between the two women and a breach between Mme. du Deffand
+and d'Alembert. The marquise was therefore left alone, blind, but too
+proud to tolerate pity, yet by her conversation retaining her power
+of fascination. It was about this time that Horace Walpole became
+connected with her life. Upon the death of Mme. Geoffrin, she, hearing
+of the imposing ceremonies and funeral orations, exclaimed: _Voilà
+bien du bruit pour une omelette au lard_. [A great ado about a lard
+omelet!] Her latter years were dragged out most miserably, being
+marked by a singular feverishness and unavailing efforts toward the
+acceptance of some faith. Her death, in 1780, finally brought her
+relief.
+
+The career of Mme. du Deffand actually began as early as 1730, when
+she opened her establishment on the Rue de Beaune, at the time that
+she became attached to the president Hénault, who presided over her
+salon for more than thirty years. The famous salon Du Deffand at the
+Convent Saint-Joseph was not opened until 1749; there she was very
+particular as to those whom she received, and access to her salon
+was a matter of difficulty. Grimm was never received, and Diderot
+was present but once. The conversation was always intellectual, and
+whenever she tired of French vivacity, she would spend an evening with
+Mme. Necker.
+
+A letter of Walpole to Montagu leaves, on the whole, a splendid
+picture of her: "I have heard her dispute with all sorts of people,
+upon all sorts of subjects, and never knew her to be in the wrong.
+She humbles the learned, sets right their disciples, and finds
+conversation for everybody. As affectionate as Mme. de Sévigné, she
+has none of her prejudices, but a more universal taste; and with the
+most delicate frame, her spirits hurry her through a life of fatigue
+that would kill me were I to remain here."
+
+The simple furnishings of her apartments, which were very spacious
+and had been occupied by the famous Mme. de Montespan, stood out in
+striking contrast to the elegance of her visitors. Here she gathered
+about her her two lovers, _le Président_ Hénault and Pont de Veyle,
+besides D'Alembert, Turgot, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Necker, Walpole,
+the Abbés Barthélemy and Pernetty, the Chevalier de Lisle, de Formant,
+_le Docteur_ Gatti, Hume, Gibbon, Baron de Gleichen, and many other
+celebrities, including the Princesses de Beauvau, de Poix, de Talmont,
+the Duchesses de Choiseul, d'Aiguillon, de Gramont, the Maréchale de
+Luxembourg, the Marquises de Boufflers and du Châtelet, the Comtesses
+de Rochefort, de Broglie, de Forcalquier, Mme. Necker, Lady Pembroke,
+De Lauzun, and many others, all of whom were society leaders. Whenever
+Mme. du Deffand had a special supper, it was said that Paris was at
+Mme. du Deffand's.
+
+Her salon, above all others, was the centre of cosmopolitanism,
+where all great men, foreigners and natives, found means of social
+intercourse, and where, more than in any other salon, were assembled
+the great beauties of the day, represented especially by the
+Countesses de Forcalquier and Choiseul-Beaupré, Duchesse de La
+Vallière. Gallantry and beauty were found in the Maréchale de
+Luxembourg and the Comtesse de Boufflers. The philosophical movement
+of the Encyclopædists and Economists was not encouraged at all.
+Thus, in Mme. du Deffand's salon, we find neither pure philosophy nor
+religion, nor the air of pedants and _déclamateurs_; it was a royalist
+salon without illusion, hence indifferent to all questions. It
+represented the perfect type of the French model of _esprit de
+finesse_,—that is, precision,—and its leader possessed a keen
+insight into human character.
+
+This wonderful woman, who, during a period of over forty years, had
+held at her feet the élite of the French world, at the age of
+about threescore and ten, fell desperately in love with a man of
+fifty—Horace Walpole. She who had never loved with her heart, but
+only with her mind, then declared it better to be dead than not to
+love someone. Although her actions and letters were pitiful in
+the extreme, her epistles are invaluable for their incomparable
+portraitures and keen reflections upon persons and events of the time.
+She attracted Walpole by the possibilities that were opened up to
+him by her position in society, and by her brilliant conversation,
+in which she scoffed at the clergy and the philosophers, showing a
+profound insight into human nature and the society of the time as well
+as into politics. Their correspondence shows one of the most pitiful,
+pathetic, and lamentable love tales in the history of society. He
+looked upon her friendship as a most valuable acquisition by which
+he was kept in touch with all the scandals and stories of society,
+of which he was so fond, and she mistook that friendship for love.
+He felt himself flattered in being the one preferred by such a
+distinguished old lady of high society.
+
+All critics are at a loss for the explanation of such a love in a
+woman of seventy. Was it the result of the lifetime of disappointment
+of a woman who had constantly sought love but had never found it? Was
+it, thus, the hallucination of the childish old age of the woman who
+was physically consumed by incessant social functions and all-night
+reading? Mme. du Deffand sees in Walpole her ideal, and she gives
+expression to her feelings, regardless of propriety; for she is
+childish and irresponsible. To a certain extent, the same was true of
+Mme. de Staël, but she was still physically healthy and young enough
+to enjoy life and the realization of that which she had so long
+desired—an ideal affection. In the case of Mme. du Deffand, the soul
+was willing, but the body failed. Her emotion can scarcely be termed
+love, but is rather to be designated as a mental hallucination, an
+exaggerated intellectual affection bordering upon sentimentality—the
+outgrowth of that morbid imagination developed from her long suffering
+from ennui.
+
+She was a woman destined to pass by the side of happiness without ever
+reaching it. She hardly had enjoyed what may be called friendship; she
+was always either suspicious of it and of her friends' sentiments, or
+she herself broke off relations for some trivial reason. This woman,
+however, always longed to believe her friends sincere, but never
+succeeded. "Her friends either leave her, they die, or they are far
+away; or, if present, faithful and attached to her, she cannot believe
+in their affection; her cursed scepticism deceived her heart."
+
+Mme. du Deffand was one of the few women of the eighteenth century who
+saw reality and nothing but reality, and admitted what she saw; she
+was gifted with such quick penetration and such mental facility
+that she stands out prominently as one of the brightest and most
+intellectual of the spiritual women of her time. This quickness of
+perception and tendency to follow a mere impression made it difficult
+for her to examine closely, to be patient of details; too sure of
+herself, too emotional, too passionate, she displayed injustice,
+vehemence, over-enthusiasm; easily bored and disgusted, she was, at
+the same time, susceptible to infatuation. Scherer said: "She is a
+superior man in a body of a nervous and weak woman."
+
+She was a woman dominated by her reason—a characteristic which led to
+an incurable ennui, thus causing her terrible suffering, but equipping
+her with a penetration which saw through the world and knew man, whom
+she divided into three classes: _les trompeurs_, _les trompés_, _les
+trompettes_. According to her judgment, man is either fatiguing or, if
+brilliantly endowed, usually false or jealous; but she realized, also,
+her own shortcomings, the incompleteness of her faculties. "The force
+of her thought does not reach talent; her intelligence is active and
+responsive, but fails to respond. She often shows a sovereign disdain
+for herself, everybody, and everything. She arrives at a point in life
+when she no longer has passion, desire, or even curiosity; she detests
+life, and dreads death because she does not know that there is another
+world. She is not happy enough to do without those whom she scorns,
+and must therefore seek diversion in the conversation of stupid
+people, preferring anything to solitude; this refers to the time when
+her best friends are no more and when she herself is out of her former
+_milieu_); she was too old, or lived too long; she belongs to another
+age."
+
+By her friends she was called the feminine Voltaire, and the
+celebrated philosopher and she were drawn together by a very similar
+habit of mind, although, to her intimates, she scorched Voltaire; but
+in writing to him she would overwhelm him with compliments, calling
+him the only orthodox representative of good taste. In general, she
+detested philosophers, because their hearts were cold and their minds
+preoccupied with themselves.
+
+Mme. du Deffand had an inherent passion for simplicity, frankness,
+justice, and a hatred for deceit and affectation; but, strange as it
+may seem, her nature required variety in her pleasure—new people, new
+pursuits, new amusements, new agitations for her hungry mind; she was
+too critical to be contented and to put implicit trust in her friends.
+An agnostic, always endeavoring to probe into the nature of things,
+the possession of a personal, living faith was yet the strongest
+desire of her heart; all her life she longed for the peace that
+religion affords, but this was denied her, although she had the
+spiritual assistance of the most famous of the clergy, attended
+church, had her oratory, her confessor, and faithfully studied the
+Bible; all was vain—belief would not come to her. The marriage tie
+was not sacred to her, which was the case with many of the French
+women of the day, but she went further in lacking all reverence for
+religious ceremony, though she respected the beliefs of others.
+
+She was all wit and intellectuality. In order to keep her friends from
+falling under the spell of ennui, she devoted herself to the culinary
+art, and her suppers became famous for their rare dishes. "She is an
+example of the type that was predominant in the time—one that had
+lived too much and was dying from excess of knowledge and pleasure;
+but she sought that which did not exist in that age,—serenity, peace,
+faith. She was passionate, sensitive, and sympathetic, in a cold,
+heartless, and unfeeling world. She needed variety; being bored with
+society, solitude, husband, lovers, herself, nothing remained for her
+but to await deliverance by death." This came to her in 1780.
+
+In matters literary, Mme. du Deffand preserved an absolute liberty
+and independence of opinion. She refused to accept the verdicts of the
+most competent judges; with instinctive attractions and repulsions,
+she found but few writers that pleased her. Boileau, Lesage, Chamfort,
+were her favorites. She said that Buffon was of an unendurable
+monotony. "He knows well what he knows, but he is occupied with beasts
+only; one must be something of a beast one's self in order to devote
+one's self to such an occupation."
+
+As a writer, she showed remarkable good sense, admirable sincerity,
+rare judgment, justness, and precision; depth and charm were present
+in a less degree than were other desirable qualities, but she
+exhibited excellent _esprit_. She was probably the most subtile, and
+at the same time the most fastidious person of the century. The best
+portraits of her were written by her own pen; two of them we give, one
+written at the beginning of her career in 1728, the other at its end
+in 1774.
+
+"Mme. la Marquise du Deffand is an enemy of all falseness and
+affectation. Her talk and countenance are always the faithful
+interpreters of the sentiment of her soul. Her form is not fine nor
+bad. She has _esprit_, is reasonable and has a correct taste. If
+vivacity at times leads her off, truth soon brings her back. After she
+falls into an ennui which extinguishes all the light of her mind, she
+finds that state insupportable and the cause of such unhappiness, that
+she blindly embraces all that presents itself, without deliberation."
+
+(1774.) "They believe Mme. du Deffand to possess more _esprit_ than
+she really has; they praise and fear her, but she merits neither the
+one nor the other. As far as her _esprit_ is concerned, she is what
+she is; in regard to her form, to her birth and fortune—nothing
+extraordinary, nothing distinguished. Born without great talent,
+incapable of great application, she is very susceptible to ennui, and,
+not finding any resource within herself, she resorts to those that
+surround her and this search is often without success."
+
+Mme. du Deffand arouses our curiosity because she was such an
+exceptional character, led such a strange life, made and retained
+friends in ways so different from those of the noted heroines of the
+salons. In her youth, she was beautiful and fascinating, with numerous
+lovers and numberless suitors, but she grew even more famous as her
+age increased; when infirm and blind, and living in a convent, she
+ruled by virtue of her acknowledged authority and was still able
+to cope with the greatest philosophers, the chief and dean of whom,
+Voltaire, wrote the following four lines:
+
+  "Qui vous voit et qui vous entend
+  Perd bientôt sa philosophie;
+  Et tout sage avec Du Deffand
+  Voudrait en fou passer sa vie."
+
+  [He who sees and hears you,
+  Soon loses his philosophy.
+  Wise he who with Du Deffand
+  Insane would pass his life.]
+
+Living long enough to witness the reigns of three kings and one
+regent, she was brilliant enough to reign over the intellectual and
+social world for over fifty years, by virtue of her intellectuality,
+keenness, and wit; yet, among all the great women of France, she is
+truly the one who deserves genuine pity and sympathy.
+
+The salon of Mlle. de Lespinasse, her rival, was of a different type,
+being exclusively intellectual, but permitting absolute liberty of
+expression of opinions. Born in 1732, at the house of a surgeon of
+Lyons, she was the illegitimate daughter of the Comtesse d'Albon
+and was baptized as the child of a man supposed to be named Claude
+Lespinasse. From 1753 she was the constant attendant to Mme. du
+Deffand, her mother's sister-in-law, for a period of ten years, until
+she became completely worn out physically, morally, and mentally by
+incessant care and endless all-night readings. An attempt to end her
+existence with sixty grains of opium failed. Owing to the jealousy of
+Mme. du Deffand, a separation ensued in 1764, when she retired some
+distance from the Convent Saint-Joseph to very modest apartments,
+where, by means of her friends, she was able to receive in a dignified
+way. The Maréchale de Luxembourg completely fitted up her apartment,
+the Duc de Choiseul succeeded in getting her an annual pension from
+the king, and Mme. Geoffrin allowed her three thousand francs.
+
+The majority of the members of her salon were from that of Mme. du
+Deffand, having followed Mlle. de Lespinasse after the rupture of
+the two women; besides these, there were Condorcet, Helvétius, Grimm,
+Marmontel, Condillac, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, and many others. As
+her hours for receiving were after five o'clock, her friends were made
+to understand that her means were not such as to warrant suppers or
+dinners, four o'clock being the dinner hour in those days.
+
+Her salon immediately became known as the official encyclopædia
+resort, Mme. du Deffand dubbing it _La Muse de l'Encyclopédie_.
+D'Alembert was the high priest, and it was not long before he
+was comfortably lodged in the third story of her house, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse having nursed him through a malignant fever which the poor
+man had contracted in the wretched place where he lodged. A strange
+gathering, those salons! Mlle. de Lespinasse, one of the leaders
+in the social world, with a prominent salon, was the illegitimate
+daughter of a Comtesse d'Albon, and her presiding genius was the
+illegitimate son of Mme. de Tencin; here we find the wealthiest and
+most elegant of the aristocracy coming from their palaces to meet, in
+friendly social and intellectual intercourse, men who lived on a mere
+pittance, dressed on almost nothing, lodged in the most wretched of
+dens, boarding wherever a salon or palace was opened to them. Surely,
+intellect was highly valued in those days, and moral etiquette was at
+a low ebb!
+
+Mlle. de Lespinasse possessed two characteristics which were prominent
+in a remarkable degree—love and friendship. She appeared to interest
+herself in everybody in such a way as to make him believe that he
+was the preferred of her heart; loving everybody sincerely and
+affectionately, she "lacked altogether the sentimental equilibrium."
+Especially pathetic was her love for two men—the Count de Mora, a
+Spanish nobleman, and a Colonel Guibert, who was celebrated for his
+relations with Frederick the Great; although this wore terribly on
+her, consuming her physical force, she always received her friends
+with the same good grace, but often, after their departure, she would
+fall into a frightful nervous fit from which she could find relief
+only by the use of opium.
+
+Her love for Guibert was known to her friends, but was a secret from
+her platonic lover, D'Alembert. When, after a number of years of
+untold sufferings which even opium could not relieve, she died in
+1776, having been cared for to the last by D'Alembert, the Duke de La
+Rochefoucauld, and her cousin, the Marquis d'Enlezy, it was with these
+words on her dying lips, addressed to Guibert: "Adieu, my friend!
+If ever I return to life, I should like to use it in loving you;
+but there is no longer any time." When D'Alembert read in her
+correspondence that she had been the mistress of Guibert for sixteen
+years, he was disconsolate, and retired to the Louvre, which was
+his privilege as Secretary of the Academy. He left there only to go
+walking in the evening with Marmontel, who tried to console him by
+recalling the changeableness of humor of Mlle. de Lespinasse. "Yes,"
+he would reply, "she has changed, but not I; she no longer lived for
+me, but I always lived for her. Since she is no longer, I don't
+know why I am living. Ah, that I must still suffer these moments of
+bitterness which she knew so well how to soothe and make me forget!
+Do you remember the happy evenings we used to pass? What is there now?
+Instead of her, when coming home, I find only her shadow! This Louvre
+lodging is itself a tomb, which I enter only with fright."
+
+Mlle. de Lespinasse died of grief for a lover's death, but she left
+a group of lovers to lament her loss. In many respects she was not
+unlike Mlle. de Scudéry; exceptionally plain, her face was much
+marked with smallpox, a disfigurement not uncommon in those days; her
+exceedingly piercing and fine eyes, beautiful hair, tall and elegant
+figure, excellent taste in dress, pleasing voice and a most brilliant
+talent for conversation, combined to make her one of the most
+attractive and popular women of her time. As previously stated, she
+was the only female admitted to the dinners given by Mme. Geoffrin to
+her men of letters.
+
+Mme. du Deffand's friend, _le Président_ Hénault, left the following
+portrait of Mlle. de Lespinasse: "You are cosmopolitan—you are
+suitable to all occasions. You like company—you like solitude.
+Pleasures amuse, but do not seduce you. You have very strong passions,
+and of the best kind, for they do not return often. Nature, in
+endowing you with an ordinary state, gave you something with which to
+rise above it. You are distinguished, and, without being beautiful,
+you attract attention. There is something piquant in you; one might
+obstinately endeavor to turn your head, but it would be at one's own
+expense. Your will must be awaited, because you cannot be made to
+come. Your cheerfulness embellishes you, and relaxes your nerves,
+which are too highly strung. You have your own opinion, and you leave
+others their own. You are extremely polite. You have divined _le
+monde_. In vain one would transplant you—you would take root
+anywhere. In short, you are not an ordinary person."
+
+The salon of Mlle. de Lespinasse was unique. Everyone was at perfect
+liberty to express and sustain his own opinions upon any subject,
+without danger of offending the hostess, which, as has been seen,
+was not the case in the salon of Mme. Geoffrin. Her high and sane
+intellectual culture permitted her to listen to all discussions and to
+take part in all. She had no strong prejudices, having read—for Mme.
+du Deffand—nearly everything that was read at that time; also, she
+had the talent of preserving harmony among her members by drawing from
+each one his best qualities.
+
+A woman who played a prominent part in society during the Regency,
+but who had no salon in the proper sense of that word, was Mme.
+du Châtelet, commonly called Voltaire's Emilie. She was especially
+interested in sciences, mathematics, geometry, and astronomy, and did
+more than any other woman of that time to encourage nature study.
+It was at her Château de Cirey that Voltaire found protection when
+threatened with a second visit to the Bastille; and there, from time
+to time for sixteen years, he did some of the best work of his life.
+It was Mme. du Châtelet who encouraged him, sympathized with him,
+and appreciated his mobile humor as well as his talent. During these
+years, while he was under the influence of madame, appeared _Mérope_,
+_Alzire_, the _Siècle de Louis XIV_, etc.
+
+Mme. du Châtelet was the one great _femme savante_ of that century. In
+the preface to her _Traduction des Principes Mathématiques de Newton_,
+Voltaire wrote: "Never was a woman so _savante_ as she, and never did
+a woman merit less the saying, _she is a femme savante_. She did
+not select her friends from those circles where there was a war of
+_esprit_, where a sort of tribunal was established, where they judged
+their century, by which, in recompense, they were severely judged.
+She lived for a long time in societies which were ignorant of what she
+was, and she took no notice of this ignorance. The words precision,
+justness, and force are those which correctly describe her elegance.
+She would have written as Pascal and Nicole did rather than like Mme.
+de Sévigné; but this severe firmness and this tendency of her _esprit_
+did not make her inaccessible to the beauties of sentiment."
+
+Maupertuis, the astronomer, wrote: "What a marvel, moreover, to have
+been able to combine the fine qualities of her sex with the sublime
+knowledge which we believe uniquely made for us! This enterprising
+phenomenon will make her memory eternally respected."
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IX
+
+Salon Leaders—(Continued)
+
+Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis: Minor Salons
+
+
+It seems strange indeed that in a century in which the universal
+impulse was toward pleasure, and sameness of personality was
+visible everywhere, the types of great women showed such an absolute
+dissimilarity. The contrast between the natural inclinations of Mme.
+Necker, the wife of the great minister of finance, and the atmosphere
+in which she lived, makes the study of her a most interesting one.
+Born in Switzerland, the daughter of Curchod, a poor Protestant
+minister, "with patriarchal morals, solid education, and strong
+good sense," this moral and stern woman was thrown into the midst of
+depraved elegance, refined licentiousness, and physical debauchery.
+Sincere, chaste, enthusiastic, and essentially religious, she remained
+so amidst all the corruption and physical and mental degeneracy of the
+age.
+
+Critics have made much ado over her marriage, a union of pure love and
+mutual inclinations, amidst the marriages of mere convenience and the
+gallant liaisons, such as those of Mme. du Deffand and _le Président_
+Hénault, and Mme. d'Epinay and Grimm. The matrimonial selection of
+Susanne Curchod was natural in a girl of her serious make-up, her
+moral education and her pure ancestry of the strict Protestant type.
+As a girl of sixteen, she had given evidence of remarkable mental
+ability and had acquired a wide knowledge—physics, Latin, philosophy,
+metaphysics—when she was sent to Lausanne, possibly with the idea
+of meeting a future husband with whom she could become thoroughly
+acquainted before giving up her independence. There she became
+the centre of a group or academy of young people, who, under her
+leadership, discussed subjects of every nature. At first she showed
+a tendency toward _préciosité_ and the spirit of the blue-stocking
+rather than toward the seriousness and dignity which marked her later
+career.
+
+It was at Lausanne that she met and fell in love with Gibbon, the
+English historian; this love affair met with opposition from Gibbon's
+father, and, after the death of the father of his fiancée, a calamity
+which left her poor and necessitated her teaching for a living,
+the Englishman, by his actions and manner toward her, compelled the
+breaking of their engagement. When, later in life, he went to her
+salon, they became intimate friends, enjoying "the intellectual union
+which had been impossible for them in their earlier days."
+
+Thus, at the age of twenty-four, Mlle. Curchod, beautiful, virtuous,
+and accomplished, and at the height of her reputation in a small town
+in Switzerland, was left an orphan. She was taken to Paris by Mme. de
+Vermenoux, a wealthy widow, who was sought in marriage by M. Necker,
+banker and capitalist; but, as she was unable to make up her mind to
+a definite answer, his attention was attracted to her young companion.
+The result was that, after a few months' sojourn in Paris, Mlle.
+Curchod became the wife of M. Necker, an event which caused rejoicing
+from Lausanne to Geneva. Their characters are well portrayed in two
+letters, written by them to their friends after their marriage. M.
+Necker wrote, in reply to a letter of congratulation:
+
+"Yes, sir; your friend (Mlle. Curchod) was indeed willing to have me,
+and I believe myself as happy as one can be. I cannot understand how
+it can be you whom they congratulate, unless it is as my friend. Will
+money always be the measure of opinion? That is pitiable! He who
+wins a virtuous, kind, and sensible woman—has he not made a good
+transaction, whether or not she be seated on sacks of money? Humanity,
+what a poor judge you are!"
+
+Shortly after her marriage, Mme. Necker wrote to one of her friends:
+"My dear, I have married a man who, according to my ideas, is the
+kindest of mortals, and I am not the only one to judge thus. I had had
+a liking for him ever since I learned to know him. At present, I see,
+in all nature, only my husband. I take notice of other men only in so
+far as they come more or less up to the standard of my husband, and
+I compare them only for the pleasure of seeing the difference." The
+marital relations of this loving pair lasted throughout life; and
+among great women of the eighteenth century, Mme. Necker is one of the
+few examples of ideal marriage relations.
+
+Soon after their marriage, the Neckers took up their quarters at the
+Rue Michel-le-Comte, where they began to receive friends. As at that
+time every day in the week was reserved by other salons,—Monday and
+Wednesday at Mme. Geoffrin's, Tuesday at Helvétius's, Thursday and
+Sunday at the Baron d'Holbach's,—Mme. Necker was compelled to appoint
+Friday as her reception day. She soon succeeded in attracting to her
+hôtel the best _esprit_ of Paris: Diderot, Suard, Grimm, Comte de
+Schomberg, Marmontel, D'Alembert, Thomas, Saint-Lambert, Helvétius,
+Ducis, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, the Abbés Raynal, Armand, and
+Morellet, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mme. de Marchais, Mme.
+Suard, the Maréchale de Luxembourg, the Duchesse de Lauzun, the
+Marquise de La Ferté-Imbault, Mme. de Boufflers.
+
+Among these visitors, most of whom were atheists, Mme. Necker
+preserved her own religious opinions and piety, although her friends
+at Geneva never ceased to be concerned about her. Her admirers were
+many, but they were kept within the bounds of propriety and never
+attempted any gallant liberties with the hostess—except her ardent
+admirer Thomas, the intensity of whose eulogies upon her she was
+forced to check occasionally. It was not long before she became very
+influential in filling the vacant seats of the Academy. In this and
+many other respects, her salon may be compared with that of Mme. de
+Lambert.
+
+Mme. Necker's idea of conducting a salon and its conversation was much
+the same as the management of a state; she believed that the hostess
+must never join in the conversation as long as it goes on by itself,
+but, ever watchful, must never permit disturbances, disagreements,
+improprieties, or obstacles; she must animate it if it languish; she
+must see that conversation never takes a dangerous, disagreeable, or
+tiresome turn, and that it never brings into undue prominence one man
+especially, as this makes others jealous and displeases the entire
+society; it must always interest and include all members. The
+discussions at Mme. Necker's were literary and philosophical; and to
+prevent even the possibility of tedium, frequent readings were given
+in their place.
+
+It was at the salon of Mme. Necker that Bernardin de Saint-Pierre
+first read his _Paul et Virginie_, which received such a cold and
+indifferent welcome that the author, utterly discouraged, was on the
+point of burning his manuscript, when he was prevailed upon by his
+friend Vernet, the great artist, to preserve all his works. Mme.
+Necker was always quite frank and outspoken, often showing a cutting
+harshness and a rigor which, as was said, was little in harmony with
+her bare neck and arms—a style then in vogue at court. She never
+judged persons by their reputations, but by their _esprit_; thus, it
+was possible for her to receive people of the most diverse tendencies.
+When the Marquise de La Ferté-Imbault, one of the few virtuous women
+of the time, and of the highest aristocracy, was invited to attend the
+salon of Mme. Necker and was told that the Maréchale de Luxembourg,
+Mme. du Deffand, Mme. de Boufflers, and Mme. Marchais were
+frequenters, she said: "These four women are so discredited by
+manners, and the first two are so dangerous, that for thirty years
+they have been the horror of society."
+
+The two portraits by Marmontel and Galiani are interesting, as
+throwing light upon the doings of her salon. Marmontel wrote: "Mme.
+Necker is very virtuous and instructed, but emphatic and stiff. She
+does not know Mme. de Sévigné, whom she praises, and only esteems
+Buffon and Thomas. She calculates all things; she sought men of
+letters only as trumpets to blow in honor of her husband. He never
+said a word; that was not very recreating."
+
+Galiani leaves a different impression: "There is not a Friday that
+I do not go to your house _en esprit_. I arrive, I find you now busy
+with your headdress, now busy with this duchess. I seat myself at your
+feet. Thomas quietly suffers, Morellet shows his anger aloud. Grimm
+and Suard laugh heartily about it, and my dear Comte de Greuze does
+not notice it. Marmontel finds the example worthy to be imitated,
+and you, madame, make two of your most beautiful virtues do battle,
+bashfulness and politeness, and in this suffering you find me a little
+monster more embarrassing than odious. Dinner is announced. They leave
+the table and in the café all speak at the same time. M. Necker thinks
+everything well, bows his head and goes away."
+
+In summer her receptions were first held at the Château de Madrid,
+and, later on, in a château at Saint-Ouen; the guests were always
+called for and returned in carriages supplied by the hostess. It was
+in her salon, in 1770, that the plan originated to erect the statue
+of Voltaire, which is to-day the famous statue of the _Palais de
+l'Institute_.
+
+When, during the stirring times before the Revolution, her salon took
+on a purely political nature, Mme. Necker played a very secondary
+rôle. In 1788 she and her husband were compelled to leave Paris; but
+being recalled by Louis XVI., Necker managed affairs for thirteen
+months, after which he retired with Mme. Necker to Coppet, where, in
+1794, the latter died.
+
+Mme. Necker never became a thorough Frenchwoman; she always lacked
+the grace and charm which are the necessary qualifications of a salon
+leader; intelligence was her most meritorious quality. Her dinners
+were apt to become tiresome and to drag. A very interesting story is
+told of her by the Marquis de Chastellux, which was reported by Mme.
+Genlis, one of her intimate friends:
+
+"Dining at Mme. Necker's, the marquis was first to arrive, and so
+early that the hostess was not yet in the salon. In walking up and
+down the room, he noticed a small book under Mme. Necker's chair. He
+picked it up and opened it. It was a blank book, a few of the pages
+of which had been written upon by Mme. Necker. Certainly, he would
+not have read a letter, but, believing to find only a few spiritual
+thoughts, he read without any scruples. It contained the plan for the
+dinner of that day, to which he had been invited, and had been written
+by Mme. Necker on the previous evening. It told what she would say to
+the most prominent of the invited guests. She wrote: 'I shall speak
+to the Chevalier de Chastellux about public felicity and Agatha; to M.
+d'Angeviller, I shall speak of love; between Marmontel and Guibert
+I shall raise some literary discussion.' After reading the note, he
+hurriedly replaced the book under the chair. A moment later, a valet
+entered, saying that madame had left her notebook in the salon. The
+dinner was charming for M. de Chastellux, because he had the pleasure
+of hearing Mme. Necker say, word for word, what she had written in her
+notebook."
+
+This woman was ever preoccupied with style, and, throughout her life,
+retained the solemn, studied, and academic air, as well as the simple,
+rural, innocent manner and spirit of her early surroundings. A mere
+bourgeoise, unaccustomed to elegance or to the manners of French
+social life, upon entering Parisian society she set her mind to
+observing, and immediately began to change her provincial ways and to
+make over her _esprit_ for conversation, for circumstances, and for
+characters; she adjusted her provincial spirit to that of Paris, thus
+making of it an entirely new product. Later on, her salon became the
+first of the modern political salons, but it was far from reaching the
+prominence of that of Mme. Geoffrin, whose characteristics were social
+prudence and strict propriety, while those of Mme. Necker were virtue
+and goodness.
+
+Mme. Necker was never in perfect sympathy with her visitors, the
+philosophers, the common basis of ideas and sentiments never existing
+between her and her friends as it did between Mme. Geoffrin and her
+frequenters; her tie was always artificial. "She represented the Swiss
+spirit in Parisian society; those serious and educated souls, virtuous
+and sentimental, somewhat sad and strictly moral, were rather tiresome
+to the Parisian world." Marmontel well describes her in another of his
+famous portraits:
+
+"A stranger to the customs of Paris, Mme. Necker had none of the
+charms and accomplishments of the young French woman. In her manner
+and language she had neither the air nor the tone of a woman reared
+in the school of arts, formed at the school of high society.
+Without taste in her headdress, without ease in her bearing, without
+fascination in her politeness, her mind—as was her countenance—was
+too properly adjusted to show grace. But a charm more worthy of her
+was that of propriety, of candor, of goodness. A virtuous education
+and solitary studies had given to her all that culture can add to an
+excellent nature. In her, sentiment was perfect, but her thought was
+often confused and vague; instead of clearing her ideas, meditation
+disturbed them; in exaggerating them, she believed to enlarge them;
+in order to extend them, she wandered off into abstractions and
+hyperboles. She seemed to see certain objects only through a fog,
+which augmented their importance in her eyes; and then her expression
+became so inflated that the pomposity of it would have been laughable
+if one had not known her to be entirely ingenuous."
+
+"In summing up the character of Mme. Necker, we find," says
+Sainte-Beuve, "first of all, a genuine individuality and a personality
+with defects which at first impression are shocking, but which only
+helped to render the woman and all her aspirations the more admirable.
+Entering a Parisian society with the firm decision of becoming a woman
+of _esprit_ and of being in relation with the _beaux esprits_, she was
+able to preserve the moral conscience of her Protestant training, to
+protest against the false doctrines about her, to give herself up to
+duties in the midst of society, to found institutions for the sick and
+needy,—and to leave a memory without a stain."
+
+While, among the famous salon leaders of the eighteenth century, Mme.
+Necker stands out preëminently for her strict moral integrity and
+fidelity to her marriage relations, Mme. d'Epinay is unique for
+the constancy of her affections for the men to whom she owes her
+celebrity, Rousseau and Grimm. Born in 1725, the record of her life
+runs like that of most French women. At the age of twenty she was
+married to her cousin, La Live, who later took the name of d'Epinay,
+from an estate his father, the wealthy M. de Bellegarde, had bought—a
+man who was really in love with her for a whole month after their
+marriage, but who, tiring of the pure affections of a loving wife,
+soon began to lavish his time and fortune upon a _danseuse_. The
+poor young wife was between two fires, the extravagance and wild
+dissipations of her husband and the rigid discipline and orthodoxy of
+her mother. Never was a woman treated so outrageously and insultingly
+as was this woman by a man who contrived in every manner to corrupt
+her morals by throwing her among his dissolute companions, Mme.
+d'Artz, the mistress of the Prince de Conti, and Mlle. d'Ette, an
+intriguing woman of the time; to the latter, Mme. d'Epinay confided
+her troubles, and, as the result of her counsels, fell into the hands
+of a M. de Francueil, handsome, clever, accomplished, but as morally
+depraved as was her husband.
+
+When Mme. d'Epinay was finally convinced that her husband was untrue
+to her, she felt nothing but disdain and contempt for him, and
+decided to live a virtuous life; after holding for a short time to
+her resolution "that a woman may have the most profound and tender
+sentiment for a man and yet remain faithful to her duties," she lost
+herself under the influence of the professional seducer Francueil,
+and, completely carried away by that passion, she cries out, in her
+memoirs: _Francueil, Francueil, tu m'as perdue, et tu disais que tu
+m'aimais_ [You have undone me—and you said you loved me]! Such was
+the lot, as was seen, of most women of those days, who had noble
+intentions, but a woman's weakness. The century did not demand
+faithfulness to the marital vows; but when a woman had once abandoned
+herself to love, it required that the attachment be to a man of honor
+and standing. Marriage was simply a preliminary step to freedom;
+after that ceremony came the natural election of the heart and mutual
+tenderness of the beings who could be mated only through the freedom
+which married life afforded. A superior illegitimate liaison was
+nothing unnatural—on the contrary, it was but a natural human
+selection; such was the nature of the affection of Mme. d'Epinay for
+this débauché Francueil.
+
+As she enjoyed absolute liberty, her lover paid his respects to her at
+Epinay; there he inaugurated amusements and took his friends. It
+was he who suggested the erection of a theatre at which her friends'
+productions might be offered to the world of critics. Through his
+efforts, the great men who made her salon famous were gathered at "La
+Chevrette," where the actors and players soon drew the attention of
+literary Paris. After a year or two of attachment, Francueil became
+indifferent to Mme. d'Epinay and transferred his affections to an
+actress—the sister of M. d'Epinay's mistress. Thus runs the story of
+the life of the average married woman. If she remained virtuous,
+she usually became resigned to her fate and lived happily; if she
+undertook to imitate her husband's tactics, she fell from the good
+graces of one lover to those of another, ending her life in absolute
+wretchedness.
+
+These two men—the lover and the husband—carried on with two sisters
+their licentious living and extravagances to such an extent that the
+injured wife demanded a separation of her fortune from that of her
+husband, in which project her father-in-law aided her and gave her
+thirteen thousand francs income. Mme. d'Epinay, in the midst of
+success, became acquainted with Mlle. Quinault, the daughter of the
+famous actor of the time, and herself a great actress. This woman
+invited Mme. d'Epinay to her so-called salon, which was, possibly, the
+most licentious and irreligious of the salons then in vogue, where she
+met Duclos, with whom she immediately formed a strong friendship.
+
+After the death of M. de Bellegarde, her wealth was considerably
+increased, a piece of good fortune which enabled her to carry out all
+her plans. It was at this time, 1755, that she induced Rousseau
+to live in her cottage, "l'Hermitage;" and for about two years she
+enjoyed perfect happiness with him. By a peculiar freak of fate she
+fell in with Grimm, who was introduced to her by Rousseau and who had,
+for some time, been on the hunt for a "faithful mistress." This German
+by birth, but Frenchman in spirit, had championed her at a dinner,
+where she was the object of the severest reproach. She had burned
+the papers of her sister, Mme. de Jully, who had betrayed an honest
+husband. Stricken with smallpox, just before dying, she confessed all
+to Mme. d'Epinay. The latter owed Mme. de Jully fifty écus and the
+note was among the papers of Mme. de Jully. Mme. d'Epinay was accused
+of having burned the note to which it was asserted she had access; and
+Grimm undertook to plead her cause, an act which so elated madame that
+she turned all her affection upon her defender, whereupon Rousseau
+departed. Later on, the note having been found, Mme. d'Epinay was
+completely vindicated. Grimm then became her third lover.
+
+This third marriage, so to speak, was one of reason; the first was one
+of mere emancipation; the second, one of passion and genuine love.
+In 1755, worn out physically, she took a trip to Switzerland, to be
+treated by the famous Dr. Tronchin; there she became so ill that Grimm
+was summoned. They remained together for about two years, and after
+her return to Paris she reopened her salon of "La Chevrette." Her
+reunions partook more of the nature of our house parties; the salon
+was an immense room, in which the members would pair off and divert
+themselves as they pleased; in that respect "La Chevrette" was
+unique. After her fortune, which at one time was quite large, became
+diminished, partly through her own extravagance and partly through
+that of her son, who was the very counterpart of his father, she was
+forced to rent "La Chevrette" and, later on, "La Briche," where she
+had opened her second salon.
+
+The last years of her life she spent in Paris with Grimm. She had
+reached such a physical condition that her sufferings could be
+relieved only by the use of opium. Financial relief came to her in
+1783, when the Academy awarded her the Montyon prize, then given for
+the first time, for her _Conversations d'Emilie_. She died in the same
+year, surrounded by her dearest friends—Grimm, M. and Mme. Belgunce,
+and Mme. d'Houdetot.
+
+Mme. d'Epinay, in many respects, was a remarkable woman. Amid all her
+social duties, with all her physical and mental troubles, she found
+time to help others and to manage her own business affairs and
+those of her children, took an active interest in art, music, and
+literature, raised, with the utmost care, her granddaughter, produced
+one of the best works of the time for children, made tapestry, and
+wrote innumerable letters. Her fortune was lost through the reforms of
+Necker.
+
+She was not a beautiful woman; but she was distinguished by a small,
+thin figure, an abundance of rich dark hair, which brought out in
+striking relief the peculiar whiteness of her skin, and large brown
+eyes. Her five lovers she called her five bears: Rousseau, Grimm,
+Desmoulin, Saint-Lambert, Gauffecourt. An epistle to Grimm begins
+thus;
+
+  "Moi, de cinq ours la souveraine,
+  Qui leur donne et present des lois,
+  Faut-il que je sois à la fois
+  Et votre esclave et votre reine,
+  O des tyrans le plus tyran?"
+
+  [I, sovereign over five bears,
+  Who give and prescribe laws for them—
+  Must I be your slave and queen at the same time,
+  O among tyrants, the greatest?]
+
+As far as the care of the education of her children is concerned,
+with its sacrifice and real application to duty, she was sometimes
+called—and not unadvisedly—the type of the ideal mother. From 1757
+on her ideas and thoughts ran to education. Her friends were all
+of the philosophical trend, and intellectual labor was their chief
+pleasure. After having passed through a career of excitement and
+love's caprices, she longed for a peaceful, quiet existence; at
+that point, however, her health gave way, and she entered upon a new
+territory at Geneva. There she conquered Voltaire, who was profuse
+with his compliments and kindnesses. Upon her return she became the
+recognized leader or champion of the philosophic and foreign group
+and the Encyclopædists, and was regarded as the central figure of the
+philosophical movement in general.
+
+The ideas of the philosophers had been gaining ground, and were
+disseminated through all classes. The mere love of pleasure and luxury
+at first found under Louis XV. gave way to more serious reflections
+when society was confronted with those all-important questions which
+finally culminated in the Revolution. The salon of Mme. d'Epinay grew
+to be the most important and, intellectually, the most brilliant
+of the time. Rousseau, Diderot, Helvétius, Duclos, Suard, the Abbés
+Galiani, Raynal, the Florentine physician Gatti, Comte de Schomberg,
+Chevalier de Chastellux, Saint-Lambert, Marquis de Croixmare, the
+different ambassadors, counts and princes, were frequent visitors
+In this brilliant circle her letters from Voltaire, read aloud, were
+always eagerly awaited. Such dramas as Voltaire's _Tancred_, Diderot's
+_Le Père de Famille_, were given under her patronage and discussed in
+her salon; after the performance she entertained all the friends at
+supper.
+
+Upon the departure of Abbé Galiani from Paris, Mme. d'Epinay and
+Diderot were intrusted with the revision and printing of his famous
+_Dialogues sur les Blés_; Grimm left to them the continuance of
+his _Correspondance Littéraire_. She was known for her wonderful
+analytical ability and her keen power of observation—faculties which
+won the esteem and respect of such men and caused her collaboration
+to be anxiously sought by them; however, she never attempted to rival
+them in their particular sphere. In her writings she displayed a
+reactionary tendency against the educational methods of the day, her
+chief work of real literary worth being mostly in the form of
+sound advice to a child. Being a reasonable, careful, and sensible
+woman,—in spite of the defects in her moral life,—she desired to
+show the possibilities of a moral revolution against the habits and
+customs of the time, of which she herself had been a most unfortunate
+victim. She was relieved of actual want by means of this work, which
+gained for her a pension from Catherine II. of Russia, who adopted
+her methods for her own children, and the award of the Montyon prize,
+which was given her in a competition with a large number of aspirants,
+the most famous of whom was Mme. de Genlis. It was her ability to gain
+and retain the respect of great men which won that honor for her.
+
+The memoirs of Mme. d'Epinay leave one of the most accurate and
+faithful pictures of the polished society of the France of about 1750.
+"Her salon was the centre about which circled the greatest activity;
+it was filled with men who ordered events, thinkers whose minds were
+bent upon untangling the knotty problems of the age; it was her salon,
+more than any other, that quickened the philosophical movement of
+the day. Mme. d'Epinay made her reputation not so much through her
+_esprit_, intelligence, or beauty, possibly, as through the strength
+of her affection. Timid, irresolute, and highly impressionable,
+and amiable in disposition, she was constantly influenced by
+circumstances—a quality which led her on to the two principal
+occupations of her later life, education and philosophy. To-day,
+her name is recalled principally for its association with that of
+Rousseau, whose mistress and benefactress she was; it is to her that
+the world owes his famous _Nouvelle Héloïse_.
+
+The last of the great literary and social leaders of the eighteenth
+century was Mme. de Genlis, a prodigy in every respect, an amateur
+performer upon nearly every instrument, an authority on intellectual
+matters as well, a fine story teller, a consummate artist,
+entertainer, and general charmer. Authoress, governess of
+Louis-Philippe, councillor of Bonaparte, her success as a social
+leader established her reputation and places her in the file of great
+women, although she was not a salon leader such as Mme. Geoffrin or
+Mme. du Deffand.
+
+She was born in 1746, and at a very early age showed a remarkable
+talent for music, but her general education was much neglected. At the
+age of about seventeen she was married to a Comte de Genlis, who
+had fallen in love with her on seeing her portrait. As his relatives
+refused to welcome the young girl, she was placed in the convent of
+Origny, where she remained until 1764, after which her husband took
+her to his brother's estate, where they lived happily for a short
+time. When, in 1765, she became a mother, her husband's family became
+reconciled to his union, and, later on, took her to court.
+
+Before her marriage, upon the departure of her father to San Domingo
+to retrieve his fortunes, her mother had found an asylum for her at
+the elegant home of the farmer-general M. de La Popelinière. This
+occurred at the time that Paris was theatre mad, and when great actors
+and actresses were the heroes and heroines of society. At this house
+the young girl became the central figure in the theatrical and musical
+entertainments. After passing through this schooling, she stood the
+test of the court without any difficulty, and completely won the favor
+of her husband's family, as well as that of the court ladies and
+the members of the other distinguished households where she was
+introduced. With an insatiable appetite for frolics, quite in keeping
+with the customs of the time, she plunged into social life with a
+vigor and an aptitude which soon attracted attention. She played all
+sorts of rôles at the most fashionable houses, "through her consummate
+acting and _bons mots_ drawing tears of vexation from her less gifted
+sisters. She plays nine instruments, writes dramas, recasts others,
+organizes and drills amateurs, besides attending to a thousand and one
+other things."
+
+Through the influence of her aunt, Mme. de Montesson, who was
+secretly married to the Duke of Orléans, Mme. de Genlis was appointed
+lady-in-waiting in the household of the Duchesse de Chartres, the
+duke's daughter-in-law, whose salon was celebrated in Paris. She
+soon won the confidence of the duchess, and became her confessor,
+secretary, guide, and oracle, but did not abandon in the least her
+pursuit of pleasure. She even took possession of the heart of the duke
+himself, and in 1782 was made "_gouverneur_" to his children, the Duc
+de Valois, later Louis-Philippe, the Duc de Montpensier, the Comte de
+Beaujolais, and Mlle. Adelaïde; for the education of her pupils she
+had the use of several châteaux. Many a piquant epigram and chanson
+were composed for the edification of the "_gouverneur_." It is said
+that she acted as panderer for the princes, especially Louis-Philippe,
+of a "legitimate means of satisfying these ardent desires of which
+I am being devoured," by leading them to the nuns in the convents
+by means of a subterranean passage. The following passages from the
+journal of Louis-Philippe show the nature of his relations with her:
+
+(December, 1790.) "I went to dine with my mother and grandfather.
+Although I am delighted to dine often with my mother, I am deeply
+sorry to give only three days out of the seven to my dear Bellechasse
+[that is, to Mme. de Genlis]."
+
+(January, 1791.) "Last evening, returned to my friend [Mme. de
+Genlis]; remained there until after midnight; I was the first one to
+have the good fortune of wishing her a 'Happy New Year.' Nothing can
+make me happier; I don't know what will become of me when I am no
+longer with her."
+
+(January, 1791.) "Yesterday, I was at the Tuileries. The queen spoke
+to my father, to my brother, and said nothing to me—neither did the
+king nor Monsieur, in fact, no one. I remained at my friend's until
+half-past twelve. No one in the world is so agreeable to me as is
+she." (February, 1791.) "I was at the assembly at Bellechasse, dined
+at the Palais-Royal, I was at the Jacobins, returned to Bellechasse,
+after supper went to my friend's. I remained with her alone; she
+treated me with an infinite kindness; I left, the happiest man in the
+world." Such language speaks for itself.
+
+No sons of a nobleman ever received a finer, more typically modern
+education than did her pupils. She was, possibly, the first teacher to
+use the natural method system, teaching German, English, and Italian
+by conversation. The boys were compelled to act, in the park, the
+voyages of Vasco da Gama; in the dining room the great historical
+tableaux were presented; in the theatre, built especially for them,
+they acted all the dramas of the _Théâtre d'Education_. She taught
+them how to make portfolios, ribbons, wigs, pasteboard work, to
+gild, to turn, and to do carpentering. They visited museums and
+manufactories, during which expeditions they were taught to observe,
+criticise, and find defects. This was the first step taken in France
+in the eighteenth century toward a modern education. Although it was
+superficial, in consequence of its great breadth, yet this education
+inculcated manliness and courage.
+
+In 1778 Mme. de Genlis published her moral teachings in _Adèle et
+Théodore_, a work which created quite a little talk at the time, but
+which eventually brought upon her the condemnation of the philosophers
+and Encyclopædists, because in it she opposed liberty of conscience.
+When, on the occasion of the first communion of the Duc de Valois,
+she wrote her _Religion Considered as the Only True Foundation of
+Happiness and of True Philosophy_, all the Palais-Royal place hunters,
+philosophers, and her political enemies, in a mass, opposed and
+ridiculed her. Rivarol declared that she had no sex, that heaven had
+refused the magic of talent to her productions, as it had refused the
+charm of innocence to her childhood.
+
+One of the best portraits of her is in the memoirs of the Baroness
+d'Oberkirch (it was she who disturbed Mme. de Genlis and the Duc
+d'Orléans while they were walking in the gardens one night):
+
+"I did not like her, in spite of her accomplishments and the charm of
+her conversation; she was too systematic. She is a woman who has laid
+aside the flowing robes of her sex for the costume of a pedagogue.
+Besides, nothing about her is natural; she is constantly in an
+attitude, as it were, thinking that her portrait—physical or
+moral—is being taken by someone. One of the great follies of this
+masculine woman is her harp, which she carries about with her; she
+speaks about it when she hasn't it—she plays on a crust of bread and
+practises with a thread. When she perceives that someone is looking
+at her, she rounds her arm, purses up her mouth, assumes a sentimental
+expression and air, and begins to move her fingers. Gracious! what
+a fine thing naturalness is!... I spent a delightful evening at the
+Comtesse de La Massais's; she had hired musicians whom she paid dear;
+but Mme. de Genlis sat in the centre of the assembly, commanded,
+talked, commented, sang, and would have put the entire concert in
+confusion, had not the Marquise de Livry very drolly picked a quarrel
+with her about her harp, which she had brought to her. Decidedly, this
+young D'Orléans has a singular governor. She holds too closely to her
+rôle, and never forgets her _jupons_ [skirts] except when she ought
+most to remember them."
+
+During her visit to England she was petted by everyone; but even in
+England there was a widespread prejudice against her—a feeling which
+the mere sight of her immediately dissipated. An English lady wrote
+about her:
+
+"I saw her at first with a prejudice in her disfavor, from the cruel
+reports I had heard; but the moment I looked at her it was removed.
+There was a dignity with her sweetness and a frankness with her
+modesty, that convinced me, beyond all power of contrary report, of
+her real worth and innocence."
+
+During the Revolution Mme. de Genlis travelled about Switzerland,
+Germany, and England. At Berlin, owing to her poverty, she supported
+herself by writing, making trinkets, and teaching, until she was
+recalled to France, under the Consulate. In Paris she produced some of
+her best works—although they were written to order. Napoleon gave
+her a pension of six thousand francs and handsome apartments at the
+Arsenal. To this liberal pension, the wife of his brother, Joseph
+Bonaparte, added three thousand francs.
+
+From Mme. de Genlis, Napoleon received a letter fortnightly, in which
+epistle she communicated to him her opinions and observations upon
+politics and current events. Upon the return to power of the Orléans
+family, she was put off with a meagre pension. Like many other French
+women, she became more and more melancholy and misanthropic. She was
+unable to control her wrath against the philosophers and some of the
+contemporary writers, such as Lamartine, Mme. de Staël, Scott, and
+Byron. Her death, in 1830, was announced in these words: "Mme. de
+Genlis has ceased to write—which is to announce her death."
+
+Throughout life she was so generous that as soon as she received
+her pensions, presents, or earnings from her work, the money was
+distributed among the poor. When she died, she left nothing but a few
+worn and homely dresses and articles of furniture. The diversity of
+her works and her conduct, the politics in which she was steeped,
+the satires, the perfidious accusations that have pursued her, have
+contributed to leave of her a rather doubtful portrait; however,
+those who have written bitterly against her have done so mostly from
+personal or political animosity. She was so many-sided—a reformer,
+teacher, pietist, politician, actress—that a true estimate of her
+character is difficult. A woman of all tastes and of various talents,
+she was a living encyclopædia and mistress of all arts of pleasing.
+She had studied medicine, and took special delight in the art of
+bleeding, which she practised upon the peasants, each one of whom she
+would present with thirty sous (thirty cents), after the bleeding—and
+she never lacked patients. Mme. de Genlis was an expert rider and
+huntress; also, she was graceful, with an elegant figure, great
+affability, and a talent for quickly and accurately reading character;
+and these gifts were stepping-stones to popularity.
+
+She wrote incessantly, on all things, essaying every style, every
+subject. "She has discoursed for the education of princes and of
+lackeys; prepared maxims for the throne and precepts for the pantry;
+you might say she possessed the gift of universality. She was gifted
+with a singular confidence in her own abilities, infinite curiosity,
+untiring industry, and never-ending and inexhaustible energy. She
+wrote nearly as much as Voltaire, and barely excelled him in the
+amount of unreadable work, which, if printed, would fill over one
+hundred volumes."
+
+"Let us remember," says Mr. Dobson, "her indefatigable industry and
+untiring energy, her kindness to her relatives and admirers, her
+courage and patience when in exile and poverty, her great talent,
+perseverance, and rare facility." In protesting vigorously against the
+universal neglect of physical development, against the absence of the
+gymnasium and the lack of practical knowledge in the education of
+her time, in advocating the study of modern languages as a means of
+culture and discipline, in applying to her pupils the principles of
+the modern experimental and observational education, Mme. de Genlis
+will retain a place as one of the great female educators—as a woman
+pedagogue, _par excellence_, of the eighteenth century.
+
+A great number of minor salons existed, which were partly literary,
+partly social. From about 1750 to 1780 the amusements varied
+constantly, from all-day parties in the country to cafés served by
+the great women themselves, from playing proverbs to playing synonyms,
+from impromptu compositions to questionable stories, from laughter to
+tears, from Blind-man's-buff to Lotto. Some of the proverbs were quite
+ingenious and required elaborate preparations; for example, at one
+place Mme. de Lauzun dances with M. de Belgunce, in the simplest kind
+of a costume, which represented the proverb: _Bonne renommée vaut
+mieux que ceinture dorée_ [A good name is rather to be chosen than
+great riches]. Mme. de Marigny danced with M. de Saint-Julien as a
+negro, passing her handkerchief over her face in the various figures
+of the dance, meaning _A laver la tête d'un More on perd sa lessive_
+[To wash a blackamoor white].
+
+Among the social salons, the finest was the Temple of the Prince de
+Conti and his mistress, the Countess de Boufflers. It was a salon of
+pleasure, liberty, and unceremonious intimacy; his _thés à l'anglaise_
+were served by the great ladies themselves, attired in white aprons.
+The exclusive and élite of the social world made up his company. The
+most elegant assembly was that of the Maréchale de Luxembourg; it will
+be considered later on. The salon of Mme. de Beauvau rivalled that
+of the Maréchale de Luxembourg; she was mistress of elegance and
+propriety, an authority on and model of the usages of society. A
+manner perhaps superior to that of any other woman, gave Mme. de
+Beauvau a particular _politesse_ and constituted her one of the women
+who contributed most to the acceptance of Paris as the capital of
+Europe, by well-bred people of all countries. Her _politesse_ was kind
+and without sarcasm, and, by her own naturalness, she communicated
+ease. She was not beautiful, but had a frank and open expression and
+a marvellous gift of conversation, which was her delight and in which
+she gloried. Her salon was conspicuous for its untarnished honor and
+for the example it set of a pure conjugal love.
+
+The salon of Mme. de Grammont, at Versailles, was visited at all hours
+of the day and night by the highest officials, princes, lords, and
+ladies. It had activity, authority, the secret doors, veiled and
+redoubtable depths of a salon of the mistress of a king. Everybody
+went there for counsel, submitted plans, and confided projects to this
+lady who had willingly exiled herself from Paris.
+
+The house of M. de La Popelinière, at Passy, was noted for its unique
+entertainment; there the celebrated Gossec and Gaïffre conducted the
+concerts, Deshayes, master of the ballet at the Comédie-Italienne,
+managed the amusements. It was a house like a theatre and with all the
+requisites of the latter; there artists and men of letters, virtuosos
+and _danseuses_, ate, slept, and lodged as in a hotel. With Mme. de
+Blot, mistress of the Duke of Orléans, as hostess, the Palais-Royal
+ranked next to the Temple of the Prince de Conti; it was open only to
+those who were presented; after that ceremony, all those who were thus
+introduced could, without invitation, dine there on all days of the
+Grand Opera. On the _petits jours_ a select twenty gathered, who, when
+once invited, were so for all time. The "Salon de Pomone," of Mme.
+de Marchais, received its name from Mme. du Deffand on account of the
+exquisite fruits and magnificent flowers which the hostess cultivated
+and distributed among her friends.
+
+"La Paroisse," of Mme. Doublet de Persan, was the salon of the
+sceptics and was under the constant surveillance of the police. All
+the members arrived at the same time and each took possession of the
+armchair reserved for him, above which hung his portrait. On a
+large stand were two registers, in which the rumors of the day were
+noted—in one the doubtful, in the other the accredited. On Saturday,
+a selection was made, which went to the _Grand Livre_, which became a
+journal entitled _Nouvelles à la Main_, kept by the _valet-de-chambre_
+of Mme. Doublet. This book furnished the substance of the six volumes
+of the _Mémoires Secrets_, which began to appear in 1770.
+
+Besides these salons of the nobility, there were those of the
+financiers, a profession which had risen into prominence within the
+last half century, after the death of Louis XIV. According to the
+Goncourt brothers, the greatest of these salons was that of Mme.
+de Grimrod de La Reynière, who, by dint of shrewd manœuvring, by
+unheard-of extravagances, excessive opulence in the furnishings of
+her salon, and by the most gorgeous and rare fêtes and suppers, had
+succeeded in attracting to her establishment a number of the court and
+nobility.
+
+The salon of M. de La Popelinière belonged to this class, although he
+was ranked, more or less, among the nobility. There were the weekly
+suppers of Mme. Suard, Mme. Saurin, the Abbé Raynal, and the luncheons
+of the Abbé Morellet on the first Sunday of the month; to the latter
+functions were invited all the celebrities of the other salons, as
+well as artists and musicians—it was there that the famous quarrel
+of the Gluck and Piccini parties originated. The Tuesday dinners of
+Helvétius became famous; it was at them that Franklin was one of the
+favorites; after the death of Helvétius, he attempted in vain to
+put an end to the widowhood of madame. No man at that time was more
+popular than Franklin or had as much public attention shown him.
+
+There were a number of celebrated women whose reputations rest mainly
+on their wit and conversational abilities; they may be classed as
+society leaders, to distinguish them from salon leaders.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter X
+
+Social Classes
+
+
+The belief generally prevails that devotion and constancy did not
+exist among French women of the eighteenth century; but, in spite of
+the very numerous instances of infidelity which dot the pages of
+the history of the French matrimonial relations of those days, many
+examples of rare devotion are found, even among the nobility. Love of
+the king and self-eliminating devotion to him were feelings to which
+women aspired; yet we have one countess, the Countess of Perigord,
+who, true to her wifehood, repels the advances of the king, preferring
+a voluntary exile to the dishonor of a life of royal favors and
+attentions. There is also the example of Mme. de Trémoille; having
+been stricken with smallpox, she was ministered to by her husband, who
+voluntarily shared her fate and died with her.
+
+It would seem that the highest types of devotion are to be found in
+the families of the ministers and men of state, where the wife was
+intimately associated with the fortune and the success of her husband.
+The Marquis de Croisy and his wife were married forty years; M.
+and Mme. de Maurepas lived together for fifty years, without being
+separated one day. Instances are many in which reconciliations
+were effected after years of unfaithfulness; these seldom occurred,
+however, until the end of life was near. The normal type of married
+life among the higher classes still remained one of most ideal and
+beautiful devotion, in spite of the great number of exceptions.
+
+It must be observed that in the middle class the young girl grew up
+with the mother and was given her most tender care; surrounded with
+wholesome influences, she saw little or nothing of the world, and,
+the constant companion of her mother, developed much like the average
+young girl of to-day. At the age of about eleven she was sent to a
+convent, where—after having spent some time in the _pension_, where
+instruction in religion was given her—she was instructed by the
+sisters for one year.
+
+After her confirmation and her first communion, and the home visits to
+all the relatives, she was placed in a _maison religieuse_, where the
+sisters taught the daughters of the common people free of charge. The
+young girl was also taught dancing, music, and other accomplishments
+of a like nature, but there was nothing of the feverish atmosphere of
+the convent in which the daughters of the nobility were reared; these
+institutions for the middle classes were peaceful, silent, and calm,
+fostering a serenity and quietude. The days passed quickly, the
+Sundays being eagerly looked forward to because of the visits of the
+parents, who took their daughters for drives and walks and indulged
+them in other innocent diversions. Such a life had its after effects:
+the young girls grew up with a taste for system, discipline, piety,
+and for a rigid devotion, which often led them to an instinctive need
+of doctrine and sacrifice; consequently, in later life many turned to
+Jansenism.
+
+However, the young girls of this class who were not thus educated,
+because their assistance was required at home, received an early
+training in social as well as in domestic affairs; they had a solid
+and practical, if uncouth, foundation, combined with a worldly and,
+often, a frivolous temperament. To them many privileges were opened:
+they were taken to the opera, to concerts and to balls, to the salons
+of painting, and it often happened that they developed a craving for
+the society to which only the nobly born demoiselle was admitted. When
+this craving went too far, it frequently led to seduction by some of
+the chevaliers who make seduction a profession.
+
+The marriage customs in these circles differed little from those
+of to-day. The suitor asked permission to call and to continue his
+visits; then followed the period of present giving. The young girl
+was almost always absolute mistress of the decision; if the father
+presented a name, the daughter insisted upon seeing, receiving,
+and becoming intimately acquainted with the suitor, a custom quite
+different from that practised among the nobility. Instead of giving
+her rights as it did the girl of the nobility, marriage imposed duties
+upon the girl of the middle class; it closed the world instead of
+opening it to her; it ended her brilliant, gay, and easy life, instead
+of beginning it, as was the case in the higher classes. This she
+realized, therefore hesitated long before taking the final step which
+was to bind her until death.
+
+With her, becoming a wife meant infinitely more than it did to the
+girl of the nobility; her husband had the management of her money, and
+his vices were visited upon her and her children—in short, he became
+her master in all things. These disadvantages she was taught to
+consider deeply before entering the marriage state.
+
+This state of affairs developed distinctive physiognomies in the
+different classes of the middle-class society: thus, "the wives of the
+financiers are dignified, stern, severe; those of the merchants are
+seductive, active, gossiping, and alert; those of the artists are
+free, easy, and independent, with a strong taste for pleasure and
+gayety—and they give the tone." As we approach the end of the
+century, the _bourgeoisie_ begins to assume the airs, habits,
+extravagances, and even the immoralities, of the higher classes.
+
+Below the _bourgeoise_ was the workingwoman, whose ideas were limited
+to those of a savage and who was a woman only in sex. Her ideas of
+morality, decency, conjugal happiness, children, education, were
+limited by quarrels, profanity, blows, fights. At that time brandy was
+the sole consolation for those women; it supplied their moral force
+and their moral resistance, making them forget cold, hunger, fatigue,
+evil, and giving them courage and patience; it was the fire that
+sustained, comforted, and incited them.
+
+These women were not much above the level of animals, but from them,
+we find, often sprang the entertainers of the time, the queens of
+beauty and gallantry—Laguerre, D'Hervieux, Sophie Arnould. Having
+lost their virtue with maturity, these women had no sense of morality;
+in them, nothing preserved the sense of honor—their religion
+consisted of a few superstitious practices. The constituents of duty
+and the virtue of women they could only vaguely guess; marriage itself
+was presented to them under the most repugnant image of constant
+contention.
+
+It was in such an atmosphere as this that the daughters of these women
+grew up. Their talents found opportunity for display at the public
+dances where some of them would in time attract especial attention.
+Some became opera singers, dancers, or actresses, and were very
+popular; others became influential, and, through the efforts of
+some lover, allured about them a circle of ambitious _débauchés_ or
+aspirants for social favors. Through their adventures they made their
+way up in the world to high society.
+
+From this element of prostitution was disentangled, to a large extent,
+the great gallantry of the eighteenth century. This was accomplished
+by adding an elegance to debauch, by clothing vice with a sort of
+grandeur, and by adorning scandal with a semblance of the glory and
+grace of the courtier of old. Possessing the fascination of all gifts,
+prodigalities, follies, with all the appetites and tendencies of the
+time, these women attracted the society of the period—the poets,
+the artists, even the scientists, the philosophers, and the nobility.
+Their reputation increased with the number and standing of their
+lovers. The genius of the eighteenth century circled about these
+street belles—they represented the fortune of pleasure.
+
+As the church would not countenance the marriage of an actress, she
+was forced to renounce the theatre when she would marry, but once
+married a permit to return to the stage was easily obtained. Society
+was not so severe as the laws; it received actresses, sought out, and
+even adored them; it received the women of the stage as equals, and
+many of them were married by counts and dukes, given a title, and
+presented at court. The regular type of the prostitute was tolerated
+and even received by society; "a word of anger, malediction, or
+outrage, was seldom raised against these women: on the contrary, pity
+and the commiseration of charity and tenderness were felt for them
+and manifested." This was natural, for many of them—through
+notoriety—reached society and, as mistresses of the king, even the
+throne itself. "If such women as Mme. de Pompadour were esteemed, what
+principles remained in the name of which to judge without pity and to
+condemn the _débauchés_ of the street," says Mme. de Choiseul, one of
+the purest of women.
+
+This class usually created and established the styles. There is a
+striking contrast between the standards of beauty and fashions of the
+respective periods of Louis XIV. and Louis XV.: "The stately figure,
+rich costume, awe-inspiring peruke of the magnificent Louis XIV.—the
+satins, velvets, embroideries, perfumes, and powder of the indolent
+and handsome Louis XV., well illustrate the two epochs." The beauty of
+the Louis XIV. age was more serious, more imposing, imperial, classic;
+later in the eighteenth century, under Louis XV., she developed into
+a charming figure of _finesse, sveltesse et gracilité_, with an
+extremely delicate complexion, a small mouth and thin nose, as opposed
+to the strong, plump mouth and _nez léonin_ (leonine nose). More
+animated, the face was all movement, the eyes talked; the _esprit_
+passed to the face. It was the type of Marivaux' comedies, with an
+_esprit mobile_, animated and colored by all the coquetries of grace.
+
+Later in the century, the very opposite type prevailed; the aspiration
+then became to leave an emotion ungratified rather than to seduce;
+a languishing expression was cultivated; women sought to sweeten the
+physiognomy, to make it tender and mild. The style of beauty changed
+from the brunette with brown eyes—so much in vogue under Louis XV.,
+to the blonde with blue eyes under Louis XVI. Even the red which
+formerly "dishonored France," became a favorite. To obtain the much
+admired pale complexion, women had themselves bled; their dress
+corresponded to their complexion, light materials and pure white being
+much affected.
+
+In these three stages of the development of beauty, fashion changed
+to harmonize with the popular style in beauty. In general, styles
+were influenced by an important event of the day: thus, when Marie
+Leczinska, introduced the fad of quadrilles, there were invented
+ribbons called "quadrille of the queen"; and many other fads
+originated in the same way. French taste and fashions travelled over
+entire Europe; all Europe was _à la française_, yoked and laced in
+French styles, French in art, taste, industry. The domination of the
+French _Galerie des Modes_ was due to the inventive minds of French
+women in relation to everything pertaining to headdress, to detailed
+and delicate arrangements of every phase of ornamentation.
+
+Every country had, in Paris, its agents who eagerly waited for the
+appearance of the famous doll of the Rue Saint-Honoré; this figure
+was an exponent of the latest fashions and inventions, and, changing
+continually, was watched and copied by all Europe. Alterations in
+style frequently originated at the supper of a mistress, in the box
+of a dancer or in the atelier of a fine modiste; therefore, in that
+respect, that century differed little from the present one. Trade
+depended largely upon foreign patronage. Fortunes were made by the
+modistes, who were the great artists of the day and who set the
+fashion; but the hairdresser and shoemaker, also, were artists, as was
+seen, at least in name, and were as impertinent as prosperous.
+
+An interesting illustration of the change of fashion is the following
+anecdote: In 1714, at a supper of the king, at Versailles, two English
+women wore low headdress, causing a scandal which came near costing
+them their dismissal. The king happened to mention that if French
+women were reasonable, they would not dress otherwise. The word was
+spread, and the next day, at the king's mass the ladies all wore their
+hair like the English women, regardless of the laughter of the women
+who, being absent the previous evening, had their hair dressed high.
+The compliment of the king as he was leaving mass, to the ladies with
+the low headdress, caused a complete change in the mode.
+
+It now remains but to illustrate these various classes by types—by
+women who have become famous. The Duchesse de Boufflers, Maréchale de
+Luxembourg, was the woman who most completely typified the spirit and
+tone of the eighteenth-century _classique_ in everything that belonged
+to the ancient régime which passed away with the society of 1789.
+She was the daughter of the Duc de Villeroy, and married the Duc de
+Boufflers in 1721; after the death of the latter in 1747, and after
+having been the mistress of M. de Luxembourg for several years, she
+married him in 1750. Her youth was like that of most women of the
+social world. A _savante_ in intrigues at court, present at all
+suppers, bouts, and pleasure trips as lady-of-the-palace to the queen,
+intriguing constantly, holding her own by her sharp wit, in a society
+of _roués et élégants enervés_ she soon became a leader. Mme. du
+Deffand left a striking portrait of her:
+
+"Mme. la Duchesse de Boufflers is beautiful without having the air
+of suspecting it. Her physiognomy is keen and piquant, her expression
+reveals all the emotions of her soul—she does not have to say
+what she thinks, one guesses it. Her gestures are so natural and so
+perfectly in accord with what she says, that it is difficult not to be
+led to think and feel as she does. She dominates wherever she is, and
+she always makes the impression she desires to make. She makes use of
+her advantages almost like a god—she permits us to believe that we
+have a free will while she determines us. In general, she is more
+feared than loved. She has much _esprit_ and gayety. She is constant
+in her engagements, faithful to her friends, truthful, discreet,
+generous. If she were more clairvoyant or if men were less ridiculous,
+they would find her perfect."
+
+On one occasion M. de Tressan composed this famous couplet:
+
+  "Quand Boufflers parut à la cour,
+  On crut voir la mère d'Amour,
+  Chacun s'empressait à lui plaire,
+  Et chacun l'avait à son tour."
+
+  [When Boufflers appeared at court,
+  The mother of love was thought to be seen,
+  Everyone became so eager to please her,
+  And each one had her in his turn.]
+
+One day Mme. de Boufflers mumbled this before M. de Tressan, saying to
+him: "Do you know the author? It is so beautiful that I would not
+only pardon her, but I believe I would embrace her." Whereupon he
+stammered: _Eh bien! c'est moi._ She quickly dealt him two vigorous
+slaps in the face. All feared her; no one equalled her in skill and
+shrewdness, or in knowing and handling men.
+
+After her marriage to the Maréchal de Luxembourg, she decided, about
+1750, to open a salon in Paris; it became one of the real forces of
+the eighteenth century, socially and politically. While her husband
+lived, she did not enjoy the freedom she desired; after his death in
+1764 she was at liberty to do as she pleased, and she then began
+her career as a judge and counsellor in all social matters. She was
+regarded as the oracle of taste and urbanity, exercised a supervision
+over the tone and usage of society, was the censor of _la bonne
+compagnie_ during the happy years of Louis XVI. This power in her was
+universally recognized. She tempered the Anglomania of the time,
+all excesses of familiarity and rudeness; she never uttered a bad
+expression, a coarse laugh or a _tutoiement_ (thee and thou). The
+slightest affectation in tone or gesture was detected and judged
+by her. She preserved the good tone of society and permitted no
+contamination. She retarded the reign of clubs, retained the urbanity
+of French society, and preserved a proper and unique character in the
+_ancien salon français_, in the way of excellence of tone.
+
+The Marquise de Rambouillet, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. de Maintenon,
+Mme. de Caylus, and Mme. de Luxembourg are of the same type—the same
+world, with little variance and no decadence; in some respects, the
+last may be said to have approached nearest to perfection. "In her,
+the turn of critical and caustic severity was exempt from rigidity
+and was accompanied by every charm and pleasingness in her person. She
+often judged [a person] by [his] ability at repartee, which she tested
+by embarrassing questions across the table, judging [the person] by
+the reply. She herself was never at a loss for an answer: when shown
+two portraits—one of Molière and one of La Fontaine—and asked which
+was the greater, she answered: 'That one,' pointing to La Fontaine,
+'is more perfect in a _genre_ less perfect.'"
+
+By the Goncourt brothers, her salon has been given its merited credit:
+"The most elegant salon was that of the Maréchale de Luxembourg, one
+of the most original women of the time. She showed an originality in
+her judgments, she was authority in usage, a genius in taste. About
+her were pleasure, interest, novelty, letters; here was formed the
+true elegance of the eighteenth century—a society that held sway over
+Europe until 1789. Here was formed the greatest institution of
+the time, the only one that survived till the Revolution, that
+preserved—in the discredit of all moral laws—the authority of one
+law, _la parfaite bonne compagnie_, whose aim was a social one—to
+distinguish itself from bad company, vulgar and provincial society,
+by the perfection of the means of pleasing, by the delicacy of
+friendship, by the art of considerations, complaisances, of _savoir
+vivre_, by all possible researches and refinements of _esprit_. It
+fixed everything—usages, etiquette, tone of conversation; it
+taught how to praise without bombast and insipidness, to reply to
+a compliment without disdaining or accepting it, to bring others to
+value without appearing to protect them; it prevented all slander.
+If it did not impart modesty, goodness, indulgence, nobleness of
+sentiment, it at least imposed the forms, exacting the appearances
+and showing the images of them. It was the guardian of urbanity and
+maintained all the laws that are derived from taste. It represented
+the religion of honor; it judged, and when it condemned a man he was
+socially-ruined."
+
+A type of what may be called the social mistress of the nobility—the
+personification of good taste, elegance and propriety such as it
+should be—was the Comtesse de Boufflers, mistress of the Prince de
+Conti, intimate friend of Hume, Rousseau, and Gustave III., King of
+Sweden. The countess was one of the most influential and spirituelle
+members of French society, her special mission and delight being the
+introduction of foreign celebrities into French society. She piloted
+them, was their patroness, spoke almost all modern languages, and
+visited her friends in their respective countries. She was the most
+travelled and most hospitable of great French women, hence the woman
+best informed upon the world in general.
+
+She was born in Paris in 1725, and in 1746 was married to the Comte
+de Boufflers-Rouvrel; soon after, becoming enamored of the Prince de
+Conti, she became his acknowledged mistress. To give an idea of
+the light in which the women of that time considered those who were
+mistresses of great men, the following episodes may be cited: One day,
+Mme. de Boufflers, momentarily forgetting her relations to the Prince
+de Conti, remarked that she scorned a woman who _avait un prince du
+sang_ (was mistress of a prince of the blood). When reminded of her
+apparent inconsistency, she said: "I wish to give by my words
+to virtue what I take away from it by my actions...." On another
+occasion, she reproached the Maréchale de Mirepoix for going to see
+Mme. de Pompadour, and in the heat of argument said: "Why, she
+is nothing but the first _fille_ (mistress) of the kingdom!" The
+maréchale replied: "Do not force me to count even unto three" (Mme.
+de Pompadour, Mlle. Marquise, Mme. de Boufflers). In those days,
+the position of mistress of an important man attracted little more
+attention than might a petty, trivial, light-hearted flirtation
+nowadays.
+
+After the death of M. de Boufflers, in 1764, the all-absorbing
+question of society, and one of vital importance to madame, was, Will
+the prince marry her? If not, will she continue to be his mistress? In
+this critical period, Hume showed his friendship and true sympathy
+by giving Mme. de Boufflers most persuasive and practical advice in
+reference to morals—which she did not follow. Her relations
+with Rousseau showed her capable of the deepest and most profound
+friendship and sympathy. According to Sainte-Beuve, it was she who,
+by aid of her friends in England, procured asylum for him with Hume at
+Wootton. When Rousseau's rashness brought on the quarrel which set in
+commotion and agitated the intellectual circles of both continents,
+Mme. de Boufflers took his part and remained faithful to him, securing
+a place for him in the Château de Trie, which belonged to the Prince
+de Conti.
+
+All who came in contact with her recognized the distinction, elevation
+of _esprit_, and sentiment of Mme. de Boufflers. With her are
+associated the greatest names of the time; being perfectly at home
+on all the political questions of the day, she was better able to
+converse upon these subjects than was any other woman of the time.
+When in 1762 she visited England, she was lionized everywhere. She was
+fêted at court and in the city, and all conversation was upon the one
+subject, that of her presence, which was one of the important events
+of London life. Everyone was anxious to see the famous woman, the
+first of rank to visit England in two hundred years. She even received
+some special attention from the eccentric Samuel Johnson, in this
+manner: "Horace Walpole had taken the countess to call on Johnson.
+After the conventional time of a formal call had expired, they left,
+and were halfway down stairs, when it dawned upon Johnson that it was
+his duty, as host, to pay the honors of his literary residence to a
+foreign lady of quality; to show himself gallant, he jumped down from
+the top of the stairway, and, all agitation, seized the hand of the
+countess and conducted her to her carriage."
+
+No woman at court had more friends and fewer enemies than did Mme. de
+Boufflers, because "she united to the gifts of nature and the culture
+of _esprit_ an amiable simplicity, charming graces, a goodness,
+kindness, and sensibility, which made her forget herself always and
+constantly seek to aid those about her." She made use of her influence
+over the prince in such ways as would, in a measure, recompense for
+her fault, and thus recommended herself by her good actions. She was
+the soul of his salon, "Le Temple." The love of these two people,
+through its intimacy and public display, through its constancy,
+happiness, and decency, dissipated all scandal. Always cheerful
+and pleased to amuse, knowing how to pay attention to all, always
+rewarding the bright remarks of others with a smile, which all sought
+as a mark of approbation, no one ever wished her any ill fortune.
+
+The last days of the Prince de Conti were cheered by the presence of
+Mme. de Boufflers and the friends whom she gathered about him to help
+bear his illness. The letter to her from Hume, on his deathbed, is
+most pathetic, showing the influence of this woman and the nature of
+the impression she left upon her friends:
+
+"Edinburgh, 20th of August, 1776.
+
+"Although I am certainly within a few weeks, dear Madame, and perhaps
+within a few days, of my own death, I could not forbear being struck
+with the death of the Prince of Conti—so great a loss in every
+particular. My reflection carried me immediately to your situation in
+this melancholy incident. What a difference to you in your whole plan
+of life! Pray write me some particulars, but in such terms that you
+need not care, in case of my decease, into whose hands your letter may
+fall.... My distemper is a diarrhœa or disorder in my bowels, which
+has been gradually undermining me for these two years, but within
+these six months has been visibly hastening me to my end. I see death
+approach gradually, without any anxiety or regret. I salute you with
+great affection and regard, for the last time.
+
+"David Hume."
+
+Hume died five days after this letter was written.
+
+The last years of her life she spent with her daughter-in-law, at
+Auteuil, where she lived a happy life and received the best society of
+Paris. When she died or under what circumstances is not known. During
+the Revolution she lived in obscurity, busying herself with charitable
+work; she was one of the few women of the nobility to escape the
+guillotine, "This woman, who had kept the intellectual world alive
+with her _esprit_ and goodness, of a sudden vanishes like a star from
+the horizon; she lives on, unnoticed by everyone, and, in that new
+society, no one misses her or regrets her death."
+
+In order to fully appreciate the mistress of the eighteenth century,
+her power and influence, her rise to popularity and social standing,
+the general and accepted idea and nature of the sentiment called love
+must be explained; for it was to the peculiar development of that
+emotion that the mistress owed her fortune.
+
+In the eighteenth century love became a theory, a cult; it developed a
+language of its own. In the preceding age love was declared, it spoke,
+it was a virtue of grandeur and generosity, of courage and delicacy,
+exacting all proofs of decency and gallantry, patient efforts,
+respect, vows, discretion, and reciprocal affection. The ideal was
+one of heroism, nobleness, and bravery. In the eighteenth century this
+ideal became mere desire; love became voluptuousness, which was to be
+found in art, music, styles, fashions—in everything. Woman herself
+was nothing more than the embodiment of voluptuousness; it made her
+what she was, directing and fashioning her. Every movement she
+made, every garment she wore, all the care she applied to her
+appearance—all breathed this _volupté_.
+
+In paintings it was found in impure images, coquettish immodesties, in
+couples embraced in the midst of flowers, in scenes of tenderness:
+all these representations were hung in the rooms of young girls, above
+their beds. They grew up to know _volupté_, and, when old enough, they
+longed for it. It was useless for women to try to escape its power,
+and chastity naturally disappeared under these temptations. The young
+girl inherited the impure instincts of the mother, and, when matured,
+was ready and eager for all that could enchant and gratify the senses.
+
+True domestic friendship and intimacy were rare, because the husband
+given to a young girl had passed through a long list of mistresses,
+and talked—from experience—gallant confidences which took away the
+veil of illusion. She was immediately taken into society, where she
+became familiar with the spicy proverbs and the salty prologues of
+the theatre, where supposedly decent women were present, in curtained
+boxes. At the suppers and dinners, by songs and plays, at the
+gatherings where held forth Duclos and others like him, in the midst
+of champagne, _ivresse d'esprit_, and eloquence, she was taught and
+saw the corruption of society and marriage, the disrespect to modesty;
+in such an atmosphere all trace of innocence was destroyed. She was
+taught that faithfulness to a husband belonged only to the people,
+that it was an evidence of stupidity. Manners, customs, and even
+religion were against the preservation of innocence and purity; and in
+this depravity the abbés were the leaders.
+
+Such conditions were dangerous and disastrous not to young girls
+only, they affected the young men also; the latter, amidst this
+social demoralization, developed their evil tendencies, and, in a few
+generations, there was formed a Paris completely debauched. Love meant
+nothing more elevated than desire; for man, the paramount idea was
+to have or possess; for woman, to capture. There was no longer any
+mystery, any secret; the lover left his carriage at the door of
+his love, as if to publish his good fortune; he regularly made his
+appearance at her house, at the hour of the toilette, at dinner and at
+all the fêtes; the public announcement of the liaison was made at the
+theatre when he sat in her box.
+
+There came a period when so-called love fell so low that woman no
+longer questioned a man's birth, rank, or condition, and vice versa,
+as long as he or she was in demand; a successful man had nearly every
+woman of prominence at his feet. The men planned their attacks upon
+the women whom they desired, and the women connived, posed, and set
+most ingenious traps and devised most extraordinary means to captivate
+their hero. As the century wore on and the vices and appetites
+gradually consumed the healthy tissues, there sprang up a class of
+monsters, most accomplished _roués_, consummate leaders of theoretical
+and practical immorality, who were without conscience. To gain their
+ends, they manipulated every medium—valets, chambermaids, scandal,
+charity; their one object was to dishonor woman.
+
+Women were no better; "a natural falseness, an acquired dissimulation,
+a profound observation, a lie without flinching, a penetrating eye,
+a domination of the senses—to these they owed their faculties and
+qualities so much feared at the time, and which made them professional
+and consummate politicians and ministers. Along with their gallantry,
+they possessed a calmness, a tone of liberty, a cynicism; these were
+their weapons and deadly ones they were to the man at whom they were
+aimed."
+
+There were, in this century, superior women in whom was exhibited a
+high form of love, but who realized that perfect love was impossible
+in their age; yet they desired to be loved in an intense and
+legitimate manner. This phase of womanhood is well represented by
+Mlle. Aïssé and Mlle. de Lespinasse, both of whom felt an irresistible
+need of loving; they proclaimed their love and not only showed
+themselves to be capable of loving and of intense suffering, but
+proved themselves worthy of love which, in its highest form, they felt
+to be an unknown quantity at that time. Their love became a constant
+inspiration, a model of devotion, almost a transfiguration of passion.
+These women were products of the time; they had to be, to
+compensate for the general sterility and barrenness, to equalize the
+inequalities, and to pay the tribute of vice and debauch.
+
+All the customs of the age were arrayed against pure womanhood and
+offered it nothing but temptation. Inasmuch as the husband belonged
+to court and to war more than to domestic felicity, he left his wife
+alone for long periods. The husbands themselves seemed actually to
+enjoy the infidelity of their wives and were often intimate friends of
+their wives' lovers; and it was no rare thing that when the wife found
+no pleasure in lovers, she did not concern herself about her husband's
+mistresses (unless they were intolerably disagreeable to her), often
+advising the mistress as to the best method of winning her husband.
+
+It must be admitted that this separation in marriage, this reciprocity
+of liberty, this absolute tolerance, was not a phase of the eighteenth
+century marriage, but was the very character of it. In earlier times,
+in the sixteenth century, infidelity was counted as such and caused
+trouble in the household. If the husband abused his privileges, the
+wife was obliged to bear the insult in silence, being helpless to
+avenge it. If she imitated his actions, it was under the gravest
+dangers to her own life and that of her lover. The honor of the
+husband was closely attached to the virtue of the wife; thus, if
+he sought diversion elsewhere, and his wife fell victim to the
+fascinations of another, he was ridiculed. Marriage was but an
+external bond; in the eighteenth century, it was a bond only as long
+as husband and wife had affection for one another; when that no
+longer existed, they frankly told each other and sought that emotion
+elsewhere; they ceased to be lovers and became friends.
+
+A very fertile source of so much unfaithfulness was the frequent
+marriage of a ruined nobleman to a girl of fortune, but without rank.
+Giving her his name was the only moral obligation; the marriage over
+and the dowry portion settled, he pursued his way, considering that
+he owed her no further duty. Very frequently, the husband, overcome by
+jealousy or humiliated by the low standard of his wife who injured or
+brought ridicule upon his name, would have her kidnapped and taken
+to a convent. This right was enjoyed by the husband in spite of the
+general liberty of woman. A letters-patent was obtained through proof
+of adultery, and the wife was imprisoned in some convent for the rest
+of her life, being deprived of her dowry which fell to her husband.
+
+At one time, the great ambition of woman was to procure a legal
+separation—an ambition which seems to have developed into a fad,
+for at one period there were over three hundred applicants for legal
+separation, a state of affairs which so frightened Parliament that
+it passed rigid laws. A striking contrast to this was the custom
+connected with mourning. At the death of the husband, the wife wore
+mourning, her entire establishment, with every article of interior
+furnishing, was draped in the sombre hue; she no longer went out and
+her house was open only to relatives and those who came to pay visits
+of condolence. Unless she married again, she remained in mourning all
+her life; but it should not be understood that the veil concealed her
+coquetry or prevented her from enjoying her liberty and planning her
+future. Then, as to-day, there were many examples of fanaticism and
+folly; one widow would endeavor to commit suicide; another lived with
+the figure of her husband in wax; another conversed, for several
+hours of the day, with the shade of her husband; others consecrated
+themselves to the church.
+
+This all-supreme sway of love and its attributes, left its impression
+and lasting effect upon the physiognomy of the mistress; in the early
+part of the century, the mistress was chosen from the respectable
+aristocracy and the nobility; gradually, however, the limits of
+selection were extended until they included the _bourgeoisie_ and,
+finally, the offspring of the common _femme du peuple_. A woman
+from any profession, from any stratum of society, by her charm and
+intelligence, her original discoveries and inventions of debauch
+and licentiousness, could easily become the heroine of the day, the
+goddess of society, the goal and aspiration of the used-up _roués_
+of the aristocracy. Under Louis XIV., such popularity was an
+impossibility to a woman of that sort, but society under the Regency
+seemed to have awakened from the torpor and gloom of the later years
+of the monarchy to a reign of unrestrained gayety and vice.
+
+The first woman to infect the social atmosphere of the nobility with a
+new form of extravagance and licentiousness was Adrienne Le Couvreur,
+who was the heroine of the day during the first years of the Regency.
+She was the daughter of a hatter, who had gone to Paris about 1702;
+while employed as a laundress, she often gave proof of the possession
+of remarkable dramatic genius by her performances at private
+theatricals. In 1717, through the influence of the great actor Baron,
+she made her appearance at the Comédie Française; the reappearance of
+that favorite with Adrienne Le Couvreur as companion, in the plays of
+Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire, reëstablished the popularity of the
+French theatre. Adrienne immediately became a favorite with the titled
+class, was frequently present at Mme. de Lambert's, gave the most
+sumptuous suppers herself, and was compelled to repulse lovers of the
+highest nobility.
+
+Her principal lovers were Voltaire, whom she nursed through smallpox,
+spending many hours in reading to him, and Maurice of Saxony; she had
+children of whom the latter was the father, and it was she who, by
+selling her plate and jewelry, supplied him with forty thousand francs
+in order to enable him to equip his soldiers when he proposed to
+recover the principality of Courland. She was generous to prodigality;
+but when she died, the Church refused to grant consecrated ground for
+the reception of her remains, although it condescended to accept her
+munificent gift of a hundred thousand francs to charity. Her death was
+said to have been caused by her rival, the Duchesse de Bouillon,
+by means of poisoned pastilles administered by a young abbé. In
+the night, her body was carried by two street porters to the Rue de
+Bourgogne, where it was buried. Voltaire, in great indignation at
+such injustice, wrote his stinging poem _La Mort de Mademoiselle Le
+Couvreur_, which was the cause of his being again obliged to leave
+Paris.
+
+The popularity of the Comédie Française declined after the deaths of
+Baron and Adrienne Le Couvreur, until the appearance of Mlle. Clairon,
+who was one of the greatest actresses of France. Born in Flanders in
+1723, at a very early age she had wandered about the provinces, from
+theatre to theatre, with itinerant troupes, winning a great reputation
+at Rouen. In 1738 the leading actresses were Mlle. Quinault, who
+had retired to enjoy her immense fortune in private life, and Mlle.
+Dumesnil, the great _tragédienne_. When Mlle. Clairon received an
+offer to play alternately with the favorite, Mlle. Dumesnil, she
+selected as her opening part _Phèdre_, the _rôle de triomphe_ of her
+rival.
+
+The appearance of a débutante was an event, and its announcement
+brought out a large crowd; the presumption of a provincial artist
+in selecting a rôle in which to rival a great favorite had excited
+general ridicule, and an unusually large audience had assembled,
+expecting to witness an ignominious failure. Mlle. Clairon's stately
+figure, the dignity and grace of her carriage, "her finely chiselled
+features, her noble brow, her air of command, her clear, deep,
+impassioned voice," made an immediate impression upon the audience.
+She was unanimously acknowledged as superior to Mlle. Dumesnil, and
+the entire social and literary world hastened to do her homage.
+
+Mlle. Clairon did as much for the theatre as did Adrienne Le Couvreur,
+especially in discarding, in her _Phèdre_, the plumes, spangles, the
+panier, the frippery, which had been the customary equipments of that
+rôle. She and Lecain, the prominent actor of the day, introduced the
+custom of wearing the proper costume of the characters represented.
+The grace and dignity of her stage presence caused her to be sought
+by the great ladies, who took lessons in her famous courtesy _grande
+révérence_, which was later supplanted by the courtesy of Mme. de
+Pompadour.
+
+Mlle. Clairon became the recipient of great favors and honors, her
+most prominent slave being Marmontel, to whom she had given a room in
+her hôtel after Mme. Geoffrin had withdrawn from him the privilege of
+occupying an apartment in her spacious establishment. She contributed
+largely to the success of his plays, as well as to those of Voltaire,
+whom she visited at Ferney, performing in his private theatre. Her
+success was uninterrupted until she declined to play, in the _Siège de
+Calais_, with an actor who had been guilty of dishonesty; she was then
+thrown into prison, and refused to reappear. When about fifty years of
+age she became the mistress of the Margrave of Ansbach, at whose court
+she resided for eighteen years. In 1791 she returned to Paris, where,
+poor and forgotten, she died in 1803.
+
+An actress or a singer who left a greater reputation through her wit,
+the promptness and malignity of her repartee, and her extravagance,
+than through her voice was Sophie Arnould, the pupil of Mlle. Clairon.
+She was the daughter of an innkeeper; her first success was won
+through her charming figure and her flexible voice. Some of the ladies
+attached to the court of Louis XV., having heard her sing at evening
+service during Passion week, had induced the royal chapel master to
+employ her in the choir. There, and by the warm eulogies of Marmontel
+during one of his toilette visits to Mme. de Pompadour, the attention
+of the _maîtresse-en-titre_ was called to her beauty and vocal charm.
+
+Her début was made with unusual success, but she afterward eloped with
+the Comte de Lauraguais, who had made a wager that he could win the
+beautiful artist. After her reappearance at Paris her career became a
+long series of dissipations and unprecedented extravagances. She was
+as witty as she was licentious, and many of her _bons mots_ have been
+collected. It was she who characterized the great Necker and Choiseul,
+on being shown a box containing their portraits: "That is receipt and
+expenditure"—the credit and debit. She was one of the few prominent
+women who died in favor and in comfortable circumstances.
+
+The lowest and most depraved of this licentious class of women was
+Mlle. La Guimard, the legitimate daughter of a factory inspector of
+cloth. In 1758 she entered the opera as a ballet girl, but very
+little is known of her during the first years of her career except in
+connection with her numerous lovers. In about 1768 she was living in
+most sumptuous style, her extravagances being paid for by two lovers,
+the Prince de Soubise, her _amant utile_, and the farmer-general, M.
+de La Borde, her _amant honoraire_.
+
+At this period she gave three suppers weekly: one for all the great
+lords at court and of distinction; the second for authors, scholars,
+and artists; the third being a supper of _débauchées_, the most
+seductive and lascivious girls of the opera; at the last function,
+luxury and debauch were carried to unknown extremes. At her
+superb country home, "Pantin," she gave private performances, the
+magnificence of which was unprecedented and admission to which was an
+honor as eagerly sought as was that of attendance at Versailles.
+
+There was another side to the nature of Mlle. La Guimard: during the
+terrible cold of the winter of 1768, she went about alone visiting the
+poor and needy, distributing food and clothing purchased with the six
+thousand livres given her by her lover, the Prince de Soubise, as
+a New Year's gift. Her charity became so general that people of all
+professions and classes went to her for assistance—actors and artists
+to borrow the money with which to pay their debts, officers with the
+same object in view. To one of the latter to whom she had just lent a
+hundred louis and who was about to sign a note, she said: "Sir, your
+word is sufficient. I imagine that an officer will have as much honor
+as _fille d'opéra_."
+
+Her performances at "Pantin" and her luxurious mode of life required
+more money than the two lovers were able to supply; therefore, another
+was accepted in the person of the Bishop of Orléans, Monseigneur de
+Jarente, who supplied her with money and other necessaries. In 1771
+she decided to build a hôtel with an elegant theatre which would
+comfortably seat five hundred people. The opening of this Temple de
+Terpsichore was the great event of the year (1772). All the nobility
+was there, even the princes of the blood, and the "delicious licenses
+of the presentation were fully enjoyed by those who were fortunate
+enough to obtain admission."
+
+Her costumes were of such taste and became so renowned that Marie
+Antoinette consulted her in reference to her own wonderful inventions;
+the dresses became known as the _Robe à la La Guimard_. Inasmuch as
+the management of the Opéra supplied all gowns, the expense for this
+one artist was enormous, in 1779 amounting to thirty thousand livres
+for dresses alone. In 1785, being in financial straits, she sold
+her hôtel on the Rue Chaussée-d'Antin by lottery, two thousand five
+hundred tickets at one hundred and twenty livres each. None of the
+salons of Paris could compare with hers in the "costliness of the
+crystal and the plate of her table service, in the taste and elegance
+of her floral decorations—choice exotics obtained from a distance,
+regardless of expense."
+
+After appearing at the Haymarket Opera House in London in 1789,
+Mlle. La Guimard decided to retire to private life, and married M.
+Despréaux, the ballet master, fifteen years her junior. During the
+Revolution the government ceased to pay pensions, and as she had
+saved very little of her wealth the two lived in the most straitened
+circumstances. Her fate was similar to that of the average woman of
+pleasure—forgotten, half-witted, stooping to any act of indecency to
+gain a few sous.
+
+Such were the principal heroines of the stage, opera, and ballet; they
+were in harmony with the general state of that depraved society of
+which they were natural products; transitory lights that shone for but
+a short space of time, consumed by their own sensuous instinct, they
+were forgotten with death. The royal mistresses lived the same life
+and followed the same ideals, but exerted a greater and more lasting
+influence in the state.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XI
+
+Royal Mistresses
+
+
+In the study of the royal mistresses of the eighteenth century,
+we encounter two in particular,—Mme. de Pompadour and Mme. du
+Barry,—who, though totally different types of women, both reflect the
+gradual decline of ideals and morals in the first and last years of
+the reign of Louis XV. The former dominated the king by means of her
+intelligence, but the latter swayed the sovereign, already consumed by
+his sensual excesses, through her peculiarly seductive sensuality.
+
+During the first years of the reign of Louis XV., one of the most
+influential women was Mme. de Prie, who brought about the marriage of
+the king to Marie Leczinska, the daughter of the King of Poland, by
+which manœuvre she made herself _Dame de Palais de la Reine_. The
+queen naturally took her and her husband into favor, regarding them
+as her and her father's benefactors and as entitled to her warmest
+gratitude. Mme. de Prie succeeded in winning the queen's affection
+and confidence; however, these were of little value, inasmuch as the
+queen's influence upon society and morals was not felt, for she led
+a life of seclusion, shut up in her oratory and constantly on her
+_prie-dieu_, and was an object of pity and ridicule.
+
+Mme. de Prie and M. le Duc, having planned to deprive M. Fleury, the
+minister, of his power,—he had been the king's preceptor,—suddenly
+had the tables turned against them. Both were exiled, and a new
+coterie of ladies came into power; the Duchesse d'Alincourt replaced
+Mme. de Prie, and the king and M. Fleury themselves took up the
+affairs of state.
+
+M. Fleury, now cardinal, perceiving that a mistress was inevitable,
+consented to the choice by the dissolute men and women of court
+of Mme. de Mailly,—or Mlle. de Nesle,—who was supposed to be a
+disinterested person. The king, who had no love for her, accepted her
+as he would have accepted anything put before him by the court. The
+queen was incapable of exerting any beneficial influence upon him; in
+fact, the more he became alienated from her, the more humble and timid
+did she appear when in his presence. The reign of Mlle. de Nesle had
+lasted less than a year, when the beautiful Mme. de La Tournelle,
+created Duchesse de Châteauroux, replaced her; the latter lived but
+a short time, being the second mistress of Louis XV. to die within a
+year. After her death the king raised the beautiful Mme. d'Etioles
+to the honor of _maîtresse-en-titre_; she, as Mme. de Pompadour, was,
+without doubt, the most prominent, possibly the most intelligent and
+intellectual, certainly the most powerful, of all French mistresses.
+It was the first time that a _bourgeoise_ of the financier class
+had usurped the position of mistress—that honor having belonged
+exclusively to the nobility.
+
+After the first infidelities of the king, Marie Leczinska's life
+became more and more austere and secluded; she remained indoors, far
+from the noise and activity of Versailles, leaving only for charitable
+purposes or for the theatre. Her mornings were entirely occupied in
+prayers and moral readings, after which followed a visit to the king,
+a little painting, the toilette, mass, and dinner. After dinner,
+she retired to her apartments and passed the time making tapestry,
+embroidering, and in charity work—no longer the recreation of
+leisure, but the duty of charity which the poor expected. Her taste
+for music, the guitar, the clavecin, all amusements in which
+she delighted before her marriage, were abandoned. Under such
+circumstances the mistress had full control of everything.
+
+It was prophesied of Mlle. Jeanne Poisson, at the age of nine, that
+she would become the mistress of Louis XV. (Mme. Lebon, who made this
+pleasing prediction, was later rewarded with a pension of six hundred
+livres.) Mlle. Jeanne was the natural daughter of a butcher, but
+received a good education and, at the age of twenty, was married to Le
+Normand d'Etioles, farmer of taxes. It was shortly after this that
+she managed to attract the king's attention, at a hunting party in
+the forest of Senart. With the assistance of her friends, she was
+successful in winning the king, and, in April, 1754, at a supper which
+lasted far into the early morning, reposing in his arms, she virtually
+became the mistress of Louis XV. The actual accomplishment of this,
+however, depended upon the disposal of her husband, which was easily
+arranged by Louis, who ordered Le Normand d'Etioles from Paris, thus
+securing her from any harm from him. The brothers De Goncourt write
+thus of her talents:
+
+"Marvellous aptitudes, a scholarly and rare education, had given to
+this young woman all the gifts and virtues that made of a woman what
+the eighteenth century called a virtuoso, an accomplished model of
+the seductions of her time. Jeliotte had taught her singing and the
+clavecin; Guibaudet, dancing; Crébillon had taught her declamation and
+the art of diction; the friends of Crébillon had formed her young mind
+to _finesse_, to delicacies, to lightness of sentiment, and to irony
+of the _esprit_ of the time. All the talents of grace seemed to be
+united in her. No woman mounted a horse better; none captured applause
+more quickly than did she with her voice and instrument; none recalled
+in a better way the tone of Gaussin or the accent of Clairon; none
+could tell a story better. And there where others could vie with her
+in coquetry, she carried off the honors by her genius of toilette, by
+the graceful turn she gave to a mere rag, by the air she imparted to
+a mere nothing which ornamented her, by the characteristic signature
+which her taste gave to everything she wore."
+
+To please and charm, Mme. d'Etioles had a complexion of the most
+striking whiteness, lips somewhat pale, and eyes of an indescribable
+color in which were blended and compounded the seduction of black
+eyes, the seduction of blue eyes. She had magnificent chestnut hair,
+ravishing teeth, and the most delicious smile which "hollowed her
+cheeks into two dimples which the engraving of _La Jardinière_ shows;
+she had a medium-sized and round waist, perfect hands, a play
+of gestures lively and passionate throughout, and, above all, a
+physiognomy of a mobility, of a changeableness, of a marvellous
+animation, wherein the soul of the woman passed ceaselessly, and
+which, constantly in process of change, showed in turn an impassioned
+and imperious tenderness, a noble seriousness, or roguish graces."
+
+In September, 1745, she was formally presented to the queen and
+court as the Marquise de Pompadour, and, in October, was installed
+at Fontainebleau in the apartments formerly occupied by Mme. de
+Châteauroux, who had just died. Her position was not an easy one,
+for all the superb jealousy and hateful scorn which the aristocracy
+cherished against the power and wealth of the _bourgeoisie_ were
+turned against her; but the court scandal-mongers and intriguers found
+their match in Mme. de Pompadour, who showed herself so superior
+in every respect to the court ladies that the hostilities gradually
+ceased, but not until the public itself had expended all its efforts
+against this upstart.
+
+Her first move was to surround herself with friends, the first of whom
+she wisely sought in the queen. Paying her every possible attention,
+she persuaded the king to show her more consideration. The Prince
+de Conti, the Paris brothers, and others of the great financiers of
+France were added to her circle. After this she began her rule as
+first minister, in place of the dead Fleury, by giving places and
+pensions to her favorites. The reign of economy and domestic morality
+came to an end with the accession of Mme. de Pompadour; in fact, it
+was soon generally considered that those upon whom she did not shower
+favors were her enemies. At this time the nobility of France was too
+corrupt to raise any serious objections to the dispensing of favors by
+the _maîtresse-en-titre_, whether she were of noble birth or not.
+
+As mistress, her duties were many: to manipulate and manage
+Versailles, please and captivate the king, make allies, win over the
+highest officials and keep control of them, put her own friends in
+office, attach to her favor every man of prominence,—princes and
+ministers,—keep in touch with the court, appease, humor, and win the
+honor of the courtiers, "attach consciences, recompense capitulations,
+organize about the mistress an emulation of devotion and servility by
+means of prodigality of the favors of the king and the money of the
+state; but what was a more burdensome task,—she must occupy the king,
+aid and agitate him, fight off constantly, from day to day and hour to
+hour, ennui."
+
+This terrible ennui, indifference, enervation, this lazy and splenetic
+humor of the king, she succeeded in distracting, in soothing, and
+amusing. She understood him perfectly—therein lie the great secret
+of the favor of Mme. de Pompadour and the great reason of her long
+domination which only death could end. She had the patience and
+genius to soothe the many ills of the monarch, possessing an intuitive
+understanding of his moral temperament, and a complete comprehension
+of his nervous sensibility; these gifts were a science with her and
+enabled her to keep alive his taste for and enjoyment of life. Mme.
+de Pompadour is said to have taken possession of the very existence of
+Louis XV.
+
+"She appropriates and kills his time, robs him of the monotony of
+hours, draws him through a thousand pastimes in this eternity of ennui
+between morning and night, never abandoning him for a minute, not
+permitting him to fall back upon himself. She takes him away from
+work, disputes him to the ministers, hides him from the ambassadors.
+In his face must not be seen a cloud or the slightest trace of care of
+affairs; to Maurepas, in the act of reading some reports to the king,
+she says: 'Come now, M. de Maurepas, you turn the king yellow....
+Adieu, M. de Maurepas'; and Maurepas gone, she takes the king, she
+smiles upon the lover, she cheers the man."
+
+In 1747, two years after her installation, she interested the king in
+a theatre, and inaugurated the famous representations at the Théâtre
+des Petits Appartements; she herself was one of its best actresses,
+singers, and musicians. All the members of the nobility vied with one
+another in procuring admission to these performances, as auditors or
+actors. Her contemporaries say that she was without a rival in acting,
+for in that art she found opportunity to show her vivacity, her
+_esprit_ of tone, and her malice of expression, the effect of which
+was heightened by her voice, graceful figure, and tasteful attire,
+which became the envy of every court lady.
+
+Almost all rising young artists and men of letters were encouraged or
+pensioned by Mme. de Pompadour. Her salon would have become one of
+the most distinguished of the period, as she was, herself, the most
+remarkably talented and beautiful woman of her time, had not lack
+of moral principles and an intense love of power led her to seek the
+gratification of her ambitions in the much envied position of mistress
+of the king. To assist at her toilette became a favor more eagerly
+desired than presence at the _petit lever_ of the king. The court
+became more brilliant, the middle class rose, the prestige of the
+nobility declined; the last became, in general, but a crowd of
+_cordons bleus_, eager to claim the favor of any of her protégés.
+Every noble house offered a daughter in marriage to her brother, whom
+she made _intendant_ of public buildings, and who looked with much
+displeasure upon the actions of his sister.
+
+Mme. de Pompadour made a thorough study of the politics of Europe in
+relation to the affairs of the nation—a proceeding in which she
+was aided by her extraordinary intelligence, acute perception of
+difficulties and conditions, domestic and foreign; by the exercise of
+these qualities, she put herself in touch with the politics of France,
+always consulting the best of minds and winning many friends among
+them. In 1749 she succeeded in ridding herself of her pronounced
+enemy, Maurepas, minister and confidential adviser of the king, and
+subsequently began her reign as absolute mistress and governor of
+France.
+
+Her life then became one of constant labor, which gradually undermined
+her health. Appreciating the mental indolence of Louis, she would
+place before him a clear and succinct résumé of all important
+questions of state affairs, which she, better than any other, knew
+how to present without wearying him. Realizing that her power depended
+upon her influence over the king, and that she was surrounded by men
+and women who were simply waiting for a favorable opportunity to cause
+her downfall, she was constantly on the defensive. She considered it
+"the business of her life to make her yoke so easy and pleasant, and
+from habit so necessary to him, that an effort to shake it off would
+be an effort that would cause him real pain." Her happiest hours—for
+she did not love the king—were those spent with her brother, the
+Marquis de Marigny, in the midst of artists, musicians, and men of
+letters.
+
+As for the queen, she was in the background, absolutely. "All the
+prerogatives of a princess of a sovereign house were, at this time,
+about 1750, conferred by the king upon Mme. de Pompadour, and all
+the pomp and parade then deemed indispensable to rank so exalted were
+fully assumed by her." At the opera, she had her _loge_ with the king,
+her tribune at the chapel of Versailles where she heard mass, her
+servants were of the nobility, her carriage had the ducal arms, her
+etiquette was that of Mme. de Montespan, Her father was ennobled to De
+Marigny, her brother to be Marquis de Vandières. The marriage of her
+daughter to a son of the king and his former mistress was planned,
+then with a son of Richelieu, then with others of the nobility;
+fortunately, the girl died.
+
+Mme. de Pompadour gradually amassed a royal fortune, buying the
+magnificent estate of Crécy for six hundred and fifty thousand livres;
+"La Celle," near Versailles, for twenty-six thousand livres; the Hôtel
+d'Evreaux, at Paris, for seventy-five thousand livres—and these were
+her minor expenses; her paintings, sculpture, china, pottery, etc.,
+cost France over thirty-six million livres. Her imagination in art and
+inventions was wonderful; she retouched and decorated the château
+in which she was received by the king; she made "Choisy"—the king's
+property—her own, as it were, by all the embellishments she ordered
+and the expenditures which her lover lavished upon it at her request.
+All the luxuries of the life at "Choisy," all the refinements even to
+the smallest detail, had their origin in her inventions. It was she
+who planned the fairy château with its wonderful furniture, her own
+invention.
+
+At that time, her whole life was spent in adding variety to the life
+of the king and in distracting the ennui which pursued him. In her
+retreats she affected the simplicity of country life; the gardens
+contained sheepfolds and were free from the pomp of the conventional
+French gardens; there were cradles of myrtle and jasmine, rosebushes,
+rustic hiding places, statues of Cupid, and fields of jonquils filled
+the air with the most intoxicating perfume. There she amused her
+sovereign by appearing in various characters and acting the parts—now
+a royal personage, now a gardener's maid.
+
+However, in spite of all cunning study of the sensuous nature of
+the king, in spite of this perpetual enchantment of his senses,
+this favorite was obliged to fight for her power every minute of her
+existence. If hers were a conquest, it was a laborious one, held only
+through ceaseless activity; continual brainwork, all the countermoves
+and manœuvres of the courtesan, were required to keep Mme. de
+Pompadour seated in this position, which was surrounded by snares and
+dangers.
+
+To possess the time of the king, occupy his enemies, soothe his
+fatigue, arouse his wearied body condemned to a milk diet, to preserve
+her beauty—all these were the least of her tasks. She must be ever
+watchful, see evil in every smile, danger in every success, divine
+secret plots, be on guard to resist the court, the royal family,
+the ministry. For her there was no moment of repose: even during
+the effusions of love she must act the spy upon the king, and, with
+presence of mind and calmness, must seek in the deceitful face of the
+man the secrets of the master.
+
+Every morning witnessed the opening of a new comedy: a gay smile,
+a tranquil brow, a light song, must ever disguise the mind's
+preoccupation and all the machinations of her fertile brain. At one
+time the Comte d'Argenson, desiring to succeed Fleury as minister,
+almost arrived at supplanting Mme. de Pompadour by young Mme. de
+Choiseul, who, having charmed the king on one occasion, obtained
+from him a promise that he would make her his mistress—which would
+necessitate desertion of Mme. de Pompadour; but, by the natural
+charms of which age had not robbed her and by bringing all her past
+experience into play, Mme. de Pompadour once more scored a triumph and
+remained the actual minister to the king. All this nervous strain was
+gradually killing her, and, to overcome her physical weakness, her
+weary senses, her frigid disposition, she resorted to artificial
+stimulants to keep her blood at the boiling point and enable her to
+satisfy the phlegmatic king.
+
+Undoubtedly the most disgraceful act of this all-powerful woman
+was the maintaining of a house of pleasure for the king, to which
+establishment she allured some of the most beautiful girls of the
+nobility, as well as of the _bourgeoisie_. These young women supposed
+that they were being supported by a wealthy nobleman; their children
+were given a pension of from three thousand to twelve thousand livres,
+and the mother received one hundred thousand francs and was sent to
+the provinces to marry; a father and mother were easily bought for the
+child. Thus was this clandestine trade carried on by those two—the
+king satisfying his utter depravity, and Mme. de Pompadour making
+herself all the more secure against a possible rival.
+
+All this time her active brain was ever planning for higher honors
+and greater power. She aspired to becoming _dame de palais_, but as an
+excommunicated soul, a woman living in flagrant violation of the laws
+of morality and separated from her husband, she could not receive
+absolution from the Church, in spite of her intriguing to that effect.
+She did succeed, however, in influencing the king to make her lady
+of honor to the queen; therefore, in gorgeous robes, she was ever
+afterward present at all court functions.
+
+She began to patronize the great men of the day, to make of them her
+debtors, pension them, lodge them in the Palais d'Etat, secure them
+from prison, and to place them in the Academy. Voltaire became her
+favorite, and she made of him an Academician, historiographer of
+France, ordinary gentleman of the chamber, with permission to sell
+his charge and to retain the title and privileges. For these favors he
+thanked her in the following poem:
+
+          "Ainsi donc vous réunissez
+  Tous les arts, tous les goûts, tous les talents de plaire;
+          Pompadour vous embellissez
+          La Cour, le Parnasse et Cythère,
+  Charme de tous les cœurs, trésor d'un seul mortel,
+          Qu'un sort si beau soit éternel!"
+
+[Thus you unite all the arts, all the tastes, all the talents, of
+pleasing; Pompadour, you embellish the court, Parnassus, and Cythera.
+Charm of all hearts, treasure of one mortal, may a lot so beautiful be
+eternal!]
+
+Voltaire dedicated his _Tancrède_ to her; in fact, his influence and
+favor were so great that he was about to receive an invitation to
+the _petits soupers_ of the king, when the nobility rose up in arms
+against him, and, as Louis XV. disliked him, the coveted honor was
+never attained. To Crébillon, who had given her elocution lessons
+in her early days and who was now in want, she gave a pension of
+a hundred louis and quarters at the Louvre. Buffon, Montesquieu,
+Marmontel, and many other men of note were taken under her protection.
+
+It was Mme. de Pompadour who founded, supported, and encouraged a
+national china factory; the French owe Sèvres to her, for its
+artists were complimented and inspired by her inveterate zeal, her
+persistency, her courage, and were assisted by her money. She brought
+it into favor, established exhibits, sold and eulogized the ware
+herself, until it became a favorite. Also, through her management and
+zeal the Military School was founded.
+
+The disasters of the Seven Years' War are all charged to Mme. de
+Pompadour. The motive which caused her to decide in favor of an
+alliance with Austria against Frederick the Great was a personal
+desire for revenge; the latter monarch had dubbed her "Cotillon IV,"
+and had rather scorned her, refusing to have anything to do with a
+Mlle. de Poisson, "especially as she is arrogant and lacks the respect
+due to crowned heads." The flattering propositions of the Austrian
+ambassador, Kaunitz, who treated with her in person and won her over,
+did much to set her against Germany, and induced her to influence
+Louis XV. to accept her view of the situation—a scheme in which she
+was victorious over all the ministers; the result was the Austrian
+alliance. The letter of Kaunitz to her, in 1756, will illustrate her
+position:
+
+"Everything done, Madame, between the two courts, is absolutely due
+to your zeal and wisdom. I feel it and cannot refuse myself the
+satisfaction of telling you and of thanking you for having been my
+guide up to the present time. I must not even keep you ignorant of the
+fact that their Imperial Majesties give you the full justice due you
+and have for you all the sentiments you can desire. What has been done
+must merit, it seems to me, the approbation of the impartial public
+and of posterity. But what remains to be done is too great and too
+worthy of you for you to give up the task of contributing and to leave
+imperfect a work which cannot fail to make you forever dear to your
+country. I am, therefore, persuaded that you will continue your
+attention to an object so important. In this case, I look upon success
+as certain and I already share, in advance, the glory and satisfaction
+which must come to you, no one being able to be more sincerely and
+respectfully attached to you than is your very humble and obedient
+servant, the Count de Kaunitz-Rietberg."
+
+She received her first check when, Damiens having attempted to
+assassinate the king, the dauphin was regent for eleven days. She was
+confined to her room and heard nothing from the king, who was in
+the hands of the clergy. Among the friends who abandoned her was
+her protégé Machault, the guard of the seals, who conspired with
+D'Argenson to deprive her of her power and went so far as to order
+her departure. After the king's recovery, both D'Argenson and Machault
+were dismissed and Mme. de Pompadour became more powerful than before.
+
+Her influence and usurpation of power bore heavily upon every
+department of state; she appointed all the ministers, made all
+nominations, managed the foreign policy and politics, directed the
+army and even arranged the plans of battle. Absolute mistress of the
+ministry, she satisfied all demands of the Austrian court, a move
+which brought her the most flattering letter from Kaunitz, in which he
+gives her the credit for all the transactions between the two courts.
+
+Despite all her political duties and intrigues, she found time for art
+and literature. Not one minute of the day was lost in idleness, every
+moment being occupied with interviews with artists and men of letters,
+with the furnishers of her numerous châteaux, architects, designers,
+engineers, to whom she confided her plans for embellishing Paris.
+Being herself an accomplished artist, she was able to win the respect
+and attention of these men. Her correspondence was immense and of
+every nature, political and personal. She was an incessant reader,
+or rather student, of books on the most serious questions, which
+furnished her knowledge of terms of state, precedents of history,
+ancient and modern law; she was familiar with the contents of works
+on philosophy, the drama, singing, and music, and with novels of all
+nations; her library was large and well selected.
+
+During the latter years of her life she was considered as the first
+minister of state or even as regent of the kingdom, rather than as
+mere mistress. Louis XV. looked to her for the enforcement of the laws
+and his own orders. She was forced to receive, at any time, foreign
+ambassadors and ministers; she had to meet in the Cabinet de Travail
+and give counsel to the generals who were her protégés; the clergy
+went to her and laid before her their plaints, and through her the
+financiers arranged their transactions with the state.
+
+Notwithstanding all this influence and power, the record of her last
+years is a sorrowful one. More than ever queen, she was no longer
+loved by the king, who went to Passy to continue his liaison with
+a young girl, the daughter of a lawyer. When Louis XV. as much as
+recognized a son by this woman, Mme. de Pompadour became deeply
+concerned; but the king was too much a slave to her domination to
+replace her, so she retained favor and confidence; the following
+letter shows that she enjoyed little else:
+
+"The more I advance in years, my dear brother, the more philosophical
+are my reflections. I am quite sure that you will think the same.
+Except the happiness of being with the king, who assuredly consoles me
+in everything, the rest is only a tissue of wickedness, of platitudes,
+of all the miseries to which poor human beings are liable. A fine
+matter for reflection (especially for anyone born as meditative as
+I)!..." Later on, she wrote: "Everywhere where there are human beings,
+my dear brother, you will find falseness and all the vices of which
+they are capable. To live alone would be too tiresome, thus we must
+endure them with their defects and appear not to see them."
+
+She realized that the king kept her only out of charity and for fear
+of taking up any energetic resolution. Her greatest disappointment was
+the utter failure of her political plans and aspirations, which came
+to naught by the Treaty of Paris. There was absolutely no glory left
+for her, and chagrin gradually consumed her. Her health had been
+delicate from youth; consumption was fast making inroads and
+undermining her constitution, and the numerous miscarriages of her
+early years as mistress contributed to her physical ruin. For years
+she had kept herself up by artificial means, and had hidden her loss
+of flesh and fading beauty by all sorts of dress contrivances, rouges,
+and powders. She died in 1764, at the age of forty-two.
+
+Writers differ as to the true nature of Mme. de Pompadour, some saying
+that she was bereft of all feeling, a callous, hard-hearted monster;
+others maintain that she was tender-hearted and sympathetic. However,
+the majority agree as to her possession of many of the essential
+qualifications of an able minister of state, as well as great aptitude
+for carrying on diplomatic negotiations.
+
+She was the greatest patroness of art that France ever possessed,
+giving to it the best hours of her leisure; it was her pastime, her
+consolation, her extravagance, and her ruin. All eminent artists of
+the eighteenth century were her clients. Artists were nourished, so
+to speak, by her favors. It may truthfully be said that the
+eighteenth-century art is a Pompadour product, if not a creation. The
+whole century was a sort of great relic of the favorite. Fashions and
+modes were slaves to her caprice, every new creation being dependent
+upon her approbation for its survival—the carriage, the _cheminée_,
+sofa, bed, chair, fan, and even the _étui_ and toothpick, were
+fashioned after her ideas. "She is the godmother and queen of the
+rococo." Such a eulogy, given by the De Goncourt brothers, is not
+shared by all critics. Guizot wrote: "As frivolous as she was deeply
+depraved and base-minded in her calculating easiness of virtue, she
+had more ambition than comported with her mental calibre or her force
+of character; she had taken it into her head to govern, by turns
+promoting and overthrowing the ministers, herself proffering advice
+to the king, sometimes to good purpose, but still more often with a
+levity as fatal as her obstinacy."
+
+In _The Old Régime_, Lady Jackson has given an unprejudiced estimate
+of her: "She was the most accomplished and talented woman of her time;
+distinguished, above all others, for her enlightened patronage of
+science and of the arts, also for the encouragement she gave to the
+development of improvements in various manufactures which had stood
+still or were on the decline until favored by her; a fresh impulse
+was given to progress, and a perfection attained which has never been
+surpassed and, in fact, rarely equalled. _Les Gobelins_, the carpets
+of the Savonnerie, the _porcelaine de Sèvres_, were all, at her
+request, declared _Manufactures Royales_. Some of the finest specimens
+of the products of Sèvres, in ornamental groups of figures, were
+modelled and painted by Mme. de Pompadour, as presents to the
+queen.... The name of Pompadour is, indeed, intimately associated with
+a whole school of art of the Louis Quinze period—art so inimitable in
+its grace and elegance that it has stood the test of time and remains
+unsurpassed. Artists and poets and men of science vied with each other
+in admiration of her talents and taste. And it was not mere
+flattery, but simply the praise due to an enlightened patroness and a
+distinguished artist."
+
+If we consider the morals of high society, we shall scarcely find one
+woman of rank who could cast a stone at Madame de Pompadour. While
+admitting her moral shortcomings, it must nevertheless be acknowledged
+that she showed an exceptional ability in maintaining, for twenty
+years, her influence over such a man as Louis XV. Such was the power
+of this woman, the daughter of a tradesman, mistress, king in all
+save title. She was, however, less powerful than her successor,—that
+successor who was less clever and less ambitious, who "never made
+the least scrupulous blush at the lowness of her origin and the
+irregularity of her life,"—Mme. du Barry.
+
+Mme. du Barry was the natural daughter of Anne Béqus, who was
+supported by M. Dumonceau, a rich banker at Paris. The child was put
+into a convent, and, after passing through different phases of life,
+she was finally placed in a house of pleasure, where she captivated
+the Comte du Barry, at whose harem she became the favorite. The count,
+who had once before tried to supply the king with a mistress, now
+planned for his favorite. The king ordered the brother of Du Barry,
+Guillaume, to hasten to Paris to marry a lady of the king's choice.
+The girl's name had been changed officially and by the clergy, and a
+dowry had been given her. Thus was it possible for the king, after
+she had become the Comtesse du Barry, to take her as a mistress. Her
+husband was sent back to Toulouse, where he was stationed, while his
+wife was lodged at Versailles, within easy access of the king's own
+chamber.
+
+
+After much intriguing and diplomacy on the part of her friends,
+especially Richelieu, she was to be presented at court. The scene is
+well described by the De Goncourt brothers, and affords a truthful
+picture of court manners and customs of the latter part of the reign
+of Louis XV.:
+
+"The great day had arrived—Paris was rushing to Versailles. The
+presentation was to take place in the evening, after worship. The hour
+was approaching. Richelieu, filling his charge as first gentleman,
+was with the king, Choiseul was on the other side. Both were waiting,
+counting the moments and watching the king. The latter, ill at ease,
+restless, agitated, looked every minute at his watch. He paced up and
+down, uttered indistinct words, was vexed at the noise at the gates
+and the avenues, the reason of which he inquired of Choiseul. 'Sire,
+the people—informed that to-day Mme. du Barry is to have the honor of
+being presented to Your Majesty—have come from all parts to witness
+her _entrée_, not being able to witness the reception Your Majesty
+will give her.' The time has long since passed—Mme. du Barry does not
+appear. Choiseul (her enemy) and his friends radiate joy; Richelieu,
+in a corner of the room, feels assurance failing him. The king goes
+to the window, looks into the night—nothing. Finally, he decides,
+he opens his mouth to countermand the presentation. 'Sire, Mme. du
+Barry!' cries Richelieu, who had just recognized the carriage and the
+livery of the favorite; 'she will enter if you give the order.' Just
+then, Mme. du Barry enters behind the Comtesse de Béarn, bedecked with
+the hundred thousand francs' worth of diamonds the king had sent her,
+coifed in that superb headdress whose long scaffolding had almost made
+her miss the hour of presentation, dressed in one of those triumphant
+robes which the women of the eighteenth century called 'robes of
+combat,' armed in that toilette in which the eyes of a blind woman
+(Mme. du Deffand) see the destiny of Europe and the fate of ministers;
+and it is an apparition so beaming, so dazzling, that, in the first
+moments of surprise, the greatest enemies of the favorite cannot
+escape the charm of the woman, and renounce calumniating her beauty."
+
+According to reports, her beauty must have been of the ideal type of
+the time. All the portraits and images that Mme. du Barry has left
+of herself, in marble, engraving, or on canvas, show a _mignonne_
+perfection of body and face. Her hair was long, silky, of an ashen
+blonde, and was dressed like the hair of a child; her brows and lashes
+were brown, her nose small and finely cut. "It was a complexion which
+the century compared to a roseleaf fallen into milk. It was a
+neck which was like the neck of an antique statue...." In her were
+victorious youth, life, and a sort of the divinity of a Hébé; about
+her hovered that charm of intoxication, which made Voltaire cry out
+before one of her portraits: _L'original était fait pour les dieux!_
+[The original was made for the gods!]
+
+In her lofty position, Mme. du Barry sought to overcome the objections
+of the titled class, to quell jealousies and petty quarrels; she did
+not usurp any power and always endeavored not to trouble or embarrass
+anyone. After some time, she succeeded in winning the favor of some of
+the ladies, and, when her influence was fairly well established, she
+began to plan the overthrow of her enemy, De Choiseul, minister of
+Louis XV. She became the favorite of artists and musicians, and
+all Europe began to talk and write about this woman whom art had
+immortalized on canvas and who was then controlling the destinies of
+France. She succeeded, under the apprenticeship of her lover, the
+Duc d'Aiguillon, who was the outspoken enemy of De Choiseul, in
+accomplishing the fall of the minister and the fortune of her friend.
+This success required but a short time for its culmination, for in
+1770 he was deprived of his office and was exiled to Chantilly.
+
+Mme. du Barry was never an implacable enemy; she was too kind-hearted
+for that; thus, when her friend D'Aiguillon insisted on depriving
+De Choiseul of his fortune, she managed to procure for the latter
+a pension of sixty-thousand livres and one million écus in cash,
+in spite of the opposition of D'Aiguillon. After the fall of that
+minister all the princes of the blood were glad to pay her homage. She
+became almost as powerful as Mme. de Pompadour, but her influence was
+not directed in the same channels.
+
+Her life was a mere senseless dream of _femme galante_, a luxurious
+revel, a constant whirl of pleasures, and extravagance in jewelry,
+silks, gems, etc. A service in silver was no longer rich enough—she
+had one in solid gold. To house all her gems of art, rare objects,
+furniture, she caused to be constructed a temple of art, "Luciennes,"
+one of the most sumptuous, exquisite structures ever fitted out. The
+money for this was supplied by the _contrôleur général_, the Abbé
+Ferray, whose politics, science, duty, and aim in life consisted in
+never allowing Mme. du Barry to lack money. All discipline, morality,
+in fact everything, degenerated.
+
+She had no rancor or desire for vengeance; she never humiliated those
+whom she could destroy; she always punished by silence, yet never won
+eternal silence by letters patent; generous to a fault, giving and
+permitting everything about her to be taken, she opened her purse to
+all who were kind to her and to all who happened in some way to please
+her. Keeping the heart of Louis XV. was no easy matter, as the case of
+Mme. de Pompadour clearly showed. The majority of his friends and her
+enemies endeavored to force a new mistress upon the king; surrounded
+on all sides by candidates for her coveted position, Mme. du Barry
+managed to hold her own. When the king was prostrated by smallpox, he
+sent her away on the last day.
+
+The reign of Mme. du Barry was not one of tyranny, nor was it a
+domination in the strict sense of that word; for she was a nonentity
+politically, without ideas or plans. "Study the favor of Mme. du
+Barry: nothing that emanates from her belongs to her; she possesses
+neither an idea nor an enemy; she controls all the historical events
+of her time, without desiring them, without comprehending them....
+She serves friendships and individuals, without knowing how to serve a
+cause or a system or a party, and she is protected by the providential
+course of things, without having to worry about an effort, intrigues,
+or gratitude."
+
+Her power and influence cannot be compared with those of her
+predecessor, Mme. de Pompadour. Modes were followed, but never
+invented by her. "With her taste for the pleasures of a grisette,
+her patronage falls from the opera to the couplet, from paintings and
+statuaries to bronzes and sculptures in wood; her _clientèle_ are
+no longer artists, philosophers, poets—they are the gods of lower
+domains, mimics, buffoons, dancers, comedians." She was the lowest and
+most common type of woman ever influential in France.
+
+After the death of the king, she was ordered to leave Versailles and
+live with her aunt. Later on, she was permitted to reside within ten
+leagues of Paris; all her former friends and admirers then returned,
+and she continued to live the life of old, buying everything for which
+she had a fancy and living in the most sumptuous style, never worrying
+about the payment of her debts. After a few years she was entirely
+forgotten, living at Luciennes with but a few intimate friends and her
+lover, the Duc de Brissac.
+
+At the outbreak of the Revolution, she was living at Luciennes in
+great luxury on the fortune left her by the duke. Probably she would
+have escaped the guillotine had she not been so possessed with the
+idea of retaining her wealth. Four trips to England were undertaken
+by her, and on her return she found her estates usurped by a man
+named Grieve, who, anxious to obtain possession of her riches, finally
+succeeded in procuring her arrest while her enemies were in power.
+From Sainte-Pélagie they took her to the Conciergerie, to the room
+which Marie Antoinette had occupied.
+
+Accused of being the instrument of Pitt, of being an accomplice in the
+foreign war, of the insurrection in La Vendée, of the disorders in the
+south, the jury, out one hour, brought in a verdict of guilty, fixing
+the punishment at death within twenty-four hours, on the Place de la
+République. Upon hearing her sentence, she broke down completely and
+confessed everything she had hidden in the garden at Luciennes. On her
+way to the scaffold, she was a most pitiable sight to behold—the only
+prominent French woman, victim of the Revolution, to die a coward. The
+last words of this once famous and popular mistress were: "Life, life,
+leave me my life! I will give all my wealth to the nation. Another
+minute, hangman! _A moi! A moi!_" and the heavy iron cut short her
+pitiful screams, thus ending the life of the last royal mistress.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XII
+
+Marie Antoinette and the Revolution
+
+
+The condition of France at the end of the reign of Louis XV. was most
+deplorable—injustice, misery, bankruptcy, and instability everywhere.
+The action of the law could be overridden by the use of arbitrary
+warrants of arrest—_lettres de cachet_. The artisans of the towns
+were hampered by the system of taxation, but the peasant had the
+greatest cause for complaint; he was oppressed by the feudal dues and
+many taxes, which often amounted to sixty per cent of his earnings.
+The government was absolute, but rotten and tottering; the people,
+oppressively and unjustly governed, were just beginning to be
+conscious of their condition and to seek the cause of it, while the
+educated classes were saturated with revolutionary doctrines which
+not only destroyed their loyalty to the old institutions, but created
+constant aspirations toward new ones.
+
+Thus, when Louis XVI., a mere boy, began to reign, the whole French
+administrative body was corrupt, self-seeking, and in the hands of
+lawyers, a class that dominated almost every phase of government. In
+general, inefficiency, idleness, and dishonesty had obtained a ruling
+place in the governing body; the few honest men who had a minor
+share in the administration either fell into a sort of disheartened
+acquiescence or lost their fortunes and reputations in hopeless
+revolt.
+
+Under these conditions Louis XVI. began his reign; and although peace
+seemed to exist externally, the country was in revolution. France
+was as much under the modern "ring rule" as any country ever was—a
+condition of affairs largely due to the nature of the young
+king, whose predominant characteristics might be called a supreme
+awkwardness and an unpardonable lack of will power. He was a man who,
+during the first part of his reign, led a pure life; he possessed good
+and philanthropic intentions, but was hampered by a weak intellect and
+a stubbornness which bore little resemblance to real strength of
+will. Also, he entertained strong religious convictions, which were
+extremely detrimental to his policy and caused disagreements with his
+ministers—Turgot, on account of his philosophical principles, Necker,
+on account of his Protestantism.
+
+His wife had those qualities which he lacked, decision and strength
+of character; unfortunately, she wielded no influence over him in the
+beginning, and when she did gain it, she used it in a fatal manner,
+because she was ignorant of the needs of France. Throughout her
+career of power, she evinced headstrong wilfulness in pursuing her own
+course. Thus, totally incapable of acting for himself, Louis XVI. was
+practically at the mercy of his aunts, wife, courtiers, and ministers,
+who fitted his policy to their own desires and notions; therefore, the
+vast stream of emoluments and honors was diverted by the ministers
+and courtiers into channels of their own selection. There were formed
+parties and combinations which were constantly intriguing for or
+against each other.
+
+At the time of the accession of Louis XVI., when poverty was general
+over the kingdom, the household of the king consisted of nearly four
+thousand civilians, nine thousand military men, and relatives to the
+enormous number of two thousand, the supporting of which dependents
+cost France some forty-five million francs annually. Luckily there
+was no mistress to govern, as under Louis XV., but, in place of
+one mistress who was the dispenser of favors, there were numerous
+intriguing court women who were as corrupt and frivolous as the men.
+These split the court into factions. As the finances of the country
+sank to the lowest ebb, odium was naturally cast upon the whole court,
+without exception, by the people; hence, the wholesale slaughter of
+the nobility during the Revolution.
+
+In this period, the most critical in the history of France, the queen,
+Marie Antoinette, as the central figure, the leader of society,
+the model and example to whom all looked for advice upon morals and
+fashions, played an important rôle. Although not of French birth, she
+deserves to be ranked among the women influential in France, since
+she became so thoroughly imbued with French traits and characteristics
+that she forgot her native tongue. French life and spirit moulded her
+in such fashion that even the French look upon her as a French woman.
+
+Before judging this unfortunate princess who has been condemned by so
+many critics, we must take into consideration the demands that were
+made upon her. Parade was the primary requisite: she was obliged to
+keep up the splendor and attractiveness of the French monarchy;
+in this she excelled, for her manner was dignified, gracious, and
+"appropriately discriminating. It is said that she could bow to
+ten persons with one movement, giving, with her head and eyes, the
+recognition due to each one." It is said, also, that as she passed
+among the ladies of her court, she surpassed them all in the nobility
+of her countenance and the dignified grace of her carriage. All
+foreigners were enchanted with her, and to them she owes no small part
+of her posthumous popularity.
+
+She was reproached by French women for being exclusively devoted
+to the society of a select, intimate circle. Moreover, her conduct
+brought slander upon her; as her companions she chose men and women
+of bad reputation, and was constantly surrounded by dissipated young
+noblemen whom she permitted to come into her presence in costumes
+which shocked conservative people; she encouraged gambling, frequented
+the worst gambling house of the time, that of the Princesse de
+Guéménée, and visited masked balls where the worst women of the
+capital jostled the great nobles of the court; her husband seldom
+accompanied her to these pleasure resorts.
+
+During part of the reign of Marie Antoinette the country was waging
+an expensive war and was deeply in debt, but the queen did not set an
+example of economy by retrenching her expenses; although her personal
+allowance was much larger than that of the preceding queen, she was
+always in debt and lost heavily at gambling. Generally, she avoided
+interference with the government of the state, but as the wife of so
+incapable a king she was forced into an attempt at directing public
+matters. Whenever she did mingle in state affairs, it was generally
+fatal to her interests and popularity. She usually carried out her
+wishes, for the king shrank from disappointing his wife and dreaded
+domestic contentions.
+
+He permitted her to go out as she did with the Comte d'Artois, her
+brother-in-law, to masked balls, races, rides in the Bois de Boulogne,
+and on expeditions to the salon of the Princesse de Guéménée, where
+she contracted the ills of a chronically empty purse and late hours.
+When attacked by measles, to relieve her ennui—which her ladies were
+not successful in doing—she procured the consent of the king to the
+presence of four gentlemen, who waited upon her, coming at seven in
+the morning and not departing until eleven at night; and these were
+some of the most depraved and debauched among the nobility—such as De
+Besenval, the Duc de Coigny, and the Duc de Guines.
+
+While in power, she always sided with extravagance and the court,
+against economy and the nation. If we add to all these defects a vain
+and frivolous disposition, a nature fond of admiration, pleasure, and
+popularity, and lending a willing ear to all flattery, compliments,
+and counsels of her favorites, her Austrian birth, and as "little
+dignity as a Paris grisette in her escapades with the dissipated and
+arrogant Comte d'Artois," we have, in general, the causes of her wide
+unpopularity.
+
+It will be seen that as long as she was frivolous and imprudent,
+she was flattered and admired; as soon as she became absolutely
+irreproachable, she was overwhelmed with harsh judgments and
+expressions of ill will. The first period was during the first years
+of the reign of Louis XVI., while he was still all-powerful and
+popular; the second phase of her character developed during the
+trying days of the king's first fall into disfavor and his ultimate
+imprisonment and death. From this account of her career, it will be
+seen that Marie Antoinette, as dauphiness and queen, was rather the
+victim of fate and the invidious intrigues of a depraved court
+than herself an instigator and promulgator of the extravagance and
+dissipation of which she was accused.
+
+We must remember the atmosphere into which Marie Antoinette was thrust
+upon her arrival in France. One of the first to sup with her was that
+most licentious of all royal mistresses, Mme. du Barry, who asked
+for the privilege of dining with the new princess—a favor which the
+dissipated and weak king granted. Louis XV. was nothing more than
+a slave to vice and his mistresses. The king's daughters—Mmes.
+Adelaïde, Victoire, and Sophie—were pious but narrow-minded women,
+resolutely hostile to Mme. du Barry and intriguing against her. The
+Comtes de Provence and d'Artois were both pleasure-loving princes of
+doubtful character; their sisters—Mmes. Clotilde and Elisabeth—had
+no importance. The family was divided against itself, each member
+being jealous of the others. The dauphin, being of a retiring
+disposition and of a close and self-contained nature, did little to
+add to the happiness of the young princess. Thus, she was literally
+forced to depend upon her own resources for pleasure and amusement and
+was at the mercy of the court, which was never more divided than in
+about 1770—the time of her appearance.
+
+At that time there were two parties—the Choiseul, or Austrian,
+party, and those who opposed the policy of Choiseul, especially in
+the expulsion of the Jesuits; the latter were called the party of the
+_dèvôts_ and were led by Chancellor Maupeau and the Duc d'Aiguillon.
+This faction, with the mistress—Mme. du Barry—as the motive power,
+soon broke up the power of Choiseul. The young and innocent foreign
+princess, unschooled in intrigue and politics, could not escape both
+political parties; upon her entrance into the French court, she was
+immediately classed with one or the other of these rival factions
+and thus made enemies by whatever turn she took, and was caught in a
+network of intrigues from which extrication was almost impossible.
+
+Here, in this whirl of social excesses, her habits were formed; hers
+being a lively, alert, active nature, fond of pleasure and somewhat
+inclined toward raillery, she soon became so absorbed in the
+many distractions of court life that little time was left her for
+indulgence in reflection of a serious nature. Her manner of life at
+this time in part explains her subsequent career of heedlessness,
+excessive extravagance, and gayety.
+
+At first her aunts—Mmes. Adelaïde and Sophie—succeeded in partially
+estranging her from Louis XV., who had taken a strong fancy to his
+granddaughter; but this influence was soon overcome—then these aunts
+turned against her. Her popularity, however, increased. Innumerable
+instances might be cited to show her kindness to the poor, to her
+servants, to anyone in need—a quality which made her popular with the
+masses. In time almost everyone at court was apparently enslaved by
+her attractions and endeavored to please the dauphiness—this was
+about 1774, when she was at the height of her popularity.
+
+However, there developed a striking contrast between the dauphiness
+and the queen; Burke called the former "the morning star, full of
+life and splendor and joy." In fact, she was a mere girl, childlike,
+passing a gay and innocent life over a road mined with ambushes and
+intrigues which were intended to bring ruin upon her and destined
+eventually to accomplish their purpose. By being always prompt in her
+charities, having inherited her mother's devotion to the poor, she
+won golden opinions on all sides; and the reputation thus gained was
+augmented by her animated, graceful manner and her youthful beauty.
+
+Little accustomed to the magnificence that surrounded her, she soon
+wearied of it, craving simpler manners and the greater freedom of
+private intercourse. When, as queen, she indulged these desires, she
+brought upon herself the abuse and vilification of her enemies. While
+dauphiness, her actions could not cause the nation's reproach or
+arouse public resentment; as queen, however, her behavior was subject
+to the strictest rules of etiquette, and she was responsible for
+the morals and general tone of her court. This responsibility Marie
+Antoinette failed to realize until it was too late.
+
+Upon the accession of Louis XVI., a clean sweep was made of the
+licentious and discredited agents of Mme. du Barry, and a new ministry
+was created. The former mistress, with her lover, the Duc d'Aiguillon,
+was banished, although Mme. Adelaïde succeeded in having Maurepas,
+uncle of the Duc d'Aiguillon, made minister. Marie Antoinette had
+little interest in the appointment after she failed to gain the honor
+for her favorite, De Choiseul, who had negotiated her marriage.
+
+The queen then proceeded to carry out her long-cherished wishes for
+society dinners at which she could preside. Her every act, however,
+was governed by inflexible laws of etiquette, some of which she most
+impatiently suffered, but many of which she impatiently put aside.
+With this manner of entertaining begins her reign as queen of taste
+and fashion, for Louis XVI. left to his wife the responsibility of
+organizing all entertainments, and her aspiration was to make the
+court of France the most splendid in the world. From that time on, all
+her movements, her apparel, her manners, to the minutest detail, were
+imitated by the court ladies. This custom, of course, led to reckless
+extravagance among the nobility, for whenever Marie Antoinette
+appeared in a new gown, which was almost daily, the ladies of the
+nobility must perforce copy it.
+
+Tidings of these extravagances of the queen and her court in
+time reached the empress-mother in Vienna. Marie Thérèse severely
+reproached her daughter, writing: "My daughter, my dear daughter, the
+first queen—is she to grow like this? The idea is insupportable to
+me." Yet, "to speak the exact truth," said her counsellor, Mercy, when
+writing to the empress-mother, "there is less to complain of in the
+evil which exists than in the lack of all the good which might exist."
+It is chronicled to her credit that all her expenditure was not upon
+herself alone, but that she was equally lavish when she attempted
+charity.
+
+Her first political act, the removal of Turgot, was disastrous. She
+thought she was humoring public opinion, which was strongly against
+the minister on account of his many reforms, but her primary reason
+was rather one of personal vengeance. Turgot had been openly hostile
+to her friend and favorite, the Duc de Guines. She was then in the
+midst of her period of dissipation; "dazzled by the glory of the
+throne, intoxicated by public approval," she overstepped the bounds
+of royal propriety, neglecting etiquette and forgetting that she was
+secretly hated by the people because of her origin; her greatest error
+was in forgetting that she was Queen of France and no longer the mere
+dauphiness.
+
+Under the escort of her brother-in-law, the Comte d'Artois, she was
+constantly occupied with pleasures and had time for little else. The
+king, retiring every night at eleven and rising at five, had all the
+doors locked; so the queen, who returned early in the morning, was
+compelled to enter by the back door and pass through the servants'
+apartments. Such behavior gave plentiful material to M. de Provence,
+the king's brother, who remained at home and composed, for the
+_Mercure de France_, all sorts of stories, from so-called trustworthy
+information, on the king, on society, and especially on the doings of
+the queen.
+
+Marie Antoinette's fondness for the chase and the English racing fad,
+for gambling, billiards, and her _petits soupers_ after the riding and
+racing, gave ample opportunity to the gossipmongers and enemies. In
+spite of the vigorous remonstrances of her mother, the empress, she
+persisted in her wild career of dissipation and extravagance, and drew
+upon herself more and more the disrespect of the people, especially in
+appearing at places frequented by the disreputable of both sexes, by
+entering into all noisy and vulgar amusements, by her disregard and
+disdain of all the conventionalities of the court. She increased her
+unpopularity by reviving the sport of sleighing; for this purpose
+she had gorgeous sleighs constructed at a time when the population of
+France was in misery. Such proceedings caused libels, epigrams, and
+satirical chansonnettes to flow thick and fast from her enemies. Her
+one idea was to seek congenial pleasures: she appeared to be wholly
+oblivious to the disapproval of public opinion.
+
+The slanderous tongues of her husband's aunts, the "jealousies and
+bitter backbiting of her own intimate circle of friends," the infamous
+accusations brought against her by her sisters-in-law, the attacks of
+the Comte de Provence, and the indifference of the king himself, all
+helped to increase her unpopularity.
+
+Among her personal friends was the Princesse de Lamballe, whose
+influence was preponderant for several years; she was not a
+conspicuously wise woman, but one of spotless character. Her
+ambitions, personal and for her relatives, often caused much trouble,
+for she became the mouthpiece of her allies and her clients, for whom
+she "solicited recommendations with as much pertinacity as if she had
+been the most inveterate place hunter on her own account." Her favors
+were too much in one direction to suit the queen, for, much attached
+to the memory of her husband, the princess naturally sympathized with
+the Orléans faction. As superintendent of the household of the queen,
+replacing the Comtesse de Noailles, she gave rise to much scandal.
+Her salary, through intrigues, had been raised to fifty thousand écus,
+while her privileges were enormous; for instance, no lady of the queen
+could execute an order given her without first obtaining the consent
+of the superintendent. The displeasure and vexation which this
+restriction caused among the court ladies may be imagined; complaints
+became so frequent that the queen tired of them, and her affection for
+her friend was thus cooled.
+
+She sought other friends, among whom Mme. de Polignac was the favorite
+and almost supplanted the Princesse de Lamballe in the regard of the
+queen. To her she presented a large grant of money, the tabouret of
+a duchess, the post of governess to the children of France; and her
+friends received the appointments of ambassadors, and nominations to
+inferior offices. She was not by nature an intriguing woman, but was
+soon surrounded by a set of young men and women who made use of
+her favor and took advantage of her influence; the result was the
+formation of a regular Polignac set, almost all questionable persons,
+but an exclusive circle, permitting no division of favor, and undoing
+all who endeavored to rival them. This coterie of favorites may
+be said to have caused Marie Antoinette as much unpopularity and
+contributed as much to her ruin, and even to that of royalty, as did
+any other cause originating at court. Mme. de Lamballe was no match
+for her rival, so she retired, a move which increased the influence
+of Mme. de Polignac, to whose house the whole court flocked. The queen
+followed her wherever she went, made her husband duke, and permitted
+her to sit in her presence.
+
+By spending so much of her time at the salons of Mme. de Polignac
+and the Princesse de Guéménée, the queen excited the displeasure
+and enmity of many of the court and the people; at those places, De
+Besenval, De Ligny, De Lauzun,—men of the most licentious habits and
+expert spendthrifts,—seemed to enjoy her intimate friendship, a state
+of affairs which caused many scandalous stories and helped to alienate
+some of the greatest houses of France. This injudicious display of
+preference for her own circle of friends also fostered a general
+distrust and dislike among the people. The first families of France
+preferred to absent themselves from her weekly balls at Versailles,
+since attendance would probably result in their being ignored by the
+queen, who permitted herself to be so engrossed by a bevy of favorites
+and her own amusements as scarcely to notice other guests.
+
+Her eulogists find excuse for all this in her lightness of heart and
+gay spirits, as well as in the manner of her rearing, having been
+brought up in the court of Louis XV., where she saw shameless vice
+tolerated and even condoned. Although she preserved her virtue in the
+midst of all this dissipation, she became callous to the shortcomings
+of her friends and her own finer perceptions became blunted. Thus,
+in the most critical years of her reign, her nobler nature suffered
+deterioration, which resulted fatally.
+
+Despite many warnings, she could not or would not do without those
+friends. She excused anything in those who could make themselves
+useful to her amusement: everyone who catered to her taste received
+her favor. M. Rocheterie, in his admirable work, _The Life of Marie
+Antoinette_, gives as the source of her great love of pleasure her
+very strongly affectionate disposition,—the need of showering upon
+someone the overflowing of an ardent nature,—together with the desire
+for activity so natural in a princess of nineteen. As a place in
+which to vent all these emotions, these ebullitions of affections and
+amusements, the king presented her with the château "Little Trianon,"
+where she might enjoy herself as she liked, away from the intrigues of
+court.
+
+Marie Antoinette has become better known as the queen of "Little
+Trianon" than as a queen of Versailles. At the former place she
+gave full license to her creative bent. Her palace, as well as her
+environments, she fashioned according to her own ideas, which were
+not French and only made her stand out the more conspicuously as a
+foreigner. From this sort of fairy creation arose the distinctively
+Marie Antoinette art and style; she caused artists to exhaust their
+fertile brains in devising the most curious and magnificent, the
+newest and most fanciful creations, quite regardless of cost—and
+this while her people were starving and crying for bread! The angry
+murmurings of the populace did not reach the ears of the gay queen,
+who, had she been conscious of them, might have allowed her bright
+eyes to become dim for a time, but would have soon forgotten the
+passing cloud.
+
+There was constant festivity about the queen and her companions, but
+no etiquette; there was no household, only friends—the Polignacs,
+Mme. Elisabeth, Monsieur, the Comte d'Artois, and, occasionally, the
+king. To be sure, the amusements were innocent—open-air balls, rides,
+lawn fêtes, all made particularly attractive by the affability of
+the young queen, who showed each guest some particular attention; all
+departed enchanted with the place and its delights and, especially,
+with the graciousness of the royal hostess. There all artists and
+authors of France were encouraged and patronized—with the exception
+of Voltaire; the queen refused to patronize a man whose view upon
+morality had caused so much trouble.
+
+Music and the drama received especial protection from her. The triumph
+of Gluck's _Iphigénie en Aulide_, in 1774, was the first victory of
+Marie Antoinette over the former mistress and the Piccini party. This
+was the second musical quarrel in France, the first having occurred
+in 1754, between the lovers of French and Italian music, with Mme. de
+Pompadour as protectress. After Gluck had monopolized the French opera
+for eight years, the Italian, Piccini, was brought from Italy in
+1776. Quinault's _Roland_ was arranged for him by Marmontel and was
+presented in 1778, unsuccessfully; Gluck presented his _Iphigénie en
+Aulide_, and no opera ever received such general approbation. "The
+scene was all uproar and confusion, demoniacal enthusiasm; women threw
+their gloves, fans, lace kerchiefs, at the actors; men stamped and
+yelled; the enthusiasm of the public reached actual frenzy. All did
+honor to the composer and to the queen."
+
+Marie Antoinette, however, also gave Piccini her protection. Gluck,
+armed with German theories and supporting French music, maintained for
+dramatic interest, the subordination of music to poetry, the union
+or close relation of song and recitative; whereas, the Italian opera
+represented by Piccini had no dramatic unity, no great ensembles,
+nothing but short airs, detached, without connection—no substance,
+but mere ornamentation. Gluck proved, also, that tragedy could be
+introduced in opera, while Piccini maintained that opera could embrace
+only the fable—the marvellous and fairylike. This musical quarrel
+became a veritable national issue, every salon, the Academy, and all
+clubs being partisans of one or the other theory; it did much to mould
+the later French and German music, and much credit is due the queen
+for the support given and the intelligence displayed in so important
+an issue.
+
+All singers, actors, writers, geniuses in all things, were sure of
+welcome and protection from Marie Antoinette; but she permitted
+her passion for the theatre to carry her to extremes unbecoming her
+position, for she consorted with comedians, played their parts, and
+associated with them as though they were her equals. Such conduct
+as this, and her exclusiveness in court circles, encouraged calumny.
+Versailles was deserted by the best families, and all the pomp
+and traditions of the French monarchs were abandoned. The king, in
+sanctioning these amusements at the "Little Trianon," lost the respect
+and esteem of the nobility, but the queen was held responsible for all
+evil,—for the deficit in the treasury, and the increase in taxes;
+to such an extent was she blamed, that the tide of public popularity
+turned and she was regarded with suspicion, envy, and even hatred.
+
+In the spring of 1777 the queen's brother, the Emperor Joseph II. of
+Austria, arrived in Paris for a visit to his sister and the court of
+France. The relations between him and Marie Antoinette became quite
+intimate; the emperor, always disposed to be critical, did not
+hesitate to warn his sister of the dangers of her situation, pointing
+out to her her weakness in thus being led on by her love of pleasure,
+and the deplorable consequences which this weakness would infallibly
+entail in the future. The queen acknowledged the justness of the
+emperor's reasoning, and, though often deeply offended by his
+frankness and severity, she determined upon reform. This resolution
+was, to some extent, influenced by the hope of pregnancy; so, when
+her expectations in that direction proved to be without foundation, so
+keen was the disappointment thus occasioned, that, in order to forget
+it, she plunged into dissipation to such an extent that it soon
+developed into a veritable passion. Bitterly disappointed, vexed
+with a husband whose coldness constantly irritated her ardent nature,
+fretful and nervous, there naturally developed a morbid state of mind
+which explains the impetuosity with which she attempted to escape from
+herself.
+
+In December, 1778, a daughter was born to the queen, and she welcomed
+her with these words: "Poor little one, you are not desired, but you
+will be none the less dear to me! A son would have belonged to the
+state—you will belong to me." After this event the queen gave herself
+up to thoughts and pursuits of a more serious nature. In 1779 the
+dauphin was born, and from that period Marie Antoinette considered
+herself no longer a foreigner.
+
+After the death of Maurepas, minister and counsellor to the king,
+the queen became more influential in court matters. She relieved the
+indolent monarch of much responsibility, but only to hand it over to
+her favorites. The period from 1781 to 1785 was the most brilliant of
+the court of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, one of dissipation and
+extravagance, the rich _bourgeoisie_ vying with the nobility in their
+luxurious style of living and in lavish expenditure. "The finest silks
+that Lyons could weave, the most beautiful laces that Alençon could
+produce, the most gorgeous equipages, the most expensive furniture,
+inlaid and carved, the tapestry of Beauvais and the porcelain of
+Sèvres—all were in the greatest demand." Necker was replaced by
+incompetent ministers, the treasury was depleted, and the poor became
+more and more restless and threatening. Once more, and with increased
+vehemence, was heard the cry: _A bas l'Autrichienne!_
+
+During the American war of the Revolution, Marie Antoinette was always
+favorable to the Colonial cause, protecting La Fayette and encouraging
+all volunteers of the nobility, who embarked for America in great
+numbers. She presented Washington with a full-length portrait of
+herself, loudly and publicly proclaiming her sympathy for things
+American. She assured Rochambeau of her good will, and procured for La
+Fayette a high command in the _corps d'armée_ which was to be sent to
+America. When Necker and other ministers were negotiating for
+peace, from 1781 to 1785, she persisted in asserting that American
+independence should be acknowledged; and when it was declared, she
+rejoiced as at no political event in her own country.
+
+Her political adventures were few; in fact, she disliked politics and
+desired to keep aloof from the intrigues of the ministers. She may
+have been instrumental in the downfall of Necker—at least, she
+secured the appointment, as minister of finance, of the worthless
+Calonne, who, it will be remembered, brought about the ruin of
+France in a short period. In time, however, the queen recognized his
+worthlessness and would have nothing to do with him, thus making in
+him another implacable enemy.
+
+Events were fast diminishing the popularity of the queen. When, after
+the long-disputed question of presenting the _Marriage of Figaro_, she
+herself undertook to play in _The Barber of Seville_ in her theatre
+at the Trianon, she overstepped the bounds of propriety. Then followed
+the affair of the diamond necklace, in which the worst, most cunning,
+and most notorious rogues abused the name of the queen. That was the
+great adventure of the eighteenth century. Boehmer, the court jeweler,
+had, in a number of years, procured a collection of stones for an
+incomparable necklace. This was intended for Mme. du Barry, but
+Boehmer offered it to the queen, who refused to purchase it, and he
+considered himself ruined. It may be well to add that the queen had
+previously purchased a pair of diamond earrings which had been ordered
+by Louis XV. for his mistress; for those ornaments she paid almost
+half her annual pin money, amounting to nine hundred thousand francs.
+The jeweler, therefore, had good reason to hope that she would relieve
+him of the necklace.
+
+An adventuress, a Mme. de La Motte, acquainted at court and also with
+the Prince Louis de Rohan, who had incurred the displeasure of the
+queen, informed the cardinal that Marie Antoinette was willing to
+again extend to him her favor. She counterfeited notes, and even went
+so far as to appoint a meeting at midnight in the park at Versailles.
+The supposed queen who appeared was no other than an English girl,
+who dropped a rose with the words: "You know what that means." The
+cardinal was informed that the queen desired to buy the necklace, but
+that it was to be kept secret—it was to be purchased for her by a
+great noble, who was to remain unknown. All necessary papers were
+signed, and the necklace turned over to the Prince de Rohan, who, in
+turn, intrusted it to Mme. de La Motte to be given to the queen; but
+the agent was not long in having it taken apart, and soon her husband
+was selling diamonds in great quantities to English jewelers.
+
+In time, as no payments were received and no favors were shown by the
+queen, an investigation followed. The result was a trial which lasted
+nine months; the cardinal was declared not guilty, the signature
+of the queen false, Mme. de La Motte was sentenced to be whipped,
+branded, and imprisoned for life, and her husband was condemned to the
+galleys. Nevertheless, much censure fell to the share of the queen. It
+was the beginning of the end of her reign as a favorite whose faults
+could be condoned. She was beginning to reap the fruits of her former
+dissipations. In about 1787, when she least deserved it, she became
+the butt of calumny, intrigues, and pamphlets.
+
+During these years she was the most devoted of mothers; she personally
+looked after her four children, watched by their bedsides when they
+were ill, shutting herself up with them in the château so that they
+would not communicate their disease to the children who played in the
+park. In 1785 the king purchased Saint-Cloud and presented it to
+the queen, together with six millions in her own right, to enjoy and
+dispose of as she pleased. That act added the last straw to the burden
+of resentment of the overwrought public; from that time she was known
+as "Madame Deficit." Also she was accused of having sent her brother,
+Joseph II., one hundred million livres in three years. She was hissed
+at the opera. In 1788 there were many who refused to dance with the
+queen. In the preceding year a caricature was openly sold, showing
+Louis XVI. and his queen seated at a sumptuous table, while a starving
+crowd surrounded them; it bore the legend: "The king drinks, the queen
+eats, while the people cry!" Calonne, minister of finance, an intimate
+friend of the Polignacs, but in disfavor with the queen, also made
+common cause with the enemies, in songs and perfidious insinuations.
+Upon his fall, in 1787, the queen's position became even worse.
+
+The last period of the life of the queen, La Rocheterie calls the
+militant period—it was one in which the joy of living was no more;
+trouble, sorrows upon sorrows, and anxieties replaced the former
+care-free, happy radiance of her youth. At the reunion of the
+States-General, while the country at large was full of confidence and
+the king was still a hero, the queen was the one dark spot; calumny
+had done its work—the whole country seemed to be saturated with an
+implacable hatred and prejudice against her whom they considered
+the source of all evil. Throughout the ceremonies attending the
+States-General, the queen was received with the same ominous silence;
+no one lifted his voice to cheer her, but the Duc d'Orléans was always
+applauded, to her humiliation.
+
+Whatever may have been the faults and excesses of her youth, their
+period was over and in their place arose all the noble sentiments so
+long dormant. When the king was about to go to Paris as the prisoner
+of the infuriated mob, La Fayette asked the queen: "Madame, what is
+your personal intention?" "I know the fate which awaits me, but
+my duty is to die at the feet of the king and in the arms of my
+children," replied the queen. During the following days of anxiety she
+showed wonderful courage and graciousness, "winning much popularity
+by her serene dignity, the incomparable charm which pervaded her whole
+person, and her affability."
+
+Upon the urgent request of the queen the Polignac set departed,
+and Mme. de Lamballe endeavored to do the honors for the queen, by
+receptions three times a week, given to make friends in the Assembly.
+At those functions all conditions of people assembled, and instead
+of the witty, brilliant conversations of the old salon there were
+politics, conspiracies, plots; instead of the gay and laughing faces
+of the old times there were the worn and anxious faces of weary,
+discouraged men and women. There was, indeed, a sad contrast between
+the gay, frivolous, haughty queen of the early days, and this captive
+queen—submissive, dignified, "majestic in her bearing, heroic, and
+reconciled to her awful fate."
+
+Her period of imprisonment, the cruelty, neglect, inadequate food and
+garments, her torture and indescribable sufferings, the insults of
+the crowd and the newspapers, her heroic death, all belong to history.
+"The first crime of the Revolution was the death of the king, but
+the most frightful was the death of the queen." Napoleon said: "The
+queen's death was a crime worse than regicide." "A crime absolutely
+unjustifiable," adds La Rocheterie, "since it had no pretext whatever
+to offer as an excuse; a crime eminently impolitic, since it struck
+down a foreign princess, the most sacred of hostages; a crime beyond
+measure, since the victim was a woman who possessed honors without
+power."
+
+Because Marie Antoinette played a romantic rôle in French history, it
+is quite natural to find conflicting and contradictory opinions among
+her biographers. The most conflicting may be summed up in these
+words: the queen's influence upon the Revolution was great—her
+extravagances, her haughty bearing, her scorn of the etiquette of
+royalty, her enemies, her prejudices, the arrests which she caused,
+etc. Then her pernicious influence upon the king, after the breaking
+out of the Revolution—she caused his hesitancy, which led to such
+disastrous results, and his plan of annihilating the States Assembly;
+the gathering of the foreign troops and his many contradictory
+and uncertain commands were all laid at her door, making of her an
+important and guilty party to the Revolution. Another estimate is more
+humane and, probably, is the result of cooler reflection, yet is not
+always accepted by Frenchmen or the world at large. It represents her
+as neither saint nor sinner, but as a pure, fascinating woman, always
+chaste, though somewhat rash and frivolous. Proud and energetic, if
+inconsiderate in her political actions and somewhat too impulsive in
+the selection of friends upon whom to bestow her favors, she is yet
+worthy of the title of queen by the very dignity of her bearing;
+always a true woman, seductive and tender of heart, she became a
+martyr "through the extremity of her trials and her triumphant death."
+
+Although history makes Marie Antoinette a central figure during the
+reign of Louis XVI. and the period of the Revolution, yet her personal
+influence was practically limited to the domain of the social world of
+customs and manners; her political influence issued mainly from or was
+due to the concatenation of conditions and circumstances, the results
+of her friends' doings, while her social triumphs were products of
+her own activity. The two women—her intimate friends—who during
+this period were of greatest prominence, who owed their elevation
+and standing entirely to the queen, were women of whom little has
+survived. In her time, Mme. de Polignac was an influential woman,
+wielding tremendous power, contributing largely to the shaping and
+climaxing of France's fate; yet this influence was centred in reality
+in the Polignac set, which was composed of the most important, daring,
+and consummate intriguers that the court of France had ever seen.
+She escaped the guillotine, and by doing so escaped the attention of
+posterity.
+
+Mme. de Lamballe, who wrote nothing, did nothing, effected nothing,
+is better known to the world at large, is more respected and honored,
+than is Mme. de Polignac or even the great salon leaders such as Mme.
+de Genlis or Mlle. de Lespinasse. She owes this prominence to her
+undying devotion to her queen, to her marvellous beauty, and to her
+tragic death on the guillotine. She was not even bright or witty,
+the essentials of greatness among French women—not one _bon mot_ has
+survived her; but she may well be placed by the side of her queen
+for one sublime virtue, too rare in those days,—chastity. She was
+Princess of Sardinia; upon the request of the Duke of Penthièvre to
+Louis XV. to select a wife for his son, the Prince of Lamballe, she
+was chosen. A year after the marriage the prince died; and although
+the marriage had not been a happy one, because of the dissolute life
+of the prince, his wife forgave him, and "sorrowed for him as though
+he deserved it."
+
+When in 1768 the queen died, two parties immediately formed, the
+object of both of them being to provide Louis XV. with a wife: one may
+be called the reform party, striving to keep the old king in the paths
+of decency; while the other was composed of the typical eighteenth
+century intriguers, endeavoring to revive the "grand old times." The
+candidate of the former was Mme. de Lamballe, that of the latter, the
+dissolute Duchesse du Barry. This state of affairs was made possible
+by the disagreement of the political and social schemes of the court
+and ministry. Soon after, in 1770, the king negotiated the marriage
+of Marie Antoinette and the dauphin, and from that time began the
+friendship of the future queen and the Princesse de Lamballe. Entering
+the unfamiliar circle of this highly debauched court, the young
+dauphiness sought a sympathetic friend, and found her in the princess.
+No figure in that society was more disinterested and unselfishly
+devoted. In all the queen's undertakings, fêtes, and other amusements,
+she was inseparable from the princess, who was indeed a rare exception
+to the majority of the women of that time.
+
+The friendship of these two women was uninterrupted, save for a period
+extending from 1778 to 1785, when Mme. de Polignac and her set of
+intriguers succeeded in estranging them and usurping all the favors of
+the queen. When the outside world was accrediting to Marie Antoinette
+every popular misfortune, when she lost by death both the dauphin
+and the Princess Beatrice, when fate was against her, when the future
+promised nothing but evil, she found no stauncher friend, better
+consoler, more ardent admirer, than her old companion. Learning of the
+removal of the royal family to the Tuileries, she rejoined the queen.
+In 1791, with the escape of the royal fugitives, the princess left
+for England, to seek the protection of the English government for her
+royal friends.
+
+Mr. Dobson says she was scarcely the _discrète et insinuante et
+touchante Lamballe_, with a marvellous sang-froid, hardly the astute
+diplomatist, that De Lescure makes her. "She was rather the quiet,
+imposing Lamballe of old, interested in her friends and what she
+could do for them, but never shrewd and diplomatic." In November she
+returned to France, to meet her queen and to suffer death for her
+sake,—and for this unswerving devotion she has a place in history.
+She stands out also as the one normal woman in the crowds of
+impetuous, shallow, petty, and, in many cases, pitifully debauched
+women of the time. Not majestic greatness, but a direct, unaffected
+sweetness and consistent goodness entitle her to rank among the great
+women of France.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIII
+
+Women of the Revolution and the Empire
+
+
+Many women of the revolutionary period have no claim for mention other
+than a last glorious moment on the guillotine—"ennobled and endeared
+by the self-possession and dignity with which they faced death, their
+whole life seems to have been lived for that one moment." The society
+which had brought on and stirred up the Revolution was enervated and
+febrile. Paris was one large kennel of libellers and pamphleteers and
+intriguers. The salon frequenters were trained conversationalists and
+brilliant beauties who danced and drank, discoursed and intrigued.
+It was a superficial elegance, with virtue only assumed. The art of
+pleasing had been developed to perfection, but, instead of the actual
+accomplishments of the old régime, there was merely the outward
+appearance—luxury, dress, and magnificence; the bearing and language
+were of the ambitious common people. "The great women are those who,
+the day before, were taken from the cellar or garret of the salon."
+
+During the Directorate, luxury and libertinism reigned almost as
+absolutely as during the monarchy. Barras was supreme. He had his
+mistress, or _maîtresse-en-titre_, in the beautiful Mme. Tallien,
+the queen of beauty of the salon of _la mode_. Ease and dissolute
+enjoyment were the aims of Barras, and in these his mistress was his
+equal. They gave the most sumptuous dinners, prepared by the famous
+chefs of the late aristocratic kitchens, while the people were
+starving or living on black bread. She impudently arrayed herself in
+the crown diamonds and appeared at the reception given to Napoleon.
+
+The salons under the Empire are said to have preserved French
+politeness, courtesy, and the usages of _la bonne compagnie_, but
+intolerance and tyranny reigned there; the spirit of intrigue only was
+obeyed. From the beginning of the Revolution to the Empire, it may be
+said that the streets of Paris from one end to the other were a wild
+turmoil of people in fever heat—ready for any crime or cruelty,
+anxious for anything promising excitement. Where formerly the elegant
+lovers of the nobility were wont to promenade, the rabid populace held
+undisputed possession.
+
+These were years, about 1780 to 1800, during which women shared the
+same fate with men; and, consigned to the same prisons, ever resigned
+and ready to die for principle, they knew how to die nobly. It was
+truly an age of the martyrdom of woman—an age in which she lived,
+through almost superhuman conditions, at the side of man. She was
+all-powerful, triumphant as never before; not, however, through her
+intellectual superiority as in the previous age, but through her
+courage. There was not one powerful woman standing out alone,
+but groups of them, hosts of them. It was during the Directorate
+especially that woman controlled almost every phase of activity.
+
+The woman who embodied all the heterogeneous vices of the past
+nobility and the rising plebs was Mme. Tallien, the goddess of vice
+and of the vulgar display of wealth. Her caprices were scrupulously
+followed, while about her jealousy and slanders were thick. Then
+immorality had no veil, but was low, brutish, and open to everyone.
+With the accession of Napoleon to absolute power, there was a fusion
+of the element just described with the remnant of the old régime.
+Josephine soon formed a select and congenial social circle, excluding
+Mme. Tallien and the Directorate adherents. Evidences of saddening
+memories of the past and a general gloom were visible everywhere in
+this circle. The disappointment of the nobility on returning from
+their exile was somewhat lessened by the very select bi-weekly
+reunions in the salon of Talleyrand, and by the brilliant suppers of
+the old régime, which were revived at the Hôtel d'Anjou.
+
+The salon of Mme. de Staël was a political debating club rather than
+a purely social reunion. She being an ardent Republican, it was in
+her salon that the Royalist plot to bring back the Bourbons was
+overthrown. In a short time there were a number of brilliant salons,
+each one showing a nature as distinct as those of the eighteenth
+century. Thus, Joseph Bonaparte received the distinguished
+governmentals and the intriguing women of society at the Château de
+Mortfoulaine; at Lucien Bonaparte's hôtel youth and beauty assembled;
+at Mme. de Permon's salon there were music and conversation, tea,
+lemonade, and biscuits, twice a week. It remains but to characterize
+these different ages of French social and political evolution by the
+great women who, each one of her age, are the representative types.
+
+The woman who, during the Revolution, not only added her name to the
+long list of martyrs, but who also made history and contributed to the
+very nature of those days of terror and uncertainty, was Mme. Roland,
+whom critics both extol and condemn—the fate of all historical
+characters. It would be difficult to estimate this remarkable person
+and her work without some details of her life.
+
+When a mere girl she showed signs of a tempestuous future; she
+was seductive, but impulsive, with an inborn love for the common
+people—which is not always credited to her—and for democracy. These
+qualities were quickened during her experience at Versailles, for
+while there for a few days' visit she saw the pitiless social world in
+all its orgies, revelries of luxury, and wanton extravagances.
+There, also, she contracted that deep-seated hatred for the queen and
+royalty.
+
+There was, indeed, a long list of suitors for the hand of the
+impulsive maiden; but owing to her views as to a husband and her
+restless, unsettled state of mind, she could not decide upon any one
+of them. To her mother, when urged to accept one, she said: "I should
+not like a husband to order me about, for he would teach me only to
+resist him; but neither do I wish to rule my husband. Either I am
+much mistaken, or those creatures, six feet high, with beard on their
+chins, seldom fail to make us feel that they are stronger; now, if the
+good man should suddenly bethink himself to remind me of his strength
+he would provoke me, and if he submitted to me he would make me
+feel ashamed of my power." For such a woman marriage was certainly
+a difficult problem. Finally, Roland de la Platières came within her
+circle; and although somewhat adverse to him at first, after a number
+of his visits she wrote: "I have been much charmed by the solidity of
+his judgment and his cultured and interesting conversation." Just such
+a man appealed to her nature and was in harmony with her views. After
+months of monotonous life in the convent to which she had retired, she
+at last consented to become the wife of Roland, not from expectations
+of any fortune, but purely from a sense of devoting herself to the
+happiness of an honorable man, to making his life sweeter.
+
+Roland, scrupulously conscientious, painstaking, and observing, had
+won the position of inspector of manufactures, which took him away on
+foreign travels part of the time. He had acquired a thorough knowledge
+of manufacturing and the principles of political economy. The first
+years of their life were spent in each other's society exclusively,
+as he was insanely jealous of her; she rarely left his side, and
+they studied the same works, copied and revised his manuscripts, and
+corrected his proofs. In this she was indispensable to him. But her
+activity did not stop with literary work; she managed her husband's
+household, and for miles around her home the peasants soon learned
+to know her through her charitable deeds. She was the village doctor,
+often going for miles to attend the poor in distress. With her own
+hands she prepared dainty dishes with which to tempt her husband's
+appetite. Thus, her best years were spent upon things for which much
+less ability would have sufficed. She watched with breathless
+interest the installation of Necker and the dismissal of Turgot, the
+convocation of the notables, the struggles for financial recovery,
+and, finally, the calling of a States-General, which had not been
+in session since 1614. During the first stormy years, 1789-1790, she
+wrote burning missives to her friend Bosc, at Paris, which appeared
+anonymously in the _Patriote Français_, edited by Brissot, the future
+Girondist leader. Soon came the commission of Roland as the first
+citizen of the city of Lyons, which had a debt of forty million
+francs, to acquaint the National Assembly with its affairs.
+
+When, in 1791, Mme. Roland arrived at Paris—for she accompanied her
+husband—she had already become an ardent Republican. She immediately
+threw herself into the whirlwind of popular enthusiasm. Her house
+became the centre of an advanced political group, which met there four
+times a week to discuss state questions. There Danton, Robespierre,
+Pétion, Condorcet, Buzot, and others were seen. She ably aided her
+husband in all his work as commissioner to the National Assembly. She
+was indefatigable in penning stirring letters and petitions to the
+Jacobin societies in the different departments. A staunch friend
+of Robespierre, she did much to protect him in his first efforts
+in public. On returning home, after her husband had completed his
+mission, she was no longer the same quiet, contented, submissive
+woman; she longed for activity in the midst of excitement.
+
+With the meeting of the Legislative Assembly, in 1791, the group of
+men sent up from the Gironde immediately became the leaders, and when
+Mme. Roland returned to Paris she became the centre of this circle,
+exhorting and stimulating, advising and ordering. Through her friend
+Brissot, who was all-powerful in the Assembly, about February,
+1792, as leader of the Girondists, who were looking for men not yet
+practically involved in politics, but qualified by experience for
+political life, her husband was made minister of the interior, and in
+March, 1792, he and his wife entered upon their duties. She was a
+keen reader of human nature, at first glance giving her husband a
+penetrating and generally truthful judgment of men. Being able to
+comprehend the temperaments of the ministers, she managed them with
+inimitable tact. Although all the Girondist ministers were supposed
+friends, she readily saw how difficult it would be for a small
+group of men with the same principles to act in concert. Seeing the
+political machine in motion at close range, she lost some of her
+enthusiasm for revolutionary leaders; above all, she recognized the
+need of a great leader. As wife of the minister, installed in the
+ministerial residence with no other woman present, she gave two
+dinners weekly to her husband's colleagues, to the members of the
+Assembly, and to political friends.
+
+Her husband, the French Quaker of the Revolution, in all his
+simplicity of dress and honesty, was being constantly duped by the
+apparent good nature and sincerity of the king, against whom his wife
+was constantly warning him. It was she who, convinced of the king's
+duplicity and the need of a safeguard for the country, originated the
+plan of a federate camp of twenty thousand men to protect Paris when
+war had been declared against Austria. It was she who wrote a letter
+to the king in the name of the council, but sent in Roland's own name,
+imploring him not to arouse the mistrust of the nation by constantly
+betraying his suspicion of it, but to show his love by adopting
+measures for the welfare and safety of the country. The effect of this
+letter, which became historical, was the fall of the ministers. After
+their recall, her husband became more and more powerful. The political
+circulars which were published by his paper, _The Sentinel_, were
+composed by her. Then came the horrible massacres and executions by
+the hundreds, which inspired Mme. Roland with hatred for Danton, a
+feeling she communicated to the whole Girondist party. She desired
+above everything to see punished the perpetrators of the September
+massacres. In this plan the Girondists failed. Robespierre, Danton,
+and Marat were victorious, and Mme. Roland and her party fell.
+
+When all parties and the whole populace vied with each other in
+welcoming back the victorious General Dumouriez, there seemed to be
+a possibility of a reconciliation between Danton and Mme. Roland, for
+when the general went to dine with her he presented her with a bouquet
+of magnificent oleanders. This dinner, on October 14th, auguring good
+fortune to all, was the last success of Mme. Roland. She had been
+pushed to the very front of the Revolution. She coöperated in
+composing and promulgating the numerous writings of her husband
+by which public opinion was to be instructed. But she retained her
+implacable hatred for Danton, who, when her husband, ready to resign,
+was pressed to remain in office, cried out in the convention: "Why not
+invite Mme. Roland to the ministry, too! everyone knows that Roland
+is not alone in the office!" At this period her husband made the
+fatal mistake of appropriating a chest of important state papers and
+examining them himself instead of calling together a commission. As
+is known, the papers turned out to be fatal to Louis XVI. Libels and
+denunciations were pronounced against Roland, but his wife, called
+before the convention, not only succeeded in turning aside all
+accusations, but was voted the honors of the sitting.
+
+At the time of the trial of the king, the power and influence of
+the Girondists were waning; then the Rolands became the butt of many
+violent and unreasonable outbursts. With the resignation of Roland on
+January 22, 1792, the day of the execution of the king, the fate of
+the Girondists was sealed. This time the minister was not asked to
+reconsider; in fact, his exposure of the pilfering then going on among
+the officials made him one of the most unpopular men in Paris. Upon
+their return to private life, Mme. Roland was accused of forming the
+plot to destroy the republic. When an armed force arrived one morning
+at half-past five o'clock to arrest her husband, she resisted them,
+herself going to the convention to expose the iniquity of such a
+proceeding. Failing in this, she returned to her husband, to find him
+safe with a friend. Being again arrested, she met the ordeal with her
+accustomed courage; and when the officers offered to pull down the
+blinds of the carriage, to shield her from the gaze of the unfriendly
+public, she said: "No, gentlemen! innocence, however oppressed, should
+not assume the attitude of guilt. I fear the eyes of no one, and do
+not wish to escape even those of my enemies." "You have much more
+character than many men," they replied; "you can calmly await
+justice," "Justice!" she cried; "if it existed, I should not be
+in your power! I would go to the scaffold as calmly as if sent by
+iniquitous men. I fear only guilt, and despise injustice and death!"
+
+She has been deeply criticised for her letters written to her friend
+Buzot while she was in prison; yet it should be remembered that there
+was not the slightest chance of their meeting again, and, besides,
+the letters reveal the terrible struggle through which she had passed.
+While in prison, her beauty, grace, and fearlessness won and humanized
+nearly all who came under her spell. She was once unexpectedly set
+at liberty, but only to be sentenced to the lowest of
+prisons—Sainte-Pélagie. There, in the space of about one month,
+her memoirs, now among the French classics, were written. At the
+Conciergerie, where the lowest criminals and the filthiest paupers
+were crowded into cells with the highest of the nobility, and where
+the cowardly Mme. du Barry spent her last hours, Mme. Roland, by her
+quiet dignity and patient serenity, commanded silence and respect, and
+calmness and peace replaced angry and pitiful wrangling. The prisoners
+clung to her, crying and kissing her hand, while she spoke words of
+advice and consolation to the doomed women, who "looked upon her as a
+beneficent divinity." Her conduct under these circumstances alone is
+sufficient to keep alive her memory. In the last days, she clung to
+and upheld most passionately her principles of liberty and moderation,
+and in her conversation with Beugnot it was evident that she had been
+the real inspiration in the Girondist party for all that was best and
+most uplifting.
+
+The charge against her when before the bar of judgment of
+Fouquier-Tinville, the terrible prosecutor, consisted in her relation
+to the Girondists who had been condemned to death as traitors to the
+republic. She met her death heroically, as became a woman who had
+lived bravely. At the very last moment of her life, she offered
+consolation to fellow victims. Her death was that of the greatest
+heroine of the Revolution, the climax of a life the one ambition of
+which had been to save her country and to shed her blood for it. As
+she rode through the city in her pure white raiment, serenely radiant
+in her own innocence, she was the embodiment of all that was highest
+and purest in the Revolution—one of the best and greatest women known
+to French history. She stands out as a representative of the French
+Republic.
+
+There are a number of traits of Mme. Roland which should be considered
+before giving a final estimate of her character, of her rôle in French
+history, and of her right to be ranked among the most illustrious
+women of France. Critics in general seem to show her a marked
+hostility; such men as Caro assert that she had no modesty, that she
+lacked sentiment, delicacy, and reserve. M. Saint-Amand said that she
+reflected the vices and virtues of her age, summing up the passions
+and illusions, being intellectually and morally the disciple of
+Rousseau, but socially personifying the third estate, which in the
+beginning asked for nothing, but later demanded all. Politics made
+her cruel at times, although by nature she was good and sensible. He
+declared that with her acquaintance with Buzot began her career of
+love and ambition. In love, she believed herself a patriot, but all
+the various phases of her public career were simply the results of her
+emotions. Thus, for example, in order to see Buzot, she persuaded
+her husband to return to Paris to seek his fortune and make the
+realization of her dreams possible. She desired to play a rôle for
+which her origin had not destined her, which made her actions appear
+theatrical and affected. It is evident that she hated both the king
+and the queen, and at the council for the Girondist ministry demanded
+the death of the royal couple. And yet, Saint-Amand cites her as the
+most beautiful of that group of martyrs who lost their lives in the
+first heat of the Revolution—as the genius among them by her
+force, purity, and grace—the brilliant and austere muse in all the
+saintliness of martyrdom.
+
+The two maxims which Mme. Roland followed throughout her career had
+much to do with her fall: security is the tomb of liberty; indulgence
+toward men in authority is the means of pushing them to despotism.
+These maxims as her motto or impulse, united with the spirit of push,
+energy, and at times rashness and impropriety, naturally led her to
+her ruin in those days of revolutionary ideas. She was a woman of
+powerful passion controlled by reason, and with frankness, devotion,
+courage, and fidelity as forces impelling her to activity. But there
+was one great defect which was at the bottom of her misfortunes,—a
+too great ambition, which often led her into perilous paths, even to
+the scaffold, which, in its turn, covered her errors.
+
+She is said to have married M. Roland more as a theory than as
+a husband, for her ideas of marriage were such as to make pure,
+disinterested love impossible. Her husband was in many respects her
+intellectual superior, but she excelled him in versatility. Being her
+senior by twenty years, when he grew old and infirm he depended upon
+her for a great deal, all of which contributed to her restlessness
+and unhappiness. Then there developed in her that terrible struggle
+between loyalty to her husband and passion for Buzot, in which reason
+conquered. This devotion to duty was indeed rare in those days, when
+passion was supreme and pure love was almost unknown. Mr. Dobson says
+that this one trait by which she gave real expression of virtue is
+profoundly a product of her mental self. Her instinct would have led
+her to self-abandonment, so common in that day, but her "man by the
+head" self was stronger than her "woman by the heart" self. These two
+sides of her character, fostered by incessant reading, incited her
+fearful and unrelenting hatreds as well as her passion, "masculine
+enough to be mistrusted and feminine enough to be admired." These two
+qualities made her a power and an attraction. Her better side will
+continue to shine clearer as the horror of those days is revealed.
+Whatever may be the effects of her ambitious nature and of her
+unfortunate passion for Buzot, by the very virtue of her intellect and
+reasoning she will remain the one great woman of the Revolution who
+willingly and conscientiously sacrificed her life for her country.
+
+A type perhaps more universally known in her relation to the
+Revolution than is Mme. Roland, though no better understood, was
+Charlotte Corday. Possessed of a most intense patriotism and an
+unusual emotional nature, she represented better than any other woman
+of her age the peculiar French trait—namely, the emotional perfectly
+combined with the mathematical. She was unique; her compatriots
+practised the art of studying themselves, in order to be attractive,
+and thus accomplished their ends, while her ambition was not to
+please merely, but to be of some real, practical value to her troubled
+country. She stands out, however, as the product of the end of the
+eighteenth century, a natural result of the reading of philosophy
+and political pamphlets. Quite naturally, she entertained such
+philosophical sentiments as this: "No one will lose in losing me,
+and the country may be better off for the sacrifice. Death comes only
+once, and let us use it to the good of the country or the greatest
+number of people." Thus, her philosophy led her to a complete
+detachment from her individual self, and fostered the idea of dying
+for her country.
+
+Her decision to rid France of Marat was arrived at by degrees of
+silent brooding over the evils which beset her native land; at last
+she felt herself called to some great act which would necessitate the
+loss of her life. "The time brought forth desperation, intense warmth
+of feeling, concentrated upon some purpose or object;" the reasoning
+self seemed to be stifled by the intensity of the emotion. Yet,
+reason was to conquer in her. When the Girondists returned to Caen
+and described Robespierre and Marat in the darkest colors, she at once
+felt moved to put forth all her efforts to rid France of that evil
+blot—Marat. She was beautiful, strong, and graceful, presenting a
+most striking appearance. Loved by all, she felt love and devotion
+only for her country. Desperate and determined, she set out to fulfil
+her mission. She was a mere expression of the conservative element
+which acts only when driven by sheer necessity. Her reason impressed
+her with her duty and circumstances; the time acted upon her mind.
+"Easy, calm, resigned, she looked upon the angry masses of people who
+cursed her," confident that she had done her country a service, and
+proud that she had been the fortunate one to render it. This was her
+glory, and for this she will be remembered in history.
+
+Possibly the rarest phenomenon in the history of the illustrious women
+of France is Mme. Récamier, who, by force of her beauty and social
+fascination, and without intellectual gifts or even wit, won for
+herself the position of queen of French society, which she held for
+nearly half a century. The very name of Récamier has come to evoke a
+vision of beauty, a beauty so well known to every lover of art who
+has visited the Luxembourg and gazed upon the figure "so flexible
+and elegant, with head well poised, brilliant complexion, little rosy
+mouth with pearly teeth, black curling hair, soft expressive eyes, and
+a bearing indicative of indolence and pride, yet with a face beaming
+with good nature and sympathy." Her beauty has been considered
+perfect, but a recent writer has proved this to be an error.
+M.J. Turquan, in a new volume on Mme. Récamier, is everything but
+sympathetic to the woman at whom criticism has rarely been pointed.
+"Quite a contrast to her extraordinary beauty of face," he declares,
+"were her hands, with big fingers square at the end and having flat
+nails. The same may be said of her feet, which were not only big, but
+were without the slightest trace of _finesse_ in their lines." But
+though Turquan has raised numerous points in her disfavor, they
+are not at all likely to detract from her unrivalled reputation for
+beauty.
+
+Critics have made of her a sort of enigmatic figure, supernatural
+and having only the form of the human. Thus, in Lamartine we find the
+following description: "The young girl was, they say, a _sous-entendu_
+of nature: she could be a wife, she could not be a mother. These are
+the two mysteries we must respect, but which we must know to have been
+the secret of the entire life of Mme. Récamier—a mournful and eternal
+enigma which will never have its words divined,... All her looks
+produced an intoxication, but brought hope to no heart. The divine
+statue had not descended from its pedestal for anyone, as though such
+a performance would have been too divine for a mortal." Her beauty was
+so marked, so singular, that wherever she appeared—at the ball, the
+theatre—it caused a sensation; all turned to look at her and admire
+in subdued astonishment. Her form was said to be marvellously
+elegant and supple, her neck of an exquisite perfection, her mouth
+"deliciously small and pink, her teeth veritable pearls set in
+coral, her arms splendidly moulded, her eyes full of sweetness
+and admiration, her nose most attractive in its regularity, her
+physiognomy candid and spiritual, her air indolent and haughty, and
+her attitude reserved. Before this ensemble, you remained in ecstasy."
+All this beauty was particularly well set off by an exquisite white
+dress adorned with pearls—a style she affected the year around.
+
+But her beauty alone could hardly have contributed to the marvellous
+success of Mme. Récamier, as some critics assert. Guizot, for
+instance, suspects her nature to have been less superficial than
+other writers might lead one to suppose. He said: "This passionate
+admiration, this constant affection, this insatiable taste for society
+and conversation, won her a wide friendship. All who approached and
+knew her—foreigners and Frenchmen, princes and the middle classes,
+saints and worldlings, philosophers and artists, adversaries as
+well as partisans—all she inspired with the ideas and causes she
+espoused." Her qualities outside of her beauty were tact, generosity,
+and elevation of soul, combined with an amiable grace which was
+unlimited, however superficial it may have been. Knowing how to
+maintain, in her salon, harmony and even cordial relations between men
+of the most varied temperaments and political ideas, it was possible
+for her to remain all her life an intelligent and warm-hearted bond
+between the élite minds and their diverse sentiments, which she
+tactfully tempered. Though ever faithful to one cause, she admitted
+men and women of all parties to her salon. She was moderate and
+just in the midst of the most arduous struggles, tolerant toward her
+adversaries, generous toward the conquered, sympathetic to all, and
+remarkably successful in conciliating all political, literary, and
+philosophical opinions as well as the passions which she aroused in
+her worshippers. To these qualities, as much as to her beauty, were
+due the harmony of her life, the unity of her character—which were
+never troubled by the turmoils of politics or the emotions of love.
+She was not wife, mother, or lover; "she never belonged to anyone in
+soul or sense." Always mistress of her imagination as well as of
+her heart, she permitted herself to be charmed but never carried
+away—receiving from all, but giving nothing in return. Her life
+was brilliant, but there was lurking in the background the demon
+of sadness and lassitude and the terrible disease of the eighteenth
+century,—ennui.
+
+Two splendid portraits of Mme. Récamier are left to us: one by her
+passionate but unsuccessful lover, Benjamin Constant, picturing her
+as the personification of attractiveness; the other by M. Lenormant,
+showing that she desired constant admiration: "She lacked the
+affections which bring veritable happiness and the true dignity of
+woman. Her barren heart, desirous of tenderness and devotion, sought
+recompense for this need of living, in the homage of passionate
+admiration, the language of which pleases the ears." Mme. Récamier,
+while still a child, seemed to realize the power of her beauty, and
+even before her marriage in 1793 she would often say, when demanded
+in marriage: "Mon Dieu! how beautiful I must be already!" A mere girl
+when married, being only sixteen years of age, she felt no love for
+her husband, who was her senior by twenty-five years. Soon after the
+terrible times of "the Reign of Terror" she found herself one of the
+most beautiful women in Paris, and her husband one of the wealthiest
+of bankers. The three rival women of the times were Mme. Récamier,
+Mme. Tallien, and Josephine. The terrible days of the guillotine were
+succeeded by an uninterrupted reign of pleasure, "when a fever of
+amusement possessed everyone, and the desire for distraction of all
+kinds seemed to have been pushed to its limits." M. Turquan states
+that in the reign of dissolute extravagance, immorality, and gorgeous
+splendor, Mme. Récamier formed a striking contrast by her simplicity.
+Her first triumph was at the church Saint-Roche, the most fashionable
+of Paris, where she was selected to raise a purse for charity. On one
+occasion the collection amounted to twenty thousand francs, all due to
+the beauty of the woman passing the plate. She was soon invited by her
+friend Barras to all the balls and fêtes under the Directorate.
+
+In 1798 M. Récamier bought the house formerly tenanted by Necker, and
+later established himself in a château at Clichy, where he received
+his friends, among whom was Lucien Bonaparte, who attempted the
+ruin of the beautiful hostess, but without success. Napoleon himself
+attempted in vain to win her to his court as maid of honor and as an
+ornament, her refusal incurring his anger, especially as she was the
+height of fashion and courted by all the great men of the age. Through
+her preference for the Royalists—persisting in her line of conduct
+in spite of her friend Fouché—she finally incurred the enmity of
+the emperor. Even the Princess Caroline endeavored to obtain Mme.
+Récamier's friendship for Napoleon, "but, although the princess gave
+her _loge_ twice to the favorite, and upon each occasion the emperor
+went to the theatre expressly to gaze upon her, she remained firm in
+her refusal, which was one of the causes of the downfall of her
+banker husband, whom Napoleon might have saved had his wife been the
+emperor's friend." Napoleon certainly resented her refusal, for when
+requested to save Récamier's bank he replied: "I am not in love with
+Mme. Récamier!" Thus, because his wife preferred the aristocracy to
+the favors of Napoleon, the banker lost his fortune.
+
+She, however, bore her misfortunes with great reserve, immediately
+selling her jewels and her hôtel; after which they both retired to
+small apartments, where they were even more honored and had greater
+social prestige than ever. She at once made her salon the centre of
+hostility against the emperor, who, according to Turquan, did not
+banish her, but her friend Mme. de Staël, with whom she passed
+over into Switzerland. Here began her romance with Prince August
+of Prussia, who became so enamored of her that he asked her hand in
+marriage. Encouraged by Mme. de Staël, she even went so far as to ask
+her husband for a divorce, that she might wed the royal aspirant. Her
+husband generously consented to this, but at the same time set forth
+to her the peculiar position which she would occupy, an argument that
+opened her eyes to her ingratitude, and she refused the prince.
+
+Upon the fall of Napoleon, Mme. Récamier returned to Paris and, her
+husband's fortune being restored, gathered about her all the great
+nobles of the ancient régime. But fortune was unkind to her husband
+for the second time, and she withdrew to the Abbaye-au-Bois, where she
+occupied a small apartment on the third floor. Here her distinguished
+friends followed her—such as Chateaubriand and the Duc de
+Montmorency. Between her and the famous author of _Le Génie du
+Christianisme_ there sprang up a friendship which lasted thirty years.
+During this time it is said that he visited her at a certain hour
+each day, the people in the neighborhood setting their clocks by his
+appearance. When he was absent on missions, he wrote her of every
+act of his life. Both, weary of the dissipations of society and
+its flatteries, sought a pure and lofty friendship, spiritual and
+affectionate, with no improper intimacy. There was mutual admiration
+and mutual respect. Even Chateaubriand's wife, who was an invalid and
+with whom he spent every evening, encouraged his friendship with Mme.
+Récamier. When, through the fall of Charles X., Chateaubriand lost his
+power, the friendship did not cease. M. Turquan insists that he did
+not really care seriously for Mme. Récamier, that his visits were the
+outgrowth of mere habit. But it is to be seen that throughout his book
+Turquan has little sympathy for his subject, whom he pictures as
+a beautiful, heartless, intriguing woman with immense hands, flat,
+square fingers, and large feet.
+
+The influence possessed by Mme. Récamier was most remarkable; for
+with the new statesmen, Thiers, Guizot, Mignet, De Tocqueville,
+Sainte-Beuve, as well as the nobles and princes, she was on most
+cordial terms, and was received in any salon which she chose to visit.
+Her unbounded sympathy, tact, and common sense made her friendship
+and counsel much in demand by great men. One trait, however, her
+exclusiveness, caused much discomfort in her life, such as bringing
+upon her the ill will of Napoleon.
+
+In her later years her physical beauty gradually developed into a
+moral beauty. She was never a passionate woman, but rather passively
+affectionate; purely unselfish, her one desire always was to make
+people love her and to be happy. Her friendship with Chateaubriand in
+the later days was possibly the most ideal and noble in the history of
+French women. He never failed to make his appearance in the afternoon
+at the _abbaye_, driven in a carriage to her threshold, where he was
+placed in an armchair and wheeled to a corner by her fireplace. On one
+of those visits, he asked her to marry him—he being seventy-nine, she
+seventy-one—and bear his illustrious name. "Why should we marry at
+our age?" Mme. Récamier replied. "There is no impropriety in my taking
+care of you. If solitude is painful to you, I am ready to live in the
+same house with you. The world will do justice to the purity of our
+friendship. Years and blindness give me this right. Let us change
+nothing in so perfect an affection." Her charm never deserted her, and
+she continued to the very last to receive the greatest men and women
+of the day. Still the reigning beauty and the queen of French society,
+she died at the age of seventy-two, of cholera.
+
+There is a wide difference between Mme. Récamier and Josephine, the
+two women of the Napoleonic era who exerted so powerful an influence
+upon the social and political fortunes of France. At the time of
+Napoleon's first success, the former was only twenty-one, with
+Madonna-like charms and attractiveness; the latter, thirty-five, but
+with exquisite taste in dress and skill in beautifying. Possessed of
+unstudied natural grace and elegance, and always attired in perfect
+harmony with her beauty of face and form, she could easily stand a
+comparison with the other beauties of the day, all of whom studied her
+air and manner and marked the aristocratic ease and poise of her real
+_noblesse_ of the old régime.
+
+"Josephine had a faded and brown complexion, which she remedied with
+rouge and powder; her small mouth concealed her bad teeth; her elegant
+figure and graceful movements, refined expression, gentle voice and
+dignity, all dexterously expressed with an air of coquetry, made her
+delightful." The happiest part of the life of Napoleon and Josephine
+was during their stay in Italy, when he was absolutely faithful
+to her. As soon as Napoleon left for Egypt, Talleyrand secured the
+erasure of many noble names from the list of the proscribed exiles and
+soon gathered about him a large number of Royalists, who immediately
+began to pay court to Josephine. Napoleon had enjoined her to keep
+her salon according to the means he provided and to entertain all
+influential people. To this she was equal; and all men of elevated
+rank, the most distinguished artists, men of letters, orators, and
+musicians, found her salon an enjoyable retreat. No greater galaxy of
+talent and genius ever assembled under the old régime than was found
+there,—David, Lebrun, Lesueur, Grétry, Cherubini, Méhul, J. Chénier,
+Hoffman, Ducis, Désaugiers, Legouvé, and others.
+
+But her life was not without its difficulties. She was always annoyed
+by the Bonaparte family, who were jealous of her influence over
+Bonaparte. Exceedingly extravagant, in fact a spendthrift, she was
+always in need of money. Her virtues, however, easily offset these
+defects. Josephine never offended anyone, never argued politics;
+she made friends in all classes, thus conciliating Republicans and
+aristocrats; therefore, her greatest influence was as a mediator
+between two classes of society, by which she, more than any other
+woman, unconsciously contributed to the forming of a new social
+France. Napoleon was wise enough to recognize such diplomacy, and
+encouraged her to intrigue like an experienced diplomat. She was the
+most efficient aid and means to his future plans, and M. Saint-Amand
+says that without her he would possibly never have become emperor.
+When he returned from Egypt and found her away,—she had gone to meet
+him, but missed him,—his suspicions were aroused as to her fidelity,
+as she had been accused of many misdeeds. When the reconciliation
+finally took place, after a day of sobbing and pleading, she put
+to work all her tact and knowledge of Parisian society to help her
+husband to the _coup d'état_.
+
+She was always of great service to Napoleon in his relations with the
+men of whom he wished to make use; fascinating them and drawing them
+over to him, she charmed such persons as Barras, Gohier, Fouché,
+Moreau, Talleyrand, Sièyes, and others. By her skill she kept hidden
+Napoleon's plans until all was ripe for them. She was in the secret
+of the 18th Brumaire; "nothing was concealed from her. In every
+conference at which she was present, her discretion, gentleness,
+grace, and the ready ingenuity of her delicate and cool intelligence
+were of great service." During the Directorate she allayed jealousies
+and appeased the differences between Republicans and Royalists. As
+wife of the First Consul, she conciliated the _émigrés_. At that time
+she was probably the most important figure in France. The _émigrés_
+would call at her salon in the morning so as to avoid meeting her
+husband, with whom they refused to associate. Her task was not easy,
+but she knew so well how to say a kind word to all, and her tact was
+so great that when she became empress the duties and requirements
+of that office were natural to her. She won the Republicans by her
+friendship with Fouché, the representative of the revolutionary
+element—the aristocracy, by her dignity and refinement. Her whole
+appearance had a peculiar charm.
+
+In 1803 the conditions began to be reversed. In 1796 Josephine had
+worried Napoleon on account of her inconstancy; she was then young
+and beautiful, while he was penniless and ailing. In 1803 he was
+thirty-four and she forty—he in his prime, wealthy and popular,
+she faded and powerless, no longer able to give cause for suspicion.
+However, nothing could make Napoleon reject her, because she was
+useful to him. "Her kindness was a weapon against her enemies, a charm
+for her friends, and the source of her power over her husband." "I
+gained battles, Josephine gained me hearts," are the well-known words
+of Napoleon. As empress she had every wish gratified, but she
+realized that a woman of her age could not continue indefinitely her
+fascination over a man as capricious as Napoleon. In the brilliant
+court of Fontainebleau she held the highest place, and no one could
+suspect the anxieties that tormented her, so cool and happy did she
+appear.
+
+Josephine did many things that later on gradually helped reconcile
+Napoleon to a divorce: her pride, her aristocratic tendencies,
+extravagance and lavishness; her objection to the marriage of Hortense
+to General Duroc on the grounds of humble birth; her religious
+tendencies; her difficulty in keeping secrets, which led to highly
+tragic scenes between her and Bonaparte; the encouragement she gave
+to the jealousies and hatred of her brothers and sisters-in-law,
+who maliciously slandered her at every opportunity; and finally, her
+barrenness.
+
+Her career after her divorce was honorable, and to-day Josephine is
+still held in the highest esteem in France and in the world at large.
+Her greatness is not in having been the wife of a great emperor, but
+in knowing how to adapt herself to the conditions in France into which
+she was suddenly thrust. As a conciliator and a mediator between two
+almost hopelessly irreconcilable classes of society, she deserves a
+prominent place among great French women.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIV
+
+Women of the Nineteenth Century
+
+
+Among the unusually large number of prominent French women which the
+nineteenth century produced, possibly not more than a half-dozen
+names will survive,—Mme. de Staël, George Sand, Rosa Bonheur, Sarah
+Bernhardt, Mme. Lebrun, and Rachel. This circumstance is, possibly,
+largely due to the character of the century: its activity, its varied
+accomplishments, its wide progress along so many lines, its social
+development, its absolute freedom and tolerance—all of which tended
+to open a field for women more extensive than in any preceding
+century.
+
+The salon, in its old-time glory, became a thing of the past; and
+the passing of this institution lessened, to a large extent, the
+possibility of great influence on the part of women. In short, the
+mode of life became, in the nineteenth century, unfavorable to the
+absolute power exercised by woman in former times. She was now on a
+level with man, enjoying more privileges and being looked upon more as
+the equal and possible rival of man. It became necessary for woman to
+make and establish her own position, whereas, under the old régime,
+her power and position were established by custom, which regarded her
+vocation as entirely distinct from that of man. The result was a host
+of prominent and active women, but few really great ones. Undoubtedly
+by far the most important and influential was Madame de Staël, but her
+influence and work are so intimately associated with her life that
+any account of her which aims at giving a true estimate of her
+significance must necessarily involve much biography.
+
+Her mother, the Mme. Necker of salon fame, endeavored to bring up her
+daughter as the _chef d'œuvre_ of natural art,—pious, modest in her
+conversation, dignified in her behavior, without pride or frivolity,
+but with wide knowledge. In this ambition she partly succeeded. At
+the age of eleven the young girl was present at receptions, where
+she listened to discussions by such men as Grimm, Buffon, Suard,
+and others. Her parents took her to the theatre, and she would
+subsequently compose short stories on what she had heard and seen.
+Rousseau became her ideal, but she enjoyed all literature, showing an
+insatiable desire for knowledge. From her early youth to her death,
+her conversation was ever the result of her own impulse; consequently,
+it was uncontrolled and lacked the seriousness imparted by deep
+reflection.
+
+Interested in all things except Nature, which seemed mournful to her,
+while solitude horrified her, society was her delight. At the age of
+twenty she wrote: "A woman must have nothing to herself and must find
+all power in that which she loves." Her masculine ideal was a man
+of society, of success, a hero of the Academy, a superior genius,
+animated more by the desire to please than to be useful. During these
+early years she wrote a great deal, her work being mostly in the form
+of sentimental utterances, but very little has survived her.
+
+When she reached marriageable age, many ambitions of her parents were
+frustrated by her independent will. Pitt, Mirabeau, Bonaparte, were
+considered, but destiny had in store for her a Swedish ambassador,
+Staël-Holstein, a man of good family, but with little money and plenty
+of debts, who had been looking out for a comfortable dowry. In 1786,
+at the time when Marie Antoinette was at the height of her popularity,
+this girl of twenty years was married to a man seventeen years her
+senior, who had no affection for her and whom she could not love.
+
+At Paris she immediately opened a salon, which soon eclipsed, both in
+beauty and wit, that of her mother; there her eloquence, enthusiasm,
+and conversational gifts captivated all, but her imprudent language,
+the recklessness of her conduct, her scorn of all etiquette, her
+outspoken preferences, frightened away women and stunned men. Her
+sympathy for her friends, Talleyrand, Narbonne, De Montmorency,
+together with the approaching Revolution, drew her into politics. When
+her father was called by the nation to the control of its finances,
+his daughter shared his glories.
+
+Her salon was the centre of the élite and of all literary and
+political discussions; but as the majority of its frequenters were
+partisans of the English constitution and expressed their views
+openly and freely, her enemies became numerous. When Narbonne was made
+minister of war, a great triumph for her and her party, the eloquence
+of his reports was attributed to her, and when he fell into disgrace
+she rescued him. However, the atmosphere of Paris was too unfriendly,
+so she left in 1792 for her home at Coppet, which became an asylum
+for all the proscribed. When she visited England, she began a
+thorough study of its mode of life, its customs, and its parliamentary
+institutions. Upon her return to Coppet she wrote _Réflexions sur le
+Procès de la Reine_, to excite the commiseration of the judges. After
+the death of her mother in 1794, she devoted her energies to the
+education of her two boys.
+
+After the violence of her love for Benjamin Constant, who drew
+her back to politics, was somewhat cooled, she became an ardent
+Republican, writing her treatise _Réflexions sur la Paix adressées
+a M. Pitt et aux Anglais_, which facilitated her return in 1795 to
+Paris, where she found her husband reinstalled as ambassador. Her
+hôtel in the Rue de Bac was reopened, and she proceeded to form a
+salon from the débris of society floating about in Paris. It was an
+assembly of queer characters—elements of the old and new régime, but
+not at all reconciled, converts of the Jacobin party returning for the
+first time into society, surrounded by the women of the old régime,
+using all imaginable efforts and flattery to obtain the _rentrée_ of
+a brother, a son, or a lover; it was composed of the most moderate
+Revolutionists, of former Constitutionalists, of exiles of the
+Monarchy, whom she endeavored to bring over to the Republican cause.
+
+Through the influence of Mme. de Staël, the decree of banishment was
+repealed by the convention, thus opening Paris to Talleyrand. In 1795
+appeared her _Réflexions sur la Paix Intérieure_; the aim of that
+work being to organize the French Republic on the plan of the United
+States; it strongly opposed the restoration of the Monarchy. The
+Comité du Salut Publique accused her of double play, of favoring
+intrigues, and, seeing the plots of the Royalists, she adopted a new
+plan in her salon; politics being too dangerous, she decided to devote
+herself more to literature. In her book _Les Passions_ she endeavored
+to crush her calumniators; she wrote: "Condemned to celebrity, without
+being able to be known I find need of making myself known by my
+writings."
+
+It was not safe for her to return to Paris until 1797, when her friend
+Talleyrand was made minister of foreign affairs. Her efforts to charm
+Napoleon led only to estrangement, although he appointed her friend
+Benjamin Constant to the tribunate; but when he publicly announced the
+advent of the tyrant Napoleon, she was accused of inciting her friends
+against the government, and was again banished to Coppet, where she
+wrote the celebrated work _De la Littérature Considérée sous ses
+Rapports avec les Institutions Sociales_, a singular mixture of
+satirical allusions to Napoleon's government and cabals against
+his power; in that work she announced, also, her belief in the
+regeneration of French literature by the influence of foreign
+literature, and endeavored to show the relations which exist between
+political institutions and literature. Thus, she was the first
+to bring the message of a general cosmopolitan relationship of
+literatures and literary ideas.
+
+In 1802 she returned to Paris and began to show, on every possible
+occasion, a morbid hatred for Napoleon. When her father published his
+work _Dernières Vues de Politique et de Finance_, expressing a desire
+to write against the tyranny of one, after having fought so long that
+of the multitude, the emperor immediately accused Mme. de Staël of
+instilling these ideas into her father. Her salon and forty of her
+friends were put into the interdict.
+
+After the death of her husband in 1802, she was free to marry Benjamin
+Constant; and after refusing him, she wrote her novel _Delphine_ to
+give vent to her feelings. The two famous lines found in almost every
+work on Mme. de Staël may be quoted here, as they well express her
+ideas on marriage: "A man must know how to brave an opinion, and a
+woman must submit to it." This qualification Benjamin Constant lacked,
+and at that time she was unable to give the submission.
+
+Her travels in Germany, Russia, and Italy were one great succession of
+triumphs; by her brilliancy, her wonderful gift of conversation, and
+her quickness of comprehension, she everywhere baffled and astounded
+those with whom she conversed. Schiller declared that when she left
+he felt as though he were just convalescing after a long spell of
+illness. One day she abruptly asked the staid old philosopher Fichte:
+"M. Fichte, can you give me, in a short time, an _aperçu_ of your
+system of philosophy, and tell me what you mean by your ego? I find it
+very obscure." He began by translating his thoughts into French, very
+deliberately. After talking for some ten minutes, in the midst of a
+deep argument she interrupted him, crying out: "Enough, M. Fichte,
+quite enough! I understand you perfectly; I have seen your system
+in illustration—it is an adventure of Baron Münchhausen." The
+philosopher assumed a tragic attitude, and a spell of silence fell
+upon the audience.
+
+The result of her visit to Italy was her novel _Corinne_, in which the
+problems of the destiny of women of genius—the relative joys of love
+and glory—are discussed. This work remained for a whole generation
+the standard of love and ideals, and at the same time revealed Italy
+to the French, After a second visit to Germany, she began to labor
+seriously on her work on that country, in 1810 going _incognito_ to
+Paris to have it printed. Ten thousand copies, ready for sale, were
+destroyed before reaching the public. This work opened the German
+world to the French; it applied, to a great nation, the doctrine of
+progress, defending the independence and originality of nations, while
+endeavoring to show that the future lay in the reciprocal respect
+of the rights of people, declaring that nations are not at all the
+arbitrary work of men or the fatal work of circumstances, and that the
+submission of one people to another is contrary to nature. She wished
+to make "poor and noble Germany" conscious of its intellectual
+riches, and to prove that Europe could obtain peace only through
+the liberation of that country. The censors accused her of lack
+of patriotism in provoking the Germans to independence, and of
+questionable taste in praising their literature; consequently, the
+book was denounced, all the copies obtainable were destroyed, and a
+vigorous search for the manuscript was undertaken. After this episode,
+her friends were not permitted to visit her at Coppet.
+
+In 1811 she was secretly married to a young Italian officer, Albert de
+Rocca, a handsome man of twenty-three—she was then forty-five. In him
+she realized the conditions which she described in _Delphine_, namely,
+a man who braved an opinion and prejudices; and she was ready to
+submit herself to him, Coppet became the centre for endless pleasures
+and fêtes; Mme. de Staël began to write comedies and to forget Paris
+entirely. This blissful happiness was suddenly checked by the emperor,
+who determined to show his displeasure and also to give evidence
+of his power by banishing Schlegel and exiling Mme. Récamier and De
+Montmorency, who continued to visit Mme. de Staël. Fear for the safety
+of her husband and children influenced her to leave for Russia, where
+the czar ordered all Russians to honor her as the enemy of Napoleon.
+Indeed, she was everywhere received like a visiting queen.
+
+In the autumn of 1816 she returned to Paris, and spent a number of
+months very happily in her old style—in the society of the salon.
+Though devoured by insomnia, enervated by the use of opium, and
+besieged by fear of death, she accepted all invitations, and kept
+open house herself, receiving in the morning, at dinner, and in the
+evening; and though at night she paced the floor for hours or
+tossed about on her bed until morning, she was yet fresh for all the
+pleasures of the next day. But this mode of existence was undermining
+her health.
+
+She endured this constant strain until one evening in February,
+1817, when, at a ball at the Duke of Decazes's, in the midst of her
+pleasure, she was stricken with paralysis. At the Rue des Mathurins,
+she had all her friends come and dine with her. Chateaubriand, who
+was one of the party, entered her room upon one occasion and found her
+suffering intensely, but able to raise herself and say: "Bonjour, my
+dear Francis! I am suffering, but that does not hinder me from loving
+you." She lingered until July, when there ended a life which not only
+influenced but even modified politics and the institutions of nations,
+which exercised, by writings, an incalculable influence upon French
+literature, opening paths which previously had not been trod.
+
+The most important of her works is _De l'Allemagne_, in writing which
+her only desire was to make Germany known to the French, to explain
+it by comparison with France and to make her people admire it, and
+to open new paths to poetry. According to her, Germany possessed no
+classic prose, because the Germans attributed less importance to style
+than did the French. German poetry, however, had a distinct charm,
+being all sentiment and poetry of the soul, touching and penetrating;
+whereas French poetry was all _esprit_, eloquence, reason, raillery.
+
+In her treatise on the drama, she was the first in French literature
+to use the term "romantic" and to define it; but she had not invented
+the word, Wieland having used it to designate the country in which the
+ancient Roman literature flourished. Her definition was: "The classic
+word is sometimes taken as a synonym of perfection. I use it in
+another acceptance by considering classic poetry that of the ancients
+and romantic poetry that which holds in some way to the chivalresque
+traditions. The literature of the ancients is a transplanted
+literature with us; but romantic or chivalresque literature is
+indigenous. An imitation of works coming from a political, social,
+and religious midst different from ours means a literature which is
+no longer in relation with us, which has never been popular, and
+which will become less so every day. On the contrary, the romantic
+literature is the only one which is susceptible of being perfected,
+because it bears its roots from our soil and is, consequently, the
+only one which can be revived and increased. It expresses our religion
+and recalls our history." This opinion alone was enough to create a
+revolt among her contemporaries. Almost all other interpretations of
+_Faust_ were based on her conception.
+
+At the time of its publication, her book was considered to have been
+written in a political spirit, but her motive was far from that; it
+was the action of a generous heart, a book as true and loyal to
+the French as was ever a book written by a Frenchman. In her work
+_Considérations sur la Révolution Française_ she expressed the most
+advanced ideas on politics and government. The Revolution freed France
+and made it prosper; "every absolute monarch enslaves his country, and
+freedom reigns not in politics nor in the arts and sciences. Local and
+provincial liberties have formed nations, but royalty has deformed the
+nation by turning it to profit." Mme. de Staël found nothing to admire
+in Louis XIV., and to Richelieu she attributed the destruction of
+the originality of the French character, of its loyalty, candor,
+and independence. In that work she advocated education, which she
+considered a duty of the government to the people. "Schools must be
+established for the education of the poor, universities for the study
+of all languages, literatures, and sciences;" these ideas took root
+after her death.
+
+Mme. de Staël was a finished writer; because of its force, openness,
+and seriousness, her style might be termed a masculine one; she wrote
+to persuade and, as a rule, succeeded. Her grave defect seemed to be
+in her inspirations, which were always superior to her ideas, and in
+her sentiments, which she invariably turned to passions.
+
+Few French writers have exercised such a great influence in so many
+directions, and it became specially marked after her death; while
+living, the gossip against her salon prevented her opinions from being
+accepted or taking root. Her political influence was great at her
+time and lasted some twenty years. Directly influenced by her were
+Narbonne, De Montmorency, Benjamin Constant, and the Duc Victor de
+Broglie, her son-in-law. By her and her father, the Globe, the orators
+of the Academy and the tribune, and the politicians of the day, were
+inspired. The greatest was Guizot, who interpreted and preached in the
+spirit of Mme. de Staël. In history her influence was equally felt,
+especially in Guizot's _Essays on the History of France_, and in his
+_History of Civilization_, wherein civilization was considered as the
+constant progress in justice, in society, and in the state. To her
+Guizot owed his idea of _Amour dans le Mariage_. _The Historical
+Essays on England_, by Rémusat, an ardent admirer of hers, was largely
+influenced by her _Considérations_, while Tocqueville's _Ancien
+Régime_ contains many of her ideas.
+
+Literature owes even more to her works, which encouraged the study of
+foreign literatures; almost all translations were due to her works.
+Michelet, Quinet, Nodier, Victor Hugo, so much influenced by German
+literature, owe their knowledge of it mainly to her. Too much credit
+may be given her when it is stated that all Mignons, Marguerites,
+Mephistopheles, etc., proceeded indirectly from her work, as well as
+nearly all descriptions of travels. Lamartine undoubtedly used her _De
+l'Allemagne_ and her _Des Passions_ freely. The heroine of _Jocelyn_
+is called but a daughter of _Delphine_, and the same author's terrible
+invective against Napoleon was inspired by her.
+
+Mme. de Staël had an indestructible faith in human reason, liberty,
+and justice; she believed in human perfection and in the hope of
+progress. "From Rousseau, she received that passionate tenderness,
+that confidence in the inherent goodness of man. Believing in an
+intimate communion of man with God, her religion was spirit and
+sentiment which had no need of pomp or symbols, of an intermediary
+between God and man." She was not so much a great writer as she was a
+great thinker, or rather a discoverer of new thoughts. By instituting
+a new criticism and by opening new literatures to the French, she
+succeeded in emancipating art from fixed rules and in facilitating the
+sudden growth of romanticism in France.
+
+In her life, her great desire was to spread happiness and to obtain
+it, to love and to be loved in return. In politics it was always the
+sentiment of justice which appealed to her, in literature it was the
+ideal. Sincerity was manifested in everything she said and did. Pity
+for the misery of her fellow beings, the sentiment of the dignity of
+man and his right to independence, of his future grandeur founded
+on his moral elevation, the cult of justice, and the love of
+liberty—such were the prevailing thoughts of her life and works.
+
+Mme. de Staël's chief influence will always remain in the domain of
+literature; she was the first French writer to introduce and exercise
+a European or cosmopolitan influence by uniting the literatures of the
+north and the south and clearly defining the distinction between them.
+By the expression of her idea that French literature had decayed on
+account of the exclusive social spirit, and that its only means of
+regeneration lay in the study and absorption of new models, she
+cut French taste loose from traditions and freed literature from
+superannuated conventionalities. Also, by her idea that a common
+civilization must be fostered, a union of the eastern and western
+ideals, and that literature must be the common expression thereof,
+whose object must be the amelioration of humanity, morally and
+religiously, she gave to the world at large ideas which are only now
+being fully appreciated and nearing realization. In her novels she
+vigorously protested against the lot of woman in modern society,
+against her obligation to submit everything to opinion, against the
+innumerable obstacles in the way of her development—thus heralding
+George Sand and the general movement toward woman's emancipation.
+France has never had a more forceful, energetic, influential,
+cosmopolitan, and at the same time moral, writer than Mme. de Staël.
+
+The events in the life of George Sand had comparatively little
+influence upon her works, which were mainly the expression of her
+nature. As a young girl, she was strongly influenced by her mother, an
+amiable but rather frivolous woman, and by her grandmother, a serious,
+cold, ceremonious old lady. Calm and well balanced, and possessing an
+ardent imagination, she followed her own inclinations when, as a girl
+of sixteen, she was married to a man for whom she had no love. After
+living an indifferent sort of life with her husband for ten years,
+they separated; and she, with her children, went to Paris to find
+work.
+
+After a number of unsuccessful efforts of a literary nature, she
+wrote _Indiana_, which immediately made her success. Her articles were
+sought by the journals, and from about 1830 her life was that of the
+average artist and writer of the time. Her relations with Chopin and
+Alfred de Musset are too well known to require repetition. After 1850
+she retired to her home, the Château de Nohant, where she enjoyed the
+companionship of her son, her daughter-in-law, and her grandchildren;
+she died there in 1876.
+
+To appreciate her works, it is more important to study her nature than
+her career. This has been admirably done by the Comte d'Haussonville.
+George Sand is said to have possessed a dual nature, which seemed
+to contradict itself, but which explains her works—a dreamy and
+meditative, and a lively, frolicsome nature; the first might throw
+light upon her religious crisis, the second, upon her social side.
+The combination of these two phases caused the numerous conflicts
+of opinions and doctrines, extending her knowledge and inciting her
+curiosity; the not infrequent result was an intellectual and moral
+bewilderment and the deepest melancholy, from which she with great
+difficulty freed herself. Because of these peculiarities she was
+constantly agitated, her strongly reflective nature keeping her awake
+to all important questions of the day.
+
+Her intellectual development may be traced in her works, which, from
+1830 to 1840, were personal, lyrical, spontaneous—a direct flow from
+inspiration, issuing from a common source of emotions and personal
+sorrows, being the expressions of her habitual reflections, of her
+moral agitations, of her real and imaginary sufferings. These first
+works were a protest against the tyranny of marriage, and expressed
+her conception of a woman in love—a love profound and naïve, exalted
+and sincere, passionate and chaste: such is pictured in _Indiana_. In
+_Valentine_ she portrays the impious and unfortunate marriage that the
+sacrilegious conventions of the world have imposed, and the
+results issuing therefrom. In all of these early works are seen an
+inventiveness, a lively _allure_, an exquisite style, a freshness
+and brilliancy, _finesse_ and grace; but they show an undisciplined
+talent, giving vent to feelings that her unbounded enthusiasm would
+not allow to be checked—there is emotion, but no system.
+
+In her second period, from about 1840 to 1848, her reflection and
+emotion combined produced a system and theories. The higher problems
+took stronger hold on her as she matured; philosophy and religious
+science in their deeper phases excited her emotive faculties,
+which threw out a mere echo of what she had heard and studied.
+Her inspiration thus came from without, throwing out those endless
+declamatory outbursts which we meet in _Consuelo_ and in _Comtesse de
+Rudolstadt_. These theory-novels were soon followed by novels dealing
+with social problems, now and then relieved by delightful idyllics
+such as _La Mare au Diable_ and _François le Champi_. This third
+tendency M. d'Haussonville considers the least successful.
+
+After 1850 there appeared from her pen a series of historical novels,
+especially fine in the portrayal of characters, variety of situations,
+movement, and intrigues; these are free from all social theories;
+in these, reverting to her first tendencies, she is at her best in
+elegance and clearness, in analysis of characters. Thus does the work
+of George Sand change from a personal lyricism, in which the emotions,
+held in check during a solitary and dreamy youth, burst forth in
+brilliant and passionate fiction, to a theoretical, systematic novel,
+finally reverting to the first efforts, but tempered by experience and
+age.
+
+M. d'Haussonville says that in the strict sense of the word George
+Sand had no doctrines, but possessed a powerful imagination that
+manifested itself at various periods of her life. Whatever the
+principles might have been at first, they were made concrete under
+a sentiment with her, for her heart was her first inspiration,
+her teacher in all things. The ideas are thus analyzed through her
+sentiments under a threefold inspiration,—love, passion for humanity,
+sentiment for Nature.
+
+According to other novels, love is the unique affair of life; without
+love we do not really live, before love enters life we do not live,
+and after we cease to love there is no object in life. This love comes
+directly from God, of whom George Sand had ideas peculiar to herself.
+The majority of her characters have a sort of mystic, exalted love,
+looking upon it as a sacred right, making of themselves great priests
+rather than genuine human lovers. This love, issuing from God, is
+sacred; therefore, the yielding to it is a pious act; he who resists
+commits sacrilege, while he who blames others for it is impious; for
+love legitimizes itself by itself. Such a theory naturally led her
+to a sensual ideality, and her heroes rose to the highest phase of
+fatalism and voluptuousness; this impelled her to protest against the
+social laws. Jacques says:
+
+"I do not doubt at all that marriage will be abolished if humankind
+makes any progress toward justice and reason; a bond more human and
+none the less sacred will replace this one and will take care of
+the children which may issue from a man and woman, without ever
+interfering with the liberty of either. But men are too coarse and
+women are too cowardly to ask for a law more noble than the iron
+law which binds them—beings without conscience—and virtue must be
+burdened with heavy chains."
+
+Yet, in none of her books did George Sand ever submit any theories as
+to how such children would be cared for; apparently, such a difficulty
+never troubled her, since almost all of the children of her books die
+of some disease, while to one—Jacques—she gives the advice to take
+his own life, so that his wife may be free to love elsewhere.
+
+Her social theories are marked by an exaltation of sentiment, a
+weakness, an incoherency in conception, caused by her ardent love for
+theories and ideas, but which, in her passionate sentiment and her
+loyal enthusiasm, she always confounds and confuses. From early youth
+she manifested an immense goodness, a profound tenderness, and a deep
+compassion for human misery. She rarely became angry, even though she
+suffered cruelly. Her own law of life and her message to the world
+was—be good. The only strong element within her, she said, was the
+need of loving, which manifested itself under the form of tenderness
+and emotion, devotion and religious ecstasy; and when this faith was
+shaken, doubt and social disturbances overwhelmed her.
+
+Throughout life her consolation was Nature. "It was half of her genius
+and the surest of her inspirations." No other French novelist has
+been able to "express in words the lights and shades, harmonies and
+contrasts, the magic of sounds, the symphonies of color, the depth
+and distances of the woods, the infinite movement of the sea and the
+sky—the interior soul of Nature, that vibrates in everything and
+everybody." With Lamartine and Michelet, she has best reflected and
+expressed the dreams and hopes and loves of the first half of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+George Sand saw Nature, lived in her, sympathized with her, and loved
+her as did few other French writers; therefore, she showed more memory
+than pure imagination in her work, for she always found Nature more
+beautiful in actuality than she could picture her mentally, while
+other great writers, like Lamartine, saw her less beautiful in reality
+than in their imagination; hence, they were disappointed in Nature,
+while for George Sand she was the truest friend. The world will always
+be interested in her descriptions of Nature, because with Nature she
+always associated something of human life—a thought or a sentiment;
+her landscapes belonged to her characters—there is always a soul
+living in them, for, to George Sand, man and Nature were inseparable.
+
+Thus, every novel of this authoress consists of a situation and a
+landscape, the poetic union of which nothing can mar. "Man associated
+with Nature and Nature with man is a great law of art; no painter has
+practised it with instinct more delicate or sure." Because Nature,
+in her early youth, was her inspiration, guide, even her God, she
+returned to her later in life. M. Jules Lemaître wrote that her works
+will remain eternally beautiful, because they teach us how to love
+Nature as divine and good, and to find in that love peace and solace.
+There are many parts of her work which show as detailed, accurate, and
+realistic descriptions as those by Balzac. She constantly employed two
+elements—the fanciful and the realistic.
+
+George Sand never studied or knew how to compose a work, how to
+preserve the unity of the subject or the unity in tone in characters;
+hence, there was nothing calculated or premeditated—everything was
+spontaneous. No preparation of plan did she ever think of—a mode of
+procedure which naturally resulted in a negligent style and caused
+the composition to drag. Her inspiration seemed to go so far, then
+she resorted to her imagination, to the chimerical, forcing events
+and characters. "There are many defects in the style—such as
+the sentimental part, the romanesque in the violent expression of
+sentiments or invention of situations, the exaggerated improbabilities
+of events, the excessive declamation; but how many compensating
+qualities are there to offset these defects!"
+
+Her method of writing was very simple. It was the love of writing
+that impelled her, almost without premeditation, to put into words
+her dreams, meditations, and chimeras under concrete and living forms.
+Yet, by the largeness of her sympathy and the ardor of her passions,
+by the abundant inventions of stories, and by the harmonious
+word-flow, she deserves to be ranked among the greatest writers
+of France. Her career, taken as a whole, is one of prodigious
+fecundity—a literary life that has "enchanted by its fictions or
+troubled by its dreams" four or five generations. Never diminishing in
+quality or inspiration, there are surprises in every new work.
+
+No doubt George Sand has, for a generation or more, been somewhat
+forgotten, but what great writer has not shared the same fate? When
+the materialistic age has passed away, many famous writers of the
+past will be resurrected, and with them George Sand; for her novels,
+although written to please and entertain, discuss questions of
+religion, philosophy, morality, problems of the heart, conscience, and
+education,—and this is done in such a dramatic way that one feels all
+to be true. More than that, her characters are all capable of carrying
+out, to the end, a common moral and general theme with eloquence
+seldom found in novels.
+
+An interesting comparison might be made between Mme. de Staël and
+George Sand, the two greatest women writers of France. Both wrote
+from their experience of life, and fought passionately against the
+prejudices and restrictions of social conventions; both were ideal
+natures and were severely tried in the school of life, profiting
+by their experiences; both possessed highly sensitive natures, and
+suffered much; both were keenly enthusiastic and sympathetic, with
+pardonable weaknesses; both lived through tragic wars; both evinced
+a dislike for the commonplace and strove for greater freedom, but for
+different publics, after unhappy marriages, both rose up as accusers
+against the prevalent system of marrying young girls. But Mme. de
+Staël was a virtuoso in conversation, a salon queen, and her happiness
+was to be found in society alone; while George Sand found her
+happiness in communion with Nature. This explains the two natures,
+their sufferings, their joys, their writings.
+
+The greatest punishment ever inflicted upon Mme. de Staël was her
+exile, for it deprived her of her social life, a fact of which the
+emperor was well aware. Her entire literary effort was directed to
+describing her social life and the relation of society to life. "She
+belongs to the moralists and to the writers who wrote of society and
+man—social psychologists." Not poetic or artistic by nature, but
+with an exceptional power of observation, she shows on every side the
+influence of a pedagogical, literary, and social training; she was the
+product of an artificial culture.
+
+George Sand, on the contrary, was a product of Nature, reared in free
+intercourse and unrestrained relation with her genius and Nature. A
+powerful passion and a mighty fantasy made of her a poetess and an
+artist. These two qualities were manifested in her intense and deep
+feeling for the beauty of Nature, in her power of invention, in a
+harmonious equilibrium between idealism and realism. Her fantasy
+overbalanced her reason, impeding its development and thus relegating
+it to a secondary rôle. "She is possibly the only French writer
+who possessed no _esprit_ (in the sense that it is used in French
+society)—that playful, epigrammatic, querulous wit of conversation."
+
+She never enjoyed communion with others for any length of time, or the
+companionship of anyone for a long period; the companions of which she
+never tired were the fields and woods, birds and dogs; therefore, she
+enjoyed those people most who were nearer her ideals, the peasants and
+workmen, and these she best describes. Thus, her whole creation is
+one of instinct rather than of reason, as it was with Mme. de Staël.
+George Sand was a genius, a master-product of Nature, while Mme. de
+Staël was a talent, a consummate work of the art of modern culture;
+she reflects, while George Sand creates from impulse; the latter was
+a true poetess, communing with Nature, while the banker's daughter was
+an observing thinker, communicating with society—but both were great
+writers.
+
+Intimately associated with George Sand is Rosa Bonheur, in all
+of whose canvases we find the same aim, the same spirit, the same
+message, that are found in so many of the novels of George Sand.
+They were two women who have contributed, through different branches,
+masterworks that will be enjoyed and appreciated at all times.
+"It would be difficult not to speak of _La Mare au Diable_ and the
+_Meunier d'Angibault_ when recalling the fields where Rosa Bonheur
+speeds the plow or places the oxen lowering their patient heads under
+the yoke."
+
+In the evening, at home, while other members of the family were
+at work, one member read aloud to the rest; and George Sand was
+a favorite author with the Bonheur group of artists. It was while
+reading _La Mare au Diable_ that Rosa conceived the idea of the work
+which by some critics is pronounced her masterpiece, _Plowing in
+Nivernais_. The artist's deep sympathy was aroused by her love of
+Nature, which no contemporary novelist expressed or appreciated as
+did George Sand. In all her works, and throughout the long life of the
+artist, there is absolutely nothing unhealthy or immoral to be found.
+The novelist had theories which were inspired by her passion, and
+these became unhealthy at times; she belongs first of all to France,
+while Rosa Bonheur belongs first of all to the world, her message
+reaching the young and old of every clime and every people. The
+novelist is to be associated with the artist by virtue of her
+exquisite, simple, and wholesome peasant stories.
+
+The entire Bonheur family were artists, and all were moral and
+genuinely sympathetic. As a young girl, Rosa manifested an intense
+love for Nature, sunshine, and the woods; always independent in
+manners, she used to caricature her teachers; and while walking
+out into the country, she would draw, with charcoal or in sand, any
+objects that met her eye. Her father was not long in detecting her
+talent. She was wedded to her art from the very beginning, showing no
+taste for or interest in any other subject. As soon as her father gave
+permission to follow art as a profession, she devoted all her energy
+to advancing herself in what she felt to be her life's work. For four
+years the young girl could be seen every day at the Louvre, copying
+the great masters and receiving principally from them her ideas of
+coloring and harmony, while from her father she learned her technique.
+After she had mastered these two principles, she decided to specialize
+in pastoral nature.
+
+From that time her whole life was given up to the study of Nature and
+animals. Not able to study those near by, she procured a fine Beauvais
+sheep, which served as her model for two years. From the very first
+her work showed accuracy, purity, and an intuitive perception of
+Nature, and these qualities soon placed her among the foremost artists
+of the time. Her struggle for reputation and glory was not a long and
+arduous one, for after 1845 her fame was established—she was then but
+twenty-three years old; and after 1849, having exhibited some thirty
+pictures, her reputation had become European.
+
+In order to be able to study her models with greater ease and freedom
+from the annoyance and coarse incivilities of the workmen at the
+slaughter houses, farmyards, and markets that she was in the habit of
+visiting, she adopted the garb of man.
+
+Her honors in life were many, though always unsought. The Empress
+Eugénie, while regent during the absence of Napoleon III., went
+in person to her château and put around her neck the ribbon of the
+decoration of the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor, then for the
+first time bestowed upon woman for merit other than bravery and
+charity. The Emperor Maximilian of Mexico conferred upon her the
+decoration of San Carlos; the King of Belgium created her a chevalier
+of his order, the first honor won by a woman; the King of Spain made
+her a Commander of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic; and
+President Carnot created her an Officer of the Legion of Honor.
+
+With qualities such as she possessed, Rosa Bonheur could not fail
+to attain immortality. Her success was due in no small degree to the
+scientific instruction which she received when a mere child; having
+been taught, from the very first, how to paint directly from a model,
+she supplemented this training by a period of four years of copying
+great masters. In the latter period she studied Paul Potter's work
+rather slavishly, but was individual enough to combine only the best
+in him with the best in herself; this gave her an originality such as
+possibly no other animal painter ever possessed—-not even Landseer,
+who is said to be "stronger in telling the story than in the manner of
+telling it."
+
+Rosa Bonheur was too independent and original to follow any particular
+school or master, for her only inspiration and guide were her models,
+always living near by and upon intimate terms with her. Thus, in all
+her paintings, we instinctively feel that she painted from conviction,
+from her own observation, nothing being added for mere artistic
+effect. To some extent her pictures impress one as a perfect French
+poem in which there is no superfluous word, in which no word could
+be changed without destroying the effect of the whole; thus, in her
+paintings there is not a superfluous brush stroke; everything is
+necessary to the telling of the story; but she excels the perfect
+poem, for, in French literature, it seldom has a message distinct
+from its technique, while her pictures breathe the very essence
+of sympathy, love, and life. We feel that she thoroughly knew her
+subjects as a connoisseur; but her animals do not impress one as the
+production of an artist who knew them as do horse traders and cattle
+dealers, who know their stock from the purely physical standpoint; the
+animals of this artist are from the brush of one who was familiar with
+their habits, who loved them, had lived with and studied them—who
+knew and appreciated their higher qualities. Rosa Bonheur most
+harmoniously united two essential elements in art—a scientific as
+well as sympathetic conception of her subject. Possibly this is the
+reason that her pictures appeal to animal lovers throughout the world.
+
+As was stated, she was independent, hence kept aloof from the
+corruptions of contemporary French art and its technique lovers,
+always pursuing an even tenor in her art and never permitting one of
+her pictures to leave her studio in a crude or unfinished state. In
+all her long career she kept her original sketches, never parting with
+one, in spite of the most tempting offers; and this explains the fact
+that the work of her later years exhibits the freshness and other
+qualities of that of her youth. Thus, her art has gained by her
+experience, even though her best work was done between about 1848 and
+1860, and is especially marked by its excellence in composition,
+the anatomy, the breadth of touch, the harmony of coloring, and the
+action, although it is said to lack the spontaneity, the originality,
+and the highly imaginative quality which are at their best in _The
+Horse Fair_; the same qualities seem to have been possessed by many of
+her contemporaries, such as Troyon.
+
+Notwithstanding these apparent defects, Rosa Bonheur stands for
+something higher in art than do most of her contemporaries. She was
+not influenced by the skilled and often corrupt technicians; she
+perfected her technique by study of the old masters and learned her
+art from Nature; wisely keeping free from the ornamental, gorgeous,
+and highly imaginative and exaggerated historical Romantic school, in
+French art she stands out almost alone with Millet. Whatever may
+be said of the more virile and masculine art of other great animal
+painters, Rosa Bonheur, by her truthfulness, her science, her close
+association and intimate communion with her animal world, by the glad
+and healthy vigor which her paintings breathe, has taught the world
+the great lesson that there are intelligence, will, love, and even
+soul, in animals.
+
+Her art and life inspired respect and admiration; we have nothing to
+regret, nothing to conceal; we desire to love her for her animals, and
+we must esteem her for her grand devotion to her art and family, for
+her purity and charity, for her kindness to and love for those in the
+lower walks of life, for her goodness and honesty. An illustration of
+the last quality may be taken from her dealings with art collectors.
+After having offered her _Horse Fair_, which she desired should remain
+in France, to her own town for twelve thousand francs, she sold it for
+forty thousand francs to Mr. Gambert, but with the condition which she
+thus expressed: "I am grateful for your giving me such a noble
+price, but I do not like to feel that I have taken advantage of your
+liberality. Let us see how we can combine matters. You will not be
+able to have an engraving made from so large a canvas; suppose I
+paint you a small one of the same subject, of which I will make you a
+present." Naturally, the gift was accepted, and the smaller canvas now
+hangs in the National Gallery of London.
+
+In all her dealings she showed this kindness and uprightness, sympathy
+and honesty. Although numberless orders were constantly coming to
+her, she never let them hurry her in her work. She was, possibly, the
+highest and noblest type—certainly among great French women—of that
+strong and solid virtue which constitutes the backbone and the very
+essence of French national strength. The reputation of Rosa Bonheur
+has never been blemished by the least touch of petty jealousy, hatred,
+envy, vanity, or pride—and, among all great French women, she is one
+of the few of whom this may be said. She won for herself and her noble
+art the genuine and lasting sympathy of the world at large.
+
+The only woman artist in France deserving a place beside Rosa Bonheur
+belongs properly under the reign of Louis XVI., although she lived
+almost to the middle of the nineteenth century. At the age of twenty,
+Mme. Lebrun was already famous as the leading portrait painter; this
+was during the most popular period of Marie Antoinette—1775 to 1785.
+In 1775, but a young girl, admitted to all the sessions of the Academy
+as recognition of her portraits of La Bruyère and Cardinal Fleury, she
+made her life unhappy and gave her art a serious blow by consenting
+to marry the then great art critic and collector of art, Lebrun. His
+passion for gambling and women ruined her fortune and almost ended her
+career as an artist. Her own conduct was not irreproachable.
+
+Mme. Lebrun will be remembered principally as the great painter of
+Marie Antoinette, who posed for her more than twenty times. The most
+prominent people of Europe eagerly sought her work, while socially she
+was welcomed everywhere. Her famous suppers and entertainments in
+her modestly furnished hôtel, at which Garat sang, Grétry played
+the piano, and Viotti and Prince Henry of Prussia assisted, were the
+events of the day. Her reputation as a painter of the great ladies and
+gentlemen of nobility, and her entertainments, naturally associated
+her with the nobility; hence, she shared their unpopularity at the
+outbreak of the Revolution and left France.
+
+It is doubtful whether any artist—certainly no French artist—ever
+received more attention and honors, or was made a member of so many
+art academies, than Mme. Lebrun. It would be difficult to make any
+comparison between her and Rosa Bonheur, their respective spheres of
+art being so different. Only the future will speak as to the relative
+positions of each in French art.
+
+In the domain of the dramatic art of the nineteenth century, two
+women have made their names well known throughout Europe and
+America,—Rachel, and Sarah Bernhardt, both tragédiennes and both
+daughters of Israel. While Rachel was, without question, the greatest
+tragédienne that France ever produced, excelling Bernhardt in deep
+tragic force, she yet lacked many qualities which our contemporary
+possesses in a high degree. She had constantly to contend with a cruel
+fate and a wicked, grasping nature, which brought her to an early
+grave. The wretched slave of her greedy and rapacious father and
+managers, who cared for her only in so far as she enriched them by her
+genius and popularity, hers was a miserable existence, which detracted
+from her acting, checked her development, and finally undermined her
+health.
+
+After her critical period of apprenticeship was successfully passed
+and she was free to govern herself, she rose to be queen of the French
+stage—a position which she held for eighteen years, during which she
+was worshipped and petted by the whole world. As a social leader,
+she was received and made much of by the great ladies of the Faubourg
+Saint-Germain. Her taste in dress was exquisite in its simplicity,
+being in perfect harmony with the reserved, retiring, and amiable
+actress herself.
+
+Possibly no actress, singer, or other public woman ever received such
+homage and general recognition. With all her great qualities as an
+actress, vigor, grandeur, wild, savage energy, superb articulation,
+irreproachable diction, and a marvellous sense of situations, she
+lacked the one quality which we miss in Sarah Bernhardt also—a true
+tenderness and compassion. As a tragédienne she can be compared to
+Talma only. Her greed for money soon ended her brilliant career;
+unlike her sister in art, she amassed a fortune, leaving over one
+million five hundred thousand francs.
+
+Compared with Bernhardt, Rachel is said to have been the greater in
+pure tragedy, but she did not possess as many arts of fascination.
+There are many points of similarity between the two actresses: Rachel
+was at times artificial, wanting in tenderness and depth, while at
+times she was superhuman in her passion and emotion, and often
+put more into her rôle than was intended; and the acting of Sarah
+Bernhardt has the same characteristics. Rachel, however, was much more
+subject to moods and fits of inspiration than is Bernhardt—especially
+was she incapable of acting at her best on evenings of her first
+appearance in a new rôle. Her critical power was very weak in
+comparison with her intellectual power, the reverse being true of her
+modern rival. Rachel's greatest inspiration was _Phèdre_, and in
+this rôle Bernhardt "is weak, unequal. We see all the viciousness
+in _Phèdre_ and none of her grandeur. She breaks herself to pieces
+against the huge difficulties of the conception and does not succeed
+in moving us.... Rachel was the mouthpiece of the gods; no longer a
+free agent, she poured forth every epithet of adoration that Aphrodite
+could suggest, clambering up higher and higher in the intensity of her
+emotions, whilst her audience hung breathless, riveted on every word,
+and dared to burst forth in thunders of applause only after she had
+vanished from their sight."
+
+Both of these artists were children of the lower class, and struggled
+with a fate which required grit, tenacity, and determination to
+win success. The artist of to-day is no social leader—"never the
+companion of man, but his slave or his despot." It is entirely her
+physical charms and the outward or artificial requisites of her art
+that make her what she is. According to Mr. Lynch, her tragedy "is but
+one of disorder, fury, and folly—passions not deep, but unbridled and
+hysterical in their intensest display. Her _forte_ lies in the ornate
+and elaborate exhibition of rôles," for which she creates the most
+capricious and fantastic garbs. She is a great manager,—omitting the
+financial part,—quite a writer, somewhat of a painter and sculptor,
+throwing her money away, except to her creditors, adored by some
+and execrated by others. Her care of her physical self and her utter
+disregard for money have undoubtedly contributed to her long and
+brilliant career; rest and idleness are her most cruel punishments.
+All nervous energy, never happy, restless, she is a true _fin de
+siècle_ product.
+
+Among the large number of women who wielded influence in the
+nineteenth century, either through their salons or through their
+works, Mme. Guizot was one of the most important as the author of
+treatises on education and as a moralist. As an intimate friend of
+Suard, she was placed, as a contributor, on the _Publiciste_, and for
+ten years wrote articles on morality, society, and literature which
+showed a varied talent, much depth, and justness. Fond of polemics,
+she never failed to attack men like La Harpe, De Bonald, etc., thus
+making herself felt as an influence to be reckoned with in matters
+literary and moral.
+
+As Mme. Guizot, she naturally had a powerful influence upon her
+husband, shaping his thoughts and theories, for she immediately
+espoused his principles and interests. In 1821, at the age of
+forty-eight, she began her literary work again, after a period of
+rest, writing novels in which the maternal love and the ardent and
+pious sentiments of a woman married late in life are reflected. In
+her theories of education she showed a highly practical spirit.
+Sainte-Beuve said that, next to Mme. de Staël, "she was the woman
+endowed with the most sagacity and intelligence; the sentiment that
+she inspires is that of respect and esteem—and these terms can only
+do her justice."
+
+Mme. de Duras, in her salon, represented the Restoration, "by
+a composite of aristocracy and affability, of brilliant wit and
+seriousness, semi-liberal and somewhat progressive." Her credit lies
+in the fact that, by her keen wit, she kept in harmony a heterogeneous
+mixture of social life. She wrote a number of novels, which are,
+for the most part, "a mere delicate and discreet expression of her
+interior life."
+
+Mme. Ackermann, German in her entire makeup, was, among French female
+writers, one of the deepest thinkers of the nineteenth century. A
+true mystic, she was, from early youth, filled with ardent, dreamy
+vagaries, to which she gave expression in verse—poems which reflect
+a pessimism which is rather the expression of her life's experiences,
+and of twenty-four years of solitude after two years of happy wedded
+state, than an actual depression and a discouraging philosophy of
+life. Her poetry shows a vigor, depth, precision of form, and strength
+of expression seldom found in poetry of French women.
+
+One of the most conspicuous figures in the latter half of the
+nineteenth century is Mme. Adam,—Juliette Lamber,—an unusual woman
+in every respect. In 1879 she founded the _Nouvelle Revue_, on the
+plan of the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, for which she wrote political
+and literary articles which showed much talent. In politics she is a
+Republican and something of a socialist, a somewhat sensational—but
+modestly sensational—figure. She has been called "a necessary
+continuator of George Sand." Her salon was the great centre for
+all Republicans and one of the most brilliant and important of this
+century. In literature her name is connected with the movement called
+neo-Hellenism, the aim of which seems to have been to inspire a love
+and sympathy for the art, religion, and literature of ancient and
+modern Greece. In her works she shows a deep insight into Greek
+life and art. Her name will always be connected with the Republican
+movement in France; as a salon leader, _femme de lettres_, journalist,
+and female politician, no woman is better known in France in the
+nineteenth century.
+
+A woman who might be called the rival of Mme. Adam, but whose
+activity occurred much earlier in the century, was Mme. Emile de
+Girardin,—Delphine Gay,—who ruled, at least for a short time, the
+social and literary world of Paris at her hôtel in the Rue Chaillot.
+Her very early precocity, combined with her rare beauty, made her
+famous. In 1836, after having written a number of poems which showed
+a weak sentimentality and a quite mannered emotion, she founded the
+_Courrier Français_, for which she wrote articles on the questions of
+the day—effusions which were written upon the spur of the moment and
+were very unreliable. Her dramas were hardly successful, although they
+were played by the great Rachel. Her present claim to fame is based
+upon the brilliancy of her salon.
+
+The future will possibly remember Mme. Alphonse Daudet more as the
+wife of the great Daudet than as a writer, although, according to
+M. Jules Lemaître, she possessed the gift of _écriture artiste_ to
+a remarkable degree. According to him, sureness and exactness and a
+striking truth of impressions are her characteristics as a writer. She
+exercised a most wholesome power over Alphonse Daudet, taking him away
+from bad influences, giving him a home, dignity, and happiness, and
+saving him from brutality and pessimism; she was his guardian and
+censor; she preserved his grace and noble sentiments. The nature of
+her relations to him should ensure the preservation of her name to
+posterity.
+
+We are accustomed to give Gyp—Sybille Gabrielle Marie Antoinette de
+Riquetti de Mirabeau, Comtesse de Martel de Janville—little credit
+for seriousness or morality, associating her with the average
+brilliant, flippant novelists, who write because they possess the
+knack of writing in a brilliant style. Her object is to show that man,
+in a civilized state in society, is vain, coarse, and ridiculous. She
+paints Parisian society to demonstrate that the apparently fortunate
+ones of the world are not to be envied, that they are miserable in
+their so-called joys and ridiculous in their pleasures and their
+elegance. She has described the most _risqué_ situations and the most
+delightful women, but she gives us to understand that the latter are
+not to be loved. The vanity of the social world might be called her
+text.
+
+Mme. Blanc—Thérèse de Solms—is known to us to-day as the first
+woman to reveal English and American authors and habits to her
+contemporaries. By advocating American customs she has done much
+to ameliorate the condition of French girls, by giving them a freer
+intercourse with young men and permitting them to see more of the
+world before entering upon married life.
+
+Mme. Gréville, who died recently, deserves a place among the prominent
+women writers of France. No _femme de lettres_ ever received more
+honors, prizes, and decorations than she; a number of her writings
+were crowned by the Academy. A member of the Société des Gens de
+Lettres, with all her literary work she was a domestic woman, keeping
+aloof from all feminist movements. Her husband, Professor Durand, to
+show his esteem and admiration for her, adopted her name—a wise act,
+for it may preserve his name with that of his talented wife.
+
+Many other names might be cited, but, as the list of prominent women
+is practically without end, owing to the indefiniteness of the term
+"prominent," we shall close with these names, which have become
+familiar in both continents.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Women of Modern France, by Hugo P.  Thieme
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Women of Modern France, by Hugo P.  Thieme
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Women of Modern France
+       Woman In All Ages And In All Countries
+
+Author: Hugo P.  Thieme
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2005 [EBook #17159]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOMEN OF MODERN FRANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, William Flis and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team Europe at http://dp.rastko.net
+
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Note: The Table of Contents
+  was added by the Transcriber.
+
+
+
+WOMAN
+
+in all ages and in all countries
+
+
+WOMEN OF MODERN FRANCE
+
+by
+
+HUGO P. THIEME, Ph.D.
+
+Of the University of Michigan
+
+
+THE RITTENHOUSE PRESS PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+
+
+Copyrighted at Washington and entered at Stationer's Hall, London,
+
+1907--1908
+
+and printed by arrangement with George Barrie's Sons.
+
+
+PRINTED IN U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                PREFACE
+
+     Chapter I. Woman in politics
+
+    Chapter II. Woman in Family Life, Education, and Letters
+
+   Chapter III. The Seventeenth Century: Woman at Her Best
+
+    Chapter IV. Woman in Society and Literature
+
+     Chapter V. Mistresses and Wives of Louis XIV
+
+    Chapter VI. Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. Dacier,
+                Mme. de Caylus
+
+   Chapter VII. Woman in Religion
+
+  Chapter VIII. Salon Leaders Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme.
+                du Deffand, Mlle. de Lespinasse, Mme. du Châtelet
+
+    Chapter IX. Salon Leaders--(Continued): Mme. Necker, Mme.
+                d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis: Minor Salons
+
+
+     Chapter X. Social Classes
+
+    Chapter XI. Royal Mistresses
+
+   Chapter XII. Marie Antoinette and the Revolution
+
+  Chapter XIII. Women of the Revolution and the Empire
+
+   Chapter XIV. Women of the Nineteenth Century
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Among the Latin races, the French race differs essentially in one
+characteristic which has been the key to the success of French
+women--namely, the social instinct. The whole French nation has always
+lived for the present time, in actuality, deriving from life more of
+what may be called social pleasure than any other nation. It has been
+a universal characteristic among French people since the sixteenth
+century to love to please, to make themselves agreeable, to bring joy
+and happiness to others, and to be loved and admired as well. With
+this instinctive trait French women have always been bountifully
+endowed. Highly emotional, they love to charm, and this has become
+an art with them; balancing this emotional nature is the mathematical
+quality. These two combined have made French women the great leaders
+in their own country and among women of all races. They have developed
+the art of studying themselves; and the art of coquetry, which
+has become a virtue, is a science with them. The singular power of
+discrimination, constructive ability, calculation, subtle intriguing,
+a clear and concise manner of expression, a power of conversation
+unequalled in women of any other country, clear thinking: all these
+qualities have been strikingly illustrated in the various great women
+of the different periods of the history of France, and according to
+these they may by right be judged; for their moral qualities have not
+always been in accordance with the standard of other races.
+
+According as these two fundamental qualities, the emotional and
+mathematical, have been developed in individual women, we meet the
+different types which have made themselves prominent in history. The
+queens of France, in general, have been submissive and pious, dutiful
+and virtuous wives, while the mistresses have been bold and frivolous,
+licentious and self-assertive. The women outside of these spheres
+either looked on with indifference or regret at the all-powerfulness
+of this latter class, unable to change conditions, or themselves
+enjoyed the privilege of the mistress.
+
+It must be remembered that in the great social circles in France,
+especially from the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries,
+marriage was a mere convention, offences against it being looked upon
+as matters concerning manners, not morals; therefore, much of the
+so-called gross immorality of French women may be condoned. It will
+be seen in this history that French women have acted banefully on
+politics, causing mischief, inciting jealousy and revenge, almost
+invariably an instrument in the hands of man, acting as a disturbing
+element. In art, literature, religion, and business, however, they
+have ever been a directing force, a guide, a critic and judge, an
+inspiration and companion to man.
+
+The wholesome results of French women's activity are reflected
+especially in art and literature, and to a lesser degree in religion
+and morality, by the tone of elegance, politeness, _finesse_,
+clearness, precision, purity, and a general high standard which man
+followed if he was to succeed. In politics much severe blame and
+reproach have been heaped upon her--she is made responsible for
+breaking treaties, for activity in all intrigues, participating in
+and inciting to civil and foreign wars, encouraging and sanctioning
+assassinations and massacres, championing the Machiavelian policy and
+practising it at every opportunity.
+
+It has been the aim of this history of French women to present the
+results rather than the actual happenings of their lives, and
+these have been gathered from the most authoritative and scholarly
+publications on the subject, to which the writer herewith wishes to
+give all credit.
+
+Hugo Paul Thieme.
+
+_University of Michigan._
+
+
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+Woman in politics
+
+
+French women of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries,
+when studied according to the distinctive phases of their influence,
+are best divided into three classes: those queens who, as wives,
+represented virtue, education, and family life; the mistresses, who
+were instigators of political intrigue, immorality, and vice; and the
+authoresses and other educated women, who constituted themselves the
+patronesses of art and literature.
+
+This division is not absolute by any means; for we see that in the
+sixteenth century the regent-mother (for example, Louise of Savoy and
+Catherine de' Medici), in extent of influence, fills the same position
+as does the mistress in the eighteenth century; though in the former
+period appears, in Diana of Poitiers, the first of a long line of
+ruling mistresses.
+
+Queen-consorts, in the sixteenth as in the following centuries,
+exercised but little influence; they were, as a rule, gentle and
+obedient wives--even Catherine, domineering as she afterward showed
+herself to be, betraying no signs of that trait until she became
+regent.
+
+The literary women and women of spirit and wit furthered all
+intellectual and social development; but it was the mistresses--those
+great women of political schemes and moral degeneracy--who were vested
+with the actual importance, and it must in justice to them be said
+that they not infrequently encouraged art, letters, and mental
+expansion.
+
+Eight queens of France there were during the sixteenth century,
+and three of these may be accepted as types of purity, piety, and
+goodness: Claude, first wife of Francis I.; Elizabeth of France, wife
+of Charles IX.; and Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III. These
+queens, held up to ridicule and scorn by the depraved followers of
+their husbands' mistresses, were reverenced by the people; we find
+striking contrasts to them in the two queens-regent, Louise of Savoy
+and Catherine de' Medici, who, in the period of their power, were
+as unscrupulous and brutal, intriguing and licentious, jealous and
+revengeful, as the most wanton mistresses who ever controlled a
+king. In this century, we find two other remarkable types: Marguerite
+d'Angoulême, the bright star of her time; and her whose name comes
+instantly to mind when we speak of the Lady of Angoulême--Marguerite
+de Navarre, representing both the good and the doubtful, the broadest
+sense of that untranslatable term _femme d'esprit_.
+
+The first of the royal French women to whom modern woman owes a great
+and clearly defined debt was Anne of Brittany, wife of Louis XII.
+and the personification of all that is good and virtuous. To her
+belongs the honor of having taken the first step toward the social
+emancipation of French women; she was the first to give to woman an
+important place at court. This precedent she established by requesting
+her state officials and the foreign ambassadors to bring their wives
+and daughters when they paid their respects to her. To the ladies
+themselves, she sent a "royal command," bidding them leave their
+gloomy feudal abodes and repair to the court of their sovereign.
+
+Anne may be said to belong to the transition period--that period
+in which the condition of slavery and obscurity which fettered the
+women of the Middle Ages gave place to almost untrammelled liberty.
+The queen held a separate court in great state, at Blois and Des
+Tournelles, and here elegance, even magnificence, of dress was
+required of her ladies. At first, this unprecedented demand caused
+discontent among men, who at that time far surpassed women in
+elaborateness of costume and had, consequently, been accustomed to
+the use of their surplus wealth for their own purposes. Under Anne's
+influence, court life underwent a complete transformation; her
+receptions, which were characterized by royal splendor, became the
+centre of attraction.
+
+Anne of Brittany, the last queen of France of the Middle Ages and the
+first of the modern period, was a model of virtuous conduct, conjugal
+fidelity, and charity. Having complete control over her own
+immense wealth, she used it largely for beneficent purposes; to her
+encouragement much of the progress of art and literature in France was
+due. Hers was an example that many of the later queens endeavored to
+follow, but it cannot be said that they ever exerted a like influence
+or exhibited an equal power of initiation and self-assertion.
+
+The first royal woman to become a power in politics in the period that
+we are considering was Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., a type
+of the voluptuous and licentious female of the sixteenth century. Her
+pernicious activity first manifested itself when, having conceived
+a violent passion for Charles of Bourbon, she set her heart upon
+marrying him, and commenced intrigues and plots which were all the
+more dangerous because of her almost absolute control over her son,
+the King.
+
+At this time there were three distinct sets or social castes at the
+court of France: the pious and virtuous band about the good Queen
+Claude; the lettered and elegant belles in the coterie of Marguerite
+d'Angoulême, sister of Francis I.; and the wanton and libertine young
+maids who formed a galaxy of youth and beauty about Louise of Savoy,
+and were by her used to fascinate her son and thus distract him from
+affairs of state.
+
+Louise used all means to bring before the king beautiful women through
+whom she planned to preserve her influence over him. One of these
+frail beauties, Françoise de Foix, completely won the heart of the
+monarch; her ascendency over him continued for a long period, in spite
+of the machinations of Louise, who, when Francis escaped her control,
+sought to bring disrepute and discredit upon the fair mistress.
+
+The mother, however, remained the powerful factor in politics. With an
+abnormal desire to hoard money, an unbridled temper, and a violent and
+domineering disposition, she became the most powerful and dangerous,
+as well as the most feared, woman of all France. During her regency
+the state coffers were pillaged, and plundering was carried on on all
+sides. One of her acts at this time was to cause the recall of Charles
+of Bourbon, then Governor of Milan; this measure was taken as much
+for the purpose of obtaining revenge for his scornful rejection of her
+offer of marriage as for the hope of eventually bringing him to her
+side.
+
+Upon the return of Charles, she immediately began plotting against
+him, including in her hatred Françoise de Foix, the king's mistress,
+at whom Bourbon frequently cast looks of pity which the furiously
+jealous Louise interpreted as glances of love. As a matter of fact,
+Bourbon, being strictly virtuous, was out of reach of temptation by
+the beauties of the court, and there were no grounds for jealousy.
+
+This love of Louise for Charles of Bourbon is said to have owed most
+of its ardor to her hope of coming into possession of his immense
+estates. She schemed to have his title to them disputed, hoping that,
+by a decree of Parliament, they might be taken from him; the idea in
+this procedure was that Bourbon, deprived of his possessions, must
+come to her terms, and she would thus satisfy--at one and the same
+time--her passion and her cupidity.
+
+Under her influence the character of the court changed entirely;
+retaining only a semblance of its former decency, it became utterly
+corrupt. It possessed external elegance and _distingué_ manners, but
+below this veneer lay intrigue, debauchery, and gross immorality. In
+order to meet the vast expenditures of the king and the queen-mother,
+the taxes were enormously increased; the people, weighed down by the
+unjust assessment and by want, began to clamor and protest. Undismayed
+by famine, poverty, and epidemic, Louise continued her depredations
+on the public treasury, encouraging the king in his squanderings;
+and both mother and son, in order to procure money, begged, borrowed,
+plundered.
+
+Louise was always surrounded by a bevy of young ladies, selected
+beauties of the court, whose natural charms were greatly enhanced by
+the lavishness of their attire. Always ready to further the plans of
+their mistress, they hesitated not to sacrifice reputation or honor to
+gratify her smallest whim. Her power was so generally recognized that
+foreign ambassadors, in the absence of the king, called her "that
+other king." When war against France broke out between Spain and
+England, Louise succeeded in gaining the office of constable for the
+Duc d'Alençon; by this means, she intended to displace Charles of
+Bourbon (whom she was still persecuting because he continued cold to
+her advances), and to humiliate him in the presence of his army; the
+latter design, however, was thwarted, as he did not complain.
+
+To the caprice of Louise of Savoy were due the disasters and defeats
+of the French army during the period of her power; by frequently
+displacing someone whose actions did not coincide with her plans, and
+elevating some favorite who had avowed his willingness to serve her,
+she kept military affairs in a state of confusion.
+
+Many wanton acts are attributed to her: she appropriated forty
+thousand crowns allowed to Governor Lautrec of Milan for the
+payment of his soldiers, and caused the execution of Samblancay,
+superintendent of finances, who had been so unfortunate as to incur
+her displeasure. It was Charles of Bourbon, who, with Marshal Lautrec,
+investigated the episode of the forty thousand crowns and exposed the
+treachery and perfidy of the mother of his king.
+
+Finding that Bourbon intended to persist in his resistance to her
+advances, Louise decided upon drastic measures of retaliation. With
+the assistance of her chancellor (and tool), Duprat, she succeeded in
+having withheld the salaries which were due to Bourbon because of the
+offices held by him. As he took no notice of these deprivations, she
+next proceeded to divest him of his estates by laying claim to them
+for herself; she then proposed to Bourbon that, by accepting her hand
+in marriage, he might settle the matter happily. The object of her
+numerous schemes not only rejected this offer with contempt, but added
+insult to injury by remarking: "I will never marry a woman devoid of
+modesty." At this rebuff, Louise was incensed beyond measure, and when
+Queen Claude suggested Bourbon's marriage to her sister, Mme. Renée
+de France (a union to which Charles would have consented gladly), the
+queen-mother managed to induce Francis I. to refuse his consent.
+
+After the death of Anne of Beaujeu, mother-in-law of Charles of
+Bourbon, her estates were seized by the king and transferred to
+Louise while the claim was under consideration by Parliament. When
+the judges, after an examination of the records of the Bourbon estate,
+remonstrated with Chancellor Duprat against the illegal transfer, he
+had them put into prison. This rigorous act, which was by order of
+Louise, weakened the courage of the court; when the time arrived for a
+final decision, the judges declared themselves incompetent to decide,
+and in order to rid themselves of responsibility referred the matter
+to the king's council. This great lawsuit, which was continued for a
+long time, eventually forced Charles of Bourbon to flee from France.
+Having sworn allegiance to Charles V. of Spain and Henry VIII. of
+England against Francis I., he was made lieutenant-general of the
+imperial armies.
+
+When Francis, captured at the battle of Pavia, was taken to Spain,
+Louise, as regent, displayed unusual diplomatic skill by leaguing the
+Pope and the Italian states with Francis against the Spanish king.
+When, after nearly a year's captivity, her son returned, she welcomed
+him with a bevy of beauties; among them was a new mistress, designed
+to destroy the influence of the woman who had so often thwarted the
+plans of Louise--the beautiful Françoise de Foix whom the king had
+made Countess of Châteaubriant.
+
+This new beauty was Anne de Pisseleu, one of the thirty children of
+Seigneur d'Heilly, a girl of eighteen, with an exceptional education.
+Most cunning was the trap which Louise had set for the king. Anne was
+surrounded by a circle of youthful courtiers, who hung upon her words,
+laughed at her caprices, courted her smiles; and when she rather
+confounded them with the extent of the learning which--with a sort of
+gay triumph--she was rather fond of showing, they pronounced her "the
+most charming of learned ladies and the most learned of the charming."
+
+The plot worked; Francis was fascinated, falling an easy prey to the
+wiles of the wanton Anne. The former mistress, Françoise de Foix, was
+discarded, and Louise, purely out of revenge and spite, demanded the
+return of the costly jewels given by the king and appropriated them
+herself.
+
+The duty assigned to the new mistress was that of keeping Francis
+busy with fêtes and other amusements. While he was thus kept under the
+spell of his enchantress, he lost all thought of his subjects and the
+welfare of his country and the affairs of the kingdom fell into the
+hands of Louise and her chancellor, Duprat. The girl-mistress, Anne,
+was married by Louise to the Duc d'Etampes whose consent was gained
+through the promise of the return of his family possessions which,
+upon his father's departure with Charles of Bourbon, had been
+confiscated.
+
+The reign of Louise of Savoy was now about over; she had accomplished
+everything she had planned. She had caused Charles of Bourbon, one of
+the greatest men of the sixteenth century, to turn against his king;
+and that king owed to her--his mother--his defeat at Pavia, his
+captivity in Spain, and his moral fall. Spain, Italy, and France were
+victims of the infamous plotting and disastrous intrigues of this one
+woman whose death, in 1531, was a blessing to the country which she
+had dishonored.
+
+At the time of the marriage of Francis I. to Eleanor of Portugal
+(one of the last acts of Louise), Europe was beginning to look upon
+France as ahead of all other nations in the "superlativeness of
+her politeness." The most rigid etiquette and the most punctilious
+politeness were always observed, fines being imposed for any
+discourtesy toward women.
+
+After the death of Louise, the lot of managing the king and directing
+his policy fell to the share of his mistress, the Duchesse d'Etampes,
+who at once became all-powerful at court; her influence over him was
+like that of the drug which, to the weak person who begins its use,
+soon becomes an absolute necessity.
+
+After the death of the dauphin, all the court flatteries were directed
+toward Henry, the eldest son of Francis. Though his mistress, Diana
+of Poitiers, ruled him, she exercised no influence politically; that
+she was not lacking in diplomacy, however, was proved by her attitude
+toward Henry's wife, Catherine, whom she treated with every indication
+of friendship and esteem, in marked contrast to the disdain exhibited
+by other ladies of the court. These two women became friends, working
+together against the mistress of the king--the Duchesse d'Etampes--and
+causing, by their intrigues, dissensions between father and son.
+
+The duchess was not a bad woman; her dissuasion of Francis I. from
+undertaking war with Solyman II. against Charles V. is one instance of
+the use of her influence in the right direction. By some historians,
+she is accused of having played the traitress, in the interest of
+Emperor Charles V., during the war of Spain and England against
+France. It was she who urged the Treaty of Crépy with Charles V.; by
+it, through the marriage of the French king's second son, the Duke of
+Orleans, to the niece of Charles V., the duchess was sure of a safe
+retreat when her bitter enemy, Henry's mistress, should reign after
+the king's death. Her plans, however, did not materialize, as the duke
+died and the treaty was annulled.
+
+The death of Francis I. occurred in 1547; with his reign ends the
+first period of woman's activity--a period influenced mainly by Louise
+of Savoy, whose relations to France were as disastrous as were those
+of any mistress. The influence exerted by her may in some respects be
+compared with that of Mme. de Pompadour; though, were the merits and
+demerits of both carefully tested, the results would hardly be
+in favor of Louise. Strong in diplomacy and intrigue, she was
+unscrupulous and wanton--morally corrupt; she did nothing to further
+the development of literature and art; if she favored men of genius it
+was merely from motives of self-interest.
+
+With the accession of Henry II. his mistress entered into possession
+of full power. The absolute sway of Diana of Poitiers over this
+weakest of French kings was due to her strong mind, great ability,
+wide experience, fascination of manner, and to that exceptional beauty
+which she preserved to her old age. Immediately upon coming into
+power, she dispatched the Duchesse d'Etampes to one of her estates
+and at the same time forced her to restore the jewels which she had
+received from Francis I., a usual procedure with a mistress who knew
+herself to be first in authority.
+
+After being thus displaced, the duchess spent her time in doing
+charitable work, and is said to have afforded protection to the
+Protestants. Eventually, hers was the fate of almost all the
+mistresses. Compelled to give up many of her possessions, miserable
+and forgotten by all, her last days were most unhappy.
+
+Early in her career, Henry made Diana Duchesse de Valentinois. So
+powerful did she become that Sieur de Bayard, secretary of state,
+having referred in jest to her age (she was twenty years the king's
+senior), was deprived of his office, thrown into prison, and left to
+die. In her management of Queen Catherine, Diana was most politic;
+she never interfered, but constituted herself "the protectress of the
+legitimate wife, settling all questions concerning the newly born,"
+for which she received a large salary. When, while the king was in
+Italy, the queen became ill, she owed her recovery to the watchful
+care of the mistress. The latter appointed to the vacant estates and
+positions members of her house--that of Guise. In time, this house
+gained such an ascendency that it conceived the project of setting
+aside all the princes of the blood royal.
+
+Having (through one of her favorites) gained control of the royal
+treasury, Diana appropriated everything--lands, money, jewels. Her
+influence was so astonishing to the people that she was accused of
+wielding a magic power and bewitching the king who seemed, verily,
+to be leading an enchanted existence; he had but one thought, one
+aim--that of pleasing and obeying his aged mistress. To make
+amends for his adultery, he concluded to extirpate heretics. Such
+a combination of luxury and extravagance with licentiousness and
+brutality, such wholesale murder, persecution, and burning at the
+stake have never been equalled, except under Nero.
+
+Michelet reveals the character of Diana in these words: "Affected by
+nothing, loving nothing, sympathizing with nothing; of the passions
+retaining only those which will give a little rapidity to the
+blood; of the pleasures preferring those that are mild and without
+violence--the love of gain and the pursuit of money; hence, there was
+absence of soul. Another phase was the cultivation of the body, the
+body and its beauty uniquely cared for by virile treatment and a rigid
+régime which is the guardian of life--not weakly adored as by women
+who kill themselves by excessive self-love." M. Saint-Amand continues,
+after quoting the above: "At all seasons of the year, Diana plunges
+into a cold bath on rising. As soon as day breaks, she mounts a horse,
+and, followed by swift hounds, rides through dewy verdure to her royal
+lover to whom--fascinated by her mythological pomp--she seems no
+more a woman but a goddess. Thus he styles her in verses of burning
+tenderness:
+
+  "'Hélas, mon Dieu! combien je regrette
+  Le temps que j'ai perdu en ma jeunesse!
+  Combien de fois je me suis souhaité
+  Avoir Diane pour ma seule maîtresse.
+  Mais je craignais qu'elle, qui est déesse,
+  Ne se voulût abaisser jusque là.'"
+
+[Alas, my God! how much I regret the time lost in my youth! How often
+have I longed to have Diana for my only mistress! But I feared that
+she who is a goddess would not stoop so low as that.]
+
+Catherine remained quietly in the palace, preferring her position,
+unpleasant as it was, to the persecution and possible incarceration in
+a convent which would result from any interference on her part between
+the king and his mistress. Without power or privileges, she was a
+mere figurehead--a good mother looking after her family. However,
+she was not idle; without taking part in the intrigues, she was
+studying them--planning her future tactics; in all relations she was
+diplomatic, her conversation ever displaying exquisite tact.
+
+While France groaned under the burdens of seemingly interminable wars
+and exorbitant taxes, her king revelled in excessive luxury; the aim
+of his favorite mistress seemed to be to acquire wealth and spend
+it lavishly for her own pleasure. Voluptuousness, cruelty, and
+extravagance were the keynotes of the time. All means were used to
+procure revenues, the king easing any pangs of conscience by burning a
+few heretics whose estates were then quickly confiscated.
+
+Diana, even at the age of sixty, still held Henry in her toils; an
+easy prey for the wiles of the flatterer, he was kept in ignorance of
+the hatred and anger heaping up against him. In the midst of riotous
+festivity, Henry II. died, a victim of the lance of Montgomery;
+and the twelve years' reign of debauchery, cruelty, and shameless
+extravagance came to an end.
+
+Whatever else may be said of Diana, she proved to be a liberal
+patroness of art and letters; this was possible for her, since,
+in addition to inherited wealth and the gifts of lands and jewels
+from the king, she procured the possessions of many heretics whose
+confiscated wealth was assigned to her as a faithful servant and
+supporter of the church.
+
+Her hotel at Anet was one of the most elaborate, tasteful, and elegant
+in all France; there the finest specimens of Italian sculpture,
+painting, and woodwork were to be seen. The king, upon making her
+a duchess, presented her with the beautiful château of Chenonceaux,
+which was so much coveted by Catherine. The latter attempted to make
+Diana pay for the château, thus interrupting her plans for building;
+upon discovering this, Henry sent his own artists and workmen to carry
+out Diana's desires. Such was the power of his mistress over the weak
+king that he respected her wishes far more than he did those of his
+queen. This was one of those instances in which Catherine saw fit to
+remain silent and plan revenge.
+
+The death of Diana of Poitiers was that common to all women of her
+position. She died in 1566, forgotten by the world--her world. In
+her will she made "provision for religious houses, to be opened to
+women of evil lives, as if, in the depth of her conscience, she
+had recognized the likeness between their destiny and her own."
+Like the former mistresses, she had been required to give up the
+jewels received from Henry II.; but as this order was from Francis
+II. instead of from his mistress, the gems were returned to the
+crown after having passed successively through the hands of three
+mistresses.
+
+Catherine's time had not yet come, for she dared not interfere
+when Mary Stuart (a beautiful, inexperienced, and impetuous girl of
+seventeen) gained ascendency over Francis II.--a mere boy. The house
+of Guise was then supreme and began its bloody campaign against its
+enemies; fortunately, however, its power was short-lived, for in 1560
+the king died after reigning only seventeen months. At this point,
+Catherine enters upon the scene of action. Jealous of Mary Stuart
+and fearing that the young king, Charles IX., then but ten years old,
+might become infatuated with her and marry her, she promptly returned
+the fair young woman to Scotland.
+
+The task before the regent was no light one; her kingdom was
+divided against itself, the country was overburdened with taxes, and
+discontent reigned universally. All who surrounded her were full of
+prejudice and actuated solely by personal aspirations--she realized
+that she could trust no one.
+
+Her first act of a political nature was to rescue the house of
+Valois and solidify the royal authority. Some critics maintain that
+she began her reign with moderation, gentleness, impartiality, and
+reconciliation. This view finds support in the fact that during the
+first years she favored Protestantism; finding, however, that the
+latter was weakening royal power and that the country at large was
+opposed to it, she became its most bitter enemy. To the Protestants
+and their plottings she attributed all the disastrous effects of the
+civil war, all thefts, murders, incests, and adulteries, as well
+as the profanation of the sepulchres of the ancestors of the royal
+family, the burning of the bones of Louis XI. and of the heart of
+Francis II.
+
+The Machiavellian policy was Catherine's guide; bitter experience had
+robbed her of all faith in humanity--she had learned to despise it
+and the judgment of her contemporaries. At first she was amiable and
+polite, seemingly intent upon pleasing those with whom she talked;
+in fact, it is said that she was then more often accused of excessive
+mildness and moderation than of the violence and cruelty which later
+characterized her. Experience having taught her how to deal with
+people, she never lost her self-control.
+
+Subsequent history shows that any gentle and conciliatory policy of
+Catherine was merely a method of furthering her own interests, and
+was therefore not the outcome of any inborn feeling of sympathy or
+womanly tenderness. Whether her signing of the Edict of Saint-Germain,
+admitting the Protestants to all employments and granting them the
+privilege of Calvinistic worship in two cities of every province, and
+her refusal, upon the urgent solicitations of her son-in-law, Philip
+II., to persecute heretics were really snares laid for the Huguenots,
+is a matter which historians have not decided.
+
+Inasmuch as the entire history of France plays about the personality
+of Catherine de' Medici, no attempt will be made to give a detailed
+chronological account of her career; the results, rather than the
+events themselves, will be given. M. Saint-Amand, in his work on
+_French Women of the Valois Court_, presents one of the strongest
+pictures drawn of Catherine. We shall follow him in the greater part
+of this sketch.
+
+According to some historians, Catherine was a mere intriguer, without
+talent or ability, living but in the moment, often caught in her
+own snares; according to others, by her intelligence, ability, and
+strength of character she advanced a cause truly national--that of
+French unity; thus, she worked either the ruin or the salvation of
+France. Michelet calls her a nonentity, a stage queen with merely
+the externals--the attire--of royalty, remaining exactly on a level
+with the rulers of the smaller Italian principalities, contriving
+everything and fearing everything, with no more heart than she had
+sense or temperament. Being a female, she loved her young; she loved
+the arts, but cared to cultivate only their externalities. In this,
+however, Michelet goes to an extreme; for no woman ever lived who had
+so great a talent for intrigues and politics as she--a very type of
+the deceit and cunning which were inherent in her race. If she were
+not important, had not wielded so much influence and decided the
+fate of so many great men, women, and even states, she would not
+be the subject of so much writing, of such fierce denunciation
+and strong praise. To her family, France owes her finest palaces,
+her masterpieces of art--painting, bookmaking, printing, binding,
+sculpture.
+
+M. Saint-Amand declares that "isolated from her contemporaries,
+Catherine de' Medici is a monster; brought back within the circle of
+their passions and their theories, she once more becomes a woman."
+But Catherine was the instigator, the embodiment of all that is vice,
+deceit, cunning, trickery, wickedness, and bold intrigue; she set
+the example, and her ladies followed her in all that she did; "the
+heroines bred in her school (and what woman was not in her school?)
+imitate, with docility, the examples she gives them." She was not
+only the type of her civilization,--brutal, gross, immoral, elegant,
+polished, and _mondain_,--but she was also its leader.
+
+Greatness of soul, real moral force, strict virtue, are not attributes
+of the sixteenth-century woman--they are isolated and rare exceptions;
+these Catherine did not possess. Nor was she influenced deeply by
+her environments; the latter but encouraged and developed those
+qualities which were hers inherently,--will, intelligence, inflexible
+perseverance, tenacity of purpose, unscrupulousness, cruelty;
+hence, to say "She is the victim rather than the inspiration of the
+corruption of her time" is misleading, to say the least. If, upon
+her arrival at court, "she at once pleased every one by her grace and
+affability, modest air, and, above all, by her extreme gentleness,"
+she could not have changed, say her defenders, into the perfidious,
+wicked, and cruel creature she is said to have become as soon as she
+stepped into power. "During the reign of Henry II., she wisely avoided
+all danger; faithful to her wifely duties, she gave no cause for
+scandal, and, realizing that she was not strong enough to overcome her
+all-powerful rival, she bided her time. She was loved and respected by
+everyone for her personal qualities and her benevolence." But why
+may it not be true that all this was but part of her politics, the
+politics in which she had been educated? Wise from experience, she
+foresaw the future and what was in store for her if she remained
+prudent and made the best of the surroundings until the time should
+come when she could strike suddenly and boldly.
+
+Brought up from infancy amidst snares, intrigues, the clash of arms,
+the furious shouts of popular insurrections, tempests, and storms, she
+could not escape the influence of her early environment. Her talent
+for studying and penetrating the designs of her enemies, for facing or
+avoiding dangers with such sublime calmness and prudence, was partly
+inherited, partly acquired. That spirit she took with her to France,
+where her experience was widened and her opportunities for the study
+of human nature were increased.
+
+It is not generally known that her mother was a French woman--a
+Madeleine de La Tour d'Auvergne, daughter of Jean, Count of Boulogne,
+and Catherine of Bourbon, daughter of the Count of Vendôme; thus, her
+gentler nature was a French product. Her mother and father both died
+when she was but twenty-two days old, and from that time until her
+marriage she was cast about from place to place. But from the very
+first she showed that talent of adapting herself to her surroundings,
+living amidst intrigues and discords and yet making friends. She
+has been called "the precocious heiress of the craftiness of her
+progenitors."
+
+In her thirteenth year, after being sought by many powerful princes,
+Clement VII. (her greatuncle), in order to secure himself against the
+powerful Charles V., married her to Henry, Duke of Orleans, the second
+son of Francis I. Even at that early age she was fully aware of all
+the dreariness and danger attached to positions of power, and knew
+that the art of governing was not an easy one. She had studied
+Machiavelli's famous work, _The Prince_, which had been dedicated to
+her father, and it was from it, as well as from her ancestors, that
+she derived her wisdom and astuteness. Her childhood had prepared
+her for the work of the future, and she went at it with caution and
+reserve until she was sure of her ground.
+
+She first proceeded to study the king, Francis I., watching his
+actions, extracting his secrets; a fine huntress and at his side
+constantly, she pleased him and gained his favor. Brantôme says
+she was subtle and diplomatic, quickly learning the craft of her
+profession; she sought friends among all classes and ranks, directing
+her overtures specially toward the ladies of the court, whom she soon
+won and gathered about her.
+
+In 1536 the dauphin died, and Catherine's husband became heir to
+the throne of France. Though they had been married three years,
+no offspring had resulted, which unfortunate circumstance made her
+position a most uncertain one, especially as Diana of Poitiers was
+then at the height of her power, controlling Henry absolutely. A
+furious rivalry sprang up between the Duchesse d'Etampes, mistress
+of Francis I., and Diana and Catherine; the two mistresses formed two
+parties, and a war of slanders, calumnies, and unpleasant epigrams
+ensued. Queen Eleanor, the second wife of Francis I., took no active
+part, thus leaving all power in the hands of the mistress of her
+husband. (It was at this time that the Emperor Charles V. gained the
+Duchesse d'Etampes over to his cause.) Poets and artists, politicians
+and men of genius took sides, extolling the beauty of the one they
+championed. Catherine, although befriended and treated with apparent
+respect by Diana, remained a good friend to both women, thus evincing
+her tact. By keeping her own personality in the background, she won
+the esteem of both her husband and the king.
+
+Brantôme leaves a picture of Catherine at this time: "She was a fine
+and ample figure; very majestic, yet agreeable and very gentle when
+necessary; beautiful and gracious in appearance, her face fair and her
+throat white and full, very white in body likewise.... Moreover, she
+dressed superbly, always having some pretty innovation. In brief,
+she had beauties fitted to inspire love. She laughed readily, her
+disposition was jovial, and she liked to jest." M. Saint-Amand
+continues: "The artistic elegance that surrounded her whole person,
+the tranquil and benevolent expression of her countenance, the good
+taste of her dress, the exquisite distinction of her manners, all
+contributed to her charm. And then she was so humble in the presence
+of her husband! She so carefully avoided whatever might have the
+semblance of reproach! She closed her eyes with such complaisance!
+Henry told himself that it would be difficult to find another woman
+so well-disposed, another wife so faithful to her duties, another
+princess so accomplished in point of instruction and intelligence. The
+_ménage à trois_ (household of three) was continued, therefore, and if
+the dauphin loved his mistress, he certainly had a friendship for his
+wife. And, on her part, whenever she felt an inclination to complain
+of her lot, Catherine bethought herself that if she quitted her
+position she would probably find no refuge but the cloister, and
+that--taking it all around--the court of France (in spite of the
+humiliations and vexations one might experience there) was an abode
+more desirable than a convent;" this, then, is the secret of her
+submission. In spite of her beauty, mildness, and distinction of
+manner, she could not overcome the prestige of Diana.
+
+After nine years, Catherine was still without children and began to
+fear the fate in store for her; but when she gave birth to a son in
+1543, she felt assured that divorce no longer threatened her and she
+resolved that as soon as she came into power she would be revenged
+upon her enemies and Diana of Poitiers. When, in 1547, her husband
+succeeded his father as King of France, she did not feel that the time
+had yet arrived to interfere in any social or domestic arrangements
+or affairs of state; not until ten years later did she show the first
+sign of remarkable statesmanship or ability as a politician.
+
+After the battle and capture of Saint-Quentin, France was in a most
+deplorable state; the enemy was believed to be beneath the walls of
+Paris; everybody was fleeing; the king had gone to Compiègne to muster
+a new army. Catherine was alone in Paris "and of her own free will
+went to the Parliament in full state, accompanied by the cardinals,
+princes, and princesses; and there, in the most impressive language,
+she set forth the urgent state of affairs at the moment.... With so
+much sentiment and eloquence that she touched the heart of everybody,
+the queen then explained to the Parliament that the king had need of
+three hundred thousand livres, twenty-five thousand to be paid every
+two months; and she added that she would retire from the place of
+session, so as not to interfere with the liberty of discussion;
+accordingly, she retired to another room. A resolution to comply with
+the wishes of her majesty was voted, and the queen, having resumed her
+place, received a promise to that effect. A hundred nobles of the
+city offered to give at once three thousand francs apiece. The queen
+thanked them in the sweetest form of words, and thus terminated this
+session of Parliament--with so much applause for her majesty and such
+lively marks of satisfaction at her behavior, that no idea can be
+given of them. Throughout the city, nothing was spoken of but the
+queen's prudence and the happy manner in which she proceeded in this
+enterprise" (Guizot). From this act dates Catherine's entrance into
+political consideration.
+
+During the reign of Francis II., Catherine de' Medici exercised no
+influence at court, the king being completely under the dominion
+of his wife and the Duke of Guise, who was not favorable to the
+queen-mother's schemes and policies. Catherine, however, was plotting;
+caring little about religion so long as it did not further her plans,
+she connected herself with the Huguenots; her scheme was to bring the
+Guises to destruction and to form a council of regency which, while
+composed of the Huguenot leaders, was to be under her guidance. As
+this plan failed, bringing ruin to many princes, she deserted the
+Huguenots and allied herself with the Catholics.
+
+She is next found attempting the assassination of the Duke of Condé,
+but she failed to accomplish that crime because her son, the king,
+refused his consent. Soon after, Francis II. died, it is said from
+the effect of poison dropped into his ear while he was sleeping; it
+is probable that this crime was committed at the instigation of the
+mother, since by his death and the accession of Charles IX. she became
+regent (1560). She was then all-powerful and in a position to exercise
+her long dormant talents.
+
+Her first plan was to incapacitate all her children by plunging
+them "into such licentious pleasure and voluptuous dissipation
+that they were speedily unfitted for mental activity or exertion."
+Most unprejudiced historians credit her with the Massacre of Saint
+Bartholomew; she is said to have boasted about it to Catholic
+governments and excused it to Protestant powers. For a number of
+years, she had been planning the destruction of the Huguenot princes,
+and as early as 1565 she and Charles IX. had an interview with the
+Duke of Alva (representative of Philip II), to consult as to the means
+of delivering France from heretics. It was decided that "this great
+blessing could not have accomplishment save by the deaths of all the
+leaders of the Huguenots."
+
+That fearful crime, the bloody Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, is
+familiar to everyone. The only excuse offered for this most heinous of
+Catherine's many offences is her intense sentiment of national unity;
+the actual reason for it is to be sought in the fact that as long
+as the Protestants retained their prestige and influence, Catherine
+and her Catholic party could not do as they pleased, could not
+gain absolute control over the government. History holds her more
+responsible than it does her weak son. The climax came on the occasion
+of the wedding of Marguerite of Valois with the Prince of Navarre,
+which meant the union of the branches--the Catholic and the
+Protestant. This resulted in the first breach between the king and
+Catherine; the latter at that time perpetrated one of her dastardly
+deeds by poisoning the mother of the Prince of Navarre--Jeanne
+d'Albret, her bitter enemy.
+
+After the death of Charles IX., Henry III. was the sole survivor of
+the four sons of Catherine. Although her power was limited during his
+reign, she managed to continue her murderous plans and accomplished
+the death of Henry of Guise and his brother the cardinal, which crime
+united the majority of the Catholics of France against the king and
+was the cause of his assassination in 1589. This ended the power of
+Catherine de' Medici; when she died, no one rejoiced, no one lamented.
+Wherever she had turned her eyes, she had seen nothing but occasions
+for uneasiness and sadness; she had retired from court, feeling her
+helplessness and disgrace as well as the decline in power of that son
+in whom her hopes were centred. She decided to reënter the scene of
+action and save Henry. The stormy scenes of the Barricades and the
+League and the murder of the Duke of Guise hastened her death, which
+occurred in 1589.
+
+Catherine de' Medici may rightfully be called the initiator and
+organizer of social and court etiquette and courtesy--of conventional
+and social laws. However great her political activity, she made
+herself deeply felt in the social and moral worlds also. She taught
+her husband the secret of being king; she introduced the _lever_
+audience; in the afternoon of every day, she held a reunion of all the
+ladies of the court, at which the king was to be found after dinner
+and every lord entertained the lady he most loved; two hours were
+spent in this pleasure which was continued after supper if there were
+no balls; bitter railleries and anything that passed the restrictions
+of good company were forbidden.
+
+Her ladies of honor obeyed her as they would their God. Marguerite
+of Valois said of her: "I did not dare to speak to her, and when
+she looked at me I trembled for fear of having done something that
+displeased her." Ladies who had been delinquent were stripped and
+beaten with lashes; for correction--frequently for mere pastime--she
+would have them undressed and slapped vigorously with the back of
+the hand. Françoise of Rohan, cousin of Jeanne d'Albret, wrote the
+following poem:
+
+  "Plus j'ai de toi souvent esté battue,
+  Plus mon amour s'efforce et s'évertue
+  De regretter ceste main qui me bat;
+  Car ce mal-là m'estait plaisant esbat.
+  Or, adieu done la main dont la rigueur
+  Je préferais à tout bien et honneur."
+
+[The more often I have been struck by you, the more my love struggles
+and strives to regret the hand that beats me; for that punishment
+was a pleasant pastime for me. Now farewell to the hand whose rigor I
+preferred to every fortune and honor.]
+
+The following portrait and poetry, taken from M. Saint-Amand, does
+the subject full justice: "Catherine de' Medici represented with a
+sinister glance, deadly mien, mysterious and savage aspect--a spectre,
+not a woman--is not true to nature. Her self-possession, cool cunning,
+supreme elegance, imperturbable tranquillity, calmness, moderation,
+noble serenity, and dignified poise, gave her an individuality such as
+few women ever possessed. Gentle in crime and tragedy, polite like an
+executioner toward his victim--this Machiavellianism which is equal
+to every trial, which nothing alarms or surprises, and which
+with tranquil dexterity makes sport of every law of morality and
+humanity--this is the real character of Catherine de' Medici." The
+following burlesque poetry was composed for her:
+
+  "La reine qui ci-git fut un diable et un ange,
+  Toute pleine de blâme et pleine de louange,
+  Elle soutint l'Etat, et l'Etat mit à bas;
+  Elle fit maints accords et pas moins de débats;
+  Elle enfanta trois rois et trois guerres civiles,
+  Fit bâtir des châteaux et ruiner des villes,
+  Fit bien de bonnes lois et de mauvais édits.
+  Souhaite-lui, passant, enfer et paradis."
+
+[The queen lying here was both devil and angel, blamed and praised;
+she both put down and upheld the state; she caused many an agreement
+and no end of disputes; she produced three kings and three civil wars;
+she built castles and ruined cities, made many good laws and many bad
+decrees. Wish her, passer-by, hell and paradise.]
+
+With the reign of Henry IV.--the first king of the house of Bourbon,
+and the first king of the sixteenth century with a will of his own and
+the courage to assert it--begins a period of revelling, debauch, and
+the most depraved immorality. Three mistresses in turn controlled
+him--morally, not politically.
+
+Henry was master of his own will, and, had he desired to do so, could
+have overcome his evil tendencies; instead, he openly countenanced and
+even encouraged dissoluteness and elegant debauchery, as long as he
+himself was not deprived of the lady upon whom his capricious fancy
+happened to fall. His advances were but seldom repulsed; but upon
+making his usual audacious proposals to the Marquise de Guercheville,
+he was informed that she was of too insignificant a house to be the
+king's wife and of too good a race to be his mistress; and when the
+king, in spite of this rebuff, made her lady of honor to his wife,
+Marie de' Medici, she continued to resist him and remained virtuous.
+Such types of purity, honor, and moral courage were very exceptional
+during this reign.
+
+The three principal mistresses of this sovereign represent three
+phases of influence and three periods of his life. Corisande
+d'Andouins, Comtesse de Guiche and Duchesse de Gramont, fascinated him
+for eight years, while he was King of Navarre (1582-1590); to her he
+was deeply attached, and recompensed her for her devotion; this is
+called his _chevaleresque_ period. The beautiful Gabrielle d'Estrées,
+Duchesse de Beaufort, was called his mate after victory; "she refined,
+sharpened, softened, and tamed his customs; she made him king of the
+court instead of the field." It was she who ventured to meddle in his
+politics, she whom Marguerite of Valois, his wife, so detested that
+she refused to consent to a divorce as long as Gabrielle (by whom he
+had several children) remained his mistress. The latter even went so
+far as to demand the baptism, as a child of France, of her son by the
+king. Sully, in a rage, declared there were no "children of France,"
+and took the order to the king, who had it destroyed; he then asked
+his minister to go to his mistress and satisfy her, "in so far as you
+can." To his efforts she replied: "I am aware of all, and do not care
+to hear any more; I am not made as the king is, whom you persuade that
+black is white." Upon receiving this report, the king said: "Here,
+come with me; I will let you see that women have not the possession
+of me that certain malignant spirits say they have." Accompanied by
+Sully, he immediately went to the Duchesse de Beaufort, and, taking
+her by the hand, said: "Now, madame, let us go into your room, and let
+nobody else enter except Rosny. I want to speak to you both and teach
+you how to be good friends." Then, having closed the door, holding
+Gabrielle with one hand and Rosny with the other, he said: "Good God,
+madame! What is the meaning of this? So you would vex me from sheer
+wantonness of heart in order to try my patience? By God, I swear to
+you that, if you continue these fashions of going on, you will find
+yourself very much out in your expectations! I see quite well that you
+have been put up to all this pleasantry in order to make me dismiss
+a servant whom I cannot do without, and who has served me loyally for
+five-and-twenty years. By God, I will do nothing of the kind! And I
+declare to you that if I were reduced to such a necessity as to
+choose between losing one or the other, I could better do without ten
+mistresses like you than one servant like him." Shortly after this
+episode, Gabrielle died so suddenly that she was supposed to have been
+poisoned. Immediately after her death the divorce was granted, and
+Henry married Marie de' Medici.
+
+The third mistress, Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues, Marquise de
+Verneuil, who led Henry IV. along a path of the worst debauchery,
+gained control over him by lewd, lascivious methods. While
+negotiations were being carried on for his divorce from Marguerite,
+only a few weeks after the death of Gabrielle, he signed a promise to
+marry Henriette; this, however, he failed to keep. She, more than any
+other of his mistresses, was the cause of national distress and of
+more than one ruinous war. When, after the marriage of the king
+to Marie de' Medici, Henriette began to nag, rail, intrigue, and
+conspire, she was disgraced by Henry, who at least had the courage to
+honor his own family above that of his mistresses. She is accused of
+having had, solely from motives of revenge, a hand in the death of the
+king.
+
+Thus, around the queens-regent and the mistresses of the kings of
+France in the sixteenth century there is constant intriguing, murder,
+assassination, immorality, and debauchery, jealousy and revenge,
+marriage and divorce, honor and disgrace, despotism and final
+repentance and misery. The greatest and lowest of these women
+was Catherine de' Medici; Diana of Poitiers was famed as the most
+marvellously beautiful woman in France, and she was the most powerful
+and intelligent mistress until the time of Mme. de Pompadour. Amid all
+this bribery and corruption, elegant and refined immorality, there
+are some few types that represent education, family life, purity, and
+culture.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter II
+
+Woman in Family Life, Education, and Letters
+
+
+The queens of France exerted little or no influence upon the cultural
+or political development of that country. Frequently of foreign
+extraction and reared in the strict religious discipline of
+Catholicism, they spent their time in attending masses, aiding the
+poor and, with the little money allowed them, erecting hospitals and
+other institutions for the weak and needy. Thus, they are, as a rule,
+types of gentleness, virtue, piety, and self-sacrifice.
+
+The little information which history gives concerning them is confined
+mainly to their matrimonial alliances. To them, marriage represented
+nothing more than a contract--a union entered into for the purpose of
+settling some political negotiation; thus they were often cast upon
+strange and unfriendly soil where intrigues and jealousy immediately
+affected them.
+
+Seldom did they venture to interfere with the intrigues of the
+mistress; in their uncertain position, any manifestation of resentment
+or opposition resulted in humiliation and disgrace; if wise, they
+contented themselves with quietly performing their functions as
+dutiful wives. Such women were Claude, daughter of Louis XII., and
+Eleanor of Spain--wives of Francis I.; lacking the power to act
+politically, both passed uneventful and virtuous lives in comparative
+obscurity. The wife of Charles IX.--Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of
+Maximilian II.--had absolutely no control over her husband; however,
+he condescended to flatter himself with having, as he said, "in an
+amiable wife, the wisest and most virtuous woman not only of France
+and Europe, but of the universe." Her nature is well portrayed in
+the answer she gave to the remark made to her, after the death of her
+husband: "Ah, Madame, what a misfortune that you have no son! Your
+lot would be less pitiful and you would be queen-mother and regent."
+"Alas, do not suggest such a disagreeable thing!" she replied. "As
+if France had not afflictions enough without my producing another to
+complete its ruin! For, if I had a son, there would be more divisions
+and troubles, more seditions to obtain the administration and
+guardianship during his infancy and minority; all would try to profit
+themselves by despoiling the poor child--as they wanted to do with the
+late king, my husband." Returning to Austria, she erected a convent,
+treated the nuns as friends and refused to marry again even to ascend
+the throne of Spain.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III, was a French woman by
+birth and blood. After the death of the Princess of Condé, whom he
+passionately loved and desired to marry, Henry conceived an intense
+affection for Louise, daughter of Nicholas of Lorraine, Count of
+Vaudemont--a young lady of education and culture--"a character of
+exquisite sweetness lends distinction to her beauty and her piety;
+her thorough Christian modesty and humility are reflected in her
+countenance." Brantôme wrote: "This princess deserves great praise;
+in her married life she comported herself so wisely, chastely, and
+loyally toward the king that the nuptial tie which bound her to him
+always remained firm and indissoluble,--was never found loosened or
+undone,--even though the king liked and sometimes procured a change,
+according to the custom of the great who keep their full liberty."
+Soon after the marriage, however, Henry began to make life unpleasant
+for the queen, one of his petty acts being to deprive her of the moral
+ladies in waiting whom she had brought with her.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont was a striking contrast to the perverted woman of
+the day; the latter, no longer charmed by the gentler emotions, sought
+the exaggerated and the eccentric, extraordinary incidents, dramatic
+situations, unexpected crises, finding all amusements insipid unless
+they involved fighting and romantic catastrophes. "_Billets doux_ were
+written in blood and ferocity reigned even in pleasure."
+
+In the midst of this turmoil, Louise busied herself with charity,
+appearing among the poor and distributing all the funds which her
+father gave her for pocket money; the evils of her surroundings threw
+her virtues, by contrast, into so much the brighter light. Though she
+held herself aloof from intrigues and rivalries, favoring no one and
+encouraging no slander, she was, strange to say, respected, admired
+and honored by Protestants and Catholics alike.
+
+Calumny and all the agitations about her did not disturb Louise in her
+prayers. "The waves of the angry ocean broke at the foot of the
+altar as the queen knelt; but Huguenots and Catholics, leaguers and
+royalists, united to pay her homage. They were amazed to see such
+purity in an atmosphere so corrupt, such gentleness in a society so
+violent. Their eyes rested with satisfaction on a countenance whose
+holy tranquillity was undisturbed by pride and hatred. The famous
+women of the century, wretched in spite of all their amusements and
+their feverish pursuit of pleasure, made salutary reflections as they
+contemplated a woman still more highly honored for her virtues than
+for her crown." That she was not a mother was, with her, an enduring
+sorrow; even that, however, did not alter her calmness and benign
+resignation.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont was indeed a bright star in a heaven of
+darkness--one of the best queens of whom French history can boast;
+she is an example of goodness and gentleness, of purity, charity, and
+fidelity in a world of corruption, cruelty, hatred, and debauch--where
+sympathy was rare and chastity was ridiculed. Although a highly
+educated woman, the faithful performance of her duties as queen and
+as a devout Catholic left her little time for literature and art; she
+remains the type of piety and purity--an ideal queen and woman.
+
+A heroine in the fullest sense of that word was Jeanne d'Albret, the
+great champion of Protestantism; she was the mother of Henry IV. and
+the wife of the Duke of Bourbon, Count of Vendôme, a direct descendant
+of Saint Louis. This despotic, combative, and war-loving queen reigned
+as absolute monarch, and was as autocratic and severe as Calvin
+himself, confiscating church property, destroying pictures and
+altars--even going so far as to forbid the presence of her subjects
+at mass or in religious processions. "Her natural eloquence, the
+lightning flashes from her eyes, her reputation as a Spartan matron
+and an intractable Calvinist, all contributed to give her great
+influence with her party. The military leaders--Coligny, La
+Rochefoucauld, Rohan, La Noue--submitted their plans of campaign to
+her."
+
+Though Jeanne was, perhaps, as fanatical, intolerant, and cruel as her
+adversaries, she was driven to this by the hostility shown her by
+the Catholic party--a party in which she felt she could place no
+confidence. Her retreat was amid rocks and inaccessible peaks, whence
+she defied both the pope and Philip II. She brought up her son--the
+future Henry IV.--among the children of the people, exercising toward
+him the severest discipline, and inuring him to the cold of the winter
+and the heat of the summer; she taught him to be judicious, sincere,
+and compassionate--qualities which she possessed to a remarkable
+degree. Chaste and pure herself, she considered the court of France
+a hotbed of voluptuousness and debauchery, and at every opportunity
+strengthened herself against its possible influence.
+
+The political and religious troubles of Jeanne d'Albret began when
+Pope Paul IV. invested Philip II. of Spain with the sovereignty of
+Navarre--her territory; she resisted, and, following the impulses of
+her own nature, formally embraced Calvinism, while her weak husband
+acceded to the commands of the Church, and, applying to the pope for
+the annulment of his marriage, was prepared, as lieutenant-general of
+the kingdom, a position he accepted from the pontiff, to deprive
+his wife of her possessions. His death before the realization of his
+project made it possible for Jeanne to retain her sovereignty; alone,
+an absolute monarch, she declared Calvinism the established religion
+of Navarre. After the assassination of Condé she remained the champion
+of the Huguenots, defying her enemies and scorning the court of
+France.
+
+So great were her power and influence over the soldiery that Catherine
+de' Medici, her bitter enemy, desiring to bring her into her power,
+or, at least, to conciliate her, planned a marriage between Jeanne's
+son and Marguerite of Valois--sister of Charles IX. When the
+suggestion that the marriage should take place came from the king of
+France, Jeanne d'Albret suspected an ambush; with the determination
+to supervise personally all arrangements for the nuptials, she set
+out for the French court. Venerated by the Protestants, and hated but
+admired by the Catholics, she had become celebrated throughout Europe
+for her beauty, intelligence, and strength of mind; thus, her arrival
+at Paris created a sensation.
+
+She was so scandalized at the luxury and bold debauchery at court that
+she decided to give up the marriage; she had detected the intrigues
+and falsity of both the king and Catherine, and had a foreboding of
+evil. She wrote to her son Henry:
+
+"Your betrothed is beautiful, very circumspect and graceful, but
+brought up in the worst company that ever existed (for I do not see
+a single one who is not infected by it) ... I would not for anything
+have you come here to live; this is why I desire you to marry and
+withdraw yourself and your wife from this corruption which (bad as I
+supposed it to be) I find still worse than I thought. Here, it is not
+the men who invite the women, but the women who invite the men. If you
+were here, you could not escape contamination without a great grace
+from God."
+
+In the meantime, Catherine, undecided whether to strike immediately or
+to wait, was redoubling her kindness and courtesy and her affectionate
+overtures; her enemies were in her hands. Although Jeanne suspected
+that Catherine was capable of every perfidy, she at times believed
+that her suspicions were unjust or exaggerated. The situation between
+these two great women was indeed a dramatic one: both were tactful,
+powerful, experienced in war and diplomacy; both were mothers with
+children for whose future they sought to provide. Jeanne's hesitancy,
+however, was fatal; physically exhausted from suffering and sorrow,
+worry and excitement, she suddenly died, in the midst of her
+preparations for the marriage. While it is not absolutely certain that
+her death was due to poison, subsequent events lead strongly to the
+belief that Catherine was instrumental in causing it--that, probably,
+being but the first act toward the awful catastrophe she was planning.
+
+"A few hours before her agony, Jeanne dictated the provisions of her
+will. She recommended her son to remain faithful to the religion
+in which she had reared him, never to permit himself to be lured by
+voluptuousness and corruption, and to banish atheists, flatterers, and
+libertines.... She begged him to take his sister, Catherine, under his
+protection and to be, after God, her father. 'I forbid my son ever
+to use severity towards his sister; I wish, to the contrary, that he
+treat her with gentleness and kindness; and that--above all--he have
+her brought up in Béarn, and that she shall never leave there until
+she is old enough to be married to a prince of her own rank and
+religion, whose morals shall be such that the spouses may live happily
+together in a good and holy marriage.'" D'Aubigné wrote of her:
+"A princess with nothing of a woman but sex--with a soul full of
+everything manly, a mind fit to cope with affairs of moment, and a
+heart invincible in adversity."
+
+It was in deep mourning that her son, then King of Navarre, arrived at
+Paris; the eight hundred gentlemen who attended him were all likewise
+in mourning. "But," says Marguerite de Valois, "the nuptials took
+place in a few days, with triumph and magnificence that none others,
+of even my quality, had ever beheld. The King of Navarre and his troop
+changed their mourning for very rich and fine clothes, I being dressed
+royally, with crown and corsage of tufted ermine all blazing with
+crown jewels, and, the grand blue mantle with a train four ells long
+borne by three princesses. The people down below, in their eagerness
+to see us as we passed, choked one another." (Thus quickly was Jeanne
+d'Albret forgotten.) The ceremonies were gorgeous, lasting four days;
+but when Admiral Coligny, the Huguenot leader, was struck in the hand
+by a musket ball, the festive aspect of affairs suddenly changed.
+On the second day after the wounding of Coligny, and before the
+excitement caused by that act had subsided, Catherine accomplished
+the crowning work of her invidious nature, the tragedy of Saint
+Bartholomew.
+
+Peace and quiet never appeared upon the countenance of Catherine
+de' Medici--that woman who so faithfully represents and pictures the
+period, the tendencies of which she shaped and fostered by her own
+pernicious methods; and Charles IX., her son, was no better than his
+mother. Saint-Amand, in his splendid picture of the period, gives a
+truthful picture of Catherine as well: "It is interesting to observe
+how curiously the later Valois represented their epoch. Francis I. had
+personified the Renaissance; Charles IX. sums up in himself all the
+crises of the religious wars--he is the true type of the morbid and
+disturbed society where all is violent; where the blood is scorched
+by the double fevers of pleasure and cruelty; where the human soul,
+without guide or compass, is tossed amid storms; where fanaticism
+is joined to debauchery, superstition to incredulity, cultured
+intelligence to depravity of heart. This wholly unbalanced
+character--which stretches evil to its utmost limits while preserving
+the knowledge of what is good, which mistrusts everybody and yet
+has at least the aspiration toward friendship and love, if not its
+experience--is it not the symbol and living image of its time?"
+
+Marguerite de Valois, sister of Charles IX. and wife of Henry IV., by
+her own actions and intrigues exercised little influence politically;
+she was, above all else, a woman of culture and may be taken as an
+example of the type which was largely instrumental in developing
+social life in France. Famous for her beauty, talents, and profligacy,
+it seems that historians are prone to dwell too exclusively upon the
+last quality, overlooking her principal rôle--that of social leader.
+
+She first came into prominence through her relations with the Duke of
+Guise who paid assiduous court to her for some time; for a while, no
+topic was more discussed than that of their marriage. When, however,
+Charles IX. heard that the duke had been carrying on a secret
+correspondence with his sister, he exclaimed, savagely: "If it be so,
+we will kill him!" Thereupon, the duke hurriedly contracted a marriage
+with Catherine of Clèves. That Marguerite, at this early date, had
+become the mistress of Henry of Guise is hardly likely and becomes
+even less probable when it is considered how closely she was watched
+by her mother, Catherine de' Medici.
+
+Her marriage, previously mentioned, to Henry of Navarre was a mere
+political match, there being absolutely no love, no affection, no
+sympathy. This union was looked upon as the surest covenant of peace
+between Catholicism and Protestantism and put an end to the disastrous
+religious wars that had been carried on uninterruptedly for years;
+both the parties to this contract lived at court, leading an existence
+of pleasure and immorality. Remarkably intelligent, Marguerite was a
+scholar of no mean ability; she displayed much wit and talent, but
+no judgment or discretion; though conveying the impression of being
+rather haughty and proud, she lacked both self respect and true
+dignity. Her beauty was marvellous, but "calculated, to ruin and damn
+men rather than to save them."
+
+Henry, the husband of Marguerite, was constantly sneered at and
+taunted by the Catholics; although Catholic in name he was Protestant
+at heart and keenly felt his false position. During Catherine's short
+term as queen-regent, he was held in captivity until the arrival
+of Henry III., when he escaped to his own Béarn people; for this,
+Marguerite was held responsible and kept under guard.
+
+Although hating his religion, his wife went to live with him,
+tolerating his infidelities while he refused to tolerate her religion.
+The unhappiness of this marriage was not due to Marguerite alone; the
+first trouble arose when she discovered his love for his mistress,
+Gabrielle d'Estrées, and, thinking herself equally privileged,
+she began to indulge in the same excesses. The result of so many
+annoyances and debaucheries, so much vexation, was an illness; as soon
+as she became convalescent, she returned to her mother at court where
+she speedily gained the ill will of the king by her profligate habits,
+her quarrels with both Catholics and Protestants, her intimacy with
+the Duke of Guise, her plottings with her younger brother, her cutting
+satires on court favorites.
+
+She was sent back to Henry, upon the way meeting with the mishap of
+being insulted by archers and, with her maids, led away prisoner. Her
+husband was with difficulty persuaded to receive her, and, finding him
+all attentive to his mistress, Marguerite fled to Agen, where she
+made war upon him as a heretic; unable to hold her position there on
+account of her licentious manner of living and the exorbitant taxes
+imposed upon the inhabitants, she fled again and continued moving
+from one place to another, causing mischief everywhere, "consuming the
+remainder of her youth in adventures more worthy of a woman who had
+abandoned her husband than of a daughter of France." At last, she was
+seized and imprisoned in the fortress of Usson; here she was supported
+mainly by Elizabeth of Austria, widow of Charles IX.
+
+When her husband became King of France, he refused to liberate her
+until she should renounce her rank; to this condition she refused
+to accede until after the death of her rival, the mistress of
+Henry--Gabrielle d'Estrées, Duchess de Beaufort. After the annulment
+of the marriage, Marguerite said: "If our household has been little
+noble and less bourgeois, our divorce was royal." She was permitted
+to retain the title of queen, her debts were paid and other great
+concessions granted. Her subsequent relations with Henry IV. were very
+cordial and fraternal; she even revealed political plots to him.
+
+When, after nearly twenty years of captivity, Marguerite returned to
+Paris (1605), she gained the favor of everybody--the king, dauphin,
+and court ladies. She was present at the coronation of Marie de'
+Medici, and, by being tactful enough to keep apart from all intrigues,
+quarrels, and jealousies, she managed to win the good will of the
+king's favorites. She became the social leader, the queen inviting her
+to all court ceremonies and consulting her on all disputed questions
+of etiquette--even going so far as to intrust her with the reception
+of the Duke of Pastrana, who had come to ask the hand of Elizabeth
+of France. It is reported that in her last years she led a worse life
+than in her earlier days--she had become a woman of the bad world,
+resorting to every possible means to hide her age and to gain any
+vantage ground. In order to be well supplied with blond wigs, she kept
+fair-haired footmen who were shorn from time to time to furnish
+the supply. In the latter part of her life, spent at Paris and its
+vicinity, she fell a victim to hypochondria, suffering the most bitter
+pangs of remorse and terrible fear at approaching death. To alleviate
+this, she founded a convent where she taught the children music. She
+died in 1615, in Paris, "in that blended piety and coquetry which
+formed the basis of a character unable to give up gallantries and
+love."
+
+One of the very few historians who give due credit to her social
+importance and assign her the position she may rightfully command
+among French women of the sixteenth century is M. Du Bled. According
+to him, she was the leader of fashion, and in all its components
+she showed excellent taste and judgment. Forced to marry the king of
+Navarre, she said, after the ceremony: "I received from marriage all
+the evil I ever received, and I consider it the greatest plague of my
+life. They tell me that marriages are made in heaven; heaven did not
+commit such an injustice;" and this seems to be the secret of her
+"vicious life."
+
+As soon as she discovered that the king's favorites were determined
+to make life hard and disagreeable for her, she sought consolation in
+love and the toilette, in balls and fêtes, in ballets and hunting, in
+promenades and gallant conversations, in tennis and carousals, and in
+an infinite variety of ingeniously planned pleasures. The spirit of
+chivalry, the habits of exalted devotion, were again in full sway
+about her. She worried little about virtue: "She had the gift of
+pleasing, was beautiful, and made full use of the liberality of the
+gods. Whatever may be said of her morals, it can truthfully be stated
+that she showed art in her love and practised it more in spirit than
+with the body." Music was a favorite art with her; she encouraged
+and rewarded singing, especially in the convent which she founded and
+where she spent almost all of her later days instructing the children.
+
+Her court at Usson, where, as a prisoner, she lived for twenty years,
+was the most brilliant and least material of all France; there poets,
+artists, and scholars were held in high esteem, and were on familiar
+footing with Marguerite; the latter showed no despotism, but, with the
+most consummate skill, directed conversations and proposed subjects,
+encouraging discussion, and skilfully drawing from her friends the
+most brilliant repartees. She received people of distinction without
+ceremony.
+
+She introduced the two elements which were combined in the
+eighteenth-century salon: a fine cuisine and freedom among her friends
+from the restraint usually imposed by distinction. She was, also,
+one of the first to have a circle--well organized according to modern
+etiquette--where the highest aristocracy, men of letters, magistrates,
+artists, and men of genius met on equal terms and in familiar and
+social intercourse; Montaigne, Brantôme, and other great writers
+dedicated their works to her. She also directed a select few, an
+academy, to instruct and distract herself. It is said that every
+coquette, every bourgeois woman, and almost every court lady
+endeavored to imitate her. When she died, at the age of sixty-two,
+poets and preachers sang and chanted her merits, and all the poor wept
+over their loss; she was called the queen of the indigent. Richelieu
+mentioned her devotion to the state, her style, her eloquence, the
+grace of her hospitality, her infinite charity. "She remains, _par
+excellence_, the one great sympathetic woman of the sixteenth century;
+her admirers, during life and after death, were legion. She shared
+in the lesser evils of the century, but it cannot be said that she
+participated in the brutalities, grossness, or glaring immoralities
+of her time; her weaknesses, compared with the great debauches of the
+age, seemed like virtues."
+
+Such is this great woman of the sixteenth century, who has received
+almost universal condemnation at the hands of historians. It is to be
+taken into consideration that she was forced to marry a man whom she
+did not love, and to live in a country utterly uncongenial to
+her nature and opposed to the religion in which she was reared;
+furthermore, that her husband first defiled the marital union, thus
+driving her to follow the general tendencies of the time or to seek
+solace in religious activity, for which she had too much energy. After
+due consideration of the extenuating circumstances, her faults and
+vices, such as they were, may easily be condoned. Because she was the
+wife of a powerful Protestant king, she was condemned by Catholics and
+by them regarded with suspicion; and, in order to save herself, she
+was forced to commit unwise acts and even follies.
+
+In fine, whatever may be said against Marguerite de Valois, whom
+despair drove to acts which are not generally pardoned, she stands
+foremost among the social leaders and cultured women of the sixteenth
+century, a century whose prominent women were notorious for their
+licentiousness and lack of conscience rather than famous for their
+virtue and womanly accomplishments. Undeniably powerful and brilliant,
+these unscrupulous women were never happy; usually proud, they finally
+suffered the most cruel humiliations; "voluptuous, they found anguish
+underlying pleasure." Their misfortunes are, possibly more interesting
+than those successes of which chagrin anxiety, and heavy hearts were
+the inseparable associates.
+
+Religion, which in the sixteenth century was so badly understood, and
+practised even worse--obscured and falsified by fanaticism, disfigured
+and exaggerated by passion and hatred--was the secret cause of all
+downfalls crimes, horrors, intrigues, and brutality. Yet, it alone
+survives, and all the important figures of history return to it after
+a period of negligence and forgetfulness. In their religious aspect,
+the women of the sixteenth century differ as a rule, from those of
+the eighteenth, who, though equally powerful, witty, refined, sensual,
+frivolous, and scoffing, were far less devout; for "'tis religion
+which restores the great female sinners of the sixteenth century 'tis
+religion which saves a society ploughed up by so many elements of
+dissolution and so many causes of moral and material ruin, rescuing
+it from barbarism, vandalism, and from irretrievable decay;" but the
+women of the eighteenth century clung, to the end, to the scepticism
+and material philosophy which served them as their religion, their
+God.
+
+Among the conspicuous women of the sixteenth century to whom, thus
+far, we have been able to attribute so little of the wholesome
+and pleasing, the womanly or love-inspiring, there is one striking
+exception in Marguerite d'Angoulême, a representative of letters, art,
+culture, and morality. With the study of this character we are taken
+back to the beginning of the century and carried among men of letters
+especially, for she formed the centre of the literary world. She, her
+mother, Louise of Savoy, and her brother, Francis I., were called a
+"trinity," to the existence of which Marguerite bore witness in the
+poem:
+
+  "Such boon is mine--to feel the amity
+  That God hath putten in our trinity
+  Wherein to make a third, I, all unfitted
+  To be that number's shadow, am admitted."
+
+Marguerite inherited many of her qualities from her mother, "a most
+excellent and a most venerable dame," though anything but moral and
+conscientious; she, upon discovering that her daughter possessed rare
+intellectual gifts, provided her with teachers in every branch of the
+learning of the age. "At fifteen years of age, the spirit of God
+began to manifest itself in her eyes, in her face, in her walk, in her
+speech, and in all her actions generally." Brantôme says: "She had
+a heart mightily devoted to God and she loved mightily to compose
+spiritual songs. She devoted herself to letters, also, in her young
+days and continued them as long as she lived, in the time of her
+greatness, loving and conversing with the most learned folks of her
+brother's kingdom, who honored her so greatly that they called her
+their Mæcenas." Tenderness, particularly for her brother, seemed to
+develop in her as a passion.
+
+Marguerite was a rare exception in a period described by M.
+Saint-Amand as one in which women were Christian in certain aspects
+of their character and pagan in others, taking an active part in
+every event, ruling by wit and beauty, wisdom and courage; an age of
+thoughtless gaiety and morbid fanaticism, and of laughter and tears,
+still rough and savage, yet with an undercurrent of subtle grace and
+exquisite politeness; an age in which the extremes of elegance and
+cruelty were blended, in which the most glaring scepticism and intense
+superstitions were everywhere evident; an age which was religious as
+well as debauched and whose women were both good and evil, innocent
+and intriguing. Everything was fluctuating; there was inconstancy
+even in the things most affected: pleasure, pomp, display. The natural
+outcome of this undefined restlessness was dissatisfaction; and when
+dissatisfaction brought in its train the inevitable reaction against
+falseness and immorality, Marguerite d'Angoulême stood at the head of
+the movement.
+
+With her begins the cultural and moral development of France. It was
+she who encouraged that desire for a new phase of existence,
+which arose through contact with Italian culture. The men of
+learning--poets, artists, scholars--who soon gathered about the French
+court received immediate recognition from the king's sister, who had
+studied all languages, was gay, brilliant, and æsthetic. While her
+mother and brother were in harmony with the age, no better, no worse
+than their environment, Marguerite aspired to the most elevated morals
+and ideals; thus, she is a type of all that is refined, sensitive,
+loving, noble, and generous in humanity, a woman vastly superior to
+her time; in fact, the modern woman, with her highest attributes.
+
+In Marguerite d'Angoulême contemporaries admired prudence, chastity,
+moderation, piety, an invincible strength of soul, and her habit of
+"hiding her knowledge instead of displaying it." "In an age wholly
+depraved, she approached the ideal woman of modern times; in spite
+of her virtue, she was brilliant and honored, the centre of a coterie
+that delighted in music, verse, ingenious dialogues and gossip, story
+telling, singing, rhyming. Deeply afflicted by the sad and odious
+spectacle of the vices, abuses, and crimes which unroll before her,
+she suffers through her imagination, mind and heart." Serious and
+sympathetic, she was interested in every movement, feeling with those
+who were persecuted on account of their religious opinions.
+
+Various are the names by which she is known: daughter of Charles of
+Orléans, Count of Angoulême, Duchesse d'Alençon through her first
+marriage, and Queen of Navarre through her second, she was called
+Marguerite d'Angoulême, Marguerite of Navarre, of Valois, Marguerite
+de France, Marguerite des Princesses, the Fourth Grace, and the Tenth
+Muse. A most appreciative and just account of her life is given by
+M. Saint-Amand, which will be followed in the main outline of this
+sketch.
+
+She was born in 1492, and, as already stated, received a thorough
+education under the direction of her mother, Louise of Savoy. At
+seventeen she was married to Charles III., Duke of Alençon; as he
+did not prove to be her ideal, she sought consolation in love for her
+brother, sharing the almost universal admiration for the young king,
+whose tendency to favor everything new and progressive was stimulated
+by her. She became his constant and best adviser in general affairs
+as well as in those of state. The foreign ambassadors sought her after
+having accomplished their mission, and were referred to her when
+the king was busy; they were enraptured, and carried back wonderful
+reports of Marguerite.
+
+The world of art was opened to the French by a bevy of such painters
+and sculptors as Leonardo da Vinci, Rosso, Primaticcio, Benvenuto
+Cellini, and Bramante, and they were encouraged and fêted by
+Marguerite especially. In those days a new picture from Italy by
+Raphael was received with as much pomp and ceremony as, in olden
+times, were accorded the holiest relics from the East.
+
+Men of letters gathered about the sister of the king, forming what
+might be termed a court of sentimental metaphysics; for the questions
+discussed were those of love. This refined gallantry, empty and vapid,
+formed the foundation of the seventeenth-century salon, where the
+language and fine points of sentiment were considered and cultivated
+until sentiment acquired poise, grandeur, and an air of dignity and
+reserve.
+
+The period was one in which, during times of trial and misfortune, the
+presence of an underlying religious sentiment became unmistakable. In
+such an atmosphere, the propensity toward mysticism, which Marguerite
+had manifested as a child, grew more and more apparent. When Francis
+I. was captured at the battle of Pavia, his sister immediately sought
+consolation in devotion, the nature of which is well illustrated in a
+letter to the captive king:
+
+"Monseigneur, the further they remove you from us, the greater becomes
+my firm hope of your deliverance and speedy return, for the hour
+when men's minds are most troubled is the hour when God achieves His
+masterstroke ... and if He now gives you, on one hand, a share in the
+pains which He has borne for you, and, on the other hand, the grace
+to bear them patiently, I entreat you, Monseigneur, to believe
+unfalteringly that it is only to try how much you love Him and to give
+you leisure to think how much He loves you. For He desires to have
+your heart entirely, as, for love, He has given you His own; He has
+permitted this trial, in order, after having united you to Him by
+tribulation, to deliver you for His own glory--so that, through you,
+His name may be known and sanctified, not in your kingdom alone, but
+in all Christendom and even to the conversion of the infidels. Oh, how
+blessed will be your brief captivity by which God will deliver so many
+souls from that infidelity and eternal damnation! Alas, Monseigneur!
+I know that you understand all this far better than I do; but seeing
+that in other things I think only of you, as being all that God has
+left me in this world,--father, brother, husband,--and not having the
+comfort of telling you so, I have not feared to weary you with a
+long letter, which to me is short, in order to console myself for my
+inability to talk with you."
+
+After his incarceration in the gloomy prison in Spain where he was
+taken ill, Francis asked for the safe conduct of Marguerite; this
+was gladly granted. Ignorant of her future duty in Spain, she wrote:
+"Whatever it may be, even to the giving of my ashes to the winds to do
+you a service, nothing will seem strange, difficult or painful to me,
+but will be only consolation, repose, and honor." So impatient was she
+to arrive at her brother's side that she could not travel fast enough.
+
+Her presence only increased his fever and a serious crisis soon came
+on, the king remaining for some time "without hearing or seeing or
+speaking." Marguerite, in this critical time, implored the assistance
+of God. She had an altar erected in her chamber, and all the French of
+the household, great lords and domestics alike, knelt beside the
+sick man's sister and received the communion from the hands of the
+Archbishop of Embrun, who, drawing near the bed, entreated the king to
+turn his eyes to the holy sacrament. Francis came out of his lethargy
+and asked to commune likewise, saying: "It is my God who will heal my
+soul and body; I entreat you that I may receive him." Then, the
+Host having been divided in two, the king received one half with the
+greatest devotion, and his sister the other half. The sick man felt
+himself sustained by a supernatural force; a celestial consolation
+descended into the soul that had been despairing. Marguerite's prayer
+had not been unavailing--Francis I. was saved.
+
+She then proceeded to visit different cities and royalties,
+endeavoring to secure concessions for her brother. From the people in
+the streets as well as from the lords in their houses, she received
+the most unmistakable proofs of friendly feeling; in fact, her favor
+was so great that Charles V. informed "the Duke of Infantado that, if
+he wished to please the emperor, neither he nor his sons must speak to
+Madame d'Alençon." The latter, unable to secure her brother's release,
+planned a marriage between him and Eleanor of Portugal, sister of
+Charles V.; her successes at court and in the family of the emperor
+furthered this scheme. Brantôme says: "She spoke to the emperor so
+bravely and so courteously that he was quite astonished, and she spoke
+even more to those of his council with whom she had audience; there
+she produced an excellent impression, speaking and arguing with an
+easy grace in which she was proficient, and making herself rather
+agreeable than hateful or tiresome. Her reasons were found good and
+pertinent and she retained the high esteem of the emperor, his court
+and council."
+
+Although she failed in her attempts to free the king, she succeeded,
+by arranging the marriage, in completely changing the rigorous
+captivity to which Charles had subjected him. Finally, by giving his
+two eldest sons as hostages, the king obtained his release, and in
+March, 1526, he again set foot, as sovereign, on French soil. Thus the
+king's life was saved and he was permitted to return to his country,
+Marguerite's devotion having accomplished that in which the most
+skilled diplomatist would have failed.
+
+All historians agree that Marguerite d'Angoulême was a devout
+Catholic, but that she was too broad and liberal, intelligent
+and humane, to sanction the unbridled excesses of fanaticism. The
+acknowledged leader of moral reform, she protected and assisted those
+persecuted on account of their religious views and sympathized with
+the first stages of that movement which revolted against abuses, vice,
+scandals, immorality, and intrigue. With her, the question was not one
+of dogma, but concerned, instead, the religion which she considered
+most conducive to progress and reform. It grieved her to see her
+religion defile itself by cruel and inhuman persecutions and tortures,
+by intolerance and injustice. She felt for, but not with, the heretics
+in their errors. "She typifies her age in all that is good and noble,
+in artistic aspirations, in literary ideals, in pure politics--in
+short,--in humanity; in her is not found the chaotic vagueness which
+so often breaks out in license and licentiousness, cruelty, and
+barbarism."
+
+During the absence in Spain of Francis I. and Marguerite, the
+mother-regent sought to gain the support and favor of Rome by ordering
+imprisonments, confiscations, and punishments of heretics; but upon
+the return of the king and his sister, the banished were recalled and
+tolerance again ruled. When (in 1526) Berquin was seized and tried for
+heresy, he found but one defender. Marguerite wrote to her brother,
+still at Madrid:
+
+"My desire to obey your commands was sufficiently strong without
+having it redoubled by the charity you have been pleased to show poor
+Berquin according to your promise; I feel that He for whom I believe
+him to have suffered will approve of the mercy which, for His honor,
+you have had upon His servant and your own."
+
+Marguerite had saved Berquin and had even taken him into her service.
+Her letter to the constable, Anne de Montmorency, shows her esteem of
+men of genius and especially of Berquin:
+
+"I thank you for the pleasure you have afforded me in the matter of
+poor Berquin whom I esteem as much as if he were myself; and so you
+may say you have delivered me from prison, since I consider in that
+light the favor done me."
+
+When on June 1, 1528, a statue of the Virgin was thrown down and
+mutilated by unknown hands, a reversion of feeling arose immediately,
+and even Marguerite was not able to save poor Berquin, and he was
+burned at the stake. Upon learning of his imminent peril, she wrote to
+Francis from Saint-Germain:
+
+"I, for the last time, very humbly make you a request; it is that
+you will be pleased to have pity upon poor Berquin, whom I know to be
+suffering for nothing other than loving the word of God and obeying
+yours. You will be pleased, Monseigneur, so to act that it be not
+said that separation has made you forget your most humble and obedient
+sister and subject, Marguerite."
+
+Encouraged by their success in that instance, the intolerant party
+began furious attacks upon her, one monk going so far as to say from
+the pulpit that she should be put into a sack and thrown into the
+Seine. Upon her publication of a religious poem, _Miroir de l'âme
+pécheresse_, in which she failed to mention purgatory or the saints,
+she was vigorously attacked by Beda, who had the verses condemned
+by the Sorbonne and caused the pupils of the College of Navarre to
+perform a morality in which Marguerite was represented under the
+character of a woman quitting her distaff for a French translation
+of the Gospels presented to her by a Fury. This was too much even for
+Francis, and he ordered the principal and his actors arrested; it was
+then that Marguerite showed her gentleness, mercy, and humanity by
+throwing herself at her brother's feet and asking for their pardon.
+
+After but a short respite the persecution broke out anew, and with
+the full sanction of the king, who, upon finding at his door a placard
+against the mass, went even so far as to sign letters patent ordering
+the suppression of printing (1535). While away from the soothing
+influence of his sister, Francis I. was easily persuaded to sign, for
+the Catholic party, any permit of execution or cruelty. The life
+of Marguerite herself was constantly in danger, but in spite of
+persistent efforts to turn brother against sister, the king continued
+to protect and defend the latter; and though she gradually drew closer
+to Catholicism, she continued to protect the Protestants. She founded
+nunneries and showed a profound devotion toward the Virgin; although
+realizing the dangers and follies of the new doctrine, she had too
+much humanity to encourage cruelty.
+
+The husband whom the king forced upon her was twelve years her junior,
+poor, and subsidized by Francis; by him she had a daughter, Jeanne
+d'Albret, who became the champion of Protestantism. Her married life
+at Pau, where she had erected beautiful buildings and magnificent
+terraces, was not happy; the subjects of love that formerly had amused
+her had lost their charm; and the incurable disease with which her
+brother was stricken caused her constant worry and mental suffering.
+When banquets, the chase, and other amusements no longer attracted
+Francis, he summoned Marguerite to comfort and console him; her
+devotion and goodness never failed. Unable to recover from the grief
+caused by his death in 1547, she expressed her sorrow in the most
+beautiful poems.
+
+She gave the remainder of her life to religion and charity, abandoning
+her literary ambitions and plans. "The life after death gave her much
+trouble and many moments of perplexity and uneasiness. She survived
+her brother only two years, dying in 1549; the helper and protector
+of good literature, the defence, consolation, and shelter of the
+distressed, she was mourned by all France more than was any other
+queen." Sainte-Marthe says: "How many widows are there, how many
+orphans, how many afflicted, how many old persons, whom she pensioned
+every year, who now, like sheep whose shepherd is dead, wander hither
+and thither, seeking to whom to go, crying in the ears of the wealthy
+and deploring their miserable fate!" Poets, scholars, all learned and
+professional men, commemorated their protectress in poems and funeral
+orations. France was one large family in deep mourning.
+
+Marguerite d'Angoulême must first be considered as the real power
+behind the supreme authority of her period, her brother the king;
+secondly, as a furtherer of the development and encouragement of
+good literature, good taste, high art, and pure morals; thirdly, as
+a critic of importance. She is entitled to the first consideration by
+the fact that as the confidential adviser of Francis I. she moulded
+his opinions and checked his evil tendencies: the affairs of the
+kingdom were therefore, to a large extent, in her hands. She collected
+and partly organized the chaotic mass of material thrown upon the
+sixteenth-century world, leaving its moulding into a classic
+French form to the next century; and by her spirit of tolerance she
+endeavored to further all moral development: thus is she entitled to
+the second consideration. Gifted with rare delicacy of taste, solidity
+of judgment, and the ability to select, discriminate, and adapt, she
+set the standards of style and tone: therefore, she is entitled to the
+third consideration.
+
+The love of Marguerite for her brother, and her unselfish devotion to
+his interests, is a precedent unparalleled in French history until
+the time of Madame de Sévigné. In all her letters we find the same
+tenderness, gentleness, passion, inexhaustible emotion, sympathy, and
+compassion that distinguished her actions.
+
+In her _Contes_ (the _Heptameron_) _de la Reine de Navarre_ we have
+an accurate representation of society, its manners and style of
+conversation; in it we find, also, remnants of the brutality and
+grossness of the Middle Ages, as well as reflections of the higher
+tendencies and aspirations of the later time. In having a thorough
+knowledge of the tricks, deceits, and follies of the professional
+lovers of the day, and of their object in courting women, Marguerite
+was able to warn her contemporaries and thus guard them against
+immorality and its dangers. In her works she upheld the purity of
+ideal love, exposing the questionable and selfish designs of the
+clever professional seducers. A specimen may be cited to show her
+style of writing and the trend of her thought:
+
+"Emarsuite has just related the history of a gentleman and a young
+girl who, being unable to be united, had both embraced the religious
+life. When the story is ended, Hircan, instead of showing himself
+affected, cries: 'Then there are more fools and mad women than there
+ever were!' 'Do you call it folly,' says Oisille, 'to love honestly
+in youth and then to turn all love to God?' ... 'And yet I have the
+opinion,' says Parlemente, 'that no man will ever love God perfectly
+who has not perfectly loved some creature in this world.' 'What do you
+by loving perfectly?' asks Saffredant; 'do you call perfect lovers
+who are bashful and adore ladies from a distance, without daring
+to express their wishes?' 'I call those perfect lovers,' replies
+Parlemente, 'who seek some perfection in what they love--whether
+goodness, beauty or kindness--and whose hearts are so lofty and honest
+that they would rather die than perform those base deeds which honor
+and conscience forbid; for the soul which was created only to return
+to its Sovereign Good cannot, while it is in the body, do otherwise
+than desire to win thither; but because the senses, by which it can
+have tidings of that which it seeks, are dull and carnal on account
+of the sin of our first parents, they can show it only those visible
+things which most nearly approach perfection; and the soul runs after
+them, believing that in visible grace and moral virtues it may find
+the Sovereign Grace, Beauty and Virtue. But without finding whom it
+loves, it passes on like the child who, according to his littleness,
+loves apples, pears, dolls and other little things--the most beautiful
+that his eye can see--and thinks it riches to heap little stones
+together; but, on growing larger he loves living things, and,
+therefore, amasses the goods necessary for human life; but he knows,
+by the greatest experiences, that neither perfection nor felicity is
+attained by possessions only, and he desires true felicity and the
+Maker and Source thereof.'"
+
+In her writings, much apparent indelicacy and grossness are
+encountered; but it must be remembered for whom she was writing, the
+condition of morality and the taste of the public at that time, and
+that she aimed faithfully to depict the society that lay before her
+eyes. It is argued by some critics that these indecencies could not
+have emanated from a pure, chaste woman; that Marguerite must have
+experienced the sins she depicted; but such reasoning is not sound.
+The expressions used by her were current in her time; there
+was greater freedom of manners, and coarseness and drastic
+language--examples of which are found so frequently in the writings of
+Luther--were very common.
+
+Marguerite was less remarkable for what she did than for what she
+aspired to do. "She invoked, against the vices and prejudices of her
+epoch, those principles of morality and justice, of tolerance and
+humanity, which must be the very foundation of all stable society. She
+wished to make her brother the protector of the oppressed, the support
+of the learned, the crowned apostle of the Renaissance, the promoter
+of salutary reforms in the morals of the clergy; in politics, he was
+to follow a straight line and methodically advance the accomplishment
+of the legitimate ambitions of France."
+
+She expressed the most modern ideas on the rights of woman,
+particularly on her relative rights in the married state:
+
+"It is right that man should govern us as our head, but not that he
+should abandon us or treat us ill. God has so well ordered both man
+and woman, that I think marriage, if it is not abused, one of the most
+beautiful and secure estates that can be in this world, and I am sure
+that all who are here, no matter what pretense they make, think as
+much or more; and as much as man calls himself wiser than woman, so
+much the more grievously will he be punished if the fault be on his
+side. Those who are overcome by pleasure ought not to call themselves
+women any longer, but men, whose honor is but augmented by fury and
+concupiscence; for a man who revenges himself upon his enemy and slays
+him for a contradiction is esteemed a better companion for so doing;
+and the same is true if he love a dozen other women besides his wife;
+but the honor of woman has another foundation: it is gentleness,
+patience, chastity."
+
+Désiré Nisard says that Marguerite d'Angoulême was the first to write
+prose that can be read without the aid of a vocabulary; in verse, she
+excels all poets of her time in sympathy and compassion; her poetry
+is "a voice which complains--a heart which suffers and which tells us
+so." "It is not so much her own deep sentiment that is reflected, but
+her emotion, which is both intellectual and sympathetic, volitional
+and spontaneous." Her letters were epoch-making; nothing before
+her time nor after her (until Madame de Sévigné) can equal them in
+precision, purity of language, sincerity and frankness of expression,
+passion and religious fervor.
+
+In spite of what may be said to the contrary, her life was an
+ideal one, an example of perfect moral beauty and elevation; noble,
+generous, refined, pious, and sincere, she possessed qualities which
+were indeed rare in her time. She was attacked for her charity, and is
+to-day the victim of narrow sectarian and biased devotees. Her act of
+renouncing all gorgeous dress, even the robes of gold brocade so much
+worn by every princess, in order to give all her money to the poor;
+her protection of the needy and persecuted; her court of poets and
+scholars; her visits to the sick and stricken; even her untiring love
+for her brother and her acts of clemency--all have frequently been
+misinterpreted.
+
+The greatest poets and men of letters of the sixteenth century
+were encouraged financially and morally or protected by Marguerite
+d'Angoulême--Rabelais, Marot, Pelletier, Bonaventure-Desperiers,
+Mellin de Saint-Gelais, Lefèvre d'Etaples, Amyot, Calvin, Berquin.
+Charles de Sainte-Marthe says: "In seeing them about this good lady,
+you would say it was a hen which carefully calls and gathers her
+chicks and shelters them with her wings."
+
+Many critics believe that her literary work was imitative rather than
+original; even if this be true, it in no measure detracts from her
+importance, which is based upon the fact that she was the leading
+spirit of the time and typified her environment. Her followers, and
+they included all the intellectual spirits, looked up to her as
+the one incentive for writing and pleasing. Her disposition was
+characterized by restlessness, haste--too great eagerness to absorb
+and digest and appropriate all that was unfolded before her. She
+imitated the _Decameron_ and drew up for herself a _Heptameron_; her
+poetry showed much skill and great ease, but little originality.
+Her extreme facility, her wonderfully active mind, her power of
+_causerie_, and her ability to discuss and write upon philosophical
+and religious abstractions, won the deep admiration and respect of her
+followers, who were not only content to be aided financially by her,
+but looked to her for guidance and counsel in their own work, though
+she never imposed her ideas and taste upon others. By her tact,
+she was able practically to control and guide the entire literary,
+artistic, and social development of the sixteenth century. Every form
+of intellectual movement of this period is impregnated with the spirit
+of Marguerite d'Angoulême.
+
+With her affable and loving manners, her refined taste and superior
+knowledge, she was able to influence her brother and, through him,
+the government. Just as her mother controlled in politics, so
+did Marguerite in arts and manners. In her are found the main
+characteristics to which later French women owed their influence--a
+form of versatility which included exceptional tact and enabled the
+possessor to appreciate and sympathize with all forms of activity, to
+deal with all classes, to manage and be managed in turn.
+
+The writings of Marguerite are quite numerous, consisting of six
+moralities or comedies, a farce, epistles, elegies, philosophical
+poems, and the _Heptameron_, her principal work--a collection of prose
+tales in which are reflected the customary conversation, the morals of
+polite society, and the ideal love of the time. They are a medley of
+crude equivocalities, of the grossness of the _fabliaux_, of Rabelais,
+and of the delicate preciosity of the seventeenth century. Love is
+the principal theme discussed--youth, nobility, wealth, power, beauty,
+glory, love for love, the delicate sensation of feeling one's self
+loved, elegant love, obsequious love; perfect love is found in those
+lovers who seek perfection in what they love, either of goodness,
+beauty, or grace--always tending to virtue.
+
+Thoroughly to appreciate Marguerite d'Angoulême's position and
+influence and her contributions to literature, the conditions existing
+in her epoch must be carefully considered. It was in the sixteenth
+century that the charms of social life and of conversation as an art
+were first realized; all questions of the day were treated gracefully,
+if not deeply; woman began to play an important part, to appear
+at court, and, by her wit and beauty, to impress man. From the
+semi-barbaric spirit of the Middle Ages to the Italian and Roman
+culture of the Renaissance was a tremendous stride; in this cultural
+development, Marguerite was of vital importance. In intellectual
+attainments far in advance of the age, among its great women she
+stands out alone in her spirit of humanity, generosity, tolerance,
+broad sympathies, exemplary family life, and exalted devotion to her
+brother.
+
+Of the other literary women of the sixteenth century, mention may be
+made of two who have left little or no work of importance, but who are
+interesting on account of the peculiar form of their activity.
+
+Mlle. de Gournay, _fille d'alliance_ of Montaigne, is a unique
+character. Having conceived a violent passion for the philosopher
+and essayist, she would have no other consort than her honor and good
+books. She called the ladies of the court "court dolls," accusing
+them of deforming the French language by affecting words that had
+apparently been greased with oil in order to facilitate their flow.
+She was one of the first woman suffragists and the most independent
+spirit of the age. In 1592, to see the country of her master, she
+undertook a long voyage, at a time when any trip was fraught with the
+gravest dangers for a woman.
+
+She is a striking example of the effect of sixteenth-century sympathy,
+admiration, and enthusiasm; she was protected by some of the greatest
+literary men of the age--Balzac, Grotius, Heinsius; the French Academy
+is said to have met with her on several occasions, and she is said
+to have participated in its work of purifying and fixing the French
+language. Her adherence to the Montaigne cult has brought her name
+down to posterity.
+
+M. du Bled relates a droll story in connection with her meeting
+Richelieu. Mlle. de Gournay was an old maid, who lived to the ripe age
+of eighty. Being a pronounced _féministe_, she--like her sisters of
+to-day--cultivated cats. The story runs as follows:
+
+"Bois-Robert conducted her to the Cardinal, who paid her a compliment
+composed of old words taken from one of her books; she saw the point
+immediately. 'You laugh over the poor old girl, but laugh, great
+genius, laugh! everybody must contribute something to your diversion.'
+The Cardinal, surprised at her ready wit, asked her pardon, and said
+to Bois-Robert: 'We must do something for Mlle. de Gournay. I give
+her two hundred écus pension.' 'But she has servants,' suggested
+Bois-Robert. 'Who?' 'Mlle. Jamyn (bastard), illegitimate daughter
+of Amadis Jamyn, page of Ronsard.' 'I will give her fifty livres
+annually.' 'There is still dear little Piaillon, her cat.' 'I give her
+twenty livres pension, on condition that Piaillon shall have tripes.'
+'But, Monseigneur, she has had kittens!' The Cardinal added a pistole
+for the little kittens."
+
+A woman of large fortune, she spent it freely in study, in her
+household, and especially in alchemy. Her peculiar ideas about love
+kept her from falling prey to the wealth-seeking gallants of the time.
+She was one of the few women who made a profession of writing; she
+compiled moral dissertations, defences of woman, and treatises on
+language, all of which she published at her own expense; while they
+are of no real importance, they show a remarkable frankness and
+courage.
+
+Mlle. de Gournay was, possibly, the first woman to demand the
+acceptance of woman on an equal status with man; for she wrote two
+treatises on woman's condition and rank, insisting upon a better
+education for her, though she herself was well educated. Following the
+events of the day with a careful scrutiny and interpreting them in her
+writings, she showed a remarkable gift of perspective and deduction
+and an intimate knowledge of politics. The fact that she was severely,
+even spitefully, attacked in both poetry and prose but proves that her
+writings on women were effective.
+
+Some writers claim that the founding of the French Academy had its
+inception at her rooms, where many of the members met and where, later
+on, they discussed the work of the Academy. Her one desire for the
+language was to have it advance and develop, preserving every word,
+resorting to old ones, accepting new ones only when necessary. Thus,
+among French female educators, Mlle. de Gournay deserves a prominent
+place, because of her high ideals and earnest efforts in the study of
+the language, for the courage with which she advanced her convictions
+regarding woman, and for the high moral standard which she set by her
+own conduct.
+
+In Louise Labé--_La Belle Cordière_--we meet a warrior, as well as a
+woman of letters. The great movement of the Renaissance, as it swept
+northward, invaded Lyons; there Louise Labé endeavored to do what
+Ronsard and the Pléiade were doing at Paris. A great part of her youth
+she passed in war, wearing man's apparel and assuming the name of
+"Captain Loys"; at an early age, she left home with a company of
+soldiers passing through Lyons on the way to lay siege to Perpignan,
+where she showed pluck, bravery, and skill. Upon her return, she
+married a merchant ropemaker, whence her sobriquet--_La Belle
+Cordière_.
+
+She soon won a reputation by gathering about her a circle of men, who
+complimented her in the most elegant language and read poetry with
+her. Science and literature were discussed and the praises of love
+sung with passionate, inflamed eloquence. In this circle of congenial
+spirits, "she gave rise to doubts as to her virtue." As her husband
+was wealthy, she was able to collect an immense library and to
+entertain at her pleasure; she could converse in almost any language,
+and all travellers stopped at Lyons and called to see her at her
+salon. Her writings consisted of sonnets, elegies, and dialogues in
+prose; her influence, being too local, is not marked. Her greatest
+claim to attention is that she encouraged letters in a city which was
+beyond the reach of every literary movement. Such were the women of
+the sixteenth century; in no epoch in French history have women played
+a greater rôle; art, literature, morals, politics, all were governed
+by them. They were active in every phase of life, hunting with men,
+taking part in and causing duels, intriguing and initiating intrigues.
+"In the midst of battle, while cannon-balls and musket-shots rained
+about her, Catherine de' Medici was as brave and unconcerned as the
+most valiant of men. Diana of Poitiers was called the most wondrous
+woman, the woman of eternal youth, the beautiful huntress; it was
+she whom Jean Goujon sculptured, nude and triumphant, embracing with
+marble arms a mysterious stag, enamoured like Leda's swan."
+
+In general, the women of that century "liked better to be feared
+than loved; they inspired mad passions, insensate devotions, ecstatic
+admirations. The epoch was one in which life counted for little, when
+balls alternated with massacres; when virtue was befitting only
+the lowly born and ugly (Brantôme recommends the beautiful to be
+inconstant because they should resemble the sun who diffuses his light
+so indiscriminately that everybody in the world feels it). It was the
+age of beauty--a beauty that fascinated and entranced, but the glow
+of which melted and killed; but this glow also reacted upon them
+that caused it and they became victims of their own passions--through
+either jealousy or their own weaknesses. No age was ever more
+luxurious, pompous, elegant, brilliant, and wanton, yet beneath all
+the glitter there were much misery and bitter repentance; amongst the
+violent wickedness there were noble and pure women such as Elizabeth
+of Austria and Louise de Vaudemont."
+
+The whole century seemed to be afire and to tingle with that spirit of
+liberty, imitation, and experimentation, which, so often abused, led
+to much disaster. In spite of that unsettled and excited condition,
+the sixteenth century attained greater development, had more avenues
+of intellectual activity opened to it, imitated, thought and imagined
+more and produced as much as any other century; in every field,
+we find the names of its masters. As M. Faguet says, the sixteenth
+century was, in France, the century _créateur par excellence_; and in
+this, woman's part was, above all, political, her social, moral, and
+literary influence being less marked.
+
+
+
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+The Seventeenth Century: Woman at Her Best
+
+
+In the seventeenth century, the influence exerted by the women of
+France, departing from the political aspect which had characterized it
+in the preceding century, became of a social, literary, religious,
+and moral nature, the last predominating. Inasmuch as the reins of
+government were in the hands of the king and his ministers, political
+affairs were but slightly affected by the feminine element. Woman,
+realizing the uselessness as well as danger of plotting against
+the inviolate person and power of the king, contented herself with
+scheming against those ministers whose attitudes she considered
+unfavorable to her plans.
+
+Of all social and literary movements, however, woman was the
+acknowledged leader; in that institution of culture and development,
+the seventeenth century salon, her undisputed supremacy placed her in
+the position of patroness and protectress of men of letters. In the
+general religious movement her rôle was one of secondary importance;
+and as mistress, she ceased with the sixteenth century to be either
+active politically or disastrous morally and became merely a temporary
+recipient of capriciously bestowed wealth and favors. In order
+to fully comprehend woman's position and the exact nature of her
+influence in this century and the following one, the position and
+constitution of the nobility before, during and after the ministry of
+Richelieu, must be studied.
+
+The great houses of Carolingian origin were those of Alençon,
+Bourgogne, Bourbon, Vendôme, Kings of Navarre, Counts of Valois,
+and Artois; the great gentlemen were the Dukes of Guise, Nemours,
+Longueville, Chevreuse, Nevers, Bouillon, Rohan, Montmorency, and,
+later, Luxembourg, Mortemart, Créqui, Noailles; names which are
+constantly met with in French history. Before the time of Louis XIV.,
+men of such rank, when dissatisfied or discontented, might leave
+court at their will and were requested to return; but with Louis XIV.,
+departure from court was considered a disgrace, and offending parties
+were permitted, not asked, to return.
+
+Outside the army, there was open to the princes of the nobility no
+occupation in which they might expend their surplus energy; thus,
+being free from the burden of taxes, it was but natural that they
+should seek amusement in literature, society, and intrigue. The honor
+of their respective houses and the fear of being damned in the next
+world were their only sources of deep concern; other than these, they
+assumed no responsibilities, desiring absolute freedom from care.
+
+Legal, judicial, and ecclesiastical offices were open to them but were
+little favored except as convenient means of obtaining revenues
+and positions otherwise not procurable. The first requisites toward
+advancement were bravery and skill, not learning; the majority of
+the members of the nobility much preferred buying a regiment to being
+president of a tribunal, and their primary ambition was to acquire a
+reputation for magnificence, heroism, and gallantry. They fought for
+glory, to show their skill and courage; the sentiment of patriotism
+was but weakly developed, and war was indulged in merely for the sake
+of fighting, passing the time, and being occupied. As in the preceding
+century, death was but little feared; in fact, the scorn of it was
+carried to the extreme. "The French went to death as though they were
+to be resuscitated on the morrow."
+
+That man went to war was not sufficient proof of his bravery; in
+addition, he must, upon the smallest pretext, draw his sword, must
+fight constantly, and especially with adversaries better armed and
+larger in force; the love of woman was for such men only. Adventure
+was the fad: it is said of one seigneur that he took pleasure in going
+every night to a certain corner and, from pure malice, striking with
+his sword the first person who chanced that way; this unique pastime
+he continued until he himself was killed.
+
+Marriage, until the eighteenth century, was not a union of affection,
+but merely an alliance between two families and in the interest of
+both; women, to preserve their identity after marriage, signed their
+family names. As maturity was reached at the age of twelve, marriage
+meant simply cohabitation. Until the Revolution, free marriages, or
+liaisons, were recognized as natural if not legitimate institutions,
+and the offspring of such unions, who were said to be more numerous
+than legitimate children, were legitimatized and became heirs simply
+through recognition by the father. (At first, princes were unwilling
+to accept, as wives, the natural daughters of kings; however, the Duke
+of Orleans and the Prince of Conti married the natural daughters
+of Louis XIV.) As a rule, titles could not be transmitted through
+females; when a woman married beneath her rank she lost her titles,
+but they were given to her children.
+
+In the seventeenth century, woman's influence was of a nature vastly
+superior to that exerted by her in the sixteenth century, in that it
+rendered sacred both her and her honor; but, in spite of the refining
+restraint of the salon, brutality was still the main characteristic
+of man. To express beautiful sentiments in the midst of jealousies,
+rivalries, adventures, complaints, and despair, was the _savoir-vivre_
+of the Catherine de' Medici type of elegance brought from Italy in the
+sixteenth century. This caused the extremes of external fastidiousness
+and internal grossness to be embodied in the same individual; in the
+eighteenth century, man was, inwardly as well as outwardly, refined,
+mild, kind, a friend of pleasure; and therein lies the fundamental
+difference between the _honnête homme_ of Louis XIV. and the _homme
+du monde_ of Louis XV. The seventeenth century type of man is midway
+between that of the sixteenth and eighteenth--more polished and less
+gross than the former, yet lacking the knowledge and culture of the
+latter.
+
+When in the seventeenth century the two all-powerful forces, brute
+force and money, of the preceding century were replaced by those of
+money and the pen, the decay of the impoverished and unintellectual
+nobility became but a question of time. The day when great gentlemen
+might scorn men of letters and learning was rapidly passing; with
+the French Academy arose a new spirit, a fresh impulse was given to
+intellectual attainments. Although treated as inferiors, the literary
+men of the seventeenth century spoke of the aristocracy in a spirit
+of raillery, but slightly veiled with respect; and the nobility while
+remaining, in its way, courageous and glorious, lost its prestige,
+force, and influence.
+
+In the seventeenth century, money acquired a certain purchasing value
+which procured advantages and luxuries impossible in the preceding
+period when the brave man was worth infinitely more than the rich
+who, scorned and considered as a rapacious Jew, was isolated and in
+constant fear of being robbed or killed. As the number of government
+officials increased, individual fortunes grew; men became enormously
+wealthy through the various offices bought by them or given to them by
+the government. The financier was a king and many marriages of princes
+and dukes with daughters of men of wealth are recorded. Women of
+station, however, seldom married beneath their rank, because they
+lost their titles by so doing, and titles were still the only road
+to social success. As a rule, titles could not be transmitted through
+females; when a woman made a misalliance her titles were given to her
+children. Almost all rich men of the period, from the time of Louis
+XIII. to the Revolution, became nobles, as almost every brave man was
+made a knight up to the seventeenth century. It was possible for
+the wealthy to buy a marquisate or baronetage and give it to their
+children; a grand-marshal of France was no longer so powerful as a
+rich banker.
+
+The complete change, under Louis XIV., of the customs of the time,
+caused numberless petty jealousies, scandals, and intrigues in the
+aristocracy, which could no longer maintain its old form and yet had
+to be considered by the government. The question of reform arose--how
+to restrict the number of nobles, which increased every year. Rank
+was bestowed for service and, sometimes, even for wealth; the old
+families, being poor, had no distinctive prestige except that given by
+their privileges at court; their titles no longer distinguished them
+from the newcomers, whom they gradually began to disdain, and the
+result was a general lowering of the standing, importance, and
+influence of nobility. Another party which gained prominence was that
+of the bench; the judges, as interpreters of the king's laws, became
+powerful, for law was absolute. A deadly rivalry sprang up between the
+parties of rank with no money or power and of power and money without
+rank.
+
+The desire of every man of rank to be independent, to be a force in
+himself instead of a part of a unit which might be useful to the
+state as a whole, was one of the principal defects of the French
+aristocracy; poverty crushed it, idleness robbed it of its alertness,
+intriguing and gradual oppression reduced it to despair. Appointed to
+offices, its members failed in the performance of their duties; the
+latter fell to the under men who, while the aristocracy was busy at
+fêtes, in society, at the table, became experts in the affairs of the
+government--shrewd politicians and financiers. The new nobility,
+that of the robe, replaced that of the sword in all interests of the
+government except war; gradually, Parliament was made up of men who,
+having been elevated to the rank of nobility, retained their aversion
+to those who were noble by birth, recognizing only the king as their
+superior and refusing precedence to even the princes of the blood.
+Louis XIV., however, objecting to and fearing such a strong class as
+that of the robe, employed, wherever possible, people of lower rank.
+Thus it happened in the seventeenth century that the still powerful
+nobility of higher rank was scorned and kept down; but in the
+eighteenth century, when the gentlemen of the robe had become
+all-powerful and therefore constituted a dangerous party, it was they
+who became the objects of scorn and persecution, while the aristocrats
+of blood, the gentlemen of the court, recovered the royal favors
+through their political powerlessness.
+
+French aristocracy really had no object, no _raison d'être_, after
+its disappearance from all governmental functions; it became an
+encumbrance to the state; having no particular part to play, it did
+nothing; this is one of the causes of its dissolution and of the
+Revolution as well. Thus France gradually passed from inequality of
+classes under the sanction of custom to equality of classes before
+the law: this change in the condition and constitution of the French
+nobility accounts for many intrigues and scandals and explains the
+social and moral actions of French women, as well as the difference
+in the nature of their activities in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries.
+
+The seventeenth was, _par excellence_, the century which can boast
+of that incomparable society the cult of which was the highest in all
+things--art, religion, philosophy, poetry, politics, war, and beauty.
+From the convent of the Carmelites to the Hôtel de Rambouillet, from
+the Place Royale to the various châteaux and salons, we must seek only
+that which is elevating and spiritual, beautiful and religious. In
+the famous society which kept pace with the political reputation
+and influence of France is found a coterie of women who combined
+remarkable beauty and intelligence with a high moral standard, and
+whose names are intimately connected with the history of France.
+Where again can we find such a galaxy of beauties as that formed by
+Charlotte de Montmorency, Mme. de Chevreuse, Mme. de Hautefort, Mme.
+de Montbazon, Mme. de Guémené, Mme. de Châtillon, Mme. de Longueville,
+Marie de Gonzague, Henriette de la Vallière, Mme. de Montespan, Mme.
+de Maintenon, without enumerating such great writers and leaders of
+salons as Mme. de Rambouillet, Mlle. de Scudéry, Mme. de Lambert,
+Mme. de Sévigné, and Mme. de la Fayette? The seventeenth century
+could tolerate no mediocrity; grandeur was in the very atmosphere;
+its political movements were great movements; it produced in art
+a Poussin, in letters a Corneille, in science and philosophy a
+Descartes.
+
+The various movements of which woman was the head may be divided into
+two periods, and each period into two parts. The political women may
+well be grouped about Marie de' Medici,--whose career will not be
+given separate treatment, inasmuch as there was no drop of French
+blood in her veins,--and the social and literary women about Mme.
+de Rambouillet and her salon. In the latter half of the seventeenth
+century and at the beginning of the eighteenth, politics are
+represented by Mme. de Montespan--the mistress--and Mme. de
+Maintenon--the wife; social life and literature have their purest
+representative in Mme. de Lambert. The two queens of the seventeenth
+century, Anne of Austria and Maria Theresa, were without influence;
+the religious movement was represented by the galaxy of women of whom
+we write in a later chapter.
+
+After the death of Henry IV., Marie de' Medici succeeded in having
+herself made queen-regent for Louis XIII., who was then but nine years
+old. A woman of no particular capacity, who had in no way adapted
+herself to French life and customs, she allowed herself to be governed
+by an adventurer, an Italian who understood and appreciated French
+ideals no more than did Marie; these two--the queen and Concini, her
+minister--immediately began to concoct plans to gain control of the
+state. The king was kept in virtual captivity until he reached the age
+of seventeen, when, having asserted his rights, Concini was killed,
+and Marie's dominant power and influence came to an abrupt end.
+
+Louis XIII. reigned, with his minister, the Prince de Luynes, from
+1617 to 1624, when he became reconciled to his mother and appointed
+her favorite, Richelieu, his minister. From 1610 to about 1640,
+Marie de' Medici exercised more or less influence, always of a nature
+disastrous to France.
+
+After the king's death, Anne of Austria, as queen-regent, with
+Mazarin, directed the destinies of France. During the ministry of the
+two cardinals, Richelieu and Mazarin, occurred the political intrigues
+and astute diplomatic movements of Mme. de Chevreuse and the unwise
+and short-sighted aspirations of Mme. de Longueville. These intimate
+friends were women of the highest intelligence, most perfect beauty,
+and uncapitulating devotion, and were working for the same cause,
+though from different motives.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse was the daughter of M. de Rohan, Duke of Montbazon.
+She had married M. de Luynes, the minister of Louis XIII., who
+overthrew the power of Marie de' Medici, and who, by initiating his
+wife into his secrets, gave her the schooling and experience which she
+later used to such advantage. De Luynes presented her at court
+with instructions to ingratiate herself with the queen--Anne of
+Austria--and the king. In this design she succeeded so well that she
+was soon made superintendent of the household of the queen, and became
+as influential with Anne as was her husband with the king.
+
+In 1621 M. de Luynes died; a year later his widow married Claude of
+Lorraine, Duke of Chevreuse; but as that was an unhappy union,
+she soon began her career as an intriguer. On the arrival of Lord
+Kensington, the English ambassador, she fell in love with him, that
+escapade being the first of a long series; the two proceeded to
+inveigle Queen Anne into a liaison with the Duke of Buckingham, which
+scheme, as history so well records, partly succeeded.
+
+When Mme. de Chevreuse accompanied to England the new queen,
+Henriette-Marie, wife of Charles I., both Buckingham and Kensington
+outdid themselves in showing her attention, Richelieu, fearing her
+influence and intrigues at the court of England, hastened the recall
+of her husband, but she received through her friends, from the English
+monarch himself, an invitation to remain; during the time, she gave
+birth to a child.
+
+Her next famous undertaking, which involved the lives of various
+persons of high rank, was the scheme to persuade Monsieur the Dauphin
+to refuse to marry Mlle. de Montpensier; Queen Anne was opposed to
+this union, and Mme. de Chevreuse gained to their cause a number of
+influential friends who were all madly in love with her. The ever
+vigilant Richelieu having discovered the plot, Monsieur confessed.
+In this conspiracy, M. de Chalais lost his head, other plotters lost
+their positions, and some were exiled. Mme. de Chevreuse was forced
+to retire to Lorraine; there she set in movement a vast plan against
+Richelieu and France, allying England and various princes, but, by the
+arrest of Montaigu, the plot was discovered, the alliance broken up,
+and peace restored.
+
+In 1626, by request of England, Mme. de Chevreuse returned to France.
+For a time she was quiet and seemed to favor Richelieu, but she soon
+captivated one of his ministers, the Marquis of Châteauneuf.
+Richelieu discovered the latter's weakness, and, having captured his
+correspondence, sent him to prison, where he remained for ten years.
+The fair intriguer was exiled to Dampierre, the cardinal fearing to
+send her out of France on account of her influence with the Duke of
+Lorraine. She managed to steal into Paris at night and see the
+queen; when discovered, she was sent to Touraine where she began the
+dangerous task of carrying on the correspondence between the Dukes of
+Savoy and Lorraine and England, and between Spain and Queen Anne. Even
+when this correspondence was intercepted and the queen confessed all,
+Richelieu was afraid to banish Mme. de Chevreuse; though he believed
+her to be at the bottom of all the current intrigues, he knew that out
+of France she would stir up the rulers of England and Spain as well as
+the Duke of Lorraine and others hostile to the cardinal.
+
+Violence being out of the question, because of her influence in
+England and of the prominence of her family, he decided to win her
+over by kindness; he even sent her money, but she was too shrewd to
+permit Richelieu to outwit her, always paying him back in his own
+coin. However, that kind of play was too dangerous for her and she
+escaped to Spain. As soon as her departure became known, Richelieu
+set to work every means in his power to bring her back, sending her an
+urgent invitation to return and promising to pardon her past. When his
+messages reached her, she was already in Madrid, where she was royally
+received as the friend of the king's sister, Anne; there, by means of
+her beauty and wonderful intelligence, she conquered every cavalier.
+When the war broke out between France and Spain, she left for England
+where she was welcomed like a visiting queen.
+
+Richelieu, anxious for the support of the Duke of Lorraine in his
+war against Spain and Austria, needed the coöperation of Mme. de
+Chevreuse, and with that end in view sent ambassadors to London
+to arrange for her return; but an agreement was not an easy matter
+between two such astute politicians, and negotiations went on
+unsuccessfully for over a year. Her subtleness, apparent docility
+and invincible precautions were pitted against the artifices and
+dissimulation of the cardinal; both employed all the astute manoeuvres
+of diplomacy and exhausted the resources of consummate skill in
+gaining the point desired by each. The cardinal failed to convince her
+of her safety.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse soon formed about her a circle of émigrés--Marie de'
+Medici, Duc La Vallette, Soubèse, La Vieuville, and many others. This
+coterie was in open correspondence with Spain, Austria, and the Duke
+of Lorraine. From every side, Richelieu felt the intriguing hand
+and influence of Mme. de Chevreuse, and decided to put forth another
+effort to get her to return, this time sending her husband; but
+not sure of the latter's sincerity and in fear of him, the duchess
+concluded to leave England for Flanders, and, escorted by a squad of
+dukes and lords, departed like a queen.
+
+At Brussels, she entered into open relations with Spain, drawing
+over the Duke of Lorraine. She was accused of being in the plot of
+Cinq-Mars and the Duke of Bouillon with Spain; when Richelieu exposed
+this to Queen Anne, the latter for the first time became her enemy.
+Just at this time of his triumph, Richelieu died, his death being
+followed soon after by that of Louis XIII., who left a special
+order for the exile forever of Mme. de Chevreuse, whom he called _Le
+Diable_. The queen-regent, however, recalled her, and set at liberty
+her friend, Châteauneuf, who had been imprisoned for ten years.
+
+When Mme. de Chevreuse returned to Paris after an absence of ten
+years, her beauty was still unimpaired, she possessed an experience
+such as no man of the day could boast, was personally acquainted with
+nearly every great statesman and aware of the weak points in every
+court of Europe. While she could now count on the support of
+the majority of the princes, plots were being formed about the
+queen-regent, the object of which was to persuade the latter to give
+up the friends who had served her faithfully for so many years. La
+Rochefoucauld was sent to meet Mme. de Chevreuse and to inform her of
+the change of attitude of the queen-regent; as her devoted friend, he
+advised her to abandon, for the present, all hopes of governing the
+queen and to devote herself entirely to regaining her favor and to
+preparing for the possible fall of Mazarin.
+
+After securing the release of her friend Châteauneuf, Mme. de
+Chevreuse set to work to restore him to his former office of Guard
+of the Seals, but did not succeed. She then turned her attention to
+undermining the power of Mazarin, agitating all émigrés returning to
+France and starting the most outspoken denunciation of the policy
+of the cardinal, his injustice and tyranny against the nobility. The
+cries of disapproval became so general that Mazarin was kept busy
+warding off the blows aimed at him by his enemy; the latter succeeded
+in placing Châteauneuf as _Chancelier des ordres du roi_ and in having
+his estates restored to him, while Alexandre de Campion she placed in
+the household of the queen. Mazarin, living in constant dread of her,
+managed to thwart two of her cherished schemes--the restoration to
+the Duke of Vendôme of the government of Brittany and the placing of
+Châteauneuf in the ministry--upon the success of which depended her
+own influence and power.
+
+Finding that ruse, flattery, insinuation, and ordinary court intrigues
+were of no avail, she turned to other methods. The Importants, a party
+made up of adventurers and a large number of the nobility, were making
+themselves felt more and more; they were opposed to Richelieu and
+Mazarin, and Mme. de Chevreuse became their chief and instigator.
+Failing to succeed with the cardinal's own methods, she decided to
+assassinate him, but the plot was discovered, the Duke of Beaufort
+was arrested and all the princes of the party of the Importants were
+ordered to leave Paris. Mme. de Chevreuse was compelled to depart from
+court and retire to Dampierre, and then to Touraine, where she did
+everything in her power to assist the friends who had compromised
+themselves for her. During her first exile she had had the consolation
+of the friendship of the queen; but now she was banished by the very
+friend whom she had served so well and who had up to this time been
+able and willing to afford her comfort and protection. Through
+Lord Goring, Count Craft, and the Commander de Jars, she opened up
+correspondence and negotiations with England, but was again surprised
+by the vigilant Mazarin and sent to Angoulême; determining to escape,
+after many hardships, she successfully reached Liège; from there, as
+head of all foreign intrigues against France, she continued to thwart
+Mazarin's foreign policy.
+
+As soon as the first signs of the Fronde broke out, Mme. de Chevreuse
+became active and succeeded in attracting to her the young Marquis de
+Laigues with whom, later on, she contracted a _mariage de conscience_.
+As ambassador of the Fronde, she prevailed upon Spain to promise
+troops and subsidies to her party. After the peace of 1649, she went
+to Paris where she found almost all her friends ready to follow
+her and to pay her homage. It was she who conceived the idea of an
+aristocratic league which, under the auspices of the two great princes
+of the blood, the Duke of Orléans and the Prince of Condé, would unite
+the best part of the nobility.
+
+Her plan was to marry her daughter to the Prince de Conti and the
+young Duc d'Enghien to one of the daughters of the Duke of Orléans.
+The contracts were signed and all was in readiness when Mazarin was
+exiled, and the following Frondists came into power: the Duke
+of Orléans at court, Condé and Turenne at the head of the army,
+Châteauneuf in the Cabinet, Molé in Parliament, while Mme. de
+Chevreuse and Mme. de Longueville managed to keep harmony among all.
+Queen Anne in a short time annulled the marriage contracts; and on the
+return of Mazarin, Mme. de Chevreuse took up her work with him, the
+cardinal being wise enough to appreciate the fact that she was a
+greater force with than against him.
+
+Strange as it may seem, Mme. de Chevreuse in time became the great
+acting and controlling force of royalty, winning over the Duke of
+Lorraine and becoming a staunch friend to both the regent and the
+cardinal; after the death of the latter, she became all-powerful, and
+it may be said that she made Colbert what he was. In the fulness of
+her power, she gradually retired, having seen, in turn, the passing
+away or the fall of Richelieu, Mazarin, Louis XIII., Anne of Austria,
+the Queen of England, Châteauneuf, the Duke of Lorraine, her daughter,
+and the Marquis de Laigues. She ceased plotting, renounced politics
+and intrigues, and retired to the country, where she died in 1679.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse was undoubtedly one of the most important political
+characters of the seventeenth century, just as she was also one of its
+greatest beauties--possibly the most seductive and charming woman of
+her epoch. A consummate diplomat and an untiring worker, she was at
+the head of more intrigues and plots, had more thrilling adventures,
+controlled and ruined more men, than any other woman of her century,
+if not of all French history. Thinking little of religion, she was
+yet in the very midst of the Catholic party; unswerving in her
+friendships, she scorned danger, opinion, fortune, for those whom she
+loved or whose cause she espoused; an implacable foe, she was the most
+dreaded enemy of both Richelieu and Mazarin.
+
+With a remarkable ability for grasping the details of an antagonist's
+position she combined all the other qualities of an astute politician;
+thus, upon the desired consummation of her plots she brought to bear
+a sagacity, finesse, and energy that baffled all her adversaries. With
+her, politics became a passion and a necessity; even while in exile,
+her zeal was unflagging and she intrigued over all Europe. Scorning
+peril as well as all petty restraints, and characterized by courage,
+loyalty, and devotion, she was without an equal among the members of
+her sex.
+
+Mme. de Hautefort, while less powerful than Mme. de Chevreuse and of
+quite a different type, is associated with her in the history of the
+time. Pure, beautiful, and virtuous, she everywhere inspired love and
+respect; without political aspirations and seeking neither power nor
+favors, she refused to deliver her soul or betray her friends for
+Richelieu or Mazarin; she was their enemy, but not their rival.
+
+Because of her desire to serve the queen, of whom she was an intimate
+friend, and to further her interests, she was connected with the first
+intrigues of Mme. de Chevreuse, but as an innocent and disinterested
+party. Louis XIII. conceived an ardent attachment for her, and
+Richelieu endeavored to win her over to his policies, but she remained
+faithful to her queen and refused to sacrifice her honor to the king.
+
+The cardinal did not rest until he had prevailed upon the king to
+exile her, ostensibly for only fifteen days; and as her unselfishness
+and generosity had made an impression upon the whole court, her
+departure was much regretted, though no demonstration was made. When,
+after the king's death, Mme. de Hautefort returned to Paris, she soon
+reëstablished herself in the affection, admiration, and respect of her
+associates.
+
+As Mazarin gained ascendency over Queen Anne, that regent changed her
+policy and abandoned her former friends. Mme. de Hautefort was opposed
+to the queen on account of her liaison with her minister and her lack
+of fidelity to those who, in time of trouble, had served her so well.
+As _dame d'atours_, she was forced either to close her eyes to all
+scenes between the cardinal and Anne or to combat the regent and
+resign. She was not to be tempted by the honors and favors with which
+the two sought to purchase her criminal connivance or her silence;
+preferring poverty and exile to a guilty conscience, she soon retired
+to the convent of the Daughters of Sainte-Marie, where she was
+followed by her admirers, who were willing to place themselves and
+their fortunes at her disposal. At the age of thirty she accepted
+the hand of the Duke of Schomberg, and, away from the court and its
+intrigues, lived in peace.
+
+Indifferent to the powerful, but kind and compassionate to the poor
+and oppressed, Mme. de Hautefort is a type of those great women of
+the seventeenth century who stood for honor, courage, generosity,
+sympathy, and virtue; fervently, even austerely, religious, she was
+yet far removed from anything resembling bigotry. Among the ladies
+of the Hôtel de Rambouillet, she was one of the most popular; her
+vivacity, modesty, and reserve, combined with a tall figure, imposing
+bearing, and large, expressive blue eyes, won the hearts of many
+cavaliers, among whom the most prominent were the Dukes of Lorraine
+and La Rochefoucauld.
+
+A close second to Mme. de Chevreuse in influence and power, was Mme.
+de Longueville, a woman of exquisite and aristocratic beauty, of
+brilliant mind, and an adept in the art of conversation. Tender and
+kind, but ambitious, she, like many others of her time and sex, had
+two distinct periods--one of conquest and one of penitence and pious
+devotion.
+
+Born in a prison at Vincennes during the captivity of her father,
+the great Henry of Bourbon, Prince of Condé, she in time developed
+remarkable personal charms. Her early days were spent at the convent
+of the Carmelites and at the Hôtel de Rambouillet, her mind--in these
+opposite worlds of religion and society--being divided between pious
+meditations and romantic dreams. At the time of the execution at
+Toulouse of her uncle, M. de Montmorency, she seriously considered
+entering the Carmelite convent.
+
+Upon making her social début, she immediately became one of the
+leaders about whom all the gallants gathered. She formed a fast
+friendship with Mme. de Sablé, Mme. de Rambouillet, Mme. de
+Bouteville, and Mlle. du Vigean. Her beauty, which was quite
+phenomenal, soon became the subject of poetry. Voltaire wrote:
+
+  "De perles, d'astres et de fleurs,
+  Bourbon, le ciel fit tes couleurs,
+  Et mit dedans tout ce mélange
+    L'esprit d'un ange!
+  L'on jugerait par la blancheur
+  De Bourbon, et par sa fraicheur,
+  Qu'elle a prit naissance des lis."
+
+[The heaven made thy colors, Bourbon, of pearls, of stars, of flowers,
+and to all this mixture added the spirit of an angel. One would judge
+by the whiteness and freshness of Bourbon that she was born of the
+lilies.]
+
+In 1642, at the age of twenty-three, she was married, against her
+will, to M. de Longueville who was, after the princes of the blood,
+the greatest seigneur of France; he was old and indifferent, and
+enamored of another woman, while she was young and full of hopes,
+ambitions, and love. His conduct, being anything but correct,
+immediately set the young wife, with her instincts of refinement and
+principles and habits of the _précieuses_, against her husband. The
+advent of a rival in the person of Mme. de Montbazon, one of the
+most noted beauties of the day, made the state of affairs even more
+unpleasant, the humiliation being so much keener because it was on
+account of her charms that Montbazon was preferred to the wife. The
+latter's fate was a cruel one; she could not respect her husband, and,
+for her, respect was the only road to love. She continued to live at
+the Hôtel de Longueville and to attend all court functions, where,
+through her beauty, she early became the object of much attention from
+the young lords, among whom Coligny seemed to impress her more than
+any other.
+
+About this time occurred the deaths of Richelieu and Louis XIII., and
+the Importants, flocking to Paris to regain their rights and to share
+in the spoils of the new regency, began to make themselves felt. The
+leaders expected great favors from Anne of Austria who had been forced
+into obedience by the cardinal, but she was a great disappointment to
+them. A born lady of leisure, she was only too glad to be relieved
+of the arduous duties of government, and this her minister, Mazarin,
+quickly proceeded to do; his first object was to crush the influence
+of the Importants, who were very powerful in the salons, society, and
+politics.
+
+The house of Condé declared in favor of Mazarin, but at first this
+did not affect Mme. de Longueville, whose kindness of heart and
+indifference to politics and intrigues were generally known. Probably,
+she never would have taken a part in the Fronde had it not been for
+the rival who had been seeking, by every possible means, to injure her
+reputation--a design which Mme. de Montbazon well-nigh accomplished by
+declaring that two letters which, at a reception, had fallen from the
+pocket of Coligny had been written by Mme. de Longueville. In reality,
+they had been written by Mme. de Fouquerolles to the Marquis of
+Maulevrier. Mme. la Princesse, mother of Mme. de Longueville demanded
+full reparation, threatening that unless it was at once granted the
+house of Condé would withdraw from court, and Mazarin managed to
+induce the queen to compel Mme. de Montbazon to apologize publicly. It
+may be of interest to give, in full, the apology, to show the nature
+of court etiquette, hypocrisy, and intrigue of that day. Mme. de
+Montbazon called at the hôtel of the princess and spoke the following
+words, which were written on a paper attached to her fan: "Madame, I
+come here to attest that I am innocent of the spitefulness of which
+they accuse me, there being no person of honor capable of uttering
+such a calumny; and if I had committed such a crime, I would have
+submitted to the punishments that the queen would have imposed upon
+me, would never have shown myself before the world again, and would
+have asked your pardon. I beg you to believe that I shall never be
+lacking in the respect that I owe you because of the opinion which
+I have of the merit and virtue of Mme. de Longueville." To which the
+princess replied: "I very willingly receive the assurance you give
+me of having had no part in the spitefulness that was published,
+deferring all to the order the queen has given me."
+
+After this episode, the princess refused to be in the same place with
+Mme. de Montbazon. On one occasion, Mme. de Chevreuse had invited the
+queen to a collation at a place where the queen enjoyed walking; she
+requested the princess to join her, giving her word of honor that Mme.
+de Montbazon would not be there; she was present, however, and the
+princess was about to leave when the queen ordered Mme. de Montbazon
+to feign illness and retire; this she refused to do and remained,
+whereupon the queen and the princess left, and shortly afterward Mme.
+de Montbazon received orders to leave Paris.
+
+This excited the Importants to fever heat and a plot was formed, with
+Mme. de Chevreuse as the leader, to assassinate the cardinal. Shortly
+after this, Coligny, as champion of the cause of Mme. de Longueville,
+challenged the Duc de Guise to a duel. The whole court was made up
+of two parties: the Importants with Mme. de Montbazon and Mme. de
+Chevreuse; and Condé and Mme. de Longueville with their friends;
+the result was the death of Coligny. Mme. de Longueville was a true
+_précieuse_ and hardly loved Coligny, but allowed him and any other to
+serve and adore her in a respectable way--a principle followed by
+the better women of the age, such as Mme. de Rambouillet and Mme. de
+Sablé.
+
+Some time after these occurrences, Mme. de Longueville was stricken
+with smallpox which, fortunately, did not impair her beauty; it was
+said, on the contrary, that in taking away its first flower it left
+all the brilliancy which, joined to her culture and charming
+languor, made her one of the most attractive persons in France. La
+Rochefoucauld has left the following picture of her: "This princess
+had all the advantages of _esprit_ and beauty to as great a degree as
+if nature had taken pleasure in completing, in her person, a perfect
+work; but these qualities shone less brilliantly on account of one
+characteristic which led her to imbibe so thoroughly the sentiments of
+those who adored her that she no longer recognized her own."
+
+After her twenty-fifth year, Mme. de Longueville became more and more
+imbued with the general spirit of the seventeenth century: coquetry
+and _bel esprit_ became her chief occupation. The glory of her
+brother, the Duc d'Enghien, who was rapidly becoming a power, and the
+probability of the house of Condé becoming dangerous, made Mazarin
+realize that Mme. de Longueville was to be reckoned with, inasmuch as
+she had full control over D'Enghien and was constantly instilling new
+ideas into his mind and requesting from him the distribution of all
+sorts of favors. Mazarin, in 1646, succeeded in causing her withdrawal
+to Münster for one year; there she ruled as queen of the Congress. On
+the death of her father, the Prince of Condé, and at the request
+of her mother to come home for her lying-in, the husband of Mme. de
+Longueville consented to her return to Paris.
+
+In the meantime, everything was being done by the Importants to win
+over the house of Condé and cause a breach between it and Mazarin.
+The court at this time was in full glory; to amuse the queen-regent,
+Mazarin was lavishing money on artists from Italy, and the nobility
+outdid itself in its attempts to rival royalty in elegance and luxury.
+Upon her return, everyone paid homage to Mme. de Longueville; it
+was at this period that La Rochefoucauld, who was anxious about his
+position at court, as he was accused of being in league with the
+Importants and was therefore refused the favors he desired, met Mme.
+de Longueville who was in the height of her glory and in full control
+of the most prominent house of the time--that of the Duc d'Enghien and
+the Prince de Conti, her brothers.
+
+In order to conquer for himself what the cardinal would not grant him,
+La Rochefoucauld put forth every effort to win Mme. de Longueville;
+captivated by his fine appearance, his chivalry and, above all, by his
+powerful intellect, she gave herself up entirely, willing to share his
+destiny, to sacrifice all her interests, even those of her family, and
+the deepest sentiment of her life--the tenderness for her brother.
+
+France at this time, 1648, was in a position to gain for herself a
+peace with the world at her own terms, and her future seemed to be
+without a cloud. It was the Fronde that checked her growth and glory,
+and the cause of this was the estrangement of the house of Condé
+through the action of Mme. de Longueville in passing with her husband
+over to the party of the Importants, she being the first of her family
+to forsake the government. Under the leadership of La Rochefoucauld,
+she cast her lot with the opposing party, allowing herself to be
+identified with the interests of those who had endeavored to tarnish
+her early reputation. Becoming a leader with Mme. de Chevreuse and
+Mme. de Montbazon (her rival), she easily won over her young brother,
+the Prince de Conti. After the imprisonment of her husband and her two
+brothers, she began her real career as a woman of tactics, politics,
+and generalship.
+
+With the connivance of Mme. de Chevreuse and the Princess Palatine, a
+general plan had been formed to create a new government by the union
+of the aristocracy. The marriage, already spoken of, between the Duke
+of Enghien and one of the daughters of the Duke of Orléans and that
+arranged between the Prince of Conti and the daughter of Mme. de
+Chevreuse were to have united the Fronde with the house of Condé. The
+alliances, however, were declared off, and Mme. de Chevreuse went
+over to the cardinal and the queen; Condé's fall and Mazarin's success
+followed, being the result, mainly, of the determination of Mme. de
+Chevreuse to avenge herself upon Condé for having consented to the
+breaking of the marriage contracts.
+
+Mme. de Longueville did all in her power to continue the conflict that
+Condé had undertaken, but, exhausted by continual excitement and ill
+success, she was compelled to retire. After this, her life, spent in
+Normandy, at the Carmelites' convent and at Port Royal, became a long
+penance, which increased in austerity until she died in 1679. Thus,
+her career was at first one of unblemished brilliancy, then a period
+of elegant and intellectual debauch, and finally one of expiation.
+
+"Her politics," says Sainte-Beuve, "considered in the _ensemble_, are
+nothing more than a desire to please, to shine--a capricious love. Her
+character lacked consistency and self-will, her mind was keen, ready,
+subtle, ingenious, but not reasonable."
+
+In her convent life, her crowning virtue was humility. Her enemies did
+not cease to attack her, but she received all their affronts with
+the noblest resignation. The following testimonies are taken from a
+Jansenist manuscript of 1685:
+
+"She never said anything to her own advantage. She made use of as
+many occasions as she could find for humiliating herself without any
+affectation. What she said, she said so well that it could not be
+better said. She listened much, never interrupted, and never showed
+any eagerness to speak. She spoke sensibly, modestly, charitably, and
+without passion. To court her was to speak with equity and without
+passion of everyone and to esteem the good in all. Her whole exterior,
+her voice, her face, her gestures, were a perfect music; and her mind
+and body served her so well in expressing what she wished to make
+heard, that she appeared the most perfect actress in the world."
+
+Her love for La Rochefoucauld was the secret of her failure in life.
+When she experienced the disappointments of her married life and
+discovered that her dream of being loved by her husband could not be
+realized, she looked to other sources for diversion. She was not an
+intriguing woman like Mme. de Chevreuse, but one of ambitions which
+were incited by her love for and interest in the objects of her
+affection. Although she carried on flirtations with Coligny and the
+Duke of Nemours, she really loved no one but La Rochefoucauld, to
+whom she sacrificed her reputation and tranquillity, her duties and
+interests. For him she took up the cause of the Fronde; for him she
+was a mere slave, her entire existence being given up to his love, his
+whims, his service; when he failed her, she was lost, exhausted, and
+retired to a convent at the age of thirty-five and in the full bloom
+of her beauty. Her professed lover simply used her as a means to an
+end, seeking only his own interests in the Fronde, while she sought
+his; and this is the explanation of her seeming inconsistency of
+conduct. In her religious life she was happy and contented; surrounded
+by her friends, she lived peacefully for over twenty years.
+
+Thus, Marie de' Medici, a foreigner, Mme. de Chevreuse, and Mme. de
+Longueville represent the political women of the first half of the
+seventeenth century; Anne of Austria, who was of foreign extraction,
+was a mere tool in the hands of Mazarin, and exerted little influence
+in general.
+
+One of the principal differences between the conspicuous political
+women of the sixteenth and those of the seventeenth centuries lies in
+the possession by the latter of less personal force than that wielded
+by the former, who allowed nothing to thwart their plans. The women
+of both periods were beautiful, but those of the earlier one were of a
+magnetic and sensual type, "inspiring insensate passions and exciting
+a feverish unrest," thus ruling man through his lower instincts. The
+lack of refinement, sympathy, and charity reflected in their actions
+is in glaring contrast to the dignity, repose, reserve, and womanly
+modesty and grace displayed by their less masterful successors of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IV
+
+Woman in Society and Literature
+
+
+At the beginning of the seventeenth century, after the death of Henry
+IV., there were three classes in France,--the nobility, clergy, and
+third estate,--each with a distinct field of action: the nobility
+dominated customs, morality, and the government; the clergy supervised
+instruction and education; the third estate furnished the funds, that
+is, its work made possible the operations of the other classes.
+
+At court, various dialects and diverse pronunciations were in use by
+the representatives of the different provinces; the written language,
+though understood generally, was not used. Warriors were largely
+in evidence among the members of the nobility and court; entirely
+indifferent to decency of expression, purity of morals, and refinement
+of manners, and even boasting of their scorn of all restrictions,
+they took their boisterous rudeness into the drawing room where their
+influence was unlimited. The king, being of the same class, knew no
+better, or, if he did, had not the moral courage to compel a change;
+thus, the institution of a reformatory movement fell to the lot of
+woman.
+
+Then, however, woman was but little better than man; to gain his
+esteem, she would first have to make radical changes in her own
+behavior and become self-respecting. The customs of the time placed
+many disadvantages in the way of her social and moral reform. As
+a rule, the young girl was confined to a convent until she reached
+marriageable age; when that came and with it an undesired husband, she
+was ready for almost any prank that would relieve the monotony of her
+uncongenial marital relations. The convents themselves were so corrupt
+or so easily corruptible, that, very frequently, young girls did not
+leave them with unstained purity. To certain of these institutions,
+women and men of standing often bought the privilege of access at any
+time, to drink, dine, sleep, or attend sacred exercises with other
+persons; thus, libertinage was not uncommon within the walls of those
+so-called religious establishments.
+
+Mme. de Rambouillet felt most keenly the degradation of woman and
+resolved to act against it by combating everything that could offend
+taste or delicacy. As in the beginning of every great age, all things
+tended to greatness. A period of discipline and coördination set
+in, and elegance, grace, and refinement became the most pronounced
+characteristics of the time; rough, crude, robust, vigorous, and
+energetic characteristics, combined with coarseness and brutality,
+were eliminated during the seventeenth century. The women who caused
+this general purification of morals and language were given the name
+of _précieuses_ and the movement that of _préciosité_.
+
+The extent to which the _précieuses_ went in inventing locutions by
+which they were to be recognized as elegant, is generally exaggerated;
+Livet says that out of six hundred women hardly thirty could be
+accused of such fatuity. The wiser and more conservative women
+did adopt a large number of expressions which were necessary for
+refinement of language and these classicisms were exaggerated by some
+of the provincial classes who received their expressions from books
+and the theatre; such authors as Corneille, etc., were studied and
+their poetic licenses introduced into spoken language. These follies,
+pictured by Molière, naturally afforded much amusement in cultured
+circles where every event of the day was discussed, from the vital
+affairs of the government to the æsthetic interests of art and
+literature.
+
+The tremendous vogue of the seventeenth century salons or drawing
+rooms naturally gave a stimulus to literature; but, as they were so
+numerous and as each one claimed its large coterie of literary men,
+they proved to be disastrous to some while helpful to others. Two
+distinct classes of writers arose: the one, serious, elevated,
+thoughtful, classical, and independent of the salon, is well
+represented by Molière, Pascal, Boileau; the other, light, affected,
+gallant, superficial, was composed of the innumerable unimportant
+writers of the day.
+
+The salon movement must not be confounded with two other social
+movements or forces--those of court and society; while at the former
+all was formality, the latter was still gross and brutish. The Marquis
+de Caze, at a supper seized a leg of mutton and struck his neighbor
+in the face with it, sprinkling her with gravy, whereupon she laughed
+heartily; the Count of Brégis, slapped by the lady with whom he was
+dancing, tore off her headdress before the whole company; Louis XIII.,
+noticing in the crowd admitted to see him dine a lady dressed too
+_décolleté_, filled his mouth with wine and squirted the liquid into
+the bosom of the unfortunate girl; the Prince of Condé, indulging in
+customary brutishness, ate dung and had the ladies follow his example;
+these are fair illustrations of social _elegances_.
+
+As will be seen, nothing of this nature occurred in the salon of Mme.
+de Rambouillet, whose object was to charm her leisure hours, distract
+and amuse the husband whom she adored, and be agreeable to her
+friends. Her amusements were most original--concerts, mythological
+representations, suppers, fireworks, comedies, readings, always
+something new, often in the form of a surprise or a joke. Of the
+latter, the best known is the one played on the Count of Guise whose
+fondness for mushrooms had become proverbial; on one occasion when he
+had consumed an immense number of them at table, his valet, who had
+been bribed, took in all his doublets; on trying to put them on again,
+he found them too narrow by fully four inches. "What in the world is
+the matter--am I all swollen--could it be due to having eaten too many
+mushrooms?" "That is quite possible," said Chaudebonne; "yesterday you
+ate enough of them to split." All the accomplices joined in ridiculing
+him, and he began to squirm and show a somewhat livid color. Mass was
+rung, and he was compelled to attend in his chamber robe. Laughing, he
+said: "That would be a fine end--to die at the age of twenty-one from
+having eaten too many mushrooms." In the meantime, Chaudebonne advised
+the use of an antidote which he wrote and handed to the count, who
+read: "Take a good pair of scissors and cut your doublet." Only then
+did the victim comprehend the joke.
+
+One day, Voiture, having met a bear trainer, took him with his animals
+to the room of the Marquise de Rambouillet; she, turning at the noise,
+saw four large paws resting upon her screen. She readily forgave the
+author of the surprise. Du Bled relates many more of these innocent
+jokes.
+
+Among the congenial people of the salons, the relations were always of
+the most cordial, friendly, free, and intimate nature; they were like
+the members of a large family. By them, love was not considered a
+weakness but a mark of the elevation of the soul, and every man had
+to be sensitive to beauty. When the Duchesse d'Aiguillon presented
+to society her nephew, who later became the Duke of Richelieu, she
+advised and encouraged him to complete his education and make of
+himself an _honnête homme_ by association with the elder Mlle. du
+Vigean and other women; the object of this procedure was to polish his
+manners, elevate his instincts, and develop ease in deportment toward
+the ladies. There was no hint of the vulgar or licentious pleasures
+which became the characteristics of love in the eighteenth century.
+
+The woman who inaugurated the movement toward purity of morals,
+decency of language, polish of manners, and courtesy to woman, was
+Mme. de Rambouillet. Cathérine de Vivonne, Marquise de Rambouillet,
+whose mother was a great Roman lady and whose father had been
+ambassador to Rome, inherited that pride of race and independence of
+spirit for which she was so well known. In 1600, she was married, at
+the age of twelve, to the Marquis de Rambouillet who was her senior by
+eleven years, but who treated her with deference and respect rare at
+that time. Husband and wife were perfectly congenial, and their happy
+and peaceful life was a great contrast to that led by the majority of
+the married couples of the day. Absolutely irreproachable in conduct,
+she set a worthy example for all women who knew her.
+
+Her high ideals, independence of character, family duties, and the
+general debauchery, which was incompatible with her rigid chastity and
+"precocious wisdom," caused her to withdraw from the court in 1608;
+two years later, she decided to open her salon to such aristocratic
+and cultured persons as appreciated womanly grace, wit, and taste. Her
+familiarity with Italian and Spanish history and art placed her at
+the head of intellectual as well as moral movements. She surrounded
+herself with the distinguished men and women of the day, and her
+salon, which in every detail was decorated and arranged for pleasure,
+immediately became, through the exquisite charm with which she
+presided, the one goal of the cultured; her blue room was the
+sanctuary of polite society and she was its high priestess.
+
+The highest ambition of the _habitué_ of the salon was to sing, dance,
+and converse artistically and with refinement. A reaction against the
+general social state immediately set in, even the brusque warriors
+acquiring a refinement of speech and manners; and as conversation
+developed and became a power, the great lords began to respect men
+of letters and to cultivate their society. Anyone who possessed good
+manners, vivacity, and wit was admitted to the salon, where a new and
+more elevating sociability was the aspiration.
+
+Mme. de Rambouillet was very particular in the choice of friends, and
+they were always sincere and devoted, knowing her to be undesirous of
+political favors and incapable of stooping to intrigue. Even Richelieu
+could not, as compensation to him for a favor to her husband, induce
+her to act as spy on some of the frequenters of her salon.
+
+While not a woman of remarkable beauty, she was the personification
+of reason and virtue; her unassuming frankness, exquisite tact, and
+exceptional reserve discouraged all advances on the part of those
+gallants who frequented every mansion and were always prepared to lay
+siege to the heart of any fair woman. Her wide culture, versatility,
+modesty, goodness, fidelity, and disinterestedness caused her to be
+universally sought. Mlle. de Scudéry, in her novel _Cyrus_, leaves a
+fine portrait of her:
+
+"The spirit and soul of this marvellous person surpass by far her
+beauty: the first has no limits in its extent and the other has no
+equal in its generosity, goodness, justice, and purity. The intellect
+of Cléomire (Mme. de Rambouillet) is not like that of those whose
+minds have no brilliancy except that which nature has given them, for
+she has cultivated it carefully, and I think I can say that there are
+no _belles connaissances_ that she has not acquired. She knows various
+languages, and is ignorant of hardly anything that is worth knowing;
+but she knows it all without making a display of knowing it; and one
+would say, in hearing her talk, 'she is so modest that she speaks
+admirably of things, through simple common sense only'; on the
+contrary, she is versed in all things; the most advanced sciences
+are not beyond her, and she is perfectly acquainted with the most
+difficult arts. Never has any person possessed such a delicate
+knowledge as hers of fine works of prose and poetry; she judges them,
+however, with wonderful moderation, never abandoning _la bienséance_
+(the seemliness) of her sex, though she is far above it. In the whole
+court, there is not a person with any spirit and virtue that does not
+go to her house. Nothing is considered beautiful if it does not
+have her approval; no stranger ever comes who does not desire to see
+Cléomire and do her homage, and there are no excellent artisans who
+do not wish to have the glory of her approbation of their works. All
+people who write in Phénicie have sung her praises; and she possesses
+the esteem of everyone to such a marvellous degree that there is no
+one who has ever seen her who has not said thousands of favorable
+things about her--who has not been charmed likewise by her beauty,
+_esprit_, sweetness, and generosity."
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry describes the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet in the
+following:
+
+"Cléomire (Mme. de Rambouillet) had built, according to her own
+design, a place which is one of the finest in the world; she has found
+the art of constructing a palace of vast extent in a situation
+of mediocre grandeur. Order, harmony, and elegance are in all the
+apartments, and in the furniture also; everything is magnificent,
+even unique; the lamps are different from those of other palaces, her
+cabinets are full of objects which show the judgment of her who chose
+them. In her palace, the air is always scented; many baskets full of
+magnificent flowers make a continual spring in her room, and the place
+which she frequents ordinarily is so agreeable and so imaginative as
+to make one feel as if she were in some enchanted place."
+
+The very names of the frequenters of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet
+testify to the prominence of her position in the world of culture:
+Mlle. de Scudéry, Mlle. du Vigean; Mmes. de Longueville, de la Vergne,
+de La Fayette, de Sablé, de Hautefort, de Sévigné, de la Suze, Marie
+de Gonzague, Duchesse d'Aiguillon, Mmes. des Houlières, Cornuel,
+Aubry, and their respective husbands; the great literary men: Rotrou,
+Scarron, Saint-Evremond, Malherbe, Racan, Chapelain, Voiture, Conrart,
+Benserade, Pellisson, Segrais, Vaugelas, Ménage, Tallemant des Réaux,
+Balzac, Mairet, Corneille, Bossuet, etc. In the entire period of the
+French salon, no other such brilliant gathering of men and women of
+social standing, princely blood, genuine intelligence, and literary
+ability ever assembled from motives other than those of politics
+or intrigue; here was a gathering purely social and for purposes of
+mutual refinement. The nobility went through a process of polishing,
+and the men of letters sharpened their intelligence and modified their
+manners and customs.
+
+Julie, Duchess of Montausier, and Angélique, daughters of Mme. de
+Rambouillet, were popular, but the former lost much of her charm after
+she sacrificed her independence of thought and action by becoming
+governess of the children of the queen. Julie was the centre of
+attraction for all perfumed rhymesters, all sighers in prose and
+verse, who thronged about her. The stern and unbending Duke of
+Montausier was so under her influence that in 1641 he arranged and
+laid before her shrine the famous _guirlande_ which was illustrated by
+Robert and to which nineteen authors contributed. After her marriage
+to the duke, the Hôtel de Rambouillet may be said to have ceased to
+exist, as madame, who was seventy years of age, had for a number
+of years kept herself in the background, and Julie had become the
+acknowledged leader.
+
+With the outbreak of the Fronde, friends were separated by their
+individual interests and the reunions at the salon were interrupted
+from about 1650 to 1652. After the death of her husband, Mme. de
+Rambouillet retired, to reside with her daughter, Mme. de Montausier;
+after that, she seldom appeared in public. She hardly lived to see the
+spirit of the salon changed to the real _préciosité_--the direction
+and aim she gave to it being gradually abandoned.
+
+In her salon, for nearly fifty years, no pedantry, no loose manners,
+no questionable characters, no social or political intrigues, no
+discourtesies of any kind, were recorded; hers was a reign of dignity
+and grace, of purity of language, manners, and morals. She died in
+1665, at the advanced age of seventy-seven, esteemed and mourned by
+the entire social and intellectual world of France. Her influence
+was incalculable; it was the first time in the history of France
+that refined taste, intellectuality, and virtue had won importance,
+influence, and power.
+
+It must be remembered that in the first period of the salon there were
+no blue-stockings, no pedants: these were later developments. It was,
+primarily, a gathering which found pleasure in parties, excursions,
+concerts, balls, fireworks, dramatic performances, living tableaux;
+the last form of amusement very strongly influenced the development
+of the art, for in the galleries there appeared a surprisingly large
+number of portraits of the women of the day in character--sometimes as
+a nymph, sometimes as a goddess.
+
+The salon, in its first phase, showed and developed tolerance in
+religion as well as in art and literature. It also encouraged progress
+and displayed acute discrimination, keeping pace with the time in all
+that was new and meritorious. It developed individual liberty, public
+interest, criticism, good taste, and the elegant, clear, and precise
+conversational language in which France has excelled up to the present
+day.
+
+When about to build the Hôtel Pisani, Mme. de Rambouillet, having
+no love for architects, planned its construction without their
+assistance. She revolutionized the architecture of the time by
+introducing large and high doors and windows and putting the stairway
+to one side in order to secure a large suite of rooms. She was also
+the first to decorate a room in other colors than red or tan. The
+construction of her hôtel completely changed domestic architecture;
+and it may be noted that when the Luxembourg was to be built,
+the designers were instructed to examine, for ideas, the Hôtel de
+Rambouillet.
+
+Legouvé gives as the object and mission of Mme. de Rambouillet:
+"to combat the sensualism of Rabelais, Villon, and Marot, to reform
+society through love by reforming love through chastity; to place
+women at the head of civilization, by beginning a crusade against vice
+in the disguise of sentiment. The word 'fame' must, in the seventeenth
+century, apply to both man and woman, meaning honor for the one and
+purity for the other. Her ideal falls with the accession of Louis
+XIV.; the dazzling luxury of royalty hardly conceals, under its
+exterior elegance, the profound and deep-seated grossness of
+Versailles and Marly."
+
+To Mme. de Rambouillet, then, belongs the distinction of having
+been the first to bring together men of letters and great lords on
+a footing of social equality and for mutual benefit. Her salon
+and friends continued in the seventeenth century what Marguerite
+d'Angoulême had begun in the first part of the sixteenth--an
+intellectual, social, and moral reform.
+
+Many salons which were all more or less patterned after that of
+Rambouillet sprang into existence. Among these the Academy of the
+Vicomtesse d'Auchy, with Malherbe as president and tyrant, was of
+little influence as far as women were concerned. The members were all
+of second-rate importance, and Malherbe tolerated only the discussion
+of his verses, while Mme. d'Auchy was better known for her splendid
+neck than for any intellectuality. Every salon had a master of
+ceremonies, who performed the rite of presentation; these men were
+frequently abbés, and some of them, such as Du Buisson and Testu,
+became famous.
+
+Among the most noted of these salons was that of the celebrated
+beauty, Ninon de Lenclos, she who called the _précieuses_ the
+"Jansenists of love," an expression which became very popular. Her
+salon was situated on the Rue des Tournelles. Ninon de Lenclos was a
+woman of the most brilliant mind and exquisite taste, and it was at
+her hôtel that Molière first read his _Tartuffe_ before Condé, La
+Fontaine, Boileau, Lulli, Racine, and Chapelle, and it was there that
+he received the principal ideas for his drama.
+
+Ninon became famous for making staunch friends of her former lovers,
+in which connection some interesting tales are told. She was the
+mother of two children; upon the arrival of the first, a heated
+discussion arose between Count d'Estrées and Abbé d'Effiat, both
+claiming the honor of paternity. When the mother was consulted, she
+made no attempt to conceal her amusement; finally, the rivals threw
+dice for "father or not father."
+
+The other child, whose father was the Marquis de Gersay, was the
+victim of an unnatural passion for his mother with whom, when a young
+man, he fell desperately in love, being ignorant of their relation.
+While pleading his cause, he learned from her lips the secret, and, in
+despair, blew out his brains, a tragedy which apparently had no effect
+upon the mother. At one time, at the request of the clergy Ninon was
+sent, for impiety, to the convent of the Benedictines at Lagny.
+
+Among her friends she counted the greatest men and women of the day
+and her salon was the foyer of _savoir-vivre_, of letters and art. At
+the age of sixty she met the Great Condé, who dismounted to greet
+her, something that he very seldom did, as he was not in the habit
+of paying compliments to women. The saying: _Elle eut l'estime de
+Lenclos_ [she had the esteem of Lenclos] became a popular manner of
+expressing the fact that a certain woman was especially esteemed. Even
+to the last (she died at the age of eighty-five), Ninon preserved
+her grace, beauty, and intelligence. Colombey calls her _La mère
+spirituelle de Voltaire_ [the spiritual mother of Voltaire].
+
+The generality of women had their lovers; even the famous Mlle. de
+Scudéry, in spite of her homeliness--she was a dark, large-boned,
+and lean sort of old maid--had admirers galore; among the latter
+was Pellisson who was said to be so ugly "that he really abused the
+privilege--which man enjoys--of being homely."
+
+The hôtel of the famous poet Scarron--Hôtel de
+l'Impécuniosité--received almost all the frequenters of Ninon's salon.
+At the former place there were no restrictions as to the manner of
+enjoyment; after elevating and edifying conversation at the salon
+of Ninon, the members would repair to that of Scarron for a feast of
+_broutilles rabelaisiennes_ [Rabelaisian tidbits].
+
+The salon of Mme. de Montbazon had its frequenters who, however, were
+attracted mainly by her beauty; she was, to use the words of one of
+her friends, "One of those beauties that delight the eye and provoke
+a vigorous appetite." Her salon was one of suitors rather than of
+intellectuality or harmless sociability.
+
+The most famous of the men's salons was the Temple, constructed in
+1667 by Jacques de Souvré and conducted from 1681 to 1720 by Phillipe
+de Vendôme and his intendant, Abbé de Chaulieu. These reunions,
+especially under the latter, were veritable midnight _convivia_; he
+himself boasted of never having gone to bed one night in thirty years
+without having been carried there dead drunk, a custom to which he
+remained "faithful unto death." His boon companion was La Duchesse
+de Bouillon. Most of his frequenters were jolly good persons, utterly
+destitute of the sense of sufficiency in matters of carousing; the
+better people declined his invitations.
+
+After that of Mme. de Rambouillet, there were, in the seventeenth
+century, but two great salons that exerted a lasting influence and
+that were not saturated with the decadent _préciosité_. Of these
+the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry has been called the salon of the
+_bourgeoisie_, because the majority of its frequenters belonged to the
+third estate, which was rapidly acquiring power and influence.
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry, who was born in 1608 and lived through the whole
+century, saw society develop, and therefore knew it better than did
+any of her contemporaries. Having lost her parents early in life, her
+uncle reared her and she received advantages such as fell to the lot
+of few women of her condition; she was given an excellent education in
+literature, art, and the languages.
+
+Until the marriage of her brother, she was his constant and devoted
+companion, exiling herself to Marseilles when he was appointed
+governor of Notre Dame de La Garde, and returning to Paris with him
+in 1647. She first collaborated with him in a literary production of
+about eighty volumes. In their works, the brother furnished the rough
+draft, the dramatic episodes, adventures, and the Romanesque part,
+while she added the literary finish through charming character
+sketches, conversation, sentimental analyses, and letters. With a
+strong inclination toward society, and constantly fulfilling its
+obligations, she would from day to day write up her conversations of
+the evening before.
+
+An interesting anecdote is told in connection with the travels and
+coöperation of Mlle. de Scudéry and her brother; once, on the way to
+Paris, while stopping over night at Lyons, they were discussing the
+fate of one of their heroes, one proposing death and the other rescue,
+one poison and the other a more cruel death; a gentleman from Auvergne
+happened to overhear them and immediately notified the people of the
+inn, thinking it was a question of assassinating the king; the brother
+and sister were thrown into prison and only with great difficulty
+were they able to explain matters the next morning. From this incident
+Scribe drew the material for his drama, _L'Auberge ou les Brigands
+sans le Savoir_.
+
+At the Hôtel de Rambouillet where Mlle. de Scudéry was received early,
+she won everyone by her modesty, simplicity, _esprit_, and lovable
+disposition, and, in spite of her homeliness and poor figure, she
+attracted many platonic lovers. She was one of the few brilliant
+and famous women of the seventeenth century whose popularity was due
+solely to admirable qualities of mind and soul. With her, friendship
+became a cult, and it was in time of trouble that her friends received
+the strongest proof of her affection. She preferred to incur disgrace
+and the disfavor of Mazarin rather than forsake Condé and Madame de
+Longueville; to them she dedicated the ten volumes, successively,
+of her novel, _Cyrus_; the last volume was published after Mme. de
+Longueville's retirement and partial disgrace.
+
+After the brilliant society of the Hôtel de Rambouillet had been
+broken up by the marriage of Julie and the operations of the Fronde,
+and after her brother's marriage in 1654, Mlle. de Scudéry became
+independent and established the custom of receiving her friends on
+Saturday; these receptions became famous under the name of _Samedi_,
+and besides the regular rather bourgeois gathering, the most brilliant
+talent and highest nobility flocked to them, regardless of rank or
+station, wealth or influence. Pellisson, the great master, the prince,
+the Apollo of her Saturdays, was a man of wonderfully inventive
+genius, and possessed in a higher degree than any of his
+contemporaries the art of inventing surprises for the society that
+lived on novelty. When, on account of his devotion to Fouquet, he
+was imprisoned in the Bastille, Mlle. de Scudéry managed to persuade
+Colbert to brighten his confinement by permitting him to see friends
+and relatives. Part of every day she spent in his prison, conversing
+and reading; and this is but one instance of her fidelity and
+friendship.
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry, considering all men as aspirants for authority
+who, when husbands, degenerate into tyrants, preferred to retain
+her independence. Her ideas on love were very peculiar and were
+innovations at the time: she wished to be loved, but her love must be
+friendship--a pure, platonic love, in which her lover must be her all,
+her confidant, the participator in her sorrows and her conversation;
+and his happiness must be in her alone; he must, without feeling
+passion, love her for herself, and she must have the same feeling
+toward him. These sentiments are expressed in her novels, from which
+the following extracts are taken:
+
+"When friendship becomes love in the heart of a lover or when this
+love is mingled with friendship without destroying it, there is
+nothing so sweet as this kind of love; for as violent as it is, it is
+always held somewhat more in check than is ordinary love; it is more
+durable, more tender, more respectful, and even more ardent, although
+it is not subject to so many tumultuous caprices as is that love which
+arises without friendship. It can be said that love and friendship
+flow together like two streams, the more celebrated of which obscures
+the name of the other." ... "They agreed on even the conditions of
+their love; for Phaon solemnly promised Sapho (Mlle. de Scudéry)--who
+desired it thus--not to ask of her anything more than the possession
+of her heart, and she, also, promised him to receive only him in hers.
+They told each other all their thoughts, they understood them even
+without confessing them. Peace, however, was not so completely
+established that their affection could not become languishing or cool;
+for, although they loved each other as much as one can love, they at
+times complained of not being loved enough, and they had sufficient
+little difficulties to always leave something new to wish for; but
+they never had any troubles that were serious enough to essentially
+disturb their repose."
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry was mistress of the art of conversation, speaking
+without affectation and equally well on all affairs, serious, light,
+or gallant; she objected, however, to being called a _savante_, and
+she was far from resembling the false _précieuses_ to whom she was
+likened by her enemies. The occupations of her salon were somewhat
+different from those of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet. M. du Bled
+describes them as follows:
+
+"What they did in the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry you can guess readily:
+they amused themselves as at Mme. de Rambouillet's, they joked quite
+cheerfully, smiled and laughed, wrote farces in prose and
+poetry. There were readings, _loteries d'esprit_, sonnet-enigmas,
+_bouts-rimés_ (rhymes given to be formed into verse), _vers-échos_,
+fine literary joustings, discussions between the casuists. This salon
+had its talkers and speakers, those who tyrannized over the audience
+and those who charmed it, those who shot off fireworks and those who
+prepared them, those who had made a symphony of conversation and those
+who made of it a monologue and had no flashes of silence. They did not
+follow fashion there--they rather made it; in art and literature as
+in toilets, smallness follows the fashion, pretension exaggerates it,
+taste makes a compact with it."
+
+A specimen of the _énigme-sonnets_ may be of interest, to show in what
+intellectual playfulness and trivialities these wits indulged:
+
+  "Souvent, quoique léger, je lasse qui me porte.
+  Un mot de ma façon vaut un ample discours.
+  J'ai sous Louis le Grand commencé d'avoir cours,
+  Mince, long, plat, étroit, d'une étoffe peu forte.
+
+  "Les doigts les moins savants me taillent de la sorte;
+  Sous mille noms divers je parais tous les jours;
+  Aux valets étourdis je suis d'un grand secours.
+  Le Louvre ne voit point ma figure à sa porte.
+
+  "Une grossière main vient la plupart du temps
+  Me prendre de la main des plus honnêtes gens.
+  Civil, officieux, je suis né pour la ville.
+
+  "Dans le plus rude hiver j'ai le dos toujours nu:
+  Et, quoique fort commode, à peine m'a-t-on vu,
+  Qu'ausitôt négligé, je deviens inutile."
+
+[Often, although light, I weary the person who carries me. A word in
+my manner is worth a whole discourse. I began under Louis the Great to
+be in vogue,--slight, long, flat, narrow, of a very slight material.
+
+The most unskilled fingers cut me in their way; under a thousand
+different forms I appear every day; I am a great aid to the astonished
+valets. The Louvre does not see my face at its door.
+
+A coarse hand most of the time receives me from the hand of the nicest
+people. Civil, officious, I am born for the city.
+
+In the coldest weather, my back is always bare; and, although quite
+convenient, scarcely have they seen me, when I am neglected and
+useless.--Visiting card.]
+
+A more interesting one and one that caused no little amusement is the
+following:
+
+  "Je suis niais et fin, honnête et malhonnête,
+  Moins sincère à la cour qu'en un simple taudis.
+  Je fais d'un air plaisant trembler les plus hardis,
+  Le fort me laisse aller, le sage m'arrête.
+
+  "A personne sans moi l'on ne fait jamais fête:
+  J'embellis quelquefois, quelquefois, j'enlaidis.
+  Je dédaigne tantôt, tantôt j'applaudis;
+  Pour m'avoir en partage, il faut n'être pas bête.
+
+  "Plus mon trône est petit, plus il a de beauté.
+  Je l'agrandis pourtant d'un et d'autre côté,
+  Faisant voir bien souvent des défauts dont on jase.
+
+  "Je quitte mon éclat quand je suis sans témoins,
+  Et je me puis vanter enfin d'être la chose
+  Qui contente le plus et qui coûte le moins."
+
+[I am both stupid and bright, honest and dishonest; less sincere at
+court than in a simple hovel; with a pleasant air, I make the boldest
+tremble, the strong let me pass, the wise stop me.
+
+There is no joy to anyone without me; I embellish at times, at times I
+distort; I disdain and I applaud; to share me, one must not be stupid.
+
+The smaller my throne, the greater my beauty; I enlarge it, however,
+on both sides, often showing defects which are made sport of.
+
+I leave my brilliancy when I am without witness, and I can boast
+of being the thing which contents the most and costs the least.--A
+smile.]
+
+Critics often reproach Mlle. de Scudéry for having portrayed
+herself--as Sapho--in a flattering light in her novel _Cyrus_; but it
+must be remembered that at that time this was a common custom, women
+of the highest quality indulging in such pastimes, there even being a
+prominent salon where verbal portraiture was the sole occupation. No
+one has written more or better on the condition of woman, for she,
+above all, had the experience upon which to base her writings. The
+idea of woman's education and aim, which was generally entertained by
+the intelligent and modest women of the seventeenth century, is well
+expressed by Mlle. de Scudéry in the following:
+
+"The difficulty of knowing something with seemliness does not come to
+a woman so much from what she knows as from what others do not know;
+and it is, without doubt, singularity that makes it difficult to be as
+others are not, without being exposed to blame. Seriously, is not the
+ordinary idea of the education of women a peculiar one? They are not
+to be coquettes nor gallants, and yet they are carefully taught all
+that is peculiar to gallantry without being permitted to know anything
+that can strengthen their virtue or occupy their minds. Don't imagine,
+however, that I do not wish woman to be elegant, to dance or to sing;
+but I should like to see as much care devoted to her mind as to her
+body, and between being ignorant and _savante_ I should like to see
+a road taken which would prevent annoyance from an impertinent
+sufficiency or from a tiresome stupidity. I should like very much to
+be able to say of anyone of my sex that she knows a hundred things of
+which she does not boast, that she has a well-balanced mind, that she
+speaks well, writes correctly, and knows the world; but I do not wish
+it to be said of her that she is a _femme savante_. The best women of
+the world when they are together in a large number rarely say anything
+that is worth anything and are more ennuyé than if they were alone; on
+the contrary, there is something that I cannot express, which makes it
+possible for men to enliven and divert a company of ladies more than
+the most amiable woman on earth could do."
+
+Mlle. de Scudéry considered marriage a long slavery and preferred
+virtuous celibacy enlivened by platonic gallantry. When youth and
+adorers had passed away, she found consolation in interchanges of
+wit, congenial conversation, and the cultivation of the mind by study.
+Making of love a doctrine, a manual of morals or _savoir-vivre_, has
+had a refining effect upon civilization; but the process has rendered
+the emotion itself too subtle, select, narrow, enervating, and
+exhausting; it has resulted in the production of splendid books
+with heroes and heroines of the higher type, and has purified the
+atmosphere of social life; this phase of its influence, however,
+is felt by only a set of the élite, and its adherents are scattered
+through every age and every country. Mlle. de Scudéry was a perfect
+representative of that type, but healthy and normal rather than
+morbidly æsthetic.
+
+An opposition party soon arose, formed by those, especially, who
+entertained different ideas of the sphere and duties of woman. Just
+as the type of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet degenerated among the
+aristocracy into those of the Hôtel de Condé, Mme. de Sablé, and Mlle.
+de Luxembourg, so the type of the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry gave rise
+to a number of literary salons among the _bourgeoisie_. The aim of
+the latter institutions was to imitate her example in endeavoring to
+spread the taste for courtesy, elegant manners and the higher forms
+of learning; all these aspirations, however, drifted into mere
+affectation, while the requisites of welcome at the original salon
+were simplicity, freedom from affectation, delicacy, amiability, and
+dignity.
+
+As a writer, Mlle. de Scudéry occupies no mean position in the history
+of French literature of the seventeenth century. Her descriptions
+and anecdotes possess a wonderful charm and display unusual power of
+analysis; in them, Victor Cousin recognizes a truly virile spirit. In
+the history of the French novel, she forms a transition period, her
+productions having both a psychological interest and a historical
+value of a very high degree. Through her finesse and marvellous
+feminine penetration, her truthful, delicate and fine portraitures,
+which were widely imitated later, she has exerted an extensive
+influence.
+
+With Mlle. de Scudéry "we have substance, real character painting,
+true psychological penetration, and realism in observation," while
+previously the novel, under such men as Gomberville and La Calprenède,
+was imaginative and full of fancy. Her talent, then, in that field,
+lay in the analysis and development of sentiments, in delineation of
+character, in the creation and reproduction of refined and ingenious
+conversations, and in her reflections on subjects pertaining to
+morality and literature--in all of which she displayed justness and
+entire liberty and independence of thought. Her poetry, delicate
+compliment or innocent gallantries, was a mere bagatelle of the salon.
+
+Charming as well as accomplished, Mlle. de Scudéry was as intelligent,
+witty, and intellectual a woman as could be found in the seventeenth
+century; and in the history of that period she retains an undisputed
+position as one of its great leaders of thought and progress. Her
+salon, inasmuch as the salon of Mme. de Lambert was not opened until
+1710, and therefore the discussion of it belongs properly to the
+beginning of the eighteenth century, really closes the literary
+progress of the seventeenth century.
+
+The influence of the seventeenth century salon was of a threefold
+nature--literary, moral, and social. According to the salon
+conception, artistic, literary, or musical pleasure being derived
+from form and mode of expression, it possessed a special and unique
+interest in proportion to the efforts made and the difficulties
+surmounted in attaining that form and expression: thus, woman
+introduced a new standard of excellence.
+
+_Préciosité_ treated language not as a work of art, but as a medium
+for the display of individual linguistic dexterity; giving no thing
+its proper name, it delighted in paraphrase, allusion, word play,
+unexpected comparisons and abundance of metaphors, and revelled in
+the elusive, delicate, subtle, and complex. Hence conversation turned
+constantly to love and gallantry; thus woman developed to a wonderful
+degree, unattainable to but few, the art of conversation, politeness
+and courtesy of manners, and social relations, at the same time
+purifying language and enriching it.
+
+French women of the seventeenth century are condemned for having
+treated serious things too lightly; and it is said that "in confining
+the French mind to the observation of society and its attractions, she
+has restricted and retarded a more realistic and larger activity."
+In answer to this it may be asserted that the French mind was not
+prepared for a broader field until it had passed through the process
+of expurgating, refining, drilling, and disciplining. If _préciosité_
+influenced politics, it was by developing diplomacy, for, from
+the time that this spirit began to spread, French diplomacy became
+world-renowned.
+
+The social influence of the movement may be better appreciated
+by considering the condition of woman in earlier periods. Having
+practically no position except that of housewife or mother, she was
+merely a source of pleasure for man, for whom she had little or no
+respect. The _précieuses_, on the contrary, exacted respect, honor,
+and a place beside man, as rights that belonged to them.
+
+As the outcome of their desire to think, feel, and act with greater
+delicacy, women introduced propriety in expression, finesse in
+analysis, keenness of _esprit_, psychological subtleness: qualities
+that surely tended to higher standards of morality, purer social
+relations, finer and more subtle diplomacy, more elegance and
+precision in literature. Therefore, _préciosité_ in France had a
+wholesome influence, which was possible because woman had won for
+herself her rightful position, and her aspirations were toward social
+and moral elevation.
+
+In general, the women of France have always been conscious of their
+duty, their importance, and their limitations, appreciating their
+power and cultivating the characteristics that attract man and retain
+his respect and attention: sociability, morality, _esprit_, artistic
+appreciation, sensitiveness, tact. These qualities became manifest to
+a remarkable degree in French women of the seventeenth century, and
+created in every writer, great or unimportant, the desire to win their
+favor. Thus, Corneille strove to write dramas with which he might
+establish the reign of decency on a stage the liberties of which
+had previously made the theatre inaccessible to woman; hence, his
+characters of humanity (Cid) and politeness (Menteur).
+
+The purpose of the French Academy itself was not different from that
+of the _précieuses_. Richelieu, realizing that every great talent
+accepted the discipline of these women, sought to use this power for
+his own ends by interesting the world of letters in the accomplishment
+of his plans for a general political unity. Thus, when the first
+period of _préciosité_ had reached its highest point and was beginning
+to decline, and other smaller and envious social groups were forming
+about Paris and causing a conflict of ideas, Richelieu conceived
+the scheme of joining all in a union, with strong ideals and with a
+language as dignified as the Latin and the Greek. The result was the
+formation of the French Academy. From this time begins the decline
+of the authority of woman; for while she still exerted a powerful
+influence, it was no longer absolute. After the decline of the Hôtel
+de Rambouillet, feminine influence became more general, expending
+itself in petty rivalries, gossip, intrigues, and partaking of the
+nature of that court life which was filled by the young king with
+parties, feasts, collations, walks, carousals, boating, concerts,
+ballets, and masquerades--a mode of living that gave rise to a new
+standard of politeness, which was freer and looser than that of
+_préciosité_.
+
+As the power of the young king became stronger, his favor became
+the goal of all men of letters. Although woman still to some extent
+controlled the destinies of those who were struggling for recognition
+and reputation, her influence was of a secondary nature, that of the
+king being supreme. Woman seemed to be overcoming the influence of
+woman--Mme. de Montespan replaced Mlle. de La Vallière, and she was in
+turn replaced by Mme. de Maintenon.
+
+The degeneration of the king was accompanied by that of literature,
+society, and morals. The characteristic inclination of the day was
+eagerly to seek and grasp that which was new, and the noble, forceful,
+and dignified style of language of the previous period was replaced
+by one of much lighter description; many female writers directed their
+efforts entirely toward amusing, pleasing, and gaining applause.
+
+In the beginning of the eighteenth century, with Mme. de Lambert as
+its leader, there was a renascence of the _préciosité_ of the Hôtel
+de Rambouillet, women protesting against the prevalent grossness
+and indecency of manners. The salon of Mme. de Lambert was the great
+antechamber to the Academy, election to which was generally gained
+through her. A new aristocracy was forming, a new society arose;
+from about 1720 to 1750, libertinism and atheism, licentiousness and
+intrigue, crept into the salons.
+
+The new aristocracy was of doubtful and impure source, cynical in
+manner, unbridled in habits, over-fastidious in taste, and politically
+powerful. In this society woman began to be felt as a political force.
+M. Brunetière said: "Mme. de Lambert made Academicians; the Marquise
+de Prie made a queen of France; Mme. de Tencin made cardinals and
+ambassadors." Montesquieu wrote: "There is not a person who has any
+employment at the court in Paris or in the provinces, who has not
+the influence (and sometimes the injustices which she can cause) of
+a woman through whom all favors pass;" and M. Brunetière added: "This
+woman is not his wife." The popular spirit in literature was one of
+subtleness, irony, superficial observations on manners and customs.
+From the beginning of the eighteenth century up to the eve of
+the Revolution, woman's influence continued to increase, but that
+influence was mainly in the direction of politics. Thus, in every
+period in French history, a group of women effectively moulds French
+thought and language, and directs intellectual activity in general.
+
+After the death of Louis XIV., society passed under the rule of the
+regent, the Duke of Orléans--the personification of gallantry and
+affability, of depravity which was a mania, and of licentiousness
+which was a disease. From this atmosphere the salon of Mme. de Lambert
+became a refuge to those who still cherished the ideals of the good
+old times of Mme. de Rambouillet; it was distinguished by its
+refined sentiment and polished manners, which were like those of the
+seventeenth century at its best.
+
+Mme. de Lambert believed that the demands of the time were just the
+opposite of those of the seventeenth century: "What a multitude of
+tastes nowadays--the table, play, theatre! When money and luxury are
+supreme, true honor loses its power. Persons seek only those houses
+where shameful luxury reigns." In her own salon, none might enter who
+were not of the small number of the elect.
+
+Very little is known of the life of Mme. de Lambert. She was born in
+1647, and, in spite of the unfavorable surroundings of her youth and
+of a dissolute, extravagant, and unrefined mother, the observance of
+decorum and honor became the actuating principle of her life. Until
+her marriage (in 1666) to Henri de Lambert, Marquis de Bris en
+Auxerrois, she was in the midst of the grossest licentiousness and
+freedom of manners; when married, she entered a family the very
+opposite of her own.
+
+She was a woman who believed in the power of ambitious energy. To her
+son she once said: "Nothing is less becoming to a young man than a
+certain modesty that makes him believe that he is not capable of great
+things. This modesty is a languor of the soul, which prevents it from
+soaring and rapidly carrying itself to glory."
+
+At first she lived in the Hôtel de Lambert (in the Ile Saint-Louis),
+renowned for its splendidly sculptured decorations, painted ceilings,
+panels, and staircases. Her famous Salon des Muses and Cabinet
+d'Amours were filled with the finest works of art and the most
+exquisite paintings. There the élite of all classes were entertained
+until the death of her husband (1686), when the hôtel was closed; it
+was not reopened until 1710.
+
+Though left with immense wealth, her affairs were in a very
+complicated state. While actively employed in untangling her
+difficulties, she at the same time superintended the education of her
+son and daughter. After long and trying lawsuits, she managed to put
+her fortune in order and established herself at Paris, where the Duc
+de Nevers ceded to her, for life, a large portion of the magnificently
+furnished Palais Mazarin, now the National Library. On the completion
+of her work in remodelling this palace and furnishing it with the most
+costly and beautiful panel paintings by Watteau and other artists, she
+inaugurated her Tuesday and Wednesday dinner parties.
+
+One remarkable characteristic of her company was the age of her
+intimate associates--the Marquis de Saint-Aulaire, Fontenelle, Mme.
+Dacier, and her husband, Louis de Sacy, all of whom, as well as Mme.
+de Lambert herself, had passed threescore and more; but they still
+kept alive the cherished memories of the brilliant society of their
+youth. Mme. de Lambert did not personally know Mme. de Rambouillet,
+but she visited the latter's daughter, Julie d'Angennes, from whom
+she learned the customs and etiquette in vogue at the Hôtel de
+Rambouillet.
+
+The Wednesday dinners of Mme. de Lambert were to her intimate friends,
+while every Tuesday afternoon she received a general circle which
+indulged in general conversation and read and discussed books which
+were about to be published; gambling, which seemed to be the principal
+means of entertaining in those days, had no place there. Fontenelle
+says: "It was, with very few exceptions, the only house which had been
+preserved from the epidemic of gambling--the only house where persons
+congregated simply for the sake of talking sensibly and with _esprit_.
+Those who had their reasons for considering it bad taste that
+conversation was still carried on in any place, cast mean reflections,
+whenever they could, against the house of Mme. de Lambert." In the
+evening, she received only a few select friends with whom she talked
+seriously. Her salon soon became the envy of those who were not
+admitted (and they were numerous), and was the object of many
+calumnies and attacks.
+
+During this time she found leisure to write two treatises of practical
+morality, _Avis d'une mère à son fils_, and _Avis d'une mère à sa
+fille_, which appeared without her permission. The manuscripts, lent
+to friends, fell into the hands of a publisher; and although the
+authoress endeavored to prevent the distribution of the works by
+buying up the entire editions, they were published outside of France.
+The two works written to her children form an important contribution
+to the educational literature of the time; in them the religion of the
+eighteenth century is first defined.
+
+"Above all these duties--civil and human (says the mother to her
+son)--is the duty you owe to the Supreme Being. Religion is a commerce
+established between God and man through the grace of God to man and
+through the duty of man to God. Elevated souls have for their God
+sentiments and a cult apart, which do not resemble at all those of the
+people; everything issues from the heart and goes to God."
+
+In these works, she attacked also the fad of free-thinking in vogue
+among the young men of the time. She was one of the few women of that
+age who could not separate themselves from reason and thought, even in
+religion; the latter was a matter for the reason and the intellect to
+decide, and was thus an elevated product of the mind rather than an
+instinct coming from the heart, or a positive revelation as it was in
+the seventeenth century. In this view, Madame de Lambert indicated the
+beginning of the later eighteenth-century spirit.
+
+Mme. de Lambert taught her children to be satisfied with nothing
+but the highest attainable object. She advised her son to choose his
+friends from among men above him, in order to accustom himself to
+respectful and polite demeanor; "with his equals he might cultivate
+negligence and his mind might become dull." She desired her children
+to think differently from the people--"Those who think lowly and
+commonly, and the court is filled with such." To their servants they
+were to be good and kind, for humanity and Christianity make
+all equal. She was the first to use those words, "humanity" and
+"equality," which later became the bywords of everyone, and the first
+to teach that conscience is the best guide. "Conscience is defined as
+that interior sentiment of a delicate honor which assures you that you
+have nothing with which to reproach yourself."
+
+Possibly the most important and lasting effect of Mme. de Lambert's
+influence resulted from the expression of her ideas on the education
+of young women who "are destined to please, and are given lessons
+only in methods of delighting and pleasing." She was convinced that in
+order to resist temptation and be normal, women must be educated, must
+learn to think. Her counsels to her daughter are remarkable for an
+unusual insight into the temperament of her sex and for an extreme
+fear that makes her call to her aid all precautions and resources. She
+thus advises her daughter:
+
+"Try to find resources within yourself--this is a revenue of certain
+pleasures. Do not believe that your only virtue is modesty; there are
+many women who know no other virtue, and who imagine that it relieves
+them of all duties toward society; they believe they are right in
+lacking all others and think themselves privileged to be proud and
+slanderous with impunity. You must have a gentle modesty; a good
+woman may have the advantages of a man's friendship without abandoning
+honesty and faithfulness to her duties. Nothing is so difficult as to
+please without the use of what seems like coquettishness. It is more
+often by their defects than by their good qualities that women please
+men; men seek to profit by the weaknesses of good and kind women,
+for whose virtues they care nothing, and they prefer to be amused by
+persons not very estimable than to be forced merely to admire virtuous
+persons."
+
+This is a most faithful description of the society of her time, and
+it was because her treatises struck home that they were severely
+criticised; but, nothing daunted, she carried out her plans in her own
+way, resorting neither to intrigue nor artifice. Many of her sayings
+became household maxims, such as--"It is not always faults that undo
+us; it is the manner of conducting ourselves after having committed
+them."
+
+Her reflections on women might be called the great plea, at the end
+of the seventeenth century, for woman's right to use her reason. After
+the severe and cruel satire of Molière, attacking women for their
+innocent amusements, they gave themselves up entirely to pleasure.
+"Mme. de Lambert now wrote to avenge her sex and demand for it the
+honest and strong use of the mind; and this was done in the midst of
+the wild orgies of the Regency."
+
+Mme. de Lambert was not a rare beauty, but she possessed recompensing
+charms. M. Colombey asserts that she became convinced of two things,
+about which she became highly enthusiastic: first, that woman was more
+reasonable than man; secondly, that M. Fontenelle, who presided over
+or filled the functions of president of her salon, was always in the
+right. He was indeed in harmony with the tone of the salon, being
+considered the most polished, brilliant, and distinguished member of
+the intellectual society of Paris, as well as one of the most talented
+drawing room philosophers. He made the salon of Mme. de Lambert the
+most sought for and celebrated, the most intellectual and moral of the
+period.
+
+Mme. de Lambert has, possibly, exercised more influence upon men--and
+especially upon the Forty Immortals of her time--than did any woman
+before or after her. The Marquis d'Argenson states that "a person was
+seldom received at the Academy unless first presented at her salon. It
+is certain that she made at least half of our actual Academicians."
+
+Her salon was called a _bureau d'esprit_, which was due to the fact
+that it was about the only social gathering point where culture and
+morality were the primary requisites. As she advanced in years, she
+became even more influential. After her death in 1733, her salon
+ceased to exist, but others, patterned after hers, soon sprang up; to
+those, her friends attached themselves--Fontenelle frequented several,
+Hénault became the leader of that of Mme. du Deffand.
+
+The finest résumé that can be given of Mme. de Lambert, is found in
+the letters of the Marquis d'Argenson: "Her works contain a complete
+course in the most perfect morals for the use of the world and the
+present time. Some affectation of the _préciosité_ is found; but, what
+beautiful thoughts, what delicate sentiments! How well she speaks
+of the duties of women, of friendship, of old age, of the difference
+between actual character and reputation!"
+
+The salon of Mme. de Lambert forms a period of transition from the
+seventeenth century type in which elegance, politeness, courtesy, and
+morality were the first requisites, to the eighteenth century salon in
+which _esprit_ and wit were the essentials demanded. It retained the
+dignity, discipline, refinement, and sentiments of morality of
+the Hôtel de Rambouillet; it showed, also, the first signs of
+pure intellectuality. The salons to follow, will exhibit decidedly
+different characteristics.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter V
+
+Mistresses and Wives of Louis XIV
+
+
+The story of the wives and mistresses of Louis XIV., embraces that
+which is most dramatic morally (or immorally dramatic) in the history
+of French women. The record of the eighteenth century heroines is
+essentially a tragic one, while that of those of the previous century
+is essentially dramatic in its sadness, remorse, and repentance.
+
+The mistress, as a rule, was unhappy; there were few months during the
+period of her glory, in which she was entirely free from anxiety or in
+which her conscience was at rest. Mme. de Montespan "was for so many
+years the sick nurse of a soul worn out with pride, passion, and
+glory." Mme. de Maintenon wrote to one of her friends: "Why cannot
+I give you my experience? Why cannot I make you comprehend the ennui
+which devours the great, and the troubles that fill their days? Do you
+not see that I am dying of sadness, in a fortune the vastness of which
+could not be easily imagined? I have been young and pretty; I have
+enjoyed pleasures; I have spent years in intellectual intercourse;
+I have attained favor; and I protest to you, my dear child, that
+all such conditions leave a frightful void." She said, also, to her
+brother, Count d'Aubigné: "I can hold out no longer; I would like
+to be dead." It was she too, who, after her successes, made
+her confession thus: "One atones heavily for the pleasures and
+intoxications of youth. I find, in looking back at my life, that since
+the age of twenty-two--which was the beginning of my fortune--I
+have not had a moment free from sufferings which have constantly
+increased."
+
+M. Saint-Amand gives a description of the women of Louis XV. which
+well applies to those of his predecessor: "These pretended mistresses,
+who, in reality, are only slaves, seem to present themselves,
+one after the other, like humble penitents who come to make their
+apologies to history, and, like the primitive Christians, to reveal
+publicly the miseries, vexations, and remorses of their souls. They
+tell us to what their doleful successes amounted: even while their
+triumphal chariot made its way through a crowd of flatterers, their
+consciences hissed cruel accusations into their ears; like actresses
+before a whimsical and variable public, they were always afraid that
+the applause might change into an uproar, and it was with terror
+underlying their apparent coolness that they continued to play their
+sorry part.... If among these mistresses of the king there were a
+single one who had enjoyed her shameful triumphs in peace, who had
+called herself happy in the midst of her dearly bought luxury and
+splendor, one might have concluded that, from a merely human point of
+view, it is possible to find happiness in vice. But, no--there is not
+even one!" Massillon, the great preacher of truth and morality,
+said: "The worm of conscience is not dead; it is only benumbed. The
+alienated reason presently returns, bringing with it bitter troubles,
+gloomy thoughts, and cruel anxieties"--a true picture of every
+mistress.
+
+The remarkable power and influence of these women, the love and
+adoration accorded them, ceased with their death; the memory of them
+did not survive overnight. When, during a terrible storm, the remains
+of the glorious Mme. de Pompadour were being taken to Paris, the king,
+seeing the funeral cortége from his window, remarked: "The Marquise
+will not have fine weather for her journey."
+
+Each one of these powerful mistresses represents a complete epoch of
+society, morals, and customs. Mme. de Montespan--that woman whose
+very look meant fortune or disfavor--with all her wit and wealth, her
+magnificence and pomp and superb beauty--she, in all her splendor, is
+a type of the triumphant France, haughty, dictatorial, scornful
+and proud, licentious and decayed at the core. Voluptuousness and
+haughtiness were replaced by religiosity and repentance in Mme. de
+Maintenon, with her temperate character, consistency, and propriety.
+
+The Regency was a period of scandal and wantonness, personified in the
+Duchess of Berry. The licentious and extravagant, yet brilliant and
+exquisite, frivolous but charming, intriguing and diplomatic, was
+represented by the talented and politically influential Mme. de
+Pompadour. Complete degeneracy, vice with all manner of disguise
+thrown off, adultery of the lowest order, were personified in the
+common Mme. du Barry, who might be classed with Louise of Savoy of
+the sixteenth century, while Mme. de Pompadour might be compared with
+Diana of Poitiers.
+
+In this period the queens of France were of little importance, being
+too timid and modest to assert their rights--a disposition which was
+due sometimes to their restricted youth, spent in Catholic countries,
+sometimes to a naturally unassuming and sensitive nature. To this rule
+Maria Theresa, the wife of Louis XIV., was no exception. She inherited
+her sweetness of disposition and her Christian character from her
+mother, Isabella of France, the daughter of Henry IV. and Marie de'
+Medici. She was pure and candid; a type of irreproachable piety and
+goodness, of conjugal tenderness and maternal love; and recompensed
+outraged morality for all the false pride, selfish ambition,
+depravity, and scandals of court. She is conspicuous as a model wife,
+one that loved her husband, her family, and her children.
+
+Around Maria Theresa may be grouped the noble and virtuous women of
+the court of Louis XIV., for she was to that age what Claude of France
+was under Francis I., Elizabeth of Austria under Charles V., Louise de
+Vaudemont under Henry III. However, in extolling these women, it
+must be remembered that they had not, as queens, the opportunity to
+participate in debauchery, licentiousness, and intrigue, as had the
+mistresses of their husbands; they had no power, were not consulted on
+state or social affairs, and had granted to them only those favors to
+the conferring of which the mistresses did not object.
+
+Maria Theresa was a perfect example of the self-sacrificing mother and
+devoted wife. Her feelings toward the king are best expressed by the
+Princesse Palatine: "She had such an affection for the king that she
+tried to read in his eyes whatever would give him pleasure; providing
+he looked kindly at her, she was happy all day." Mme. de Caylus
+wrote: "That poor princess had such a dread of the king and such great
+natural timidity that she dared neither to speak to him nor to run the
+risk of a tête-à-tête with him. One day, I heard Mme. de Maintenon say
+that the king having sent for the queen, the latter requested her to
+go with her so that she might not appear alone in his presence: but
+that she (Mme. de Maintenon) conducted her only to the door of the
+room and there took the liberty of pushing her so as to make her
+enter, and that she observed such a great trembling in her whole
+person that her very hands shook with fright."
+
+From about 1680, especially after the death of Mlle. de Fontanges, his
+last mistress, Louis XIV. began to look with disfavor upon the women
+of doubtful morality and to advance those who were noted for their
+conjugal fidelity. He became more attentive to the queen--a change of
+attitude which was due partly to the influence of Mme. de Maintenon
+and partly to the fact that he was satiated with the excesses of his
+debauches, by which his physical system had been almost wrecked. He
+would not have dared to legitimatize his bastard children, had he not
+been so thoroughly idolized by his greatest heroes and most powerful
+ministers. As an illustration, it may be remarked that the Great Condé
+proposed the marriage of his son to the king's daughter by Mlle. de La
+Vallière.
+
+The queen became so religious that she derived more enjoyment from
+praying at the convents or visiting hospitals than from remaining
+at her magnificent apartments. She waited upon the sick with her own
+hands and carried food to them; she never meddled in political affairs
+or took much interest in social functions.
+
+Timidity, an instinctive shrinking from the slanders, calumnies,
+and intrigues of the court, appeared to be the most pronounced
+characteristic of queens who seemed to believe themselves too inferior
+to their husbands to dare to offer any political counsel. While none
+of them were superior intellectually, they possessed dignity, good
+sense, and tact, "a reverential feeling for the sanctity of religion
+and the majesty of the throne," an admirable resignation, a painful
+docility and submission--qualities which might have been turned to
+the advantage of their owners and the state, had the former been more
+self-assertive.
+
+The infidelities of their husbands caused the queen-consorts constant
+torture; they were forced to behold the kings' favorites becoming part
+of their own households and were compelled to endure the presence,
+as ladies in waiting, of those who, as their rivals, caused them to
+suffer all possible torments of jealousy and outraged conjugal love.
+
+First among the mistresses of Louis XIV. was Mlle. de La Vallière,
+whom Sainte-Beuve mentions as the personification of the ideal of
+a lover, combining disinterestedness, fidelity, unique and delicate
+tenderness with a touching and sincere kindness. When, at the age of
+seventeen, she was presented at court, the king immediately selected
+her as one of his victims. Her beauty was so striking, of such an
+exquisitely tender type, that no woman actually rivalled her as
+queen of beauty. Distinguished by blond hair, dark blue eyes, a most
+sympathetic voice, and a complexion of rare whiteness mingled
+with red, she was guileless, animated, gentle, modest, graceful,
+unaffected, and ingenuous; although slightly lame, she was, by
+everyone, considered charming.
+
+Mlle. de La Vallière was the mother of several children of whom Louis
+XIV. was the father. On realizing that she had rivals in the favor
+of the sovereign, she fled several times from the Tuileries to the
+convent; on her second return, the king, about to go to battle,
+recognized his daughter by her, whom he made a duchess. Remorse
+overcame the mistress so deeply that she, for the third and final
+time, left court. Especially on the rise to power of Mme. de Montespan
+was she painfully humiliated, suffering the most intense pangs of
+conscience. The evening before her final departure to the convent, she
+dined with Mme. de Montespan, to drink "the cup to the dregs and
+to enjoy the rejection of the world even to the last remains of its
+bitterness."
+
+Guizot describes this period most vividly: "When Mme. de Montespan
+began to supplant her in the king's favor, the grief of Mlle. de La
+Vallière was so great that she thought she would die of it. Then she
+turned to God, penitent and in despair; twice she sought refuge in
+a convent at Chaillot. On leaving, she sent word to the king: 'After
+having lost the honor of your good graces I would have left the court
+sooner, if I could have prevailed upon myself never to see you again;
+but that weakness was so strong in me that hardly now am I capable
+of sacrificing it to God. After having given you all my youth, the
+remainder of my life is not too much for the care of my salvation.'"
+The king still clung to her. "He sent M. Colbert to beg her earnestly
+to come to Versailles that he might speak with her. M. Colbert
+escorted her thither and the king conversed for an hour with her and
+wept bitterly. Mme. de Montespan was there to meet her, with open arms
+and tears in her eyes." "It is all incomprehensible," adds Mme. de
+Sévigné; "some say that she will remain at Versailles and at court,
+others that she will return to Chaillot; we shall see."
+
+Mlle. de La Vallière remained three years at court, "half penitent,"
+she said, humbly, detained by the king's express wish, in consequence
+of the tempers and jealousies of Mme. de Montespan who felt herself
+judged and condemned by her rival's repentance. Attempts were made to
+turn Mlle. de La Vallière from her inclination for the Carmelites':
+"Madame," said Mme. Scarron to her, one day, "here are you one
+blaze of gold; have you really considered that, before long, at the
+Carmelites' you will have to wear serge?" She, however, was not to
+be dissuaded from her determination and was already practising, in
+secret, the austerities of the convent. "God has laid in this heart
+the foundation of great things," said Bossuet, who supported her in
+her conflict; "the world puts great hindrances in her way, and God
+great mercies; I have hopes that God will prevail; the uprightness of
+her heart will carry everything before it."
+
+"When I am in trouble at the Carmelites'," said Mlle. de La Vallière,
+as for the last time she quitted the court, "I shall think of what
+those people have made me suffer." "The world itself makes us sick of
+the world," said Bossuet in the sermon which he preached on the day
+she took the veil; "its attractions have enough of illusion, its
+favors enough of inconstancy, its rebuffs enough of bitterness.
+There is enough of bitterness, enough of injustice and perfidy in the
+dealings of men, enough of inconsistency and capriciousness in their
+intractable and contradictory humors--there is enough of it all, to
+disgust us."
+
+When, in 1675, she took the final vows, she cut off her beautiful hair
+and devoted herself to the church and to charity, receiving the veil
+from the queen, whose forgiveness she sought before entering the
+convent. The king showed himself to be such a jealous lover, that when
+Mlle. de La Vallière entirely abandoned him for God, he forgot her
+absolutely, never going to the convent to see her.
+
+She was by far the most interesting and pathetic of the three
+mistresses of Louis XIV.; her heart was superior to that of either
+of her successors, though her mind was inferior; she belonged to a
+different atmosphere--such kindness, charity, penitence, resignation,
+and absolute abandonment to God were rare among the conspicuous French
+women. Sainte-Beuve says: "She loved for love, without haughtiness,
+coquetry, arrogance, ambitious designs, self-interest, or vanity; she
+suffered and sacrificed everything, humiliated herself to expiate her
+wrong-doing, and finally surrendered herself to God, seeking in prayer
+the treasures of energy and tenderness; through her heart, her mental
+powers attained their complete development."
+
+The fate of Mlle. de La Vallière was the same as that of nearly all
+royal mistresses; abandoned and absolutely forgotten by her lover, she
+sought refuge and consolation in religion and God's mercy. "She
+was dead to me the day she entered the Carmelites'," said the king,
+thirty-five years later, when the modest and fervent nun at last
+expired, in 1710, without having ever relaxed the severities of her
+penance.
+
+Of an entirely different type from Mlle. de La Vallière was that
+haughtiest and most supercilious of all French mistresses, Mme. de
+Montespan. The picture drawn by M. Saint-Amand does her full justice:
+"A haughty and opulent beauty, a forest of hair, flashing blue eyes, a
+complexion of splendid carnation and dazzling whiteness, one of those
+alluring and radiant countenances which shed brightness around them
+wherever they appear, an incisive, caustic wit, an unquenchable thirst
+for riches and pleasure, luxury and power, the manners of a goddess
+audaciously usurping the place of Juno on Olympus, passion without
+love, pride without true dignity, splendor without harmony--that was
+Mme. de Montespan." And these qualities were the secret of her success
+as well as of her fall.
+
+From this description it can easily be divined of what nature was her
+influence and how she gained and held her power over the king. She
+won Louis XIV. entirely by her sensual charms, provoked him by her
+imperious exactions, her ungovernable fits of temper, and her daring
+sarcasm; always extravagant and unreasonable, she talked constantly of
+balls and fêtes, the glories of court and its scandals. Most exacting,
+yet never satisfied, she had no regard for the interests or honor of
+the weak king, to whose lower nature only she appealed.
+
+Mme. de Montespan was of noble birth, being the youngest daughter of
+Rochechouart, first Duke of Mortemart. She was born in 1641, at the
+grand old château of Tonnay-Charente, and was educated at the convent
+of Sainte-Marie. Brought up religiously, she at first evinced a much
+greater tendency toward religion than toward worldly ambition and
+vanity. Mme. de Caylus, in her _Souvenirs_, wrote that "far from being
+born depraved, the future favorite had a nature inherently disinclined
+to gallantry and tending to virtue. She was flattered at being
+mistress, not solely for her own pleasure, but on account of the
+passion of the king; she believed that she could always make him
+desire what she had resolved never to grant him. She was in despair at
+her first pregnancy, consoled herself for the second one, and in all
+the others carried impudence as far as it could go."
+
+She was known first as Mlle. Tonnay-Charente, and was maid of honor
+to the Duchess of Orléans. When, at the age of twenty-two, she married
+the Marquis de Montespan and became lady in waiting to the queen, her
+beauty, wit, and brilliant conversational powers at once made her the
+centre of attraction; for several years, however, the king scarcely
+noticed her. Upon secretly becoming his mistress in 1668 and openly
+being declared as such two years later, her husband attempted to
+interfere, and was unceremoniously banished to his estates; in 1676 he
+was legally separated from her. She persuaded the king to legitimatize
+their children, who were confided to Mme. Scarron,--afterward Mme. de
+Maintenon,--who later influenced the king to abandon his mistress.
+
+Mme. de Montespan's power, lasting fourteen years, was almost
+unlimited, and was the epoch of courtiers intoxicated with passion
+and consumed by vice, infatuated with the king and his mistress,
+whose title as _maîtresse-en-titre_ was considered an official one,
+conferring the same privileges and demanding the same ceremonies and
+etiquette as did a high court position. The only opposition incurred
+was from the clergy, who eventually, by uniting their forces with
+the influence of Mme. de Maintenon, brought about the disgrace of the
+mistress.
+
+When, in 1675, she desired to perform her Easter duties publicly at
+Versailles, the priest refused to grant absolution until she should
+discontinue her wanton, adulterous life. She appealed to the king, and
+he referred the decision of the matter to Bossuet, who decided that
+it was an imperative duty to deny absolution to public sinners of
+notorious lives who refused to abandon them. This was immediately
+before her legal separation from her husband.
+
+Influenced by the preaching of men like Bourdaloue and Bossuet,
+the king resolved to abandon his powerful mistress; in 1686 she was
+finally separated from Louis XIV., but did not leave Versailles until
+1691, when, becoming reconciled to her fate, she decided to retire
+to a convent. Bossuet became her spiritual adviser, and described her
+habits in the following letter to the king:
+
+"I find Mme. de Montespan sufficiently tranquil. She occupies herself
+greatly in good works. I see her much affected by the verities I
+propose to her, which are the same I uttered to your majesty. To
+her--as to you--I have offered the words by which God commands us
+to yield our whole hearts to him; they have caused her to shed many
+tears. May God establish these verities in the depths of the hearts of
+both of you, in order that so many tears, so much suffering, so many
+efforts as you have made to subdue yourselves, may not be in vain."
+
+The king did not wholly abandon his mistress; from a material point of
+view, she was more powerful than ever, for Louis XIV. gave orders
+to his minister, Colbert, to do for Mme. de Montespan whatever she
+wished, and her wishes caused a heavy drain upon the treasury. The
+king continued to pay court to other favorites, such as the Princesse
+de Soubèse and Mlle. de Fontanges; the latter was his third mistress,
+but her career was of short duration, as one of the last acts of Mme.
+de Montespan was, it is said, the poisoning of Mlle. de Fontanges;
+this, however, is not generally accepted as true, although the
+Princesse Palatine wrote the following which throws suspicion upon
+the former favorite: "Mme. de Montespan was a fiend incarnate, but the
+Fontanges was good and simple. The latter is dead--because, they say,
+the former put poison in her milk. I do not know whether or not this
+is true, but what I do know well is that two of the Fontanges's
+people died, saying publicly that they had been poisoned." With the
+increasing influence of Mme. de Maintenon, the king completely forgot
+his former mistress.
+
+Mme. de Montespan was possibly the most arrogant and despotic of all
+French mistresses and she was, also, the most humiliated. She had
+inspired no confidence, friendship, love, or respect in Louis XIV.,
+who eventually looked with shame and remorse upon his relations with
+her. It took her sixteen years to overcome her terrible passion and to
+give up the court forever. Not until 1691 did she become reconciled
+to departure from Versailles; thenceforth, penitence conquered immoral
+desires. M. Saint-Amand says she not only "arrived at remorse, but
+at macerations, fasts, and haircloths. She limited herself to the
+coarsest underlinen and wore a belt and garters studded with iron
+points. She came at last to give all she had to the poor;" she also
+founded a hospital in which she nursed the sick.
+
+While at the convent, she tried, in vain, to effect a reconciliation
+with her husband; not until every avenue to a social life was cut
+off from her, did she entirely surrender herself to charity and the
+service of God. In her latest years, she was so tormented by the
+horrors of death that she employed several women whose only occupation
+was to watch with her at night. She died in 1707, forgotten by the
+king and all her former associates; Louis XIV. formally prohibited
+her children, the Duke of Maine, the Comte de Toulouse, the Comte
+de Vexin, and Mlles. de Nantes, de Blois, and de Tours, from wearing
+mourning for her.
+
+A striking contrast to Mme. de Montespan in character, disposition,
+morality, and birth was Mme. de Maintenon, one of the greatest and
+most important women in French history. What is known of her is so
+enveloped in calumny and falsehood and made so uncertain by dispute,
+that to disentangle the actual facts is almost an impossibility,
+despite the glowing tribute paid to her in the immense work published
+recently by the Comte d'Haussonville and M. Gabriel Hanotaux.
+
+It would seem that the more the history of Mme. de Maintenon is
+studied, the more one is led away from a first impression--which
+usually proves to be an erroneous one. Thus, M. Lavallée, in his
+first work, _Histoire des Français_, wrote that she "was of the most
+complete aridity of heart, narrow in the scope of her affections, and
+meanly intriguing. She suggested fatal enterprises and inappropriate
+appointments; she forced mediocre and servile persons upon the king;
+she had, in fine, the major share in the errors and disasters of the
+reign of Louis XIV." A few years later he wrote, in his _Histoire de
+la maison royale de Saint-Cyr_: "Mme. de Maintenon gave Louis XIV.
+none but salutary and disinterested counsels which were useful to
+the state and instrumental in making less heavy the burdens of the
+people."
+
+Opinion in general, especially French opinion, has been very bitter
+toward her. History has even reproached her with having been a
+usurper, a tyrant, and a selfish master. The great preacher, Fénelon,
+wrote to her:
+
+"They say you take too little part in affairs. Your mind is more
+capable than you think. You are, perhaps, a little too distrustful
+of yourself, or, rather, you are too much afraid to enter into
+discussions contrary to the inclination you have for a tranquil and
+meditative life."
+
+Is this picture, left by Emile Chasles and accepted by M. Saint-Amand,
+truthful? "This intelligent woman, far from being too much heeded,
+was not enough so. There was in her a veritable love for the public
+welfare, a true sorrow in the midst of our misfortunes. To-day, it is
+necessary to retrench much from the grandeur of her worldly power and
+add a great deal to that of her soul." M. Saint-Amand believes her
+sincere when she wrote to Mme. des Ursins:
+
+"In whatever way matters turn, I conjure you, madame, to regard me
+as a person incapable of directing affairs, who heard them talked too
+late to be skilful in them, and who hates them more than she ignores
+them.... My interference in them is not desired and I do not desire
+to interfere. They are not concealed from me, but I know nothing
+consecutively and am often badly informed."
+
+The opinions of her contemporaries are not always flattering, but
+such are possibly due to envy and jealousy or to some purely personal
+prejudice. Thus, when the Duchess of Orléans, the Princesse
+Palatine, calls her "that nasty old thing, that wicked devil, that
+shrivelled-up, filthy old Maintenon, that concubine of the king," and
+casts upon her other gross aspersions that are unfit to be repeated,
+one must remember that the calumniator was a German, the daughter of
+the Elector Palatine Charles-Louis, a woman honest in her morals, but
+shameless in her speech, who loved the beauties of nature more than
+those of the palaces; more shocked at hypocrites than at religion or
+irreligion, she took Mme. de Maintenon to be a type of the impostors
+whom she detested. It was her son who became regent, and it was her
+son who married one of the illegitimate daughters of Louis XIV.--an
+alliance of which his mother had a horror.
+
+The memoirs of Saint-Simon are interesting, but the odious picture
+he has drawn of Mme. de Maintenon is hardly in accord with later
+appreciations. M. Saint-Amand sums up the two classes of critics thus:
+
+"The revolutionary school which likes to drag the memory of the great
+king through the mire, naturally detests the eminent woman who was
+that king's companion, his friend and consoler. Writers of this
+school would like to make of her a type not only odious and fatal, but
+ungraceful and unsympathetic, without radiance, charm or any sort of
+fascination. She is too frequently called to mind under the aspect
+of a worn old woman, stiff and severe, with tearless eyes and a
+face without a smile. We forget that in her youth she was one of
+the prettiest women of her time, that her beauty was wonderfully
+preserved, and that in her old age she retained that superiority of
+style and language, that distinction of manner and exquisite tact,
+that gentle firmness of character, that charm and elevation of mind,
+which, at every period of her life, gained her so much praise and so
+many friends."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon was born in prison. Her maiden name was Françoise
+d'Aubigné. She was the granddaughter of Agrippa d'Aubigné, the
+historian. Her father had planned to settle in the Carolinas, and
+his correspondence with the English government, to that effect,
+was treated as treason; he was thrown into prison, where his wife
+voluntarily shared his fate and where the future Mme. de Maintenon
+was born. After the death of her father, she was confided to her aunt,
+Mme. de Villette, a Calvinist, who trained her in the principles of
+Protestantism. Because of the refusal of her daughter to attend mass,
+her mother put her in charge of the Countess of Neuillant who, with
+great difficulty, converted Françoise back to Catholicism.
+
+At the home of the Countess of Neuillant, she often met Scarron, the
+comic poet--a paralytic and cripple--who offered her money with which
+to pay for admission to a convent, a proposition which she refused;
+subsequently, however, the countess sent her to the Ursulines to be
+educated. When, after two years, she lost her mother and was thus left
+without home, fortune, or future prospects, she consented, at the age
+of seventeen, to marry the poet. Thus, born in a prison, without even
+a dowry, harshly reared by a mother who was under few obligations
+to life, more harshly treated in the convent, introduced as a poor
+relation into the society of her aunt and to the friends of her
+godmother, the Countess of Neuillant, she early learned to distrust
+life and suspect man, and to restrain her ambitions.
+
+Exceedingly beautiful, graceful, and witty, she soon won her way to
+the brilliant and fashionable society of the crippled wit, buffoon,
+and poet, who was coarse, profane, ungodly, and physically an
+unsightly wreck. In this society, which the burlesque poet amused by
+his inexhaustible wit and fancy, and his frank, Gallic gayety, she
+showed an infinite amount of tact and soon made his salon the most
+prominent social centre of Paris. There, Scarron, never tolerated a
+stupid person, no matter of what blood or rank.
+
+When asked what settlement he proposed to make upon his wife, he
+replied: "Immortality." At another time, he remarked: "I shall not
+make her commit any follies, but I shall teach her a great many." On
+his deathbed he said: "My only regret is that I cannot leave anything
+to my wife with whom I have every imaginable reason to be content." In
+this free-and-easy salon, a young noble said, soon after the marriage
+of Scarron: "If it were a question of taking liberties with the queen
+or Mme. Scarron, I would not deliberate; I would sooner take them with
+the queen."
+
+The reputation made by the young Mme. Scarron gained her many
+influential friends, especially among court people. At the death of
+her husband, in 1660, to avoid trouble with his family, she renounced
+the marriage dowry of twenty-four thousand livres. Her friends
+procured her a pension of two thousand livres from the queen. Thus
+freed from care, she lived according to her inclination, which tended
+toward pleasing and doing good; taking good cheer and her services
+voluntarily and unaffectedly to all families, she gradually made
+herself a necessity among them--thus she laid the foundation of her
+future greatness. She was received by the best families, grew in favor
+everywhere, and even won over all her enemies. Modest, complaisant,
+promptly and readily rendering a favor, prudent, practical and
+virtuous, her one desire was to make friends, not so much for the
+purpose of using them, but because she realized that a person in
+humble circumstances cannot have too many friends.
+
+Her portrait as a widow is admirably drawn by M. Saint-Amand: "Mme.
+Scarron seeks esteem, not love. To please while remaining virtuous,
+to endure, if need be, privations and even poverty, but to win
+the reputation of a strong character, to deserve the sympathy and
+approbation of honest persons--such is the direction of all her
+efforts. Well dressed, though very simply; discreet and modest,
+intelligent and _distingué_, with that patrician elegance which luxury
+cannot create, but which is inborn and comes by nature only; pious,
+with a sincere and gentle piety; less occupied with herself than with
+others; talking well and--what is much rarer--knowing how to listen;
+taking an interest in the joys and sorrows of her friends, and skilful
+in amusing and consoling them--she is justly regarded as one of the
+most amiable as well as one of the superior women in Paris. Economical
+and simple in her tastes, she makes her accounts balance perfectly,
+thanks to an annual pension of two thousand livres granted her by
+Queen Anne of Austria."
+
+When Mme. Scarron was about to leave Paris because of lack of funds
+and the loss of her pension, after the death of Queen Anne, her friend
+Mme. de Montespan, the king's mistress, interfered in her behalf and
+had the pension renewed, thus inadvertently paving the way for her
+own downfall. Three years later Mme. Scarron was established in an
+isolated house near Paris, where she received the natural children
+of Louis XIV. and Mme. de Montespan, as they arrived, in quick
+succession, in 1669, 1670, 1672, 1673, and 1674. There, acting as
+governess, she hid them from the world. This is the only blemish upon
+the fair record of her life. It is maintained by her detractors that
+a virtuous woman would not have undertaken the education of the
+doubly adulterous children of Louis XIV. (thus, in a way, encouraging
+adultery), and that she would have given up her charge upon the first
+proposals of love.
+
+However deep this stain may be considered, one must remember that
+the standard of honor at the court of Louis XIV. did not encourage
+delicacy in matters of love, and Mme. Scarron knew only the standard
+of society; her morality was no more extraordinary than was her
+intelligence, and it was to her credit that she preserved intact
+her honor and her virtue. At first the king looked with much
+dissatisfaction upon her appointment, not admiring the extreme gravity
+and reserve of the young widow; however, the unusual order of her
+talents and wisdom soon attracted his attention, and her entrance at
+court was speedily followed by quarrels between the mistress and Louis
+XIV. In 1674 the king, wishing to acknowledge his recognition of
+her merits, purchased the estate of Maintenon for her and made her
+Marquise de Maintenon.
+
+Her primary object became the gaining of the favor of Mme. de
+Montespan; for this purpose she taught herself humility, while
+toward the king she directed the forces of her dignity, reserve, and
+intellectual attainments. Being the very opposite of the mistress who
+won and retained him by sensuous charms (in which the king was fast
+losing pleasure and satisfaction), she soon effected a change
+by entertaining her master with the solid attainments of her
+mind--religion, art, literature.
+
+Mme. de Maintenon was always amiable and sympathetic, kind and
+thoughtful, never irritating, crossing, or censuring the king;
+wonderfully judicious, modest, self-possessed, and calm, she was
+irreproachable in conduct and morals, tolerating no improper advances.
+Although the characteristics and general deportment of Mme. de
+Montespan were entirely different from those of Mme. de Maintenon, the
+latter entertained true friendship for her benefactress, displaying
+astonishing tact, shrewdness, and self-control.
+
+If Mme. de Maintenon were not, at first, loved by the king, it was
+because she appeared to him too ideal, sublime, spirituelle, too
+severely sensible. Then came the turning point; at forty years of age
+she was "a beautiful and stately woman with brilliant dark eyes, clear
+complexion, beautiful white teeth, and graceful manners;" sedate,
+self-possessed, and astonished at nothing, she had learned the art of
+waiting, and studied the king--showing him those qualities he desired
+to see.
+
+Her aim became to take the king from his mistress and lead him back
+to the queen. After gaining his confidence by her sincerity and
+trustworthiness, and making herself indispensable to him, she
+succeeded in bringing about the desired separation, through the medium
+of the dauphiness, whom she won over to her cause. Thus, without
+perfidy, hypocrisy, intrigue, or manoeuvring, by simply being herself,
+she replaced the haughty and beautiful Mme. de Montespan.
+
+When, after the queen's death, and after having lived about the king
+for fifteen years, "she had succeeded in making the devotee take
+precedence of the lover, when piety had overcome passion, when
+religion had effected its change, then Louis the Great offered his
+hand in marriage to her who had only veneration, gratitude, and
+devotion for him, but no passion or love." Reasons of state demanded
+the secrecy of the marriage; for had he raised her to the throne,
+political complications would have arisen and disturbed his subsequent
+career; Mme. de Maintenon fully appreciated the intricacies of the
+situation, and was therefore content to remain what she was.
+
+She came to the king when he was beginning to feel the effects of his
+former mode of life; he needed fidelity and friendship, and he saw
+these in her. His feelings for her are well described in the following
+extract by M. Saint-Amand:
+
+"To sum up: the king's sentiment for her was of the most complex
+nature. There was in it a mingling of religion and of physical love, a
+calculation of reason and an impulse of the heart, an aspiration after
+the mild joys of family life and a romantic inclination--a sort of
+compact between French good sense, subjugated by the wit, tact, and
+wisdom of an eminent woman, and Spanish imagination allured by the
+fancy of having extricated this elect woman from poverty in order to
+make her almost a queen. Finally, it must be noted that Louis XIV.,
+always religiously inclined, was convinced that Mme. de Maintenon
+had been sent to him by Heaven for his salvation, and that the pious
+counsels of this saintly woman, who knew how to render devotion so
+agreeable and attractive, seemed to him to be so many inspirations
+from on High."
+
+It must not be inferred, however, that the feeling for Mme. de
+Maintenon was purely ideal. "He was unwilling to remarry," says
+the Abbé de Choisy, "because of tenderness for his people. He had,
+already, three grandsons, and wisely judged that the princes of a
+second marriage might, in course of time, cause civil wars. On the
+other hand, he could not dispense with a wife and Mme. de Maintenon
+pleased him greatly. Her gentle and scintillating wit promised him
+an agreeable intercourse which would refresh him after the cares of
+royalty. Her person was still engaging and her age prevented her from
+having children."
+
+As his wife, Mme. de Maintenon took more interest in the king and his
+family than she did in the affairs of the kingdom. To be the wife of
+the hearth and home, to educate the princes, to rear the young Duchess
+of Bourgogne, granddaughter of Louis XIV., to calm and ease the old
+age of the king and to distract and amuse him, became her sole objects
+in life. Her power, thus directed, became almost unbounded; she was
+the dispenser of favors and the real ruler, sitting in the cabinet
+of the king; and her counsels were so wise that they soon became
+invaluable.
+
+At court, she opposed all foolish extravagance, such as the endless
+fêtes and amusements of all kinds which had become so popular
+under Mme. de Montespan--a procedure which caused her the greatest
+difficulties and provoked revolts and quarrels in the royal family. By
+her prudence, tact, wisdom, and the loyalty of her friendship, she won
+and retained the respect and favor--if not the love--of everyone. Her
+reputation was never tarnished by scandal. "When one reflects that
+Louis XIV. was only forty-seven years old and in the prime of life
+and Mme. de Montespan in the full blaze of her marvellous beauty,
+that this woman of humble birth, in her youth a Protestant, poor, a
+governess, the widow of a low, comic poet, should win so proud a man
+as Louis XIV., seems incredible."
+
+When one considers that throughout life her one aspiration was
+an irreproachable conduct, that her manner of action was always
+defensive, never offensive, that her chief aim was to restore the king
+to the queen (who died in her arms) and not to replace his mistress,
+one cannot withhold admiration and esteem from this truly great woman
+who accomplished all those honorable designs.
+
+The obstacles to be conquered before reaching her goal were indeed
+numerous, but she managed them all. There were so many persons hostile
+to her,--mistresses and intriguers, bishops and priests, courtesans
+and valets, princes and members of the royal family,--to overcome whom
+she had to be on her guard, make use of every opportunity, show a
+rare knowledge of society and court, a profound skill and address,
+resolution and will; and she was equal to all occasions.
+
+Her greatest defect was the narrowness of her religious views.
+Entirely in the hands of her spiritual advisers, obeying them
+faithfully and blindly, she was not inclined to theological
+investigation, but was sincerely devout. More interested in the
+various persons than in doctrines, she showed a passion for making
+bishops, abbots, and priests, as well as for negotiating compromises,
+reconciling _amours propres_ and doing away with all religious hatred.
+Lacking, above all else, clearness of conception, promptness and
+firmness of decision, she was finally persuaded to encourage the
+bigotry of Louis XIV. and his intolerance toward those who differed
+from him. Hence, in 1685, she permitted that fearfully destructive
+persecution of the Protestants, which caused over three hundred
+thousand of France's most solid people to leave the country; and by
+her fanaticism and false zeal, she caused the king to be a party to
+that awful catastrophe.
+
+"This one act of hers counterbalances nearly all her virtues, and we
+remember her more as the murderess of thousands of innocents than as
+the calm and virtuous governess. But we must remember the nature of
+her advisers and the eternal policy of the Catholic Church, which
+are ever identical with absolutism. To uphold the institutions and
+opinions already established, was the one sentiment of the age;
+innovation, progress, were destructive--Mme. de Maintenon became the
+watchful guardian of royalty and the Church." Such is the verdict of
+English opinion. M. Saint-Amand judges the affair differently:
+
+"A woman as pious and reasonable as she was, animated always by the
+noblest intentions, loving her country and always showing sympathy for
+the poor people--not merely in words but in deeds as well--detesting
+war and loving justice and peace, always moderate and irreproachable
+in her conduct--such a woman cannot be the mischievous, crafty,
+malicious, and vindictive bigot imagined by many writers; she did not
+encourage such an act, nor would her nature permit to do so.... The
+prayer she uttered every morning, best portrays the woman and her
+rôle: 'Lord, grant me to gladden the king, to console him, to sadden
+him when it must be for Thy glory. Cause me to hide from him nothing
+which he ought to know through me, and which no one else would have
+courage to tell him.' ... To Madame de Glapion she said: 'I would like
+to die before the king; I would go to God; I would cast myself at the
+foot of His throne; I would offer Him the desires of a soul that
+He would have purified; I would pray Him to grant the king greater
+enlightenment, more love for his people, more knowledge of the state
+of the provinces, more aversion for the perfidy of the countries, more
+horror of the ways in which his authority is abused: and God would
+hear my prayers.'"
+
+This pious woman was weary of life before her marriage, and but
+changed the nature of her misery upon reaching the highest goal open
+to a woman. Marly, Versailles, Fontainebleau were only different names
+for the same servitude. When she had attained her desire, she thought
+her repose assured; instead, her ennui, her disgust of life and
+the world, only increased; realizing this, she began to direct her
+thoughts entirely toward God and her aspirations toward things not
+of this earth--hence the almost complete absence of her influence in
+politics.
+
+She was never happy, and that her life was a disappointment to her may
+be gathered from the following words from her pen: "Flee from men as
+from your mortal enemies; never be alone with them. Take no pleasure
+in hearing that you are pretty, amiable, that you have a fine voice.
+The world is a malicious deceiver which never means what it says; and
+the majority of men who say such things to young girls, do it hoping
+to find some means of ruining them."
+
+Her most intense desire seemed to be to please, and be esteemed--to
+receive the _honneur du monde_, which appeared to be her sole motive
+for living. When in power, she did not use her influence as the
+intriguing women of the epoch would have done, because she did
+not possess their qualities--taste, breadth of vision, and selfish
+ambitions. Her objects in life were the reform of a wicked court,
+the extirpation of heresy, the elevation of men of genius, and the
+improvement of the society and religion of France. After the death of
+the king (in 1715), she retired to Saint-Cyr, and spent the remainder
+of her life in acts of charity and devotional exercises.
+
+After the king's death she dismissed all her servants and disposed of
+her carriages as well, "unable to reconcile herself to feeding horses
+while so many young girls were in need," as she said. For almost four
+years she peacefully and happily lived in a very modest apartment. She
+seldom went out and then only to the village to visit the sick and the
+poor. On June 10, 1717, when she was eighty-one years old, Peter the
+Great went to Saint-Cyr for the purpose of seeing and talking to
+the greatest woman of France. He found her confined to her bed; the
+chamber being but dimly lighted, he thrust aside the curtain in order
+to examine the features of the woman who had ruled the destinies of
+France for so many years. The Czar talked to her for some time, and
+when he asked Madame de Maintenon from what she was suffering, she
+replied: "From great old age." She died on August 15, 1719, and was
+buried in the choir of the church of Saint-Cyr, where a modest slab of
+marble indicated the spot where her body reposed until, in 1794, when
+the church was being transformed into hospital wards, "the workmen
+opened the vault, and took out the body and dragged it into the court
+with dreadful yells and threw it, stripped and mutilated, into a hole
+in the cemetery."
+
+The greatest work of Mme. de Maintenon was the founding of the
+Seminary of Saint-Cyr, which the king granted to her about the time
+of their marriage and of his illness; it was probably intended as the
+penance of a sick man who wished to make reparation for the wrongs
+inflicted upon some of the young girls of the nobility, and as a
+wedding gift to Mme. de Maintenon. There, aided by nuns, she cared
+for and educated two hundred and fifty pupils, dowerless daughters of
+impoverished nobles. It was "the veritable offspring of her who was
+never a daughter, a wife, nor a mother." There she was happy and
+content; there she recalled her own youth when she was poor and
+forsaken; there she found respite from the turmoils and agitations of
+Versailles; there she was supreme; there she governed absolutely and
+was truly loved.
+
+For thirty years she was queen at Saint-Cyr, visiting it every other
+day and teaching the young girls for whom it was a protection against
+the world. Since childhood, she had been so accustomed to serve
+herself, to wait upon others and to care for the smallest details of
+the management of the household, that she introduced this spirit into
+society and at Saint-Cyr, where she managed every detail, from the
+linen to the provisions; this showed a reasonable and well-balanced
+mind, but not any high order of intelligence.
+
+Of the young girls in her charge, she desired to make model women,
+characterized by simplicity and piety; they were to be free from
+morbid curiosity of mind, were to practise absolute self-denial and
+to devote their lives to a practical labor. Her advice was: "Be
+reasonable or you will be unhappy; if you are haughty, you will be
+reminded of your misery, but if you are humble, people will recall
+your birth.... Commence by making yourself loved, without which you
+will never succeed. Is it not true that, had you not loved me or had
+you had an aversion for me, you would not have accepted, with such
+good grace, the counsels that I have given you? This is absolutely
+certain--the most beautiful things when taught by persons who
+displease us, do not impress but rather harden us."
+
+A counsel that strikes home forcibly to-day, one which strongly
+attacks the modern fad of neglecting home for church, is expressed
+well in one of her letters: "Your piety will not be right if, when
+married, you abandon your husband, your children and your servants, to
+go to the churches at times when you are not obliged to go there. When
+a young girl says that a woman would do better properly to raise
+her children and instruct her servants, than to spend her morning in
+church, one can accommodate one's self to such religion, which she
+will cause to be loved and respected."
+
+At the hour of leisure, she gave the girls those familiar talks which
+were anticipated by them with so much pleasure, and extracts from
+which are still cherished by the young women of France. She believed
+that the aim of instruction for young girls should be to educate them
+to be Christian women with well-balanced and logical minds. With her
+varied experience of the ups and downs of life, she gradually came to
+the conclusion that, after all, there is nothing in the world so good
+as sound common sense, but one that is not enamored of itself, which
+obeys established laws and knows its own limits. Her sex is intended
+to obey, thus her reason was a Christian reason.
+
+"You can be truly reasonable only in proportion as you are subservient
+to God.... Never tell children fantastic stories, nor permit them to
+believe them; give them things for what they are worth. Never tell
+them stories of which, when they grow to independent reasoning, you
+must disillusion them. You must talk to a girl of seven as seriously
+and with as much reason as to a young lady of twenty. You must take
+part in the pleasures of children, but never accommodate them with a
+childish language or with foolish or puerile ways. You can never be
+too reasonable or too sane. Religion, reason, and truth are always
+good."
+
+To appreciate the importance of Mme. de Maintenon's position and the
+revolutionary effect which her attitude produced upon the customs of
+the time, one must remember with what she had to contend. Hers was a
+period of passion and adventure--a period which was followed by sorrow
+and disaster. The novels of Mlle. de Scudéry, which were at the
+height of their popularity, had over-refined the sentiments; the
+_chevaleresque_ heroes and picturesque heroines turned the heads
+of young girls, who dreamed of an ideal and perfect love; their one
+longing was for the romantic--for the enchantments and delights
+of life. In this stilted and amorous atmosphere, Mme. de Maintenon
+preserved her poise and fought vigorously against the fads of the day.
+The young girls under her care were taught to love just as they were
+taught to do other things--with reason. Also, she guarded against the
+weaknesses of nature and the flesh. "Than Mme. de Maintenon, no one
+ever better knew the evils of the world without having fallen prey to
+them," says Sainte-Beuve; "and no one ever satisfied and disgusted the
+world more, while charming it at the same time."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon's ideal methods of education were not immediately
+effective; there were many periods of hardship, apprehension, and
+doubt. Thus, when Racine's _Esther_ (written at the request of Mme. de
+Maintenon, to be presented by the pupils at Saint-Cyr) was performed,
+there sprang up a taste for poetry, writing, and literature of all
+kinds. The acting turned the girls' thoughts into other channels and
+threatened to counteract the teachings of simplicity and reason; no
+one ever showed more genuine good sense, wholesomeness of mind, and
+breadth of view, than were displayed by Mme. de Maintenon in dealing
+with these disheartening drawbacks.
+
+In endeavoring to impress upon those young minds the correct use of
+language and the proper style of writing, she wrote for them models
+of letters which showed simplicity, precision, truth, facility, and
+wonderful clearness; and these were imitated by them in their replies
+to her.
+
+She wished, above all, to make them realize that her experience
+with that social and court life, for which they longed, was one of
+disappointment: that was a world apart, in which amusing and being
+amused was the one occupation. She had passed wearily through that
+period of life, and sought repose, truth, tranquillity, and religious
+resignation; to make those young spirits feel the fallacy of such
+a mode of existence was her earnest desire, and her efforts in that
+direction were characterized by a zeal, energy, and persistence
+which were productive of wonderful results. That was one phase of her
+greatness and influence.
+
+But Mme. de Maintenon was somewhat too severe, too narrow, too
+strict,--one might say, too ascetic,--in her teaching. There was
+too little of that which, in this world, cheers, invigorates, and
+enlivens. Her instruction was all reason, without relieving features;
+it lacked what Sainte-Beuve calls the _don des larmes_ (gift of
+tears). Hers was a noble, just, courageous, and delicate judgment; but
+it was without the softening qualities of the truly feminine, which
+calls for tears and affection, tenderness and sympathy.
+
+She remains in educational affairs the greatest woman of the
+seventeenth century, if not of all her countrywomen. M. Faguet says:
+"This widow of Scarron, who was nearly Queen of France, was born
+minister of public instruction." She powerfully upheld the cause of
+morality, was a liberal patroness of education and learning, and all
+aspiring geniuses were encouraged and financially aided by her. It was
+she who impressed upon Louis XIV. the truth of the existence of a God
+to whom he was accountable for his acts--a teaching which contributed
+no little to the general purification of morals at court.
+
+The writings of Mme. de Maintenon occupy a very high place in the
+history of French literature; in fact, her letters have often been
+compared with those of Mme. de Sévigné, although, unlike the latter,
+she never wrote merely to please, but to instruct, to convert, and to
+console. In her works there was no pretension to literary style; they
+were sermons on morals, characterized by discretion and simplicity,
+dignity and persuasiveness, seriousness and earnestness; Napoleon
+placed her letters above those of Mme. de Sévigné. M. Saint-Amand
+says of her writings: "More reflection than vivacity, more wisdom
+than passion, more gravity than charm, more authority than grace,
+more solidity than brilliancy--such are the characteristics of a
+correspondence which might justify the expression, the style is the
+woman."
+
+He gives, also, the following discriminating comparison between the
+two writers: "Enjoyment, Gallic animation, good-tempered gayety,
+fall to the lot of Mme. de Sévigné; what marks Mme. de Maintenon is
+experience, reason, profundity. The one laughs from ear to ear--the
+other barely smiles. The one has pleasant illusions about everything,
+admiration which borders on _naïveté_, ecstasies when in the presence
+of the royal sun: the other never permits herself to be fascinated by
+either the king or the court, by men, women, or things. She has seen
+human grandeur too close at hand not to understand its nothingness,
+and her conclusions bear the imprint of a profound sadness. At times
+Mme. de Sévigné, also, has attacks of melancholy, but the cloud
+passes quickly and she is again in the sunshine. Gayety--frank,
+communicative, radiant gayety--is the basis of the character of this
+woman who is more witty, seductive, and amusing than is any other.
+Mme. de Sévigné shines by imagination--Mme. de Maintenon by judgment.
+The one permits herself to be dazzled, intoxicated--the other always
+preserves her indifference. The one exaggerates the splendors of
+the court--the other sees them as they are. The one is more of a
+woman--the other more of a saint."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon may be called "a woman of fate," She was never
+daughter, mother, or wife; as a child, she was not loved by her
+mother, and her father was worthless; married to two men, both aged
+beyond their years, she was, indeed, but an instrument of fate.
+Truthful, candid, and discreet she was entirely free from all morbid
+tendencies, and was modest and chaste from inclination as well as
+from principle. Though outwardly cold, proud, and reserved, yet in
+her deportment toward those who were fortunate enough to possess
+her esteem, she was kind--even loving. While not intelligent to a
+remarkable degree, she was prudent, circumspect, and shrewd, never
+losing her self-control. When once interested, and convinced as to the
+proper course, she displayed marvellous strength of will, sagacity,
+and personal force. Beautiful and witty, she easily adapted herself
+to any position in which she might be placed; though intolerant and
+narrow in her religious views, she was otherwise gentle, charitable,
+and unselfish. Therefore, it is evident that she possessed, to a
+greater degree than did any other woman of her time, unusual as
+well as desirable qualities--qualities that made her powerful and
+incomparable.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VI
+
+Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. Dacier, Mme. de Caylus
+
+
+The seventeenth century was, in French history, the greatest century
+from the standpoint of literary perfection, the sixteenth century the
+richest in naissant ideas, and the eighteenth the greatest in the way
+of developing and formulating those ideas; and each century produced
+great women who were in perfect harmony with and expressed the ideals
+of each period of civilization.
+
+It is not within the limits of reason to expect women to rival, in
+literature, the great writers such as Corneille, Racine, Molière,
+Bossuet, La Fontaine, Descartes, Pascal--most of whom were but little
+influenced by femininity; there were those, however, among the sex,
+who were conspicuous for elevation of thought, dignity in manner and
+bearing, and brilliancy in conversation--attributes which they have
+left to posterity in numberless exquisite and charming letters, in
+interesting and invaluable memoirs, or in consummate psychological and
+social portraitures incorporated into the form of novels. Among female
+writers of letters, Mme. de Sévigné wears the laurel wreath; Mme. de
+La Fayette, with Mlle. de Scudéry, is the representative of the novel;
+Mme. Dacier was the great advocate of the more liberal education
+of women; and the _Souvenirs_ of Mme. de Caylus made that authoress
+immortal.
+
+The association of La Rochefoucauld, the Cardinal de Retz, the
+Chevalier de Meré, Mme. de La Fayette, and Mme. de Sévigné, was
+responsible for almost everything elevating and of interest produced
+in the seventeenth century. Of that highly intellectual circle,
+Mme. de Sévigné was the leading spirit by force of her extraordinary
+faculty for making friends, her wonderful talent as a writer, her
+originality and her charming disposition. She gave the tone to
+letters; M. Faguet says that her epistles were all masterpieces of
+amiable badinage, lively narration, maternal passion, true eloquence.
+More than that, they are important sources of historical knowledge,
+inasmuch as they contain much information concerning the politics of
+the day, and furnish an excellent guide to the etiquette, fashions,
+tastes, and literature of the writer's period.
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was the most important figure of the time, being to
+that third prodigiously intellectual epoch of France what Marguerite
+de Navarre was to the sixteenth century, and the Hôtel de Rambouillet
+to the beginning of the seventeenth century. She represented the
+style, _esprit_, elegance, and _goût_ of this greatest of French
+cultural periods. Her life may be considered as having had two
+distinct phases--one connected with an unhappy marriage and the other
+the period of a restless widowhood.
+
+Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marchioness of Sévigné, was born at Paris,
+in 1626; at the age of eighteen months she lost her father; at seven
+years of age, her mother; at eight, her grandmother; at ten, her
+grandfather on her mother's side; she was thus left with her paternal
+grandmother, Mme. de Chantal, who had her carefully educated under
+the best masters, such as Ménage and Chapelain (court favorites), from
+whom she early imbibed a genuine taste for solid reading; from these
+instructors she learned Spanish, Italian, and Latin.
+
+In 1644, she was married to the Marquis Henri de Sévigné, who was
+killed six years later in a duel, but who had, in the meantime,
+succeeded in making a considerable gap in her immense fortune,
+in spite of the precautions of her uncle, the Abbé of Coulanges.
+Henceforward, her interests in life were centred in the education of
+her two children; to them she wrote letters which have brought her
+name down to posterity as, possibly, the greatest epistolary writer
+that the history of literature has ever recorded.
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was but nineteen years old when, after the marriage of
+Julie d'Angennes, the frequenters of the Hôtel de Rambouillet began
+to disperse, and she was in much demand by the successors of Mme. de
+Rambouillet. While the women of the reign of Louis XIII.--Mmes.
+de Hautefort, de Sablé, de Longueville, de Chevreuse, etc.--were
+exceedingly talented talkers, they were poor writers: but in Mme.
+de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, and Mlle. de Scudéry both arts were
+developed to the highest degree.
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was on the best terms with every great writer of
+her time--Pascal, Racine, La Fontaine, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, La
+Rochefoucauld. She was a woman of such broad affections that numerous
+friends and admirers were a necessary part of her existence. Of all
+the eminent women of the seventeenth century, she had the greatest
+number of lovers--suitors who frequently became her tormentors.
+Ménage, her teacher, who threatened to leave her never to see her
+again, was brought back to her by kind words, such as: "Farewell,
+friend--of all my friends the best." The Abbé Marigny, that "delicate
+epicurean, that improviser of fine triolets, ballads, vaudevilles,
+that enemy of all sadness and sticklers for morality," charmed her, at
+times, with sentimental ballads, such as the following:
+
+  "Si l'amour est un doux servage,
+  Si l'on ne peut trop estimer
+  Les plaisirs ou l'amour engage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+
+  "Mais si l'on se sent enflammer
+  D'un feu dont l'ardeur est extrême,
+  Et qu'on n'ose pas l'exprimer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  "Si dans la fleur de son bel âge,
+  Une qui pourrait tout charmer,
+  Vous donne son coeur en partage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne point aimer!
+
+  "Mais s'il faut toujours s'alarmer,
+  Craindre, rougir, devenir blême,
+  Aussitôt qu'on s'entend nommer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  "Pour complaire au plus beau visage
+  Qu'amour puisse jamais former,
+  S'il ne faut rien qu'un doux langage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+
+  "Mais quand on se voit consumer.
+  Si la belle est toujours de même,
+  Sans que rien la puisse animer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+"L'ENVOI.
+
+  "En amour si rien n'est amer,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+  Si tout l'est au degré suprême,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  [If love is a sweet bondage,
+  If we cannot esteem too much
+  The pleasures in which love engages,
+  How foolish one is not to love!
+
+  But if we feel ourselves inflamed
+  With a passion whose ardor is extreme,
+  And which we dare not express,
+  How foolish we are, then, to love!
+
+  If in the flower of her youth
+  There is one who could charm all.
+  And offers you her heart to share,
+  How very foolish not to love!
+
+  But if we must always be full of alarm--
+  Fear, blush and become pallid,
+  As soon as our name is spoken,
+  How foolish to love!
+
+  If to please the most beautiful countenance
+  That love can ever form,
+  Only a mellow language is necessary,
+  How foolish not to love!
+
+  But if we see ourselves wasting away,
+  If the belle is always the same
+  And cannot be animated,
+  How very foolish to love!
+
+ENVOY.
+
+  If in love, nothing is bitter,
+  How dreadfully foolish not to love!
+  If everything is so to the highest degree,
+  How awfully foolish to love!]
+
+Tréville went so far as to say that the figure of Mme. de Sévigné was
+beautiful enough to set the world afire. M. du Bled divides her lovers
+into three classes: the first was composed of her literary friends;
+the second, of those enamored, impassioned suitors, loving her from
+good motives or from the opposite, who strove to compensate her for
+the unfaithfulness of her husband while alive and for the ennui of her
+widowhood; the third class was composed of her Parisian friends, of
+whom she had hosts, court habitués who were leaders of society.
+
+Representatives of the second class were the Prince de Conti, the
+great Turenne, various counts and marquises, and Bussy-Rabutin, who
+was a type of the sensual lover and the more dangerous on account of
+the privileges he enjoyed because of his close relationship to Mme. de
+Sévigné. His portrait of her is interesting: "I must tell you, madame,
+that I do not think there is a person in the world so generally
+esteemed as you are. You are the delight of humankind; antiquity
+would have erected altars to you, and you would certainly have been a
+goddess of something. In our century, when we are not so lavish with
+incense, and especially for living merit, we are contented to say that
+there is not a woman of your age more virtuous and more amiable than
+are you. I know princes of the blood, foreign princes, great lords
+with princely manners, great captains, gentlemen, ministers of state,
+who would be off and away for you, if you would permit them. Can you
+ask any more?"
+
+Such eulogies came not only from men like the perfidious and cruel
+cousin, but from her friends everywhere. The finest of these is
+the one by her friend Mme. de La Fayette, contained in one of the
+epistolary portraits so much in vogue at that time, and which were
+turned out, _par excellence_, in the salon of Mlle. de Luxembourg:
+"Know, madame,--if by chance you do not already know it,--that your
+mind adorns and embellishes your person so well that there is not
+another one on earth so charming as you when you are animated in a
+conversation in which all constraint is banished. Your soul is great,
+noble, ready to dispense with treasures, and incapable of lowering
+itself to the care of amassing them. You are sensible to glory and
+ambition, and to pleasures you are less so; yet you appear to be born
+for the latter, and they made for you; your person augments pleasures,
+and pleasures increase your beauty when they surround you. Joy is the
+veritable state of your soul, and chagrin is more unlike to you than
+to anyone. You are the most civil and obliging person that ever lived,
+and by a free and calm air--which is in all your actions--the simplest
+compliments of seemliness appear, in your mouth, as protestations of
+friendship."
+
+The originality which gained Mme. de Sévigné so many friends lay
+principally in her force, wealth of resource, intensity, sincerity,
+and frankness. M. Scherer said she possessed "surprises for us,
+infinite energy, inexhaustible variety--everything that eternally
+revives interest."
+
+The interest of the modern world in this remarkable woman is centred
+mainly in her letters. Guizot says: "Mme. de Sévigné is a friend whom
+we read over and over again, whose emotions we share, to whom we go
+for an hour's distraction and delightful chat; we have no desire to
+chat with Mme. de Grignan (her daughter)--we gladly leave her to her
+mother's exclusive affection, feeling infinitely obliged to her for
+having existed, inasmuch as her mother wrote letters to her. Mme.
+de Sévigné's letters to her daughter are superior to all her other
+epistles, charming as they all are; when she writes to M. Pomponne, to
+M. de Coulanges, to M. de Bussy, the style is less familiar, the heart
+less open, the soul less stirred; she writes to her daughter as she
+would speak to her--it is not a letter, it is an animated and charming
+conversation, touching upon everything, embellishing everything with
+an inimitable grace."
+
+She had married her daughter to the Comte de Grignan, a man of
+forty, twice married, and with children, homely, but wealthy and
+aristocratic; writing to her cousin, Bussy-Rabutin, concerning this
+marriage, she said: "All these women (the count's former wives) died
+expressly to make room for your cousin." By marrying her daughter
+to such a man she encouraged all the questionable proprieties of the
+time. Mme. de Sévigné's affection for that daughter amounted almost
+to idolatry; it was to her that most of the mother's letters were
+written, telling her of her health, what was being done at Vichy, and
+about her business and for that child the authoress gave up her life
+at Paris in order to economize and thereby to help Mme. de Grignan in
+her extravagance, her son-in-law being an expert in spending money.
+
+The intensity of her nature is well reflected in her letter upon the
+separation from her daughter: "In vain I seek my darling daughter; I
+can no longer find her, and every step she takes removes her farther
+from me. I went to St. Mary's, still weeping and dying of grief; it
+seemed as if my heart and my soul were being wrenched from me and, in
+truth, what a cruel separation! I asked leave to be alone; I was taken
+into Mme. du Housset's room, and they made me up a fire. Agnes sat
+looking at me, without speaking--that was our bargain. I stayed there
+till five o'clock, without ceasing to sob; all my thoughts were mortal
+wounds to me. I wrote to M. de Grignan (you can imagine in what key).
+Then I went to Mme. de La Fayette's, and she redoubled my griefs by
+the interest she took in them; she was alone, ill, and distressed at
+the death of one of the nuns; she was just as I should have desired,
+I returned hither at eight; but oh, when I came in! can you conceive
+what I felt as I mounted these stairs? That room into which I always
+used to go, alas! I found the doors of it open, but I saw everything
+upturned, disarranged, and your little daughter, who reminded me of
+mine.... The wakenings of the night were dreadful. I think of you
+continuously--it is what devotees call habitual thought, such as one
+should have of God, if one did one's duty. Nothing gives me diversion;
+I see that carriage which is forever going on and will never come
+near me. I am forever on the highways; it seems as if I were sometimes
+afraid that the carriage will upset with me; the rains there for the
+last three days, drove me to despair. The Rhone causes me strange
+alarm. I have a map before my eyes--I know all the places where you
+sleep. This evening you are at Nevers; on Sunday you will be at
+Lyons where you will receive this letter. I have received only two of
+yours--perhaps the third will come; that is the only comfort I desire;
+as for others, I seek none."
+
+The letters of Mme. de Sévigné contain a great number of sayings
+applicable to habits and conduct, and these have had their part
+in shaping the customs and in depicting the time. To be modest and
+moderate, friendly, and conciliatory, to be content with one's lot and
+to bow to circumstances, to be sincere, to cultivate good sense and
+good grace--these counsels have been and still are, according to
+French opinion, the basis of French character: and Mme. de Sévigné's
+own popularity and success attest their wisdom.
+
+She had not the gift of seeing things vividly and reproducing them in
+living form; her talent was a rarer one--it induced the reader to form
+a mental picture of the scene described, so vivid as to be under the
+illusion of being present in reality; and this is done with so much
+grace, charm, happy ease and naturalness, that to read her letters
+means to love the writer. What mother or friend would not fall a
+willing victim to the charm of a woman who could write the following
+letter?
+
+"You ask me, my dear child, whether I continue to be really fond of
+life; I confess to you that I find poignant sorrows in it, but I am
+even more disgusted with death; I feel so wretched at having to end
+all thereby, that, if I could turn back again, I would ask for nothing
+better, I find myself under an obligation which perplexes me; I
+embark upon life without my consent, and so must I go out of it; that
+overwhelms me. And how shall I go? Which way? By what door? When will
+it be? In what condition? Shall I suffer a thousand, thousand pains
+which will make me die desperate? Shall I have brain fever? Shall I
+die of an accident? How shall I be with God? What shall I have to show
+Him? Shall fear, shall necessity bring me back to Him? Shall I have
+sentiment except that of dread? What can I hope? Am I worthy of
+heaven? Am I worthy of hell? Nothing is such madness as to leave one's
+salvation in uncertainty, but nothing is so natural. The stupid life I
+lead is the easiest thing in the world to understand; I bury myself
+in these thoughts and I find death so terrible that I hate life more
+because it leads me thereto, than because of the thorns with which
+it is planted. You will say that I want to live forever, then; not at
+all; but, if my opinion had been asked, I would have preferred to die
+in my nurse's arms; that would have removed me from the vexations of
+spirit and would have given me heaven full surely and easily."
+
+Mme. de Sévigné never bored her readers with her own reflections. She
+differed from her contemporaries, who seemed to be dead to nature's
+beauty, in her striking descriptions of nature. A close observer, she
+knew how to describe a landscape; animating and enlivening it, and
+making it talk, she inspired the reader with love of it.
+
+"I am going to be alone and I am very glad. Provided they do not take
+away from me the charming country, the shore of the Allier, the woods,
+streams, and meadows, the sheep and goats, the peasant girls who dance
+the _bourrée_ in the fields, I consent to say adieu; the country alone
+will cure me.... I have come here to end the beautiful days and to say
+adieu to the foliage--it is still on the trees, it has only changed
+color; instead of being green, it is golden, and of so many golden
+tints that it makes a brocade of rich and magnificent gold, which we
+are likely to find more beautiful than the green, if only it were not
+for the changing part."
+
+If the style of her letters did not make her the greatest prose writer
+of her time, it certainly entitled her to rank as one of the most
+original. The prose of the seventeenth century lacked "easy suppleness
+in lively movement, and imagination in the expression"--two qualities
+which Mme. de Sévigné possessed in a high degree. The slow and grave
+development, the just and harmonious equilibrium, the amplitude, are
+in her supplanted by a quick, alert, and free _saillie_; the detail
+and marvellous exactness are enriched by color, abundance of imagery,
+and metaphors. M. Faguet says she is to prose what La Fontaine is to
+poetry.
+
+The literary style of Mme. de Sévigné is not learned, studied, nor
+labored. In an epoch in which the language was already formed, she did
+what Montaigne did a century before, when, we may almost assert, he
+had to create the French language. Her most striking expressions are
+her own--newly coined, not taken from the vocabulary in usage. Her
+style cannot be duplicated, and for this reason she has few imitators.
+Her letters show that they were improvised--her pen doing, alone, the
+work over which she seemed to have no control when communicating with
+her daughter; to the latter she said: "I write prose with a facility
+that will kill you."
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was possibly not a beautiful woman, but she was a
+charming one; broad in the scope of her affections, she found the
+making of friends no difficult task. M. Vallery-Radot leaves the
+following picture of her: "A blonde, with exuberant health, a
+transparent complexion, blue eyes, so frank, so limpid, a nose
+somewhat square, a mouth ready to smile, shoulders that seem to lend
+splendor to her pearl necklace. Her gayety and goodness are so in
+evidence that there is about her a kind of atmosphere of good humor."
+
+M. du Bled most admirably sums up her character and writings in the
+following: "She is the person who most resembles her writings--that
+is, those that are found; for alas! many (the most confidential, the
+most interesting, I think) are lost forever: in them she is reflected
+as she reflects French society in them. Endowed--morally and
+physically--with a robust health, she is expansive, loyal, confiding,
+impressionable, loving gayety in full abundance as much as she does
+the smile of the refined, as eager for the prattle of the court as
+for solid reading, smitten with nobiliary pride, a captive of the
+prejudices, superstitions and tastes of her caste (or of even her
+coterie), with her pen hardly tender for her neighbor--her daughter
+and intimates excepted. A manager and a woman of imagination, a
+Frondist at the bottom of her soul, and somewhat of a Jansenist--not
+enough, however, not to cry out that Louis XIV. will obscure the glory
+of his predecessors because he had just danced with her--faithful to
+her friends (Retz, Fouquet, Pomponne) in disgrace and detesting their
+persecutors, seeking the favor of court for her children. In the
+salons, she is celebrated for her _esprit_--and this at an age when
+one seldom thinks about reputation, when one is like the princess who
+replied to a question on the state of her soul, 'At twenty one has
+no soul;' and she possesses the qualities that are so essential to
+style--natural _éclat_, originality of expression, grace, color,
+amplitude without pomposity and abundance without prolixity; moreover,
+she invents nothing, but, knowing how to observe and to express in
+perfection everything she had seen and felt, she is a witness and
+painter of her century: also, she loves nature--a sentiment very rare
+in the seventeenth century."
+
+Mme. de Sévigné was endowed with the best qualities of the French
+race--good will and friendliness, which influence one to judge others
+favorably and to desire their esteem; of a very impressionable nature,
+she was gifted with a natural eloquence which enabled her to express
+her various emotions in a light or gay vein which often bordered on
+irony. Affectionate and appreciative and tender and kind to everyone
+in general, toward those whom she loved she was generous to a fault
+and unswerving in her fidelity.
+
+Her last years were spent in the midst of her family. She died in
+1696, of small-pox, thanking God that she was the first to go, after
+having trembled for the life of her daughter, whom she had nursed back
+to health after a long and dangerous illness. Her son-in-law, M. de
+Grignan, wrote to her uncle, M. de Coulanges:
+
+"What calls far more for our admiration than for our regret, is the
+spectacle of a brave woman facing death--of which she had no doubt
+from the first days of her illness--with astounding firmness and
+submission. This person, so tender and so weak towards all whom she
+loved, showed nothing but courage and piety when she believed that her
+hour had come; and, impressed by the use she managed to make of that
+good store in the last moments of her life, we could not but remark
+of what utility and of what importance it is to have the mind stocked
+with the good matter and holy reading for which Mme. de Sévigné had a
+liking--not to say a wonderful hunger."
+
+In order to give an idea of the place that Mme. de Sévigné holds in
+the opinion of the average Frenchman, we quote the final words of M.
+Vallery-Radot:
+
+"To take a place among the greatest writers, without ever having
+written a book or even having thought of writing one--this is what
+seems impossible, and yet this is what happened to Mme. de Sévigné.
+Her contemporaries knew her as a woman distinguished for her _esprit_,
+frank, playful and sprightly humor, irreproachable conduct, loyalty to
+her friends, and as an idolizer of her daughter; no one suspected that
+she would partake of the glory of our classical authors--and she, less
+than any one. She had immortalized herself, without wishing or knowing
+it, by an intimate correspondence which is, to-day, universally
+regarded as one of the most precious treasures and one of the most
+original monuments to French literature. To deceive the _ennui_ of
+absence, she wrote to her daughter all that she had in her heart and
+that came to her mind--what she did, wished to do, saw and learned,
+news of court, city, Brittany, army, everything--sadly or gayly,
+according to the subject, always with the most keen, ardent, delicate,
+and touching sentiments of tenderness and sympathy. She amuses,
+instructs, interests, moves to tears or laughter. All that passes
+within or before her, passes within and before us. If she depicts
+an object, we see it; if she relates an event, we are present at its
+occurrence; if she makes a character talk, we hear his words, see his
+gestures, and distinguish his accent. All is true, real, living: this
+is more than talent--it is enchantment. Generations pass away in turn;
+a single one, or, rather, a group escapes the general oblivion--the
+group of friends of Mme. de Sévigné."
+
+A woman with characteristics the very opposite of those of Mme.
+de Sévigné, but who in some respects resembled her, was Mme. de La
+Fayette. Of her life, very little is to be said, except in regard to
+her lasting friendship and attachment for La Rochefoucauld. She
+was born in 1634, and, with Mme. de Sévigné, was probably the best
+educated among the great women of the seventeenth century. She was
+faithful to her husband, the Count of La Fayette, who, in 1665, took
+her to Paris, where she formed her lifelong attachment for the great
+La Rochefoucauld, and where she won immediate recognition for her
+exquisite politeness and as a woman with a large fund of common sense.
+
+After her marriage, she seemed to have but one interest--La
+Rochefoucauld, just as that of Mme. de Maintenon was Louis XIV. and
+that of Mme. de Sévigné--her daughter. These three prominent
+women illustrate remarkably well that predominant trait of French
+women--faithfulness to a chosen cause; each one of the three
+was vitally concerned in an enduring, a legitimate, and sincere
+attachment, which state of affairs gives a certain distinction to the
+society of the time of Louis XIV.
+
+Mme. de La Fayette, like Mme. de Sévigné, possessed an exceptional
+talent for making and retaining friends. She kept aloof from
+intrigues, in fact, knew nothing about them, and consequently never
+schemed to use her favor at court for purposes of self-interest. Two
+qualities belonged to her more than to any of her contemporaries--an
+instinct which was superior to her reason, and a love of truth in all
+things.
+
+Compared with those of Mme. de Rambouillet, it is said that her
+attainments were of a more solid nature; and while Mlle. de Scudéry
+had greater brilliancy, Mme. de La Fayette had better judgment.
+These qualities combined with an exquisite delicacy, fine sentiment,
+calmness, and depth of reason, the very basis of her nature, are
+reflected in her works. Sainte-Beuve says that "her reason and
+experience cool her passion and temper the ideal with the results of
+observation." She was one of the very few women playing any rôle
+in French history who were endowed with all things necessary to
+happiness--fortune, reputation, talent, intimate and ideal
+friendship. Extremely sensitive to surroundings, she readily received
+impressions--a gift which was the source of a somewhat doubtful
+happiness.
+
+In her later days, notwithstanding terrible suffering, she became more
+devout and exhibited an admirable resignation. A letter to Ménage will
+show the mental and physical state reached by her in her last days:
+"Although you forbid me to write to you, I wish, nevertheless, to tell
+you how truly affected I am by your friendship. I appreciate it as
+much as when I used to see it; it is dear to me for its own worth, it
+is dear to me because it is at present the only one I have. Time and
+old age have taken all my friends away from me.... I must tell you the
+state I am in. I am, first of all, a mortal divinity, and to an excess
+inconceivable; I have obstructions in my entrails--sad, inexpressible
+feelings; I have no spirit, no force--I cannot read or apply myself.
+The slightest things affect me--a fly appears an elephant to me; that
+is my ordinary state.... I cannot believe that I can live long in this
+condition, and my life is too disagreeable to permit me to fear the
+end. I surrender myself to the will of God; He is the All-Powerful,
+and, from all sides, we must go to Him at last. They assure me that
+you are thinking seriously of your salvation, and I am very happy over
+it."
+
+There probably never existed a more ideal friendship between two
+French women, one more lasting, sincere, perfect in every way, than
+that of Mme. de Sévigné and Mme. de La Fayette. The major part of
+the information we possess regarding events in the life of Mme. de La
+Fayette is obtained from their letters. Said Mme. de Sévigné: "Never
+did we have the smallest cloud upon our friendship. Long habit had not
+made her merit stale to me--the flavor of it was always fresh and new.
+I paid her many attentions, from the mere promptings of my affection,
+not because of the propriety by which, in friendships, we are bound. I
+was assured, too, that I was her dearest consolation--which, for forty
+years past, had been the case."
+
+Shortly before her death, she wrote to Mme. de Sévigné: "Here is what
+I have done since I wrote you last. I have had two attacks of fever;
+for six months I had not been purged; I am purged once, I am purged
+twice; the day after the second time, I sit down at the table; oh,
+dear! I feel a pain in my heart--I do not want any soup. Have a little
+meat, then? No, I do not wish any. Well, you will have some fruit? I
+think I will. Very well, then, have some. I don't know--I think I
+will have some by and by. Let me have some soup and some chicken
+this evening.... Here is the evening, and there are the soup and the
+chicken; I don't desire them. I am nauseated, I will go to bed--I
+prefer sleeping to eating. I go to bed, I turn round, I turn back,
+I have no pain, but I have no sleep either. I call--I take a book--I
+close it. Day comes--I get up--I go to the window. It strikes four,
+five, six--I go to bed again, I doze until seven, I get up at eight,
+I sit down to table at twelve--to no purpose, as yesterday.... I lay
+myself down in my bed, in the evening, to no purpose, as the night
+before. Are you ill? Nay, I am in this state for three days and three
+nights. At present, I am getting some sleep again, but I still eat
+mechanically, horsewise--rubbing my mouth with vinegar. Otherwise, I
+am very well, and I haven't so much as a pain in my head."
+
+Her depressing melancholy kept her indoors a great deal; in fact,
+after 1683, after the death of the queen, who was one of her best
+friends, she was seldom seen at court. Mme. de Sévigné gives good
+reason for this in her letter:
+
+"She had a mortal melancholy. Again, what absurdity! is she not the
+most fortunate woman in the world? That is what people said; it needed
+that she should die to prove that she had good reason for not going
+out and for being melancholy. Her reins and her heart were all
+gone--was not that enough to cause those fits of despondency of which
+she complained? And so, during her life she showed reason, and after
+death she showed reason, and never was she without that divine reason
+which was her principal gift."
+
+Her liaison with La Rochefoucauld is the one delicate and tender point
+in her life, a relation that afforded her much happiness and finally
+completed the ruin of her health. M. d'Haussonville said: "It is true
+that he took possession of her soul and intellect, little by little,
+so that the two beings, in the eyes of their contemporaries, were
+but one; for after his death (1680) she lived but an incomplete and
+mutilated existence."
+
+Some critics have ventured to pronounce this liaison one of material
+love solely, others are convinced of its morality and pure friendship.
+In favor of the latter view, M. d'Haussonville suggests the fact
+that Mme. de La Fayette was over thirty years of age when she became
+interested in La Rochefoucauld, and that at that age women rarely ally
+themselves with men from emotions of physical love merely. At that age
+it is reason that mutually attracts two beings; and this feeling was
+probably the predominant one in that case, because her entire career
+was one of the most extreme reserve, conservatism, good sense, and
+propriety. However, other proofs are brought forward to show that
+there was between the two a sort of moral marriage, so many examples
+of which are found in the seventeenth century between people
+of prominence, both of whom happened to have unhappy conjugal
+experiences.
+
+French society, one must remember, was different from any in the
+world; it seems to have been a large family gathering, the members of
+which were as intimate, took as much interest in each other's affairs,
+showed as much sympathy for one another and participated in each
+other's sorrows and pleasures, as though they were children of the
+same parents.
+
+In his early days, La Rochefoucauld found it convenient, for selfish
+purposes, to simulate an ardent passion for Mme. de Longueville,
+of which mention has been made in the chapter relating to Mme. de
+Longueville. In his later period, he had settled down to a normal
+mode of life and sought the friendship of a more reasonable and less
+passionate woman. He himself said:
+
+"When women have well-informed minds, I like their conversation better
+than that of men; you find, with them, a certain gentleness which is
+not met with among us; and it seems to me, besides, that they express
+themselves with greater clearness and that they give a more pleasant
+turn to the things they say."
+
+Mme. de La Fayette exercised a great influence upon La
+Rochefoucauld--an influence that was wholesome in every way. It was
+through her influential friends at court that he was helped into
+possession of his property, and it was she who maintained it for him.
+As to his literary work (his _Maxims_), her influence over him was
+supposed to have somewhat modified his ideas on women and to have
+softened his tone in general. She wrote: "He gave me wit, but I
+reformed his heart." M. d'Haussonville has proved, without doubt, that
+her restraint modified many of his maxims that were tinged with
+the spirit of the commonplace and trivial. While Mme. de
+Sablé--essentially a moralist and a deeply religious woman--was more
+of a companion to him, and though his maxims were, for the greater
+part, composed in her salon, Mme. de La Fayette, by her tenderness and
+judgment, tempered the tone of them before they reached the public.
+
+Mme. de La Fayette will always be known, however, as the great
+novelist of the seventeenth century. Two novels, two stories, two
+historical works, and her memoirs, make up her literary budget. M.
+d'Haussonville claims that her memoirs of the court of France are not
+reliable, because she was so often absent from court; also, in
+them she shows a tendency to avenge herself, in a way, upon Mme. de
+Maintenon, whose friend she was until the trouble between this lady
+and Mme. de Montespan occurred. The latter was the intimate friend
+of Mme. de La Fayette. As for her literary work proper, her desire to
+write was possibly encouraged, if not created, by her indulgence in
+the general fad of writing portraitures, in which she was especially
+successful in portraying Mme. de Sévigné. Her literary effort was,
+besides, a revolt of her own taste and sense against the pompous
+and inflated language of the novels of the day and against the great
+length of the development of the events and adventures in them. Thus,
+Mme. de La Fayette inaugurated a new style of novel; to show her
+influence, it will be well to consider the state of the Romanesque
+novel at the period of her writing.
+
+In the beginning of the century, D'Urfé's novels were in vogue; these
+works were characterized by interminable developments, relieved by an
+infinite number of historical episodes. All characters, shepherds
+as well as noblemen, expressed the same sentiments and in the same
+language. There was no pretension to truth in the portraying of
+manners and customs.--A reaction was natural and took the form of
+either a kind of parody or gross realism. These novels, of which
+_Francion_ and _Berger Extravagant_ were the best known, depicted
+shepherds of the Merovingian times, heroes of Persia and Rome, or
+procurers, scamps, and scoundrels; but no descriptions of the manners
+of decent people (_honnêtes gens_) were to be found.
+
+The novels of Mlle. de Scudéry, while interesting as portraitures, are
+not thoroughly reliable in their representation of the sentiments
+and environment of the times; on the other hand, those of Mme. de La
+Fayette are impersonal--no one of the characters is recognizable; yet
+their atmosphere is that of the court of Louis XIV., and the language,
+never so correct as to be unnatural, is that used at the time. Her
+novels reflect perfectly the society of the court and the manner of
+life there. "Thus," says M. d'Haussonville, "she was the first to
+produce a novel of observation and sentiment, the first to paint
+elegant manners as they really were."
+
+Her first production was _La Princesse de Montpensier_ (1662); in
+1670, appeared _Zayde_, it was ostensibly the work of Segrais, her
+teacher and a writer much in vogue at the time; in 1678, _La Princesse
+de Clèves_, her masterpiece, stirred up one of the first real quarrels
+of literary criticism. For a long time after the appearance of that
+book, society was divided into two classes--the pros and the cons. It
+was the most popular work of the period.
+
+M. d'Haussonville says it is the first French novel which is an
+illustration of woman's ability to analyze the most subtile of human
+emotions. Mme. de La Fayette was, also, the first to elevate, in
+literature, the character of the husband who, until then, was a
+nonentity or a booby; she makes of him a hero--sympathetic, noble, and
+dignified.
+
+In no fictitious tale before hers was love depicted with such rare
+delicacy and pathos. In her novel, _La Princesse de Clèves_, "a novel
+of a married woman, we feel the woman who has loved and who knows what
+she is saying, for she, also, has struggled and suffered." The writer
+confesses her weakness and leaves us witness of her virtue. All
+the soul struggles and interior combats represented in her work the
+authoress herself has experienced. As an example of this we cite the
+description of the sentiments of Mme. de Clèves when she realizes that
+her feeling toward one of the members of the court may develop into an
+emotion unworthy of her as a wife. She falls upon her knees and says:
+
+"I am here to make to you a confession such as has never been made
+to man; but the innocence of my conduct and my intentions give me
+the necessary courage. It is true that I have reasons for desiring to
+withdraw from court, and that I wish to avoid the perils which persons
+of my age experience. I have never shown a sign of weakness, and I
+would not fear of ever showing any, if you permitted me to withdraw
+from court, or if I still had, in my efforts to do right, the support
+of Mme. de Chartres. However dangerous may be the action I take, I
+take it with pleasure, that I may be worthy of your actions, I ask a
+thousand pardons; if I have sentiments displeasing to you, I shall
+at least never displease you by my actions. Remember, to do what I am
+doing, one must have for a husband more friendship and esteem than was
+ever before had. Have pity on me and lead me away---and love me still,
+if you can."
+
+_La Princesse de Clèves_ is a novel of human virtue purely, and
+teaches that true virtue can find its reward in itself and in the
+austere enjoyment of duty accomplished. "It is a work that will
+endure, and be a comfort as well as a guide to those who aspire to a
+high morality which necessitates a difficult sacrifice."
+
+M. d'Haussonville regards the novels of Mmes. de Charrière, de Souza,
+de Duras, de Boigne, as mere imitations or as having been inspired by
+that masterpiece of Mme. de La Fayette. He says: "In fact, novels in
+general, that depict the struggle between passion and duty, with the
+victory on the side of virtue, emanate more or less from it."
+
+Taine wrote: "She described the events in the careers of society
+women, introducing no special terms of language into her descriptions.
+She painted for the sake of painting and did not think of attempting
+to surpass her predecessors. She reflects a society whose scrupulous
+care was to avoid even the slightest appearance of anything that might
+displease or shock. She shows the exquisite tact of a woman--and a
+woman of high rank."
+
+Mme. de La Fayette is one of the very rare French writers that have
+succeeded in analyzing love, passion, and moral duty, without becoming
+monotonous, vulgar, brutal, or excessively realistic. Her creations
+contain the most minute analyses of heart and soul emotions, but these
+never become purely physiologic and nauseating, as in most novels.
+This achievement on her part has been too little imitated, but it,
+alone, will preserve the name of Mme. de La Fayette.
+
+Mme. de Motteville is deserving of mention among the important
+literary women of the seventeenth century. She is regarded as one
+of the best women writers in French literature, and her memoirs are
+considered authority on the history of the Fronde and of Anne of
+Austria. The poetry of Mme. des Houlières was for a long time much
+in vogue; to-day, however, it is not read. The memoirs of Mlle. de
+Montpensier are more occupied with herself than with events of the
+time or the numerous princes who tarried about her as longing lovers.
+Guizot says: "She was so impassioned and haughty, with her head
+so full of her own greatness, that she did not marry in her youth,
+thinking no one worthy of her except the king and the emperor, and
+they had no fancy for her." The following portrait of her was sketched
+by herself:
+
+"I am tall, neither fat nor thin, of a very fine and easy figure.
+I have a good mien, arms and hands not beautiful, but a beautiful
+skin--and throat, too. I have a straight leg and a well-shaped foot;
+my hair is light and of a beautiful auburn; my face is long, its
+contour is handsome, nose large and aquiline; mouth neither large
+nor small, but chiselled and with a very pleasing expression; lips
+vermilion, not fine, but not frightful, either; my eyes are blue,
+neither large nor small, but sparkling, soft, and proud like my mien.
+I talk a great deal, without saying silly things or using bad words. I
+am a very vicious enemy, being very choleric and passionate, and that,
+added to my birth, may well make my enemies tremble; but I have, also,
+a noble and kindly soul. I am incapable of any base and black deed;
+and so I am more disposed to mercy than to justice. I am melancholic,
+and fond of reading good and solid books; trifles bore me--except
+verses, and them I like, of whatever sort they may be; and undoubtedly
+I am as good a judge of such things as if I were a scholar."
+
+Possibly the greatest female scholar that France ever produced was
+Mme. Dacier, a truly learned woman and one of whom French women are
+proud; during her last years she enjoyed the reputation of being one
+of the foremost scholars of all Europe. It was Mme. de Lambert who
+wrote of her:
+
+"I esteem Mme. Dacier infinitely. Our sex owes her much; she has
+protested against the common error which condemns us to ignorance.
+Men, as much from disdain as from a fancied superiority, have denied
+us all learning; Mme. Dacier is an example proving that we are capable
+of learning. She has associated erudition and good manners; for, at
+present, modesty has been displaced; shame is no longer for vices,
+and women blush over their learning only. She has freed the mind,
+held captive under this prejudice, and she alone supports us in our
+rights."
+
+Tanneguy-Lefèvre, the father of Mme. Dacier, was a savant and a type
+of the scholars of the sixteenth century. He brought up his sons to be
+like him--instructing them in Greek, Latin, and antiquities. The young
+daughter, present at all the lessons given to her brothers, acquired,
+unaided, a solid education; her father, amazed at her marvellous
+faculty for comprehending and remembering, soon devoted most of his
+energy to her. He was, at that time, professor at the College of
+Saumur; and he was conspicuous not only for the liberty he exhibited
+in his pedagogical duties, but for his general catholicity.
+
+After the death of her father, the young daughter went to Paris where
+her family friends, Chapelain and Huet, encouraged her in her studies,
+the latter, who was assistant preceptor to the dauphin, even going so
+far as to request her to assist him in preparing the Greek text for
+the use of the dauphin. She soon eclipsed all scholars of the time by
+her illuminating studies of Greek authors and of the quality of
+the new editions which she prepared of their works, but she was
+continually pestered on account of her erudition and her religion, the
+Protestant faith, to which she clung while realizing that it had been
+the cause of the failure of her father's advancement.
+
+From that time appeared her famous series of translations of Terence
+and Plautus, which were the delight of the women of the period and
+which gave her the reputation of being the most intellectual woman of
+the seventeenth century. In 1635, when nearly thirty years of age, she
+married M. Dacier, the favorite pupil of her father, librarian to
+the king and translator of Plutarch--a man of no means, but one who
+thoroughly appreciated the worth of Mlle. Lefèvre. This union was
+spoken of by her contemporaries as "the marriage of Greek and Latin."
+
+Two years after their marriage, after long and serious deliberation,
+both abjured Protestantism, adopted the Catholic religion, and
+succeeded in converting the whole town of Castres--an act which
+gained them royal favor, and Louis XIV. granted them a pension of
+two thousand livres. Sainte-Beuve states that their conversion was
+perfectly sincere and conscientious. In all their subsequent works
+were seen traces of Mme. Dacier's powerful intellect, which was much
+superior to that of her husband. Boileau said: "In their production of
+_esprit_, it is Mme. Dacier who is the father."
+
+Besides her translations of the plays of Plautus, all of Terence, the
+_Clouds_ and _Plutus_ of Aristophanes, she published her translation
+of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ (1711-1716), which gave her a prominent
+place in the history of French literature, especially as it appeared
+at the time of the "quarrels of the ancients and moderns," which
+concerned the comparative merits of ancient and modern literature.
+
+Mme. Dacier thoroughly appreciated the grandeur of Homer and knew the
+almost insurmountable difficulties of a translation; therefore,
+when in 1714 the _Iliad_ appeared in verse (in twelve songs by La
+Motte-Houdart), preceded by a discourse on Homer, in which the author
+announced that his aim was to purify and embellish Homer by ridding
+him "of his barbarian crudeness, his uncivil familiarities, and his
+great length," the ire of Mme. Dacier was aroused, and in defence of
+her god she wrote her famous _Des Causes de la Corruption du Goût_
+(Causes of the Corruption of Taste), a long defence of Homer, to which
+La Motte replied in his _Réflexions de la Critique_ This rekindled the
+whole controversy, and sides were immediately formed.
+
+Mme. Dacier was not politic; although she sustained her ideas well
+and displayed much erudition and depth of reason, she is said to have
+injured her cause by the violence of her polemic. Her immoderate tone
+and bitter assaults upon the elegant and discerning favorite only
+detracted from his opponent's favor and grace. Voltaire said: "You
+could say that the work of M. de La Motte was that of a woman of
+_esprit_, while that of Mme. Dacier was of a _homme savant_. He
+translated the _Iliad_ very poorly, but attacked very well." Mme.
+Dacier's translation remained a standard for two centuries. She and
+her adversary became reconciled at a dinner given by M. de Valincour
+for the friends of both parties; upon that festive occasion, "they
+drank to the health of Homer, and all was well."
+
+Mme. Dacier died in 1720. "She was a _savante_ only in her study or
+when with savants; otherwise, she was unaffected and agreeable
+in conversation, from the character of which one would never have
+suspected her of knowing more than the average woman." She was an
+incessant worker and had little time for social life; in the evening,
+after having worked all morning, she received visits from the literary
+men of France; and, to her credit may it be added, amid all her
+literary work, she never neglected her domestic and maternal duties.
+
+A woman of an entirely different type from that of Mme. Dacier, one
+who fitly closes the long series of great and brilliant women of the
+age of Louis XIV., who only partly resembles them and yet does not
+quite take on the faded and decadent coloring of the next age, was
+Mme. de Caylus, the niece of Mme. de Maintenon. It was she who, partly
+through compulsion, partly of her own free will, undertook the rearing
+of the young and beautiful Marthe-Marguerite de Villette. Mme. de
+Maintenon was then at the height of her power, and naturally her
+beautiful, clever, and witty niece was soon overwhelmed by proposals
+of marriage from the greatest nobles of France. To one of these, M. de
+Boufflers, Mme. de Maintenon replied: "My niece is not a sufficiently
+good match for you. However, I am not insensible to the honor you pay
+me; I shall not give her to you, but in the future I shall consider
+you my nephew."
+
+She then married the innocent young girl to the Marquis de Caylus, a
+debauched, worthless reprobate--a union whose only merit lay in the
+fact that her niece could thus remain near her at court. At the latter
+place, her beauty, gayety, and caustic wit, her adaptable and somewhat
+superficial character and her freedom of manners and speech, did
+not fail to attract many admirers. Her frankness in expressing her
+opinions was the source of her disgrace; Louis XIV. took her at her
+word when she exclaimed, in speaking of the court: "This place is so
+dull that it is like being in exile to live here," and forbade her to
+appear again in the place she found so tiresome. Those rash words
+cost her an exile of thirteen years, and only through good behavior,
+submission, and piety was she permitted to return.
+
+She appeared at a supper given by the king, and, by the brilliancy
+of her beauty and _esprit_, she attracted everyone present and soon
+regained her former favor and friends. From that time she was the
+constant companion of Mme. de Maintenon, until the king's death, when
+she returned to Paris; at that place her salon became an intellectual
+centre, and there the traditions of the seventeenth century were
+perpetuated.
+
+Sainte-Beuve said that Mme. de Caylus perfectly exemplified what
+was called urbanity--"politeness in speech and accent as well as in
+_esprit_." In her youth she was famous for her extraordinary acting in
+the performance, at Saint-Cyr, of Racine's _Esther_. Mme. de Sévigné
+wrote: "It is Mme. de Caylus who makes Esther." Her brief and witty
+_Souvenirs_ (Memoirs), showing marvellous finesse in the art of
+portraiture, made her name immortal. M. Saint-Amand describes her work
+thus:
+
+"Her friends, enchanted by her lively wit, had long entreated her
+to write--not for the public, but for them--the anecdotes which she
+related so well. Finally, she acquiesced, and committed to paper
+certain incidents, certain portraits. What a treasure are these
+_Souvenirs_--so fluently written, so unpretentious, with neither dates
+nor chronological order, but upon which, for more than a century, all
+historians have drawn! How much is contained in this little book
+which teaches more in a few lines than interminable works do in many
+volumes! How feminine it is, and how French! One readily understands
+Voltaire's liking for these charming _Souvenirs_. Who, than Mme. de
+Caylus, ever better applied the famous precept: 'Go lightly, mortals;
+don't bear too hard.'"
+
+She belonged to that class of spontaneous writers who produce artistic
+works without knowing it, just as M. Jourdain wrote prose, and who do
+not even suspect that they possess that chief attribute of literary
+style--naturalness. What pure, what ready wit! What good humor,
+what unconstraint, what delightful ease! What a series of charming
+portraits, each more lifelike, more animated, still better than all
+the others! "These little miniatures--due to the brush of a woman
+of the world--are better worth studying than is many a picture or
+fresco."
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VII
+
+Woman in Religion
+
+
+The entire religious agitation of the seventeenth century was due to
+women. Port-Royal was the centre from which issued all contention--the
+centre where all subjects were discussed, where the most important
+books were written or inspired, where the genius of that great century
+centred; and it was to Port-Royal that the greatest women of France
+went, either to find repose for their souls or to visit the noble
+members of their sex who had consecrated their lives to God--Mère
+Angélique, Jacqueline Pascal. Never in the history of the world had
+a religious sect or party gathered within its fold such an array of
+great minds, such a number of fearless and determined heroines and
+_esprits d'élite_. A short account of this famous convent must precede
+any story of its members.
+
+The original convent, Port-Royal des Champs, near Versailles, was
+founded as early as 1204, by Mathieu of Montmorency and his wife, for
+the Cistercian nuns who had the privileges of electing their abbess
+and of receiving into their community ladies who, tired of the social
+world, wished to retire to a religious asylum, without, however, being
+bound by any religious vows. Later on, the sisters were permitted to
+receive, also, young ladies of the nobility.
+
+These privileges were used to such advantage that the institution
+acquired great wealth; and through its boarders, some of whom belonged
+to the most important families of France, it became influential to an
+almost incalculable degree. For four centuries this convent had been
+developing liberal tendencies and gradually falling away from its
+primitive austerity, when, in 1605, Sister Angélique Arnauld became
+abbess and undertook a thorough reform. So great was her success in
+this direction that, after having effected similar changes at the
+Convent of Maubuisson and then returned to Port-Royal des Champs, the
+latter became so crowded that new and more commodious quarters had to
+be obtained.
+
+The immense and beautiful Hôtel de Cluny, at Paris, was procured, and
+a portion of the community moved thither, establishing an institution
+which became the best known and most popular of those French convents
+which were patronized by women of distinction. The old abbey buildings
+near Versailles were later occupied by a community of learned and
+pious men who were, for the most part, pupils of the celebrated Abbé
+of Saint-Cyran, who, with Jansenius, was living at Paris at the time
+that Mère Angélique was perfecting her reforms; she, attracted by the
+ascetic life led by the abbé, fell under his influence, and the whole
+Arnauld family, numbering about thirty, followed her example.
+
+Soon "the nuns at Paris, with their numerous and powerful connections,
+and the recluses at Port-Royal des Champs, together with their pupils
+and the noble or wealthy families to which the latter belonged, were
+imbued with the new doctrines of which they became apostles." The
+primary aim was to live up to a common ideal of Christian perfection,
+and to react against the general corruption by establishing thoroughly
+moral schools and publishing works denouncing, in strong terms, the
+glaring errors of the time, the source of which was considered, by
+both the Abbé of Saint-Cyran and Jansenius, to lie in the Jesuit
+Colleges and their theology. Thus was evolved a system of education in
+every way antagonistic to that of the Jesuits.
+
+At this time the convent at Paris became so crowded that Mère
+Angélique withdrew to the abbey near Versailles, the occupants of
+which retired to a neighboring farm, Les Granges; there was opened
+a seminary for females, which soon attracted the daughters of the
+nobility. An astounding literary and agricultural activity resulted,
+both at the abode of the recluses and at the seminary: by the recluses
+were written the famous Greek and Latin grammars, and by the nuns, the
+famous _Memoirs of the History of Port-Royal_ and the _Image of the
+Perfect and Imperfect Sister_; a model farm was cultivated, and here
+the peasants were taught improved methods of tillage. During the
+time of the civil wars the convent became a resort where charity and
+hospitality were extended to the poor peasants.
+
+"The mode of life at Port-Royal was distinguished for austerity. The
+inmates rose at three o'clock in the morning, and, after the common
+prayer, kissed the ground as a sign of their self-humiliation before
+God. Then, kneeling, they read a chapter from the Gospels and one from
+the Epistles, concluding with another prayer. Two hours in the morning
+and a like number in the afternoon were devoted to manual labor in the
+gardens adjoining the convent; they observed, with great strictness,
+the season of Lent." Their theories and practices, and especially
+their sympathy with Jansenius, whose work _Mars Gallicus_ attacked
+the French government and people, aroused the suspicions of Richelieu.
+When in 1640 the Port-Royalists openly and enthusiastically received
+the famous work, _Augustinus_, of Jansenius, the government became the
+declared opponent of the convent. Saint-Cyran had been imprisoned
+in 1638, and not until after the death of Richelieu, in 1642, was
+he liberated. After the appearance, in 1643, of Arnauld's _De la
+Fréquente Communion_, in which he attacked the Jesuits for admitting
+the people to the Lord's Supper without due preparation, two parties
+formed--the Jesuits, supported by the Sorbonne and the government, and
+the Port-Royalists, supported by Parliament and illustrious persons,
+such as Mme. de Longueville.
+
+In 1644, the nuns were dispersed by order of Louis XIV., against whose
+despotic caprices two Jansenist bishops had fought in support of the
+rights of the pope. The Paris convent remained closed until 1669, when
+it and the one at Chevreuse, near Versailles were made independent
+of each other, a proceeding which resulted in the two institutions
+becoming opponents. In 1708 the Convent of Port-Royal des Champs
+was suppressed, and, a year later, the beautiful and once prosperous
+community was destroyed, the buildings being levelled to the ground.
+In 1780 the Paris convent was abolished; five years later the
+structure was converted into a hospital, and in 1814 it became the
+lying-in asylum of _La Maternité_.
+
+In those two convents, which were practically one, was fomented and
+developed the entire religious movement of the seventeenth century,
+to which period belong the general study and development of theology,
+metaphysics, and morality. Such great, good, and brilliant women as
+the Countess of Maure, Mlle. de Vandy, Anne de Rohan, Mme. de Brégy,
+Mme. de Hautefort, Mme. de Longueville, Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La
+Fayette, and Mme. de Sablé were inmates of Port-Royal, or its friends
+and constant visitors.
+
+Port-Royal may have been the cause of the civil war waged by the
+Frondists against the government. It did bring on the struggle between
+the Jesuits, who were all-powerful in the Church, and the Jansenists.
+The latter denied the doctrine of free will, and taught the absolutism
+of religion, the "terrible God," the powerlessness of kings and
+princes before God--a doctrine which brought down upon them the wrath
+of Louis XIV., for whom their notion of virtue was too severe, their
+use of the Gospel too excessive, and their Christianity impossible.
+
+In its purest form, Port-Royalism was a return to the sanctity of the
+primitive church--an attempt at the use, in French, of the whole body
+of Scriptures and the writings of the Church Fathers; it aimed to
+maintain a vigorous religious reaction in the shape of a reform, and
+that reform was vigorously opposed by the Catholic Church.
+
+One family that is associated with Port-Royal gave to its cause no
+less than six sisters; the latter all belonged to the Convent of
+Port-Royal and were attached to the Jansenist party; of them, the
+Archbishop of Paris said that they were "as pure as angels, but as
+proud as devils." They were related to the one great Arnauld family,
+of which Antoine and his three sons--Robert, Henri, and the younger
+Antoine, called "the great Antoine"--were illustrious champions of
+Port-Royal.
+
+Marie Jacqueline Angélique, the oldest among the three abbesses, was
+born in 1591, and, at the early age of fourteen, was made abbess
+of Port-Royal des Champs; it was she who, after having instituted
+successful reforms at Port-Royal, was sent to reform the system of
+the Abbey of Maubuisson, thus initiating the important movement which
+later involved almost all France. She became convinced that she had
+not been lawfully elected abbess and resigned, securing, however, a
+provision which made the election of abbesses a triennial event. To
+her belongs the honor of having made Port-Royal anew. She was a woman
+capable of every sacrifice,--a wonderful type in which were blended
+candor, pride, and submission,--and she exhibited indomitable strength
+of will and earnest zeal for her cause.
+
+Her sister, Agnes, but three years younger than Marie, also entered
+the convent, and, at the age of fifteen, was made mistress of the
+novices; during the absence of her sister, at Maubuisson, she was
+at the head of the convent; from that time, she governed Port-Royal
+alternately with her sister, for twenty-seven years. Her work, _The
+Secret Chapter of the Sacrament_, was suppressed at Rome, but without
+bringing formal censure upon her.
+
+The last of those great abbesses was Mère Angélique, who lived through
+the most troublous and critical times of Port-Royal (1624 to 1684). At
+the age of twenty she became a nun, having been reared in the convent
+by her aunt, Marie, who was the most perfect disciple of Saint-Cyran.
+Mère Angélique was especially conspicuous for her obstinacy, and when
+the nuns were forced to accept the formulary of Pope Alexander VI.,
+she, alone, was excepted, because of that well known characteristic.
+Upon the reopening of Port-Royal (in 1689), her powerful protectress,
+Mme. de Longueville, died and the persecutions were renewed; Mère
+Angélique endeavored to avert the storm, but all in vain; amidst her
+efforts, she collapsed. She was also a writer, her _Memoirs of
+the History of Port Royal_ being the most valuable history of that
+institution.
+
+Thus, about those three women is formed the religious movement which
+involved both the development of religious liberty, free will, and
+morality, and of the philosophical literature of the century--a
+century which boasts such writers and theologians as Nicole, Pascal,
+Racine, etc.
+
+The mission of Port-Royal seems to have been preparation of souls for
+the struggles of life, teaching how to resist oppression or to bear it
+with courage, and how, for a righteous cause, to brave everything,
+not only the persecutions of power--violence, prison, exile,--but
+the ruses of hypocrisy and the calumny of opposing opinion. The
+Port-Royalist nun combated and taught how to combat; she lacked
+humility, but possessed an abundance of courage which often bordered
+upon passion.
+
+One of the most pathetic and striking illustrations of the fervent
+devotion which was a characteristic product of Port-Royal, is supplied
+by Jacqueline Pascal, sister of the great Blaise Pascal. Young,
+_spirituelle_, very much sought after and the idol of brilliant
+companions, at the age of twenty-six she abandoned the world to devote
+herself to God. At thirty-six years of age she died of sorrow and
+remorse for having signed an equivocal formulary of Pope Alexander
+VI., "through pure deference to the authority of her superiors." The
+papal decision concerning Jansenius's book, already mentioned, was
+drawn up in a formula "turned with some skill, and in such a way
+that subscription did not bind the conscience; however, the nuns of
+Port-Royal refused to sign." Jacqueline Pascal wrote:
+
+"That which hinders us, what hinders all the ecclesiastics who
+recognize the truth from replying when the formulary is presented to
+them to subscribe is: I know the respect I owe the bishops, but my
+conscience does not permit me to subscribe that a thing is in a
+book in which I have not seen it--and after that, wait for what will
+happen. What have we to fear? Banishment and dispersion for the nuns,
+seizure of temporalities, imprisonment, and death if you will; but
+is not that our glory and should it not be our joy? Let us either
+renounce the Gospel or faithfully follow the maxims of that Gospel
+and deem ourselves happy to suffer somewhat for righteousness' sake.
+I know that it is not for daughters to defend the truth, though,
+unfortunately, one might say that since the bishops have the courage
+of daughters, the daughters must have the courage of bishops; but,
+if it is not for us to defend the truth, it is for us to die for the
+truth and to suffer everything rather than abandon it."
+
+She subscribed, "divided between her instinctive repugnance and her
+desire to show herself an humble daughter of the Catholic Church."
+She said: "It is all we can concede; for the rest, come what
+may,--poverty, dispersion, imprisonment, death,--all those seem to
+me nothing in comparison with the anguish in which I should pass the
+remainder of my life, if I had been wretch enough to make a covenant
+with death on the occasion of so excellent an opportunity for proving
+to God the sincerity of the vows of fidelity which our lips have
+pronounced." According to Mme. Périer, the health of the writer of the
+above epistle was so undermined by the shock which all that commotion
+had caused her, that she became dangerously ill, dying soon after.
+Thus was sacrificed the first victim of the formulary.
+
+Cousin says that few women of the seventeenth century were as
+brilliantly endowed as Jacqueline Pascal; possessing the finesse,
+energy, and sobriety of her brother, she was capable of the most
+serious work, and yet knew perfectly how to lead in a social circle.
+Also, she was most happily gifted with a talent for poetry, in
+relation to which her reputation was everywhere recognized; at
+the convent, she consulted her superiors as to the advisability of
+continuing her verse making; and upon being told that such occupation
+was not a means of winning the grace of Jesus Christ, she abandoned
+it.
+
+Cousin maintained that the avowed principle of the Port-Royalists was
+the withdrawal from all worldly pleasure and attachment. "'Marriage is
+a homicide; absolute renunciation is the true régime of a Christian.'
+Jacqueline Pascal is an exaggeration of Port-Royal, and Port-Royal is
+an exaggeration of the religious spirit of the seventeenth century.
+Man is too little considered; all movement of the physical world comes
+from God; all our acts and thoughts, except those of crime and error,
+come from and belong to Him. Nothing is our own; there is no free
+will; will and reason have no power. The theory of grace is the source
+of all truth, virtue, and merit--and for this doctrine Jacqueline
+Pascal gives up her life."
+
+Among the great spirits of Port-Royal, the women especially were
+strong in their convictions and high in their ideals. They naturally
+followed the ideas of man and naturally fell into religious errors;
+but their firmness, constancy, and heroism were striking indeed. Their
+aspiration was the imitation of Christ, and they approached their
+model as near as ever was done by man. In an age of courtesans, when
+convictions were subservient to the pleasure of power, they set a
+worthy example of strength of mind, firmness of will, purity, and
+womanliness. M. du Bled says:
+
+"Port-Royal was the enterprise of the middle-class aristocracy of
+France; you can see here an anticipated attempt of a sort of superior
+third estate to govern for itself in the Church and to establish a
+religion not Roman, not aristocratic and of the court, not devout
+in the manner of the simple people, but freer from vain images and
+ceremonies, and freer, also, as to the temporal in the face of worldly
+authority--a sober, austere, independent religion which would have
+truly founded a Gallican reform. The illusion was in thinking that
+they could continue to exist in Rome--that Richelieu and Louis XIV.
+would tolerate the boldness of this attempt."
+
+A celebrated woman of the seventeenth century, one who really belongs
+to the circle of Mme. de Longueville and Mme. de La Fayette, but who
+early in life, like Mme. de Longueville, devoted herself to religion
+and retired to live at Port-Royal, and is therefore more intimately
+associated with the religious movement, was Mme. de Sablé, a type of
+the social-religious woman.
+
+Mme. de Sablé is a heroine of Cousin, whom we closely follow in this
+account of her career. According to that writer, she is a type of the
+purely social woman, a woman who did less for herself than for others,
+in aiding whom she took delight, a woman who was the inspiration of
+many writers and many works.
+
+Mlle. de Souvré married the wealthy Marquis of Sablé, of the house of
+Montmorency, of whom little is known. He soon abandoned her; and she,
+most unhappy over unworthy rivals, fell very ill, retired from society
+for a time, and then reappeared; her career as a society woman then
+began. At an early age, by force of her decided taste for the high
+form of Spanish gallantry, then so much in vogue, and her inclination
+to all things intellectual, she became one of the leaders of the
+Hôtel de Rambouillet. She, Mmes. de Sévigné, de Longueville, and de La
+Fayette formed that circle of women who idealized friendship.
+
+Within a few years she lost her father, husband, two of her brothers,
+and her second son; and after putting her financial affairs into
+order, she and her friend, the Countess of Maure, took up their
+quarters at the famous Place Royale; there they decided to devote
+their lives to letters, and there assembled their friends, men and
+women, regardless of rank or party, personal merit being the only
+means of access. Mmes. de Sablé and de Rambouillet were called the
+arbiters of elegance and good taste.
+
+To her friends, Mme. de Sablé was always accommodating and showed no
+partiality; well informed, she was constantly approached for counsel
+and favors; discreet and trustworthy, the most important secrets were
+intrusted to her--a confidence which she never betrayed. During the
+Fronde she remained faithful to the queen and Mazarin, but did not
+become estranged from her friends, so many of whom were Frondists, and
+who chose her as their counsellor, arbitrator, and pacifier.
+
+About 1655 she began to realize her unsettled position in the world
+and to long for a place where she might, modestly and becomingly,
+spend her declining years. She was then fifty-five years of age. The
+ideas of Jansenism had so impressed the great people of the day, that
+she decided to retire to Port-Royal, to end her days with sympathizers
+of the spiritual life around her and her former friends whenever she
+desired them. There she gathered about her the most exclusive and
+aristocratic people of the day: La Rochefoucauld, the Prince and
+Princess of Conti, Condé, Monsieur,--brother of Louis XIV.,--Mme. de
+La Fayette, Mme. de Hautefort, and others.
+
+At her apartments, not only were religious and literary affairs
+discussed, but the most delicate and delicious dishes were prepared
+and elixirs and remedies for disease compounded. Famous people were
+led to seek her, through her reputation and influence, and through
+friendship, for she seldom left her house. Mme. de Sablé possessed all
+the qualities that attract and hold, nothing extraordinary or rare,
+but abundant politeness and elegance.
+
+It was not long before she began to withdraw from even her friends,
+still continuing, however, her fine cuisine, the remarkable care
+of her health, and her medical experiments. Her dinners became
+celebrated, and invitations to them were much in demand; about them
+there were no signs of opulence, but her gatherings were distinguished
+for refinement and taste. Her friends were constantly asking her for
+her recipes, of the preparation of which no one but herself knew the
+secret.
+
+At the salon of Mme. de Sablé originated many famous literary works,
+such as the _Conférences sur le Calvinisme_, works on Cartesian
+philosophy, the _Logique de Port-Royal_, _Questions sur l'Amour_, _Les
+Maximes_, etc. She will be remembered as the initiator of many maxims,
+in the composition of which she excelled. A number of her sayings
+concerning friendship have been preserved. Two treatises, in the
+form of maxims, on the education of children and on friendship,
+respectively, are supposed to have come from her pen; from them La
+Rochefoucauld conceived the ideas he utilized in his famous _Maxims_.
+
+La Rochefoucauld's maxims were composed according to the chance of
+conversation, which gave rise to various subjects and led to his
+serious reflection upon them. Cousin even goes so far as to say that
+the _Pensées_ of Pascal would never have been published in that
+form had not the _Maxims_ enjoyed such favor. Pascal often visited
+Port-Royal and naturally followed the general reflective tendency
+of its society. His _Discours sur les Passions de l'Amour_ possibly
+originated at the salon of Mme. de Sablé, because the subject of which
+that work treated was one much discussed there. La Rochefoucauld was
+in the habit of sending his maxims to Mme. de Sablé with the message:
+"As you do nothing for nothing, I ask of you a carrot soup or mutton
+stew."
+
+When La Rochefoucauld entered the society of Mme. de Sablé, he had
+seen much of life, was familiar with most of the adventures and
+intrigues of the Fronde and the society of the time; he himself had
+acted his part in all, and at the age of fifty was ready to put his
+experience into a permanent form of reflection. His _Maxims_ created
+a stir, through the clearness and elegance of their character, their
+fine analyses of man as he was in the seventeenth century, and through
+their truthfulness and general applicability to men of every country.
+From all the illustrious women of the day, either he or Mme. de
+Sablé received letters of criticism or suggestion--eulogies and
+condemnations of which he took notice in his next edition. This
+shows the intense interest felt in the appearance of any new literary
+production.
+
+Cousin says that the whole literature of maxims and reflections issued
+directly from the salon of a kind and good woman who had retired to a
+convent with no other desire than to live over her life, to recall
+her past and what she had seen and felt therein; and upon her society,
+that woman impressed her own tastes, elegance, and seriousness. Her
+great act of benevolence was her protection of Port-Royal. When, after
+the death in 1661 of Mother Angélique Arnauld, that institution became
+the object of persecution and its tenants were either imprisoned or
+compelled to seek refuge in the various families of Paris, Mme. de
+Sablé remained faithful to its principles; she lived with her friends,
+Mme. de Longueville and Mme. de Montausier, until 1669, when, with the
+coöperation of Mme. de Longueville, who exerted all her influence for
+Port-Royal, she finally succeeded in bringing about its reopening. At
+least, Cousin ascribes this result to Mme. de Sablé, but he may have
+somewhat exaggerated her influence in this respect. From her retreat
+at Port-Royal, she kept up a constant correspondence with her friends
+all over France; she lived there until 1678, with but one intimate
+friend, Mme. de Longueville.
+
+Mme. de Sablé had remarkable gifts; her mission in politics, religion,
+and literature seems to have been to excite to action, to stimulate
+and to bring out to its fullest value, the talents and genius of
+others. In her modest salon, she inspired the great and illustrious
+work which will keep her memory alive as long as the _Maxims_ and
+_Pensées_ are read. Her name will be connected with that of Mme.
+de Longueville, because of their ideal friendship, and with that of
+Port-Royal because of her ardent and self-sacrificing support of it
+in the time of its direst persecution, when any exhibition of sympathy
+was dangerous in the extreme; and finally, her name will always be
+connected with that small circle of French society of the seventeenth
+century, which was noble, moral, and elevating to an unusual degree.
+
+Somewhat later in the century a different movement was started by a
+woman, which involved many of the highest in rank at court. This took
+the form of a kind of mystical enthusiasm, running into a theory of
+pure love, and was instigated by Mme. Guyon, a widow, still young, and
+gifted with a lofty and subtile mind. After losing her husband, whom
+she had converted to her religious views, she went, in 1680, to Paris
+to educate her children. Becoming interested in religion, she went
+to Geneva, where she became very intimate with a priest who was
+her spiritual director, and whom she soon wholly subjected to her
+influence. On account of their views on sanctification, they were
+ordered to leave.
+
+After travelling over Europe for a number of years, and writing
+several works, including _Spiritual Torrents_ and _Short and Easy
+Method of Making Orison with the Heart_, the widow returned to Paris,
+with the intention of living in retirement; but so many persons of all
+ranks sought her out, that she organized, for ladies of rank, meetings
+for purposes of prayer and religious conversation. The Duchess of
+Beauvilliers, the Duchess of Béthune, the Countess of Guiche, the
+Countess of Chevreuse, and many others, with their husbands, became
+her devoted adherents.
+
+According to Mme. Guyon, prayer should lose the character of
+supplication, and become simply the silence of a soul absorbed in God.
+"Why are not simple folks so taught? Shepherds, keeping their flocks,
+would have the spirit of the old anchorites; and laborers, whilst
+driving the plow, would talk happily with God. In a little while, vice
+would be banished and the kingdom of God would be realized on earth."
+Thus, her doctrine was directly opposite to the theories of the
+Jansenists.
+
+At that time, 1687 to 1688, all religious movements, however quiet,
+were condemned at Rome; and the teachings of Mme. Guyon were found to
+differ very little from those of the Spanish priest Molinas. The first
+arrest, that of her friend Lacombe, was soon followed by that of
+Mme. Guyon herself, by royal order; she was released through the
+intercession of Mme. de Maintenon, who was fascinated by her to the
+extent of permitting her to teach her doctrines at Saint-Cyr, Upon the
+appearance of her _Method of Prayer_, an examination was instituted
+by Bossuet and Fénelon, who marked out a few passages as erroneous--a
+procedure to which she submitted. However, Bossuet himself wrote a
+treatise against her _Method of Prayer_, in which he cast reflections
+upon her character and conduct; to that work Fénelon refused to
+subscribe, which antagonistic proceeding brought on the great quarrel
+between those two absolute ecclesiasts. In fact, Fénelon became imbued
+with the doctrines of Mme. Guyon.
+
+She was imprisoned at various times; and when a letter was received
+from Lacombe, who had been imprisoned at Vincennes for a long time,
+exhorting her to repent of their criminal intimacy, Mme. Guyon's cause
+was hopeless. She was sent to the Bastille, her son was dismissed
+from the army, and many of her friends were banished. In 1702 she was
+released from prison and banished to Diziers; she passed the remainder
+of her life in complete retirement at Blois.
+
+Fénelon had written a treatise, _Maxims of the Saints_, which was
+said to favor Mme. Guyon's doctrines, and which was sent to Rome for
+examination. He defined her doctrine of divine love in the following
+maxim, which was condemned at Rome:
+
+"There is an habitual state of love of God, which is pure charity
+without any taint of the motive of self-interest. Neither fear of
+punishment nor desire of reward has, any longer, part in this love;
+God is loved, not for the merit, but for the happiness to be found in
+loving Him."
+
+Such a doctrine made repentance unnecessary, destroyed all effort to
+withstand evil, and did not acknowledge the need of a Redeemer. This
+the great Bossuet foresaw; consequently, he, as the supreme religious
+potentate of his inferior in rank, Fénelon, demanded the condemnation
+by the latter of the works of Mme. Guyon. The refusal cost Fénelon
+exile for life. To Mme. de Maintenon he wrote a letter which shows the
+sincerity of his devotion to a friend in disgrace, even though his own
+reputation was thereby endangered:
+
+"So it is to secure my own reputation that I am wanted to subscribe
+that a lady--my friend--would plainly deserve to be burned, with all
+her writings, for an execrable form of spirituality which is the only
+bond of our friendship. I tell you, madame, I would burn my friend
+with my own hands, and I would burn myself joyfully, rather than
+let the Church be imperilled; but here is a poor, captive woman,
+overwhelmed with sorrows; there is none to defend her, none to excuse
+her; all are afraid to do so. I maintain that this stroke of the pen,
+given from a cowardly policy and against my conscience, would render
+me forever infamous and unworthy of my ministry and my position."
+
+Thus, in the seventeenth century, religious agitations and religious
+reform were the work preëminently of women; but that reform and those
+agitations were productive of good results to a far greater degree
+than was any similar movement in any other century, with the possible
+exception of the nineteenth. The seventeenth century was, as mentioned
+before, a century of stability, one that toned down and crushed all
+violations and abuses of the standard established by authority. Woman,
+in her constant striving for the complete emancipation and gradual
+purification of her sex, rebelled against the power of established
+authority; she did not consciously or intentionally violate law and
+order, but in her intense desire to act for good as she saw it, and
+in her noble efforts to ameliorate all undesirable conditions, she
+created commotion and confusion. The seventeenth-century woman is
+conspicuous as a champion of religion, moral purity, and social
+reform; therefore, her influence was mainly social, religious, moral,
+and literary, while that of the woman of the sixteenth century was
+mainly political. This difference was the result of the greater
+advantages of education and training enjoyed by the females of the
+later period.
+
+In the beginning of the seventeenth century, young girls were granted
+greater privileges and received more attention from men and society
+than did their predecessors; they thus had more opportunities for
+mental development, more occasion to become aware of the temptations
+and injustices of life, without falling prey to them. Such young girls
+as Julie d'Angennes, Mlle. d'Arquenay, and Mlle. de Pisani, took
+part in the balls, fêtes, garden parties, and all amusements in which
+society indulged. They met young men of their own age and became
+intimately acquainted with them, morals were purer, marriages of
+affection were much more frequent, and the state of married life was
+much more congenial, than in any other century. Young men paid
+court to the older ladies, to refine their manners and sharpen their
+intellects, but not for any immoral purpose. To a certain extent
+women were more world-wise when they reached the marriageable age, and
+inspired respect and admiration rather than passion and desire as in
+the next century.
+
+Young girls of the seventeenth century were early placed in a convent,
+and when they left it they were ready for marriage; in the meantime,
+they frequently visited home and associated with their parents and
+brothers; at the convents intellectual intercourse with people of high
+rank and men of letters was encouraged. Yet the discipline at those
+institutions was very rigid, the boarders being more carefully watched
+then than later on; two nuns always accompanied them on their walks,
+and when not busy with their studies, to prevent the mind from
+wandering, they were kept busy with their hands; "the transports of
+the soul of the young girl, as every reflection of the intelligence,
+are watched and held in check, every one of her inclinations opposed,
+all originality suppressed."
+
+At first the convents were reproached for stifling all culture and
+development and applying only correction and mortification of the
+flesh. Mme. de Maintenon opposed such a state of affairs, but her
+methods discouraged true independence. The happiness of her charges
+was her one aim, but they had no voice in the matter. When of
+marriageable age, they were given a trousseau and a husband; however,
+they were taught to be reasonable.
+
+In that century, the young girl, mixing more generally in society,
+received greater consideration--hence, she became more active and
+conspicuous. It will be seen that the rôle played by the eighteenth
+century woman was not so much played by the young woman as it was
+by the woman of mature years, of the mother, the counsellor--the
+indispensable element of society. There were three classes of
+women--young women, mature women who sought consideration, and old
+women who received respect and deference, and who, as arbiters of
+culture, upheld the principles already established.
+
+A young man making his début had to find favor with one of those
+classes which decided his future reputation and the extent of his
+favor at court, and assigned him his place and grade, upon which
+depended his marriage. All education was directed to the one
+end--social success. The duty of the tutor charged with the
+instruction of a young son was to give a well-rounded, general
+education; by the mother, he was taught politeness, grace,
+amiability--a part of his training to which more importance was
+attached than to the intellectual portion. Whenever a young man was
+guilty of misconduct toward a woman, his mother was notified of
+the occurrence, on the same evening, and he promptly received his
+reprimand. This spirit naturally fostered that rare politeness,
+exquisite taste and tact in conversation, in which the eighteenth
+century excels.
+
+But where did the young girls receive the education which gave them
+such prestige--that consummate art of conversation exemplified in
+Mme. de Boufflers, Mme. de Luxembourg, Mme. de Sabran, the Duchess
+of Choiseul, the Princess of Beauvau, the Countess of Ségur? The sons
+were educated in the usages of the _bonne compagnie_ by the mothers,
+but the daughters did not enjoy that attention, for, at the age of
+five or six years, they were sent to the convent; there the mother's
+influence could not have reached them, and they never left the convent
+except to marry. The middle class imitated the higher class, and
+family life became practically impossible. All men of any importance
+had a charge at court or a grade in the army, and lived away from
+their families. A large number of women were attached to the queen,
+spending the greater part of their time at Versailles; the little time
+passed at their homes was entirely occupied in preparation for the
+evening _causeries_ at the salons, in reading new books, acquiring
+information upon current events, and in superintending the making of
+the many necessary and always elaborate gowns; as M. Perey so well
+says, "as the toilettes and hairdressing took up the greater part
+of the morning, they devoted the time used by the _coiffeur_, in
+constructing complicated edifices that crushed down the heads of
+women, to the reading of new books."
+
+Nearly every large establishment kept open house, dining from twenty
+to thirty persons every day. They dined at one, separated at three,
+were at the theatre at five, and returned with as many friends as
+possible--the more, the greater the reputation for hospitality and
+popularity. Under such circumstances, the mother had no time for the
+daughters, nor were the conversations at those dinners food for
+young, innocent girls--and innocence was the first requirement of a
+marriageable young woman.
+
+The great convents were the Abbaye-aux-Bois and Penthemont, where the
+daughters of the wealthiest and highest families were educated. In
+those convents or seminaries, strange to say, the young girls were
+taught the most practical domestic duties, as well as dancing, music,
+painting, etc. Such teachers as Molé and Larrive gave instruction in
+declamation and reading, and Noverre and Dauberval in dancing; the
+teaching nuns were all from the best families. The most complete
+costumes, scenic decorations, and other equipments of a complete
+theatre were supplied, special hours being set aside for the play.
+However, much intriguing went on there, and many friendships and
+lifelong enmities were formed, which later led to serious troubles.
+
+Often, from the midst of a group of young girls of from ten to fifteen
+years of age, one would be notified of her coming marriage with a man
+she had never seen, and whom, in all probability, she could not
+love, having given her heart to another. If it turned out to be an
+uncongenial marriage, a separate life would be the result, and, while
+still absolutely ignorant of the world, those young married women
+would fall prey to the charms of young gallants or men of quality, and
+a liaison would follow.
+
+The difference between a liaison of the seventeenth century and one
+of the eighteenth led to one essential difference in the standards
+of social and moral etiquette; in the former period, a liaison meant
+nothing more censurable than an intimate friendship, a purely platonic
+love; the lover simply paid homage to the lady of his choice; it was
+an attraction of common intellectual interests and usually lasted for
+life; in the eighteenth century, a liaison was essentially immoral,
+rarely a union of interests, but rather one of passions and physical
+propensities. Such relations developed and fostered deceit, intrigues,
+infidelity, and rivalry, one woman endeavoring to allure the lover of
+another; affairs of that nature were the chief topic of conversation
+in social circles, and were soon reflected in every phase of the
+intelligent world. This will be seen in the study of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VIII
+
+Salon Leaders Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, Mme. du Châtelet
+
+
+In studying the vast numbers of salons of the eighteenth century,
+three types are discernible, each of which was prominent and in full
+sway throughout the century up to the Revolution. To the first class
+belong the great literary and philosophical salons which, though not
+political in nature, finally changed politics; such were the
+circles of Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis; with these
+every literary student is familiar. The second class includes the
+smaller and less important literary, philosophical, and social
+salons--those of Mme. de Marchais, Mme. de Persan, Mme. de Villars,
+Mme. de Vaines, and of D'Alembert, D'Holbach, Helvétius. The third
+class is of a social nature exclusively, good breeding and good tone
+being the essentials; its conspicuous features were the dinners
+and suppers of Suard, Saurin, the Abbés Raynal and Morellet, of the
+Palais-Royal of Mme. de Blot, of the Temple of the Prince of Conti,
+those of Mme. de Beauvau, Mme. de Gramont, M. de La Popeliniére, and
+others.
+
+The distinctions thus made will not hold throughout, but they
+facilitate the presentation of a subject that is exceedingly
+complicated. It may almost be said that each generation of the
+eighteenth century had a salon with a different physiognomy; those
+of 1710, 1730, 1760, and 1780 were all inspired by different motives,
+causes, and events, and were all led by women of different histories
+and aspirations, whose common idol was man, but whose ideas of what
+constituted a hero were as widely different as was the constitution of
+society in the respective periods. Not until the middle of the reign
+of Louis XIV. did social life become detached from Versailles, and,
+spreading out and circulating in a thousand hôtels, showed itself in
+all its force, splendor, and elegance. The celebrated women of the
+regency--Mme. de Prie, Mme. de Parabère, Mme. de Sabran--had no salon,
+while those of the Marquis d'Alluys and the Hôtels de Sully, de Duras,
+de Villars, and the suppers of Mme. de Chauvelin were of a distinctly
+different type from those of the earlier and the later periods.
+
+In a certain sense, the salons changed the complexion of the age. The
+eighteenth century itself was friendly and generous; it was, also,
+impatient and inexperienced, seeing things not as they were but as it
+wished them to be, compelling science and art to serve its purpose.
+It was frank, often brutally frank, a characteristic due partly to the
+conversational license of the salons. With its Fontenelle, Voltaire,
+Piron, etc., it was indeed a happy century. A _bon mot_ was the event
+of the day and travelled over all the civilized world.
+
+Feeling keenly the need of a guiding principle, the need of a more
+substantial foundation in education, the women of the century thought
+and wrote much on that subject; such was, for the most part, the work
+of the great salons, but in them the philosophical tenets of the
+age were also discussed. The spirit of criticism thus created and
+cultivated, which finally spread through all classes of society,
+gradually conquered the new power in the state--public opinion which,
+at the end of the century, ruled supreme in all its strength and
+vehemence, defying every effort of the government to stifle it. The
+highest form of agreeable and intellectual society which the world has
+ever seen attained to its most complete development in these salons.
+
+Every century has had its specialty: the twelfth had its crusades, the
+sixteenth its religious struggles, the seventeenth its grand _goût_,
+the eighteenth its conversation and love of reason, the nineteenth
+its political struggles; and each one displayed the French passion for
+_esprit_; the eighteenth, however, was, _par excellence_, the century
+of _esprit_, and it was most remarkably developed in woman.
+
+"Such astonishingly loquacious people as lived in Paris in the
+eighteenth century! ineffective, sardonic, verbose, sociable,
+intellectual, elegant, immoral--grand gentlemen and ladies, with tears
+for mimic woes and none for actual ones, praise for wit, rewards
+for cleverness, and absolute ignorance of the destinies they were
+preparing for themselves;" such is the story of women and society of
+the eighteenth century. Among these women the salon leaders will be
+found the most attractive, and the most influential in literature,
+theory of government, and social and moral development; to the
+mistresses belongs the title of "politicians."
+
+_La Ménagerie de Mme. de Tencin_ was one of the earliest of the
+eighteenth-century salons, although, in the strict sense of the word,
+Mme. de Tencin's salon was of a political rather than a literary
+nature. Successively nun, mistress, mother, she was one of the
+shrewdest women of the century. Born in 1681, she early became a nun;
+but such was the character of her life at the convent that it was not
+long before she became a mother. In 1714 she abandoned her conventual
+life and went to Paris, where she rose to influence as the mistress of
+Cardinal Dubois and of the regent, the Duke of Orléans. At Paris her
+real activity began; she arrived at that gay capital with no other
+collateral than a pretty face and an extraordinary cunning, which
+soon brought her a fortune. Fertile in resources of all kinds, she
+succeeded immediately, and gained for her nephew the cardinal's hat.
+In 1717 was born to her the afterward famous d'Alembert, whom she left
+upon the steps of the church Saint-Jean-le-Rond; afterward, when he
+had become eminent and her power was waning, she unsuccessfully used
+every means at her command to gain his favor and recognition; the
+father of that child was the Chevalier Destouches.
+
+About 1726, when lovers were numerous and friends plentiful, the death
+of Lafresnaye occurred at her salon. In his testament he stated that
+his death was caused by Mme. de Tencin; however, she was too shrewd,
+cunning, and careful to be guilty of permitting any weak points to
+appear in her plots, and it was not difficult for her to clear herself
+of that charge by the verdict of the judges, who considered the
+accusation a posthumous vengeance.
+
+The great literary men whom Mme. de Tencin gathered about her,
+Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Mairan, Marivaux, Helvétius, Marmontel, were
+called her menagerie, or her _bêtes_. Among them, Marivaux received
+a pension of one thousand écus from her, besides drawing at will upon
+the exchequer of an old maid by the name of Saint-Jean. Marmontel,
+desirous of writing tragedies, took lessons from the famous Mlle.
+Clairon--at his friend's expense. To give a correct idea of the
+character of woman's influence upon the literary style of that
+century, the words of Marmontel may be quoted: "He who wishes to write
+with precision, energy, and vigor, may live with man only; but he who
+in his style wishes to have subtleness, amenity, charm, flexibility,
+will do well, I think, to live with woman."
+
+Mme. de Tencin exerted an immense influence upon the men of her
+circle, especially socially; for example, she married the wealthy M.
+de La Popelinière to Mlle. Dancourt. She was one of the few really
+consummate diplomats; later on, she became less associated with
+intrigues, and gave lessons in current diplomacy, with which she was
+perfectly familiar. Her counsel to her pupils was to gain friends
+among women rather than among men. "For," she would say, "we do
+whatever we wish with men; they are so dissipated, or so preoccupied
+with their personal interests, that to give attention to them would be
+to neglect your own interests."
+
+Every New Year's Day the _bêtes_ of her menagerie received two yards
+of velvet, to make knickerbockers to be worn at her receptions; this
+custom was observed up to the last year of the existence of her salon.
+Her receptions were among the first of the kind in France. Like the
+majority of salon leaders, she was an authoress of no mean ability.
+Her novels were widely read at the time--_Le Siège de Calais_ and _Les
+Malheurs de l'Amour_. Her memoirs, throwing light upon the intrigues
+and plots, social animosities, and general state of the society of the
+time, are historically valuable. She died in Paris, in 1749.
+
+Among all the great salons, that of Mme. de Tencin was the only one in
+which gambling was indulged in on a wholesale scale; fortunes changed
+hands every evening, a large part of the gains always falling to
+the lot of the hostess, as a sort of "rake off." She herself was a
+professional at the business, and by receiving private
+information from headquarters, through her famous friend Law, the
+_contrôleur-général_, and her lover Dubois, she was able to acquire
+an immense fortune which she distributed freely among her friends and
+favorites. Her place among the literary salon leaders depends mainly
+upon her endeavors to advance the interests of the aspiring young
+authors who were willing to place themselves under her protection.
+
+After the death of Mme. de Tencin and that of Mme. de Châtelet, who
+had received many of the celebrities of the time, there remained but
+two distinguished, purely literary and philosophical salons open in
+Paris. By right of precedence, the _bêtes_ should have gone over to
+the salon of Mme. du Deffand, as she had been established some years
+when Mme. Geoffrin began to receive at her residence, which gained
+its first renown through the exquisite dinners served there. But the
+_bêtes_ all flocked to the _salon bourgeois_, and consequently a more
+brilliant gathering never assembled in a salon; here sat, enjoying
+the liberal hospitalities, Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Mairan, Marmontel,
+Helvétius, Diderot, D'Alembert, Thomas, D'Holbach, Hume, Morellet,
+Mlle. de Lespinasse, the Marquis de Duras, Comtesses d'Egmont and de
+Brionne. Here, conversation--which, in the eighteenth century, was not
+only a discussion or a dissertation, but an art--reached its highest
+development; the members did not need to be eloquent, to expatiate
+upon some theory or science; the conversation moved about the members,
+and they had to be a part of it.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was born in Paris in 1699, and was the daughter of M.
+Rodet, _valet de chambre_ of the dauphiness, Duchesse de Bourgogne,
+mother of Louis XV. When barely fifteen she was married to the wealthy
+M. Geoffrin, the so-called founder of the celebrated _Manufacture
+des Glaces de Gobelins_. Through his wealth and his associations with
+people of nobility who bought his ware, she was soon encouraged in
+her desire to entertain the nobility; and her _esprit_, tact,
+intelligence, and admirable taste in dress were all effective in
+bringing about the desired results.
+
+Her career was one of continual successes. When she opened her salon,
+in 1741, she instituted the custom of receiving her friends at table,
+not only men of letters, but artists, architects, builders, painters,
+sculptors, all men of genius and prominence. Monday was the day
+reserved for artists exclusively; Marmontel, who lived with Mme.
+Geoffrin for ten years "as her tenant," and the indispensable Abbé
+Morellet were the exceptions who might be present upon that day. From
+the very beginning she formed the habit of permitting conversation
+to go just so far, then cutting it off with her famous: _Voil qui est
+bien!_
+
+Her husband was the _maître d'hôtel_, of whom many interesting
+anecdotes are told; the best and one that illustrates well the
+appreciation of individuals in those days is the following, which is
+so admirably told by Lady Jackson that we quote from her: "For some
+years, there sat at the bottom of Mme. Geoffrin's dinner and supper
+table a dignified-looking, white-haired old gentleman, bland in
+manner, but very modest and retiring, speaking only when spoken to,
+but looking very happy when the guests seemed to enjoy the good cheer
+set before them. When, at last, his customary place became vacant, and
+some brilliant butterfly of madame's circle of _visiteurs flottants_,
+who, perhaps, had smiled patronizingly upon the silent old gentleman,
+becoming aware of his absence, would, perchance, carelessly inquire
+what had become of her constant dinner guest, madame would reply:
+_Mais, c'était mon mari. Hélas! il est mort, le bon homme._ [Why, that
+was my husband! alas, he is dead, poor man!] Just so little was the
+consideration shown this worthy creature in his own house! Yet it both
+pleased and amused him to sit there silently and gaze at the throng
+of rank, fashion, and learning, assembled in his wife's salon, and to
+witness her social success."
+
+After the death of Mme. Geoffrin's husband, the immense fortune passed
+under her own management, whereupon began her real career as a social
+arbitress, during which she is said to have tempered both opinions
+and characters. Thomas said of her that "she was, in morals, like that
+divinity of the ancients which maintained or reëstablished limits."
+She was a great patroness of arts and her rooms were decorated with
+pictures by Vanloo, Greuze, Vernet, Robert, etc. She and her salon
+became, in time, the acknowledged judge and dictator of matters
+literary and artistic. Whenever a financier wished to purchase a
+certain work of art, it was taken to her Monday dinner, where the
+artists determined its artistic value and fixed the price. Her house
+was a real museum; there the precious Mariette collection was on
+permanent exhibition.
+
+Besides her Monday dinners to artists and her Wednesday dinners to the
+literary world, she gave private luncheons to a select few who were
+especially congenial. At those functions, such celebrities as the
+Comtesses d'Egmont and de Brionne, the Marquise de Duras, and the
+Prince de Rohan were frequent guests.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was shrewd and tactful enough to avoid politics and not
+to permit discussions of a political nature at her salon--precautions
+which she observed to keep the government from interfering with her
+fortune and mode of living. Her salon and dinners became so famous
+that every foreigner going to Paris had the ambition to be received at
+Mme. Geoffrin's; when any aspirant was successful in this, she would
+say to her friends: _Soyons aimables_ [Let us be kind]. She spent
+freely of her immense fortune constantly seeking and aiding the poor.
+Persons who refused to accept her charity found little favor with her;
+Rousseau was one of these. It was her habit to go frequently to see
+friends, merely to ascertain their wants and to satisfy them. The Abbé
+Morellet, Thomas, D'Alembert, and Mlle. de Lespinasse (the only lady
+admitted to her Wednesdays) were given liberal pensions. Upon each
+New Year's Day, in commemoration of Mme. de Tencin, she sent each
+Wednesday guest a velvet cap. Her motto was: _Donner et pardonner_
+[Give and forgive].
+
+Stanislas, King of Poland, her _protégé_, whom she had rescued from
+the debtor's prison in Paris, and to whom she had shown many favors,
+upon being elected King of Poland in 1764, said to her: _Maman, votre
+fils est roi_ [Mamma, your son is king]. Two years later, when she
+paid him a visit, the leading members of the Polish nobility met her
+on the road, and the king had a special residence prepared for her.
+As she passed through Vienna, Joseph II. received her, and the Empress
+Maria entertained her at dinner. Upon her return to Paris, after this
+triumphal tour through Europe, the members of the world of literature
+and art, and even the ministers and the nobility, flocked to see her;
+this demonstration was the more remarkable from the fact that she
+wielded no political influence, her only desire and pleasure seeming
+to lie in aiding her friends.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was too practical and had too much good common sense to
+be vain. The majority of men were influenced by and favored her, and,
+which seemed strange, she had few enemies among her own sex. Mme.
+Necker said: "The old age of Mme. Geoffrin is like that of old trees,
+whose age we know by the space they cover and the quantity of roots
+they spread. She has seen all the illustrious men of the century; she
+has discovered, with sagacity, their peculiarities and their defects.
+She judges them by their conduct, never by their talents."
+
+In her best years, she was intimately associated with the
+Encyclopædists, to whom she paid over one hundred thousand francs for
+the publication of their work. Of all the great women of that century,
+she was the closest friend of the philosophers and free-thinkers,
+being called _La Fontenelle des Femmes_. She was always ready with
+an answer; one day a friend pointed out to her the house of the
+farmer-general Bouvet, and asked her: "Have you ever seen anything as
+magnificent and in better taste?" She replied: "I would have nothing
+to say if Bouvet were the _frotteur_ [floor polisher] of it."
+
+Mme. Geoffrin, more than any other woman of the salons, possessed the
+three essential qualifications of a salon leader,--good sense,
+tact, and intelligence. She had also _esprit_, perfect simplicity,
+precision, and faultless taste; though a sceptic, she was a diplomat
+who perfectly understood the art of manoeuvring. In short, Mme.
+Geoffrin was an intellectual authority, a sort of minister to society,
+and her salon was the great centre and rendezvous, a veritable
+institution of the eighteenth century. This seems the more remarkable
+when we consider that she belonged to the bourgeoisie, and that
+by dint of her exquisite tact, her almost infallible judgment, her
+admirable taste in dress, and her keen intelligence, she created for
+herself a position which was the envy of all Europe. Such women are
+rare. During the last eighteen months of her life, though suffering
+from paralysis and rheumatism, which she contracted at a religious
+fête at Notre-Dame, she was unremitting in her attention to her
+friends and the poor; and up to her death, in 1777, her friends were
+faithful to her.
+
+That spirit, or malady, which penetrated and ruled almost every
+creature in the eighteenth century found its most notable victim in
+Marie de Vichy-Chamrond--Mme. du Deffand. She, so to speak, yawned
+out her life in a blasé society without faith or ideal. That horrible
+affliction, with all its painful symptoms, ennui, whose origin was
+seen to lie in an excess and abuse of _esprit_ in a society that
+based all its pleasures and happiness upon the mind without any higher
+interest than the self, infected a whole century with an "irremediable
+disenchantment of others and one's self." This self-cult, or life
+in and for the mind, developed sagacity, justness of views, and an
+incomparable penetration, but it neglected all the elements necessary
+to contentment and those other pleasures, of which the first is love
+for one's fellow beings. Mme. du Deffand exemplified this stage
+of mental unbalance; and when she wrote of her former friend and
+companion: "Mlle. de Lespinasse died to-day at two o'clock; formerly,
+that would have been an event for me; to-day, it is nothing at all,"
+she gave an idea of the indifference which was characteristic of the
+society of the time--an indifference which developed into an incurable
+malady and an all-consuming egoism, stifling the heart-beat of that
+world which was weary of everything and yet was unwilling to close its
+eyes.
+
+Marie de Vichy-Chamrond was born in 1697, of a noble family. She began
+the same manner of life as that followed by most French women, being
+reared in the Convent of Madeleine de Frénel, where, when quite young,
+she evinced a strong spirit of impiety, giving expression to the most
+sceptical opinions upon religious subjects, to the great dismay of
+her superiors and parents. At the age of twenty she was married to the
+Marquis du Deffand, who had but his brevet of colonel of a regiment of
+dragoons, and whose intelligence and fortune were of a _nullité rare_.
+However, her marriage was a sort of emancipation which enabled her to
+enter society; and it is asserted that she soon became the mistress of
+Philippe of Orléans, the regent, from whom she received six thousand
+francs life income.
+
+As the result of a disagreement, she separated from her husband, and
+then began a life of pleasure among the gayest of the most fashionable
+world, where, through the power of her brilliancy, wit, charm, and
+fascinating beauty, she immediately became a leader. After passing
+through all the phases of social life and its varied experiences--from
+the society of Mme. de Prie, the type of the dissolute woman of
+the Regency, from the famous suppers of the regent, whose ingenious
+inventions of lewd and wanton pleasures made him notorious, from an
+association with the intriguing Duchesse de Maine, to all the great
+and influential social centres of Paris--in short, after pursuing
+a career of fashionable dissipation, she became reconciled to her
+husband, and lived with him in peace and happiness for a short time;
+but six months of regular life affected her behavior toward the poor
+marquis to such a degree that he thought it best to leave her. After
+that episode, she returned to her lover; and, rejected by him and her
+friends, and becoming the subject of the gossip of the entire city,
+she sought consolation from one acquaintance after another, and was
+miserable all the time.
+
+At the age of about thirty-four, Mme. du Deffand returned to a kind
+of regular life, and, in time, won a reputation for _esprit_, regained
+her honorable friends and established for herself a kind of accepted
+authority. Thus, when she opened a salon in 1742, she was able to
+attract a brilliant company, which became famous after 1749, when she
+took apartments in the Convent Saint-Joseph. Here wit and polished
+manners, taste, vivacity, and good sense were the requisites;
+literature, politics, and philosophy were not tolerated, but
+"sparkling _bons mots_, glancing epigrams, witty verses, were the
+avenues to social success."
+
+Until her dotage this woman, who, from a natural selfishness and lack
+of sympathy, was incapable of loving with the characteristic ardor
+of the women of her time, by knowing how to inspire love in others,
+controlled and held near her the famous men and women of her age.
+When she began to realize the calamity of her failing sight, which was
+probably due to her general state of restlessness and the resultant
+physical decay, she received, as companion, a relative, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, who undertook the most difficult, disagreeable, and
+ungrateful task of waiting on the marquise. As Mme. du Deffand arose
+in time to receive at six, mademoiselle soon announced to the friends
+that she herself would be visible at an earlier hour. Thus, it
+happened that Marmontel, Turgot, Condorcet, and d'Alembert regularly
+assembled in mademoiselle's room--a proceeding which soon led to a
+rupture between the two women and a breach between Mme. du Deffand
+and d'Alembert. The marquise was therefore left alone, blind, but too
+proud to tolerate pity, yet by her conversation retaining her power
+of fascination. It was about this time that Horace Walpole became
+connected with her life. Upon the death of Mme. Geoffrin, she, hearing
+of the imposing ceremonies and funeral orations, exclaimed: _Voilà
+bien du bruit pour une omelette au lard_. [A great ado about a lard
+omelet!] Her latter years were dragged out most miserably, being
+marked by a singular feverishness and unavailing efforts toward the
+acceptance of some faith. Her death, in 1780, finally brought her
+relief.
+
+The career of Mme. du Deffand actually began as early as 1730, when
+she opened her establishment on the Rue de Beaune, at the time that
+she became attached to the president Hénault, who presided over her
+salon for more than thirty years. The famous salon Du Deffand at the
+Convent Saint-Joseph was not opened until 1749; there she was very
+particular as to those whom she received, and access to her salon
+was a matter of difficulty. Grimm was never received, and Diderot
+was present but once. The conversation was always intellectual, and
+whenever she tired of French vivacity, she would spend an evening with
+Mme. Necker.
+
+A letter of Walpole to Montagu leaves, on the whole, a splendid
+picture of her: "I have heard her dispute with all sorts of people,
+upon all sorts of subjects, and never knew her to be in the wrong.
+She humbles the learned, sets right their disciples, and finds
+conversation for everybody. As affectionate as Mme. de Sévigné, she
+has none of her prejudices, but a more universal taste; and with the
+most delicate frame, her spirits hurry her through a life of fatigue
+that would kill me were I to remain here."
+
+The simple furnishings of her apartments, which were very spacious
+and had been occupied by the famous Mme. de Montespan, stood out in
+striking contrast to the elegance of her visitors. Here she gathered
+about her her two lovers, _le Président_ Hénault and Pont de Veyle,
+besides D'Alembert, Turgot, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Necker, Walpole,
+the Abbés Barthélemy and Pernetty, the Chevalier de Lisle, de Formant,
+_le Docteur_ Gatti, Hume, Gibbon, Baron de Gleichen, and many other
+celebrities, including the Princesses de Beauvau, de Poix, de Talmont,
+the Duchesses de Choiseul, d'Aiguillon, de Gramont, the Maréchale de
+Luxembourg, the Marquises de Boufflers and du Châtelet, the Comtesses
+de Rochefort, de Broglie, de Forcalquier, Mme. Necker, Lady Pembroke,
+De Lauzun, and many others, all of whom were society leaders. Whenever
+Mme. du Deffand had a special supper, it was said that Paris was at
+Mme. du Deffand's.
+
+Her salon, above all others, was the centre of cosmopolitanism,
+where all great men, foreigners and natives, found means of social
+intercourse, and where, more than in any other salon, were assembled
+the great beauties of the day, represented especially by the
+Countesses de Forcalquier and Choiseul-Beaupré, Duchesse de La
+Vallière. Gallantry and beauty were found in the Maréchale de
+Luxembourg and the Comtesse de Boufflers. The philosophical movement
+of the Encyclopædists and Economists was not encouraged at all.
+Thus, in Mme. du Deffand's salon, we find neither pure philosophy nor
+religion, nor the air of pedants and _déclamateurs_; it was a royalist
+salon without illusion, hence indifferent to all questions. It
+represented the perfect type of the French model of _esprit de
+finesse_,--that is, precision,--and its leader possessed a keen
+insight into human character.
+
+This wonderful woman, who, during a period of over forty years, had
+held at her feet the élite of the French world, at the age of
+about threescore and ten, fell desperately in love with a man of
+fifty--Horace Walpole. She who had never loved with her heart, but
+only with her mind, then declared it better to be dead than not to
+love someone. Although her actions and letters were pitiful in
+the extreme, her epistles are invaluable for their incomparable
+portraitures and keen reflections upon persons and events of the time.
+She attracted Walpole by the possibilities that were opened up to
+him by her position in society, and by her brilliant conversation,
+in which she scoffed at the clergy and the philosophers, showing a
+profound insight into human nature and the society of the time as well
+as into politics. Their correspondence shows one of the most pitiful,
+pathetic, and lamentable love tales in the history of society. He
+looked upon her friendship as a most valuable acquisition by which
+he was kept in touch with all the scandals and stories of society,
+of which he was so fond, and she mistook that friendship for love.
+He felt himself flattered in being the one preferred by such a
+distinguished old lady of high society.
+
+All critics are at a loss for the explanation of such a love in a
+woman of seventy. Was it the result of the lifetime of disappointment
+of a woman who had constantly sought love but had never found it? Was
+it, thus, the hallucination of the childish old age of the woman who
+was physically consumed by incessant social functions and all-night
+reading? Mme. du Deffand sees in Walpole her ideal, and she gives
+expression to her feelings, regardless of propriety; for she is
+childish and irresponsible. To a certain extent, the same was true of
+Mme. de Staël, but she was still physically healthy and young enough
+to enjoy life and the realization of that which she had so long
+desired--an ideal affection. In the case of Mme. du Deffand, the soul
+was willing, but the body failed. Her emotion can scarcely be termed
+love, but is rather to be designated as a mental hallucination, an
+exaggerated intellectual affection bordering upon sentimentality--the
+outgrowth of that morbid imagination developed from her long suffering
+from ennui.
+
+She was a woman destined to pass by the side of happiness without ever
+reaching it. She hardly had enjoyed what may be called friendship; she
+was always either suspicious of it and of her friends' sentiments, or
+she herself broke off relations for some trivial reason. This woman,
+however, always longed to believe her friends sincere, but never
+succeeded. "Her friends either leave her, they die, or they are far
+away; or, if present, faithful and attached to her, she cannot believe
+in their affection; her cursed scepticism deceived her heart."
+
+Mme. du Deffand was one of the few women of the eighteenth century who
+saw reality and nothing but reality, and admitted what she saw; she
+was gifted with such quick penetration and such mental facility
+that she stands out prominently as one of the brightest and most
+intellectual of the spiritual women of her time. This quickness of
+perception and tendency to follow a mere impression made it difficult
+for her to examine closely, to be patient of details; too sure of
+herself, too emotional, too passionate, she displayed injustice,
+vehemence, over-enthusiasm; easily bored and disgusted, she was, at
+the same time, susceptible to infatuation. Scherer said: "She is a
+superior man in a body of a nervous and weak woman."
+
+She was a woman dominated by her reason--a characteristic which led to
+an incurable ennui, thus causing her terrible suffering, but equipping
+her with a penetration which saw through the world and knew man, whom
+she divided into three classes: _les trompeurs_, _les trompés_, _les
+trompettes_. According to her judgment, man is either fatiguing or, if
+brilliantly endowed, usually false or jealous; but she realized, also,
+her own shortcomings, the incompleteness of her faculties. "The force
+of her thought does not reach talent; her intelligence is active and
+responsive, but fails to respond. She often shows a sovereign disdain
+for herself, everybody, and everything. She arrives at a point in life
+when she no longer has passion, desire, or even curiosity; she detests
+life, and dreads death because she does not know that there is another
+world. She is not happy enough to do without those whom she scorns,
+and must therefore seek diversion in the conversation of stupid
+people, preferring anything to solitude; this refers to the time when
+her best friends are no more and when she herself is out of her former
+_milieu_); she was too old, or lived too long; she belongs to another
+age."
+
+By her friends she was called the feminine Voltaire, and the
+celebrated philosopher and she were drawn together by a very similar
+habit of mind, although, to her intimates, she scorched Voltaire; but
+in writing to him she would overwhelm him with compliments, calling
+him the only orthodox representative of good taste. In general, she
+detested philosophers, because their hearts were cold and their minds
+preoccupied with themselves.
+
+Mme. du Deffand had an inherent passion for simplicity, frankness,
+justice, and a hatred for deceit and affectation; but, strange as it
+may seem, her nature required variety in her pleasure--new people, new
+pursuits, new amusements, new agitations for her hungry mind; she was
+too critical to be contented and to put implicit trust in her friends.
+An agnostic, always endeavoring to probe into the nature of things,
+the possession of a personal, living faith was yet the strongest
+desire of her heart; all her life she longed for the peace that
+religion affords, but this was denied her, although she had the
+spiritual assistance of the most famous of the clergy, attended
+church, had her oratory, her confessor, and faithfully studied the
+Bible; all was vain--belief would not come to her. The marriage tie
+was not sacred to her, which was the case with many of the French
+women of the day, but she went further in lacking all reverence for
+religious ceremony, though she respected the beliefs of others.
+
+She was all wit and intellectuality. In order to keep her friends from
+falling under the spell of ennui, she devoted herself to the culinary
+art, and her suppers became famous for their rare dishes. "She is an
+example of the type that was predominant in the time--one that had
+lived too much and was dying from excess of knowledge and pleasure;
+but she sought that which did not exist in that age,--serenity, peace,
+faith. She was passionate, sensitive, and sympathetic, in a cold,
+heartless, and unfeeling world. She needed variety; being bored with
+society, solitude, husband, lovers, herself, nothing remained for her
+but to await deliverance by death." This came to her in 1780.
+
+In matters literary, Mme. du Deffand preserved an absolute liberty
+and independence of opinion. She refused to accept the verdicts of the
+most competent judges; with instinctive attractions and repulsions,
+she found but few writers that pleased her. Boileau, Lesage, Chamfort,
+were her favorites. She said that Buffon was of an unendurable
+monotony. "He knows well what he knows, but he is occupied with beasts
+only; one must be something of a beast one's self in order to devote
+one's self to such an occupation."
+
+As a writer, she showed remarkable good sense, admirable sincerity,
+rare judgment, justness, and precision; depth and charm were present
+in a less degree than were other desirable qualities, but she
+exhibited excellent _esprit_. She was probably the most subtile, and
+at the same time the most fastidious person of the century. The best
+portraits of her were written by her own pen; two of them we give, one
+written at the beginning of her career in 1728, the other at its end
+in 1774.
+
+"Mme. la Marquise du Deffand is an enemy of all falseness and
+affectation. Her talk and countenance are always the faithful
+interpreters of the sentiment of her soul. Her form is not fine nor
+bad. She has _esprit_, is reasonable and has a correct taste. If
+vivacity at times leads her off, truth soon brings her back. After she
+falls into an ennui which extinguishes all the light of her mind, she
+finds that state insupportable and the cause of such unhappiness, that
+she blindly embraces all that presents itself, without deliberation."
+
+(1774.) "They believe Mme. du Deffand to possess more _esprit_ than
+she really has; they praise and fear her, but she merits neither the
+one nor the other. As far as her _esprit_ is concerned, she is what
+she is; in regard to her form, to her birth and fortune--nothing
+extraordinary, nothing distinguished. Born without great talent,
+incapable of great application, she is very susceptible to ennui, and,
+not finding any resource within herself, she resorts to those that
+surround her and this search is often without success."
+
+Mme. du Deffand arouses our curiosity because she was such an
+exceptional character, led such a strange life, made and retained
+friends in ways so different from those of the noted heroines of the
+salons. In her youth, she was beautiful and fascinating, with numerous
+lovers and numberless suitors, but she grew even more famous as her
+age increased; when infirm and blind, and living in a convent, she
+ruled by virtue of her acknowledged authority and was still able
+to cope with the greatest philosophers, the chief and dean of whom,
+Voltaire, wrote the following four lines:
+
+  "Qui vous voit et qui vous entend
+  Perd bientôt sa philosophie;
+  Et tout sage avec Du Deffand
+  Voudrait en fou passer sa vie."
+
+  [He who sees and hears you,
+  Soon loses his philosophy.
+  Wise he who with Du Deffand
+  Insane would pass his life.]
+
+Living long enough to witness the reigns of three kings and one
+regent, she was brilliant enough to reign over the intellectual and
+social world for over fifty years, by virtue of her intellectuality,
+keenness, and wit; yet, among all the great women of France, she is
+truly the one who deserves genuine pity and sympathy.
+
+The salon of Mlle. de Lespinasse, her rival, was of a different type,
+being exclusively intellectual, but permitting absolute liberty of
+expression of opinions. Born in 1732, at the house of a surgeon of
+Lyons, she was the illegitimate daughter of the Comtesse d'Albon
+and was baptized as the child of a man supposed to be named Claude
+Lespinasse. From 1753 she was the constant attendant to Mme. du
+Deffand, her mother's sister-in-law, for a period of ten years, until
+she became completely worn out physically, morally, and mentally by
+incessant care and endless all-night readings. An attempt to end her
+existence with sixty grains of opium failed. Owing to the jealousy of
+Mme. du Deffand, a separation ensued in 1764, when she retired some
+distance from the Convent Saint-Joseph to very modest apartments,
+where, by means of her friends, she was able to receive in a dignified
+way. The Maréchale de Luxembourg completely fitted up her apartment,
+the Duc de Choiseul succeeded in getting her an annual pension from
+the king, and Mme. Geoffrin allowed her three thousand francs.
+
+The majority of the members of her salon were from that of Mme. du
+Deffand, having followed Mlle. de Lespinasse after the rupture of
+the two women; besides these, there were Condorcet, Helvétius, Grimm,
+Marmontel, Condillac, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, and many others. As
+her hours for receiving were after five o'clock, her friends were made
+to understand that her means were not such as to warrant suppers or
+dinners, four o'clock being the dinner hour in those days.
+
+Her salon immediately became known as the official encyclopædia
+resort, Mme. du Deffand dubbing it _La Muse de l'Encyclopédie_.
+D'Alembert was the high priest, and it was not long before he
+was comfortably lodged in the third story of her house, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse having nursed him through a malignant fever which the poor
+man had contracted in the wretched place where he lodged. A strange
+gathering, those salons! Mlle. de Lespinasse, one of the leaders
+in the social world, with a prominent salon, was the illegitimate
+daughter of a Comtesse d'Albon, and her presiding genius was the
+illegitimate son of Mme. de Tencin; here we find the wealthiest and
+most elegant of the aristocracy coming from their palaces to meet, in
+friendly social and intellectual intercourse, men who lived on a mere
+pittance, dressed on almost nothing, lodged in the most wretched of
+dens, boarding wherever a salon or palace was opened to them. Surely,
+intellect was highly valued in those days, and moral etiquette was at
+a low ebb!
+
+Mlle. de Lespinasse possessed two characteristics which were prominent
+in a remarkable degree--love and friendship. She appeared to interest
+herself in everybody in such a way as to make him believe that he
+was the preferred of her heart; loving everybody sincerely and
+affectionately, she "lacked altogether the sentimental equilibrium."
+Especially pathetic was her love for two men--the Count de Mora, a
+Spanish nobleman, and a Colonel Guibert, who was celebrated for his
+relations with Frederick the Great; although this wore terribly on
+her, consuming her physical force, she always received her friends
+with the same good grace, but often, after their departure, she would
+fall into a frightful nervous fit from which she could find relief
+only by the use of opium.
+
+Her love for Guibert was known to her friends, but was a secret from
+her platonic lover, D'Alembert. When, after a number of years of
+untold sufferings which even opium could not relieve, she died in
+1776, having been cared for to the last by D'Alembert, the Duke de La
+Rochefoucauld, and her cousin, the Marquis d'Enlezy, it was with these
+words on her dying lips, addressed to Guibert: "Adieu, my friend!
+If ever I return to life, I should like to use it in loving you;
+but there is no longer any time." When D'Alembert read in her
+correspondence that she had been the mistress of Guibert for sixteen
+years, he was disconsolate, and retired to the Louvre, which was
+his privilege as Secretary of the Academy. He left there only to go
+walking in the evening with Marmontel, who tried to console him by
+recalling the changeableness of humor of Mlle. de Lespinasse. "Yes,"
+he would reply, "she has changed, but not I; she no longer lived for
+me, but I always lived for her. Since she is no longer, I don't
+know why I am living. Ah, that I must still suffer these moments of
+bitterness which she knew so well how to soothe and make me forget!
+Do you remember the happy evenings we used to pass? What is there now?
+Instead of her, when coming home, I find only her shadow! This Louvre
+lodging is itself a tomb, which I enter only with fright."
+
+Mlle. de Lespinasse died of grief for a lover's death, but she left
+a group of lovers to lament her loss. In many respects she was not
+unlike Mlle. de Scudéry; exceptionally plain, her face was much
+marked with smallpox, a disfigurement not uncommon in those days; her
+exceedingly piercing and fine eyes, beautiful hair, tall and elegant
+figure, excellent taste in dress, pleasing voice and a most brilliant
+talent for conversation, combined to make her one of the most
+attractive and popular women of her time. As previously stated, she
+was the only female admitted to the dinners given by Mme. Geoffrin to
+her men of letters.
+
+Mme. du Deffand's friend, _le Président_ Hénault, left the following
+portrait of Mlle. de Lespinasse: "You are cosmopolitan--you are
+suitable to all occasions. You like company--you like solitude.
+Pleasures amuse, but do not seduce you. You have very strong passions,
+and of the best kind, for they do not return often. Nature, in
+endowing you with an ordinary state, gave you something with which to
+rise above it. You are distinguished, and, without being beautiful,
+you attract attention. There is something piquant in you; one might
+obstinately endeavor to turn your head, but it would be at one's own
+expense. Your will must be awaited, because you cannot be made to
+come. Your cheerfulness embellishes you, and relaxes your nerves,
+which are too highly strung. You have your own opinion, and you leave
+others their own. You are extremely polite. You have divined _le
+monde_. In vain one would transplant you--you would take root
+anywhere. In short, you are not an ordinary person."
+
+The salon of Mlle. de Lespinasse was unique. Everyone was at perfect
+liberty to express and sustain his own opinions upon any subject,
+without danger of offending the hostess, which, as has been seen,
+was not the case in the salon of Mme. Geoffrin. Her high and sane
+intellectual culture permitted her to listen to all discussions and to
+take part in all. She had no strong prejudices, having read--for Mme.
+du Deffand--nearly everything that was read at that time; also, she
+had the talent of preserving harmony among her members by drawing from
+each one his best qualities.
+
+A woman who played a prominent part in society during the Regency,
+but who had no salon in the proper sense of that word, was Mme.
+du Châtelet, commonly called Voltaire's Emilie. She was especially
+interested in sciences, mathematics, geometry, and astronomy, and did
+more than any other woman of that time to encourage nature study.
+It was at her Château de Cirey that Voltaire found protection when
+threatened with a second visit to the Bastille; and there, from time
+to time for sixteen years, he did some of the best work of his life.
+It was Mme. du Châtelet who encouraged him, sympathized with him,
+and appreciated his mobile humor as well as his talent. During these
+years, while he was under the influence of madame, appeared _Mérope_,
+_Alzire_, the _Siècle de Louis XIV_, etc.
+
+Mme. du Châtelet was the one great _femme savante_ of that century. In
+the preface to her _Traduction des Principes Mathématiques de Newton_,
+Voltaire wrote: "Never was a woman so _savante_ as she, and never did
+a woman merit less the saying, _she is a femme savante_. She did
+not select her friends from those circles where there was a war of
+_esprit_, where a sort of tribunal was established, where they judged
+their century, by which, in recompense, they were severely judged.
+She lived for a long time in societies which were ignorant of what she
+was, and she took no notice of this ignorance. The words precision,
+justness, and force are those which correctly describe her elegance.
+She would have written as Pascal and Nicole did rather than like Mme.
+de Sévigné; but this severe firmness and this tendency of her _esprit_
+did not make her inaccessible to the beauties of sentiment."
+
+Maupertuis, the astronomer, wrote: "What a marvel, moreover, to have
+been able to combine the fine qualities of her sex with the sublime
+knowledge which we believe uniquely made for us! This enterprising
+phenomenon will make her memory eternally respected."
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IX
+
+Salon Leaders--(Continued)
+
+Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis: Minor Salons
+
+
+It seems strange indeed that in a century in which the universal
+impulse was toward pleasure, and sameness of personality was
+visible everywhere, the types of great women showed such an absolute
+dissimilarity. The contrast between the natural inclinations of Mme.
+Necker, the wife of the great minister of finance, and the atmosphere
+in which she lived, makes the study of her a most interesting one.
+Born in Switzerland, the daughter of Curchod, a poor Protestant
+minister, "with patriarchal morals, solid education, and strong
+good sense," this moral and stern woman was thrown into the midst of
+depraved elegance, refined licentiousness, and physical debauchery.
+Sincere, chaste, enthusiastic, and essentially religious, she remained
+so amidst all the corruption and physical and mental degeneracy of the
+age.
+
+Critics have made much ado over her marriage, a union of pure love and
+mutual inclinations, amidst the marriages of mere convenience and the
+gallant liaisons, such as those of Mme. du Deffand and _le Président_
+Hénault, and Mme. d'Epinay and Grimm. The matrimonial selection of
+Susanne Curchod was natural in a girl of her serious make-up, her
+moral education and her pure ancestry of the strict Protestant type.
+As a girl of sixteen, she had given evidence of remarkable mental
+ability and had acquired a wide knowledge--physics, Latin, philosophy,
+metaphysics--when she was sent to Lausanne, possibly with the idea
+of meeting a future husband with whom she could become thoroughly
+acquainted before giving up her independence. There she became
+the centre of a group or academy of young people, who, under her
+leadership, discussed subjects of every nature. At first she showed
+a tendency toward _préciosité_ and the spirit of the blue-stocking
+rather than toward the seriousness and dignity which marked her later
+career.
+
+It was at Lausanne that she met and fell in love with Gibbon, the
+English historian; this love affair met with opposition from Gibbon's
+father, and, after the death of the father of his fiancée, a calamity
+which left her poor and necessitated her teaching for a living,
+the Englishman, by his actions and manner toward her, compelled the
+breaking of their engagement. When, later in life, he went to her
+salon, they became intimate friends, enjoying "the intellectual union
+which had been impossible for them in their earlier days."
+
+Thus, at the age of twenty-four, Mlle. Curchod, beautiful, virtuous,
+and accomplished, and at the height of her reputation in a small town
+in Switzerland, was left an orphan. She was taken to Paris by Mme. de
+Vermenoux, a wealthy widow, who was sought in marriage by M. Necker,
+banker and capitalist; but, as she was unable to make up her mind to
+a definite answer, his attention was attracted to her young companion.
+The result was that, after a few months' sojourn in Paris, Mlle.
+Curchod became the wife of M. Necker, an event which caused rejoicing
+from Lausanne to Geneva. Their characters are well portrayed in two
+letters, written by them to their friends after their marriage. M.
+Necker wrote, in reply to a letter of congratulation:
+
+"Yes, sir; your friend (Mlle. Curchod) was indeed willing to have me,
+and I believe myself as happy as one can be. I cannot understand how
+it can be you whom they congratulate, unless it is as my friend. Will
+money always be the measure of opinion? That is pitiable! He who
+wins a virtuous, kind, and sensible woman--has he not made a good
+transaction, whether or not she be seated on sacks of money? Humanity,
+what a poor judge you are!"
+
+Shortly after her marriage, Mme. Necker wrote to one of her friends:
+"My dear, I have married a man who, according to my ideas, is the
+kindest of mortals, and I am not the only one to judge thus. I had had
+a liking for him ever since I learned to know him. At present, I see,
+in all nature, only my husband. I take notice of other men only in so
+far as they come more or less up to the standard of my husband, and
+I compare them only for the pleasure of seeing the difference." The
+marital relations of this loving pair lasted throughout life; and
+among great women of the eighteenth century, Mme. Necker is one of the
+few examples of ideal marriage relations.
+
+Soon after their marriage, the Neckers took up their quarters at the
+Rue Michel-le-Comte, where they began to receive friends. As at that
+time every day in the week was reserved by other salons,--Monday and
+Wednesday at Mme. Geoffrin's, Tuesday at Helvétius's, Thursday and
+Sunday at the Baron d'Holbach's,--Mme. Necker was compelled to appoint
+Friday as her reception day. She soon succeeded in attracting to her
+hôtel the best _esprit_ of Paris: Diderot, Suard, Grimm, Comte de
+Schomberg, Marmontel, D'Alembert, Thomas, Saint-Lambert, Helvétius,
+Ducis, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, the Abbés Raynal, Armand, and
+Morellet, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mme. de Marchais, Mme.
+Suard, the Maréchale de Luxembourg, the Duchesse de Lauzun, the
+Marquise de La Ferté-Imbault, Mme. de Boufflers.
+
+Among these visitors, most of whom were atheists, Mme. Necker
+preserved her own religious opinions and piety, although her friends
+at Geneva never ceased to be concerned about her. Her admirers were
+many, but they were kept within the bounds of propriety and never
+attempted any gallant liberties with the hostess--except her ardent
+admirer Thomas, the intensity of whose eulogies upon her she was
+forced to check occasionally. It was not long before she became very
+influential in filling the vacant seats of the Academy. In this and
+many other respects, her salon may be compared with that of Mme. de
+Lambert.
+
+Mme. Necker's idea of conducting a salon and its conversation was much
+the same as the management of a state; she believed that the hostess
+must never join in the conversation as long as it goes on by itself,
+but, ever watchful, must never permit disturbances, disagreements,
+improprieties, or obstacles; she must animate it if it languish; she
+must see that conversation never takes a dangerous, disagreeable, or
+tiresome turn, and that it never brings into undue prominence one man
+especially, as this makes others jealous and displeases the entire
+society; it must always interest and include all members. The
+discussions at Mme. Necker's were literary and philosophical; and to
+prevent even the possibility of tedium, frequent readings were given
+in their place.
+
+It was at the salon of Mme. Necker that Bernardin de Saint-Pierre
+first read his _Paul et Virginie_, which received such a cold and
+indifferent welcome that the author, utterly discouraged, was on the
+point of burning his manuscript, when he was prevailed upon by his
+friend Vernet, the great artist, to preserve all his works. Mme.
+Necker was always quite frank and outspoken, often showing a cutting
+harshness and a rigor which, as was said, was little in harmony with
+her bare neck and arms--a style then in vogue at court. She never
+judged persons by their reputations, but by their _esprit_; thus, it
+was possible for her to receive people of the most diverse tendencies.
+When the Marquise de La Ferté-Imbault, one of the few virtuous women
+of the time, and of the highest aristocracy, was invited to attend the
+salon of Mme. Necker and was told that the Maréchale de Luxembourg,
+Mme. du Deffand, Mme. de Boufflers, and Mme. Marchais were
+frequenters, she said: "These four women are so discredited by
+manners, and the first two are so dangerous, that for thirty years
+they have been the horror of society."
+
+The two portraits by Marmontel and Galiani are interesting, as
+throwing light upon the doings of her salon. Marmontel wrote: "Mme.
+Necker is very virtuous and instructed, but emphatic and stiff. She
+does not know Mme. de Sévigné, whom she praises, and only esteems
+Buffon and Thomas. She calculates all things; she sought men of
+letters only as trumpets to blow in honor of her husband. He never
+said a word; that was not very recreating."
+
+Galiani leaves a different impression: "There is not a Friday that
+I do not go to your house _en esprit_. I arrive, I find you now busy
+with your headdress, now busy with this duchess. I seat myself at your
+feet. Thomas quietly suffers, Morellet shows his anger aloud. Grimm
+and Suard laugh heartily about it, and my dear Comte de Greuze does
+not notice it. Marmontel finds the example worthy to be imitated,
+and you, madame, make two of your most beautiful virtues do battle,
+bashfulness and politeness, and in this suffering you find me a little
+monster more embarrassing than odious. Dinner is announced. They leave
+the table and in the café all speak at the same time. M. Necker thinks
+everything well, bows his head and goes away."
+
+In summer her receptions were first held at the Château de Madrid,
+and, later on, in a château at Saint-Ouen; the guests were always
+called for and returned in carriages supplied by the hostess. It was
+in her salon, in 1770, that the plan originated to erect the statue
+of Voltaire, which is to-day the famous statue of the _Palais de
+l'Institute_.
+
+When, during the stirring times before the Revolution, her salon took
+on a purely political nature, Mme. Necker played a very secondary
+rôle. In 1788 she and her husband were compelled to leave Paris; but
+being recalled by Louis XVI., Necker managed affairs for thirteen
+months, after which he retired with Mme. Necker to Coppet, where, in
+1794, the latter died.
+
+Mme. Necker never became a thorough Frenchwoman; she always lacked
+the grace and charm which are the necessary qualifications of a salon
+leader; intelligence was her most meritorious quality. Her dinners
+were apt to become tiresome and to drag. A very interesting story is
+told of her by the Marquis de Chastellux, which was reported by Mme.
+Genlis, one of her intimate friends:
+
+"Dining at Mme. Necker's, the marquis was first to arrive, and so
+early that the hostess was not yet in the salon. In walking up and
+down the room, he noticed a small book under Mme. Necker's chair. He
+picked it up and opened it. It was a blank book, a few of the pages
+of which had been written upon by Mme. Necker. Certainly, he would
+not have read a letter, but, believing to find only a few spiritual
+thoughts, he read without any scruples. It contained the plan for the
+dinner of that day, to which he had been invited, and had been written
+by Mme. Necker on the previous evening. It told what she would say to
+the most prominent of the invited guests. She wrote: 'I shall speak
+to the Chevalier de Chastellux about public felicity and Agatha; to M.
+d'Angeviller, I shall speak of love; between Marmontel and Guibert
+I shall raise some literary discussion.' After reading the note, he
+hurriedly replaced the book under the chair. A moment later, a valet
+entered, saying that madame had left her notebook in the salon. The
+dinner was charming for M. de Chastellux, because he had the pleasure
+of hearing Mme. Necker say, word for word, what she had written in her
+notebook."
+
+This woman was ever preoccupied with style, and, throughout her life,
+retained the solemn, studied, and academic air, as well as the simple,
+rural, innocent manner and spirit of her early surroundings. A mere
+bourgeoise, unaccustomed to elegance or to the manners of French
+social life, upon entering Parisian society she set her mind to
+observing, and immediately began to change her provincial ways and to
+make over her _esprit_ for conversation, for circumstances, and for
+characters; she adjusted her provincial spirit to that of Paris, thus
+making of it an entirely new product. Later on, her salon became the
+first of the modern political salons, but it was far from reaching the
+prominence of that of Mme. Geoffrin, whose characteristics were social
+prudence and strict propriety, while those of Mme. Necker were virtue
+and goodness.
+
+Mme. Necker was never in perfect sympathy with her visitors, the
+philosophers, the common basis of ideas and sentiments never existing
+between her and her friends as it did between Mme. Geoffrin and her
+frequenters; her tie was always artificial. "She represented the Swiss
+spirit in Parisian society; those serious and educated souls, virtuous
+and sentimental, somewhat sad and strictly moral, were rather tiresome
+to the Parisian world." Marmontel well describes her in another of his
+famous portraits:
+
+"A stranger to the customs of Paris, Mme. Necker had none of the
+charms and accomplishments of the young French woman. In her manner
+and language she had neither the air nor the tone of a woman reared
+in the school of arts, formed at the school of high society.
+Without taste in her headdress, without ease in her bearing, without
+fascination in her politeness, her mind--as was her countenance--was
+too properly adjusted to show grace. But a charm more worthy of her
+was that of propriety, of candor, of goodness. A virtuous education
+and solitary studies had given to her all that culture can add to an
+excellent nature. In her, sentiment was perfect, but her thought was
+often confused and vague; instead of clearing her ideas, meditation
+disturbed them; in exaggerating them, she believed to enlarge them;
+in order to extend them, she wandered off into abstractions and
+hyperboles. She seemed to see certain objects only through a fog,
+which augmented their importance in her eyes; and then her expression
+became so inflated that the pomposity of it would have been laughable
+if one had not known her to be entirely ingenuous."
+
+"In summing up the character of Mme. Necker, we find," says
+Sainte-Beuve, "first of all, a genuine individuality and a personality
+with defects which at first impression are shocking, but which only
+helped to render the woman and all her aspirations the more admirable.
+Entering a Parisian society with the firm decision of becoming a woman
+of _esprit_ and of being in relation with the _beaux esprits_, she was
+able to preserve the moral conscience of her Protestant training, to
+protest against the false doctrines about her, to give herself up to
+duties in the midst of society, to found institutions for the sick and
+needy,--and to leave a memory without a stain."
+
+While, among the famous salon leaders of the eighteenth century, Mme.
+Necker stands out preëminently for her strict moral integrity and
+fidelity to her marriage relations, Mme. d'Epinay is unique for
+the constancy of her affections for the men to whom she owes her
+celebrity, Rousseau and Grimm. Born in 1725, the record of her life
+runs like that of most French women. At the age of twenty she was
+married to her cousin, La Live, who later took the name of d'Epinay,
+from an estate his father, the wealthy M. de Bellegarde, had bought--a
+man who was really in love with her for a whole month after their
+marriage, but who, tiring of the pure affections of a loving wife,
+soon began to lavish his time and fortune upon a _danseuse_. The
+poor young wife was between two fires, the extravagance and wild
+dissipations of her husband and the rigid discipline and orthodoxy of
+her mother. Never was a woman treated so outrageously and insultingly
+as was this woman by a man who contrived in every manner to corrupt
+her morals by throwing her among his dissolute companions, Mme.
+d'Artz, the mistress of the Prince de Conti, and Mlle. d'Ette, an
+intriguing woman of the time; to the latter, Mme. d'Epinay confided
+her troubles, and, as the result of her counsels, fell into the hands
+of a M. de Francueil, handsome, clever, accomplished, but as morally
+depraved as was her husband.
+
+When Mme. d'Epinay was finally convinced that her husband was untrue
+to her, she felt nothing but disdain and contempt for him, and
+decided to live a virtuous life; after holding for a short time to
+her resolution "that a woman may have the most profound and tender
+sentiment for a man and yet remain faithful to her duties," she lost
+herself under the influence of the professional seducer Francueil,
+and, completely carried away by that passion, she cries out, in her
+memoirs: _Francueil, Francueil, tu m'as perdue, et tu disais que tu
+m'aimais_ [You have undone me--and you said you loved me]! Such was
+the lot, as was seen, of most women of those days, who had noble
+intentions, but a woman's weakness. The century did not demand
+faithfulness to the marital vows; but when a woman had once abandoned
+herself to love, it required that the attachment be to a man of honor
+and standing. Marriage was simply a preliminary step to freedom;
+after that ceremony came the natural election of the heart and mutual
+tenderness of the beings who could be mated only through the freedom
+which married life afforded. A superior illegitimate liaison was
+nothing unnatural--on the contrary, it was but a natural human
+selection; such was the nature of the affection of Mme. d'Epinay for
+this débauché Francueil.
+
+As she enjoyed absolute liberty, her lover paid his respects to her at
+Epinay; there he inaugurated amusements and took his friends. It
+was he who suggested the erection of a theatre at which her friends'
+productions might be offered to the world of critics. Through his
+efforts, the great men who made her salon famous were gathered at "La
+Chevrette," where the actors and players soon drew the attention of
+literary Paris. After a year or two of attachment, Francueil became
+indifferent to Mme. d'Epinay and transferred his affections to an
+actress--the sister of M. d'Epinay's mistress. Thus runs the story of
+the life of the average married woman. If she remained virtuous,
+she usually became resigned to her fate and lived happily; if she
+undertook to imitate her husband's tactics, she fell from the good
+graces of one lover to those of another, ending her life in absolute
+wretchedness.
+
+These two men--the lover and the husband--carried on with two sisters
+their licentious living and extravagances to such an extent that the
+injured wife demanded a separation of her fortune from that of her
+husband, in which project her father-in-law aided her and gave her
+thirteen thousand francs income. Mme. d'Epinay, in the midst of
+success, became acquainted with Mlle. Quinault, the daughter of the
+famous actor of the time, and herself a great actress. This woman
+invited Mme. d'Epinay to her so-called salon, which was, possibly, the
+most licentious and irreligious of the salons then in vogue, where she
+met Duclos, with whom she immediately formed a strong friendship.
+
+After the death of M. de Bellegarde, her wealth was considerably
+increased, a piece of good fortune which enabled her to carry out all
+her plans. It was at this time, 1755, that she induced Rousseau
+to live in her cottage, "l'Hermitage;" and for about two years she
+enjoyed perfect happiness with him. By a peculiar freak of fate she
+fell in with Grimm, who was introduced to her by Rousseau and who had,
+for some time, been on the hunt for a "faithful mistress." This German
+by birth, but Frenchman in spirit, had championed her at a dinner,
+where she was the object of the severest reproach. She had burned
+the papers of her sister, Mme. de Jully, who had betrayed an honest
+husband. Stricken with smallpox, just before dying, she confessed all
+to Mme. d'Epinay. The latter owed Mme. de Jully fifty écus and the
+note was among the papers of Mme. de Jully. Mme. d'Epinay was accused
+of having burned the note to which it was asserted she had access; and
+Grimm undertook to plead her cause, an act which so elated madame that
+she turned all her affection upon her defender, whereupon Rousseau
+departed. Later on, the note having been found, Mme. d'Epinay was
+completely vindicated. Grimm then became her third lover.
+
+This third marriage, so to speak, was one of reason; the first was one
+of mere emancipation; the second, one of passion and genuine love.
+In 1755, worn out physically, she took a trip to Switzerland, to be
+treated by the famous Dr. Tronchin; there she became so ill that Grimm
+was summoned. They remained together for about two years, and after
+her return to Paris she reopened her salon of "La Chevrette." Her
+reunions partook more of the nature of our house parties; the salon
+was an immense room, in which the members would pair off and divert
+themselves as they pleased; in that respect "La Chevrette" was
+unique. After her fortune, which at one time was quite large, became
+diminished, partly through her own extravagance and partly through
+that of her son, who was the very counterpart of his father, she was
+forced to rent "La Chevrette" and, later on, "La Briche," where she
+had opened her second salon.
+
+The last years of her life she spent in Paris with Grimm. She had
+reached such a physical condition that her sufferings could be
+relieved only by the use of opium. Financial relief came to her in
+1783, when the Academy awarded her the Montyon prize, then given for
+the first time, for her _Conversations d'Emilie_. She died in the same
+year, surrounded by her dearest friends--Grimm, M. and Mme. Belgunce,
+and Mme. d'Houdetot.
+
+Mme. d'Epinay, in many respects, was a remarkable woman. Amid all her
+social duties, with all her physical and mental troubles, she found
+time to help others and to manage her own business affairs and
+those of her children, took an active interest in art, music, and
+literature, raised, with the utmost care, her granddaughter, produced
+one of the best works of the time for children, made tapestry, and
+wrote innumerable letters. Her fortune was lost through the reforms of
+Necker.
+
+She was not a beautiful woman; but she was distinguished by a small,
+thin figure, an abundance of rich dark hair, which brought out in
+striking relief the peculiar whiteness of her skin, and large brown
+eyes. Her five lovers she called her five bears: Rousseau, Grimm,
+Desmoulin, Saint-Lambert, Gauffecourt. An epistle to Grimm begins
+thus;
+
+  "Moi, de cinq ours la souveraine,
+  Qui leur donne et present des lois,
+  Faut-il que je sois à la fois
+  Et votre esclave et votre reine,
+  O des tyrans le plus tyran?"
+
+  [I, sovereign over five bears,
+  Who give and prescribe laws for them--
+  Must I be your slave and queen at the same time,
+  O among tyrants, the greatest?]
+
+As far as the care of the education of her children is concerned,
+with its sacrifice and real application to duty, she was sometimes
+called--and not unadvisedly--the type of the ideal mother. From 1757
+on her ideas and thoughts ran to education. Her friends were all
+of the philosophical trend, and intellectual labor was their chief
+pleasure. After having passed through a career of excitement and
+love's caprices, she longed for a peaceful, quiet existence; at
+that point, however, her health gave way, and she entered upon a new
+territory at Geneva. There she conquered Voltaire, who was profuse
+with his compliments and kindnesses. Upon her return she became the
+recognized leader or champion of the philosophic and foreign group
+and the Encyclopædists, and was regarded as the central figure of the
+philosophical movement in general.
+
+The ideas of the philosophers had been gaining ground, and were
+disseminated through all classes. The mere love of pleasure and luxury
+at first found under Louis XV. gave way to more serious reflections
+when society was confronted with those all-important questions which
+finally culminated in the Revolution. The salon of Mme. d'Epinay grew
+to be the most important and, intellectually, the most brilliant
+of the time. Rousseau, Diderot, Helvétius, Duclos, Suard, the Abbés
+Galiani, Raynal, the Florentine physician Gatti, Comte de Schomberg,
+Chevalier de Chastellux, Saint-Lambert, Marquis de Croixmare, the
+different ambassadors, counts and princes, were frequent visitors
+In this brilliant circle her letters from Voltaire, read aloud, were
+always eagerly awaited. Such dramas as Voltaire's _Tancred_, Diderot's
+_Le Père de Famille_, were given under her patronage and discussed in
+her salon; after the performance she entertained all the friends at
+supper.
+
+Upon the departure of Abbé Galiani from Paris, Mme. d'Epinay and
+Diderot were intrusted with the revision and printing of his famous
+_Dialogues sur les Blés_; Grimm left to them the continuance of
+his _Correspondance Littéraire_. She was known for her wonderful
+analytical ability and her keen power of observation--faculties which
+won the esteem and respect of such men and caused her collaboration
+to be anxiously sought by them; however, she never attempted to rival
+them in their particular sphere. In her writings she displayed a
+reactionary tendency against the educational methods of the day, her
+chief work of real literary worth being mostly in the form of
+sound advice to a child. Being a reasonable, careful, and sensible
+woman,--in spite of the defects in her moral life,--she desired to
+show the possibilities of a moral revolution against the habits and
+customs of the time, of which she herself had been a most unfortunate
+victim. She was relieved of actual want by means of this work, which
+gained for her a pension from Catherine II. of Russia, who adopted
+her methods for her own children, and the award of the Montyon prize,
+which was given her in a competition with a large number of aspirants,
+the most famous of whom was Mme. de Genlis. It was her ability to gain
+and retain the respect of great men which won that honor for her.
+
+The memoirs of Mme. d'Epinay leave one of the most accurate and
+faithful pictures of the polished society of the France of about 1750.
+"Her salon was the centre about which circled the greatest activity;
+it was filled with men who ordered events, thinkers whose minds were
+bent upon untangling the knotty problems of the age; it was her salon,
+more than any other, that quickened the philosophical movement of
+the day. Mme. d'Epinay made her reputation not so much through her
+_esprit_, intelligence, or beauty, possibly, as through the strength
+of her affection. Timid, irresolute, and highly impressionable,
+and amiable in disposition, she was constantly influenced by
+circumstances--a quality which led her on to the two principal
+occupations of her later life, education and philosophy. To-day,
+her name is recalled principally for its association with that of
+Rousseau, whose mistress and benefactress she was; it is to her that
+the world owes his famous _Nouvelle Héloïse_.
+
+The last of the great literary and social leaders of the eighteenth
+century was Mme. de Genlis, a prodigy in every respect, an amateur
+performer upon nearly every instrument, an authority on intellectual
+matters as well, a fine story teller, a consummate artist,
+entertainer, and general charmer. Authoress, governess of
+Louis-Philippe, councillor of Bonaparte, her success as a social
+leader established her reputation and places her in the file of great
+women, although she was not a salon leader such as Mme. Geoffrin or
+Mme. du Deffand.
+
+She was born in 1746, and at a very early age showed a remarkable
+talent for music, but her general education was much neglected. At the
+age of about seventeen she was married to a Comte de Genlis, who
+had fallen in love with her on seeing her portrait. As his relatives
+refused to welcome the young girl, she was placed in the convent of
+Origny, where she remained until 1764, after which her husband took
+her to his brother's estate, where they lived happily for a short
+time. When, in 1765, she became a mother, her husband's family became
+reconciled to his union, and, later on, took her to court.
+
+Before her marriage, upon the departure of her father to San Domingo
+to retrieve his fortunes, her mother had found an asylum for her at
+the elegant home of the farmer-general M. de La Popelinière. This
+occurred at the time that Paris was theatre mad, and when great actors
+and actresses were the heroes and heroines of society. At this house
+the young girl became the central figure in the theatrical and musical
+entertainments. After passing through this schooling, she stood the
+test of the court without any difficulty, and completely won the favor
+of her husband's family, as well as that of the court ladies and
+the members of the other distinguished households where she was
+introduced. With an insatiable appetite for frolics, quite in keeping
+with the customs of the time, she plunged into social life with a
+vigor and an aptitude which soon attracted attention. She played all
+sorts of rôles at the most fashionable houses, "through her consummate
+acting and _bons mots_ drawing tears of vexation from her less gifted
+sisters. She plays nine instruments, writes dramas, recasts others,
+organizes and drills amateurs, besides attending to a thousand and one
+other things."
+
+Through the influence of her aunt, Mme. de Montesson, who was
+secretly married to the Duke of Orléans, Mme. de Genlis was appointed
+lady-in-waiting in the household of the Duchesse de Chartres, the
+duke's daughter-in-law, whose salon was celebrated in Paris. She
+soon won the confidence of the duchess, and became her confessor,
+secretary, guide, and oracle, but did not abandon in the least her
+pursuit of pleasure. She even took possession of the heart of the duke
+himself, and in 1782 was made "_gouverneur_" to his children, the Duc
+de Valois, later Louis-Philippe, the Duc de Montpensier, the Comte de
+Beaujolais, and Mlle. Adelaïde; for the education of her pupils she
+had the use of several châteaux. Many a piquant epigram and chanson
+were composed for the edification of the "_gouverneur_." It is said
+that she acted as panderer for the princes, especially Louis-Philippe,
+of a "legitimate means of satisfying these ardent desires of which
+I am being devoured," by leading them to the nuns in the convents
+by means of a subterranean passage. The following passages from the
+journal of Louis-Philippe show the nature of his relations with her:
+
+(December, 1790.) "I went to dine with my mother and grandfather.
+Although I am delighted to dine often with my mother, I am deeply
+sorry to give only three days out of the seven to my dear Bellechasse
+[that is, to Mme. de Genlis]."
+
+(January, 1791.) "Last evening, returned to my friend [Mme. de
+Genlis]; remained there until after midnight; I was the first one to
+have the good fortune of wishing her a 'Happy New Year.' Nothing can
+make me happier; I don't know what will become of me when I am no
+longer with her."
+
+(January, 1791.) "Yesterday, I was at the Tuileries. The queen spoke
+to my father, to my brother, and said nothing to me--neither did the
+king nor Monsieur, in fact, no one. I remained at my friend's until
+half-past twelve. No one in the world is so agreeable to me as is
+she." (February, 1791.) "I was at the assembly at Bellechasse, dined
+at the Palais-Royal, I was at the Jacobins, returned to Bellechasse,
+after supper went to my friend's. I remained with her alone; she
+treated me with an infinite kindness; I left, the happiest man in the
+world." Such language speaks for itself.
+
+No sons of a nobleman ever received a finer, more typically modern
+education than did her pupils. She was, possibly, the first teacher to
+use the natural method system, teaching German, English, and Italian
+by conversation. The boys were compelled to act, in the park, the
+voyages of Vasco da Gama; in the dining room the great historical
+tableaux were presented; in the theatre, built especially for them,
+they acted all the dramas of the _Théâtre d'Education_. She taught
+them how to make portfolios, ribbons, wigs, pasteboard work, to
+gild, to turn, and to do carpentering. They visited museums and
+manufactories, during which expeditions they were taught to observe,
+criticise, and find defects. This was the first step taken in France
+in the eighteenth century toward a modern education. Although it was
+superficial, in consequence of its great breadth, yet this education
+inculcated manliness and courage.
+
+In 1778 Mme. de Genlis published her moral teachings in _Adèle et
+Théodore_, a work which created quite a little talk at the time, but
+which eventually brought upon her the condemnation of the philosophers
+and Encyclopædists, because in it she opposed liberty of conscience.
+When, on the occasion of the first communion of the Duc de Valois,
+she wrote her _Religion Considered as the Only True Foundation of
+Happiness and of True Philosophy_, all the Palais-Royal place hunters,
+philosophers, and her political enemies, in a mass, opposed and
+ridiculed her. Rivarol declared that she had no sex, that heaven had
+refused the magic of talent to her productions, as it had refused the
+charm of innocence to her childhood.
+
+One of the best portraits of her is in the memoirs of the Baroness
+d'Oberkirch (it was she who disturbed Mme. de Genlis and the Duc
+d'Orléans while they were walking in the gardens one night):
+
+"I did not like her, in spite of her accomplishments and the charm of
+her conversation; she was too systematic. She is a woman who has laid
+aside the flowing robes of her sex for the costume of a pedagogue.
+Besides, nothing about her is natural; she is constantly in an
+attitude, as it were, thinking that her portrait--physical or
+moral--is being taken by someone. One of the great follies of this
+masculine woman is her harp, which she carries about with her; she
+speaks about it when she hasn't it--she plays on a crust of bread and
+practises with a thread. When she perceives that someone is looking
+at her, she rounds her arm, purses up her mouth, assumes a sentimental
+expression and air, and begins to move her fingers. Gracious! what
+a fine thing naturalness is!... I spent a delightful evening at the
+Comtesse de La Massais's; she had hired musicians whom she paid dear;
+but Mme. de Genlis sat in the centre of the assembly, commanded,
+talked, commented, sang, and would have put the entire concert in
+confusion, had not the Marquise de Livry very drolly picked a quarrel
+with her about her harp, which she had brought to her. Decidedly, this
+young D'Orléans has a singular governor. She holds too closely to her
+rôle, and never forgets her _jupons_ [skirts] except when she ought
+most to remember them."
+
+During her visit to England she was petted by everyone; but even in
+England there was a widespread prejudice against her--a feeling which
+the mere sight of her immediately dissipated. An English lady wrote
+about her:
+
+"I saw her at first with a prejudice in her disfavor, from the cruel
+reports I had heard; but the moment I looked at her it was removed.
+There was a dignity with her sweetness and a frankness with her
+modesty, that convinced me, beyond all power of contrary report, of
+her real worth and innocence."
+
+During the Revolution Mme. de Genlis travelled about Switzerland,
+Germany, and England. At Berlin, owing to her poverty, she supported
+herself by writing, making trinkets, and teaching, until she was
+recalled to France, under the Consulate. In Paris she produced some of
+her best works--although they were written to order. Napoleon gave
+her a pension of six thousand francs and handsome apartments at the
+Arsenal. To this liberal pension, the wife of his brother, Joseph
+Bonaparte, added three thousand francs.
+
+From Mme. de Genlis, Napoleon received a letter fortnightly, in which
+epistle she communicated to him her opinions and observations upon
+politics and current events. Upon the return to power of the Orléans
+family, she was put off with a meagre pension. Like many other French
+women, she became more and more melancholy and misanthropic. She was
+unable to control her wrath against the philosophers and some of the
+contemporary writers, such as Lamartine, Mme. de Staël, Scott, and
+Byron. Her death, in 1830, was announced in these words: "Mme. de
+Genlis has ceased to write--which is to announce her death."
+
+Throughout life she was so generous that as soon as she received
+her pensions, presents, or earnings from her work, the money was
+distributed among the poor. When she died, she left nothing but a few
+worn and homely dresses and articles of furniture. The diversity of
+her works and her conduct, the politics in which she was steeped,
+the satires, the perfidious accusations that have pursued her, have
+contributed to leave of her a rather doubtful portrait; however,
+those who have written bitterly against her have done so mostly from
+personal or political animosity. She was so many-sided--a reformer,
+teacher, pietist, politician, actress--that a true estimate of her
+character is difficult. A woman of all tastes and of various talents,
+she was a living encyclopædia and mistress of all arts of pleasing.
+She had studied medicine, and took special delight in the art of
+bleeding, which she practised upon the peasants, each one of whom she
+would present with thirty sous (thirty cents), after the bleeding--and
+she never lacked patients. Mme. de Genlis was an expert rider and
+huntress; also, she was graceful, with an elegant figure, great
+affability, and a talent for quickly and accurately reading character;
+and these gifts were stepping-stones to popularity.
+
+She wrote incessantly, on all things, essaying every style, every
+subject. "She has discoursed for the education of princes and of
+lackeys; prepared maxims for the throne and precepts for the pantry;
+you might say she possessed the gift of universality. She was gifted
+with a singular confidence in her own abilities, infinite curiosity,
+untiring industry, and never-ending and inexhaustible energy. She
+wrote nearly as much as Voltaire, and barely excelled him in the
+amount of unreadable work, which, if printed, would fill over one
+hundred volumes."
+
+"Let us remember," says Mr. Dobson, "her indefatigable industry and
+untiring energy, her kindness to her relatives and admirers, her
+courage and patience when in exile and poverty, her great talent,
+perseverance, and rare facility." In protesting vigorously against the
+universal neglect of physical development, against the absence of the
+gymnasium and the lack of practical knowledge in the education of
+her time, in advocating the study of modern languages as a means of
+culture and discipline, in applying to her pupils the principles of
+the modern experimental and observational education, Mme. de Genlis
+will retain a place as one of the great female educators--as a woman
+pedagogue, _par excellence_, of the eighteenth century.
+
+A great number of minor salons existed, which were partly literary,
+partly social. From about 1750 to 1780 the amusements varied
+constantly, from all-day parties in the country to cafés served by
+the great women themselves, from playing proverbs to playing synonyms,
+from impromptu compositions to questionable stories, from laughter to
+tears, from Blind-man's-buff to Lotto. Some of the proverbs were quite
+ingenious and required elaborate preparations; for example, at one
+place Mme. de Lauzun dances with M. de Belgunce, in the simplest kind
+of a costume, which represented the proverb: _Bonne renommée vaut
+mieux que ceinture dorée_ [A good name is rather to be chosen than
+great riches]. Mme. de Marigny danced with M. de Saint-Julien as a
+negro, passing her handkerchief over her face in the various figures
+of the dance, meaning _A laver la tête d'un More on perd sa lessive_
+[To wash a blackamoor white].
+
+Among the social salons, the finest was the Temple of the Prince de
+Conti and his mistress, the Countess de Boufflers. It was a salon of
+pleasure, liberty, and unceremonious intimacy; his _thés à l'anglaise_
+were served by the great ladies themselves, attired in white aprons.
+The exclusive and élite of the social world made up his company. The
+most elegant assembly was that of the Maréchale de Luxembourg; it will
+be considered later on. The salon of Mme. de Beauvau rivalled that
+of the Maréchale de Luxembourg; she was mistress of elegance and
+propriety, an authority on and model of the usages of society. A
+manner perhaps superior to that of any other woman, gave Mme. de
+Beauvau a particular _politesse_ and constituted her one of the women
+who contributed most to the acceptance of Paris as the capital of
+Europe, by well-bred people of all countries. Her _politesse_ was kind
+and without sarcasm, and, by her own naturalness, she communicated
+ease. She was not beautiful, but had a frank and open expression and
+a marvellous gift of conversation, which was her delight and in which
+she gloried. Her salon was conspicuous for its untarnished honor and
+for the example it set of a pure conjugal love.
+
+The salon of Mme. de Grammont, at Versailles, was visited at all hours
+of the day and night by the highest officials, princes, lords, and
+ladies. It had activity, authority, the secret doors, veiled and
+redoubtable depths of a salon of the mistress of a king. Everybody
+went there for counsel, submitted plans, and confided projects to this
+lady who had willingly exiled herself from Paris.
+
+The house of M. de La Popelinière, at Passy, was noted for its unique
+entertainment; there the celebrated Gossec and Gaïffre conducted the
+concerts, Deshayes, master of the ballet at the Comédie-Italienne,
+managed the amusements. It was a house like a theatre and with all the
+requisites of the latter; there artists and men of letters, virtuosos
+and _danseuses_, ate, slept, and lodged as in a hotel. With Mme. de
+Blot, mistress of the Duke of Orléans, as hostess, the Palais-Royal
+ranked next to the Temple of the Prince de Conti; it was open only to
+those who were presented; after that ceremony, all those who were thus
+introduced could, without invitation, dine there on all days of the
+Grand Opera. On the _petits jours_ a select twenty gathered, who, when
+once invited, were so for all time. The "Salon de Pomone," of Mme.
+de Marchais, received its name from Mme. du Deffand on account of the
+exquisite fruits and magnificent flowers which the hostess cultivated
+and distributed among her friends.
+
+"La Paroisse," of Mme. Doublet de Persan, was the salon of the
+sceptics and was under the constant surveillance of the police. All
+the members arrived at the same time and each took possession of the
+armchair reserved for him, above which hung his portrait. On a
+large stand were two registers, in which the rumors of the day were
+noted--in one the doubtful, in the other the accredited. On Saturday,
+a selection was made, which went to the _Grand Livre_, which became a
+journal entitled _Nouvelles à la Main_, kept by the _valet-de-chambre_
+of Mme. Doublet. This book furnished the substance of the six volumes
+of the _Mémoires Secrets_, which began to appear in 1770.
+
+Besides these salons of the nobility, there were those of the
+financiers, a profession which had risen into prominence within the
+last half century, after the death of Louis XIV. According to the
+Goncourt brothers, the greatest of these salons was that of Mme.
+de Grimrod de La Reynière, who, by dint of shrewd manoeuvring, by
+unheard-of extravagances, excessive opulence in the furnishings of
+her salon, and by the most gorgeous and rare fêtes and suppers, had
+succeeded in attracting to her establishment a number of the court and
+nobility.
+
+The salon of M. de La Popelinière belonged to this class, although he
+was ranked, more or less, among the nobility. There were the weekly
+suppers of Mme. Suard, Mme. Saurin, the Abbé Raynal, and the luncheons
+of the Abbé Morellet on the first Sunday of the month; to the latter
+functions were invited all the celebrities of the other salons, as
+well as artists and musicians--it was there that the famous quarrel
+of the Gluck and Piccini parties originated. The Tuesday dinners of
+Helvétius became famous; it was at them that Franklin was one of the
+favorites; after the death of Helvétius, he attempted in vain to
+put an end to the widowhood of madame. No man at that time was more
+popular than Franklin or had as much public attention shown him.
+
+There were a number of celebrated women whose reputations rest mainly
+on their wit and conversational abilities; they may be classed as
+society leaders, to distinguish them from salon leaders.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter X
+
+Social Classes
+
+
+The belief generally prevails that devotion and constancy did not
+exist among French women of the eighteenth century; but, in spite of
+the very numerous instances of infidelity which dot the pages of
+the history of the French matrimonial relations of those days, many
+examples of rare devotion are found, even among the nobility. Love of
+the king and self-eliminating devotion to him were feelings to which
+women aspired; yet we have one countess, the Countess of Perigord,
+who, true to her wifehood, repels the advances of the king, preferring
+a voluntary exile to the dishonor of a life of royal favors and
+attentions. There is also the example of Mme. de Trémoille; having
+been stricken with smallpox, she was ministered to by her husband, who
+voluntarily shared her fate and died with her.
+
+It would seem that the highest types of devotion are to be found in
+the families of the ministers and men of state, where the wife was
+intimately associated with the fortune and the success of her husband.
+The Marquis de Croisy and his wife were married forty years; M.
+and Mme. de Maurepas lived together for fifty years, without being
+separated one day. Instances are many in which reconciliations
+were effected after years of unfaithfulness; these seldom occurred,
+however, until the end of life was near. The normal type of married
+life among the higher classes still remained one of most ideal and
+beautiful devotion, in spite of the great number of exceptions.
+
+It must be observed that in the middle class the young girl grew up
+with the mother and was given her most tender care; surrounded with
+wholesome influences, she saw little or nothing of the world, and,
+the constant companion of her mother, developed much like the average
+young girl of to-day. At the age of about eleven she was sent to a
+convent, where--after having spent some time in the _pension_, where
+instruction in religion was given her--she was instructed by the
+sisters for one year.
+
+After her confirmation and her first communion, and the home visits to
+all the relatives, she was placed in a _maison religieuse_, where the
+sisters taught the daughters of the common people free of charge. The
+young girl was also taught dancing, music, and other accomplishments
+of a like nature, but there was nothing of the feverish atmosphere of
+the convent in which the daughters of the nobility were reared; these
+institutions for the middle classes were peaceful, silent, and calm,
+fostering a serenity and quietude. The days passed quickly, the
+Sundays being eagerly looked forward to because of the visits of the
+parents, who took their daughters for drives and walks and indulged
+them in other innocent diversions. Such a life had its after effects:
+the young girls grew up with a taste for system, discipline, piety,
+and for a rigid devotion, which often led them to an instinctive need
+of doctrine and sacrifice; consequently, in later life many turned to
+Jansenism.
+
+However, the young girls of this class who were not thus educated,
+because their assistance was required at home, received an early
+training in social as well as in domestic affairs; they had a solid
+and practical, if uncouth, foundation, combined with a worldly and,
+often, a frivolous temperament. To them many privileges were opened:
+they were taken to the opera, to concerts and to balls, to the salons
+of painting, and it often happened that they developed a craving for
+the society to which only the nobly born demoiselle was admitted. When
+this craving went too far, it frequently led to seduction by some of
+the chevaliers who make seduction a profession.
+
+The marriage customs in these circles differed little from those
+of to-day. The suitor asked permission to call and to continue his
+visits; then followed the period of present giving. The young girl
+was almost always absolute mistress of the decision; if the father
+presented a name, the daughter insisted upon seeing, receiving,
+and becoming intimately acquainted with the suitor, a custom quite
+different from that practised among the nobility. Instead of giving
+her rights as it did the girl of the nobility, marriage imposed duties
+upon the girl of the middle class; it closed the world instead of
+opening it to her; it ended her brilliant, gay, and easy life, instead
+of beginning it, as was the case in the higher classes. This she
+realized, therefore hesitated long before taking the final step which
+was to bind her until death.
+
+With her, becoming a wife meant infinitely more than it did to the
+girl of the nobility; her husband had the management of her money, and
+his vices were visited upon her and her children--in short, he became
+her master in all things. These disadvantages she was taught to
+consider deeply before entering the marriage state.
+
+This state of affairs developed distinctive physiognomies in the
+different classes of the middle-class society: thus, "the wives of the
+financiers are dignified, stern, severe; those of the merchants are
+seductive, active, gossiping, and alert; those of the artists are
+free, easy, and independent, with a strong taste for pleasure and
+gayety--and they give the tone." As we approach the end of the
+century, the _bourgeoisie_ begins to assume the airs, habits,
+extravagances, and even the immoralities, of the higher classes.
+
+Below the _bourgeoise_ was the workingwoman, whose ideas were limited
+to those of a savage and who was a woman only in sex. Her ideas of
+morality, decency, conjugal happiness, children, education, were
+limited by quarrels, profanity, blows, fights. At that time brandy was
+the sole consolation for those women; it supplied their moral force
+and their moral resistance, making them forget cold, hunger, fatigue,
+evil, and giving them courage and patience; it was the fire that
+sustained, comforted, and incited them.
+
+These women were not much above the level of animals, but from them,
+we find, often sprang the entertainers of the time, the queens of
+beauty and gallantry--Laguerre, D'Hervieux, Sophie Arnould. Having
+lost their virtue with maturity, these women had no sense of morality;
+in them, nothing preserved the sense of honor--their religion
+consisted of a few superstitious practices. The constituents of duty
+and the virtue of women they could only vaguely guess; marriage itself
+was presented to them under the most repugnant image of constant
+contention.
+
+It was in such an atmosphere as this that the daughters of these women
+grew up. Their talents found opportunity for display at the public
+dances where some of them would in time attract especial attention.
+Some became opera singers, dancers, or actresses, and were very
+popular; others became influential, and, through the efforts of
+some lover, allured about them a circle of ambitious _débauchés_ or
+aspirants for social favors. Through their adventures they made their
+way up in the world to high society.
+
+From this element of prostitution was disentangled, to a large extent,
+the great gallantry of the eighteenth century. This was accomplished
+by adding an elegance to debauch, by clothing vice with a sort of
+grandeur, and by adorning scandal with a semblance of the glory and
+grace of the courtier of old. Possessing the fascination of all gifts,
+prodigalities, follies, with all the appetites and tendencies of the
+time, these women attracted the society of the period--the poets,
+the artists, even the scientists, the philosophers, and the nobility.
+Their reputation increased with the number and standing of their
+lovers. The genius of the eighteenth century circled about these
+street belles--they represented the fortune of pleasure.
+
+As the church would not countenance the marriage of an actress, she
+was forced to renounce the theatre when she would marry, but once
+married a permit to return to the stage was easily obtained. Society
+was not so severe as the laws; it received actresses, sought out, and
+even adored them; it received the women of the stage as equals, and
+many of them were married by counts and dukes, given a title, and
+presented at court. The regular type of the prostitute was tolerated
+and even received by society; "a word of anger, malediction, or
+outrage, was seldom raised against these women: on the contrary, pity
+and the commiseration of charity and tenderness were felt for them
+and manifested." This was natural, for many of them--through
+notoriety--reached society and, as mistresses of the king, even the
+throne itself. "If such women as Mme. de Pompadour were esteemed, what
+principles remained in the name of which to judge without pity and to
+condemn the _débauchés_ of the street," says Mme. de Choiseul, one of
+the purest of women.
+
+This class usually created and established the styles. There is a
+striking contrast between the standards of beauty and fashions of the
+respective periods of Louis XIV. and Louis XV.: "The stately figure,
+rich costume, awe-inspiring peruke of the magnificent Louis XIV.--the
+satins, velvets, embroideries, perfumes, and powder of the indolent
+and handsome Louis XV., well illustrate the two epochs." The beauty of
+the Louis XIV. age was more serious, more imposing, imperial, classic;
+later in the eighteenth century, under Louis XV., she developed into
+a charming figure of _finesse, sveltesse et gracilité_, with an
+extremely delicate complexion, a small mouth and thin nose, as opposed
+to the strong, plump mouth and _nez léonin_ (leonine nose). More
+animated, the face was all movement, the eyes talked; the _esprit_
+passed to the face. It was the type of Marivaux' comedies, with an
+_esprit mobile_, animated and colored by all the coquetries of grace.
+
+Later in the century, the very opposite type prevailed; the aspiration
+then became to leave an emotion ungratified rather than to seduce;
+a languishing expression was cultivated; women sought to sweeten the
+physiognomy, to make it tender and mild. The style of beauty changed
+from the brunette with brown eyes--so much in vogue under Louis XV.,
+to the blonde with blue eyes under Louis XVI. Even the red which
+formerly "dishonored France," became a favorite. To obtain the much
+admired pale complexion, women had themselves bled; their dress
+corresponded to their complexion, light materials and pure white being
+much affected.
+
+In these three stages of the development of beauty, fashion changed
+to harmonize with the popular style in beauty. In general, styles
+were influenced by an important event of the day: thus, when Marie
+Leczinska, introduced the fad of quadrilles, there were invented
+ribbons called "quadrille of the queen"; and many other fads
+originated in the same way. French taste and fashions travelled over
+entire Europe; all Europe was _à la française_, yoked and laced in
+French styles, French in art, taste, industry. The domination of the
+French _Galerie des Modes_ was due to the inventive minds of French
+women in relation to everything pertaining to headdress, to detailed
+and delicate arrangements of every phase of ornamentation.
+
+Every country had, in Paris, its agents who eagerly waited for the
+appearance of the famous doll of the Rue Saint-Honoré; this figure
+was an exponent of the latest fashions and inventions, and, changing
+continually, was watched and copied by all Europe. Alterations in
+style frequently originated at the supper of a mistress, in the box
+of a dancer or in the atelier of a fine modiste; therefore, in that
+respect, that century differed little from the present one. Trade
+depended largely upon foreign patronage. Fortunes were made by the
+modistes, who were the great artists of the day and who set the
+fashion; but the hairdresser and shoemaker, also, were artists, as was
+seen, at least in name, and were as impertinent as prosperous.
+
+An interesting illustration of the change of fashion is the following
+anecdote: In 1714, at a supper of the king, at Versailles, two English
+women wore low headdress, causing a scandal which came near costing
+them their dismissal. The king happened to mention that if French
+women were reasonable, they would not dress otherwise. The word was
+spread, and the next day, at the king's mass the ladies all wore their
+hair like the English women, regardless of the laughter of the women
+who, being absent the previous evening, had their hair dressed high.
+The compliment of the king as he was leaving mass, to the ladies with
+the low headdress, caused a complete change in the mode.
+
+It now remains but to illustrate these various classes by types--by
+women who have become famous. The Duchesse de Boufflers, Maréchale de
+Luxembourg, was the woman who most completely typified the spirit and
+tone of the eighteenth-century _classique_ in everything that belonged
+to the ancient régime which passed away with the society of 1789.
+She was the daughter of the Duc de Villeroy, and married the Duc de
+Boufflers in 1721; after the death of the latter in 1747, and after
+having been the mistress of M. de Luxembourg for several years, she
+married him in 1750. Her youth was like that of most women of the
+social world. A _savante_ in intrigues at court, present at all
+suppers, bouts, and pleasure trips as lady-of-the-palace to the queen,
+intriguing constantly, holding her own by her sharp wit, in a society
+of _roués et élégants enervés_ she soon became a leader. Mme. du
+Deffand left a striking portrait of her:
+
+"Mme. la Duchesse de Boufflers is beautiful without having the air
+of suspecting it. Her physiognomy is keen and piquant, her expression
+reveals all the emotions of her soul--she does not have to say
+what she thinks, one guesses it. Her gestures are so natural and so
+perfectly in accord with what she says, that it is difficult not to be
+led to think and feel as she does. She dominates wherever she is, and
+she always makes the impression she desires to make. She makes use of
+her advantages almost like a god--she permits us to believe that we
+have a free will while she determines us. In general, she is more
+feared than loved. She has much _esprit_ and gayety. She is constant
+in her engagements, faithful to her friends, truthful, discreet,
+generous. If she were more clairvoyant or if men were less ridiculous,
+they would find her perfect."
+
+On one occasion M. de Tressan composed this famous couplet:
+
+  "Quand Boufflers parut à la cour,
+  On crut voir la mère d'Amour,
+  Chacun s'empressait à lui plaire,
+  Et chacun l'avait à son tour."
+
+  [When Boufflers appeared at court,
+  The mother of love was thought to be seen,
+  Everyone became so eager to please her,
+  And each one had her in his turn.]
+
+One day Mme. de Boufflers mumbled this before M. de Tressan, saying to
+him: "Do you know the author? It is so beautiful that I would not
+only pardon her, but I believe I would embrace her." Whereupon he
+stammered: _Eh bien! c'est moi._ She quickly dealt him two vigorous
+slaps in the face. All feared her; no one equalled her in skill and
+shrewdness, or in knowing and handling men.
+
+After her marriage to the Maréchal de Luxembourg, she decided, about
+1750, to open a salon in Paris; it became one of the real forces of
+the eighteenth century, socially and politically. While her husband
+lived, she did not enjoy the freedom she desired; after his death in
+1764 she was at liberty to do as she pleased, and she then began
+her career as a judge and counsellor in all social matters. She was
+regarded as the oracle of taste and urbanity, exercised a supervision
+over the tone and usage of society, was the censor of _la bonne
+compagnie_ during the happy years of Louis XVI. This power in her was
+universally recognized. She tempered the Anglomania of the time,
+all excesses of familiarity and rudeness; she never uttered a bad
+expression, a coarse laugh or a _tutoiement_ (thee and thou). The
+slightest affectation in tone or gesture was detected and judged
+by her. She preserved the good tone of society and permitted no
+contamination. She retarded the reign of clubs, retained the urbanity
+of French society, and preserved a proper and unique character in the
+_ancien salon français_, in the way of excellence of tone.
+
+The Marquise de Rambouillet, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. de Maintenon,
+Mme. de Caylus, and Mme. de Luxembourg are of the same type--the same
+world, with little variance and no decadence; in some respects, the
+last may be said to have approached nearest to perfection. "In her,
+the turn of critical and caustic severity was exempt from rigidity
+and was accompanied by every charm and pleasingness in her person. She
+often judged [a person] by [his] ability at repartee, which she tested
+by embarrassing questions across the table, judging [the person] by
+the reply. She herself was never at a loss for an answer: when shown
+two portraits--one of Molière and one of La Fontaine--and asked which
+was the greater, she answered: 'That one,' pointing to La Fontaine,
+'is more perfect in a _genre_ less perfect.'"
+
+By the Goncourt brothers, her salon has been given its merited credit:
+"The most elegant salon was that of the Maréchale de Luxembourg, one
+of the most original women of the time. She showed an originality in
+her judgments, she was authority in usage, a genius in taste. About
+her were pleasure, interest, novelty, letters; here was formed the
+true elegance of the eighteenth century--a society that held sway over
+Europe until 1789. Here was formed the greatest institution of
+the time, the only one that survived till the Revolution, that
+preserved--in the discredit of all moral laws--the authority of one
+law, _la parfaite bonne compagnie_, whose aim was a social one--to
+distinguish itself from bad company, vulgar and provincial society,
+by the perfection of the means of pleasing, by the delicacy of
+friendship, by the art of considerations, complaisances, of _savoir
+vivre_, by all possible researches and refinements of _esprit_. It
+fixed everything--usages, etiquette, tone of conversation; it
+taught how to praise without bombast and insipidness, to reply to
+a compliment without disdaining or accepting it, to bring others to
+value without appearing to protect them; it prevented all slander.
+If it did not impart modesty, goodness, indulgence, nobleness of
+sentiment, it at least imposed the forms, exacting the appearances
+and showing the images of them. It was the guardian of urbanity and
+maintained all the laws that are derived from taste. It represented
+the religion of honor; it judged, and when it condemned a man he was
+socially-ruined."
+
+A type of what may be called the social mistress of the nobility--the
+personification of good taste, elegance and propriety such as it
+should be--was the Comtesse de Boufflers, mistress of the Prince de
+Conti, intimate friend of Hume, Rousseau, and Gustave III., King of
+Sweden. The countess was one of the most influential and spirituelle
+members of French society, her special mission and delight being the
+introduction of foreign celebrities into French society. She piloted
+them, was their patroness, spoke almost all modern languages, and
+visited her friends in their respective countries. She was the most
+travelled and most hospitable of great French women, hence the woman
+best informed upon the world in general.
+
+She was born in Paris in 1725, and in 1746 was married to the Comte
+de Boufflers-Rouvrel; soon after, becoming enamored of the Prince de
+Conti, she became his acknowledged mistress. To give an idea of
+the light in which the women of that time considered those who were
+mistresses of great men, the following episodes may be cited: One day,
+Mme. de Boufflers, momentarily forgetting her relations to the Prince
+de Conti, remarked that she scorned a woman who _avait un prince du
+sang_ (was mistress of a prince of the blood). When reminded of her
+apparent inconsistency, she said: "I wish to give by my words
+to virtue what I take away from it by my actions...." On another
+occasion, she reproached the Maréchale de Mirepoix for going to see
+Mme. de Pompadour, and in the heat of argument said: "Why, she
+is nothing but the first _fille_ (mistress) of the kingdom!" The
+maréchale replied: "Do not force me to count even unto three" (Mme.
+de Pompadour, Mlle. Marquise, Mme. de Boufflers). In those days,
+the position of mistress of an important man attracted little more
+attention than might a petty, trivial, light-hearted flirtation
+nowadays.
+
+After the death of M. de Boufflers, in 1764, the all-absorbing
+question of society, and one of vital importance to madame, was, Will
+the prince marry her? If not, will she continue to be his mistress? In
+this critical period, Hume showed his friendship and true sympathy
+by giving Mme. de Boufflers most persuasive and practical advice in
+reference to morals--which she did not follow. Her relations
+with Rousseau showed her capable of the deepest and most profound
+friendship and sympathy. According to Sainte-Beuve, it was she who,
+by aid of her friends in England, procured asylum for him with Hume at
+Wootton. When Rousseau's rashness brought on the quarrel which set in
+commotion and agitated the intellectual circles of both continents,
+Mme. de Boufflers took his part and remained faithful to him, securing
+a place for him in the Château de Trie, which belonged to the Prince
+de Conti.
+
+All who came in contact with her recognized the distinction, elevation
+of _esprit_, and sentiment of Mme. de Boufflers. With her are
+associated the greatest names of the time; being perfectly at home
+on all the political questions of the day, she was better able to
+converse upon these subjects than was any other woman of the time.
+When in 1762 she visited England, she was lionized everywhere. She was
+fêted at court and in the city, and all conversation was upon the one
+subject, that of her presence, which was one of the important events
+of London life. Everyone was anxious to see the famous woman, the
+first of rank to visit England in two hundred years. She even received
+some special attention from the eccentric Samuel Johnson, in this
+manner: "Horace Walpole had taken the countess to call on Johnson.
+After the conventional time of a formal call had expired, they left,
+and were halfway down stairs, when it dawned upon Johnson that it was
+his duty, as host, to pay the honors of his literary residence to a
+foreign lady of quality; to show himself gallant, he jumped down from
+the top of the stairway, and, all agitation, seized the hand of the
+countess and conducted her to her carriage."
+
+No woman at court had more friends and fewer enemies than did Mme. de
+Boufflers, because "she united to the gifts of nature and the culture
+of _esprit_ an amiable simplicity, charming graces, a goodness,
+kindness, and sensibility, which made her forget herself always and
+constantly seek to aid those about her." She made use of her influence
+over the prince in such ways as would, in a measure, recompense for
+her fault, and thus recommended herself by her good actions. She was
+the soul of his salon, "Le Temple." The love of these two people,
+through its intimacy and public display, through its constancy,
+happiness, and decency, dissipated all scandal. Always cheerful
+and pleased to amuse, knowing how to pay attention to all, always
+rewarding the bright remarks of others with a smile, which all sought
+as a mark of approbation, no one ever wished her any ill fortune.
+
+The last days of the Prince de Conti were cheered by the presence of
+Mme. de Boufflers and the friends whom she gathered about him to help
+bear his illness. The letter to her from Hume, on his deathbed, is
+most pathetic, showing the influence of this woman and the nature of
+the impression she left upon her friends:
+
+"Edinburgh, 20th of August, 1776.
+
+"Although I am certainly within a few weeks, dear Madame, and perhaps
+within a few days, of my own death, I could not forbear being struck
+with the death of the Prince of Conti--so great a loss in every
+particular. My reflection carried me immediately to your situation in
+this melancholy incident. What a difference to you in your whole plan
+of life! Pray write me some particulars, but in such terms that you
+need not care, in case of my decease, into whose hands your letter may
+fall.... My distemper is a diarrhoea or disorder in my bowels, which
+has been gradually undermining me for these two years, but within
+these six months has been visibly hastening me to my end. I see death
+approach gradually, without any anxiety or regret. I salute you with
+great affection and regard, for the last time.
+
+"David Hume."
+
+Hume died five days after this letter was written.
+
+The last years of her life she spent with her daughter-in-law, at
+Auteuil, where she lived a happy life and received the best society of
+Paris. When she died or under what circumstances is not known. During
+the Revolution she lived in obscurity, busying herself with charitable
+work; she was one of the few women of the nobility to escape the
+guillotine, "This woman, who had kept the intellectual world alive
+with her _esprit_ and goodness, of a sudden vanishes like a star from
+the horizon; she lives on, unnoticed by everyone, and, in that new
+society, no one misses her or regrets her death."
+
+In order to fully appreciate the mistress of the eighteenth century,
+her power and influence, her rise to popularity and social standing,
+the general and accepted idea and nature of the sentiment called love
+must be explained; for it was to the peculiar development of that
+emotion that the mistress owed her fortune.
+
+In the eighteenth century love became a theory, a cult; it developed a
+language of its own. In the preceding age love was declared, it spoke,
+it was a virtue of grandeur and generosity, of courage and delicacy,
+exacting all proofs of decency and gallantry, patient efforts,
+respect, vows, discretion, and reciprocal affection. The ideal was
+one of heroism, nobleness, and bravery. In the eighteenth century this
+ideal became mere desire; love became voluptuousness, which was to be
+found in art, music, styles, fashions--in everything. Woman herself
+was nothing more than the embodiment of voluptuousness; it made her
+what she was, directing and fashioning her. Every movement she
+made, every garment she wore, all the care she applied to her
+appearance--all breathed this _volupté_.
+
+In paintings it was found in impure images, coquettish immodesties, in
+couples embraced in the midst of flowers, in scenes of tenderness:
+all these representations were hung in the rooms of young girls, above
+their beds. They grew up to know _volupté_, and, when old enough, they
+longed for it. It was useless for women to try to escape its power,
+and chastity naturally disappeared under these temptations. The young
+girl inherited the impure instincts of the mother, and, when matured,
+was ready and eager for all that could enchant and gratify the senses.
+
+True domestic friendship and intimacy were rare, because the husband
+given to a young girl had passed through a long list of mistresses,
+and talked--from experience--gallant confidences which took away the
+veil of illusion. She was immediately taken into society, where she
+became familiar with the spicy proverbs and the salty prologues of
+the theatre, where supposedly decent women were present, in curtained
+boxes. At the suppers and dinners, by songs and plays, at the
+gatherings where held forth Duclos and others like him, in the midst
+of champagne, _ivresse d'esprit_, and eloquence, she was taught and
+saw the corruption of society and marriage, the disrespect to modesty;
+in such an atmosphere all trace of innocence was destroyed. She was
+taught that faithfulness to a husband belonged only to the people,
+that it was an evidence of stupidity. Manners, customs, and even
+religion were against the preservation of innocence and purity; and in
+this depravity the abbés were the leaders.
+
+Such conditions were dangerous and disastrous not to young girls
+only, they affected the young men also; the latter, amidst this
+social demoralization, developed their evil tendencies, and, in a few
+generations, there was formed a Paris completely debauched. Love meant
+nothing more elevated than desire; for man, the paramount idea was
+to have or possess; for woman, to capture. There was no longer any
+mystery, any secret; the lover left his carriage at the door of
+his love, as if to publish his good fortune; he regularly made his
+appearance at her house, at the hour of the toilette, at dinner and at
+all the fêtes; the public announcement of the liaison was made at the
+theatre when he sat in her box.
+
+There came a period when so-called love fell so low that woman no
+longer questioned a man's birth, rank, or condition, and vice versa,
+as long as he or she was in demand; a successful man had nearly every
+woman of prominence at his feet. The men planned their attacks upon
+the women whom they desired, and the women connived, posed, and set
+most ingenious traps and devised most extraordinary means to captivate
+their hero. As the century wore on and the vices and appetites
+gradually consumed the healthy tissues, there sprang up a class of
+monsters, most accomplished _roués_, consummate leaders of theoretical
+and practical immorality, who were without conscience. To gain their
+ends, they manipulated every medium--valets, chambermaids, scandal,
+charity; their one object was to dishonor woman.
+
+Women were no better; "a natural falseness, an acquired dissimulation,
+a profound observation, a lie without flinching, a penetrating eye,
+a domination of the senses--to these they owed their faculties and
+qualities so much feared at the time, and which made them professional
+and consummate politicians and ministers. Along with their gallantry,
+they possessed a calmness, a tone of liberty, a cynicism; these were
+their weapons and deadly ones they were to the man at whom they were
+aimed."
+
+There were, in this century, superior women in whom was exhibited a
+high form of love, but who realized that perfect love was impossible
+in their age; yet they desired to be loved in an intense and
+legitimate manner. This phase of womanhood is well represented by
+Mlle. Aïssé and Mlle. de Lespinasse, both of whom felt an irresistible
+need of loving; they proclaimed their love and not only showed
+themselves to be capable of loving and of intense suffering, but
+proved themselves worthy of love which, in its highest form, they felt
+to be an unknown quantity at that time. Their love became a constant
+inspiration, a model of devotion, almost a transfiguration of passion.
+These women were products of the time; they had to be, to
+compensate for the general sterility and barrenness, to equalize the
+inequalities, and to pay the tribute of vice and debauch.
+
+All the customs of the age were arrayed against pure womanhood and
+offered it nothing but temptation. Inasmuch as the husband belonged
+to court and to war more than to domestic felicity, he left his wife
+alone for long periods. The husbands themselves seemed actually to
+enjoy the infidelity of their wives and were often intimate friends of
+their wives' lovers; and it was no rare thing that when the wife found
+no pleasure in lovers, she did not concern herself about her husband's
+mistresses (unless they were intolerably disagreeable to her), often
+advising the mistress as to the best method of winning her husband.
+
+It must be admitted that this separation in marriage, this reciprocity
+of liberty, this absolute tolerance, was not a phase of the eighteenth
+century marriage, but was the very character of it. In earlier times,
+in the sixteenth century, infidelity was counted as such and caused
+trouble in the household. If the husband abused his privileges, the
+wife was obliged to bear the insult in silence, being helpless to
+avenge it. If she imitated his actions, it was under the gravest
+dangers to her own life and that of her lover. The honor of the
+husband was closely attached to the virtue of the wife; thus, if
+he sought diversion elsewhere, and his wife fell victim to the
+fascinations of another, he was ridiculed. Marriage was but an
+external bond; in the eighteenth century, it was a bond only as long
+as husband and wife had affection for one another; when that no
+longer existed, they frankly told each other and sought that emotion
+elsewhere; they ceased to be lovers and became friends.
+
+A very fertile source of so much unfaithfulness was the frequent
+marriage of a ruined nobleman to a girl of fortune, but without rank.
+Giving her his name was the only moral obligation; the marriage over
+and the dowry portion settled, he pursued his way, considering that
+he owed her no further duty. Very frequently, the husband, overcome by
+jealousy or humiliated by the low standard of his wife who injured or
+brought ridicule upon his name, would have her kidnapped and taken
+to a convent. This right was enjoyed by the husband in spite of the
+general liberty of woman. A letters-patent was obtained through proof
+of adultery, and the wife was imprisoned in some convent for the rest
+of her life, being deprived of her dowry which fell to her husband.
+
+At one time, the great ambition of woman was to procure a legal
+separation--an ambition which seems to have developed into a fad,
+for at one period there were over three hundred applicants for legal
+separation, a state of affairs which so frightened Parliament that
+it passed rigid laws. A striking contrast to this was the custom
+connected with mourning. At the death of the husband, the wife wore
+mourning, her entire establishment, with every article of interior
+furnishing, was draped in the sombre hue; she no longer went out and
+her house was open only to relatives and those who came to pay visits
+of condolence. Unless she married again, she remained in mourning all
+her life; but it should not be understood that the veil concealed her
+coquetry or prevented her from enjoying her liberty and planning her
+future. Then, as to-day, there were many examples of fanaticism and
+folly; one widow would endeavor to commit suicide; another lived with
+the figure of her husband in wax; another conversed, for several
+hours of the day, with the shade of her husband; others consecrated
+themselves to the church.
+
+This all-supreme sway of love and its attributes, left its impression
+and lasting effect upon the physiognomy of the mistress; in the early
+part of the century, the mistress was chosen from the respectable
+aristocracy and the nobility; gradually, however, the limits of
+selection were extended until they included the _bourgeoisie_ and,
+finally, the offspring of the common _femme du peuple_. A woman
+from any profession, from any stratum of society, by her charm and
+intelligence, her original discoveries and inventions of debauch
+and licentiousness, could easily become the heroine of the day, the
+goddess of society, the goal and aspiration of the used-up _roués_
+of the aristocracy. Under Louis XIV., such popularity was an
+impossibility to a woman of that sort, but society under the Regency
+seemed to have awakened from the torpor and gloom of the later years
+of the monarchy to a reign of unrestrained gayety and vice.
+
+The first woman to infect the social atmosphere of the nobility with a
+new form of extravagance and licentiousness was Adrienne Le Couvreur,
+who was the heroine of the day during the first years of the Regency.
+She was the daughter of a hatter, who had gone to Paris about 1702;
+while employed as a laundress, she often gave proof of the possession
+of remarkable dramatic genius by her performances at private
+theatricals. In 1717, through the influence of the great actor Baron,
+she made her appearance at the Comédie Française; the reappearance of
+that favorite with Adrienne Le Couvreur as companion, in the plays of
+Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire, reëstablished the popularity of the
+French theatre. Adrienne immediately became a favorite with the titled
+class, was frequently present at Mme. de Lambert's, gave the most
+sumptuous suppers herself, and was compelled to repulse lovers of the
+highest nobility.
+
+Her principal lovers were Voltaire, whom she nursed through smallpox,
+spending many hours in reading to him, and Maurice of Saxony; she had
+children of whom the latter was the father, and it was she who, by
+selling her plate and jewelry, supplied him with forty thousand francs
+in order to enable him to equip his soldiers when he proposed to
+recover the principality of Courland. She was generous to prodigality;
+but when she died, the Church refused to grant consecrated ground for
+the reception of her remains, although it condescended to accept her
+munificent gift of a hundred thousand francs to charity. Her death was
+said to have been caused by her rival, the Duchesse de Bouillon,
+by means of poisoned pastilles administered by a young abbé. In
+the night, her body was carried by two street porters to the Rue de
+Bourgogne, where it was buried. Voltaire, in great indignation at
+such injustice, wrote his stinging poem _La Mort de Mademoiselle Le
+Couvreur_, which was the cause of his being again obliged to leave
+Paris.
+
+The popularity of the Comédie Française declined after the deaths of
+Baron and Adrienne Le Couvreur, until the appearance of Mlle. Clairon,
+who was one of the greatest actresses of France. Born in Flanders in
+1723, at a very early age she had wandered about the provinces, from
+theatre to theatre, with itinerant troupes, winning a great reputation
+at Rouen. In 1738 the leading actresses were Mlle. Quinault, who
+had retired to enjoy her immense fortune in private life, and Mlle.
+Dumesnil, the great _tragédienne_. When Mlle. Clairon received an
+offer to play alternately with the favorite, Mlle. Dumesnil, she
+selected as her opening part _Phèdre_, the _rôle de triomphe_ of her
+rival.
+
+The appearance of a débutante was an event, and its announcement
+brought out a large crowd; the presumption of a provincial artist
+in selecting a rôle in which to rival a great favorite had excited
+general ridicule, and an unusually large audience had assembled,
+expecting to witness an ignominious failure. Mlle. Clairon's stately
+figure, the dignity and grace of her carriage, "her finely chiselled
+features, her noble brow, her air of command, her clear, deep,
+impassioned voice," made an immediate impression upon the audience.
+She was unanimously acknowledged as superior to Mlle. Dumesnil, and
+the entire social and literary world hastened to do her homage.
+
+Mlle. Clairon did as much for the theatre as did Adrienne Le Couvreur,
+especially in discarding, in her _Phèdre_, the plumes, spangles, the
+panier, the frippery, which had been the customary equipments of that
+rôle. She and Lecain, the prominent actor of the day, introduced the
+custom of wearing the proper costume of the characters represented.
+The grace and dignity of her stage presence caused her to be sought
+by the great ladies, who took lessons in her famous courtesy _grande
+révérence_, which was later supplanted by the courtesy of Mme. de
+Pompadour.
+
+Mlle. Clairon became the recipient of great favors and honors, her
+most prominent slave being Marmontel, to whom she had given a room in
+her hôtel after Mme. Geoffrin had withdrawn from him the privilege of
+occupying an apartment in her spacious establishment. She contributed
+largely to the success of his plays, as well as to those of Voltaire,
+whom she visited at Ferney, performing in his private theatre. Her
+success was uninterrupted until she declined to play, in the _Siège de
+Calais_, with an actor who had been guilty of dishonesty; she was then
+thrown into prison, and refused to reappear. When about fifty years of
+age she became the mistress of the Margrave of Ansbach, at whose court
+she resided for eighteen years. In 1791 she returned to Paris, where,
+poor and forgotten, she died in 1803.
+
+An actress or a singer who left a greater reputation through her wit,
+the promptness and malignity of her repartee, and her extravagance,
+than through her voice was Sophie Arnould, the pupil of Mlle. Clairon.
+She was the daughter of an innkeeper; her first success was won
+through her charming figure and her flexible voice. Some of the ladies
+attached to the court of Louis XV., having heard her sing at evening
+service during Passion week, had induced the royal chapel master to
+employ her in the choir. There, and by the warm eulogies of Marmontel
+during one of his toilette visits to Mme. de Pompadour, the attention
+of the _maîtresse-en-titre_ was called to her beauty and vocal charm.
+
+Her début was made with unusual success, but she afterward eloped with
+the Comte de Lauraguais, who had made a wager that he could win the
+beautiful artist. After her reappearance at Paris her career became a
+long series of dissipations and unprecedented extravagances. She was
+as witty as she was licentious, and many of her _bons mots_ have been
+collected. It was she who characterized the great Necker and Choiseul,
+on being shown a box containing their portraits: "That is receipt and
+expenditure"--the credit and debit. She was one of the few prominent
+women who died in favor and in comfortable circumstances.
+
+The lowest and most depraved of this licentious class of women was
+Mlle. La Guimard, the legitimate daughter of a factory inspector of
+cloth. In 1758 she entered the opera as a ballet girl, but very
+little is known of her during the first years of her career except in
+connection with her numerous lovers. In about 1768 she was living in
+most sumptuous style, her extravagances being paid for by two lovers,
+the Prince de Soubise, her _amant utile_, and the farmer-general, M.
+de La Borde, her _amant honoraire_.
+
+At this period she gave three suppers weekly: one for all the great
+lords at court and of distinction; the second for authors, scholars,
+and artists; the third being a supper of _débauchées_, the most
+seductive and lascivious girls of the opera; at the last function,
+luxury and debauch were carried to unknown extremes. At her
+superb country home, "Pantin," she gave private performances, the
+magnificence of which was unprecedented and admission to which was an
+honor as eagerly sought as was that of attendance at Versailles.
+
+There was another side to the nature of Mlle. La Guimard: during the
+terrible cold of the winter of 1768, she went about alone visiting the
+poor and needy, distributing food and clothing purchased with the six
+thousand livres given her by her lover, the Prince de Soubise, as
+a New Year's gift. Her charity became so general that people of all
+professions and classes went to her for assistance--actors and artists
+to borrow the money with which to pay their debts, officers with the
+same object in view. To one of the latter to whom she had just lent a
+hundred louis and who was about to sign a note, she said: "Sir, your
+word is sufficient. I imagine that an officer will have as much honor
+as _fille d'opéra_."
+
+Her performances at "Pantin" and her luxurious mode of life required
+more money than the two lovers were able to supply; therefore, another
+was accepted in the person of the Bishop of Orléans, Monseigneur de
+Jarente, who supplied her with money and other necessaries. In 1771
+she decided to build a hôtel with an elegant theatre which would
+comfortably seat five hundred people. The opening of this Temple de
+Terpsichore was the great event of the year (1772). All the nobility
+was there, even the princes of the blood, and the "delicious licenses
+of the presentation were fully enjoyed by those who were fortunate
+enough to obtain admission."
+
+Her costumes were of such taste and became so renowned that Marie
+Antoinette consulted her in reference to her own wonderful inventions;
+the dresses became known as the _Robe à la La Guimard_. Inasmuch as
+the management of the Opéra supplied all gowns, the expense for this
+one artist was enormous, in 1779 amounting to thirty thousand livres
+for dresses alone. In 1785, being in financial straits, she sold
+her hôtel on the Rue Chaussée-d'Antin by lottery, two thousand five
+hundred tickets at one hundred and twenty livres each. None of the
+salons of Paris could compare with hers in the "costliness of the
+crystal and the plate of her table service, in the taste and elegance
+of her floral decorations--choice exotics obtained from a distance,
+regardless of expense."
+
+After appearing at the Haymarket Opera House in London in 1789,
+Mlle. La Guimard decided to retire to private life, and married M.
+Despréaux, the ballet master, fifteen years her junior. During the
+Revolution the government ceased to pay pensions, and as she had
+saved very little of her wealth the two lived in the most straitened
+circumstances. Her fate was similar to that of the average woman of
+pleasure--forgotten, half-witted, stooping to any act of indecency to
+gain a few sous.
+
+Such were the principal heroines of the stage, opera, and ballet; they
+were in harmony with the general state of that depraved society of
+which they were natural products; transitory lights that shone for but
+a short space of time, consumed by their own sensuous instinct, they
+were forgotten with death. The royal mistresses lived the same life
+and followed the same ideals, but exerted a greater and more lasting
+influence in the state.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XI
+
+Royal Mistresses
+
+
+In the study of the royal mistresses of the eighteenth century,
+we encounter two in particular,--Mme. de Pompadour and Mme. du
+Barry,--who, though totally different types of women, both reflect the
+gradual decline of ideals and morals in the first and last years of
+the reign of Louis XV. The former dominated the king by means of her
+intelligence, but the latter swayed the sovereign, already consumed by
+his sensual excesses, through her peculiarly seductive sensuality.
+
+During the first years of the reign of Louis XV., one of the most
+influential women was Mme. de Prie, who brought about the marriage of
+the king to Marie Leczinska, the daughter of the King of Poland, by
+which manoeuvre she made herself _Dame de Palais de la Reine_. The
+queen naturally took her and her husband into favor, regarding them
+as her and her father's benefactors and as entitled to her warmest
+gratitude. Mme. de Prie succeeded in winning the queen's affection
+and confidence; however, these were of little value, inasmuch as the
+queen's influence upon society and morals was not felt, for she led
+a life of seclusion, shut up in her oratory and constantly on her
+_prie-dieu_, and was an object of pity and ridicule.
+
+Mme. de Prie and M. le Duc, having planned to deprive M. Fleury, the
+minister, of his power,--he had been the king's preceptor,--suddenly
+had the tables turned against them. Both were exiled, and a new
+coterie of ladies came into power; the Duchesse d'Alincourt replaced
+Mme. de Prie, and the king and M. Fleury themselves took up the
+affairs of state.
+
+M. Fleury, now cardinal, perceiving that a mistress was inevitable,
+consented to the choice by the dissolute men and women of court
+of Mme. de Mailly,--or Mlle. de Nesle,--who was supposed to be a
+disinterested person. The king, who had no love for her, accepted her
+as he would have accepted anything put before him by the court. The
+queen was incapable of exerting any beneficial influence upon him; in
+fact, the more he became alienated from her, the more humble and timid
+did she appear when in his presence. The reign of Mlle. de Nesle had
+lasted less than a year, when the beautiful Mme. de La Tournelle,
+created Duchesse de Châteauroux, replaced her; the latter lived but
+a short time, being the second mistress of Louis XV. to die within a
+year. After her death the king raised the beautiful Mme. d'Etioles
+to the honor of _maîtresse-en-titre_; she, as Mme. de Pompadour, was,
+without doubt, the most prominent, possibly the most intelligent and
+intellectual, certainly the most powerful, of all French mistresses.
+It was the first time that a _bourgeoise_ of the financier class
+had usurped the position of mistress--that honor having belonged
+exclusively to the nobility.
+
+After the first infidelities of the king, Marie Leczinska's life
+became more and more austere and secluded; she remained indoors, far
+from the noise and activity of Versailles, leaving only for charitable
+purposes or for the theatre. Her mornings were entirely occupied in
+prayers and moral readings, after which followed a visit to the king,
+a little painting, the toilette, mass, and dinner. After dinner,
+she retired to her apartments and passed the time making tapestry,
+embroidering, and in charity work--no longer the recreation of
+leisure, but the duty of charity which the poor expected. Her taste
+for music, the guitar, the clavecin, all amusements in which
+she delighted before her marriage, were abandoned. Under such
+circumstances the mistress had full control of everything.
+
+It was prophesied of Mlle. Jeanne Poisson, at the age of nine, that
+she would become the mistress of Louis XV. (Mme. Lebon, who made this
+pleasing prediction, was later rewarded with a pension of six hundred
+livres.) Mlle. Jeanne was the natural daughter of a butcher, but
+received a good education and, at the age of twenty, was married to Le
+Normand d'Etioles, farmer of taxes. It was shortly after this that
+she managed to attract the king's attention, at a hunting party in
+the forest of Senart. With the assistance of her friends, she was
+successful in winning the king, and, in April, 1754, at a supper which
+lasted far into the early morning, reposing in his arms, she virtually
+became the mistress of Louis XV. The actual accomplishment of this,
+however, depended upon the disposal of her husband, which was easily
+arranged by Louis, who ordered Le Normand d'Etioles from Paris, thus
+securing her from any harm from him. The brothers De Goncourt write
+thus of her talents:
+
+"Marvellous aptitudes, a scholarly and rare education, had given to
+this young woman all the gifts and virtues that made of a woman what
+the eighteenth century called a virtuoso, an accomplished model of
+the seductions of her time. Jeliotte had taught her singing and the
+clavecin; Guibaudet, dancing; Crébillon had taught her declamation and
+the art of diction; the friends of Crébillon had formed her young mind
+to _finesse_, to delicacies, to lightness of sentiment, and to irony
+of the _esprit_ of the time. All the talents of grace seemed to be
+united in her. No woman mounted a horse better; none captured applause
+more quickly than did she with her voice and instrument; none recalled
+in a better way the tone of Gaussin or the accent of Clairon; none
+could tell a story better. And there where others could vie with her
+in coquetry, she carried off the honors by her genius of toilette, by
+the graceful turn she gave to a mere rag, by the air she imparted to
+a mere nothing which ornamented her, by the characteristic signature
+which her taste gave to everything she wore."
+
+To please and charm, Mme. d'Etioles had a complexion of the most
+striking whiteness, lips somewhat pale, and eyes of an indescribable
+color in which were blended and compounded the seduction of black
+eyes, the seduction of blue eyes. She had magnificent chestnut hair,
+ravishing teeth, and the most delicious smile which "hollowed her
+cheeks into two dimples which the engraving of _La Jardinière_ shows;
+she had a medium-sized and round waist, perfect hands, a play
+of gestures lively and passionate throughout, and, above all, a
+physiognomy of a mobility, of a changeableness, of a marvellous
+animation, wherein the soul of the woman passed ceaselessly, and
+which, constantly in process of change, showed in turn an impassioned
+and imperious tenderness, a noble seriousness, or roguish graces."
+
+In September, 1745, she was formally presented to the queen and
+court as the Marquise de Pompadour, and, in October, was installed
+at Fontainebleau in the apartments formerly occupied by Mme. de
+Châteauroux, who had just died. Her position was not an easy one,
+for all the superb jealousy and hateful scorn which the aristocracy
+cherished against the power and wealth of the _bourgeoisie_ were
+turned against her; but the court scandal-mongers and intriguers found
+their match in Mme. de Pompadour, who showed herself so superior
+in every respect to the court ladies that the hostilities gradually
+ceased, but not until the public itself had expended all its efforts
+against this upstart.
+
+Her first move was to surround herself with friends, the first of whom
+she wisely sought in the queen. Paying her every possible attention,
+she persuaded the king to show her more consideration. The Prince
+de Conti, the Paris brothers, and others of the great financiers of
+France were added to her circle. After this she began her rule as
+first minister, in place of the dead Fleury, by giving places and
+pensions to her favorites. The reign of economy and domestic morality
+came to an end with the accession of Mme. de Pompadour; in fact, it
+was soon generally considered that those upon whom she did not shower
+favors were her enemies. At this time the nobility of France was too
+corrupt to raise any serious objections to the dispensing of favors by
+the _maîtresse-en-titre_, whether she were of noble birth or not.
+
+As mistress, her duties were many: to manipulate and manage
+Versailles, please and captivate the king, make allies, win over the
+highest officials and keep control of them, put her own friends in
+office, attach to her favor every man of prominence,--princes and
+ministers,--keep in touch with the court, appease, humor, and win the
+honor of the courtiers, "attach consciences, recompense capitulations,
+organize about the mistress an emulation of devotion and servility by
+means of prodigality of the favors of the king and the money of the
+state; but what was a more burdensome task,--she must occupy the king,
+aid and agitate him, fight off constantly, from day to day and hour to
+hour, ennui."
+
+This terrible ennui, indifference, enervation, this lazy and splenetic
+humor of the king, she succeeded in distracting, in soothing, and
+amusing. She understood him perfectly--therein lie the great secret
+of the favor of Mme. de Pompadour and the great reason of her long
+domination which only death could end. She had the patience and
+genius to soothe the many ills of the monarch, possessing an intuitive
+understanding of his moral temperament, and a complete comprehension
+of his nervous sensibility; these gifts were a science with her and
+enabled her to keep alive his taste for and enjoyment of life. Mme.
+de Pompadour is said to have taken possession of the very existence of
+Louis XV.
+
+"She appropriates and kills his time, robs him of the monotony of
+hours, draws him through a thousand pastimes in this eternity of ennui
+between morning and night, never abandoning him for a minute, not
+permitting him to fall back upon himself. She takes him away from
+work, disputes him to the ministers, hides him from the ambassadors.
+In his face must not be seen a cloud or the slightest trace of care of
+affairs; to Maurepas, in the act of reading some reports to the king,
+she says: 'Come now, M. de Maurepas, you turn the king yellow....
+Adieu, M. de Maurepas'; and Maurepas gone, she takes the king, she
+smiles upon the lover, she cheers the man."
+
+In 1747, two years after her installation, she interested the king in
+a theatre, and inaugurated the famous representations at the Théâtre
+des Petits Appartements; she herself was one of its best actresses,
+singers, and musicians. All the members of the nobility vied with one
+another in procuring admission to these performances, as auditors or
+actors. Her contemporaries say that she was without a rival in acting,
+for in that art she found opportunity to show her vivacity, her
+_esprit_ of tone, and her malice of expression, the effect of which
+was heightened by her voice, graceful figure, and tasteful attire,
+which became the envy of every court lady.
+
+Almost all rising young artists and men of letters were encouraged or
+pensioned by Mme. de Pompadour. Her salon would have become one of
+the most distinguished of the period, as she was, herself, the most
+remarkably talented and beautiful woman of her time, had not lack
+of moral principles and an intense love of power led her to seek the
+gratification of her ambitions in the much envied position of mistress
+of the king. To assist at her toilette became a favor more eagerly
+desired than presence at the _petit lever_ of the king. The court
+became more brilliant, the middle class rose, the prestige of the
+nobility declined; the last became, in general, but a crowd of
+_cordons bleus_, eager to claim the favor of any of her protégés.
+Every noble house offered a daughter in marriage to her brother, whom
+she made _intendant_ of public buildings, and who looked with much
+displeasure upon the actions of his sister.
+
+Mme. de Pompadour made a thorough study of the politics of Europe in
+relation to the affairs of the nation--a proceeding in which she
+was aided by her extraordinary intelligence, acute perception of
+difficulties and conditions, domestic and foreign; by the exercise of
+these qualities, she put herself in touch with the politics of France,
+always consulting the best of minds and winning many friends among
+them. In 1749 she succeeded in ridding herself of her pronounced
+enemy, Maurepas, minister and confidential adviser of the king, and
+subsequently began her reign as absolute mistress and governor of
+France.
+
+Her life then became one of constant labor, which gradually undermined
+her health. Appreciating the mental indolence of Louis, she would
+place before him a clear and succinct résumé of all important
+questions of state affairs, which she, better than any other, knew
+how to present without wearying him. Realizing that her power depended
+upon her influence over the king, and that she was surrounded by men
+and women who were simply waiting for a favorable opportunity to cause
+her downfall, she was constantly on the defensive. She considered it
+"the business of her life to make her yoke so easy and pleasant, and
+from habit so necessary to him, that an effort to shake it off would
+be an effort that would cause him real pain." Her happiest hours--for
+she did not love the king--were those spent with her brother, the
+Marquis de Marigny, in the midst of artists, musicians, and men of
+letters.
+
+As for the queen, she was in the background, absolutely. "All the
+prerogatives of a princess of a sovereign house were, at this time,
+about 1750, conferred by the king upon Mme. de Pompadour, and all
+the pomp and parade then deemed indispensable to rank so exalted were
+fully assumed by her." At the opera, she had her _loge_ with the king,
+her tribune at the chapel of Versailles where she heard mass, her
+servants were of the nobility, her carriage had the ducal arms, her
+etiquette was that of Mme. de Montespan, Her father was ennobled to De
+Marigny, her brother to be Marquis de Vandières. The marriage of her
+daughter to a son of the king and his former mistress was planned,
+then with a son of Richelieu, then with others of the nobility;
+fortunately, the girl died.
+
+Mme. de Pompadour gradually amassed a royal fortune, buying the
+magnificent estate of Crécy for six hundred and fifty thousand livres;
+"La Celle," near Versailles, for twenty-six thousand livres; the Hôtel
+d'Evreaux, at Paris, for seventy-five thousand livres--and these were
+her minor expenses; her paintings, sculpture, china, pottery, etc.,
+cost France over thirty-six million livres. Her imagination in art and
+inventions was wonderful; she retouched and decorated the château
+in which she was received by the king; she made "Choisy"--the king's
+property--her own, as it were, by all the embellishments she ordered
+and the expenditures which her lover lavished upon it at her request.
+All the luxuries of the life at "Choisy," all the refinements even to
+the smallest detail, had their origin in her inventions. It was she
+who planned the fairy château with its wonderful furniture, her own
+invention.
+
+At that time, her whole life was spent in adding variety to the life
+of the king and in distracting the ennui which pursued him. In her
+retreats she affected the simplicity of country life; the gardens
+contained sheepfolds and were free from the pomp of the conventional
+French gardens; there were cradles of myrtle and jasmine, rosebushes,
+rustic hiding places, statues of Cupid, and fields of jonquils filled
+the air with the most intoxicating perfume. There she amused her
+sovereign by appearing in various characters and acting the parts--now
+a royal personage, now a gardener's maid.
+
+However, in spite of all cunning study of the sensuous nature of
+the king, in spite of this perpetual enchantment of his senses,
+this favorite was obliged to fight for her power every minute of her
+existence. If hers were a conquest, it was a laborious one, held only
+through ceaseless activity; continual brainwork, all the countermoves
+and manoeuvres of the courtesan, were required to keep Mme. de
+Pompadour seated in this position, which was surrounded by snares and
+dangers.
+
+To possess the time of the king, occupy his enemies, soothe his
+fatigue, arouse his wearied body condemned to a milk diet, to preserve
+her beauty--all these were the least of her tasks. She must be ever
+watchful, see evil in every smile, danger in every success, divine
+secret plots, be on guard to resist the court, the royal family,
+the ministry. For her there was no moment of repose: even during
+the effusions of love she must act the spy upon the king, and, with
+presence of mind and calmness, must seek in the deceitful face of the
+man the secrets of the master.
+
+Every morning witnessed the opening of a new comedy: a gay smile,
+a tranquil brow, a light song, must ever disguise the mind's
+preoccupation and all the machinations of her fertile brain. At one
+time the Comte d'Argenson, desiring to succeed Fleury as minister,
+almost arrived at supplanting Mme. de Pompadour by young Mme. de
+Choiseul, who, having charmed the king on one occasion, obtained
+from him a promise that he would make her his mistress--which would
+necessitate desertion of Mme. de Pompadour; but, by the natural
+charms of which age had not robbed her and by bringing all her past
+experience into play, Mme. de Pompadour once more scored a triumph and
+remained the actual minister to the king. All this nervous strain was
+gradually killing her, and, to overcome her physical weakness, her
+weary senses, her frigid disposition, she resorted to artificial
+stimulants to keep her blood at the boiling point and enable her to
+satisfy the phlegmatic king.
+
+Undoubtedly the most disgraceful act of this all-powerful woman
+was the maintaining of a house of pleasure for the king, to which
+establishment she allured some of the most beautiful girls of the
+nobility, as well as of the _bourgeoisie_. These young women supposed
+that they were being supported by a wealthy nobleman; their children
+were given a pension of from three thousand to twelve thousand livres,
+and the mother received one hundred thousand francs and was sent to
+the provinces to marry; a father and mother were easily bought for the
+child. Thus was this clandestine trade carried on by those two--the
+king satisfying his utter depravity, and Mme. de Pompadour making
+herself all the more secure against a possible rival.
+
+All this time her active brain was ever planning for higher honors
+and greater power. She aspired to becoming _dame de palais_, but as an
+excommunicated soul, a woman living in flagrant violation of the laws
+of morality and separated from her husband, she could not receive
+absolution from the Church, in spite of her intriguing to that effect.
+She did succeed, however, in influencing the king to make her lady
+of honor to the queen; therefore, in gorgeous robes, she was ever
+afterward present at all court functions.
+
+She began to patronize the great men of the day, to make of them her
+debtors, pension them, lodge them in the Palais d'Etat, secure them
+from prison, and to place them in the Academy. Voltaire became her
+favorite, and she made of him an Academician, historiographer of
+France, ordinary gentleman of the chamber, with permission to sell
+his charge and to retain the title and privileges. For these favors he
+thanked her in the following poem:
+
+          "Ainsi donc vous réunissez
+  Tous les arts, tous les goûts, tous les talents de plaire;
+          Pompadour vous embellissez
+          La Cour, le Parnasse et Cythère,
+  Charme de tous les coeurs, trésor d'un seul mortel,
+          Qu'un sort si beau soit éternel!"
+
+[Thus you unite all the arts, all the tastes, all the talents, of
+pleasing; Pompadour, you embellish the court, Parnassus, and Cythera.
+Charm of all hearts, treasure of one mortal, may a lot so beautiful be
+eternal!]
+
+Voltaire dedicated his _Tancrède_ to her; in fact, his influence and
+favor were so great that he was about to receive an invitation to
+the _petits soupers_ of the king, when the nobility rose up in arms
+against him, and, as Louis XV. disliked him, the coveted honor was
+never attained. To Crébillon, who had given her elocution lessons
+in her early days and who was now in want, she gave a pension of
+a hundred louis and quarters at the Louvre. Buffon, Montesquieu,
+Marmontel, and many other men of note were taken under her protection.
+
+It was Mme. de Pompadour who founded, supported, and encouraged a
+national china factory; the French owe Sèvres to her, for its
+artists were complimented and inspired by her inveterate zeal, her
+persistency, her courage, and were assisted by her money. She brought
+it into favor, established exhibits, sold and eulogized the ware
+herself, until it became a favorite. Also, through her management and
+zeal the Military School was founded.
+
+The disasters of the Seven Years' War are all charged to Mme. de
+Pompadour. The motive which caused her to decide in favor of an
+alliance with Austria against Frederick the Great was a personal
+desire for revenge; the latter monarch had dubbed her "Cotillon IV,"
+and had rather scorned her, refusing to have anything to do with a
+Mlle. de Poisson, "especially as she is arrogant and lacks the respect
+due to crowned heads." The flattering propositions of the Austrian
+ambassador, Kaunitz, who treated with her in person and won her over,
+did much to set her against Germany, and induced her to influence
+Louis XV. to accept her view of the situation--a scheme in which she
+was victorious over all the ministers; the result was the Austrian
+alliance. The letter of Kaunitz to her, in 1756, will illustrate her
+position:
+
+"Everything done, Madame, between the two courts, is absolutely due
+to your zeal and wisdom. I feel it and cannot refuse myself the
+satisfaction of telling you and of thanking you for having been my
+guide up to the present time. I must not even keep you ignorant of the
+fact that their Imperial Majesties give you the full justice due you
+and have for you all the sentiments you can desire. What has been done
+must merit, it seems to me, the approbation of the impartial public
+and of posterity. But what remains to be done is too great and too
+worthy of you for you to give up the task of contributing and to leave
+imperfect a work which cannot fail to make you forever dear to your
+country. I am, therefore, persuaded that you will continue your
+attention to an object so important. In this case, I look upon success
+as certain and I already share, in advance, the glory and satisfaction
+which must come to you, no one being able to be more sincerely and
+respectfully attached to you than is your very humble and obedient
+servant, the Count de Kaunitz-Rietberg."
+
+She received her first check when, Damiens having attempted to
+assassinate the king, the dauphin was regent for eleven days. She was
+confined to her room and heard nothing from the king, who was in
+the hands of the clergy. Among the friends who abandoned her was
+her protégé Machault, the guard of the seals, who conspired with
+D'Argenson to deprive her of her power and went so far as to order
+her departure. After the king's recovery, both D'Argenson and Machault
+were dismissed and Mme. de Pompadour became more powerful than before.
+
+Her influence and usurpation of power bore heavily upon every
+department of state; she appointed all the ministers, made all
+nominations, managed the foreign policy and politics, directed the
+army and even arranged the plans of battle. Absolute mistress of the
+ministry, she satisfied all demands of the Austrian court, a move
+which brought her the most flattering letter from Kaunitz, in which he
+gives her the credit for all the transactions between the two courts.
+
+Despite all her political duties and intrigues, she found time for art
+and literature. Not one minute of the day was lost in idleness, every
+moment being occupied with interviews with artists and men of letters,
+with the furnishers of her numerous châteaux, architects, designers,
+engineers, to whom she confided her plans for embellishing Paris.
+Being herself an accomplished artist, she was able to win the respect
+and attention of these men. Her correspondence was immense and of
+every nature, political and personal. She was an incessant reader,
+or rather student, of books on the most serious questions, which
+furnished her knowledge of terms of state, precedents of history,
+ancient and modern law; she was familiar with the contents of works
+on philosophy, the drama, singing, and music, and with novels of all
+nations; her library was large and well selected.
+
+During the latter years of her life she was considered as the first
+minister of state or even as regent of the kingdom, rather than as
+mere mistress. Louis XV. looked to her for the enforcement of the laws
+and his own orders. She was forced to receive, at any time, foreign
+ambassadors and ministers; she had to meet in the Cabinet de Travail
+and give counsel to the generals who were her protégés; the clergy
+went to her and laid before her their plaints, and through her the
+financiers arranged their transactions with the state.
+
+Notwithstanding all this influence and power, the record of her last
+years is a sorrowful one. More than ever queen, she was no longer
+loved by the king, who went to Passy to continue his liaison with
+a young girl, the daughter of a lawyer. When Louis XV. as much as
+recognized a son by this woman, Mme. de Pompadour became deeply
+concerned; but the king was too much a slave to her domination to
+replace her, so she retained favor and confidence; the following
+letter shows that she enjoyed little else:
+
+"The more I advance in years, my dear brother, the more philosophical
+are my reflections. I am quite sure that you will think the same.
+Except the happiness of being with the king, who assuredly consoles me
+in everything, the rest is only a tissue of wickedness, of platitudes,
+of all the miseries to which poor human beings are liable. A fine
+matter for reflection (especially for anyone born as meditative as
+I)!..." Later on, she wrote: "Everywhere where there are human beings,
+my dear brother, you will find falseness and all the vices of which
+they are capable. To live alone would be too tiresome, thus we must
+endure them with their defects and appear not to see them."
+
+She realized that the king kept her only out of charity and for fear
+of taking up any energetic resolution. Her greatest disappointment was
+the utter failure of her political plans and aspirations, which came
+to naught by the Treaty of Paris. There was absolutely no glory left
+for her, and chagrin gradually consumed her. Her health had been
+delicate from youth; consumption was fast making inroads and
+undermining her constitution, and the numerous miscarriages of her
+early years as mistress contributed to her physical ruin. For years
+she had kept herself up by artificial means, and had hidden her loss
+of flesh and fading beauty by all sorts of dress contrivances, rouges,
+and powders. She died in 1764, at the age of forty-two.
+
+Writers differ as to the true nature of Mme. de Pompadour, some saying
+that she was bereft of all feeling, a callous, hard-hearted monster;
+others maintain that she was tender-hearted and sympathetic. However,
+the majority agree as to her possession of many of the essential
+qualifications of an able minister of state, as well as great aptitude
+for carrying on diplomatic negotiations.
+
+She was the greatest patroness of art that France ever possessed,
+giving to it the best hours of her leisure; it was her pastime, her
+consolation, her extravagance, and her ruin. All eminent artists of
+the eighteenth century were her clients. Artists were nourished, so
+to speak, by her favors. It may truthfully be said that the
+eighteenth-century art is a Pompadour product, if not a creation. The
+whole century was a sort of great relic of the favorite. Fashions and
+modes were slaves to her caprice, every new creation being dependent
+upon her approbation for its survival--the carriage, the _cheminée_,
+sofa, bed, chair, fan, and even the _étui_ and toothpick, were
+fashioned after her ideas. "She is the godmother and queen of the
+rococo." Such a eulogy, given by the De Goncourt brothers, is not
+shared by all critics. Guizot wrote: "As frivolous as she was deeply
+depraved and base-minded in her calculating easiness of virtue, she
+had more ambition than comported with her mental calibre or her force
+of character; she had taken it into her head to govern, by turns
+promoting and overthrowing the ministers, herself proffering advice
+to the king, sometimes to good purpose, but still more often with a
+levity as fatal as her obstinacy."
+
+In _The Old Régime_, Lady Jackson has given an unprejudiced estimate
+of her: "She was the most accomplished and talented woman of her time;
+distinguished, above all others, for her enlightened patronage of
+science and of the arts, also for the encouragement she gave to the
+development of improvements in various manufactures which had stood
+still or were on the decline until favored by her; a fresh impulse
+was given to progress, and a perfection attained which has never been
+surpassed and, in fact, rarely equalled. _Les Gobelins_, the carpets
+of the Savonnerie, the _porcelaine de Sèvres_, were all, at her
+request, declared _Manufactures Royales_. Some of the finest specimens
+of the products of Sèvres, in ornamental groups of figures, were
+modelled and painted by Mme. de Pompadour, as presents to the
+queen.... The name of Pompadour is, indeed, intimately associated with
+a whole school of art of the Louis Quinze period--art so inimitable in
+its grace and elegance that it has stood the test of time and remains
+unsurpassed. Artists and poets and men of science vied with each other
+in admiration of her talents and taste. And it was not mere
+flattery, but simply the praise due to an enlightened patroness and a
+distinguished artist."
+
+If we consider the morals of high society, we shall scarcely find one
+woman of rank who could cast a stone at Madame de Pompadour. While
+admitting her moral shortcomings, it must nevertheless be acknowledged
+that she showed an exceptional ability in maintaining, for twenty
+years, her influence over such a man as Louis XV. Such was the power
+of this woman, the daughter of a tradesman, mistress, king in all
+save title. She was, however, less powerful than her successor,--that
+successor who was less clever and less ambitious, who "never made
+the least scrupulous blush at the lowness of her origin and the
+irregularity of her life,"--Mme. du Barry.
+
+Mme. du Barry was the natural daughter of Anne Béqus, who was
+supported by M. Dumonceau, a rich banker at Paris. The child was put
+into a convent, and, after passing through different phases of life,
+she was finally placed in a house of pleasure, where she captivated
+the Comte du Barry, at whose harem she became the favorite. The count,
+who had once before tried to supply the king with a mistress, now
+planned for his favorite. The king ordered the brother of Du Barry,
+Guillaume, to hasten to Paris to marry a lady of the king's choice.
+The girl's name had been changed officially and by the clergy, and a
+dowry had been given her. Thus was it possible for the king, after
+she had become the Comtesse du Barry, to take her as a mistress. Her
+husband was sent back to Toulouse, where he was stationed, while his
+wife was lodged at Versailles, within easy access of the king's own
+chamber.
+
+
+After much intriguing and diplomacy on the part of her friends,
+especially Richelieu, she was to be presented at court. The scene is
+well described by the De Goncourt brothers, and affords a truthful
+picture of court manners and customs of the latter part of the reign
+of Louis XV.:
+
+"The great day had arrived--Paris was rushing to Versailles. The
+presentation was to take place in the evening, after worship. The hour
+was approaching. Richelieu, filling his charge as first gentleman,
+was with the king, Choiseul was on the other side. Both were waiting,
+counting the moments and watching the king. The latter, ill at ease,
+restless, agitated, looked every minute at his watch. He paced up and
+down, uttered indistinct words, was vexed at the noise at the gates
+and the avenues, the reason of which he inquired of Choiseul. 'Sire,
+the people--informed that to-day Mme. du Barry is to have the honor of
+being presented to Your Majesty--have come from all parts to witness
+her _entrée_, not being able to witness the reception Your Majesty
+will give her.' The time has long since passed--Mme. du Barry does not
+appear. Choiseul (her enemy) and his friends radiate joy; Richelieu,
+in a corner of the room, feels assurance failing him. The king goes
+to the window, looks into the night--nothing. Finally, he decides,
+he opens his mouth to countermand the presentation. 'Sire, Mme. du
+Barry!' cries Richelieu, who had just recognized the carriage and the
+livery of the favorite; 'she will enter if you give the order.' Just
+then, Mme. du Barry enters behind the Comtesse de Béarn, bedecked with
+the hundred thousand francs' worth of diamonds the king had sent her,
+coifed in that superb headdress whose long scaffolding had almost made
+her miss the hour of presentation, dressed in one of those triumphant
+robes which the women of the eighteenth century called 'robes of
+combat,' armed in that toilette in which the eyes of a blind woman
+(Mme. du Deffand) see the destiny of Europe and the fate of ministers;
+and it is an apparition so beaming, so dazzling, that, in the first
+moments of surprise, the greatest enemies of the favorite cannot
+escape the charm of the woman, and renounce calumniating her beauty."
+
+According to reports, her beauty must have been of the ideal type of
+the time. All the portraits and images that Mme. du Barry has left
+of herself, in marble, engraving, or on canvas, show a _mignonne_
+perfection of body and face. Her hair was long, silky, of an ashen
+blonde, and was dressed like the hair of a child; her brows and lashes
+were brown, her nose small and finely cut. "It was a complexion which
+the century compared to a roseleaf fallen into milk. It was a
+neck which was like the neck of an antique statue...." In her were
+victorious youth, life, and a sort of the divinity of a Hébé; about
+her hovered that charm of intoxication, which made Voltaire cry out
+before one of her portraits: _L'original était fait pour les dieux!_
+[The original was made for the gods!]
+
+In her lofty position, Mme. du Barry sought to overcome the objections
+of the titled class, to quell jealousies and petty quarrels; she did
+not usurp any power and always endeavored not to trouble or embarrass
+anyone. After some time, she succeeded in winning the favor of some of
+the ladies, and, when her influence was fairly well established, she
+began to plan the overthrow of her enemy, De Choiseul, minister of
+Louis XV. She became the favorite of artists and musicians, and
+all Europe began to talk and write about this woman whom art had
+immortalized on canvas and who was then controlling the destinies of
+France. She succeeded, under the apprenticeship of her lover, the
+Duc d'Aiguillon, who was the outspoken enemy of De Choiseul, in
+accomplishing the fall of the minister and the fortune of her friend.
+This success required but a short time for its culmination, for in
+1770 he was deprived of his office and was exiled to Chantilly.
+
+Mme. du Barry was never an implacable enemy; she was too kind-hearted
+for that; thus, when her friend D'Aiguillon insisted on depriving
+De Choiseul of his fortune, she managed to procure for the latter
+a pension of sixty-thousand livres and one million écus in cash,
+in spite of the opposition of D'Aiguillon. After the fall of that
+minister all the princes of the blood were glad to pay her homage. She
+became almost as powerful as Mme. de Pompadour, but her influence was
+not directed in the same channels.
+
+Her life was a mere senseless dream of _femme galante_, a luxurious
+revel, a constant whirl of pleasures, and extravagance in jewelry,
+silks, gems, etc. A service in silver was no longer rich enough--she
+had one in solid gold. To house all her gems of art, rare objects,
+furniture, she caused to be constructed a temple of art, "Luciennes,"
+one of the most sumptuous, exquisite structures ever fitted out. The
+money for this was supplied by the _contrôleur général_, the Abbé
+Ferray, whose politics, science, duty, and aim in life consisted in
+never allowing Mme. du Barry to lack money. All discipline, morality,
+in fact everything, degenerated.
+
+She had no rancor or desire for vengeance; she never humiliated those
+whom she could destroy; she always punished by silence, yet never won
+eternal silence by letters patent; generous to a fault, giving and
+permitting everything about her to be taken, she opened her purse to
+all who were kind to her and to all who happened in some way to please
+her. Keeping the heart of Louis XV. was no easy matter, as the case of
+Mme. de Pompadour clearly showed. The majority of his friends and her
+enemies endeavored to force a new mistress upon the king; surrounded
+on all sides by candidates for her coveted position, Mme. du Barry
+managed to hold her own. When the king was prostrated by smallpox, he
+sent her away on the last day.
+
+The reign of Mme. du Barry was not one of tyranny, nor was it a
+domination in the strict sense of that word; for she was a nonentity
+politically, without ideas or plans. "Study the favor of Mme. du
+Barry: nothing that emanates from her belongs to her; she possesses
+neither an idea nor an enemy; she controls all the historical events
+of her time, without desiring them, without comprehending them....
+She serves friendships and individuals, without knowing how to serve a
+cause or a system or a party, and she is protected by the providential
+course of things, without having to worry about an effort, intrigues,
+or gratitude."
+
+Her power and influence cannot be compared with those of her
+predecessor, Mme. de Pompadour. Modes were followed, but never
+invented by her. "With her taste for the pleasures of a grisette,
+her patronage falls from the opera to the couplet, from paintings and
+statuaries to bronzes and sculptures in wood; her _clientèle_ are
+no longer artists, philosophers, poets--they are the gods of lower
+domains, mimics, buffoons, dancers, comedians." She was the lowest and
+most common type of woman ever influential in France.
+
+After the death of the king, she was ordered to leave Versailles and
+live with her aunt. Later on, she was permitted to reside within ten
+leagues of Paris; all her former friends and admirers then returned,
+and she continued to live the life of old, buying everything for which
+she had a fancy and living in the most sumptuous style, never worrying
+about the payment of her debts. After a few years she was entirely
+forgotten, living at Luciennes with but a few intimate friends and her
+lover, the Duc de Brissac.
+
+At the outbreak of the Revolution, she was living at Luciennes in
+great luxury on the fortune left her by the duke. Probably she would
+have escaped the guillotine had she not been so possessed with the
+idea of retaining her wealth. Four trips to England were undertaken
+by her, and on her return she found her estates usurped by a man
+named Grieve, who, anxious to obtain possession of her riches, finally
+succeeded in procuring her arrest while her enemies were in power.
+From Sainte-Pélagie they took her to the Conciergerie, to the room
+which Marie Antoinette had occupied.
+
+Accused of being the instrument of Pitt, of being an accomplice in the
+foreign war, of the insurrection in La Vendée, of the disorders in the
+south, the jury, out one hour, brought in a verdict of guilty, fixing
+the punishment at death within twenty-four hours, on the Place de la
+République. Upon hearing her sentence, she broke down completely and
+confessed everything she had hidden in the garden at Luciennes. On her
+way to the scaffold, she was a most pitiable sight to behold--the only
+prominent French woman, victim of the Revolution, to die a coward. The
+last words of this once famous and popular mistress were: "Life, life,
+leave me my life! I will give all my wealth to the nation. Another
+minute, hangman! _A moi! A moi!_" and the heavy iron cut short her
+pitiful screams, thus ending the life of the last royal mistress.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XII
+
+Marie Antoinette and the Revolution
+
+
+The condition of France at the end of the reign of Louis XV. was most
+deplorable--injustice, misery, bankruptcy, and instability everywhere.
+The action of the law could be overridden by the use of arbitrary
+warrants of arrest--_lettres de cachet_. The artisans of the towns
+were hampered by the system of taxation, but the peasant had the
+greatest cause for complaint; he was oppressed by the feudal dues and
+many taxes, which often amounted to sixty per cent of his earnings.
+The government was absolute, but rotten and tottering; the people,
+oppressively and unjustly governed, were just beginning to be
+conscious of their condition and to seek the cause of it, while the
+educated classes were saturated with revolutionary doctrines which
+not only destroyed their loyalty to the old institutions, but created
+constant aspirations toward new ones.
+
+Thus, when Louis XVI., a mere boy, began to reign, the whole French
+administrative body was corrupt, self-seeking, and in the hands of
+lawyers, a class that dominated almost every phase of government. In
+general, inefficiency, idleness, and dishonesty had obtained a ruling
+place in the governing body; the few honest men who had a minor
+share in the administration either fell into a sort of disheartened
+acquiescence or lost their fortunes and reputations in hopeless
+revolt.
+
+Under these conditions Louis XVI. began his reign; and although peace
+seemed to exist externally, the country was in revolution. France
+was as much under the modern "ring rule" as any country ever was--a
+condition of affairs largely due to the nature of the young
+king, whose predominant characteristics might be called a supreme
+awkwardness and an unpardonable lack of will power. He was a man who,
+during the first part of his reign, led a pure life; he possessed good
+and philanthropic intentions, but was hampered by a weak intellect and
+a stubbornness which bore little resemblance to real strength of
+will. Also, he entertained strong religious convictions, which were
+extremely detrimental to his policy and caused disagreements with his
+ministers--Turgot, on account of his philosophical principles, Necker,
+on account of his Protestantism.
+
+His wife had those qualities which he lacked, decision and strength
+of character; unfortunately, she wielded no influence over him in the
+beginning, and when she did gain it, she used it in a fatal manner,
+because she was ignorant of the needs of France. Throughout her
+career of power, she evinced headstrong wilfulness in pursuing her own
+course. Thus, totally incapable of acting for himself, Louis XVI. was
+practically at the mercy of his aunts, wife, courtiers, and ministers,
+who fitted his policy to their own desires and notions; therefore, the
+vast stream of emoluments and honors was diverted by the ministers
+and courtiers into channels of their own selection. There were formed
+parties and combinations which were constantly intriguing for or
+against each other.
+
+At the time of the accession of Louis XVI., when poverty was general
+over the kingdom, the household of the king consisted of nearly four
+thousand civilians, nine thousand military men, and relatives to the
+enormous number of two thousand, the supporting of which dependents
+cost France some forty-five million francs annually. Luckily there
+was no mistress to govern, as under Louis XV., but, in place of
+one mistress who was the dispenser of favors, there were numerous
+intriguing court women who were as corrupt and frivolous as the men.
+These split the court into factions. As the finances of the country
+sank to the lowest ebb, odium was naturally cast upon the whole court,
+without exception, by the people; hence, the wholesale slaughter of
+the nobility during the Revolution.
+
+In this period, the most critical in the history of France, the queen,
+Marie Antoinette, as the central figure, the leader of society,
+the model and example to whom all looked for advice upon morals and
+fashions, played an important rôle. Although not of French birth, she
+deserves to be ranked among the women influential in France, since
+she became so thoroughly imbued with French traits and characteristics
+that she forgot her native tongue. French life and spirit moulded her
+in such fashion that even the French look upon her as a French woman.
+
+Before judging this unfortunate princess who has been condemned by so
+many critics, we must take into consideration the demands that were
+made upon her. Parade was the primary requisite: she was obliged to
+keep up the splendor and attractiveness of the French monarchy;
+in this she excelled, for her manner was dignified, gracious, and
+"appropriately discriminating. It is said that she could bow to
+ten persons with one movement, giving, with her head and eyes, the
+recognition due to each one." It is said, also, that as she passed
+among the ladies of her court, she surpassed them all in the nobility
+of her countenance and the dignified grace of her carriage. All
+foreigners were enchanted with her, and to them she owes no small part
+of her posthumous popularity.
+
+She was reproached by French women for being exclusively devoted
+to the society of a select, intimate circle. Moreover, her conduct
+brought slander upon her; as her companions she chose men and women
+of bad reputation, and was constantly surrounded by dissipated young
+noblemen whom she permitted to come into her presence in costumes
+which shocked conservative people; she encouraged gambling, frequented
+the worst gambling house of the time, that of the Princesse de
+Guéménée, and visited masked balls where the worst women of the
+capital jostled the great nobles of the court; her husband seldom
+accompanied her to these pleasure resorts.
+
+During part of the reign of Marie Antoinette the country was waging
+an expensive war and was deeply in debt, but the queen did not set an
+example of economy by retrenching her expenses; although her personal
+allowance was much larger than that of the preceding queen, she was
+always in debt and lost heavily at gambling. Generally, she avoided
+interference with the government of the state, but as the wife of so
+incapable a king she was forced into an attempt at directing public
+matters. Whenever she did mingle in state affairs, it was generally
+fatal to her interests and popularity. She usually carried out her
+wishes, for the king shrank from disappointing his wife and dreaded
+domestic contentions.
+
+He permitted her to go out as she did with the Comte d'Artois, her
+brother-in-law, to masked balls, races, rides in the Bois de Boulogne,
+and on expeditions to the salon of the Princesse de Guéménée, where
+she contracted the ills of a chronically empty purse and late hours.
+When attacked by measles, to relieve her ennui--which her ladies were
+not successful in doing--she procured the consent of the king to the
+presence of four gentlemen, who waited upon her, coming at seven in
+the morning and not departing until eleven at night; and these were
+some of the most depraved and debauched among the nobility--such as De
+Besenval, the Duc de Coigny, and the Duc de Guines.
+
+While in power, she always sided with extravagance and the court,
+against economy and the nation. If we add to all these defects a vain
+and frivolous disposition, a nature fond of admiration, pleasure, and
+popularity, and lending a willing ear to all flattery, compliments,
+and counsels of her favorites, her Austrian birth, and as "little
+dignity as a Paris grisette in her escapades with the dissipated and
+arrogant Comte d'Artois," we have, in general, the causes of her wide
+unpopularity.
+
+It will be seen that as long as she was frivolous and imprudent,
+she was flattered and admired; as soon as she became absolutely
+irreproachable, she was overwhelmed with harsh judgments and
+expressions of ill will. The first period was during the first years
+of the reign of Louis XVI., while he was still all-powerful and
+popular; the second phase of her character developed during the
+trying days of the king's first fall into disfavor and his ultimate
+imprisonment and death. From this account of her career, it will be
+seen that Marie Antoinette, as dauphiness and queen, was rather the
+victim of fate and the invidious intrigues of a depraved court
+than herself an instigator and promulgator of the extravagance and
+dissipation of which she was accused.
+
+We must remember the atmosphere into which Marie Antoinette was thrust
+upon her arrival in France. One of the first to sup with her was that
+most licentious of all royal mistresses, Mme. du Barry, who asked
+for the privilege of dining with the new princess--a favor which the
+dissipated and weak king granted. Louis XV. was nothing more than
+a slave to vice and his mistresses. The king's daughters--Mmes.
+Adelaïde, Victoire, and Sophie--were pious but narrow-minded women,
+resolutely hostile to Mme. du Barry and intriguing against her. The
+Comtes de Provence and d'Artois were both pleasure-loving princes of
+doubtful character; their sisters--Mmes. Clotilde and Elisabeth--had
+no importance. The family was divided against itself, each member
+being jealous of the others. The dauphin, being of a retiring
+disposition and of a close and self-contained nature, did little to
+add to the happiness of the young princess. Thus, she was literally
+forced to depend upon her own resources for pleasure and amusement and
+was at the mercy of the court, which was never more divided than in
+about 1770--the time of her appearance.
+
+At that time there were two parties--the Choiseul, or Austrian,
+party, and those who opposed the policy of Choiseul, especially in
+the expulsion of the Jesuits; the latter were called the party of the
+_dèvôts_ and were led by Chancellor Maupeau and the Duc d'Aiguillon.
+This faction, with the mistress--Mme. du Barry--as the motive power,
+soon broke up the power of Choiseul. The young and innocent foreign
+princess, unschooled in intrigue and politics, could not escape both
+political parties; upon her entrance into the French court, she was
+immediately classed with one or the other of these rival factions
+and thus made enemies by whatever turn she took, and was caught in a
+network of intrigues from which extrication was almost impossible.
+
+Here, in this whirl of social excesses, her habits were formed; hers
+being a lively, alert, active nature, fond of pleasure and somewhat
+inclined toward raillery, she soon became so absorbed in the
+many distractions of court life that little time was left her for
+indulgence in reflection of a serious nature. Her manner of life at
+this time in part explains her subsequent career of heedlessness,
+excessive extravagance, and gayety.
+
+At first her aunts--Mmes. Adelaïde and Sophie--succeeded in partially
+estranging her from Louis XV., who had taken a strong fancy to his
+granddaughter; but this influence was soon overcome--then these aunts
+turned against her. Her popularity, however, increased. Innumerable
+instances might be cited to show her kindness to the poor, to her
+servants, to anyone in need--a quality which made her popular with the
+masses. In time almost everyone at court was apparently enslaved by
+her attractions and endeavored to please the dauphiness--this was
+about 1774, when she was at the height of her popularity.
+
+However, there developed a striking contrast between the dauphiness
+and the queen; Burke called the former "the morning star, full of
+life and splendor and joy." In fact, she was a mere girl, childlike,
+passing a gay and innocent life over a road mined with ambushes and
+intrigues which were intended to bring ruin upon her and destined
+eventually to accomplish their purpose. By being always prompt in her
+charities, having inherited her mother's devotion to the poor, she
+won golden opinions on all sides; and the reputation thus gained was
+augmented by her animated, graceful manner and her youthful beauty.
+
+Little accustomed to the magnificence that surrounded her, she soon
+wearied of it, craving simpler manners and the greater freedom of
+private intercourse. When, as queen, she indulged these desires, she
+brought upon herself the abuse and vilification of her enemies. While
+dauphiness, her actions could not cause the nation's reproach or
+arouse public resentment; as queen, however, her behavior was subject
+to the strictest rules of etiquette, and she was responsible for
+the morals and general tone of her court. This responsibility Marie
+Antoinette failed to realize until it was too late.
+
+Upon the accession of Louis XVI., a clean sweep was made of the
+licentious and discredited agents of Mme. du Barry, and a new ministry
+was created. The former mistress, with her lover, the Duc d'Aiguillon,
+was banished, although Mme. Adelaïde succeeded in having Maurepas,
+uncle of the Duc d'Aiguillon, made minister. Marie Antoinette had
+little interest in the appointment after she failed to gain the honor
+for her favorite, De Choiseul, who had negotiated her marriage.
+
+The queen then proceeded to carry out her long-cherished wishes for
+society dinners at which she could preside. Her every act, however,
+was governed by inflexible laws of etiquette, some of which she most
+impatiently suffered, but many of which she impatiently put aside.
+With this manner of entertaining begins her reign as queen of taste
+and fashion, for Louis XVI. left to his wife the responsibility of
+organizing all entertainments, and her aspiration was to make the
+court of France the most splendid in the world. From that time on, all
+her movements, her apparel, her manners, to the minutest detail, were
+imitated by the court ladies. This custom, of course, led to reckless
+extravagance among the nobility, for whenever Marie Antoinette
+appeared in a new gown, which was almost daily, the ladies of the
+nobility must perforce copy it.
+
+Tidings of these extravagances of the queen and her court in
+time reached the empress-mother in Vienna. Marie Thérèse severely
+reproached her daughter, writing: "My daughter, my dear daughter, the
+first queen--is she to grow like this? The idea is insupportable to
+me." Yet, "to speak the exact truth," said her counsellor, Mercy, when
+writing to the empress-mother, "there is less to complain of in the
+evil which exists than in the lack of all the good which might exist."
+It is chronicled to her credit that all her expenditure was not upon
+herself alone, but that she was equally lavish when she attempted
+charity.
+
+Her first political act, the removal of Turgot, was disastrous. She
+thought she was humoring public opinion, which was strongly against
+the minister on account of his many reforms, but her primary reason
+was rather one of personal vengeance. Turgot had been openly hostile
+to her friend and favorite, the Duc de Guines. She was then in the
+midst of her period of dissipation; "dazzled by the glory of the
+throne, intoxicated by public approval," she overstepped the bounds
+of royal propriety, neglecting etiquette and forgetting that she was
+secretly hated by the people because of her origin; her greatest error
+was in forgetting that she was Queen of France and no longer the mere
+dauphiness.
+
+Under the escort of her brother-in-law, the Comte d'Artois, she was
+constantly occupied with pleasures and had time for little else. The
+king, retiring every night at eleven and rising at five, had all the
+doors locked; so the queen, who returned early in the morning, was
+compelled to enter by the back door and pass through the servants'
+apartments. Such behavior gave plentiful material to M. de Provence,
+the king's brother, who remained at home and composed, for the
+_Mercure de France_, all sorts of stories, from so-called trustworthy
+information, on the king, on society, and especially on the doings of
+the queen.
+
+Marie Antoinette's fondness for the chase and the English racing fad,
+for gambling, billiards, and her _petits soupers_ after the riding and
+racing, gave ample opportunity to the gossipmongers and enemies. In
+spite of the vigorous remonstrances of her mother, the empress, she
+persisted in her wild career of dissipation and extravagance, and drew
+upon herself more and more the disrespect of the people, especially in
+appearing at places frequented by the disreputable of both sexes, by
+entering into all noisy and vulgar amusements, by her disregard and
+disdain of all the conventionalities of the court. She increased her
+unpopularity by reviving the sport of sleighing; for this purpose
+she had gorgeous sleighs constructed at a time when the population of
+France was in misery. Such proceedings caused libels, epigrams, and
+satirical chansonnettes to flow thick and fast from her enemies. Her
+one idea was to seek congenial pleasures: she appeared to be wholly
+oblivious to the disapproval of public opinion.
+
+The slanderous tongues of her husband's aunts, the "jealousies and
+bitter backbiting of her own intimate circle of friends," the infamous
+accusations brought against her by her sisters-in-law, the attacks of
+the Comte de Provence, and the indifference of the king himself, all
+helped to increase her unpopularity.
+
+Among her personal friends was the Princesse de Lamballe, whose
+influence was preponderant for several years; she was not a
+conspicuously wise woman, but one of spotless character. Her
+ambitions, personal and for her relatives, often caused much trouble,
+for she became the mouthpiece of her allies and her clients, for whom
+she "solicited recommendations with as much pertinacity as if she had
+been the most inveterate place hunter on her own account." Her favors
+were too much in one direction to suit the queen, for, much attached
+to the memory of her husband, the princess naturally sympathized with
+the Orléans faction. As superintendent of the household of the queen,
+replacing the Comtesse de Noailles, she gave rise to much scandal.
+Her salary, through intrigues, had been raised to fifty thousand écus,
+while her privileges were enormous; for instance, no lady of the queen
+could execute an order given her without first obtaining the consent
+of the superintendent. The displeasure and vexation which this
+restriction caused among the court ladies may be imagined; complaints
+became so frequent that the queen tired of them, and her affection for
+her friend was thus cooled.
+
+She sought other friends, among whom Mme. de Polignac was the favorite
+and almost supplanted the Princesse de Lamballe in the regard of the
+queen. To her she presented a large grant of money, the tabouret of
+a duchess, the post of governess to the children of France; and her
+friends received the appointments of ambassadors, and nominations to
+inferior offices. She was not by nature an intriguing woman, but was
+soon surrounded by a set of young men and women who made use of
+her favor and took advantage of her influence; the result was the
+formation of a regular Polignac set, almost all questionable persons,
+but an exclusive circle, permitting no division of favor, and undoing
+all who endeavored to rival them. This coterie of favorites may
+be said to have caused Marie Antoinette as much unpopularity and
+contributed as much to her ruin, and even to that of royalty, as did
+any other cause originating at court. Mme. de Lamballe was no match
+for her rival, so she retired, a move which increased the influence
+of Mme. de Polignac, to whose house the whole court flocked. The queen
+followed her wherever she went, made her husband duke, and permitted
+her to sit in her presence.
+
+By spending so much of her time at the salons of Mme. de Polignac
+and the Princesse de Guéménée, the queen excited the displeasure
+and enmity of many of the court and the people; at those places, De
+Besenval, De Ligny, De Lauzun,--men of the most licentious habits and
+expert spendthrifts,--seemed to enjoy her intimate friendship, a state
+of affairs which caused many scandalous stories and helped to alienate
+some of the greatest houses of France. This injudicious display of
+preference for her own circle of friends also fostered a general
+distrust and dislike among the people. The first families of France
+preferred to absent themselves from her weekly balls at Versailles,
+since attendance would probably result in their being ignored by the
+queen, who permitted herself to be so engrossed by a bevy of favorites
+and her own amusements as scarcely to notice other guests.
+
+Her eulogists find excuse for all this in her lightness of heart and
+gay spirits, as well as in the manner of her rearing, having been
+brought up in the court of Louis XV., where she saw shameless vice
+tolerated and even condoned. Although she preserved her virtue in the
+midst of all this dissipation, she became callous to the shortcomings
+of her friends and her own finer perceptions became blunted. Thus,
+in the most critical years of her reign, her nobler nature suffered
+deterioration, which resulted fatally.
+
+Despite many warnings, she could not or would not do without those
+friends. She excused anything in those who could make themselves
+useful to her amusement: everyone who catered to her taste received
+her favor. M. Rocheterie, in his admirable work, _The Life of Marie
+Antoinette_, gives as the source of her great love of pleasure her
+very strongly affectionate disposition,--the need of showering upon
+someone the overflowing of an ardent nature,--together with the desire
+for activity so natural in a princess of nineteen. As a place in
+which to vent all these emotions, these ebullitions of affections and
+amusements, the king presented her with the château "Little Trianon,"
+where she might enjoy herself as she liked, away from the intrigues of
+court.
+
+Marie Antoinette has become better known as the queen of "Little
+Trianon" than as a queen of Versailles. At the former place she
+gave full license to her creative bent. Her palace, as well as her
+environments, she fashioned according to her own ideas, which were
+not French and only made her stand out the more conspicuously as a
+foreigner. From this sort of fairy creation arose the distinctively
+Marie Antoinette art and style; she caused artists to exhaust their
+fertile brains in devising the most curious and magnificent, the
+newest and most fanciful creations, quite regardless of cost--and
+this while her people were starving and crying for bread! The angry
+murmurings of the populace did not reach the ears of the gay queen,
+who, had she been conscious of them, might have allowed her bright
+eyes to become dim for a time, but would have soon forgotten the
+passing cloud.
+
+There was constant festivity about the queen and her companions, but
+no etiquette; there was no household, only friends--the Polignacs,
+Mme. Elisabeth, Monsieur, the Comte d'Artois, and, occasionally, the
+king. To be sure, the amusements were innocent--open-air balls, rides,
+lawn fêtes, all made particularly attractive by the affability of
+the young queen, who showed each guest some particular attention; all
+departed enchanted with the place and its delights and, especially,
+with the graciousness of the royal hostess. There all artists and
+authors of France were encouraged and patronized--with the exception
+of Voltaire; the queen refused to patronize a man whose view upon
+morality had caused so much trouble.
+
+Music and the drama received especial protection from her. The triumph
+of Gluck's _Iphigénie en Aulide_, in 1774, was the first victory of
+Marie Antoinette over the former mistress and the Piccini party. This
+was the second musical quarrel in France, the first having occurred
+in 1754, between the lovers of French and Italian music, with Mme. de
+Pompadour as protectress. After Gluck had monopolized the French opera
+for eight years, the Italian, Piccini, was brought from Italy in
+1776. Quinault's _Roland_ was arranged for him by Marmontel and was
+presented in 1778, unsuccessfully; Gluck presented his _Iphigénie en
+Aulide_, and no opera ever received such general approbation. "The
+scene was all uproar and confusion, demoniacal enthusiasm; women threw
+their gloves, fans, lace kerchiefs, at the actors; men stamped and
+yelled; the enthusiasm of the public reached actual frenzy. All did
+honor to the composer and to the queen."
+
+Marie Antoinette, however, also gave Piccini her protection. Gluck,
+armed with German theories and supporting French music, maintained for
+dramatic interest, the subordination of music to poetry, the union
+or close relation of song and recitative; whereas, the Italian opera
+represented by Piccini had no dramatic unity, no great ensembles,
+nothing but short airs, detached, without connection--no substance,
+but mere ornamentation. Gluck proved, also, that tragedy could be
+introduced in opera, while Piccini maintained that opera could embrace
+only the fable--the marvellous and fairylike. This musical quarrel
+became a veritable national issue, every salon, the Academy, and all
+clubs being partisans of one or the other theory; it did much to mould
+the later French and German music, and much credit is due the queen
+for the support given and the intelligence displayed in so important
+an issue.
+
+All singers, actors, writers, geniuses in all things, were sure of
+welcome and protection from Marie Antoinette; but she permitted
+her passion for the theatre to carry her to extremes unbecoming her
+position, for she consorted with comedians, played their parts, and
+associated with them as though they were her equals. Such conduct
+as this, and her exclusiveness in court circles, encouraged calumny.
+Versailles was deserted by the best families, and all the pomp
+and traditions of the French monarchs were abandoned. The king, in
+sanctioning these amusements at the "Little Trianon," lost the respect
+and esteem of the nobility, but the queen was held responsible for all
+evil,--for the deficit in the treasury, and the increase in taxes;
+to such an extent was she blamed, that the tide of public popularity
+turned and she was regarded with suspicion, envy, and even hatred.
+
+In the spring of 1777 the queen's brother, the Emperor Joseph II. of
+Austria, arrived in Paris for a visit to his sister and the court of
+France. The relations between him and Marie Antoinette became quite
+intimate; the emperor, always disposed to be critical, did not
+hesitate to warn his sister of the dangers of her situation, pointing
+out to her her weakness in thus being led on by her love of pleasure,
+and the deplorable consequences which this weakness would infallibly
+entail in the future. The queen acknowledged the justness of the
+emperor's reasoning, and, though often deeply offended by his
+frankness and severity, she determined upon reform. This resolution
+was, to some extent, influenced by the hope of pregnancy; so, when
+her expectations in that direction proved to be without foundation, so
+keen was the disappointment thus occasioned, that, in order to forget
+it, she plunged into dissipation to such an extent that it soon
+developed into a veritable passion. Bitterly disappointed, vexed
+with a husband whose coldness constantly irritated her ardent nature,
+fretful and nervous, there naturally developed a morbid state of mind
+which explains the impetuosity with which she attempted to escape from
+herself.
+
+In December, 1778, a daughter was born to the queen, and she welcomed
+her with these words: "Poor little one, you are not desired, but you
+will be none the less dear to me! A son would have belonged to the
+state--you will belong to me." After this event the queen gave herself
+up to thoughts and pursuits of a more serious nature. In 1779 the
+dauphin was born, and from that period Marie Antoinette considered
+herself no longer a foreigner.
+
+After the death of Maurepas, minister and counsellor to the king,
+the queen became more influential in court matters. She relieved the
+indolent monarch of much responsibility, but only to hand it over to
+her favorites. The period from 1781 to 1785 was the most brilliant of
+the court of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, one of dissipation and
+extravagance, the rich _bourgeoisie_ vying with the nobility in their
+luxurious style of living and in lavish expenditure. "The finest silks
+that Lyons could weave, the most beautiful laces that Alençon could
+produce, the most gorgeous equipages, the most expensive furniture,
+inlaid and carved, the tapestry of Beauvais and the porcelain of
+Sèvres--all were in the greatest demand." Necker was replaced by
+incompetent ministers, the treasury was depleted, and the poor became
+more and more restless and threatening. Once more, and with increased
+vehemence, was heard the cry: _A bas l'Autrichienne!_
+
+During the American war of the Revolution, Marie Antoinette was always
+favorable to the Colonial cause, protecting La Fayette and encouraging
+all volunteers of the nobility, who embarked for America in great
+numbers. She presented Washington with a full-length portrait of
+herself, loudly and publicly proclaiming her sympathy for things
+American. She assured Rochambeau of her good will, and procured for La
+Fayette a high command in the _corps d'armée_ which was to be sent to
+America. When Necker and other ministers were negotiating for
+peace, from 1781 to 1785, she persisted in asserting that American
+independence should be acknowledged; and when it was declared, she
+rejoiced as at no political event in her own country.
+
+Her political adventures were few; in fact, she disliked politics and
+desired to keep aloof from the intrigues of the ministers. She may
+have been instrumental in the downfall of Necker--at least, she
+secured the appointment, as minister of finance, of the worthless
+Calonne, who, it will be remembered, brought about the ruin of
+France in a short period. In time, however, the queen recognized his
+worthlessness and would have nothing to do with him, thus making in
+him another implacable enemy.
+
+Events were fast diminishing the popularity of the queen. When, after
+the long-disputed question of presenting the _Marriage of Figaro_, she
+herself undertook to play in _The Barber of Seville_ in her theatre
+at the Trianon, she overstepped the bounds of propriety. Then followed
+the affair of the diamond necklace, in which the worst, most cunning,
+and most notorious rogues abused the name of the queen. That was the
+great adventure of the eighteenth century. Boehmer, the court jeweler,
+had, in a number of years, procured a collection of stones for an
+incomparable necklace. This was intended for Mme. du Barry, but
+Boehmer offered it to the queen, who refused to purchase it, and he
+considered himself ruined. It may be well to add that the queen had
+previously purchased a pair of diamond earrings which had been ordered
+by Louis XV. for his mistress; for those ornaments she paid almost
+half her annual pin money, amounting to nine hundred thousand francs.
+The jeweler, therefore, had good reason to hope that she would relieve
+him of the necklace.
+
+An adventuress, a Mme. de La Motte, acquainted at court and also with
+the Prince Louis de Rohan, who had incurred the displeasure of the
+queen, informed the cardinal that Marie Antoinette was willing to
+again extend to him her favor. She counterfeited notes, and even went
+so far as to appoint a meeting at midnight in the park at Versailles.
+The supposed queen who appeared was no other than an English girl,
+who dropped a rose with the words: "You know what that means." The
+cardinal was informed that the queen desired to buy the necklace, but
+that it was to be kept secret--it was to be purchased for her by a
+great noble, who was to remain unknown. All necessary papers were
+signed, and the necklace turned over to the Prince de Rohan, who, in
+turn, intrusted it to Mme. de La Motte to be given to the queen; but
+the agent was not long in having it taken apart, and soon her husband
+was selling diamonds in great quantities to English jewelers.
+
+In time, as no payments were received and no favors were shown by the
+queen, an investigation followed. The result was a trial which lasted
+nine months; the cardinal was declared not guilty, the signature
+of the queen false, Mme. de La Motte was sentenced to be whipped,
+branded, and imprisoned for life, and her husband was condemned to the
+galleys. Nevertheless, much censure fell to the share of the queen. It
+was the beginning of the end of her reign as a favorite whose faults
+could be condoned. She was beginning to reap the fruits of her former
+dissipations. In about 1787, when she least deserved it, she became
+the butt of calumny, intrigues, and pamphlets.
+
+During these years she was the most devoted of mothers; she personally
+looked after her four children, watched by their bedsides when they
+were ill, shutting herself up with them in the château so that they
+would not communicate their disease to the children who played in the
+park. In 1785 the king purchased Saint-Cloud and presented it to
+the queen, together with six millions in her own right, to enjoy and
+dispose of as she pleased. That act added the last straw to the burden
+of resentment of the overwrought public; from that time she was known
+as "Madame Deficit." Also she was accused of having sent her brother,
+Joseph II., one hundred million livres in three years. She was hissed
+at the opera. In 1788 there were many who refused to dance with the
+queen. In the preceding year a caricature was openly sold, showing
+Louis XVI. and his queen seated at a sumptuous table, while a starving
+crowd surrounded them; it bore the legend: "The king drinks, the queen
+eats, while the people cry!" Calonne, minister of finance, an intimate
+friend of the Polignacs, but in disfavor with the queen, also made
+common cause with the enemies, in songs and perfidious insinuations.
+Upon his fall, in 1787, the queen's position became even worse.
+
+The last period of the life of the queen, La Rocheterie calls the
+militant period--it was one in which the joy of living was no more;
+trouble, sorrows upon sorrows, and anxieties replaced the former
+care-free, happy radiance of her youth. At the reunion of the
+States-General, while the country at large was full of confidence and
+the king was still a hero, the queen was the one dark spot; calumny
+had done its work--the whole country seemed to be saturated with an
+implacable hatred and prejudice against her whom they considered
+the source of all evil. Throughout the ceremonies attending the
+States-General, the queen was received with the same ominous silence;
+no one lifted his voice to cheer her, but the Duc d'Orléans was always
+applauded, to her humiliation.
+
+Whatever may have been the faults and excesses of her youth, their
+period was over and in their place arose all the noble sentiments so
+long dormant. When the king was about to go to Paris as the prisoner
+of the infuriated mob, La Fayette asked the queen: "Madame, what is
+your personal intention?" "I know the fate which awaits me, but
+my duty is to die at the feet of the king and in the arms of my
+children," replied the queen. During the following days of anxiety she
+showed wonderful courage and graciousness, "winning much popularity
+by her serene dignity, the incomparable charm which pervaded her whole
+person, and her affability."
+
+Upon the urgent request of the queen the Polignac set departed,
+and Mme. de Lamballe endeavored to do the honors for the queen, by
+receptions three times a week, given to make friends in the Assembly.
+At those functions all conditions of people assembled, and instead
+of the witty, brilliant conversations of the old salon there were
+politics, conspiracies, plots; instead of the gay and laughing faces
+of the old times there were the worn and anxious faces of weary,
+discouraged men and women. There was, indeed, a sad contrast between
+the gay, frivolous, haughty queen of the early days, and this captive
+queen--submissive, dignified, "majestic in her bearing, heroic, and
+reconciled to her awful fate."
+
+Her period of imprisonment, the cruelty, neglect, inadequate food and
+garments, her torture and indescribable sufferings, the insults of
+the crowd and the newspapers, her heroic death, all belong to history.
+"The first crime of the Revolution was the death of the king, but
+the most frightful was the death of the queen." Napoleon said: "The
+queen's death was a crime worse than regicide." "A crime absolutely
+unjustifiable," adds La Rocheterie, "since it had no pretext whatever
+to offer as an excuse; a crime eminently impolitic, since it struck
+down a foreign princess, the most sacred of hostages; a crime beyond
+measure, since the victim was a woman who possessed honors without
+power."
+
+Because Marie Antoinette played a romantic rôle in French history, it
+is quite natural to find conflicting and contradictory opinions among
+her biographers. The most conflicting may be summed up in these
+words: the queen's influence upon the Revolution was great--her
+extravagances, her haughty bearing, her scorn of the etiquette of
+royalty, her enemies, her prejudices, the arrests which she caused,
+etc. Then her pernicious influence upon the king, after the breaking
+out of the Revolution--she caused his hesitancy, which led to such
+disastrous results, and his plan of annihilating the States Assembly;
+the gathering of the foreign troops and his many contradictory
+and uncertain commands were all laid at her door, making of her an
+important and guilty party to the Revolution. Another estimate is more
+humane and, probably, is the result of cooler reflection, yet is not
+always accepted by Frenchmen or the world at large. It represents her
+as neither saint nor sinner, but as a pure, fascinating woman, always
+chaste, though somewhat rash and frivolous. Proud and energetic, if
+inconsiderate in her political actions and somewhat too impulsive in
+the selection of friends upon whom to bestow her favors, she is yet
+worthy of the title of queen by the very dignity of her bearing;
+always a true woman, seductive and tender of heart, she became a
+martyr "through the extremity of her trials and her triumphant death."
+
+Although history makes Marie Antoinette a central figure during the
+reign of Louis XVI. and the period of the Revolution, yet her personal
+influence was practically limited to the domain of the social world of
+customs and manners; her political influence issued mainly from or was
+due to the concatenation of conditions and circumstances, the results
+of her friends' doings, while her social triumphs were products of
+her own activity. The two women--her intimate friends--who during
+this period were of greatest prominence, who owed their elevation
+and standing entirely to the queen, were women of whom little has
+survived. In her time, Mme. de Polignac was an influential woman,
+wielding tremendous power, contributing largely to the shaping and
+climaxing of France's fate; yet this influence was centred in reality
+in the Polignac set, which was composed of the most important, daring,
+and consummate intriguers that the court of France had ever seen.
+She escaped the guillotine, and by doing so escaped the attention of
+posterity.
+
+Mme. de Lamballe, who wrote nothing, did nothing, effected nothing,
+is better known to the world at large, is more respected and honored,
+than is Mme. de Polignac or even the great salon leaders such as Mme.
+de Genlis or Mlle. de Lespinasse. She owes this prominence to her
+undying devotion to her queen, to her marvellous beauty, and to her
+tragic death on the guillotine. She was not even bright or witty,
+the essentials of greatness among French women--not one _bon mot_ has
+survived her; but she may well be placed by the side of her queen
+for one sublime virtue, too rare in those days,--chastity. She was
+Princess of Sardinia; upon the request of the Duke of Penthièvre to
+Louis XV. to select a wife for his son, the Prince of Lamballe, she
+was chosen. A year after the marriage the prince died; and although
+the marriage had not been a happy one, because of the dissolute life
+of the prince, his wife forgave him, and "sorrowed for him as though
+he deserved it."
+
+When in 1768 the queen died, two parties immediately formed, the
+object of both of them being to provide Louis XV. with a wife: one may
+be called the reform party, striving to keep the old king in the paths
+of decency; while the other was composed of the typical eighteenth
+century intriguers, endeavoring to revive the "grand old times." The
+candidate of the former was Mme. de Lamballe, that of the latter, the
+dissolute Duchesse du Barry. This state of affairs was made possible
+by the disagreement of the political and social schemes of the court
+and ministry. Soon after, in 1770, the king negotiated the marriage
+of Marie Antoinette and the dauphin, and from that time began the
+friendship of the future queen and the Princesse de Lamballe. Entering
+the unfamiliar circle of this highly debauched court, the young
+dauphiness sought a sympathetic friend, and found her in the princess.
+No figure in that society was more disinterested and unselfishly
+devoted. In all the queen's undertakings, fêtes, and other amusements,
+she was inseparable from the princess, who was indeed a rare exception
+to the majority of the women of that time.
+
+The friendship of these two women was uninterrupted, save for a period
+extending from 1778 to 1785, when Mme. de Polignac and her set of
+intriguers succeeded in estranging them and usurping all the favors of
+the queen. When the outside world was accrediting to Marie Antoinette
+every popular misfortune, when she lost by death both the dauphin
+and the Princess Beatrice, when fate was against her, when the future
+promised nothing but evil, she found no stauncher friend, better
+consoler, more ardent admirer, than her old companion. Learning of the
+removal of the royal family to the Tuileries, she rejoined the queen.
+In 1791, with the escape of the royal fugitives, the princess left
+for England, to seek the protection of the English government for her
+royal friends.
+
+Mr. Dobson says she was scarcely the _discrète et insinuante et
+touchante Lamballe_, with a marvellous sang-froid, hardly the astute
+diplomatist, that De Lescure makes her. "She was rather the quiet,
+imposing Lamballe of old, interested in her friends and what she
+could do for them, but never shrewd and diplomatic." In November she
+returned to France, to meet her queen and to suffer death for her
+sake,--and for this unswerving devotion she has a place in history.
+She stands out also as the one normal woman in the crowds of
+impetuous, shallow, petty, and, in many cases, pitifully debauched
+women of the time. Not majestic greatness, but a direct, unaffected
+sweetness and consistent goodness entitle her to rank among the great
+women of France.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIII
+
+Women of the Revolution and the Empire
+
+
+Many women of the revolutionary period have no claim for mention other
+than a last glorious moment on the guillotine--"ennobled and endeared
+by the self-possession and dignity with which they faced death, their
+whole life seems to have been lived for that one moment." The society
+which had brought on and stirred up the Revolution was enervated and
+febrile. Paris was one large kennel of libellers and pamphleteers and
+intriguers. The salon frequenters were trained conversationalists and
+brilliant beauties who danced and drank, discoursed and intrigued.
+It was a superficial elegance, with virtue only assumed. The art of
+pleasing had been developed to perfection, but, instead of the actual
+accomplishments of the old régime, there was merely the outward
+appearance--luxury, dress, and magnificence; the bearing and language
+were of the ambitious common people. "The great women are those who,
+the day before, were taken from the cellar or garret of the salon."
+
+During the Directorate, luxury and libertinism reigned almost as
+absolutely as during the monarchy. Barras was supreme. He had his
+mistress, or _maîtresse-en-titre_, in the beautiful Mme. Tallien,
+the queen of beauty of the salon of _la mode_. Ease and dissolute
+enjoyment were the aims of Barras, and in these his mistress was his
+equal. They gave the most sumptuous dinners, prepared by the famous
+chefs of the late aristocratic kitchens, while the people were
+starving or living on black bread. She impudently arrayed herself in
+the crown diamonds and appeared at the reception given to Napoleon.
+
+The salons under the Empire are said to have preserved French
+politeness, courtesy, and the usages of _la bonne compagnie_, but
+intolerance and tyranny reigned there; the spirit of intrigue only was
+obeyed. From the beginning of the Revolution to the Empire, it may be
+said that the streets of Paris from one end to the other were a wild
+turmoil of people in fever heat--ready for any crime or cruelty,
+anxious for anything promising excitement. Where formerly the elegant
+lovers of the nobility were wont to promenade, the rabid populace held
+undisputed possession.
+
+These were years, about 1780 to 1800, during which women shared the
+same fate with men; and, consigned to the same prisons, ever resigned
+and ready to die for principle, they knew how to die nobly. It was
+truly an age of the martyrdom of woman--an age in which she lived,
+through almost superhuman conditions, at the side of man. She was
+all-powerful, triumphant as never before; not, however, through her
+intellectual superiority as in the previous age, but through her
+courage. There was not one powerful woman standing out alone,
+but groups of them, hosts of them. It was during the Directorate
+especially that woman controlled almost every phase of activity.
+
+The woman who embodied all the heterogeneous vices of the past
+nobility and the rising plebs was Mme. Tallien, the goddess of vice
+and of the vulgar display of wealth. Her caprices were scrupulously
+followed, while about her jealousy and slanders were thick. Then
+immorality had no veil, but was low, brutish, and open to everyone.
+With the accession of Napoleon to absolute power, there was a fusion
+of the element just described with the remnant of the old régime.
+Josephine soon formed a select and congenial social circle, excluding
+Mme. Tallien and the Directorate adherents. Evidences of saddening
+memories of the past and a general gloom were visible everywhere in
+this circle. The disappointment of the nobility on returning from
+their exile was somewhat lessened by the very select bi-weekly
+reunions in the salon of Talleyrand, and by the brilliant suppers of
+the old régime, which were revived at the Hôtel d'Anjou.
+
+The salon of Mme. de Staël was a political debating club rather than
+a purely social reunion. She being an ardent Republican, it was in
+her salon that the Royalist plot to bring back the Bourbons was
+overthrown. In a short time there were a number of brilliant salons,
+each one showing a nature as distinct as those of the eighteenth
+century. Thus, Joseph Bonaparte received the distinguished
+governmentals and the intriguing women of society at the Château de
+Mortfoulaine; at Lucien Bonaparte's hôtel youth and beauty assembled;
+at Mme. de Permon's salon there were music and conversation, tea,
+lemonade, and biscuits, twice a week. It remains but to characterize
+these different ages of French social and political evolution by the
+great women who, each one of her age, are the representative types.
+
+The woman who, during the Revolution, not only added her name to the
+long list of martyrs, but who also made history and contributed to the
+very nature of those days of terror and uncertainty, was Mme. Roland,
+whom critics both extol and condemn--the fate of all historical
+characters. It would be difficult to estimate this remarkable person
+and her work without some details of her life.
+
+When a mere girl she showed signs of a tempestuous future; she
+was seductive, but impulsive, with an inborn love for the common
+people--which is not always credited to her--and for democracy. These
+qualities were quickened during her experience at Versailles, for
+while there for a few days' visit she saw the pitiless social world in
+all its orgies, revelries of luxury, and wanton extravagances.
+There, also, she contracted that deep-seated hatred for the queen and
+royalty.
+
+There was, indeed, a long list of suitors for the hand of the
+impulsive maiden; but owing to her views as to a husband and her
+restless, unsettled state of mind, she could not decide upon any one
+of them. To her mother, when urged to accept one, she said: "I should
+not like a husband to order me about, for he would teach me only to
+resist him; but neither do I wish to rule my husband. Either I am
+much mistaken, or those creatures, six feet high, with beard on their
+chins, seldom fail to make us feel that they are stronger; now, if the
+good man should suddenly bethink himself to remind me of his strength
+he would provoke me, and if he submitted to me he would make me
+feel ashamed of my power." For such a woman marriage was certainly
+a difficult problem. Finally, Roland de la Platières came within her
+circle; and although somewhat adverse to him at first, after a number
+of his visits she wrote: "I have been much charmed by the solidity of
+his judgment and his cultured and interesting conversation." Just such
+a man appealed to her nature and was in harmony with her views. After
+months of monotonous life in the convent to which she had retired, she
+at last consented to become the wife of Roland, not from expectations
+of any fortune, but purely from a sense of devoting herself to the
+happiness of an honorable man, to making his life sweeter.
+
+Roland, scrupulously conscientious, painstaking, and observing, had
+won the position of inspector of manufactures, which took him away on
+foreign travels part of the time. He had acquired a thorough knowledge
+of manufacturing and the principles of political economy. The first
+years of their life were spent in each other's society exclusively,
+as he was insanely jealous of her; she rarely left his side, and
+they studied the same works, copied and revised his manuscripts, and
+corrected his proofs. In this she was indispensable to him. But her
+activity did not stop with literary work; she managed her husband's
+household, and for miles around her home the peasants soon learned
+to know her through her charitable deeds. She was the village doctor,
+often going for miles to attend the poor in distress. With her own
+hands she prepared dainty dishes with which to tempt her husband's
+appetite. Thus, her best years were spent upon things for which much
+less ability would have sufficed. She watched with breathless
+interest the installation of Necker and the dismissal of Turgot, the
+convocation of the notables, the struggles for financial recovery,
+and, finally, the calling of a States-General, which had not been
+in session since 1614. During the first stormy years, 1789-1790, she
+wrote burning missives to her friend Bosc, at Paris, which appeared
+anonymously in the _Patriote Français_, edited by Brissot, the future
+Girondist leader. Soon came the commission of Roland as the first
+citizen of the city of Lyons, which had a debt of forty million
+francs, to acquaint the National Assembly with its affairs.
+
+When, in 1791, Mme. Roland arrived at Paris--for she accompanied her
+husband--she had already become an ardent Republican. She immediately
+threw herself into the whirlwind of popular enthusiasm. Her house
+became the centre of an advanced political group, which met there four
+times a week to discuss state questions. There Danton, Robespierre,
+Pétion, Condorcet, Buzot, and others were seen. She ably aided her
+husband in all his work as commissioner to the National Assembly. She
+was indefatigable in penning stirring letters and petitions to the
+Jacobin societies in the different departments. A staunch friend
+of Robespierre, she did much to protect him in his first efforts
+in public. On returning home, after her husband had completed his
+mission, she was no longer the same quiet, contented, submissive
+woman; she longed for activity in the midst of excitement.
+
+With the meeting of the Legislative Assembly, in 1791, the group of
+men sent up from the Gironde immediately became the leaders, and when
+Mme. Roland returned to Paris she became the centre of this circle,
+exhorting and stimulating, advising and ordering. Through her friend
+Brissot, who was all-powerful in the Assembly, about February,
+1792, as leader of the Girondists, who were looking for men not yet
+practically involved in politics, but qualified by experience for
+political life, her husband was made minister of the interior, and in
+March, 1792, he and his wife entered upon their duties. She was a
+keen reader of human nature, at first glance giving her husband a
+penetrating and generally truthful judgment of men. Being able to
+comprehend the temperaments of the ministers, she managed them with
+inimitable tact. Although all the Girondist ministers were supposed
+friends, she readily saw how difficult it would be for a small
+group of men with the same principles to act in concert. Seeing the
+political machine in motion at close range, she lost some of her
+enthusiasm for revolutionary leaders; above all, she recognized the
+need of a great leader. As wife of the minister, installed in the
+ministerial residence with no other woman present, she gave two
+dinners weekly to her husband's colleagues, to the members of the
+Assembly, and to political friends.
+
+Her husband, the French Quaker of the Revolution, in all his
+simplicity of dress and honesty, was being constantly duped by the
+apparent good nature and sincerity of the king, against whom his wife
+was constantly warning him. It was she who, convinced of the king's
+duplicity and the need of a safeguard for the country, originated the
+plan of a federate camp of twenty thousand men to protect Paris when
+war had been declared against Austria. It was she who wrote a letter
+to the king in the name of the council, but sent in Roland's own name,
+imploring him not to arouse the mistrust of the nation by constantly
+betraying his suspicion of it, but to show his love by adopting
+measures for the welfare and safety of the country. The effect of this
+letter, which became historical, was the fall of the ministers. After
+their recall, her husband became more and more powerful. The political
+circulars which were published by his paper, _The Sentinel_, were
+composed by her. Then came the horrible massacres and executions by
+the hundreds, which inspired Mme. Roland with hatred for Danton, a
+feeling she communicated to the whole Girondist party. She desired
+above everything to see punished the perpetrators of the September
+massacres. In this plan the Girondists failed. Robespierre, Danton,
+and Marat were victorious, and Mme. Roland and her party fell.
+
+When all parties and the whole populace vied with each other in
+welcoming back the victorious General Dumouriez, there seemed to be
+a possibility of a reconciliation between Danton and Mme. Roland, for
+when the general went to dine with her he presented her with a bouquet
+of magnificent oleanders. This dinner, on October 14th, auguring good
+fortune to all, was the last success of Mme. Roland. She had been
+pushed to the very front of the Revolution. She coöperated in
+composing and promulgating the numerous writings of her husband
+by which public opinion was to be instructed. But she retained her
+implacable hatred for Danton, who, when her husband, ready to resign,
+was pressed to remain in office, cried out in the convention: "Why not
+invite Mme. Roland to the ministry, too! everyone knows that Roland
+is not alone in the office!" At this period her husband made the
+fatal mistake of appropriating a chest of important state papers and
+examining them himself instead of calling together a commission. As
+is known, the papers turned out to be fatal to Louis XVI. Libels and
+denunciations were pronounced against Roland, but his wife, called
+before the convention, not only succeeded in turning aside all
+accusations, but was voted the honors of the sitting.
+
+At the time of the trial of the king, the power and influence of
+the Girondists were waning; then the Rolands became the butt of many
+violent and unreasonable outbursts. With the resignation of Roland on
+January 22, 1792, the day of the execution of the king, the fate of
+the Girondists was sealed. This time the minister was not asked to
+reconsider; in fact, his exposure of the pilfering then going on among
+the officials made him one of the most unpopular men in Paris. Upon
+their return to private life, Mme. Roland was accused of forming the
+plot to destroy the republic. When an armed force arrived one morning
+at half-past five o'clock to arrest her husband, she resisted them,
+herself going to the convention to expose the iniquity of such a
+proceeding. Failing in this, she returned to her husband, to find him
+safe with a friend. Being again arrested, she met the ordeal with her
+accustomed courage; and when the officers offered to pull down the
+blinds of the carriage, to shield her from the gaze of the unfriendly
+public, she said: "No, gentlemen! innocence, however oppressed, should
+not assume the attitude of guilt. I fear the eyes of no one, and do
+not wish to escape even those of my enemies." "You have much more
+character than many men," they replied; "you can calmly await
+justice," "Justice!" she cried; "if it existed, I should not be
+in your power! I would go to the scaffold as calmly as if sent by
+iniquitous men. I fear only guilt, and despise injustice and death!"
+
+She has been deeply criticised for her letters written to her friend
+Buzot while she was in prison; yet it should be remembered that there
+was not the slightest chance of their meeting again, and, besides,
+the letters reveal the terrible struggle through which she had passed.
+While in prison, her beauty, grace, and fearlessness won and humanized
+nearly all who came under her spell. She was once unexpectedly
+set at liberty, but only to be sentenced to the lowest of
+prisons--Sainte-Pélagie. There, in the space of about one month,
+her memoirs, now among the French classics, were written. At the
+Conciergerie, where the lowest criminals and the filthiest paupers
+were crowded into cells with the highest of the nobility, and where
+the cowardly Mme. du Barry spent her last hours, Mme. Roland, by her
+quiet dignity and patient serenity, commanded silence and respect, and
+calmness and peace replaced angry and pitiful wrangling. The prisoners
+clung to her, crying and kissing her hand, while she spoke words of
+advice and consolation to the doomed women, who "looked upon her as a
+beneficent divinity." Her conduct under these circumstances alone is
+sufficient to keep alive her memory. In the last days, she clung to
+and upheld most passionately her principles of liberty and moderation,
+and in her conversation with Beugnot it was evident that she had been
+the real inspiration in the Girondist party for all that was best and
+most uplifting.
+
+The charge against her when before the bar of judgment of
+Fouquier-Tinville, the terrible prosecutor, consisted in her relation
+to the Girondists who had been condemned to death as traitors to the
+republic. She met her death heroically, as became a woman who had
+lived bravely. At the very last moment of her life, she offered
+consolation to fellow victims. Her death was that of the greatest
+heroine of the Revolution, the climax of a life the one ambition of
+which had been to save her country and to shed her blood for it. As
+she rode through the city in her pure white raiment, serenely radiant
+in her own innocence, she was the embodiment of all that was highest
+and purest in the Revolution--one of the best and greatest women known
+to French history. She stands out as a representative of the French
+Republic.
+
+There are a number of traits of Mme. Roland which should be considered
+before giving a final estimate of her character, of her rôle in French
+history, and of her right to be ranked among the most illustrious
+women of France. Critics in general seem to show her a marked
+hostility; such men as Caro assert that she had no modesty, that she
+lacked sentiment, delicacy, and reserve. M. Saint-Amand said that she
+reflected the vices and virtues of her age, summing up the passions
+and illusions, being intellectually and morally the disciple of
+Rousseau, but socially personifying the third estate, which in the
+beginning asked for nothing, but later demanded all. Politics made
+her cruel at times, although by nature she was good and sensible. He
+declared that with her acquaintance with Buzot began her career of
+love and ambition. In love, she believed herself a patriot, but all
+the various phases of her public career were simply the results of her
+emotions. Thus, for example, in order to see Buzot, she persuaded
+her husband to return to Paris to seek his fortune and make the
+realization of her dreams possible. She desired to play a rôle for
+which her origin had not destined her, which made her actions appear
+theatrical and affected. It is evident that she hated both the king
+and the queen, and at the council for the Girondist ministry demanded
+the death of the royal couple. And yet, Saint-Amand cites her as the
+most beautiful of that group of martyrs who lost their lives in the
+first heat of the Revolution--as the genius among them by her
+force, purity, and grace--the brilliant and austere muse in all the
+saintliness of martyrdom.
+
+The two maxims which Mme. Roland followed throughout her career had
+much to do with her fall: security is the tomb of liberty; indulgence
+toward men in authority is the means of pushing them to despotism.
+These maxims as her motto or impulse, united with the spirit of push,
+energy, and at times rashness and impropriety, naturally led her to
+her ruin in those days of revolutionary ideas. She was a woman of
+powerful passion controlled by reason, and with frankness, devotion,
+courage, and fidelity as forces impelling her to activity. But there
+was one great defect which was at the bottom of her misfortunes,--a
+too great ambition, which often led her into perilous paths, even to
+the scaffold, which, in its turn, covered her errors.
+
+She is said to have married M. Roland more as a theory than as
+a husband, for her ideas of marriage were such as to make pure,
+disinterested love impossible. Her husband was in many respects her
+intellectual superior, but she excelled him in versatility. Being her
+senior by twenty years, when he grew old and infirm he depended upon
+her for a great deal, all of which contributed to her restlessness
+and unhappiness. Then there developed in her that terrible struggle
+between loyalty to her husband and passion for Buzot, in which reason
+conquered. This devotion to duty was indeed rare in those days, when
+passion was supreme and pure love was almost unknown. Mr. Dobson says
+that this one trait by which she gave real expression of virtue is
+profoundly a product of her mental self. Her instinct would have led
+her to self-abandonment, so common in that day, but her "man by the
+head" self was stronger than her "woman by the heart" self. These two
+sides of her character, fostered by incessant reading, incited her
+fearful and unrelenting hatreds as well as her passion, "masculine
+enough to be mistrusted and feminine enough to be admired." These two
+qualities made her a power and an attraction. Her better side will
+continue to shine clearer as the horror of those days is revealed.
+Whatever may be the effects of her ambitious nature and of her
+unfortunate passion for Buzot, by the very virtue of her intellect and
+reasoning she will remain the one great woman of the Revolution who
+willingly and conscientiously sacrificed her life for her country.
+
+A type perhaps more universally known in her relation to the
+Revolution than is Mme. Roland, though no better understood, was
+Charlotte Corday. Possessed of a most intense patriotism and an
+unusual emotional nature, she represented better than any other woman
+of her age the peculiar French trait--namely, the emotional perfectly
+combined with the mathematical. She was unique; her compatriots
+practised the art of studying themselves, in order to be attractive,
+and thus accomplished their ends, while her ambition was not to
+please merely, but to be of some real, practical value to her troubled
+country. She stands out, however, as the product of the end of the
+eighteenth century, a natural result of the reading of philosophy
+and political pamphlets. Quite naturally, she entertained such
+philosophical sentiments as this: "No one will lose in losing me,
+and the country may be better off for the sacrifice. Death comes only
+once, and let us use it to the good of the country or the greatest
+number of people." Thus, her philosophy led her to a complete
+detachment from her individual self, and fostered the idea of dying
+for her country.
+
+Her decision to rid France of Marat was arrived at by degrees of
+silent brooding over the evils which beset her native land; at last
+she felt herself called to some great act which would necessitate the
+loss of her life. "The time brought forth desperation, intense warmth
+of feeling, concentrated upon some purpose or object;" the reasoning
+self seemed to be stifled by the intensity of the emotion. Yet,
+reason was to conquer in her. When the Girondists returned to Caen
+and described Robespierre and Marat in the darkest colors, she at once
+felt moved to put forth all her efforts to rid France of that evil
+blot--Marat. She was beautiful, strong, and graceful, presenting a
+most striking appearance. Loved by all, she felt love and devotion
+only for her country. Desperate and determined, she set out to fulfil
+her mission. She was a mere expression of the conservative element
+which acts only when driven by sheer necessity. Her reason impressed
+her with her duty and circumstances; the time acted upon her mind.
+"Easy, calm, resigned, she looked upon the angry masses of people who
+cursed her," confident that she had done her country a service, and
+proud that she had been the fortunate one to render it. This was her
+glory, and for this she will be remembered in history.
+
+Possibly the rarest phenomenon in the history of the illustrious women
+of France is Mme. Récamier, who, by force of her beauty and social
+fascination, and without intellectual gifts or even wit, won for
+herself the position of queen of French society, which she held for
+nearly half a century. The very name of Récamier has come to evoke a
+vision of beauty, a beauty so well known to every lover of art who
+has visited the Luxembourg and gazed upon the figure "so flexible
+and elegant, with head well poised, brilliant complexion, little rosy
+mouth with pearly teeth, black curling hair, soft expressive eyes, and
+a bearing indicative of indolence and pride, yet with a face beaming
+with good nature and sympathy." Her beauty has been considered
+perfect, but a recent writer has proved this to be an error.
+M.J. Turquan, in a new volume on Mme. Récamier, is everything but
+sympathetic to the woman at whom criticism has rarely been pointed.
+"Quite a contrast to her extraordinary beauty of face," he declares,
+"were her hands, with big fingers square at the end and having flat
+nails. The same may be said of her feet, which were not only big, but
+were without the slightest trace of _finesse_ in their lines." But
+though Turquan has raised numerous points in her disfavor, they
+are not at all likely to detract from her unrivalled reputation for
+beauty.
+
+Critics have made of her a sort of enigmatic figure, supernatural
+and having only the form of the human. Thus, in Lamartine we find the
+following description: "The young girl was, they say, a _sous-entendu_
+of nature: she could be a wife, she could not be a mother. These are
+the two mysteries we must respect, but which we must know to have been
+the secret of the entire life of Mme. Récamier--a mournful and eternal
+enigma which will never have its words divined,... All her looks
+produced an intoxication, but brought hope to no heart. The divine
+statue had not descended from its pedestal for anyone, as though such
+a performance would have been too divine for a mortal." Her beauty was
+so marked, so singular, that wherever she appeared--at the ball, the
+theatre--it caused a sensation; all turned to look at her and admire
+in subdued astonishment. Her form was said to be marvellously
+elegant and supple, her neck of an exquisite perfection, her mouth
+"deliciously small and pink, her teeth veritable pearls set in
+coral, her arms splendidly moulded, her eyes full of sweetness
+and admiration, her nose most attractive in its regularity, her
+physiognomy candid and spiritual, her air indolent and haughty, and
+her attitude reserved. Before this ensemble, you remained in ecstasy."
+All this beauty was particularly well set off by an exquisite white
+dress adorned with pearls--a style she affected the year around.
+
+But her beauty alone could hardly have contributed to the marvellous
+success of Mme. Récamier, as some critics assert. Guizot, for
+instance, suspects her nature to have been less superficial than
+other writers might lead one to suppose. He said: "This passionate
+admiration, this constant affection, this insatiable taste for society
+and conversation, won her a wide friendship. All who approached and
+knew her--foreigners and Frenchmen, princes and the middle classes,
+saints and worldlings, philosophers and artists, adversaries as
+well as partisans--all she inspired with the ideas and causes she
+espoused." Her qualities outside of her beauty were tact, generosity,
+and elevation of soul, combined with an amiable grace which was
+unlimited, however superficial it may have been. Knowing how to
+maintain, in her salon, harmony and even cordial relations between men
+of the most varied temperaments and political ideas, it was possible
+for her to remain all her life an intelligent and warm-hearted bond
+between the élite minds and their diverse sentiments, which she
+tactfully tempered. Though ever faithful to one cause, she admitted
+men and women of all parties to her salon. She was moderate and
+just in the midst of the most arduous struggles, tolerant toward her
+adversaries, generous toward the conquered, sympathetic to all, and
+remarkably successful in conciliating all political, literary, and
+philosophical opinions as well as the passions which she aroused in
+her worshippers. To these qualities, as much as to her beauty, were
+due the harmony of her life, the unity of her character--which were
+never troubled by the turmoils of politics or the emotions of love.
+She was not wife, mother, or lover; "she never belonged to anyone in
+soul or sense." Always mistress of her imagination as well as of
+her heart, she permitted herself to be charmed but never carried
+away--receiving from all, but giving nothing in return. Her life
+was brilliant, but there was lurking in the background the demon
+of sadness and lassitude and the terrible disease of the eighteenth
+century,--ennui.
+
+Two splendid portraits of Mme. Récamier are left to us: one by her
+passionate but unsuccessful lover, Benjamin Constant, picturing her
+as the personification of attractiveness; the other by M. Lenormant,
+showing that she desired constant admiration: "She lacked the
+affections which bring veritable happiness and the true dignity of
+woman. Her barren heart, desirous of tenderness and devotion, sought
+recompense for this need of living, in the homage of passionate
+admiration, the language of which pleases the ears." Mme. Récamier,
+while still a child, seemed to realize the power of her beauty, and
+even before her marriage in 1793 she would often say, when demanded
+in marriage: "Mon Dieu! how beautiful I must be already!" A mere girl
+when married, being only sixteen years of age, she felt no love for
+her husband, who was her senior by twenty-five years. Soon after the
+terrible times of "the Reign of Terror" she found herself one of the
+most beautiful women in Paris, and her husband one of the wealthiest
+of bankers. The three rival women of the times were Mme. Récamier,
+Mme. Tallien, and Josephine. The terrible days of the guillotine were
+succeeded by an uninterrupted reign of pleasure, "when a fever of
+amusement possessed everyone, and the desire for distraction of all
+kinds seemed to have been pushed to its limits." M. Turquan states
+that in the reign of dissolute extravagance, immorality, and gorgeous
+splendor, Mme. Récamier formed a striking contrast by her simplicity.
+Her first triumph was at the church Saint-Roche, the most fashionable
+of Paris, where she was selected to raise a purse for charity. On one
+occasion the collection amounted to twenty thousand francs, all due to
+the beauty of the woman passing the plate. She was soon invited by her
+friend Barras to all the balls and fêtes under the Directorate.
+
+In 1798 M. Récamier bought the house formerly tenanted by Necker, and
+later established himself in a château at Clichy, where he received
+his friends, among whom was Lucien Bonaparte, who attempted the
+ruin of the beautiful hostess, but without success. Napoleon himself
+attempted in vain to win her to his court as maid of honor and as an
+ornament, her refusal incurring his anger, especially as she was the
+height of fashion and courted by all the great men of the age. Through
+her preference for the Royalists--persisting in her line of conduct
+in spite of her friend Fouché--she finally incurred the enmity of
+the emperor. Even the Princess Caroline endeavored to obtain Mme.
+Récamier's friendship for Napoleon, "but, although the princess gave
+her _loge_ twice to the favorite, and upon each occasion the emperor
+went to the theatre expressly to gaze upon her, she remained firm in
+her refusal, which was one of the causes of the downfall of her
+banker husband, whom Napoleon might have saved had his wife been the
+emperor's friend." Napoleon certainly resented her refusal, for when
+requested to save Récamier's bank he replied: "I am not in love with
+Mme. Récamier!" Thus, because his wife preferred the aristocracy to
+the favors of Napoleon, the banker lost his fortune.
+
+She, however, bore her misfortunes with great reserve, immediately
+selling her jewels and her hôtel; after which they both retired to
+small apartments, where they were even more honored and had greater
+social prestige than ever. She at once made her salon the centre of
+hostility against the emperor, who, according to Turquan, did not
+banish her, but her friend Mme. de Staël, with whom she passed
+over into Switzerland. Here began her romance with Prince August
+of Prussia, who became so enamored of her that he asked her hand in
+marriage. Encouraged by Mme. de Staël, she even went so far as to ask
+her husband for a divorce, that she might wed the royal aspirant. Her
+husband generously consented to this, but at the same time set forth
+to her the peculiar position which she would occupy, an argument that
+opened her eyes to her ingratitude, and she refused the prince.
+
+Upon the fall of Napoleon, Mme. Récamier returned to Paris and, her
+husband's fortune being restored, gathered about her all the great
+nobles of the ancient régime. But fortune was unkind to her husband
+for the second time, and she withdrew to the Abbaye-au-Bois, where she
+occupied a small apartment on the third floor. Here her distinguished
+friends followed her--such as Chateaubriand and the Duc de
+Montmorency. Between her and the famous author of _Le Génie du
+Christianisme_ there sprang up a friendship which lasted thirty years.
+During this time it is said that he visited her at a certain hour
+each day, the people in the neighborhood setting their clocks by his
+appearance. When he was absent on missions, he wrote her of every
+act of his life. Both, weary of the dissipations of society and
+its flatteries, sought a pure and lofty friendship, spiritual and
+affectionate, with no improper intimacy. There was mutual admiration
+and mutual respect. Even Chateaubriand's wife, who was an invalid and
+with whom he spent every evening, encouraged his friendship with Mme.
+Récamier. When, through the fall of Charles X., Chateaubriand lost his
+power, the friendship did not cease. M. Turquan insists that he did
+not really care seriously for Mme. Récamier, that his visits were the
+outgrowth of mere habit. But it is to be seen that throughout his book
+Turquan has little sympathy for his subject, whom he pictures as
+a beautiful, heartless, intriguing woman with immense hands, flat,
+square fingers, and large feet.
+
+The influence possessed by Mme. Récamier was most remarkable; for
+with the new statesmen, Thiers, Guizot, Mignet, De Tocqueville,
+Sainte-Beuve, as well as the nobles and princes, she was on most
+cordial terms, and was received in any salon which she chose to visit.
+Her unbounded sympathy, tact, and common sense made her friendship
+and counsel much in demand by great men. One trait, however, her
+exclusiveness, caused much discomfort in her life, such as bringing
+upon her the ill will of Napoleon.
+
+In her later years her physical beauty gradually developed into a
+moral beauty. She was never a passionate woman, but rather passively
+affectionate; purely unselfish, her one desire always was to make
+people love her and to be happy. Her friendship with Chateaubriand in
+the later days was possibly the most ideal and noble in the history of
+French women. He never failed to make his appearance in the afternoon
+at the _abbaye_, driven in a carriage to her threshold, where he was
+placed in an armchair and wheeled to a corner by her fireplace. On one
+of those visits, he asked her to marry him--he being seventy-nine, she
+seventy-one--and bear his illustrious name. "Why should we marry at
+our age?" Mme. Récamier replied. "There is no impropriety in my taking
+care of you. If solitude is painful to you, I am ready to live in the
+same house with you. The world will do justice to the purity of our
+friendship. Years and blindness give me this right. Let us change
+nothing in so perfect an affection." Her charm never deserted her, and
+she continued to the very last to receive the greatest men and women
+of the day. Still the reigning beauty and the queen of French society,
+she died at the age of seventy-two, of cholera.
+
+There is a wide difference between Mme. Récamier and Josephine, the
+two women of the Napoleonic era who exerted so powerful an influence
+upon the social and political fortunes of France. At the time of
+Napoleon's first success, the former was only twenty-one, with
+Madonna-like charms and attractiveness; the latter, thirty-five, but
+with exquisite taste in dress and skill in beautifying. Possessed of
+unstudied natural grace and elegance, and always attired in perfect
+harmony with her beauty of face and form, she could easily stand a
+comparison with the other beauties of the day, all of whom studied her
+air and manner and marked the aristocratic ease and poise of her real
+_noblesse_ of the old régime.
+
+"Josephine had a faded and brown complexion, which she remedied with
+rouge and powder; her small mouth concealed her bad teeth; her elegant
+figure and graceful movements, refined expression, gentle voice and
+dignity, all dexterously expressed with an air of coquetry, made her
+delightful." The happiest part of the life of Napoleon and Josephine
+was during their stay in Italy, when he was absolutely faithful
+to her. As soon as Napoleon left for Egypt, Talleyrand secured the
+erasure of many noble names from the list of the proscribed exiles and
+soon gathered about him a large number of Royalists, who immediately
+began to pay court to Josephine. Napoleon had enjoined her to keep
+her salon according to the means he provided and to entertain all
+influential people. To this she was equal; and all men of elevated
+rank, the most distinguished artists, men of letters, orators, and
+musicians, found her salon an enjoyable retreat. No greater galaxy of
+talent and genius ever assembled under the old régime than was found
+there,--David, Lebrun, Lesueur, Grétry, Cherubini, Méhul, J. Chénier,
+Hoffman, Ducis, Désaugiers, Legouvé, and others.
+
+But her life was not without its difficulties. She was always annoyed
+by the Bonaparte family, who were jealous of her influence over
+Bonaparte. Exceedingly extravagant, in fact a spendthrift, she was
+always in need of money. Her virtues, however, easily offset these
+defects. Josephine never offended anyone, never argued politics;
+she made friends in all classes, thus conciliating Republicans and
+aristocrats; therefore, her greatest influence was as a mediator
+between two classes of society, by which she, more than any other
+woman, unconsciously contributed to the forming of a new social
+France. Napoleon was wise enough to recognize such diplomacy, and
+encouraged her to intrigue like an experienced diplomat. She was the
+most efficient aid and means to his future plans, and M. Saint-Amand
+says that without her he would possibly never have become emperor.
+When he returned from Egypt and found her away,--she had gone to meet
+him, but missed him,--his suspicions were aroused as to her fidelity,
+as she had been accused of many misdeeds. When the reconciliation
+finally took place, after a day of sobbing and pleading, she put
+to work all her tact and knowledge of Parisian society to help her
+husband to the _coup d'état_.
+
+She was always of great service to Napoleon in his relations with the
+men of whom he wished to make use; fascinating them and drawing them
+over to him, she charmed such persons as Barras, Gohier, Fouché,
+Moreau, Talleyrand, Sièyes, and others. By her skill she kept hidden
+Napoleon's plans until all was ripe for them. She was in the secret
+of the 18th Brumaire; "nothing was concealed from her. In every
+conference at which she was present, her discretion, gentleness,
+grace, and the ready ingenuity of her delicate and cool intelligence
+were of great service." During the Directorate she allayed jealousies
+and appeased the differences between Republicans and Royalists. As
+wife of the First Consul, she conciliated the _émigrés_. At that time
+she was probably the most important figure in France. The _émigrés_
+would call at her salon in the morning so as to avoid meeting her
+husband, with whom they refused to associate. Her task was not easy,
+but she knew so well how to say a kind word to all, and her tact was
+so great that when she became empress the duties and requirements
+of that office were natural to her. She won the Republicans by her
+friendship with Fouché, the representative of the revolutionary
+element--the aristocracy, by her dignity and refinement. Her whole
+appearance had a peculiar charm.
+
+In 1803 the conditions began to be reversed. In 1796 Josephine had
+worried Napoleon on account of her inconstancy; she was then young
+and beautiful, while he was penniless and ailing. In 1803 he was
+thirty-four and she forty--he in his prime, wealthy and popular,
+she faded and powerless, no longer able to give cause for suspicion.
+However, nothing could make Napoleon reject her, because she was
+useful to him. "Her kindness was a weapon against her enemies, a charm
+for her friends, and the source of her power over her husband." "I
+gained battles, Josephine gained me hearts," are the well-known words
+of Napoleon. As empress she had every wish gratified, but she
+realized that a woman of her age could not continue indefinitely her
+fascination over a man as capricious as Napoleon. In the brilliant
+court of Fontainebleau she held the highest place, and no one could
+suspect the anxieties that tormented her, so cool and happy did she
+appear.
+
+Josephine did many things that later on gradually helped reconcile
+Napoleon to a divorce: her pride, her aristocratic tendencies,
+extravagance and lavishness; her objection to the marriage of Hortense
+to General Duroc on the grounds of humble birth; her religious
+tendencies; her difficulty in keeping secrets, which led to highly
+tragic scenes between her and Bonaparte; the encouragement she gave
+to the jealousies and hatred of her brothers and sisters-in-law,
+who maliciously slandered her at every opportunity; and finally, her
+barrenness.
+
+Her career after her divorce was honorable, and to-day Josephine is
+still held in the highest esteem in France and in the world at large.
+Her greatness is not in having been the wife of a great emperor, but
+in knowing how to adapt herself to the conditions in France into which
+she was suddenly thrust. As a conciliator and a mediator between two
+almost hopelessly irreconcilable classes of society, she deserves a
+prominent place among great French women.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIV
+
+Women of the Nineteenth Century
+
+
+Among the unusually large number of prominent French women which the
+nineteenth century produced, possibly not more than a half-dozen
+names will survive,--Mme. de Staël, George Sand, Rosa Bonheur, Sarah
+Bernhardt, Mme. Lebrun, and Rachel. This circumstance is, possibly,
+largely due to the character of the century: its activity, its varied
+accomplishments, its wide progress along so many lines, its social
+development, its absolute freedom and tolerance--all of which tended
+to open a field for women more extensive than in any preceding
+century.
+
+The salon, in its old-time glory, became a thing of the past; and
+the passing of this institution lessened, to a large extent, the
+possibility of great influence on the part of women. In short, the
+mode of life became, in the nineteenth century, unfavorable to the
+absolute power exercised by woman in former times. She was now on a
+level with man, enjoying more privileges and being looked upon more as
+the equal and possible rival of man. It became necessary for woman to
+make and establish her own position, whereas, under the old régime,
+her power and position were established by custom, which regarded her
+vocation as entirely distinct from that of man. The result was a host
+of prominent and active women, but few really great ones. Undoubtedly
+by far the most important and influential was Madame de Staël, but her
+influence and work are so intimately associated with her life that
+any account of her which aims at giving a true estimate of her
+significance must necessarily involve much biography.
+
+Her mother, the Mme. Necker of salon fame, endeavored to bring up her
+daughter as the _chef d'oeuvre_ of natural art,--pious, modest in her
+conversation, dignified in her behavior, without pride or frivolity,
+but with wide knowledge. In this ambition she partly succeeded. At
+the age of eleven the young girl was present at receptions, where
+she listened to discussions by such men as Grimm, Buffon, Suard,
+and others. Her parents took her to the theatre, and she would
+subsequently compose short stories on what she had heard and seen.
+Rousseau became her ideal, but she enjoyed all literature, showing an
+insatiable desire for knowledge. From her early youth to her death,
+her conversation was ever the result of her own impulse; consequently,
+it was uncontrolled and lacked the seriousness imparted by deep
+reflection.
+
+Interested in all things except Nature, which seemed mournful to her,
+while solitude horrified her, society was her delight. At the age of
+twenty she wrote: "A woman must have nothing to herself and must find
+all power in that which she loves." Her masculine ideal was a man
+of society, of success, a hero of the Academy, a superior genius,
+animated more by the desire to please than to be useful. During these
+early years she wrote a great deal, her work being mostly in the form
+of sentimental utterances, but very little has survived her.
+
+When she reached marriageable age, many ambitions of her parents were
+frustrated by her independent will. Pitt, Mirabeau, Bonaparte, were
+considered, but destiny had in store for her a Swedish ambassador,
+Staël-Holstein, a man of good family, but with little money and plenty
+of debts, who had been looking out for a comfortable dowry. In 1786,
+at the time when Marie Antoinette was at the height of her popularity,
+this girl of twenty years was married to a man seventeen years her
+senior, who had no affection for her and whom she could not love.
+
+At Paris she immediately opened a salon, which soon eclipsed, both in
+beauty and wit, that of her mother; there her eloquence, enthusiasm,
+and conversational gifts captivated all, but her imprudent language,
+the recklessness of her conduct, her scorn of all etiquette, her
+outspoken preferences, frightened away women and stunned men. Her
+sympathy for her friends, Talleyrand, Narbonne, De Montmorency,
+together with the approaching Revolution, drew her into politics. When
+her father was called by the nation to the control of its finances,
+his daughter shared his glories.
+
+Her salon was the centre of the élite and of all literary and
+political discussions; but as the majority of its frequenters were
+partisans of the English constitution and expressed their views
+openly and freely, her enemies became numerous. When Narbonne was made
+minister of war, a great triumph for her and her party, the eloquence
+of his reports was attributed to her, and when he fell into disgrace
+she rescued him. However, the atmosphere of Paris was too unfriendly,
+so she left in 1792 for her home at Coppet, which became an asylum
+for all the proscribed. When she visited England, she began a
+thorough study of its mode of life, its customs, and its parliamentary
+institutions. Upon her return to Coppet she wrote _Réflexions sur le
+Procès de la Reine_, to excite the commiseration of the judges. After
+the death of her mother in 1794, she devoted her energies to the
+education of her two boys.
+
+After the violence of her love for Benjamin Constant, who drew
+her back to politics, was somewhat cooled, she became an ardent
+Republican, writing her treatise _Réflexions sur la Paix adressées
+a M. Pitt et aux Anglais_, which facilitated her return in 1795 to
+Paris, where she found her husband reinstalled as ambassador. Her
+hôtel in the Rue de Bac was reopened, and she proceeded to form a
+salon from the débris of society floating about in Paris. It was an
+assembly of queer characters--elements of the old and new régime, but
+not at all reconciled, converts of the Jacobin party returning for the
+first time into society, surrounded by the women of the old régime,
+using all imaginable efforts and flattery to obtain the _rentrée_ of
+a brother, a son, or a lover; it was composed of the most moderate
+Revolutionists, of former Constitutionalists, of exiles of the
+Monarchy, whom she endeavored to bring over to the Republican cause.
+
+Through the influence of Mme. de Staël, the decree of banishment was
+repealed by the convention, thus opening Paris to Talleyrand. In 1795
+appeared her _Réflexions sur la Paix Intérieure_; the aim of that
+work being to organize the French Republic on the plan of the United
+States; it strongly opposed the restoration of the Monarchy. The
+Comité du Salut Publique accused her of double play, of favoring
+intrigues, and, seeing the plots of the Royalists, she adopted a new
+plan in her salon; politics being too dangerous, she decided to devote
+herself more to literature. In her book _Les Passions_ she endeavored
+to crush her calumniators; she wrote: "Condemned to celebrity, without
+being able to be known I find need of making myself known by my
+writings."
+
+It was not safe for her to return to Paris until 1797, when her friend
+Talleyrand was made minister of foreign affairs. Her efforts to charm
+Napoleon led only to estrangement, although he appointed her friend
+Benjamin Constant to the tribunate; but when he publicly announced the
+advent of the tyrant Napoleon, she was accused of inciting her friends
+against the government, and was again banished to Coppet, where she
+wrote the celebrated work _De la Littérature Considérée sous ses
+Rapports avec les Institutions Sociales_, a singular mixture of
+satirical allusions to Napoleon's government and cabals against
+his power; in that work she announced, also, her belief in the
+regeneration of French literature by the influence of foreign
+literature, and endeavored to show the relations which exist between
+political institutions and literature. Thus, she was the first
+to bring the message of a general cosmopolitan relationship of
+literatures and literary ideas.
+
+In 1802 she returned to Paris and began to show, on every possible
+occasion, a morbid hatred for Napoleon. When her father published his
+work _Dernières Vues de Politique et de Finance_, expressing a desire
+to write against the tyranny of one, after having fought so long that
+of the multitude, the emperor immediately accused Mme. de Staël of
+instilling these ideas into her father. Her salon and forty of her
+friends were put into the interdict.
+
+After the death of her husband in 1802, she was free to marry Benjamin
+Constant; and after refusing him, she wrote her novel _Delphine_ to
+give vent to her feelings. The two famous lines found in almost every
+work on Mme. de Staël may be quoted here, as they well express her
+ideas on marriage: "A man must know how to brave an opinion, and a
+woman must submit to it." This qualification Benjamin Constant lacked,
+and at that time she was unable to give the submission.
+
+Her travels in Germany, Russia, and Italy were one great succession of
+triumphs; by her brilliancy, her wonderful gift of conversation, and
+her quickness of comprehension, she everywhere baffled and astounded
+those with whom she conversed. Schiller declared that when she left
+he felt as though he were just convalescing after a long spell of
+illness. One day she abruptly asked the staid old philosopher Fichte:
+"M. Fichte, can you give me, in a short time, an _aperçu_ of your
+system of philosophy, and tell me what you mean by your ego? I find it
+very obscure." He began by translating his thoughts into French, very
+deliberately. After talking for some ten minutes, in the midst of a
+deep argument she interrupted him, crying out: "Enough, M. Fichte,
+quite enough! I understand you perfectly; I have seen your system
+in illustration--it is an adventure of Baron Münchhausen." The
+philosopher assumed a tragic attitude, and a spell of silence fell
+upon the audience.
+
+The result of her visit to Italy was her novel _Corinne_, in which the
+problems of the destiny of women of genius--the relative joys of love
+and glory--are discussed. This work remained for a whole generation
+the standard of love and ideals, and at the same time revealed Italy
+to the French, After a second visit to Germany, she began to labor
+seriously on her work on that country, in 1810 going _incognito_ to
+Paris to have it printed. Ten thousand copies, ready for sale, were
+destroyed before reaching the public. This work opened the German
+world to the French; it applied, to a great nation, the doctrine of
+progress, defending the independence and originality of nations, while
+endeavoring to show that the future lay in the reciprocal respect
+of the rights of people, declaring that nations are not at all the
+arbitrary work of men or the fatal work of circumstances, and that the
+submission of one people to another is contrary to nature. She wished
+to make "poor and noble Germany" conscious of its intellectual
+riches, and to prove that Europe could obtain peace only through
+the liberation of that country. The censors accused her of lack
+of patriotism in provoking the Germans to independence, and of
+questionable taste in praising their literature; consequently, the
+book was denounced, all the copies obtainable were destroyed, and a
+vigorous search for the manuscript was undertaken. After this episode,
+her friends were not permitted to visit her at Coppet.
+
+In 1811 she was secretly married to a young Italian officer, Albert de
+Rocca, a handsome man of twenty-three--she was then forty-five. In him
+she realized the conditions which she described in _Delphine_, namely,
+a man who braved an opinion and prejudices; and she was ready to
+submit herself to him, Coppet became the centre for endless pleasures
+and fêtes; Mme. de Staël began to write comedies and to forget Paris
+entirely. This blissful happiness was suddenly checked by the emperor,
+who determined to show his displeasure and also to give evidence
+of his power by banishing Schlegel and exiling Mme. Récamier and De
+Montmorency, who continued to visit Mme. de Staël. Fear for the safety
+of her husband and children influenced her to leave for Russia, where
+the czar ordered all Russians to honor her as the enemy of Napoleon.
+Indeed, she was everywhere received like a visiting queen.
+
+In the autumn of 1816 she returned to Paris, and spent a number of
+months very happily in her old style--in the society of the salon.
+Though devoured by insomnia, enervated by the use of opium, and
+besieged by fear of death, she accepted all invitations, and kept
+open house herself, receiving in the morning, at dinner, and in the
+evening; and though at night she paced the floor for hours or
+tossed about on her bed until morning, she was yet fresh for all the
+pleasures of the next day. But this mode of existence was undermining
+her health.
+
+She endured this constant strain until one evening in February,
+1817, when, at a ball at the Duke of Decazes's, in the midst of her
+pleasure, she was stricken with paralysis. At the Rue des Mathurins,
+she had all her friends come and dine with her. Chateaubriand, who
+was one of the party, entered her room upon one occasion and found her
+suffering intensely, but able to raise herself and say: "Bonjour, my
+dear Francis! I am suffering, but that does not hinder me from loving
+you." She lingered until July, when there ended a life which not only
+influenced but even modified politics and the institutions of nations,
+which exercised, by writings, an incalculable influence upon French
+literature, opening paths which previously had not been trod.
+
+The most important of her works is _De l'Allemagne_, in writing which
+her only desire was to make Germany known to the French, to explain
+it by comparison with France and to make her people admire it, and
+to open new paths to poetry. According to her, Germany possessed no
+classic prose, because the Germans attributed less importance to style
+than did the French. German poetry, however, had a distinct charm,
+being all sentiment and poetry of the soul, touching and penetrating;
+whereas French poetry was all _esprit_, eloquence, reason, raillery.
+
+In her treatise on the drama, she was the first in French literature
+to use the term "romantic" and to define it; but she had not invented
+the word, Wieland having used it to designate the country in which the
+ancient Roman literature flourished. Her definition was: "The classic
+word is sometimes taken as a synonym of perfection. I use it in
+another acceptance by considering classic poetry that of the ancients
+and romantic poetry that which holds in some way to the chivalresque
+traditions. The literature of the ancients is a transplanted
+literature with us; but romantic or chivalresque literature is
+indigenous. An imitation of works coming from a political, social,
+and religious midst different from ours means a literature which is
+no longer in relation with us, which has never been popular, and
+which will become less so every day. On the contrary, the romantic
+literature is the only one which is susceptible of being perfected,
+because it bears its roots from our soil and is, consequently, the
+only one which can be revived and increased. It expresses our religion
+and recalls our history." This opinion alone was enough to create a
+revolt among her contemporaries. Almost all other interpretations of
+_Faust_ were based on her conception.
+
+At the time of its publication, her book was considered to have been
+written in a political spirit, but her motive was far from that; it
+was the action of a generous heart, a book as true and loyal to
+the French as was ever a book written by a Frenchman. In her work
+_Considérations sur la Révolution Française_ she expressed the most
+advanced ideas on politics and government. The Revolution freed France
+and made it prosper; "every absolute monarch enslaves his country, and
+freedom reigns not in politics nor in the arts and sciences. Local and
+provincial liberties have formed nations, but royalty has deformed the
+nation by turning it to profit." Mme. de Staël found nothing to admire
+in Louis XIV., and to Richelieu she attributed the destruction of
+the originality of the French character, of its loyalty, candor,
+and independence. In that work she advocated education, which she
+considered a duty of the government to the people. "Schools must be
+established for the education of the poor, universities for the study
+of all languages, literatures, and sciences;" these ideas took root
+after her death.
+
+Mme. de Staël was a finished writer; because of its force, openness,
+and seriousness, her style might be termed a masculine one; she wrote
+to persuade and, as a rule, succeeded. Her grave defect seemed to be
+in her inspirations, which were always superior to her ideas, and in
+her sentiments, which she invariably turned to passions.
+
+Few French writers have exercised such a great influence in so many
+directions, and it became specially marked after her death; while
+living, the gossip against her salon prevented her opinions from being
+accepted or taking root. Her political influence was great at her
+time and lasted some twenty years. Directly influenced by her were
+Narbonne, De Montmorency, Benjamin Constant, and the Duc Victor de
+Broglie, her son-in-law. By her and her father, the Globe, the orators
+of the Academy and the tribune, and the politicians of the day, were
+inspired. The greatest was Guizot, who interpreted and preached in the
+spirit of Mme. de Staël. In history her influence was equally felt,
+especially in Guizot's _Essays on the History of France_, and in his
+_History of Civilization_, wherein civilization was considered as the
+constant progress in justice, in society, and in the state. To her
+Guizot owed his idea of _Amour dans le Mariage_. _The Historical
+Essays on England_, by Rémusat, an ardent admirer of hers, was largely
+influenced by her _Considérations_, while Tocqueville's _Ancien
+Régime_ contains many of her ideas.
+
+Literature owes even more to her works, which encouraged the study of
+foreign literatures; almost all translations were due to her works.
+Michelet, Quinet, Nodier, Victor Hugo, so much influenced by German
+literature, owe their knowledge of it mainly to her. Too much credit
+may be given her when it is stated that all Mignons, Marguerites,
+Mephistopheles, etc., proceeded indirectly from her work, as well as
+nearly all descriptions of travels. Lamartine undoubtedly used her _De
+l'Allemagne_ and her _Des Passions_ freely. The heroine of _Jocelyn_
+is called but a daughter of _Delphine_, and the same author's terrible
+invective against Napoleon was inspired by her.
+
+Mme. de Staël had an indestructible faith in human reason, liberty,
+and justice; she believed in human perfection and in the hope of
+progress. "From Rousseau, she received that passionate tenderness,
+that confidence in the inherent goodness of man. Believing in an
+intimate communion of man with God, her religion was spirit and
+sentiment which had no need of pomp or symbols, of an intermediary
+between God and man." She was not so much a great writer as she was a
+great thinker, or rather a discoverer of new thoughts. By instituting
+a new criticism and by opening new literatures to the French, she
+succeeded in emancipating art from fixed rules and in facilitating the
+sudden growth of romanticism in France.
+
+In her life, her great desire was to spread happiness and to obtain
+it, to love and to be loved in return. In politics it was always the
+sentiment of justice which appealed to her, in literature it was the
+ideal. Sincerity was manifested in everything she said and did. Pity
+for the misery of her fellow beings, the sentiment of the dignity of
+man and his right to independence, of his future grandeur founded
+on his moral elevation, the cult of justice, and the love of
+liberty--such were the prevailing thoughts of her life and works.
+
+Mme. de Staël's chief influence will always remain in the domain of
+literature; she was the first French writer to introduce and exercise
+a European or cosmopolitan influence by uniting the literatures of the
+north and the south and clearly defining the distinction between them.
+By the expression of her idea that French literature had decayed on
+account of the exclusive social spirit, and that its only means of
+regeneration lay in the study and absorption of new models, she
+cut French taste loose from traditions and freed literature from
+superannuated conventionalities. Also, by her idea that a common
+civilization must be fostered, a union of the eastern and western
+ideals, and that literature must be the common expression thereof,
+whose object must be the amelioration of humanity, morally and
+religiously, she gave to the world at large ideas which are only now
+being fully appreciated and nearing realization. In her novels she
+vigorously protested against the lot of woman in modern society,
+against her obligation to submit everything to opinion, against the
+innumerable obstacles in the way of her development--thus heralding
+George Sand and the general movement toward woman's emancipation.
+France has never had a more forceful, energetic, influential,
+cosmopolitan, and at the same time moral, writer than Mme. de Staël.
+
+The events in the life of George Sand had comparatively little
+influence upon her works, which were mainly the expression of her
+nature. As a young girl, she was strongly influenced by her mother, an
+amiable but rather frivolous woman, and by her grandmother, a serious,
+cold, ceremonious old lady. Calm and well balanced, and possessing an
+ardent imagination, she followed her own inclinations when, as a girl
+of sixteen, she was married to a man for whom she had no love. After
+living an indifferent sort of life with her husband for ten years,
+they separated; and she, with her children, went to Paris to find
+work.
+
+After a number of unsuccessful efforts of a literary nature, she
+wrote _Indiana_, which immediately made her success. Her articles were
+sought by the journals, and from about 1830 her life was that of the
+average artist and writer of the time. Her relations with Chopin and
+Alfred de Musset are too well known to require repetition. After 1850
+she retired to her home, the Château de Nohant, where she enjoyed the
+companionship of her son, her daughter-in-law, and her grandchildren;
+she died there in 1876.
+
+To appreciate her works, it is more important to study her nature than
+her career. This has been admirably done by the Comte d'Haussonville.
+George Sand is said to have possessed a dual nature, which seemed
+to contradict itself, but which explains her works--a dreamy and
+meditative, and a lively, frolicsome nature; the first might throw
+light upon her religious crisis, the second, upon her social side.
+The combination of these two phases caused the numerous conflicts
+of opinions and doctrines, extending her knowledge and inciting her
+curiosity; the not infrequent result was an intellectual and moral
+bewilderment and the deepest melancholy, from which she with great
+difficulty freed herself. Because of these peculiarities she was
+constantly agitated, her strongly reflective nature keeping her awake
+to all important questions of the day.
+
+Her intellectual development may be traced in her works, which, from
+1830 to 1840, were personal, lyrical, spontaneous--a direct flow from
+inspiration, issuing from a common source of emotions and personal
+sorrows, being the expressions of her habitual reflections, of her
+moral agitations, of her real and imaginary sufferings. These first
+works were a protest against the tyranny of marriage, and expressed
+her conception of a woman in love--a love profound and naïve, exalted
+and sincere, passionate and chaste: such is pictured in _Indiana_. In
+_Valentine_ she portrays the impious and unfortunate marriage that the
+sacrilegious conventions of the world have imposed, and the
+results issuing therefrom. In all of these early works are seen an
+inventiveness, a lively _allure_, an exquisite style, a freshness
+and brilliancy, _finesse_ and grace; but they show an undisciplined
+talent, giving vent to feelings that her unbounded enthusiasm would
+not allow to be checked--there is emotion, but no system.
+
+In her second period, from about 1840 to 1848, her reflection and
+emotion combined produced a system and theories. The higher problems
+took stronger hold on her as she matured; philosophy and religious
+science in their deeper phases excited her emotive faculties,
+which threw out a mere echo of what she had heard and studied.
+Her inspiration thus came from without, throwing out those endless
+declamatory outbursts which we meet in _Consuelo_ and in _Comtesse de
+Rudolstadt_. These theory-novels were soon followed by novels dealing
+with social problems, now and then relieved by delightful idyllics
+such as _La Mare au Diable_ and _François le Champi_. This third
+tendency M. d'Haussonville considers the least successful.
+
+After 1850 there appeared from her pen a series of historical novels,
+especially fine in the portrayal of characters, variety of situations,
+movement, and intrigues; these are free from all social theories;
+in these, reverting to her first tendencies, she is at her best in
+elegance and clearness, in analysis of characters. Thus does the work
+of George Sand change from a personal lyricism, in which the emotions,
+held in check during a solitary and dreamy youth, burst forth in
+brilliant and passionate fiction, to a theoretical, systematic novel,
+finally reverting to the first efforts, but tempered by experience and
+age.
+
+M. d'Haussonville says that in the strict sense of the word George
+Sand had no doctrines, but possessed a powerful imagination that
+manifested itself at various periods of her life. Whatever the
+principles might have been at first, they were made concrete under
+a sentiment with her, for her heart was her first inspiration,
+her teacher in all things. The ideas are thus analyzed through her
+sentiments under a threefold inspiration,--love, passion for humanity,
+sentiment for Nature.
+
+According to other novels, love is the unique affair of life; without
+love we do not really live, before love enters life we do not live,
+and after we cease to love there is no object in life. This love comes
+directly from God, of whom George Sand had ideas peculiar to herself.
+The majority of her characters have a sort of mystic, exalted love,
+looking upon it as a sacred right, making of themselves great priests
+rather than genuine human lovers. This love, issuing from God, is
+sacred; therefore, the yielding to it is a pious act; he who resists
+commits sacrilege, while he who blames others for it is impious; for
+love legitimizes itself by itself. Such a theory naturally led her
+to a sensual ideality, and her heroes rose to the highest phase of
+fatalism and voluptuousness; this impelled her to protest against the
+social laws. Jacques says:
+
+"I do not doubt at all that marriage will be abolished if humankind
+makes any progress toward justice and reason; a bond more human and
+none the less sacred will replace this one and will take care of
+the children which may issue from a man and woman, without ever
+interfering with the liberty of either. But men are too coarse and
+women are too cowardly to ask for a law more noble than the iron
+law which binds them--beings without conscience--and virtue must be
+burdened with heavy chains."
+
+Yet, in none of her books did George Sand ever submit any theories as
+to how such children would be cared for; apparently, such a difficulty
+never troubled her, since almost all of the children of her books die
+of some disease, while to one--Jacques--she gives the advice to take
+his own life, so that his wife may be free to love elsewhere.
+
+Her social theories are marked by an exaltation of sentiment, a
+weakness, an incoherency in conception, caused by her ardent love for
+theories and ideas, but which, in her passionate sentiment and her
+loyal enthusiasm, she always confounds and confuses. From early youth
+she manifested an immense goodness, a profound tenderness, and a deep
+compassion for human misery. She rarely became angry, even though she
+suffered cruelly. Her own law of life and her message to the world
+was--be good. The only strong element within her, she said, was the
+need of loving, which manifested itself under the form of tenderness
+and emotion, devotion and religious ecstasy; and when this faith was
+shaken, doubt and social disturbances overwhelmed her.
+
+Throughout life her consolation was Nature. "It was half of her genius
+and the surest of her inspirations." No other French novelist has
+been able to "express in words the lights and shades, harmonies and
+contrasts, the magic of sounds, the symphonies of color, the depth
+and distances of the woods, the infinite movement of the sea and the
+sky--the interior soul of Nature, that vibrates in everything and
+everybody." With Lamartine and Michelet, she has best reflected and
+expressed the dreams and hopes and loves of the first half of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+George Sand saw Nature, lived in her, sympathized with her, and loved
+her as did few other French writers; therefore, she showed more memory
+than pure imagination in her work, for she always found Nature more
+beautiful in actuality than she could picture her mentally, while
+other great writers, like Lamartine, saw her less beautiful in reality
+than in their imagination; hence, they were disappointed in Nature,
+while for George Sand she was the truest friend. The world will always
+be interested in her descriptions of Nature, because with Nature she
+always associated something of human life--a thought or a sentiment;
+her landscapes belonged to her characters--there is always a soul
+living in them, for, to George Sand, man and Nature were inseparable.
+
+Thus, every novel of this authoress consists of a situation and a
+landscape, the poetic union of which nothing can mar. "Man associated
+with Nature and Nature with man is a great law of art; no painter has
+practised it with instinct more delicate or sure." Because Nature,
+in her early youth, was her inspiration, guide, even her God, she
+returned to her later in life. M. Jules Lemaître wrote that her works
+will remain eternally beautiful, because they teach us how to love
+Nature as divine and good, and to find in that love peace and solace.
+There are many parts of her work which show as detailed, accurate, and
+realistic descriptions as those by Balzac. She constantly employed two
+elements--the fanciful and the realistic.
+
+George Sand never studied or knew how to compose a work, how to
+preserve the unity of the subject or the unity in tone in characters;
+hence, there was nothing calculated or premeditated--everything was
+spontaneous. No preparation of plan did she ever think of--a mode of
+procedure which naturally resulted in a negligent style and caused
+the composition to drag. Her inspiration seemed to go so far, then
+she resorted to her imagination, to the chimerical, forcing events
+and characters. "There are many defects in the style--such as
+the sentimental part, the romanesque in the violent expression of
+sentiments or invention of situations, the exaggerated improbabilities
+of events, the excessive declamation; but how many compensating
+qualities are there to offset these defects!"
+
+Her method of writing was very simple. It was the love of writing
+that impelled her, almost without premeditation, to put into words
+her dreams, meditations, and chimeras under concrete and living forms.
+Yet, by the largeness of her sympathy and the ardor of her passions,
+by the abundant inventions of stories, and by the harmonious
+word-flow, she deserves to be ranked among the greatest writers
+of France. Her career, taken as a whole, is one of prodigious
+fecundity--a literary life that has "enchanted by its fictions or
+troubled by its dreams" four or five generations. Never diminishing in
+quality or inspiration, there are surprises in every new work.
+
+No doubt George Sand has, for a generation or more, been somewhat
+forgotten, but what great writer has not shared the same fate? When
+the materialistic age has passed away, many famous writers of the
+past will be resurrected, and with them George Sand; for her novels,
+although written to please and entertain, discuss questions of
+religion, philosophy, morality, problems of the heart, conscience, and
+education,--and this is done in such a dramatic way that one feels all
+to be true. More than that, her characters are all capable of carrying
+out, to the end, a common moral and general theme with eloquence
+seldom found in novels.
+
+An interesting comparison might be made between Mme. de Staël and
+George Sand, the two greatest women writers of France. Both wrote
+from their experience of life, and fought passionately against the
+prejudices and restrictions of social conventions; both were ideal
+natures and were severely tried in the school of life, profiting
+by their experiences; both possessed highly sensitive natures, and
+suffered much; both were keenly enthusiastic and sympathetic, with
+pardonable weaknesses; both lived through tragic wars; both evinced
+a dislike for the commonplace and strove for greater freedom, but for
+different publics, after unhappy marriages, both rose up as accusers
+against the prevalent system of marrying young girls. But Mme. de
+Staël was a virtuoso in conversation, a salon queen, and her happiness
+was to be found in society alone; while George Sand found her
+happiness in communion with Nature. This explains the two natures,
+their sufferings, their joys, their writings.
+
+The greatest punishment ever inflicted upon Mme. de Staël was her
+exile, for it deprived her of her social life, a fact of which the
+emperor was well aware. Her entire literary effort was directed to
+describing her social life and the relation of society to life. "She
+belongs to the moralists and to the writers who wrote of society and
+man--social psychologists." Not poetic or artistic by nature, but
+with an exceptional power of observation, she shows on every side the
+influence of a pedagogical, literary, and social training; she was the
+product of an artificial culture.
+
+George Sand, on the contrary, was a product of Nature, reared in free
+intercourse and unrestrained relation with her genius and Nature. A
+powerful passion and a mighty fantasy made of her a poetess and an
+artist. These two qualities were manifested in her intense and deep
+feeling for the beauty of Nature, in her power of invention, in a
+harmonious equilibrium between idealism and realism. Her fantasy
+overbalanced her reason, impeding its development and thus relegating
+it to a secondary rôle. "She is possibly the only French writer
+who possessed no _esprit_ (in the sense that it is used in French
+society)--that playful, epigrammatic, querulous wit of conversation."
+
+She never enjoyed communion with others for any length of time, or the
+companionship of anyone for a long period; the companions of which she
+never tired were the fields and woods, birds and dogs; therefore, she
+enjoyed those people most who were nearer her ideals, the peasants and
+workmen, and these she best describes. Thus, her whole creation is
+one of instinct rather than of reason, as it was with Mme. de Staël.
+George Sand was a genius, a master-product of Nature, while Mme. de
+Staël was a talent, a consummate work of the art of modern culture;
+she reflects, while George Sand creates from impulse; the latter was
+a true poetess, communing with Nature, while the banker's daughter was
+an observing thinker, communicating with society--but both were great
+writers.
+
+Intimately associated with George Sand is Rosa Bonheur, in all
+of whose canvases we find the same aim, the same spirit, the same
+message, that are found in so many of the novels of George Sand.
+They were two women who have contributed, through different branches,
+masterworks that will be enjoyed and appreciated at all times.
+"It would be difficult not to speak of _La Mare au Diable_ and the
+_Meunier d'Angibault_ when recalling the fields where Rosa Bonheur
+speeds the plow or places the oxen lowering their patient heads under
+the yoke."
+
+In the evening, at home, while other members of the family were
+at work, one member read aloud to the rest; and George Sand was
+a favorite author with the Bonheur group of artists. It was while
+reading _La Mare au Diable_ that Rosa conceived the idea of the work
+which by some critics is pronounced her masterpiece, _Plowing in
+Nivernais_. The artist's deep sympathy was aroused by her love of
+Nature, which no contemporary novelist expressed or appreciated as
+did George Sand. In all her works, and throughout the long life of the
+artist, there is absolutely nothing unhealthy or immoral to be found.
+The novelist had theories which were inspired by her passion, and
+these became unhealthy at times; she belongs first of all to France,
+while Rosa Bonheur belongs first of all to the world, her message
+reaching the young and old of every clime and every people. The
+novelist is to be associated with the artist by virtue of her
+exquisite, simple, and wholesome peasant stories.
+
+The entire Bonheur family were artists, and all were moral and
+genuinely sympathetic. As a young girl, Rosa manifested an intense
+love for Nature, sunshine, and the woods; always independent in
+manners, she used to caricature her teachers; and while walking
+out into the country, she would draw, with charcoal or in sand, any
+objects that met her eye. Her father was not long in detecting her
+talent. She was wedded to her art from the very beginning, showing no
+taste for or interest in any other subject. As soon as her father gave
+permission to follow art as a profession, she devoted all her energy
+to advancing herself in what she felt to be her life's work. For four
+years the young girl could be seen every day at the Louvre, copying
+the great masters and receiving principally from them her ideas of
+coloring and harmony, while from her father she learned her technique.
+After she had mastered these two principles, she decided to specialize
+in pastoral nature.
+
+From that time her whole life was given up to the study of Nature and
+animals. Not able to study those near by, she procured a fine Beauvais
+sheep, which served as her model for two years. From the very first
+her work showed accuracy, purity, and an intuitive perception of
+Nature, and these qualities soon placed her among the foremost artists
+of the time. Her struggle for reputation and glory was not a long and
+arduous one, for after 1845 her fame was established--she was then but
+twenty-three years old; and after 1849, having exhibited some thirty
+pictures, her reputation had become European.
+
+In order to be able to study her models with greater ease and freedom
+from the annoyance and coarse incivilities of the workmen at the
+slaughter houses, farmyards, and markets that she was in the habit of
+visiting, she adopted the garb of man.
+
+Her honors in life were many, though always unsought. The Empress
+Eugénie, while regent during the absence of Napoleon III., went
+in person to her château and put around her neck the ribbon of the
+decoration of the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor, then for the
+first time bestowed upon woman for merit other than bravery and
+charity. The Emperor Maximilian of Mexico conferred upon her the
+decoration of San Carlos; the King of Belgium created her a chevalier
+of his order, the first honor won by a woman; the King of Spain made
+her a Commander of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic; and
+President Carnot created her an Officer of the Legion of Honor.
+
+With qualities such as she possessed, Rosa Bonheur could not fail
+to attain immortality. Her success was due in no small degree to the
+scientific instruction which she received when a mere child; having
+been taught, from the very first, how to paint directly from a model,
+she supplemented this training by a period of four years of copying
+great masters. In the latter period she studied Paul Potter's work
+rather slavishly, but was individual enough to combine only the best
+in him with the best in herself; this gave her an originality such as
+possibly no other animal painter ever possessed---not even Landseer,
+who is said to be "stronger in telling the story than in the manner of
+telling it."
+
+Rosa Bonheur was too independent and original to follow any particular
+school or master, for her only inspiration and guide were her models,
+always living near by and upon intimate terms with her. Thus, in all
+her paintings, we instinctively feel that she painted from conviction,
+from her own observation, nothing being added for mere artistic
+effect. To some extent her pictures impress one as a perfect French
+poem in which there is no superfluous word, in which no word could
+be changed without destroying the effect of the whole; thus, in her
+paintings there is not a superfluous brush stroke; everything is
+necessary to the telling of the story; but she excels the perfect
+poem, for, in French literature, it seldom has a message distinct
+from its technique, while her pictures breathe the very essence
+of sympathy, love, and life. We feel that she thoroughly knew her
+subjects as a connoisseur; but her animals do not impress one as the
+production of an artist who knew them as do horse traders and cattle
+dealers, who know their stock from the purely physical standpoint; the
+animals of this artist are from the brush of one who was familiar with
+their habits, who loved them, had lived with and studied them--who
+knew and appreciated their higher qualities. Rosa Bonheur most
+harmoniously united two essential elements in art--a scientific as
+well as sympathetic conception of her subject. Possibly this is the
+reason that her pictures appeal to animal lovers throughout the world.
+
+As was stated, she was independent, hence kept aloof from the
+corruptions of contemporary French art and its technique lovers,
+always pursuing an even tenor in her art and never permitting one of
+her pictures to leave her studio in a crude or unfinished state. In
+all her long career she kept her original sketches, never parting with
+one, in spite of the most tempting offers; and this explains the fact
+that the work of her later years exhibits the freshness and other
+qualities of that of her youth. Thus, her art has gained by her
+experience, even though her best work was done between about 1848 and
+1860, and is especially marked by its excellence in composition,
+the anatomy, the breadth of touch, the harmony of coloring, and the
+action, although it is said to lack the spontaneity, the originality,
+and the highly imaginative quality which are at their best in _The
+Horse Fair_; the same qualities seem to have been possessed by many of
+her contemporaries, such as Troyon.
+
+Notwithstanding these apparent defects, Rosa Bonheur stands for
+something higher in art than do most of her contemporaries. She was
+not influenced by the skilled and often corrupt technicians; she
+perfected her technique by study of the old masters and learned her
+art from Nature; wisely keeping free from the ornamental, gorgeous,
+and highly imaginative and exaggerated historical Romantic school, in
+French art she stands out almost alone with Millet. Whatever may
+be said of the more virile and masculine art of other great animal
+painters, Rosa Bonheur, by her truthfulness, her science, her close
+association and intimate communion with her animal world, by the glad
+and healthy vigor which her paintings breathe, has taught the world
+the great lesson that there are intelligence, will, love, and even
+soul, in animals.
+
+Her art and life inspired respect and admiration; we have nothing to
+regret, nothing to conceal; we desire to love her for her animals, and
+we must esteem her for her grand devotion to her art and family, for
+her purity and charity, for her kindness to and love for those in the
+lower walks of life, for her goodness and honesty. An illustration of
+the last quality may be taken from her dealings with art collectors.
+After having offered her _Horse Fair_, which she desired should remain
+in France, to her own town for twelve thousand francs, she sold it for
+forty thousand francs to Mr. Gambert, but with the condition which she
+thus expressed: "I am grateful for your giving me such a noble
+price, but I do not like to feel that I have taken advantage of your
+liberality. Let us see how we can combine matters. You will not be
+able to have an engraving made from so large a canvas; suppose I
+paint you a small one of the same subject, of which I will make you a
+present." Naturally, the gift was accepted, and the smaller canvas now
+hangs in the National Gallery of London.
+
+In all her dealings she showed this kindness and uprightness, sympathy
+and honesty. Although numberless orders were constantly coming to
+her, she never let them hurry her in her work. She was, possibly, the
+highest and noblest type--certainly among great French women--of that
+strong and solid virtue which constitutes the backbone and the very
+essence of French national strength. The reputation of Rosa Bonheur
+has never been blemished by the least touch of petty jealousy, hatred,
+envy, vanity, or pride--and, among all great French women, she is one
+of the few of whom this may be said. She won for herself and her noble
+art the genuine and lasting sympathy of the world at large.
+
+The only woman artist in France deserving a place beside Rosa Bonheur
+belongs properly under the reign of Louis XVI., although she lived
+almost to the middle of the nineteenth century. At the age of twenty,
+Mme. Lebrun was already famous as the leading portrait painter; this
+was during the most popular period of Marie Antoinette--1775 to 1785.
+In 1775, but a young girl, admitted to all the sessions of the Academy
+as recognition of her portraits of La Bruyère and Cardinal Fleury, she
+made her life unhappy and gave her art a serious blow by consenting
+to marry the then great art critic and collector of art, Lebrun. His
+passion for gambling and women ruined her fortune and almost ended her
+career as an artist. Her own conduct was not irreproachable.
+
+Mme. Lebrun will be remembered principally as the great painter of
+Marie Antoinette, who posed for her more than twenty times. The most
+prominent people of Europe eagerly sought her work, while socially she
+was welcomed everywhere. Her famous suppers and entertainments in
+her modestly furnished hôtel, at which Garat sang, Grétry played
+the piano, and Viotti and Prince Henry of Prussia assisted, were the
+events of the day. Her reputation as a painter of the great ladies and
+gentlemen of nobility, and her entertainments, naturally associated
+her with the nobility; hence, she shared their unpopularity at the
+outbreak of the Revolution and left France.
+
+It is doubtful whether any artist--certainly no French artist--ever
+received more attention and honors, or was made a member of so many
+art academies, than Mme. Lebrun. It would be difficult to make any
+comparison between her and Rosa Bonheur, their respective spheres of
+art being so different. Only the future will speak as to the relative
+positions of each in French art.
+
+In the domain of the dramatic art of the nineteenth century, two
+women have made their names well known throughout Europe and
+America,--Rachel, and Sarah Bernhardt, both tragédiennes and both
+daughters of Israel. While Rachel was, without question, the greatest
+tragédienne that France ever produced, excelling Bernhardt in deep
+tragic force, she yet lacked many qualities which our contemporary
+possesses in a high degree. She had constantly to contend with a cruel
+fate and a wicked, grasping nature, which brought her to an early
+grave. The wretched slave of her greedy and rapacious father and
+managers, who cared for her only in so far as she enriched them by her
+genius and popularity, hers was a miserable existence, which detracted
+from her acting, checked her development, and finally undermined her
+health.
+
+After her critical period of apprenticeship was successfully passed
+and she was free to govern herself, she rose to be queen of the French
+stage--a position which she held for eighteen years, during which she
+was worshipped and petted by the whole world. As a social leader,
+she was received and made much of by the great ladies of the Faubourg
+Saint-Germain. Her taste in dress was exquisite in its simplicity,
+being in perfect harmony with the reserved, retiring, and amiable
+actress herself.
+
+Possibly no actress, singer, or other public woman ever received such
+homage and general recognition. With all her great qualities as an
+actress, vigor, grandeur, wild, savage energy, superb articulation,
+irreproachable diction, and a marvellous sense of situations, she
+lacked the one quality which we miss in Sarah Bernhardt also--a true
+tenderness and compassion. As a tragédienne she can be compared to
+Talma only. Her greed for money soon ended her brilliant career;
+unlike her sister in art, she amassed a fortune, leaving over one
+million five hundred thousand francs.
+
+Compared with Bernhardt, Rachel is said to have been the greater in
+pure tragedy, but she did not possess as many arts of fascination.
+There are many points of similarity between the two actresses: Rachel
+was at times artificial, wanting in tenderness and depth, while at
+times she was superhuman in her passion and emotion, and often
+put more into her rôle than was intended; and the acting of Sarah
+Bernhardt has the same characteristics. Rachel, however, was much more
+subject to moods and fits of inspiration than is Bernhardt--especially
+was she incapable of acting at her best on evenings of her first
+appearance in a new rôle. Her critical power was very weak in
+comparison with her intellectual power, the reverse being true of her
+modern rival. Rachel's greatest inspiration was _Phèdre_, and in
+this rôle Bernhardt "is weak, unequal. We see all the viciousness
+in _Phèdre_ and none of her grandeur. She breaks herself to pieces
+against the huge difficulties of the conception and does not succeed
+in moving us.... Rachel was the mouthpiece of the gods; no longer a
+free agent, she poured forth every epithet of adoration that Aphrodite
+could suggest, clambering up higher and higher in the intensity of her
+emotions, whilst her audience hung breathless, riveted on every word,
+and dared to burst forth in thunders of applause only after she had
+vanished from their sight."
+
+Both of these artists were children of the lower class, and struggled
+with a fate which required grit, tenacity, and determination to
+win success. The artist of to-day is no social leader--"never the
+companion of man, but his slave or his despot." It is entirely her
+physical charms and the outward or artificial requisites of her art
+that make her what she is. According to Mr. Lynch, her tragedy "is but
+one of disorder, fury, and folly--passions not deep, but unbridled and
+hysterical in their intensest display. Her _forte_ lies in the ornate
+and elaborate exhibition of rôles," for which she creates the most
+capricious and fantastic garbs. She is a great manager,--omitting the
+financial part,--quite a writer, somewhat of a painter and sculptor,
+throwing her money away, except to her creditors, adored by some
+and execrated by others. Her care of her physical self and her utter
+disregard for money have undoubtedly contributed to her long and
+brilliant career; rest and idleness are her most cruel punishments.
+All nervous energy, never happy, restless, she is a true _fin de
+siècle_ product.
+
+Among the large number of women who wielded influence in the
+nineteenth century, either through their salons or through their
+works, Mme. Guizot was one of the most important as the author of
+treatises on education and as a moralist. As an intimate friend of
+Suard, she was placed, as a contributor, on the _Publiciste_, and for
+ten years wrote articles on morality, society, and literature which
+showed a varied talent, much depth, and justness. Fond of polemics,
+she never failed to attack men like La Harpe, De Bonald, etc., thus
+making herself felt as an influence to be reckoned with in matters
+literary and moral.
+
+As Mme. Guizot, she naturally had a powerful influence upon her
+husband, shaping his thoughts and theories, for she immediately
+espoused his principles and interests. In 1821, at the age of
+forty-eight, she began her literary work again, after a period of
+rest, writing novels in which the maternal love and the ardent and
+pious sentiments of a woman married late in life are reflected. In
+her theories of education she showed a highly practical spirit.
+Sainte-Beuve said that, next to Mme. de Staël, "she was the woman
+endowed with the most sagacity and intelligence; the sentiment that
+she inspires is that of respect and esteem--and these terms can only
+do her justice."
+
+Mme. de Duras, in her salon, represented the Restoration, "by
+a composite of aristocracy and affability, of brilliant wit and
+seriousness, semi-liberal and somewhat progressive." Her credit lies
+in the fact that, by her keen wit, she kept in harmony a heterogeneous
+mixture of social life. She wrote a number of novels, which are,
+for the most part, "a mere delicate and discreet expression of her
+interior life."
+
+Mme. Ackermann, German in her entire makeup, was, among French female
+writers, one of the deepest thinkers of the nineteenth century. A
+true mystic, she was, from early youth, filled with ardent, dreamy
+vagaries, to which she gave expression in verse--poems which reflect
+a pessimism which is rather the expression of her life's experiences,
+and of twenty-four years of solitude after two years of happy wedded
+state, than an actual depression and a discouraging philosophy of
+life. Her poetry shows a vigor, depth, precision of form, and strength
+of expression seldom found in poetry of French women.
+
+One of the most conspicuous figures in the latter half of the
+nineteenth century is Mme. Adam,--Juliette Lamber,--an unusual woman
+in every respect. In 1879 she founded the _Nouvelle Revue_, on the
+plan of the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, for which she wrote political
+and literary articles which showed much talent. In politics she is a
+Republican and something of a socialist, a somewhat sensational--but
+modestly sensational--figure. She has been called "a necessary
+continuator of George Sand." Her salon was the great centre for
+all Republicans and one of the most brilliant and important of this
+century. In literature her name is connected with the movement called
+neo-Hellenism, the aim of which seems to have been to inspire a love
+and sympathy for the art, religion, and literature of ancient and
+modern Greece. In her works she shows a deep insight into Greek
+life and art. Her name will always be connected with the Republican
+movement in France; as a salon leader, _femme de lettres_, journalist,
+and female politician, no woman is better known in France in the
+nineteenth century.
+
+A woman who might be called the rival of Mme. Adam, but whose
+activity occurred much earlier in the century, was Mme. Emile de
+Girardin,--Delphine Gay,--who ruled, at least for a short time, the
+social and literary world of Paris at her hôtel in the Rue Chaillot.
+Her very early precocity, combined with her rare beauty, made her
+famous. In 1836, after having written a number of poems which showed
+a weak sentimentality and a quite mannered emotion, she founded the
+_Courrier Français_, for which she wrote articles on the questions of
+the day--effusions which were written upon the spur of the moment and
+were very unreliable. Her dramas were hardly successful, although they
+were played by the great Rachel. Her present claim to fame is based
+upon the brilliancy of her salon.
+
+The future will possibly remember Mme. Alphonse Daudet more as the
+wife of the great Daudet than as a writer, although, according to
+M. Jules Lemaître, she possessed the gift of _écriture artiste_ to
+a remarkable degree. According to him, sureness and exactness and a
+striking truth of impressions are her characteristics as a writer. She
+exercised a most wholesome power over Alphonse Daudet, taking him away
+from bad influences, giving him a home, dignity, and happiness, and
+saving him from brutality and pessimism; she was his guardian and
+censor; she preserved his grace and noble sentiments. The nature of
+her relations to him should ensure the preservation of her name to
+posterity.
+
+We are accustomed to give Gyp--Sybille Gabrielle Marie Antoinette de
+Riquetti de Mirabeau, Comtesse de Martel de Janville--little credit
+for seriousness or morality, associating her with the average
+brilliant, flippant novelists, who write because they possess the
+knack of writing in a brilliant style. Her object is to show that man,
+in a civilized state in society, is vain, coarse, and ridiculous. She
+paints Parisian society to demonstrate that the apparently fortunate
+ones of the world are not to be envied, that they are miserable in
+their so-called joys and ridiculous in their pleasures and their
+elegance. She has described the most _risqué_ situations and the most
+delightful women, but she gives us to understand that the latter are
+not to be loved. The vanity of the social world might be called her
+text.
+
+Mme. Blanc--Thérèse de Solms--is known to us to-day as the first
+woman to reveal English and American authors and habits to her
+contemporaries. By advocating American customs she has done much
+to ameliorate the condition of French girls, by giving them a freer
+intercourse with young men and permitting them to see more of the
+world before entering upon married life.
+
+Mme. Gréville, who died recently, deserves a place among the prominent
+women writers of France. No _femme de lettres_ ever received more
+honors, prizes, and decorations than she; a number of her writings
+were crowned by the Academy. A member of the Société des Gens de
+Lettres, with all her literary work she was a domestic woman, keeping
+aloof from all feminist movements. Her husband, Professor Durand, to
+show his esteem and admiration for her, adopted her name--a wise act,
+for it may preserve his name with that of his talented wife.
+
+Many other names might be cited, but, as the list of prominent women
+is practically without end, owing to the indefiniteness of the term
+"prominent," we shall close with these names, which have become
+familiar in both continents.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Women of Modern France, by Hugo P.  Thieme
+
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+  <title>Women of Modern France, by Hugo P. Thieme.</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Women of Modern France, by Hugo P.  Thieme
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Women of Modern France
+       Woman In All Ages And In All Countries
+
+Author: Hugo P.  Thieme
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2005 [EBook #17159]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOMEN OF MODERN FRANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, William Flis and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team Europe at http://dp.rastko.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+    <div class="trans-note">
+        Transcriber's Note: The Table of Contents was added by the Transcriber.
+    </div>
+<hr class="full" />
+<h2>WOMAN</h2>
+
+<h3>In all ages and in all countries</h3>
+
+
+<h1>WOMEN OF MODERN FRANCE</h1>
+
+<h4>by</h4>
+
+<h4>HUGO P. THIEME, Ph.D.</h4>
+
+<h4>Of the University of Michigan</h4>
+
+
+<h4>THE RITTENHOUSE PRESS<br />
+PHILADELPHIA</h4>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<center>Copyrighted at Washington and entered at Stationer's Hall, London,</center>
+
+<center>1907&ndash;1908</center>
+
+<center>and printed by arrangement with George Barrie's Sons.</center>
+
+
+<center>PRINTED IN U.S.A.</center>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>Contents</h3>
+
+<table width="80%" align="center" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td></td><td>PREFACE</td><td class="page"> <a href="#pagevii">vii</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;I.
+</td><td>Woman in politics</td><td class="page"><a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;II.
+</td><td>Woman in Family Life, Education, and Letters</td><td class="page"><a href="#page31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;III.
+</td><td>The Seventeenth Century: Woman at Her Best</td><td class="page"><a href="#page69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;IV.
+</td><td>Woman in Society and Literature</td><td class="page"><a href="#page97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;V.
+</td><td>Mistresses and Wives of Louis XIV</td><td class="page"><a href="#page131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;VI.
+</td><td>Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. Dacier, Mme. de Caylus</td><td class="page"><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;VII.
+</td><td>Woman in Religion</td><td class="page"><a href="#page197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;VIII.
+</td><td>Salon Leaders: Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle. de Lespinasse,
+Mme. du Châtelet</td><td class="page"><a href="#page221">221</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;IX.
+</td><td>Salon Leaders&mdash;(Continued):
+Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis: Minor Salons
+</td><td class="page"><a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;X.
+</td><td>Social Classes</td><td class="page"><a href="#page277">277</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;XI.
+</td><td>Royal Mistresses</td><td class="page"><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;XII.
+</td><td>Marie Antoinette and the Revolution</td><td class="page"><a href="#page329">329</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;XIII.
+</td><td>Women of the Revolution and the Empire</td><td class="page"><a href="#page355">355</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="chap">Chapter&nbsp;XIV.
+</td><td>Women of the Nineteenth Century</td><td class="page"><a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii" id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span>
+
+<h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+
+<p>Among the Latin races, the French race differs essentially
+in one characteristic which has been the key to the
+success of French women&mdash;namely, the social instinct.
+The whole French nation has always lived for the present
+time, in actuality, deriving from life more of what may be
+called social pleasure than any other nation. It has been
+a universal characteristic among French people since the
+sixteenth century to love to please, to make themselves
+agreeable, to bring joy and happiness to others, and to be
+loved and admired as well. With this instinctive trait
+French women have always been bountifully endowed.
+Highly emotional, they love to charm, and this has become
+an art with them; balancing this emotional nature is
+the mathematical quality. These two combined have made
+French women the great leaders in their own country and
+among women of all races. They have developed the art
+of studying themselves; and the art of coquetry, which
+has become a virtue, is a science with them. The singular
+power of discrimination, constructive ability, calculation,
+subtle intriguing, a clear and concise manner of expression,
+a power of conversation unequalled in women of any other
+country, clear thinking: all these qualities have been
+strikingly illustrated in the various great women of the
+different periods of the history of France, and according
+to these they may by right be judged; for their moral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii" id="pageviii"></a>[pg viii]</span>
+qualities have not always been in accordance with the standard of other races.</p>
+
+<p>According as these two fundamental qualities, the emotional
+and mathematical, have been developed in individual
+women, we meet the different types which have
+made themselves prominent in history. The queens of
+France, in general, have been submissive and pious, dutiful
+and virtuous wives, while the mistresses have been
+bold and frivolous, licentious and self-assertive. The
+women outside of these spheres either looked on with
+indifference or regret at the all-powerfulness of this latter
+class, unable to change conditions, or themselves enjoyed
+the privilege of the mistress.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that in the great social circles in
+France, especially from the sixteenth to the end of the
+eighteenth centuries, marriage was a mere convention,
+offences against it being looked upon as matters concerning
+manners, not morals; therefore, much of the so-called
+gross immorality of French women may be condoned. It
+will be seen in this history that French women have acted
+banefully on politics, causing mischief, inciting jealousy
+and revenge, almost invariably an instrument in the hands
+of man, acting as a disturbing element. In art, literature,
+religion, and business, however, they have ever been a
+directing force, a guide, a critic and judge, an inspiration
+and companion to man.</p>
+
+<p>The wholesome results of French women's activity are
+reflected especially in art and literature, and to a lesser
+degree in religion and morality, by the tone of elegance,
+politeness, <i>finesse</i>, clearness, precision, purity, and a general
+high standard which man followed if he was to succeed.
+In politics much severe blame and reproach have
+been heaped upon her&mdash;she is made responsible for breaking
+treaties, for activity in all intrigues, participating in and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix" id="pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span>
+inciting to civil and foreign wars, encouraging and sanctioning
+assassinations and massacres, championing the Machiavelian
+policy and practising it at every opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>It has been the aim of this history of French women to
+present the results rather than the actual happenings of
+their lives, and these have been gathered from the most
+authoritative and scholarly publications on the subject,
+to which the writer herewith wishes to give all credit.</p>
+
+<p class="author sc">Hugo Paul Thieme.</p>
+
+<p><i>University of Michigan.</i></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter I</h2>
+
+<h2>Woman in politics</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span>
+
+
+<p>French women of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and
+eighteenth centuries, when studied according to the distinctive
+phases of their influence, are best divided into
+three classes: those queens who, as wives, represented
+virtue, education, and family life; the mistresses, who
+were instigators of political intrigue, immorality, and vice;
+and the authoresses and other educated women, who constituted
+themselves the patronesses of art and literature.</p>
+
+<p>This division is not absolute by any means; for we see
+that in the sixteenth century the regent-mother (for example,
+Louise of Savoy and Catherine de' Medici), in
+extent of influence, fills the same position as does the mistress
+in the eighteenth century; though in the former
+period appears, in Diana of Poitiers, the first of a long line
+of ruling mistresses.</p>
+
+<p>Queen-consorts, in the sixteenth as in the following
+centuries, exercised but little influence; they were, as a
+rule, gentle and obedient wives&mdash;even Catherine, domineering
+as she afterward showed herself to be, betraying
+no signs of that trait until she became regent.</p>
+
+<p>The literary women and women of spirit and wit furthered
+all intellectual and social development; but it was
+the mistresses&mdash;those great women of political schemes
+and moral degeneracy&mdash;who were vested with the actual
+importance, and it must in justice to them be said that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span>
+they not infrequently encouraged art, letters, and mental expansion.</p>
+
+<p>Eight queens of France there were during the sixteenth
+century, and three of these may be accepted as types of
+purity, piety, and goodness: Claude, first wife of Francis I.;
+Elizabeth of France, wife of Charles IX.; and Louise de
+Vaudemont, wife of Henry III. These queens, held up to
+ridicule and scorn by the depraved followers of their husbands'
+mistresses, were reverenced by the people; we find
+striking contrasts to them in the two queens-regent, Louise
+of Savoy and Catherine de' Medici, who, in the period of
+their power, were as unscrupulous and brutal, intriguing
+and licentious, jealous and revengeful, as the most wanton
+mistresses who ever controlled a king. In this century,
+we find two other remarkable types: Marguerite d'Angoulême,
+the bright star of her time; and her whose name
+comes instantly to mind when we speak of the Lady of
+Angoulême&mdash;Marguerite de Navarre, representing both the
+good and the doubtful, the broadest sense of that untranslatable
+term <i>femme d'esprit</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the royal French women to whom modern
+woman owes a great and clearly defined debt was Anne of
+Brittany, wife of Louis XII. and the personification of all
+that is good and virtuous. To her belongs the honor of
+having taken the first step toward the social emancipation
+of French women; she was the first to give to woman an
+important place at court. This precedent she established
+by requesting her state officials and the foreign ambassadors
+to bring their wives and daughters when they paid their
+respects to her. To the ladies themselves, she sent a
+"royal command," bidding them leave their gloomy feudal
+abodes and repair to the court of their sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Anne may be said to belong to the transition period&mdash;that
+period in which the condition of slavery and obscurity
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span>
+which fettered the women of the Middle Ages gave place
+to almost untrammelled liberty. The queen held a separate
+court in great state, at Blois and Des Tournelles, and here
+elegance, even magnificence, of dress was required of her
+ladies. At first, this unprecedented demand caused discontent
+among men, who at that time far surpassed women
+in elaborateness of costume and had, consequently, been
+accustomed to the use of their surplus wealth for their
+own purposes. Under Anne's influence, court life underwent
+a complete transformation; her receptions, which
+were characterized by royal splendor, became the centre of attraction.</p>
+
+<p>Anne of Brittany, the last queen of France of the Middle
+Ages and the first of the modern period, was a model of
+virtuous conduct, conjugal fidelity, and charity. Having
+complete control over her own immense wealth, she used
+it largely for beneficent purposes; to her encouragement
+much of the progress of art and literature in France was
+due. Hers was an example that many of the later queens
+endeavored to follow, but it cannot be said that they ever
+exerted a like influence or exhibited an equal power of
+initiation and self-assertion.</p>
+
+<p>The first royal woman to become a power in politics in
+the period that we are considering was Louise of Savoy,
+mother of Francis I., a type of the voluptuous and licentious
+female of the sixteenth century. Her pernicious
+activity first manifested itself when, having conceived a
+violent passion for Charles of Bourbon, she set her heart
+upon marrying him, and commenced intrigues and plots
+which were all the more dangerous because of her almost
+absolute control over her son, the King.</p>
+
+<p>At this time there were three distinct sets or social
+castes at the court of France: the pious and virtuous band
+about the good Queen Claude; the lettered and elegant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span>
+belles in the coterie of Marguerite d'Angoulême, sister of
+Francis I.; and the wanton and libertine young maids who
+formed a galaxy of youth and beauty about Louise of
+Savoy, and were by her used to fascinate her son and
+thus distract him from affairs of state.</p>
+
+<p>Louise used all means to bring before the king beautiful
+women through whom she planned to preserve her influence
+over him. One of these frail beauties, Françoise
+de Foix, completely won the heart of the monarch; her
+ascendency over him continued for a long period, in spite
+of the machinations of Louise, who, when Francis escaped
+her control, sought to bring disrepute and discredit upon the fair mistress.</p>
+
+<p>The mother, however, remained the powerful factor in
+politics. With an abnormal desire to hoard money, an
+unbridled temper, and a violent and domineering disposition,
+she became the most powerful and dangerous, as
+well as the most feared, woman of all France. During
+her regency the state coffers were pillaged, and plundering
+was carried on on all sides. One of her acts at this
+time was to cause the recall of Charles of Bourbon, then
+Governor of Milan; this measure was taken as much for
+the purpose of obtaining revenge for his scornful rejection
+of her offer of marriage as for the hope of eventually bringing him to her side.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the return of Charles, she immediately began plotting
+against him, including in her hatred Françoise de Foix,
+the king's mistress, at whom Bourbon frequently cast looks
+of pity which the furiously jealous Louise interpreted as
+glances of love. As a matter of fact, Bourbon, being strictly
+virtuous, was out of reach of temptation by the beauties of
+the court, and there were no grounds for jealousy.</p>
+
+<p>This love of Louise for Charles of Bourbon is said to
+have owed most of its ardor to her hope of coming into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span>
+possession of his immense estates. She schemed to have
+his title to them disputed, hoping that, by a decree of Parliament,
+they might be taken from him; the idea in this
+procedure was that Bourbon, deprived of his possessions,
+must come to her terms, and she would thus satisfy&mdash;at
+one and the same time&mdash;her passion and her cupidity.</p>
+
+<p>Under her influence the character of the court changed
+entirely; retaining only a semblance of its former decency,
+it became utterly corrupt. It possessed external elegance
+and <i>distingué</i> manners, but below this veneer lay intrigue,
+debauchery, and gross immorality. In order to meet the
+vast expenditures of the king and the queen-mother, the
+taxes were enormously increased; the people, weighed
+down by the unjust assessment and by want, began to
+clamor and protest. Undismayed by famine, poverty, and
+epidemic, Louise continued her depredations on the public
+treasury, encouraging the king in his squanderings; and
+both mother and son, in order to procure money, begged, borrowed, plundered.</p>
+
+<p>Louise was always surrounded by a bevy of young
+ladies, selected beauties of the court, whose natural charms
+were greatly enhanced by the lavishness of their attire.
+Always ready to further the plans of their mistress, they
+hesitated not to sacrifice reputation or honor to gratify her
+smallest whim. Her power was so generally recognized
+that foreign ambassadors, in the absence of the king, called
+her "that other king." When war against France broke
+out between Spain and England, Louise succeeded in gaining
+the office of constable for the Duc d'Alençon; by this
+means, she intended to displace Charles of Bourbon (whom
+she was still persecuting because he continued cold to her
+advances), and to humiliate him in the presence of his
+army; the latter design, however, was thwarted, as he did not complain.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span>
+
+<p>To the caprice of Louise of Savoy were due the disasters
+and defeats of the French army during the period of
+her power; by frequently displacing someone whose actions
+did not coincide with her plans, and elevating some
+favorite who had avowed his willingness to serve her, she
+kept military affairs in a state of confusion.</p>
+
+<p>Many wanton acts are attributed to her: she appropriated
+forty thousand crowns allowed to Governor Lautrec
+of Milan for the payment of his soldiers, and caused the
+execution of Samblancay, superintendent of finances, who
+had been so unfortunate as to incur her displeasure. It
+was Charles of Bourbon, who, with Marshal Lautrec, investigated
+the episode of the forty thousand crowns and
+exposed the treachery and perfidy of the mother of his king.</p>
+
+<p>Finding that Bourbon intended to persist in his resistance
+to her advances, Louise decided upon drastic measures of
+retaliation. With the assistance of her chancellor (and
+tool), Duprat, she succeeded in having withheld the salaries
+which were due to Bourbon because of the offices held
+by him. As he took no notice of these deprivations, she
+next proceeded to divest him of his estates by laying claim
+to them for herself; she then proposed to Bourbon that,
+by accepting her hand in marriage, he might settle the
+matter happily. The object of her numerous schemes not
+only rejected this offer with contempt, but added insult to
+injury by remarking: "I will never marry a woman devoid
+of modesty." At this rebuff, Louise was incensed beyond
+measure, and when Queen Claude suggested Bourbon's
+marriage to her sister, Mme. Renée de France (a union to
+which Charles would have consented gladly), the queen-mother
+managed to induce Francis I. to refuse his consent.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Anne of Beaujeu, mother-in-law of
+Charles of Bourbon, her estates were seized by the king
+and transferred to Louise while the claim was under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span>
+consideration by Parliament. When the judges, after an
+examination of the records of the Bourbon estate, remonstrated
+with Chancellor Duprat against the illegal transfer,
+he had them put into prison. This rigorous act, which
+was by order of Louise, weakened the courage of the
+court; when the time arrived for a final decision, the judges
+declared themselves incompetent to decide, and in order to
+rid themselves of responsibility referred the matter to the
+king's council. This great lawsuit, which was continued
+for a long time, eventually forced Charles of Bourbon to
+flee from France. Having sworn allegiance to Charles V.
+of Spain and Henry VIII. of England against Francis I., he
+was made lieutenant-general of the imperial armies.</p>
+
+<p>When Francis, captured at the battle of Pavia, was
+taken to Spain, Louise, as regent, displayed unusual diplomatic
+skill by leaguing the Pope and the Italian states with
+Francis against the Spanish king. When, after nearly a
+year's captivity, her son returned, she welcomed him with
+a bevy of beauties; among them was a new mistress, designed
+to destroy the influence of the woman who had so
+often thwarted the plans of Louise&mdash;the beautiful Françoise
+de Foix whom the king had made Countess of Châteaubriant.</p>
+
+<p>This new beauty was Anne de Pisseleu, one of the
+thirty children of Seigneur d'Heilly, a girl of eighteen,
+with an exceptional education. Most cunning was the
+trap which Louise had set for the king. Anne was surrounded
+by a circle of youthful courtiers, who hung upon
+her words, laughed at her caprices, courted her smiles;
+and when she rather confounded them with the extent
+of the learning which&mdash;with a sort of gay triumph&mdash;she
+was rather fond of showing, they pronounced her "the
+most charming of learned ladies and the most learned of the charming."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span>
+
+<p>The plot worked; Francis was fascinated, falling an
+easy prey to the wiles of the wanton Anne. The former
+mistress, Françoise de Foix, was discarded, and Louise,
+purely out of revenge and spite, demanded the return of
+the costly jewels given by the king and appropriated them herself.</p>
+
+<p>The duty assigned to the new mistress was that of
+keeping Francis busy with fêtes and other amusements.
+While he was thus kept under the spell of his enchantress,
+he lost all thought of his subjects and the welfare of his
+country and the affairs of the kingdom fell into the hands
+of Louise and her chancellor, Duprat. The girl-mistress,
+Anne, was married by Louise to the Duc d'Etampes whose
+consent was gained through the promise of the return of
+his family possessions which, upon his father's departure
+with Charles of Bourbon, had been confiscated.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Louise of Savoy was now about over; she
+had accomplished everything she had planned. She had
+caused Charles of Bourbon, one of the greatest men of the
+sixteenth century, to turn against his king; and that king
+owed to her&mdash;his mother&mdash;his defeat at Pavia, his captivity
+in Spain, and his moral fall. Spain, Italy, and
+France were victims of the infamous plotting and disastrous
+intrigues of this one woman whose death, in 1531,
+was a blessing to the country which she had dishonored.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the marriage of Francis I. to Eleanor of
+Portugal (one of the last acts of Louise), Europe was beginning
+to look upon France as ahead of all other nations
+in the "superlativeness of her politeness." The most
+rigid etiquette and the most punctilious politeness were
+always observed, fines being imposed for any discourtesy toward women.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Louise, the lot of managing the king
+and directing his policy fell to the share of his mistress,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span>
+the Duchesse d'Etampes, who at once became all-powerful
+at court; her influence over him was like that of the drug
+which, to the weak person who begins its use, soon becomes
+an absolute necessity.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of the dauphin, all the court flatteries
+were directed toward Henry, the eldest son of Francis.
+Though his mistress, Diana of Poitiers, ruled him, she exercised
+no influence politically; that she was not lacking in
+diplomacy, however, was proved by her attitude toward
+Henry's wife, Catherine, whom she treated with every
+indication of friendship and esteem, in marked contrast to
+the disdain exhibited by other ladies of the court. These
+two women became friends, working together against the
+mistress of the king&mdash;the Duchesse d'Etampes&mdash;and
+causing, by their intrigues, dissensions between father and son.</p>
+
+<p>The duchess was not a bad woman; her dissuasion of
+Francis I. from undertaking war with Solyman II. against
+Charles V. is one instance of the use of her influence in
+the right direction. By some historians, she is accused of
+having played the traitress, in the interest of Emperor
+Charles V., during the war of Spain and England against
+France. It was she who urged the Treaty of Crépy with
+Charles V.; by it, through the marriage of the French
+king's second son, the Duke of Orleans, to the niece of
+Charles V., the duchess was sure of a safe retreat when
+her bitter enemy, Henry's mistress, should reign after the
+king's death. Her plans, however, did not materialize, as
+the duke died and the treaty was annulled.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Francis I. occurred in 1547; with his reign
+ends the first period of woman's activity&mdash;a period influenced
+mainly by Louise of Savoy, whose relations to
+France were as disastrous as were those of any mistress.
+The influence exerted by her may in some respects be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span>
+compared with that of Mme. de Pompadour; though, were
+the merits and demerits of both carefully tested, the results
+would hardly be in favor of Louise. Strong in diplomacy
+and intrigue, she was unscrupulous and wanton&mdash;morally
+corrupt; she did nothing to further the development of
+literature and art; if she favored men of genius it was
+merely from motives of self-interest.</p>
+
+<p>With the accession of Henry II. his mistress entered into
+possession of full power. The absolute sway of Diana of
+Poitiers over this weakest of French kings was due to
+her strong mind, great ability, wide experience, fascination
+of manner, and to that exceptional beauty which she
+preserved to her old age. Immediately upon coming into
+power, she dispatched the Duchesse d'Etampes to one of
+her estates and at the same time forced her to restore the
+jewels which she had received from Francis I., a usual
+procedure with a mistress who knew herself to be first in authority.</p>
+
+<p>After being thus displaced, the duchess spent her time
+in doing charitable work, and is said to have afforded protection
+to the Protestants. Eventually, hers was the fate
+of almost all the mistresses. Compelled to give up many
+of her possessions, miserable and forgotten by all, her last
+days were most unhappy.</p>
+
+<p>Early in her career, Henry made Diana Duchesse de
+Valentinois. So powerful did she become that Sieur de
+Bayard, secretary of state, having referred in jest to her
+age (she was twenty years the king's senior), was deprived
+of his office, thrown into prison, and left to die. In
+her management of Queen Catherine, Diana was most
+politic; she never interfered, but constituted herself "the
+protectress of the legitimate wife, settling all questions
+concerning the newly born," for which she received a
+large salary. When, while the king was in Italy, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span>
+queen became ill, she owed her recovery to the watchful
+care of the mistress. The latter appointed to the vacant
+estates and positions members of her house&mdash;that of Guise.
+In time, this house gained such an ascendency that it
+conceived the project of setting aside all the princes of the blood royal.</p>
+
+<p>Having (through one of her favorites) gained control of
+the royal treasury, Diana appropriated everything&mdash;lands,
+money, jewels. Her influence was so astonishing to the
+people that she was accused of wielding a magic power
+and bewitching the king who seemed, verily, to be leading
+an enchanted existence; he had but one thought, one aim&mdash;that
+of pleasing and obeying his aged mistress. To
+make amends for his adultery, he concluded to extirpate
+heretics. Such a combination of luxury and extravagance
+with licentiousness and brutality, such wholesale murder,
+persecution, and burning at the stake have never been
+equalled, except under Nero.</p>
+
+<p>Michelet reveals the character of Diana in these words:
+"Affected by nothing, loving nothing, sympathizing with
+nothing; of the passions retaining only those which will
+give a little rapidity to the blood; of the pleasures preferring
+those that are mild and without violence&mdash;the love of
+gain and the pursuit of money; hence, there was absence
+of soul. Another phase was the cultivation of the body,
+the body and its beauty uniquely cared for by virile treatment
+and a rigid régime which is the guardian of life&mdash;not
+weakly adored as by women who kill themselves by excessive
+self-love." M. Saint-Amand continues, after quoting
+the above: "At all seasons of the year, Diana plunges
+into a cold bath on rising. As soon as day breaks, she
+mounts a horse, and, followed by swift hounds, rides
+through dewy verdure to her royal lover to whom&mdash;fascinated
+by her mythological pomp&mdash;she seems no more a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span>
+woman but a goddess. Thus he styles her in verses of burning tenderness:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"'Hélas, mon Dieu! combien je regrette</p>
+<p>Le temps que j'ai perdu en ma jeunesse!</p>
+<p>Combien de fois je me suis souhaité</p>
+<p>Avoir Diane pour ma seule maîtresse.</p>
+<p>Mais je craignais qu'elle, qui est déesse,</p>
+<p>Ne se voulût abaisser jusque là.'"</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>[Alas, my God! how much I regret the time lost in my
+youth! How often have I longed to have Diana for my only
+mistress! But I feared that she who is a goddess would
+not stoop so low as that.]</p>
+
+<p>Catherine remained quietly in the palace, preferring her
+position, unpleasant as it was, to the persecution and possible
+incarceration in a convent which would result from
+any interference on her part between the king and his
+mistress. Without power or privileges, she was a mere
+figurehead&mdash;a good mother looking after her family. However,
+she was not idle; without taking part in the intrigues,
+she was studying them&mdash;planning her future tactics; in
+all relations she was diplomatic, her conversation ever
+displaying exquisite tact.</p>
+
+<p>While France groaned under the burdens of seemingly
+interminable wars and exorbitant taxes, her king revelled
+in excessive luxury; the aim of his favorite mistress
+seemed to be to acquire wealth and spend it lavishly for
+her own pleasure. Voluptuousness, cruelty, and extravagance
+were the keynotes of the time. All means were
+used to procure revenues, the king easing any pangs of
+conscience by burning a few heretics whose estates were
+then quickly confiscated.</p>
+
+<p>Diana, even at the age of sixty, still held Henry in her
+toils; an easy prey for the wiles of the flatterer, he was
+kept in ignorance of the hatred and anger heaping up against
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span>
+him. In the midst of riotous festivity, Henry II. died, a
+victim of the lance of Montgomery; and the twelve years'
+reign of debauchery, cruelty, and shameless extravagance came to an end.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever else may be said of Diana, she proved to be a
+liberal patroness of art and letters; this was possible for her,
+since, in addition to inherited wealth and the gifts of lands
+and jewels from the king, she procured the possessions of
+many heretics whose confiscated wealth was assigned to
+her as a faithful servant and supporter of the church.</p>
+
+<p>Her hotel at Anet was one of the most elaborate, tasteful,
+and elegant in all France; there the finest specimens
+of Italian sculpture, painting, and woodwork were to be
+seen. The king, upon making her a duchess, presented
+her with the beautiful château of Chenonceaux, which
+was so much coveted by Catherine. The latter attempted
+to make Diana pay for the château, thus interrupting her
+plans for building; upon discovering this, Henry sent his
+own artists and workmen to carry out Diana's desires.
+Such was the power of his mistress over the weak king
+that he respected her wishes far more than he did those
+of his queen. This was one of those instances in which
+Catherine saw fit to remain silent and plan revenge.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Diana of Poitiers was that common to all
+women of her position. She died in 1566, forgotten by
+the world&mdash;her world. In her will she made "provision for
+religious houses, to be opened to women of evil lives, as if,
+in the depth of her conscience, she had recognized the likeness
+between their destiny and her own." Like the former
+mistresses, she had been required to give up the jewels received
+from Henry II.; but as this order was from Francis II.
+instead of from his mistress, the gems were returned to
+the crown after having passed successively through the
+hands of three mistresses.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>[pg 16]</span>
+
+<p>Catherine's time had not yet come, for she dared not
+interfere when Mary Stuart (a beautiful, inexperienced,
+and impetuous girl of seventeen) gained ascendency over
+Francis II.&mdash;a mere boy. The house of Guise was then
+supreme and began its bloody campaign against its enemies;
+fortunately, however, its power was short-lived, for
+in 1560 the king died after reigning only seventeen months.
+At this point, Catherine enters upon the scene of action.
+Jealous of Mary Stuart and fearing that the young king,
+Charles IX., then but ten years old, might become infatuated
+with her and marry her, she promptly returned the fair young woman to Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>The task before the regent was no light one; her kingdom
+was divided against itself, the country was overburdened
+with taxes, and discontent reigned universally. All
+who surrounded her were full of prejudice and actuated
+solely by personal aspirations&mdash;she realized that she could trust no one.</p>
+
+<p>Her first act of a political nature was to rescue the house
+of Valois and solidify the royal authority. Some critics
+maintain that she began her reign with moderation, gentleness,
+impartiality, and reconciliation. This view finds
+support in the fact that during the first years she favored
+Protestantism; finding, however, that the latter was weakening
+royal power and that the country at large was opposed
+to it, she became its most bitter enemy. To the
+Protestants and their plottings she attributed all the
+disastrous effects of the civil war, all thefts, murders,
+incests, and adulteries, as well as the profanation of
+the sepulchres of the ancestors of the royal family, the
+burning of the bones of Louis XI. and of the heart of Francis II.</p>
+
+<p>The Machiavellian policy was Catherine's guide; bitter
+experience had robbed her of all faith in humanity&mdash;she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span>
+had learned to despise it and the judgment of her contemporaries.
+At first she was amiable and polite, seemingly
+intent upon pleasing those with whom she talked; in fact,
+it is said that she was then more often accused of excessive
+mildness and moderation than of the violence and cruelty
+which later characterized her. Experience having taught
+her how to deal with people, she never lost her self-control.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequent history shows that any gentle and conciliatory
+policy of Catherine was merely a method of furthering
+her own interests, and was therefore not the outcome of
+any inborn feeling of sympathy or womanly tenderness.
+Whether her signing of the Edict of Saint-Germain, admitting
+the Protestants to all employments and granting
+them the privilege of Calvinistic worship in two cities of
+every province, and her refusal, upon the urgent solicitations
+of her son-in-law, Philip II., to persecute heretics
+were really snares laid for the Huguenots, is a matter
+which historians have not decided.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as the entire history of France plays about
+the personality of Catherine de' Medici, no attempt will
+be made to give a detailed chronological account of her
+career; the results, rather than the events themselves,
+will be given. M. Saint-Amand, in his work on <i>French
+Women of the Valois Court</i>, presents one of the strongest
+pictures drawn of Catherine. We shall follow him in the
+greater part of this sketch.</p>
+
+<p>According to some historians, Catherine was a mere
+intriguer, without talent or ability, living but in the moment,
+often caught in her own snares; according to others,
+by her intelligence, ability, and strength of character she
+advanced a cause truly national&mdash;that of French unity;
+thus, she worked either the ruin or the salvation of France.
+Michelet calls her a nonentity, a stage queen with merely
+the externals&mdash;the attire&mdash;of royalty, remaining exactly on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>[pg 18]</span>
+a level with the rulers of the smaller Italian principalities,
+contriving everything and fearing everything, with no more
+heart than she had sense or temperament. Being a female,
+she loved her young; she loved the arts, but cared to cultivate
+only their externalities. In this, however, Michelet
+goes to an extreme; for no woman ever lived who had so
+great a talent for intrigues and politics as she&mdash;a very type
+of the deceit and cunning which were inherent in her race.
+If she were not important, had not wielded so much influence
+and decided the fate of so many great men, women,
+and even states, she would not be the subject of so much
+writing, of such fierce denunciation and strong praise. To
+her family, France owes her finest palaces, her masterpieces
+of art&mdash;painting, bookmaking, printing, binding, sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>M. Saint-Amand declares that "isolated from her contemporaries,
+Catherine de' Medici is a monster; brought
+back within the circle of their passions and their theories,
+she once more becomes a woman." But Catherine was
+the instigator, the embodiment of all that is vice, deceit,
+cunning, trickery, wickedness, and bold intrigue; she set
+the example, and her ladies followed her in all that she
+did; "the heroines bred in her school (and what woman
+was not in her school?) imitate, with docility, the examples
+she gives them." She was not only the type of her
+civilization,&mdash;brutal, gross, immoral, elegant, polished, and
+<i>mondain</i>,&mdash;but she was also its leader.</p>
+
+<p>Greatness of soul, real moral force, strict virtue, are not
+attributes of the sixteenth-century woman&mdash;they are isolated
+and rare exceptions; these Catherine did not possess.
+Nor was she influenced deeply by her environments; the
+latter but encouraged and developed those qualities which
+were hers inherently,&mdash;will, intelligence, inflexible perseverance,
+tenacity of purpose, unscrupulousness, cruelty;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span>
+hence, to say "She is the victim rather than the inspiration
+of the corruption of her time" is misleading, to say the
+least. If, upon her arrival at court, "she at once pleased
+every one by her grace and affability, modest air, and,
+above all, by her extreme gentleness," she could not have
+changed, say her defenders, into the perfidious, wicked,
+and cruel creature she is said to have become as soon
+as she stepped into power. "During the reign of Henry II.,
+she wisely avoided all danger; faithful to her wifely duties,
+she gave no cause for scandal, and, realizing that she was
+not strong enough to overcome her all-powerful rival, she
+bided her time. She was loved and respected by everyone
+for her personal qualities and her benevolence." But why
+may it not be true that all this was but part of her politics,
+the politics in which she had been educated? Wise from
+experience, she foresaw the future and what was in store
+for her if she remained prudent and made the best of the
+surroundings until the time should come when she could
+strike suddenly and boldly.</p>
+
+<p>Brought up from infancy amidst snares, intrigues, the
+clash of arms, the furious shouts of popular insurrections,
+tempests, and storms, she could not escape the influence
+of her early environment. Her talent for studying and
+penetrating the designs of her enemies, for facing or avoiding
+dangers with such sublime calmness and prudence, was
+partly inherited, partly acquired. That spirit she took
+with her to France, where her experience was widened
+and her opportunities for the study of human nature were increased.</p>
+
+<p>It is not generally known that her mother was a French
+woman&mdash;a Madeleine de La Tour d'Auvergne, daughter
+of Jean, Count of Boulogne, and Catherine of Bourbon,
+daughter of the Count of Vendôme; thus, her gentler nature
+was a French product. Her mother and father both
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span>
+died when she was but twenty-two days old, and from
+that time until her marriage she was cast about from place
+to place. But from the very first she showed that talent
+of adapting herself to her surroundings, living amidst intrigues
+and discords and yet making friends. She has
+been called "the precocious heiress of the craftiness of her progenitors."</p>
+
+<p>In her thirteenth year, after being sought by many
+powerful princes, Clement VII. (her greatuncle), in order
+to secure himself against the powerful Charles V., married
+her to Henry, Duke of Orleans, the second son of Francis
+I. Even at that early age she was fully aware of all
+the dreariness and danger attached to positions of power,
+and knew that the art of governing was not an easy one.
+She had studied Machiavelli's famous work, <i>The Prince</i>,
+which had been dedicated to her father, and it was from it,
+as well as from her ancestors, that she derived her wisdom
+and astuteness. Her childhood had prepared her for the
+work of the future, and she went at it with caution and
+reserve until she was sure of her ground.</p>
+
+<p>She first proceeded to study the king, Francis I., watching
+his actions, extracting his secrets; a fine huntress and
+at his side constantly, she pleased him and gained his
+favor. Brantôme says she was subtle and diplomatic,
+quickly learning the craft of her profession; she sought
+friends among all classes and ranks, directing her overtures
+specially toward the ladies of the court, whom she
+soon won and gathered about her.</p>
+
+<p>In 1536 the dauphin died, and Catherine's husband became
+heir to the throne of France. Though they had been
+married three years, no offspring had resulted, which unfortunate
+circumstance made her position a most uncertain
+one, especially as Diana of Poitiers was then at the height
+of her power, controlling Henry absolutely. A furious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span>
+rivalry sprang up between the Duchesse d'Etampes, mistress
+of Francis I., and Diana and Catherine; the two
+mistresses formed two parties, and a war of slanders, calumnies,
+and unpleasant epigrams ensued. Queen Eleanor,
+the second wife of Francis I., took no active part, thus leaving
+all power in the hands of the mistress of her husband.
+(It was at this time that the Emperor Charles V. gained the
+Duchesse d'Etampes over to his cause.) Poets and artists,
+politicians and men of genius took sides, extolling the
+beauty of the one they championed. Catherine, although
+befriended and treated with apparent respect by Diana,
+remained a good friend to both women, thus evincing her
+tact. By keeping her own personality in the background,
+she won the esteem of both her husband and the king.</p>
+
+<p>Brantôme leaves a picture of Catherine at this time:
+"She was a fine and ample figure; very majestic, yet
+agreeable and very gentle when necessary; beautiful and
+gracious in appearance, her face fair and her throat white
+and full, very white in body likewise.... Moreover,
+she dressed superbly, always having some pretty innovation.
+In brief, she had beauties fitted to inspire love. She
+laughed readily, her disposition was jovial, and she liked
+to jest." M. Saint-Amand continues: "The artistic elegance
+that surrounded her whole person, the tranquil and
+benevolent expression of her countenance, the good taste
+of her dress, the exquisite distinction of her manners, all
+contributed to her charm. And then she was so humble
+in the presence of her husband! She so carefully avoided
+whatever might have the semblance of reproach! She
+closed her eyes with such complaisance! Henry told
+himself that it would be difficult to find another woman
+so well-disposed, another wife so faithful to her duties,
+another princess so accomplished in point of instruction
+and intelligence. The <i>ménage à trois</i> (household of three)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span>
+was continued, therefore, and if the dauphin loved his mistress,
+he certainly had a friendship for his wife. And,
+on her part, whenever she felt an inclination to complain
+of her lot, Catherine bethought herself that if she quitted
+her position she would probably find no refuge but the
+cloister, and that&mdash;taking it all around&mdash;the court of France
+(in spite of the humiliations and vexations one might experience
+there) was an abode more desirable than a convent;"
+this, then, is the secret of her submission. In
+spite of her beauty, mildness, and distinction of manner,
+she could not overcome the prestige of Diana.</p>
+
+<p>After nine years, Catherine was still without children
+and began to fear the fate in store for her; but when she
+gave birth to a son in 1543, she felt assured that divorce
+no longer threatened her and she resolved that as soon as
+she came into power she would be revenged upon her enemies
+and Diana of Poitiers. When, in 1547, her husband
+succeeded his father as King of France, she did not feel
+that the time had yet arrived to interfere in any social or
+domestic arrangements or affairs of state; not until ten
+years later did she show the first sign of remarkable
+statesmanship or ability as a politician.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle and capture of Saint-Quentin, France
+was in a most deplorable state; the enemy was believed
+to be beneath the walls of Paris; everybody was fleeing;
+the king had gone to Compiègne to muster a new army.
+Catherine was alone in Paris "and of her own free will
+went to the Parliament in full state, accompanied by the
+cardinals, princes, and princesses; and there, in the most
+impressive language, she set forth the urgent state of
+affairs at the moment.... With so much sentiment
+and eloquence that she touched the heart of everybody,
+the queen then explained to the Parliament that the king
+had need of three hundred thousand livres, twenty-five
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span>
+thousand to be paid every two months; and she added
+that she would retire from the place of session, so as not
+to interfere with the liberty of discussion; accordingly, she
+retired to another room. A resolution to comply with the
+wishes of her majesty was voted, and the queen, having
+resumed her place, received a promise to that effect. A
+hundred nobles of the city offered to give at once three thousand
+francs apiece. The queen thanked them in the sweetest
+form of words, and thus terminated this session of Parliament&mdash;with
+so much applause for her majesty and such
+lively marks of satisfaction at her behavior, that no idea can
+be given of them. Throughout the city, nothing was spoken
+of but the queen's prudence and the happy manner in which
+she proceeded in this enterprise" (Guizot). From this act
+dates Catherine's entrance into political consideration.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Francis II., Catherine de' Medici
+exercised no influence at court, the king being completely
+under the dominion of his wife and the Duke of Guise,
+who was not favorable to the queen-mother's schemes
+and policies. Catherine, however, was plotting; caring
+little about religion so long as it did not further her plans,
+she connected herself with the Huguenots; her scheme
+was to bring the Guises to destruction and to form a council
+of regency which, while composed of the Huguenot
+leaders, was to be under her guidance. As this plan
+failed, bringing ruin to many princes, she deserted the
+Huguenots and allied herself with the Catholics.</p>
+
+<p>She is next found attempting the assassination of the
+Duke of Condé, but she failed to accomplish that crime
+because her son, the king, refused his consent. Soon
+after, Francis II. died, it is said from the effect of poison
+dropped into his ear while he was sleeping; it is probable
+that this crime was committed at the instigation of the
+mother, since by his death and the accession of Charles IX.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span>
+she became regent (1560). She was then all-powerful
+and in a position to exercise her long dormant talents.</p>
+
+<p>Her first plan was to incapacitate all her children by
+plunging them "into such licentious pleasure and voluptuous
+dissipation that they were speedily unfitted for mental
+activity or exertion." Most unprejudiced historians credit
+her with the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew; she is said
+to have boasted about it to Catholic governments and excused
+it to Protestant powers. For a number of years, she
+had been planning the destruction of the Huguenot princes,
+and as early as 1565 she and Charles IX. had an interview
+with the Duke of Alva (representative of Philip II), to consult
+as to the means of delivering France from heretics.
+It was decided that "this great blessing could not have
+accomplishment save by the deaths of all the leaders of the Huguenots."</p>
+
+<p>That fearful crime, the bloody Massacre of Saint Bartholomew,
+is familiar to everyone. The only excuse
+offered for this most heinous of Catherine's many offences
+is her intense sentiment of national unity; the actual reason
+for it is to be sought in the fact that as long as the
+Protestants retained their prestige and influence, Catherine
+and her Catholic party could not do as they pleased, could
+not gain absolute control over the government. History
+holds her more responsible than it does her weak son.
+The climax came on the occasion of the wedding of Marguerite
+of Valois with the Prince of Navarre, which meant
+the union of the branches&mdash;the Catholic and the Protestant.
+This resulted in the first breach between the king and
+Catherine; the latter at that time perpetrated one of her
+dastardly deeds by poisoning the mother of the Prince of
+Navarre&mdash;Jeanne d'Albret, her bitter enemy.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Charles IX., Henry III. was the sole
+survivor of the four sons of Catherine. Although her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span>
+power was limited during his reign, she managed to continue
+her murderous plans and accomplished the death of
+Henry of Guise and his brother the cardinal, which crime
+united the majority of the Catholics of France against the
+king and was the cause of his assassination in 1589. This
+ended the power of Catherine de' Medici; when she died,
+no one rejoiced, no one lamented. Wherever she had
+turned her eyes, she had seen nothing but occasions for
+uneasiness and sadness; she had retired from court, feeling
+her helplessness and disgrace as well as the decline in
+power of that son in whom her hopes were centred. She
+decided to reënter the scene of action and save Henry.
+The stormy scenes of the Barricades and the League and
+the murder of the Duke of Guise hastened her death, which occurred in 1589.</p>
+
+<p>Catherine de' Medici may rightfully be called the initiator
+and organizer of social and court etiquette and courtesy&mdash;of
+conventional and social laws. However great her political
+activity, she made herself deeply felt in the social and
+moral worlds also. She taught her husband the secret of
+being king; she introduced the <i>lever</i> audience; in the afternoon
+of every day, she held a reunion of all the ladies of
+the court, at which the king was to be found after dinner
+and every lord entertained the lady he most loved; two
+hours were spent in this pleasure which was continued
+after supper if there were no balls; bitter railleries and
+anything that passed the restrictions of good company were forbidden.</p>
+
+<p>Her ladies of honor obeyed her as they would their God.
+Marguerite of Valois said of her: "I did not dare to speak
+to her, and when she looked at me I trembled for fear of
+having done something that displeased her." Ladies who
+had been delinquent were stripped and beaten with lashes;
+for correction&mdash;frequently for mere pastime&mdash;she would
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span>
+have them undressed and slapped vigorously with the back
+of the hand. Françoise of Rohan, cousin of Jeanne d'Albret,
+wrote the following poem:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"Plus j'ai de toi souvent esté battue,</p>
+<p>Plus mon amour s'efforce et s'évertue</p>
+<p>De regretter ceste main qui me bat;</p>
+<p>Car ce mal-là m'estait plaisant esbat.</p>
+<p>Or, adieu done la main dont la rigueur</p>
+<p>Je préferais à tout bien et honneur."</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>[The more often I have been struck by you, the more my
+love struggles and strives to regret the hand that beats
+me; for that punishment was a pleasant pastime for me.
+Now farewell to the hand whose rigor I preferred to every fortune and honor.]</p>
+
+<p>The following portrait and poetry, taken from M. Saint-Amand,
+does the subject full justice: "Catherine de' Medici
+represented with a sinister glance, deadly mien, mysterious
+and savage aspect&mdash;a spectre, not a woman&mdash;is not true
+to nature. Her self-possession, cool cunning, supreme
+elegance, imperturbable tranquillity, calmness, moderation,
+noble serenity, and dignified poise, gave her an individuality
+such as few women ever possessed. Gentle in crime
+and tragedy, polite like an executioner toward his victim&mdash;this
+Machiavellianism which is equal to every trial, which
+nothing alarms or surprises, and which with tranquil dexterity
+makes sport of every law of morality and humanity&mdash;this
+is the real character of Catherine de' Medici." The
+following burlesque poetry was composed for her:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"La reine qui ci-git fut un diable et un ange,</p>
+<p>Toute pleine de blâme et pleine de louange,</p>
+<p>Elle soutint l'Etat, et l'Etat mit à bas;</p>
+<p>Elle fit maints accords et pas moins de débats;</p>
+<p>Elle enfanta trois rois et trois guerres civiles,</p>
+<p>Fit bâtir des châteaux et ruiner des villes,</p>
+<p>Fit bien de bonnes lois et de mauvais édits.</p>
+<p>Souhaite-lui, passant, enfer et paradis."</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span>
+
+<p>[The queen lying here was both devil and angel, blamed
+and praised; she both put down and upheld the state; she
+caused many an agreement and no end of disputes; she
+produced three kings and three civil wars; she built castles
+and ruined cities, made many good laws and many bad
+decrees. Wish her, passer-by, hell and paradise.]</p>
+
+<p>With the reign of Henry IV.&mdash;the first king of the house
+of Bourbon, and the first king of the sixteenth century
+with a will of his own and the courage to assert it&mdash;begins
+a period of revelling, debauch, and the most depraved
+immorality. Three mistresses in turn controlled him&mdash;morally, not politically.</p>
+
+<p>Henry was master of his own will, and, had he desired
+to do so, could have overcome his evil tendencies; instead,
+he openly countenanced and even encouraged dissoluteness
+and elegant debauchery, as long as he himself was not
+deprived of the lady upon whom his capricious fancy happened
+to fall. His advances were but seldom repulsed;
+but upon making his usual audacious proposals to the
+Marquise de Guercheville, he was informed that she was
+of too insignificant a house to be the king's wife and of
+too good a race to be his mistress; and when the king, in
+spite of this rebuff, made her lady of honor to his wife,
+Marie de' Medici, she continued to resist him and remained
+virtuous. Such types of purity, honor, and moral courage
+were very exceptional during this reign.</p>
+
+<p>The three principal mistresses of this sovereign represent
+three phases of influence and three periods of his life.
+Corisande d'Andouins, Comtesse de Guiche and Duchesse
+de Gramont, fascinated him for eight years, while he was
+King of Navarre (1582-1590); to her he was deeply attached,
+and recompensed her for her devotion; this is
+called his <i>chevaleresque</i> period. The beautiful Gabrielle
+d'Estrées, Duchesse de Beaufort, was called his mate after
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span>
+victory; "she refined, sharpened, softened, and tamed his
+customs; she made him king of the court instead of the
+field." It was she who ventured to meddle in his politics,
+she whom Marguerite of Valois, his wife, so detested that
+she refused to consent to a divorce as long as Gabrielle
+(by whom he had several children) remained his mistress.
+The latter even went so far as to demand the baptism, as
+a child of France, of her son by the king. Sully, in a rage,
+declared there were no "children of France," and took the
+order to the king, who had it destroyed; he then asked
+his minister to go to his mistress and satisfy her, "in so
+far as you can." To his efforts she replied: "I am aware
+of all, and do not care to hear any more; I am not made
+as the king is, whom you persuade that black is white."
+Upon receiving this report, the king said: "Here, come
+with me; I will let you see that women have not the
+possession of me that certain malignant spirits say they
+have." Accompanied by Sully, he immediately went to
+the Duchesse de Beaufort, and, taking her by the hand,
+said: "Now, madame, let us go into your room, and let
+nobody else enter except Rosny. I want to speak to you
+both and teach you how to be good friends." Then, having
+closed the door, holding Gabrielle with one hand and Rosny
+with the other, he said: "Good God, madame! What is
+the meaning of this? So you would vex me from sheer
+wantonness of heart in order to try my patience? By
+God, I swear to you that, if you continue these fashions
+of going on, you will find yourself very much out in your
+expectations! I see quite well that you have been put up
+to all this pleasantry in order to make me dismiss a servant
+whom I cannot do without, and who has served me loyally
+for five-and-twenty years. By God, I will do nothing of
+the kind! And I declare to you that if I were reduced to
+such a necessity as to choose between losing one or the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span>
+other, I could better do without ten mistresses like you
+than one servant like him." Shortly after this episode,
+Gabrielle died so suddenly that she was supposed to have
+been poisoned. Immediately after her death the divorce
+was granted, and Henry married Marie de' Medici.</p>
+
+<p>The third mistress, Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues,
+Marquise de Verneuil, who led Henry IV. along a path of
+the worst debauchery, gained control over him by lewd,
+lascivious methods. While negotiations were being carried
+on for his divorce from Marguerite, only a few weeks after
+the death of Gabrielle, he signed a promise to marry Henriette;
+this, however, he failed to keep. She, more than
+any other of his mistresses, was the cause of national distress
+and of more than one ruinous war. When, after the
+marriage of the king to Marie de' Medici, Henriette began
+to nag, rail, intrigue, and conspire, she was disgraced by
+Henry, who at least had the courage to honor his own
+family above that of his mistresses. She is accused of
+having had, solely from motives of revenge, a hand in the death of the king.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, around the queens-regent and the mistresses of
+the kings of France in the sixteenth century there is constant
+intriguing, murder, assassination, immorality, and
+debauchery, jealousy and revenge, marriage and divorce,
+honor and disgrace, despotism and final repentance and
+misery. The greatest and lowest of these women was
+Catherine de' Medici; Diana of Poitiers was famed as the
+most marvellously beautiful woman in France, and she was
+the most powerful and intelligent mistress until the time of
+Mme. de Pompadour. Amid all this bribery and corruption,
+elegant and refined immorality, there are some few types
+that represent education, family life, purity, and culture.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter II</h2>
+
+<h2>Woman in Family Life, Education, and Letters</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span>
+
+
+<p>The queens of France exerted little or no influence upon
+the cultural or political development of that country.
+Frequently of foreign extraction and reared in the strict
+religious discipline of Catholicism, they spent their time
+in attending masses, aiding the poor and, with the little
+money allowed them, erecting hospitals and other institutions
+for the weak and needy. Thus, they are, as a rule,
+types of gentleness, virtue, piety, and self-sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>The little information which history gives concerning
+them is confined mainly to their matrimonial alliances.
+To them, marriage represented nothing more than a contract&mdash;a
+union entered into for the purpose of settling
+some political negotiation; thus they were often cast upon
+strange and unfriendly soil where intrigues and jealousy
+immediately affected them.</p>
+
+<p>Seldom did they venture to interfere with the intrigues
+of the mistress; in their uncertain position, any manifestation
+of resentment or opposition resulted in humiliation
+and disgrace; if wise, they contented themselves with
+quietly performing their functions as dutiful wives. Such
+women were Claude, daughter of Louis XII., and Eleanor
+of Spain&mdash;wives of Francis I.; lacking the power to act
+politically, both passed uneventful and virtuous lives in comparative obscurity.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span>
+The wife of Charles IX.&mdash;Elizabeth of Austria, daughter
+of Maximilian II.&mdash;had absolutely no control over her husband;
+however, he condescended to flatter himself with
+having, as he said, "in an amiable wife, the wisest and
+most virtuous woman not only of France and Europe, but
+of the universe." Her nature is well portrayed in the
+answer she gave to the remark made to her, after the death
+of her husband: "Ah, Madame, what a misfortune that
+you have no son! Your lot would be less pitiful and you
+would be queen-mother and regent." "Alas, do not suggest
+such a disagreeable thing!" she replied. "As if
+France had not afflictions enough without my producing
+another to complete its ruin! For, if I had a son, there
+would be more divisions and troubles, more seditions to
+obtain the administration and guardianship during his infancy
+and minority; all would try to profit themselves by
+despoiling the poor child&mdash;as they wanted to do with the
+late king, my husband." Returning to Austria, she erected
+a convent, treated the nuns as friends and refused to marry
+again even to ascend the throne of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III, was a French
+woman by birth and blood. After the death of the Princess
+of Condé, whom he passionately loved and desired to
+marry, Henry conceived an intense affection for Louise,
+daughter of Nicholas of Lorraine, Count of Vaudemont&mdash;a
+young lady of education and culture&mdash;"a character of exquisite
+sweetness lends distinction to her beauty and her
+piety; her thorough Christian modesty and humility are
+reflected in her countenance." Brantôme wrote: "This
+princess deserves great praise; in her married life she
+comported herself so wisely, chastely, and loyally toward
+the king that the nuptial tie which bound her to him always
+remained firm and indissoluble,&mdash;was never found loosened
+or undone,&mdash;even though the king liked and sometimes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span>
+procured a change, according to the custom of the great
+who keep their full liberty." Soon after the marriage,
+however, Henry began to make life unpleasant for the
+queen, one of his petty acts being to deprive her of the
+moral ladies in waiting whom she had brought with her.</p>
+
+<p>Louise de Vaudemont was a striking contrast to the perverted
+woman of the day; the latter, no longer charmed
+by the gentler emotions, sought the exaggerated and
+the eccentric, extraordinary incidents, dramatic situations,
+unexpected crises, finding all amusements insipid unless
+they involved fighting and romantic catastrophes. "<i>Billets
+doux</i> were written in blood and ferocity reigned even in pleasure."</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of this turmoil, Louise busied herself with
+charity, appearing among the poor and distributing all the
+funds which her father gave her for pocket money; the
+evils of her surroundings threw her virtues, by contrast,
+into so much the brighter light. Though she held herself
+aloof from intrigues and rivalries, favoring no one and
+encouraging no slander, she was, strange to say, respected,
+admired and honored by Protestants and Catholics alike.</p>
+
+<p>Calumny and all the agitations about her did not disturb
+Louise in her prayers. "The waves of the angry ocean
+broke at the foot of the altar as the queen knelt; but
+Huguenots and Catholics, leaguers and royalists, united
+to pay her homage. They were amazed to see such
+purity in an atmosphere so corrupt, such gentleness in a
+society so violent. Their eyes rested with satisfaction on
+a countenance whose holy tranquillity was undisturbed by
+pride and hatred. The famous women of the century,
+wretched in spite of all their amusements and their feverish
+pursuit of pleasure, made salutary reflections as they contemplated
+a woman still more highly honored for her
+virtues than for her crown." That she was not a mother
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>[pg 36]</span>
+was, with her, an enduring sorrow; even that, however,
+did not alter her calmness and benign resignation.</p>
+
+<p>Louise de Vaudemont was indeed a bright star in a
+heaven of darkness&mdash;one of the best queens of whom
+French history can boast; she is an example of goodness
+and gentleness, of purity, charity, and fidelity in a world
+of corruption, cruelty, hatred, and debauch&mdash;where sympathy
+was rare and chastity was ridiculed. Although a
+highly educated woman, the faithful performance of her
+duties as queen and as a devout Catholic left her little
+time for literature and art; she remains the type of piety
+and purity&mdash;an ideal queen and woman.</p>
+
+<p>A heroine in the fullest sense of that word was Jeanne
+d'Albret, the great champion of Protestantism; she was
+the mother of Henry IV. and the wife of the Duke of
+Bourbon, Count of Vendôme, a direct descendant of Saint
+Louis. This despotic, combative, and war-loving queen
+reigned as absolute monarch, and was as autocratic and
+severe as Calvin himself, confiscating church property,
+destroying pictures and altars&mdash;even going so far as to
+forbid the presence of her subjects at mass or in religious
+processions. "Her natural eloquence, the lightning flashes
+from her eyes, her reputation as a Spartan matron and an
+intractable Calvinist, all contributed to give her great influence
+with her party. The military leaders&mdash;Coligny,
+La Rochefoucauld, Rohan, La Noue&mdash;submitted their plans of campaign to her."</p>
+
+<p>Though Jeanne was, perhaps, as fanatical, intolerant,
+and cruel as her adversaries, she was driven to this by the
+hostility shown her by the Catholic party&mdash;a party in
+which she felt she could place no confidence. Her retreat
+was amid rocks and inaccessible peaks, whence she defied
+both the pope and Philip II. She brought up her son&mdash;the
+future Henry IV.&mdash;among the children of the people,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span>
+exercising toward him the severest discipline, and inuring
+him to the cold of the winter and the heat of the summer;
+she taught him to be judicious, sincere, and compassionate&mdash;qualities
+which she possessed to a remarkable degree.
+Chaste and pure herself, she considered the court of
+France a hotbed of voluptuousness and debauchery, and at
+every opportunity strengthened herself against its possible influence.</p>
+
+<p>The political and religious troubles of Jeanne d'Albret
+began when Pope Paul IV. invested Philip II. of Spain
+with the sovereignty of Navarre&mdash;her territory; she resisted,
+and, following the impulses of her own nature,
+formally embraced Calvinism, while her weak husband
+acceded to the commands of the Church, and, applying to
+the pope for the annulment of his marriage, was prepared,
+as lieutenant-general of the kingdom, a position he accepted
+from the pontiff, to deprive his wife of her possessions.
+His death before the realization of his project made
+it possible for Jeanne to retain her sovereignty; alone, an
+absolute monarch, she declared Calvinism the established
+religion of Navarre. After the assassination of Condé she
+remained the champion of the Huguenots, defying her
+enemies and scorning the court of France.</p>
+
+<p>So great were her power and influence over the soldiery
+that Catherine de' Medici, her bitter enemy, desiring to
+bring her into her power, or, at least, to conciliate her,
+planned a marriage between Jeanne's son and Marguerite
+of Valois&mdash;sister of Charles IX. When the suggestion
+that the marriage should take place came from the king of
+France, Jeanne d'Albret suspected an ambush; with the
+determination to supervise personally all arrangements for
+the nuptials, she set out for the French court. Venerated
+by the Protestants, and hated but admired by the Catholics,
+she had become celebrated throughout Europe for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span>
+her beauty, intelligence, and strength of mind; thus, her
+arrival at Paris created a sensation.</p>
+
+<p>She was so scandalized at the luxury and bold debauchery
+at court that she decided to give up the marriage; she
+had detected the intrigues and falsity of both the king and
+Catherine, and had a foreboding of evil. She wrote to her son Henry:</p>
+
+<p>"Your betrothed is beautiful, very circumspect and
+graceful, but brought up in the worst company that ever
+existed (for I do not see a single one who is not infected
+by it) ... I would not for anything have you come
+here to live; this is why I desire you to marry and withdraw
+yourself and your wife from this corruption which
+(bad as I supposed it to be) I find still worse than I
+thought. Here, it is not the men who invite the women,
+but the women who invite the men. If you were here,
+you could not escape contamination without a great grace from God."</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, Catherine, undecided whether to strike
+immediately or to wait, was redoubling her kindness and
+courtesy and her affectionate overtures; her enemies were
+in her hands. Although Jeanne suspected that Catherine
+was capable of every perfidy, she at times believed that
+her suspicions were unjust or exaggerated. The situation
+between these two great women was indeed a dramatic
+one: both were tactful, powerful, experienced in war and
+diplomacy; both were mothers with children for whose
+future they sought to provide. Jeanne's hesitancy, however,
+was fatal; physically exhausted from suffering and
+sorrow, worry and excitement, she suddenly died, in the
+midst of her preparations for the marriage. While it is
+not absolutely certain that her death was due to poison,
+subsequent events lead strongly to the belief that Catherine
+was instrumental in causing it&mdash;that, probably, being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span>
+but the first act toward the awful catastrophe she was planning.</p>
+
+<p>"A few hours before her agony, Jeanne dictated the
+provisions of her will. She recommended her son to remain
+faithful to the religion in which she had reared him,
+never to permit himself to be lured by voluptuousness and
+corruption, and to banish atheists, flatterers, and libertines....
+She begged him to take his sister, Catherine,
+under his protection and to be, after God, her father.
+'I forbid my son ever to use severity towards his sister; I
+wish, to the contrary, that he treat her with gentleness
+and kindness; and that&mdash;above all&mdash;he have her brought
+up in Béarn, and that she shall never leave there until she
+is old enough to be married to a prince of her own rank
+and religion, whose morals shall be such that the spouses
+may live happily together in a good and holy marriage.'"
+D'Aubigné wrote of her: "A princess with nothing of a
+woman but sex&mdash;with a soul full of everything manly,
+a mind fit to cope with affairs of moment, and a heart invincible in adversity."</p>
+
+<p>It was in deep mourning that her son, then King of Navarre,
+arrived at Paris; the eight hundred gentlemen who
+attended him were all likewise in mourning. "But," says
+Marguerite de Valois, "the nuptials took place in a few
+days, with triumph and magnificence that none others, of
+even my quality, had ever beheld. The King of Navarre
+and his troop changed their mourning for very rich and
+fine clothes, I being dressed royally, with crown and corsage
+of tufted ermine all blazing with crown jewels, and,
+the grand blue mantle with a train four ells long borne by
+three princesses. The people down below, in their eagerness
+to see us as we passed, choked one another." (Thus
+quickly was Jeanne d'Albret forgotten.) The ceremonies
+were gorgeous, lasting four days; but when Admiral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span>
+Coligny, the Huguenot leader, was struck in the hand by a
+musket ball, the festive aspect of affairs suddenly changed.
+On the second day after the wounding of Coligny, and
+before the excitement caused by that act had subsided,
+Catherine accomplished the crowning work of her invidious
+nature, the tragedy of Saint Bartholomew.</p>
+
+<p>Peace and quiet never appeared upon the countenance
+of Catherine de' Medici&mdash;that woman who so faithfully
+represents and pictures the period, the tendencies of which
+she shaped and fostered by her own pernicious methods;
+and Charles IX., her son, was no better than his mother.
+Saint-Amand, in his splendid picture of the period, gives
+a truthful picture of Catherine as well: "It is interesting
+to observe how curiously the later Valois represented
+their epoch. Francis I. had personified the Renaissance;
+Charles IX. sums up in himself all the crises of the religious
+wars&mdash;he is the true type of the morbid and disturbed
+society where all is violent; where the blood is scorched
+by the double fevers of pleasure and cruelty; where the
+human soul, without guide or compass, is tossed amid
+storms; where fanaticism is joined to debauchery, superstition
+to incredulity, cultured intelligence to depravity of
+heart. This wholly unbalanced character&mdash;which stretches
+evil to its utmost limits while preserving the knowledge of
+what is good, which mistrusts everybody and yet has at least
+the aspiration toward friendship and love, if not its experience&mdash;is
+it not the symbol and living image of its time?"</p>
+
+<p>Marguerite de Valois, sister of Charles IX. and wife of
+Henry IV., by her own actions and intrigues exercised
+little influence politically; she was, above all else, a woman
+of culture and may be taken as an example of the type
+which was largely instrumental in developing social life in
+France. Famous for her beauty, talents, and profligacy,
+it seems that historians are prone to dwell too exclusively
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span>
+upon the last quality, overlooking her principal rôle&mdash;that of social leader.</p>
+
+<p>She first came into prominence through her relations
+with the Duke of Guise who paid assiduous court to her
+for some time; for a while, no topic was more discussed
+than that of their marriage. When, however, Charles IX.
+heard that the duke had been carrying on a secret correspondence
+with his sister, he exclaimed, savagely: "If it
+be so, we will kill him!" Thereupon, the duke hurriedly
+contracted a marriage with Catherine of Clèves. That
+Marguerite, at this early date, had become the mistress of
+Henry of Guise is hardly likely and becomes even less
+probable when it is considered how closely she was watched
+by her mother, Catherine de' Medici.</p>
+
+<p>Her marriage, previously mentioned, to Henry of Navarre
+was a mere political match, there being absolutely
+no love, no affection, no sympathy. This union was
+looked upon as the surest covenant of peace between
+Catholicism and Protestantism and put an end to the disastrous
+religious wars that had been carried on uninterruptedly
+for years; both the parties to this contract lived
+at court, leading an existence of pleasure and immorality.
+Remarkably intelligent, Marguerite was a scholar of no
+mean ability; she displayed much wit and talent, but
+no judgment or discretion; though conveying the impression
+of being rather haughty and proud, she lacked both
+self respect and true dignity. Her beauty was marvellous,
+but "calculated, to ruin and damn men rather than to save them."</p>
+
+<p>Henry, the husband of Marguerite, was constantly
+sneered at and taunted by the Catholics; although Catholic
+in name he was Protestant at heart and keenly felt
+his false position. During Catherine's short term as
+queen-regent, he was held in captivity until the arrival of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span>
+Henry III., when he escaped to his own Béarn people;
+for this, Marguerite was held responsible and kept under guard.</p>
+
+<p>Although hating his religion, his wife went to live with
+him, tolerating his infidelities while he refused to tolerate
+her religion. The unhappiness of this marriage was not
+due to Marguerite alone; the first trouble arose when she
+discovered his love for his mistress, Gabrielle d'Estrées,
+and, thinking herself equally privileged, she began to indulge
+in the same excesses. The result of so many annoyances
+and debaucheries, so much vexation, was an illness; as
+soon as she became convalescent, she returned to her
+mother at court where she speedily gained the ill will of
+the king by her profligate habits, her quarrels with both
+Catholics and Protestants, her intimacy with the Duke of
+Guise, her plottings with her younger brother, her cutting
+satires on court favorites.</p>
+
+<p>She was sent back to Henry, upon the way meeting
+with the mishap of being insulted by archers and, with
+her maids, led away prisoner. Her husband was with difficulty
+persuaded to receive her, and, finding him all attentive
+to his mistress, Marguerite fled to Agen, where she
+made war upon him as a heretic; unable to hold her position
+there on account of her licentious manner of living
+and the exorbitant taxes imposed upon the inhabitants, she
+fled again and continued moving from one place to another,
+causing mischief everywhere, "consuming the remainder
+of her youth in adventures more worthy of a woman who
+had abandoned her husband than of a daughter of France."
+At last, she was seized and imprisoned in the fortress of
+Usson; here she was supported mainly by Elizabeth of
+Austria, widow of Charles IX.</p>
+
+<p>When her husband became King of France, he refused
+to liberate her until she should renounce her rank; to this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span>
+condition she refused to accede until after the death of
+her rival, the mistress of Henry&mdash;Gabrielle d'Estrées,
+Duchess de Beaufort. After the annulment of the marriage,
+Marguerite said: "If our household has been little
+noble and less bourgeois, our divorce was royal." She
+was permitted to retain the title of queen, her debts were
+paid and other great concessions granted. Her subsequent
+relations with Henry IV. were very cordial and fraternal;
+she even revealed political plots to him.</p>
+
+<p>When, after nearly twenty years of captivity, Marguerite
+returned to Paris (1605), she gained the favor of
+everybody&mdash;the king, dauphin, and court ladies. She
+was present at the coronation of Marie de' Medici, and, by
+being tactful enough to keep apart from all intrigues, quarrels,
+and jealousies, she managed to win the good will of
+the king's favorites. She became the social leader, the
+queen inviting her to all court ceremonies and consulting
+her on all disputed questions of etiquette&mdash;even going so
+far as to intrust her with the reception of the Duke of
+Pastrana, who had come to ask the hand of Elizabeth
+of France. It is reported that in her last years she led
+a worse life than in her earlier days&mdash;she had become a
+woman of the bad world, resorting to every possible means
+to hide her age and to gain any vantage ground. In order
+to be well supplied with blond wigs, she kept fair-haired
+footmen who were shorn from time to time to furnish the
+supply. In the latter part of her life, spent at Paris and
+its vicinity, she fell a victim to hypochondria, suffering
+the most bitter pangs of remorse and terrible fear at
+approaching death. To alleviate this, she founded a convent
+where she taught the children music. She died
+in 1615, in Paris, "in that blended piety and coquetry
+which formed the basis of a character unable to give up gallantries and love."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span>
+
+<p>One of the very few historians who give due credit to
+her social importance and assign her the position she may
+rightfully command among French women of the sixteenth
+century is M. Du Bled. According to him, she was the leader
+of fashion, and in all its components she showed excellent
+taste and judgment. Forced to marry the king of Navarre,
+she said, after the ceremony: "I received from marriage
+all the evil I ever received, and I consider it the greatest
+plague of my life. They tell me that marriages are made
+in heaven; heaven did not commit such an injustice;" and
+this seems to be the secret of her "vicious life."</p>
+
+<p>As soon as she discovered that the king's favorites
+were determined to make life hard and disagreeable for
+her, she sought consolation in love and the toilette, in balls
+and fêtes, in ballets and hunting, in promenades and gallant
+conversations, in tennis and carousals, and in an infinite
+variety of ingeniously planned pleasures. The spirit
+of chivalry, the habits of exalted devotion, were again in
+full sway about her. She worried little about virtue:
+"She had the gift of pleasing, was beautiful, and made
+full use of the liberality of the gods. Whatever may be
+said of her morals, it can truthfully be stated that she
+showed art in her love and practised it more in spirit than
+with the body." Music was a favorite art with her; she
+encouraged and rewarded singing, especially in the convent
+which she founded and where she spent almost all of
+her later days instructing the children.</p>
+
+<p>Her court at Usson, where, as a prisoner, she lived for
+twenty years, was the most brilliant and least material of
+all France; there poets, artists, and scholars were held in
+high esteem, and were on familiar footing with Marguerite;
+the latter showed no despotism, but, with the most consummate
+skill, directed conversations and proposed subjects,
+encouraging discussion, and skilfully drawing from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span>
+her friends the most brilliant repartees. She received
+people of distinction without ceremony.</p>
+
+<p>She introduced the two elements which were combined
+in the eighteenth-century salon: a fine cuisine and freedom
+among her friends from the restraint usually imposed by
+distinction. She was, also, one of the first to have a
+circle&mdash;well organized according to modern etiquette&mdash;where
+the highest aristocracy, men of letters, magistrates,
+artists, and men of genius met on equal terms and in
+familiar and social intercourse; Montaigne, Brantôme, and
+other great writers dedicated their works to her. She also
+directed a select few, an academy, to instruct and distract
+herself. It is said that every coquette, every bourgeois
+woman, and almost every court lady endeavored to imitate
+her. When she died, at the age of sixty-two, poets
+and preachers sang and chanted her merits, and all the
+poor wept over their loss; she was called the queen of
+the indigent. Richelieu mentioned her devotion to the
+state, her style, her eloquence, the grace of her hospitality,
+her infinite charity. "She remains, <i>par excellence</i>, the
+one great sympathetic woman of the sixteenth century;
+her admirers, during life and after death, were legion. She
+shared in the lesser evils of the century, but it cannot be
+said that she participated in the brutalities, grossness, or
+glaring immoralities of her time; her weaknesses, compared
+with the great debauches of the age, seemed like virtues."</p>
+
+<p>Such is this great woman of the sixteenth century, who
+has received almost universal condemnation at the hands
+of historians. It is to be taken into consideration that she
+was forced to marry a man whom she did not love, and
+to live in a country utterly uncongenial to her nature and
+opposed to the religion in which she was reared; furthermore,
+that her husband first defiled the marital union, thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span>
+driving her to follow the general tendencies of the time or
+to seek solace in religious activity, for which she had too
+much energy. After due consideration of the extenuating
+circumstances, her faults and vices, such as they were,
+may easily be condoned. Because she was the wife of a
+powerful Protestant king, she was condemned by Catholics
+and by them regarded with suspicion; and, in order to
+save herself, she was forced to commit unwise acts and even follies.</p>
+
+<p>In fine, whatever may be said against Marguerite de
+Valois, whom despair drove to acts which are not generally
+pardoned, she stands foremost among the social leaders
+and cultured women of the sixteenth century, a century
+whose prominent women were notorious for their licentiousness
+and lack of conscience rather than famous for
+their virtue and womanly accomplishments. Undeniably
+powerful and brilliant, these unscrupulous women were
+never happy; usually proud, they finally suffered the
+most cruel humiliations; "voluptuous, they found anguish
+underlying pleasure." Their misfortunes are, possibly
+more interesting than those successes of which chagrin
+anxiety, and heavy hearts were the inseparable associates.</p>
+
+<p>Religion, which in the sixteenth century was so badly
+understood, and practised even worse&mdash;obscured and
+falsified by fanaticism, disfigured and exaggerated by passion
+and hatred&mdash;was the secret cause of all downfalls
+crimes, horrors, intrigues, and brutality. Yet, it alone
+survives, and all the important figures of history return to
+it after a period of negligence and forgetfulness. In their
+religious aspect, the women of the sixteenth century differ
+as a rule, from those of the eighteenth, who, though
+equally powerful, witty, refined, sensual, frivolous, and
+scoffing, were far less devout; for "'tis religion which restores
+the great female sinners of the sixteenth century
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span>
+'tis religion which saves a society ploughed up by so many
+elements of dissolution and so many causes of moral and
+material ruin, rescuing it from barbarism, vandalism, and
+from irretrievable decay;" but the women of the eighteenth
+century clung, to the end, to the scepticism and material
+philosophy which served them as their religion, their God.</p>
+
+<p>Among the conspicuous women of the sixteenth century
+to whom, thus far, we have been able to attribute so little
+of the wholesome and pleasing, the womanly or love-inspiring,
+there is one striking exception in Marguerite
+d'Angoulême, a representative of letters, art, culture, and
+morality. With the study of this character we are taken
+back to the beginning of the century and carried among
+men of letters especially, for she formed the centre of the
+literary world. She, her mother, Louise of Savoy, and
+her brother, Francis I., were called a "trinity," to the existence
+of which Marguerite bore witness in the poem:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"Such boon is mine&mdash;to feel the amity</p>
+<p>That God hath putten in our trinity</p>
+<p>Wherein to make a third, I, all unfitted</p>
+<p>To be that number's shadow, am admitted."</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>Marguerite inherited many of her qualities from her
+mother, "a most excellent and a most venerable dame,"
+though anything but moral and conscientious; she, upon
+discovering that her daughter possessed rare intellectual
+gifts, provided her with teachers in every branch of the
+learning of the age. "At fifteen years of age, the spirit
+of God began to manifest itself in her eyes, in her face,
+in her walk, in her speech, and in all her actions generally."
+Brantôme says: "She had a heart mightily devoted
+to God and she loved mightily to compose spiritual songs.
+She devoted herself to letters, also, in her young days and
+continued them as long as she lived, in the time of her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span>
+greatness, loving and conversing with the most learned
+folks of her brother's kingdom, who honored her so greatly
+that they called her their Mæcenas." Tenderness, particularly
+for her brother, seemed to develop in her as a passion.</p>
+
+<p>Marguerite was a rare exception in a period described
+by M. Saint-Amand as one in which women were Christian
+in certain aspects of their character and pagan in others,
+taking an active part in every event, ruling by wit and
+beauty, wisdom and courage; an age of thoughtless gaiety
+and morbid fanaticism, and of laughter and tears, still
+rough and savage, yet with an undercurrent of subtle
+grace and exquisite politeness; an age in which the extremes
+of elegance and cruelty were blended, in which the
+most glaring scepticism and intense superstitions were
+everywhere evident; an age which was religious as well
+as debauched and whose women were both good and evil,
+innocent and intriguing. Everything was fluctuating;
+there was inconstancy even in the things most affected:
+pleasure, pomp, display. The natural outcome of this
+undefined restlessness was dissatisfaction; and when dissatisfaction
+brought in its train the inevitable reaction
+against falseness and immorality, Marguerite d'Angoulême
+stood at the head of the movement.</p>
+
+<p>With her begins the cultural and moral development of
+France. It was she who encouraged that desire for a new
+phase of existence, which arose through contact with Italian
+culture. The men of learning&mdash;poets, artists, scholars&mdash;who
+soon gathered about the French court received
+immediate recognition from the king's sister, who had
+studied all languages, was gay, brilliant, and æsthetic.
+While her mother and brother were in harmony with the
+age, no better, no worse than their environment, Marguerite
+aspired to the most elevated morals and ideals; thus,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span>
+she is a type of all that is refined, sensitive, loving, noble,
+and generous in humanity, a woman vastly superior to
+her time; in fact, the modern woman, with her highest attributes.</p>
+
+<p>In Marguerite d'Angoulême contemporaries admired prudence,
+chastity, moderation, piety, an invincible strength
+of soul, and her habit of "hiding her knowledge instead of
+displaying it." "In an age wholly depraved, she approached
+the ideal woman of modern times; in spite of
+her virtue, she was brilliant and honored, the centre of a
+coterie that delighted in music, verse, ingenious dialogues
+and gossip, story telling, singing, rhyming. Deeply afflicted
+by the sad and odious spectacle of the vices, abuses, and
+crimes which unroll before her, she suffers through her
+imagination, mind and heart." Serious and sympathetic,
+she was interested in every movement, feeling with those
+who were persecuted on account of their religious opinions.</p>
+
+<p>Various are the names by which she is known: daughter
+of Charles of Orléans, Count of Angoulême, Duchesse
+d'Alençon through her first marriage, and Queen of Navarre
+through her second, she was called Marguerite d'Angoulême,
+Marguerite of Navarre, of Valois, Marguerite de
+France, Marguerite des Princesses, the Fourth Grace, and
+the Tenth Muse. A most appreciative and just account
+of her life is given by M. Saint-Amand, which will be
+followed in the main outline of this sketch.</p>
+
+<p>She was born in 1492, and, as already stated, received a
+thorough education under the direction of her mother,
+Louise of Savoy. At seventeen she was married to
+Charles III., Duke of Alençon; as he did not prove to be
+her ideal, she sought consolation in love for her brother,
+sharing the almost universal admiration for the young
+king, whose tendency to favor everything new and progressive
+was stimulated by her. She became his constant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span>
+and best adviser in general affairs as well as in those of
+state. The foreign ambassadors sought her after having
+accomplished their mission, and were referred to her when
+the king was busy; they were enraptured, and carried
+back wonderful reports of Marguerite.</p>
+
+<p>The world of art was opened to the French by a bevy
+of such painters and sculptors as Leonardo da Vinci, Rosso,
+Primaticcio, Benvenuto Cellini, and Bramante, and they
+were encouraged and fêted by Marguerite especially. In
+those days a new picture from Italy by Raphael was received
+with as much pomp and ceremony as, in olden
+times, were accorded the holiest relics from the East.</p>
+
+<p>Men of letters gathered about the sister of the king,
+forming what might be termed a court of sentimental
+metaphysics; for the questions discussed were those of
+love. This refined gallantry, empty and vapid, formed
+the foundation of the seventeenth-century salon, where
+the language and fine points of sentiment were considered
+and cultivated until sentiment acquired poise, grandeur,
+and an air of dignity and reserve.</p>
+
+<p>The period was one in which, during times of trial and
+misfortune, the presence of an underlying religious sentiment
+became unmistakable. In such an atmosphere, the
+propensity toward mysticism, which Marguerite had manifested
+as a child, grew more and more apparent. When
+Francis I. was captured at the battle of Pavia, his sister
+immediately sought consolation in devotion, the nature of
+which is well illustrated in a letter to the captive king:</p>
+
+<p>"Monseigneur, the further they remove you from us,
+the greater becomes my firm hope of your deliverance and
+speedy return, for the hour when men's minds are most
+troubled is the hour when God achieves His masterstroke ... and
+if He now gives you, on one hand,
+a share in the pains which He has borne for you, and, on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span>
+the other hand, the grace to bear them patiently, I entreat
+you, Monseigneur, to believe unfalteringly that it is only
+to try how much you love Him and to give you leisure to
+think how much He loves you. For He desires to have
+your heart entirely, as, for love, He has given you His
+own; He has permitted this trial, in order, after having
+united you to Him by tribulation, to deliver you for His
+own glory&mdash;so that, through you, His name may be known
+and sanctified, not in your kingdom alone, but in all Christendom
+and even to the conversion of the infidels. Oh,
+how blessed will be your brief captivity by which God
+will deliver so many souls from that infidelity and eternal
+damnation! Alas, Monseigneur! I know that you understand
+all this far better than I do; but seeing that in other
+things I think only of you, as being all that God has left
+me in this world,&mdash;father, brother, husband,&mdash;and not
+having the comfort of telling you so, I have not feared to
+weary you with a long letter, which to me is short, in
+order to console myself for my inability to talk with you."</p>
+
+<p>After his incarceration in the gloomy prison in Spain
+where he was taken ill, Francis asked for the safe conduct
+of Marguerite; this was gladly granted. Ignorant of her
+future duty in Spain, she wrote: "Whatever it may be,
+even to the giving of my ashes to the winds to do you a
+service, nothing will seem strange, difficult or painful to
+me, but will be only consolation, repose, and honor." So
+impatient was she to arrive at her brother's side that she
+could not travel fast enough.</p>
+
+<p>Her presence only increased his fever and a serious
+crisis soon came on, the king remaining for some time
+"without hearing or seeing or speaking." Marguerite,
+in this critical time, implored the assistance of God. She
+had an altar erected in her chamber, and all the French
+of the household, great lords and domestics alike, knelt
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span>
+beside the sick man's sister and received the communion
+from the hands of the Archbishop of Embrun, who, drawing
+near the bed, entreated the king to turn his eyes to
+the holy sacrament. Francis came out of his lethargy and
+asked to commune likewise, saying: "It is my God who
+will heal my soul and body; I entreat you that I may receive
+him." Then, the Host having been divided in two, the
+king received one half with the greatest devotion, and his
+sister the other half. The sick man felt himself sustained by
+a supernatural force; a celestial consolation descended into
+the soul that had been despairing. Marguerite's prayer
+had not been unavailing&mdash;Francis I. was saved.</p>
+
+<p>She then proceeded to visit different cities and royalties,
+endeavoring to secure concessions for her brother. From
+the people in the streets as well as from the lords in their
+houses, she received the most unmistakable proofs of
+friendly feeling; in fact, her favor was so great that
+Charles V. informed "the Duke of Infantado that, if he
+wished to please the emperor, neither he nor his sons
+must speak to Madame d'Alençon." The latter, unable
+to secure her brother's release, planned a marriage between
+him and Eleanor of Portugal, sister of Charles V.;
+her successes at court and in the family of the emperor
+furthered this scheme. Brantôme says: "She spoke to
+the emperor so bravely and so courteously that he was
+quite astonished, and she spoke even more to those of his
+council with whom she had audience; there she produced
+an excellent impression, speaking and arguing with an
+easy grace in which she was proficient, and making herself
+rather agreeable than hateful or tiresome. Her reasons
+were found good and pertinent and she retained the high
+esteem of the emperor, his court and council."</p>
+
+<p>Although she failed in her attempts to free the king,
+she succeeded, by arranging the marriage, in completely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span>
+changing the rigorous captivity to which Charles had subjected
+him. Finally, by giving his two eldest sons as
+hostages, the king obtained his release, and in March,
+1526, he again set foot, as sovereign, on French soil.
+Thus the king's life was saved and he was permitted to
+return to his country, Marguerite's devotion having accomplished
+that in which the most skilled diplomatist would have failed.</p>
+
+<p>All historians agree that Marguerite d'Angoulême was a
+devout Catholic, but that she was too broad and liberal,
+intelligent and humane, to sanction the unbridled excesses
+of fanaticism. The acknowledged leader of moral reform,
+she protected and assisted those persecuted on account of
+their religious views and sympathized with the first stages
+of that movement which revolted against abuses, vice,
+scandals, immorality, and intrigue. With her, the question
+was not one of dogma, but concerned, instead, the
+religion which she considered most conducive to progress
+and reform. It grieved her to see her religion defile itself
+by cruel and inhuman persecutions and tortures, by intolerance
+and injustice. She felt for, but not with, the heretics
+in their errors. "She typifies her age in all that is good
+and noble, in artistic aspirations, in literary ideals, in pure
+politics&mdash;in short,&mdash;in humanity; in her is not found the
+chaotic vagueness which so often breaks out in license and
+licentiousness, cruelty, and barbarism."</p>
+
+<p>During the absence in Spain of Francis I. and Marguerite,
+the mother-regent sought to gain the support and
+favor of Rome by ordering imprisonments, confiscations,
+and punishments of heretics; but upon the return of the
+king and his sister, the banished were recalled and tolerance
+again ruled. When (in 1526) Berquin was seized and
+tried for heresy, he found but one defender. Marguerite
+wrote to her brother, still at Madrid:</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span>
+
+<p>"My desire to obey your commands was sufficiently
+strong without having it redoubled by the charity you
+have been pleased to show poor Berquin according to your
+promise; I feel that He for whom I believe him to have
+suffered will approve of the mercy which, for His honor,
+you have had upon His servant and your own."</p>
+
+<p>Marguerite had saved Berquin and had even taken him
+into her service. Her letter to the constable, Anne de
+Montmorency, shows her esteem of men of genius and especially of Berquin:</p>
+
+<p>"I thank you for the pleasure you have afforded me
+in the matter of poor Berquin whom I esteem as much
+as if he were myself; and so you may say you have delivered
+me from prison, since I consider in that light the favor done me."</p>
+
+<p>When on June 1, 1528, a statue of the Virgin was thrown
+down and mutilated by unknown hands, a reversion of
+feeling arose immediately, and even Marguerite was not
+able to save poor Berquin, and he was burned at the
+stake. Upon learning of his imminent peril, she wrote to
+Francis from Saint-Germain:</p>
+
+<p>"I, for the last time, very humbly make you a request;
+it is that you will be pleased to have pity upon poor Berquin,
+whom I know to be suffering for nothing other than
+loving the word of God and obeying yours. You will be
+pleased, Monseigneur, so to act that it be not said that
+separation has made you forget your most humble and
+obedient sister and subject, Marguerite."</p>
+
+<p>Encouraged by their success in that instance, the intolerant
+party began furious attacks upon her, one monk
+going so far as to say from the pulpit that she should be
+put into a sack and thrown into the Seine. Upon her
+publication of a religious poem, <i>Miroir de l'âme pécheresse</i>,
+in which she failed to mention purgatory or the saints,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span>
+she was vigorously attacked by Beda, who had the verses
+condemned by the Sorbonne and caused the pupils of the
+College of Navarre to perform a morality in which Marguerite
+was represented under the character of a woman
+quitting her distaff for a French translation of the Gospels
+presented to her by a Fury. This was too much even
+for Francis, and he ordered the principal and his actors
+arrested; it was then that Marguerite showed her gentleness,
+mercy, and humanity by throwing herself at her
+brother's feet and asking for their pardon.</p>
+
+<p>After but a short respite the persecution broke out anew,
+and with the full sanction of the king, who, upon finding
+at his door a placard against the mass, went even so far as
+to sign letters patent ordering the suppression of printing
+(1535). While away from the soothing influence of his
+sister, Francis I. was easily persuaded to sign, for the
+Catholic party, any permit of execution or cruelty. The
+life of Marguerite herself was constantly in danger, but in
+spite of persistent efforts to turn brother against sister,
+the king continued to protect and defend the latter; and
+though she gradually drew closer to Catholicism, she continued
+to protect the Protestants. She founded nunneries
+and showed a profound devotion toward the Virgin; although
+realizing the dangers and follies of the new doctrine, she
+had too much humanity to encourage cruelty.</p>
+
+<p>The husband whom the king forced upon her was twelve
+years her junior, poor, and subsidized by Francis; by him
+she had a daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, who became the
+champion of Protestantism. Her married life at Pau,
+where she had erected beautiful buildings and magnificent
+terraces, was not happy; the subjects of love that
+formerly had amused her had lost their charm; and the
+incurable disease with which her brother was stricken
+caused her constant worry and mental suffering. When
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span>
+banquets, the chase, and other amusements no longer
+attracted Francis, he summoned Marguerite to comfort
+and console him; her devotion and goodness never failed.
+Unable to recover from the grief caused by his death
+in 1547, she expressed her sorrow in the most beautiful poems.</p>
+
+<p>She gave the remainder of her life to religion and charity,
+abandoning her literary ambitions and plans. "The
+life after death gave her much trouble and many moments
+of perplexity and uneasiness. She survived her brother
+only two years, dying in 1549; the helper and protector of
+good literature, the defence, consolation, and shelter of the
+distressed, she was mourned by all France more than was
+any other queen." Sainte-Marthe says: "How many
+widows are there, how many orphans, how many afflicted,
+how many old persons, whom she pensioned every year,
+who now, like sheep whose shepherd is dead, wander
+hither and thither, seeking to whom to go, crying in the
+ears of the wealthy and deploring their miserable fate!"
+Poets, scholars, all learned and professional men, commemorated
+their protectress in poems and funeral orations.
+France was one large family in deep mourning.</p>
+
+<p>Marguerite d'Angoulême must first be considered as the
+real power behind the supreme authority of her period,
+her brother the king; secondly, as a furtherer of the development
+and encouragement of good literature, good
+taste, high art, and pure morals; thirdly, as a critic of
+importance. She is entitled to the first consideration by
+the fact that as the confidential adviser of Francis I. she
+moulded his opinions and checked his evil tendencies: the
+affairs of the kingdom were therefore, to a large extent, in
+her hands. She collected and partly organized the chaotic
+mass of material thrown upon the sixteenth-century world,
+leaving its moulding into a classic French form to the next
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span>
+century; and by her spirit of tolerance she endeavored to
+further all moral development: thus is she entitled to the
+second consideration. Gifted with rare delicacy of taste,
+solidity of judgment, and the ability to select, discriminate,
+and adapt, she set the standards of style and tone: therefore,
+she is entitled to the third consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The love of Marguerite for her brother, and her unselfish
+devotion to his interests, is a precedent unparalleled in
+French history until the time of Madame de Sévigné. In
+all her letters we find the same tenderness, gentleness,
+passion, inexhaustible emotion, sympathy, and compassion
+that distinguished her actions.</p>
+
+<p>In her <i>Contes</i> (the <i>Heptameron</i>) <i>de la Reine de Navarre</i>
+we have an accurate representation of society, its manners
+and style of conversation; in it we find, also, remnants of
+the brutality and grossness of the Middle Ages, as well as
+reflections of the higher tendencies and aspirations of the
+later time. In having a thorough knowledge of the tricks,
+deceits, and follies of the professional lovers of the day,
+and of their object in courting women, Marguerite was
+able to warn her contemporaries and thus guard them
+against immorality and its dangers. In her works she
+upheld the purity of ideal love, exposing the questionable
+and selfish designs of the clever professional seducers. A
+specimen may be cited to show her style of writing and the trend of her thought:</p>
+
+<p>"Emarsuite has just related the history of a gentleman
+and a young girl who, being unable to be united, had both
+embraced the religious life. When the story is ended,
+Hircan, instead of showing himself affected, cries: 'Then
+there are more fools and mad women than there ever
+were!' 'Do you call it folly,' says Oisille, 'to love honestly
+in youth and then to turn all love to God?' ... 'And
+yet I have the opinion,' says Parlemente, 'that no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span>
+man will ever love God perfectly who has not perfectly
+loved some creature in this world.' 'What do you
+by loving perfectly?' asks Saffredant; 'do you call
+perfect lovers who are bashful and adore ladies from a
+distance, without daring to express their wishes?' 'I call
+those perfect lovers,' replies Parlemente, 'who seek some
+perfection in what they love&mdash;whether goodness, beauty or
+kindness&mdash;and whose hearts are so lofty and honest that
+they would rather die than perform those base deeds
+which honor and conscience forbid; for the soul which
+was created only to return to its Sovereign Good cannot,
+while it is in the body, do otherwise than desire to win
+thither; but because the senses, by which it can have
+tidings of that which it seeks, are dull and carnal on
+account of the sin of our first parents, they can show it
+only those visible things which most nearly approach perfection;
+and the soul runs after them, believing that in
+visible grace and moral virtues it may find the Sovereign
+Grace, Beauty and Virtue. But without finding whom it
+loves, it passes on like the child who, according to his
+littleness, loves apples, pears, dolls and other little things&mdash;the
+most beautiful that his eye can see&mdash;and thinks it
+riches to heap little stones together; but, on growing
+larger he loves living things, and, therefore, amasses the
+goods necessary for human life; but he knows, by the
+greatest experiences, that neither perfection nor felicity is
+attained by possessions only, and he desires true felicity
+and the Maker and Source thereof.'"</p>
+
+<p>In her writings, much apparent indelicacy and grossness
+are encountered; but it must be remembered for whom
+she was writing, the condition of morality and the taste
+of the public at that time, and that she aimed faithfully to
+depict the society that lay before her eyes. It is argued
+by some critics that these indecencies could not have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span>
+emanated from a pure, chaste woman; that Marguerite
+must have experienced the sins she depicted; but such
+reasoning is not sound. The expressions used by her
+were current in her time; there was greater freedom of
+manners, and coarseness and drastic language&mdash;examples
+of which are found so frequently in the writings of Luther&mdash;were very common.</p>
+
+<p>Marguerite was less remarkable for what she did than
+for what she aspired to do. "She invoked, against the
+vices and prejudices of her epoch, those principles of
+morality and justice, of tolerance and humanity, which
+must be the very foundation of all stable society. She
+wished to make her brother the protector of the oppressed,
+the support of the learned, the crowned apostle of the
+Renaissance, the promoter of salutary reforms in the morals
+of the clergy; in politics, he was to follow a straight line
+and methodically advance the accomplishment of the
+legitimate ambitions of France."</p>
+
+<p>She expressed the most modern ideas on the rights of
+woman, particularly on her relative rights in the married state:</p>
+
+<p>"It is right that man should govern us as our head, but
+not that he should abandon us or treat us ill. God has so
+well ordered both man and woman, that I think marriage,
+if it is not abused, one of the most beautiful and secure
+estates that can be in this world, and I am sure that all
+who are here, no matter what pretense they make, think
+as much or more; and as much as man calls himself wiser
+than woman, so much the more grievously will he be punished
+if the fault be on his side. Those who are overcome
+by pleasure ought not to call themselves women any
+longer, but men, whose honor is but augmented by fury
+and concupiscence; for a man who revenges himself upon
+his enemy and slays him for a contradiction is esteemed a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span>
+better companion for so doing; and the same is true if he
+love a dozen other women besides his wife; but the honor of
+woman has another foundation: it is gentleness, patience, chastity."</p>
+
+<p>Désiré Nisard says that Marguerite d'Angoulême was
+the first to write prose that can be read without the aid of
+a vocabulary; in verse, she excels all poets of her time in
+sympathy and compassion; her poetry is "a voice which
+complains&mdash;a heart which suffers and which tells us so."
+"It is not so much her own deep sentiment that is reflected,
+but her emotion, which is both intellectual and
+sympathetic, volitional and spontaneous." Her letters
+were epoch-making; nothing before her time nor after her
+(until Madame de Sévigné) can equal them in precision,
+purity of language, sincerity and frankness of expression,
+passion and religious fervor.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of what may be said to the contrary, her life
+was an ideal one, an example of perfect moral beauty and
+elevation; noble, generous, refined, pious, and sincere, she
+possessed qualities which were indeed rare in her time.
+She was attacked for her charity, and is to-day the victim
+of narrow sectarian and biased devotees. Her act of
+renouncing all gorgeous dress, even the robes of gold
+brocade so much worn by every princess, in order to give
+all her money to the poor; her protection of the needy and
+persecuted; her court of poets and scholars; her visits to
+the sick and stricken; even her untiring love for her
+brother and her acts of clemency&mdash;all have frequently been misinterpreted.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest poets and men of letters of the sixteenth
+century were encouraged financially and morally or protected
+by Marguerite d'Angoulême&mdash;Rabelais, Marot, Pelletier,
+Bonaventure-Desperiers, Mellin de Saint-Gelais,
+Lefèvre d'Etaples, Amyot, Calvin, Berquin. Charles de
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span>
+Sainte-Marthe says: "In seeing them about this good lady,
+you would say it was a hen which carefully calls and
+gathers her chicks and shelters them with her wings."</p>
+
+<p>Many critics believe that her literary work was imitative
+rather than original; even if this be true, it in no
+measure detracts from her importance, which is based
+upon the fact that she was the leading spirit of the time
+and typified her environment. Her followers, and they
+included all the intellectual spirits, looked up to her as the
+one incentive for writing and pleasing. Her disposition
+was characterized by restlessness, haste&mdash;too great eagerness
+to absorb and digest and appropriate all that was unfolded
+before her. She imitated the <i>Decameron</i> and drew
+up for herself a <i>Heptameron</i>; her poetry showed much skill
+and great ease, but little originality. Her extreme facility,
+her wonderfully active mind, her power of <i>causerie</i>, and her
+ability to discuss and write upon philosophical and religious
+abstractions, won the deep admiration and respect of her
+followers, who were not only content to be aided financially
+by her, but looked to her for guidance and counsel in their
+own work, though she never imposed her ideas and taste
+upon others. By her tact, she was able practically to
+control and guide the entire literary, artistic, and social
+development of the sixteenth century. Every form of
+intellectual movement of this period is impregnated with
+the spirit of Marguerite d'Angoulême.</p>
+
+<p>With her affable and loving manners, her refined taste
+and superior knowledge, she was able to influence her
+brother and, through him, the government. Just as her
+mother controlled in politics, so did Marguerite in arts and
+manners. In her are found the main characteristics to
+which later French women owed their influence&mdash;a form
+of versatility which included exceptional tact and enabled
+the possessor to appreciate and sympathize with all forms
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span>
+of activity, to deal with all classes, to manage and be managed in turn.</p>
+
+<p>The writings of Marguerite are quite numerous, consisting
+of six moralities or comedies, a farce, epistles, elegies,
+philosophical poems, and the <i>Heptameron</i>, her principal
+work&mdash;a collection of prose tales in which are reflected
+the customary conversation, the morals of polite society,
+and the ideal love of the time. They are a medley of crude
+equivocalities, of the grossness of the <i>fabliaux</i>, of Rabelais,
+and of the delicate preciosity of the seventeenth
+century. Love is the principal theme discussed&mdash;youth,
+nobility, wealth, power, beauty, glory, love for love, the
+delicate sensation of feeling one's self loved, elegant love,
+obsequious love; perfect love is found in those lovers who
+seek perfection in what they love, either of goodness,
+beauty, or grace&mdash;always tending to virtue.</p>
+
+<p>Thoroughly to appreciate Marguerite d'Angoulême's position
+and influence and her contributions to literature, the
+conditions existing in her epoch must be carefully considered.
+It was in the sixteenth century that the charms of
+social life and of conversation as an art were first realized;
+all questions of the day were treated gracefully, if not
+deeply; woman began to play an important part, to appear
+at court, and, by her wit and beauty, to impress man.
+From the semi-barbaric spirit of the Middle Ages to the
+Italian and Roman culture of the Renaissance was a tremendous
+stride; in this cultural development, Marguerite
+was of vital importance. In intellectual attainments far
+in advance of the age, among its great women she stands
+out alone in her spirit of humanity, generosity, tolerance,
+broad sympathies, exemplary family life, and exalted devotion to her brother.</p>
+
+<p>Of the other literary women of the sixteenth century,
+mention may be made of two who have left little or no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span>
+work of importance, but who are interesting on account of
+the peculiar form of their activity.</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Gournay, <i>fille d'alliance</i> of Montaigne, is a
+unique character. Having conceived a violent passion for
+the philosopher and essayist, she would have no other
+consort than her honor and good books. She called the
+ladies of the court "court dolls," accusing them of deforming
+the French language by affecting words that had
+apparently been greased with oil in order to facilitate their
+flow. She was one of the first woman suffragists and the
+most independent spirit of the age. In 1592, to see
+the country of her master, she undertook a long voyage,
+at a time when any trip was fraught with the gravest dangers for a woman.</p>
+
+<p>She is a striking example of the effect of sixteenth-century
+sympathy, admiration, and enthusiasm; she was
+protected by some of the greatest literary men of the
+age&mdash;Balzac, Grotius, Heinsius; the French Academy is
+said to have met with her on several occasions, and
+she is said to have participated in its work of purifying
+and fixing the French language. Her adherence
+to the Montaigne cult has brought her name down to posterity.</p>
+
+<p>M. du Bled relates a droll story in connection with her
+meeting Richelieu. Mlle. de Gournay was an old maid,
+who lived to the ripe age of eighty. Being a pronounced
+<i>féministe</i>, she&mdash;like her sisters of to-day&mdash;cultivated cats.
+The story runs as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"Bois-Robert conducted her to the Cardinal, who paid
+her a compliment composed of old words taken from one
+of her books; she saw the point immediately. 'You laugh
+over the poor old girl, but laugh, great genius, laugh! everybody
+must contribute something to your diversion.' The
+Cardinal, surprised at her ready wit, asked her pardon,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span>
+and said to Bois-Robert: 'We must do something for Mlle.
+de Gournay. I give her two hundred écus pension.' 'But
+she has servants,' suggested Bois-Robert. 'Who?' 'Mlle.
+Jamyn (bastard), illegitimate daughter of Amadis Jamyn,
+page of Ronsard.' 'I will give her fifty livres annually.'
+'There is still dear little Piaillon, her cat.' 'I give her
+twenty livres pension, on condition that Piaillon shall have
+tripes.' 'But, Monseigneur, she has had kittens!' The
+Cardinal added a pistole for the little kittens."</p>
+
+<p>A woman of large fortune, she spent it freely in study,
+in her household, and especially in alchemy. Her peculiar
+ideas about love kept her from falling prey to the wealth-seeking
+gallants of the time. She was one of the few
+women who made a profession of writing; she compiled
+moral dissertations, defences of woman, and treatises on
+language, all of which she published at her own expense;
+while they are of no real importance, they show a remarkable
+frankness and courage.</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Gournay was, possibly, the first woman to demand
+the acceptance of woman on an equal status with
+man; for she wrote two treatises on woman's condition
+and rank, insisting upon a better education for her, though
+she herself was well educated. Following the events of
+the day with a careful scrutiny and interpreting them in
+her writings, she showed a remarkable gift of perspective
+and deduction and an intimate knowledge of politics. The
+fact that she was severely, even spitefully, attacked in
+both poetry and prose but proves that her writings on women were effective.</p>
+
+<p>Some writers claim that the founding of the French
+Academy had its inception at her rooms, where many of
+the members met and where, later on, they discussed the
+work of the Academy. Her one desire for the language
+was to have it advance and develop, preserving every
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span>
+word, resorting to old ones, accepting new ones only when
+necessary. Thus, among French female educators, Mlle.
+de Gournay deserves a prominent place, because of her
+high ideals and earnest efforts in the study of the language,
+for the courage with which she advanced her convictions
+regarding woman, and for the high moral standard
+which she set by her own conduct.</p>
+
+<p>In Louise Labé&mdash;<i>La Belle Cordière</i>&mdash;we meet a warrior,
+as well as a woman of letters. The great movement of
+the Renaissance, as it swept northward, invaded Lyons;
+there Louise Labé endeavored to do what Ronsard and the
+Pléiade were doing at Paris. A great part of her youth
+she passed in war, wearing man's apparel and assuming
+the name of "Captain Loys"; at an early age, she left
+home with a company of soldiers passing through Lyons
+on the way to lay siege to Perpignan, where she showed
+pluck, bravery, and skill. Upon her return, she married
+a merchant ropemaker, whence her sobriquet&mdash;<i>La Belle Cordière</i>.</p>
+
+<p>She soon won a reputation by gathering about her a
+circle of men, who complimented her in the most elegant
+language and read poetry with her. Science and literature
+were discussed and the praises of love sung with passionate,
+inflamed eloquence. In this circle of congenial spirits,
+"she gave rise to doubts as to her virtue." As her husband
+was wealthy, she was able to collect an immense
+library and to entertain at her pleasure; she could converse
+in almost any language, and all travellers stopped
+at Lyons and called to see her at her salon. Her
+writings consisted of sonnets, elegies, and dialogues in
+prose; her influence, being too local, is not marked. Her
+greatest claim to attention is that she encouraged letters
+in a city which was beyond the reach of every literary movement.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span>
+Such were the women of the sixteenth century; in no
+epoch in French history have women played a greater
+rôle; art, literature, morals, politics, all were governed by
+them. They were active in every phase of life, hunting
+with men, taking part in and causing duels, intriguing and
+initiating intrigues. "In the midst of battle, while cannon-balls
+and musket-shots rained about her, Catherine de'
+Medici was as brave and unconcerned as the most valiant
+of men. Diana of Poitiers was called the most wondrous
+woman, the woman of eternal youth, the beautiful huntress;
+it was she whom Jean Goujon sculptured, nude and triumphant,
+embracing with marble arms a mysterious stag, enamoured like Leda's swan."</p>
+
+<p>In general, the women of that century "liked better to
+be feared than loved; they inspired mad passions, insensate
+devotions, ecstatic admirations. The epoch was
+one in which life counted for little, when balls alternated
+with massacres; when virtue was befitting only the lowly
+born and ugly (Brantôme recommends the beautiful to be
+inconstant because they should resemble the sun who
+diffuses his light so indiscriminately that everybody in the
+world feels it). It was the age of beauty&mdash;a beauty that
+fascinated and entranced, but the glow of which melted
+and killed; but this glow also reacted upon them that
+caused it and they became victims of their own passions&mdash;through
+either jealousy or their own weaknesses. No
+age was ever more luxurious, pompous, elegant, brilliant,
+and wanton, yet beneath all the glitter there were much
+misery and bitter repentance; amongst the violent wickedness
+there were noble and pure women such as Elizabeth
+of Austria and Louise de Vaudemont."</p>
+
+<p>The whole century seemed to be afire and to tingle with
+that spirit of liberty, imitation, and experimentation, which,
+so often abused, led to much disaster. In spite of that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span>
+unsettled and excited condition, the sixteenth century
+attained greater development, had more avenues of intellectual
+activity opened to it, imitated, thought and imagined
+more and produced as much as any other century; in
+every field, we find the names of its masters. As M. Faguet
+says, the sixteenth century was, in France, the century
+<i>créateur par excellence</i>; and in this, woman's part was,
+above all, political, her social, moral, and literary influence
+being less marked.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>[pg 69]</span>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter III</h2>
+
+<h2>The Seventeenth Century: Woman at Her Best</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>[pg 71]</span>
+
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century, the influence exerted by
+the women of France, departing from the political aspect
+which had characterized it in the preceding century, became
+of a social, literary, religious, and moral nature, the
+last predominating. Inasmuch as the reins of government
+were in the hands of the king and his ministers, political
+affairs were but slightly affected by the feminine element.
+Woman, realizing the uselessness as well as danger of
+plotting against the inviolate person and power of the
+king, contented herself with scheming against those ministers
+whose attitudes she considered unfavorable to her plans.</p>
+
+<p>Of all social and literary movements, however, woman
+was the acknowledged leader; in that institution of culture
+and development, the seventeenth century salon, her undisputed
+supremacy placed her in the position of patroness
+and protectress of men of letters. In the general religious
+movement her rôle was one of secondary importance; and
+as mistress, she ceased with the sixteenth century to be
+either active politically or disastrous morally and became
+merely a temporary recipient of capriciously bestowed
+wealth and favors. In order to fully comprehend woman's
+position and the exact nature of her influence in this century
+and the following one, the position and constitution
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>[pg 72]</span>
+of the nobility before, during and after the ministry of
+Richelieu, must be studied.</p>
+
+<p>The great houses of Carolingian origin were those of
+Alençon, Bourgogne, Bourbon, Vendôme, Kings of Navarre,
+Counts of Valois, and Artois; the great gentlemen were
+the Dukes of Guise, Nemours, Longueville, Chevreuse,
+Nevers, Bouillon, Rohan, Montmorency, and, later, Luxembourg,
+Mortemart, Créqui, Noailles; names which are
+constantly met with in French history. Before the time
+of Louis XIV., men of such rank, when dissatisfied or discontented,
+might leave court at their will and were requested
+to return; but with Louis XIV., departure from
+court was considered a disgrace, and offending parties
+were permitted, not asked, to return.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the army, there was open to the princes of the
+nobility no occupation in which they might expend their
+surplus energy; thus, being free from the burden of taxes,
+it was but natural that they should seek amusement in literature,
+society, and intrigue. The honor of their respective
+houses and the fear of being damned in the next world
+were their only sources of deep concern; other than these,
+they assumed no responsibilities, desiring absolute freedom from care.</p>
+
+<p>Legal, judicial, and ecclesiastical offices were open to
+them but were little favored except as convenient means
+of obtaining revenues and positions otherwise not procurable.
+The first requisites toward advancement were
+bravery and skill, not learning; the majority of the members
+of the nobility much preferred buying a regiment to
+being president of a tribunal, and their primary ambition
+was to acquire a reputation for magnificence, heroism, and
+gallantry. They fought for glory, to show their skill
+and courage; the sentiment of patriotism was but weakly
+developed, and war was indulged in merely for the sake of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>[pg 73]</span>
+fighting, passing the time, and being occupied. As in the
+preceding century, death was but little feared; in fact, the
+scorn of it was carried to the extreme. "The French
+went to death as though they were to be resuscitated on the morrow."</p>
+
+<p>That man went to war was not sufficient proof of his
+bravery; in addition, he must, upon the smallest pretext,
+draw his sword, must fight constantly, and especially with
+adversaries better armed and larger in force; the love of
+woman was for such men only. Adventure was the fad:
+it is said of one seigneur that he took pleasure in going
+every night to a certain corner and, from pure malice,
+striking with his sword the first person who chanced that
+way; this unique pastime he continued until he himself was killed.</p>
+
+<p>Marriage, until the eighteenth century, was not a union
+of affection, but merely an alliance between two families
+and in the interest of both; women, to preserve their
+identity after marriage, signed their family names. As
+maturity was reached at the age of twelve, marriage meant
+simply cohabitation. Until the Revolution, free marriages,
+or liaisons, were recognized as natural if not legitimate
+institutions, and the offspring of such unions, who were
+said to be more numerous than legitimate children,
+were legitimatized and became heirs simply through recognition
+by the father. (At first, princes were unwilling to
+accept, as wives, the natural daughters of kings; however,
+the Duke of Orleans and the Prince of Conti married the
+natural daughters of Louis XIV.) As a rule, titles could
+not be transmitted through females; when a woman married
+beneath her rank she lost her titles, but they were given to her children.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century, woman's influence was
+of a nature vastly superior to that exerted by her in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>[pg 74]</span>
+sixteenth century, in that it rendered sacred both her and
+her honor; but, in spite of the refining restraint of the
+salon, brutality was still the main characteristic of man. To
+express beautiful sentiments in the midst of jealousies, rivalries,
+adventures, complaints, and despair, was the <i>savoir-vivre</i>
+of the Catherine de' Medici type of elegance brought
+from Italy in the sixteenth century. This caused the extremes
+of external fastidiousness and internal grossness to
+be embodied in the same individual; in the eighteenth century,
+man was, inwardly as well as outwardly, refined, mild,
+kind, a friend of pleasure; and therein lies the fundamental
+difference between the <i>honnête homme</i> of Louis XIV. and the
+<i>homme du monde</i> of Louis XV. The seventeenth century
+type of man is midway between that of the sixteenth and
+eighteenth&mdash;more polished and less gross than the former,
+yet lacking the knowledge and culture of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>When in the seventeenth century the two all-powerful
+forces, brute force and money, of the preceding century
+were replaced by those of money and the pen, the decay
+of the impoverished and unintellectual nobility became but
+a question of time. The day when great gentlemen might
+scorn men of letters and learning was rapidly passing;
+with the French Academy arose a new spirit, a fresh impulse
+was given to intellectual attainments. Although
+treated as inferiors, the literary men of the seventeenth
+century spoke of the aristocracy in a spirit of raillery, but
+slightly veiled with respect; and the nobility while remaining,
+in its way, courageous and glorious, lost its prestige, force, and influence.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century, money acquired a certain
+purchasing value which procured advantages and luxuries
+impossible in the preceding period when the brave man
+was worth infinitely more than the rich who, scorned
+and considered as a rapacious Jew, was isolated and in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>[pg 75]</span>
+constant fear of being robbed or killed. As the number of
+government officials increased, individual fortunes grew;
+men became enormously wealthy through the various
+offices bought by them or given to them by the government.
+The financier was a king and many marriages of
+princes and dukes with daughters of men of wealth are
+recorded. Women of station, however, seldom married
+beneath their rank, because they lost their titles by so
+doing, and titles were still the only road to social success.
+As a rule, titles could not be transmitted through females;
+when a woman made a misalliance her titles were given to
+her children. Almost all rich men of the period, from the
+time of Louis XIII. to the Revolution, became nobles, as
+almost every brave man was made a knight up to the
+seventeenth century. It was possible for the wealthy to
+buy a marquisate or baronetage and give it to their children;
+a grand-marshal of France was no longer so powerful as a rich banker.</p>
+
+<p>The complete change, under Louis XIV., of the customs
+of the time, caused numberless petty jealousies, scandals,
+and intrigues in the aristocracy, which could no longer
+maintain its old form and yet had to be considered by the
+government. The question of reform arose&mdash;how to restrict
+the number of nobles, which increased every year.
+Rank was bestowed for service and, sometimes, even for
+wealth; the old families, being poor, had no distinctive
+prestige except that given by their privileges at court;
+their titles no longer distinguished them from the newcomers,
+whom they gradually began to disdain, and the
+result was a general lowering of the standing, importance,
+and influence of nobility. Another party which gained
+prominence was that of the bench; the judges, as interpreters
+of the king's laws, became powerful, for law was
+absolute. A deadly rivalry sprang up between the parties
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>[pg 76]</span>
+of rank with no money or power and of power and money without rank.</p>
+
+<p>The desire of every man of rank to be independent, to
+be a force in himself instead of a part of a unit which
+might be useful to the state as a whole, was one of the
+principal defects of the French aristocracy; poverty crushed
+it, idleness robbed it of its alertness, intriguing and gradual
+oppression reduced it to despair. Appointed to offices, its
+members failed in the performance of their duties; the
+latter fell to the under men who, while the aristocracy
+was busy at fêtes, in society, at the table, became experts
+in the affairs of the government&mdash;shrewd politicians and
+financiers. The new nobility, that of the robe, replaced
+that of the sword in all interests of the government except
+war; gradually, Parliament was made up of men who,
+having been elevated to the rank of nobility, retained their
+aversion to those who were noble by birth, recognizing
+only the king as their superior and refusing precedence to
+even the princes of the blood. Louis XIV., however, objecting
+to and fearing such a strong class as that of the
+robe, employed, wherever possible, people of lower rank.
+Thus it happened in the seventeenth century that the still
+powerful nobility of higher rank was scorned and kept
+down; but in the eighteenth century, when the gentlemen
+of the robe had become all-powerful and therefore constituted
+a dangerous party, it was they who became the
+objects of scorn and persecution, while the aristocrats of
+blood, the gentlemen of the court, recovered the royal
+favors through their political powerlessness.</p>
+
+<p>French aristocracy really had no object, no <i>raison d'être</i>,
+after its disappearance from all governmental functions; it
+became an encumbrance to the state; having no particular
+part to play, it did nothing; this is one of the causes of its
+dissolution and of the Revolution as well. Thus France
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>[pg 77]</span>
+gradually passed from inequality of classes under the sanction
+of custom to equality of classes before the law: this
+change in the condition and constitution of the French
+nobility accounts for many intrigues and scandals and explains
+the social and moral actions of French women, as
+well as the difference in the nature of their activities in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The seventeenth was, <i>par excellence</i>, the century which
+can boast of that incomparable society the cult of which was
+the highest in all things&mdash;art, religion, philosophy, poetry,
+politics, war, and beauty. From the convent of the Carmelites
+to the Hôtel de Rambouillet, from the Place Royale
+to the various châteaux and salons, we must seek only
+that which is elevating and spiritual, beautiful and religious.
+In the famous society which kept pace with the political
+reputation and influence of France is found a coterie of
+women who combined remarkable beauty and intelligence
+with a high moral standard, and whose names are intimately
+connected with the history of France. Where
+again can we find such a galaxy of beauties as that formed
+by Charlotte de Montmorency, Mme. de Chevreuse, Mme.
+de Hautefort, Mme. de Montbazon, Mme. de Guémené,
+Mme. de Châtillon, Mme. de Longueville, Marie de Gonzague,
+Henriette de la Vallière, Mme. de Montespan, Mme.
+de Maintenon, without enumerating such great writers and
+leaders of salons as Mme. de Rambouillet, Mlle. de Scudéry,
+Mme. de Lambert, Mme. de Sévigné, and Mme. de
+la Fayette? The seventeenth century could tolerate no
+mediocrity; grandeur was in the very atmosphere; its
+political movements were great movements; it produced
+in art a Poussin, in letters a Corneille, in science and philosophy a Descartes.</p>
+
+<p>The various movements of which woman was the head
+may be divided into two periods, and each period into two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>[pg 78]</span>
+parts. The political women may well be grouped about
+Marie de' Medici,&mdash;whose career will not be given separate
+treatment, inasmuch as there was no drop of French blood
+in her veins,&mdash;and the social and literary women about
+Mme. de Rambouillet and her salon. In the latter half of
+the seventeenth century and at the beginning of the eighteenth,
+politics are represented by Mme. de Montespan&mdash;the
+mistress&mdash;and Mme. de Maintenon&mdash;the wife; social
+life and literature have their purest representative in Mme.
+de Lambert. The two queens of the seventeenth century,
+Anne of Austria and Maria Theresa, were without influence;
+the religious movement was represented by the
+galaxy of women of whom we write in a later chapter.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Henry IV., Marie de' Medici succeeded
+in having herself made queen-regent for Louis XIII., who
+was then but nine years old. A woman of no particular
+capacity, who had in no way adapted herself to French
+life and customs, she allowed herself to be governed by
+an adventurer, an Italian who understood and appreciated
+French ideals no more than did Marie; these two&mdash;the
+queen and Concini, her minister&mdash;immediately began to
+concoct plans to gain control of the state. The king was
+kept in virtual captivity until he reached the age of seventeen,
+when, having asserted his rights, Concini was killed,
+and Marie's dominant power and influence came to an abrupt end.</p>
+
+<p>Louis XIII. reigned, with his minister, the Prince de
+Luynes, from 1617 to 1624, when he became reconciled to
+his mother and appointed her favorite, Richelieu, his minister.
+From 1610 to about 1640, Marie de' Medici exercised
+more or less influence, always of a nature disastrous to France.</p>
+
+<p>After the king's death, Anne of Austria, as queen-regent,
+with Mazarin, directed the destinies of France.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>[pg 79]</span>
+During the ministry of the two cardinals, Richelieu and
+Mazarin, occurred the political intrigues and astute diplomatic
+movements of Mme. de Chevreuse and the unwise
+and short-sighted aspirations of Mme. de Longueville.
+These intimate friends were women of the highest intelligence,
+most perfect beauty, and uncapitulating devotion,
+and were working for the same cause, though from different motives.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Chevreuse was the daughter of M. de Rohan,
+Duke of Montbazon. She had married M. de Luynes,
+the minister of Louis XIII., who overthrew the power of
+Marie de' Medici, and who, by initiating his wife into his
+secrets, gave her the schooling and experience which she
+later used to such advantage. De Luynes presented her
+at court with instructions to ingratiate herself with the
+queen&mdash;Anne of Austria&mdash;and the king. In this design she
+succeeded so well that she was soon made superintendent
+of the household of the queen, and became as influential
+with Anne as was her husband with the king.</p>
+
+<p>In 1621 M. de Luynes died; a year later his widow married
+Claude of Lorraine, Duke of Chevreuse; but as that
+was an unhappy union, she soon began her career as an
+intriguer. On the arrival of Lord Kensington, the English
+ambassador, she fell in love with him, that escapade being
+the first of a long series; the two proceeded to inveigle
+Queen Anne into a liaison with the Duke of Buckingham,
+which scheme, as history so well records, partly succeeded.</p>
+
+<p>When Mme. de Chevreuse accompanied to England the
+new queen, Henriette-Marie, wife of Charles I., both
+Buckingham and Kensington outdid themselves in showing
+her attention, Richelieu, fearing her influence and intrigues
+at the court of England, hastened the recall of her
+husband, but she received through her friends, from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>[pg 80]</span>
+English monarch himself, an invitation to remain; during
+the time, she gave birth to a child.</p>
+
+<p>Her next famous undertaking, which involved the lives
+of various persons of high rank, was the scheme to persuade
+Monsieur the Dauphin to refuse to marry Mlle. de
+Montpensier; Queen Anne was opposed to this union, and
+Mme. de Chevreuse gained to their cause a number of influential
+friends who were all madly in love with her. The
+ever vigilant Richelieu having discovered the plot, Monsieur
+confessed. In this conspiracy, M. de Chalais lost his head,
+other plotters lost their positions, and some were exiled.
+Mme. de Chevreuse was forced to retire to Lorraine; there
+she set in movement a vast plan against Richelieu and
+France, allying England and various princes, but, by the
+arrest of Montaigu, the plot was discovered, the alliance
+broken up, and peace restored.</p>
+
+<p>In 1626, by request of England, Mme. de Chevreuse returned
+to France. For a time she was quiet and seemed
+to favor Richelieu, but she soon captivated one of his ministers,
+the Marquis of Châteauneuf. Richelieu discovered
+the latter's weakness, and, having captured his correspondence,
+sent him to prison, where he remained for ten
+years. The fair intriguer was exiled to Dampierre, the
+cardinal fearing to send her out of France on account of
+her influence with the Duke of Lorraine. She managed to
+steal into Paris at night and see the queen; when discovered,
+she was sent to Touraine where she began the
+dangerous task of carrying on the correspondence between
+the Dukes of Savoy and Lorraine and England, and between
+Spain and Queen Anne. Even when this correspondence
+was intercepted and the queen confessed all,
+Richelieu was afraid to banish Mme. de Chevreuse; though
+he believed her to be at the bottom of all the current intrigues,
+he knew that out of France she would stir up the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>[pg 81]</span>
+rulers of England and Spain as well as the Duke of Lorraine
+and others hostile to the cardinal.</p>
+
+<p>Violence being out of the question, because of her influence
+in England and of the prominence of her family, he
+decided to win her over by kindness; he even sent her
+money, but she was too shrewd to permit Richelieu to
+outwit her, always paying him back in his own coin.
+However, that kind of play was too dangerous for her and
+she escaped to Spain. As soon as her departure became
+known, Richelieu set to work every means in his power
+to bring her back, sending her an urgent invitation to return
+and promising to pardon her past. When his messages
+reached her, she was already in Madrid, where she
+was royally received as the friend of the king's sister,
+Anne; there, by means of her beauty and wonderful intelligence,
+she conquered every cavalier. When the war
+broke out between France and Spain, she left for England
+where she was welcomed like a visiting queen.</p>
+
+<p>Richelieu, anxious for the support of the Duke of Lorraine
+in his war against Spain and Austria, needed the
+coöperation of Mme. de Chevreuse, and with that end in
+view sent ambassadors to London to arrange for her return;
+but an agreement was not an easy matter between two
+such astute politicians, and negotiations went on unsuccessfully
+for over a year. Her subtleness, apparent
+docility and invincible precautions were pitted against the
+artifices and dissimulation of the cardinal; both employed
+all the astute man&oelig;uvres of diplomacy and exhausted the
+resources of consummate skill in gaining the point desired
+by each. The cardinal failed to convince her of her safety.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Chevreuse soon formed about her a circle of
+émigrés&mdash;Marie de' Medici, Duc La Vallette, Soubèse,
+La Vieuville, and many others. This coterie was in open
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>[pg 82]</span>
+correspondence with Spain, Austria, and the Duke of
+Lorraine. From every side, Richelieu felt the intriguing
+hand and influence of Mme. de Chevreuse, and decided to
+put forth another effort to get her to return, this time
+sending her husband; but not sure of the latter's sincerity
+and in fear of him, the duchess concluded to leave England
+for Flanders, and, escorted by a squad of dukes and lords,
+departed like a queen.</p>
+
+<p>At Brussels, she entered into open relations with Spain,
+drawing over the Duke of Lorraine. She was accused of
+being in the plot of Cinq-Mars and the Duke of Bouillon
+with Spain; when Richelieu exposed this to Queen Anne,
+the latter for the first time became her enemy. Just at
+this time of his triumph, Richelieu died, his death being
+followed soon after by that of Louis XIII., who left a
+special order for the exile forever of Mme. de Chevreuse,
+whom he called <i>Le Diable</i>. The queen-regent, however,
+recalled her, and set at liberty her friend, Châteauneuf,
+who had been imprisoned for ten years.</p>
+
+<p>When Mme. de Chevreuse returned to Paris after an
+absence of ten years, her beauty was still unimpaired, she
+possessed an experience such as no man of the day could
+boast, was personally acquainted with nearly every great
+statesman and aware of the weak points in every court of
+Europe. While she could now count on the support of the
+majority of the princes, plots were being formed about
+the queen-regent, the object of which was to persuade the
+latter to give up the friends who had served her faithfully
+for so many years. La Rochefoucauld was sent to
+meet Mme. de Chevreuse and to inform her of the change
+of attitude of the queen-regent; as her devoted friend, he
+advised her to abandon, for the present, all hopes of governing
+the queen and to devote herself entirely to regaining
+her favor and to preparing for the possible fall of Mazarin.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>[pg 83]</span>
+
+<p>After securing the release of her friend Châteauneuf,
+Mme. de Chevreuse set to work to restore him to his
+former office of Guard of the Seals, but did not succeed.
+She then turned her attention to undermining the power
+of Mazarin, agitating all émigrés returning to France and
+starting the most outspoken denunciation of the policy of
+the cardinal, his injustice and tyranny against the nobility.
+The cries of disapproval became so general that Mazarin
+was kept busy warding off the blows aimed at him by his
+enemy; the latter succeeded in placing Châteauneuf as
+<i>Chancelier des ordres du roi</i> and in having his estates restored
+to him, while Alexandre de Campion she placed in
+the household of the queen. Mazarin, living in constant
+dread of her, managed to thwart two of her cherished
+schemes&mdash;the restoration to the Duke of Vendôme of the
+government of Brittany and the placing of Châteauneuf
+in the ministry&mdash;upon the success of which depended her own influence and power.</p>
+
+<p>Finding that ruse, flattery, insinuation, and ordinary
+court intrigues were of no avail, she turned to other
+methods. The Importants, a party made up of adventurers
+and a large number of the nobility, were making themselves
+felt more and more; they were opposed to Richelieu
+and Mazarin, and Mme. de Chevreuse became their chief
+and instigator. Failing to succeed with the cardinal's own
+methods, she decided to assassinate him, but the plot was
+discovered, the Duke of Beaufort was arrested and all the
+princes of the party of the Importants were ordered to
+leave Paris. Mme. de Chevreuse was compelled to depart
+from court and retire to Dampierre, and then to Touraine,
+where she did everything in her power to assist
+the friends who had compromised themselves for her.
+During her first exile she had had the consolation of the
+friendship of the queen; but now she was banished by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>[pg 84]</span>
+the very friend whom she had served so well and who
+had up to this time been able and willing to afford her
+comfort and protection. Through Lord Goring, Count
+Craft, and the Commander de Jars, she opened up correspondence
+and negotiations with England, but was again
+surprised by the vigilant Mazarin and sent to Angoulême;
+determining to escape, after many hardships, she successfully
+reached Liège; from there, as head of all foreign intrigues
+against France, she continued to thwart Mazarin's foreign policy.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the first signs of the Fronde broke out,
+Mme. de Chevreuse became active and succeeded in attracting
+to her the young Marquis de Laigues with whom,
+later on, she contracted a <i>mariage de conscience</i>. As ambassador
+of the Fronde, she prevailed upon Spain to promise
+troops and subsidies to her party. After the peace of
+1649, she went to Paris where she found almost all her
+friends ready to follow her and to pay her homage. It
+was she who conceived the idea of an aristocratic league
+which, under the auspices of the two great princes of the
+blood, the Duke of Orléans and the Prince of Condé,
+would unite the best part of the nobility.</p>
+
+<p>Her plan was to marry her daughter to the Prince de
+Conti and the young Duc d'Enghien to one of the daughters
+of the Duke of Orléans. The contracts were signed
+and all was in readiness when Mazarin was exiled, and
+the following Frondists came into power: the Duke of
+Orléans at court, Condé and Turenne at the head of the
+army, Châteauneuf in the Cabinet, Molé in Parliament,
+while Mme. de Chevreuse and Mme. de Longueville
+managed to keep harmony among all. Queen Anne
+in a short time annulled the marriage contracts; and
+on the return of Mazarin, Mme. de Chevreuse took up
+her work with him, the cardinal being wise enough to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>[pg 85]</span>
+appreciate the fact that she was a greater force with than against him.</p>
+
+<p>Strange as it may seem, Mme. de Chevreuse in time
+became the great acting and controlling force of royalty,
+winning over the Duke of Lorraine and becoming a staunch
+friend to both the regent and the cardinal; after the death
+of the latter, she became all-powerful, and it may be said
+that she made Colbert what he was. In the fulness of her
+power, she gradually retired, having seen, in turn, the
+passing away or the fall of Richelieu, Mazarin, Louis XIII.,
+Anne of Austria, the Queen of England, Châteauneuf, the
+Duke of Lorraine, her daughter, and the Marquis de Laigues.
+She ceased plotting, renounced politics and intrigues, and
+retired to the country, where she died in 1679.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Chevreuse was undoubtedly one of the most
+important political characters of the seventeenth century,
+just as she was also one of its greatest beauties&mdash;possibly
+the most seductive and charming woman of her epoch. A
+consummate diplomat and an untiring worker, she was at
+the head of more intrigues and plots, had more thrilling
+adventures, controlled and ruined more men, than any
+other woman of her century, if not of all French history.
+Thinking little of religion, she was yet in the very midst
+of the Catholic party; unswerving in her friendships, she
+scorned danger, opinion, fortune, for those whom she loved
+or whose cause she espoused; an implacable foe, she was
+the most dreaded enemy of both Richelieu and Mazarin.</p>
+
+<p>With a remarkable ability for grasping the details of an
+antagonist's position she combined all the other qualities
+of an astute politician; thus, upon the desired consummation
+of her plots she brought to bear a sagacity, finesse,
+and energy that baffled all her adversaries. With her,
+politics became a passion and a necessity; even while in
+exile, her zeal was unflagging and she intrigued over all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>[pg 86]</span>
+Europe. Scorning peril as well as all petty restraints, and
+characterized by courage, loyalty, and devotion, she was
+without an equal among the members of her sex.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Hautefort, while less powerful than Mme. de
+Chevreuse and of quite a different type, is associated with
+her in the history of the time. Pure, beautiful, and virtuous,
+she everywhere inspired love and respect; without
+political aspirations and seeking neither power nor favors,
+she refused to deliver her soul or betray her friends for
+Richelieu or Mazarin; she was their enemy, but not their rival.</p>
+
+<p>Because of her desire to serve the queen, of whom she
+was an intimate friend, and to further her interests, she was
+connected with the first intrigues of Mme. de Chevreuse,
+but as an innocent and disinterested party. Louis XIII.
+conceived an ardent attachment for her, and Richelieu endeavored
+to win her over to his policies, but she remained
+faithful to her queen and refused to sacrifice her honor to the king.</p>
+
+<p>The cardinal did not rest until he had prevailed upon the
+king to exile her, ostensibly for only fifteen days; and as her
+unselfishness and generosity had made an impression upon
+the whole court, her departure was much regretted, though
+no demonstration was made. When, after the king's death,
+Mme. de Hautefort returned to Paris, she soon reëstablished
+herself in the affection, admiration, and respect of her associates.</p>
+
+<p>As Mazarin gained ascendency over Queen Anne, that
+regent changed her policy and abandoned her former
+friends. Mme. de Hautefort was opposed to the queen on
+account of her liaison with her minister and her lack of
+fidelity to those who, in time of trouble, had served her so
+well. As <i>dame d'atours</i>, she was forced either to close her
+eyes to all scenes between the cardinal and Anne or to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>[pg 87]</span>
+combat the regent and resign. She was not to be tempted
+by the honors and favors with which the two sought to
+purchase her criminal connivance or her silence; preferring
+poverty and exile to a guilty conscience, she soon retired
+to the convent of the Daughters of Sainte-Marie, where
+she was followed by her admirers, who were willing to
+place themselves and their fortunes at her disposal. At
+the age of thirty she accepted the hand of the Duke of
+Schomberg, and, away from the court and its intrigues, lived in peace.</p>
+
+<p>Indifferent to the powerful, but kind and compassionate
+to the poor and oppressed, Mme. de Hautefort is a type of
+those great women of the seventeenth century who stood
+for honor, courage, generosity, sympathy, and virtue;
+fervently, even austerely, religious, she was yet far removed
+from anything resembling bigotry. Among the
+ladies of the Hôtel de Rambouillet, she was one of the most
+popular; her vivacity, modesty, and reserve, combined
+with a tall figure, imposing bearing, and large, expressive
+blue eyes, won the hearts of many cavaliers, among whom
+the most prominent were the Dukes of Lorraine and La Rochefoucauld.</p>
+
+<p>A close second to Mme. de Chevreuse in influence and
+power, was Mme. de Longueville, a woman of exquisite
+and aristocratic beauty, of brilliant mind, and an adept in
+the art of conversation. Tender and kind, but ambitious,
+she, like many others of her time and sex, had two distinct
+periods&mdash;one of conquest and one of penitence and pious devotion.</p>
+
+<p>Born in a prison at Vincennes during the captivity of her
+father, the great Henry of Bourbon, Prince of Condé, she
+in time developed remarkable personal charms. Her early
+days were spent at the convent of the Carmelites and at
+the Hôtel de Rambouillet, her mind&mdash;in these opposite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>[pg 88]</span>
+worlds of religion and society&mdash;being divided between
+pious meditations and romantic dreams. At the time of
+the execution at Toulouse of her uncle, M. de Montmorency,
+she seriously considered entering the Carmelite convent.</p>
+
+<p>Upon making her social début, she immediately became
+one of the leaders about whom all the gallants gathered.
+She formed a fast friendship with Mme. de Sablé, Mme. de
+Rambouillet, Mme. de Bouteville, and Mlle. du Vigean.
+Her beauty, which was quite phenomenal, soon became
+the subject of poetry. Voltaire wrote:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"De perles, d'astres et de fleurs,</p>
+<p>Bourbon, le ciel fit tes couleurs,</p>
+<p>Et mit dedans tout ce mélange</p>
+<p class="i2">L'esprit d'un ange!</p>
+<p>L'on jugerait par la blancheur</p>
+<p>De Bourbon, et par sa fraicheur,</p>
+<p>Qu'elle a prit naissance des lis."</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>[The heaven made thy colors, Bourbon, of pearls, of
+stars, of flowers, and to all this mixture added the spirit
+of an angel. One would judge by the whiteness and
+freshness of Bourbon that she was born of the lilies.]</p>
+
+<p>In 1642, at the age of twenty-three, she was married,
+against her will, to M. de Longueville who was, after the
+princes of the blood, the greatest seigneur of France; he
+was old and indifferent, and enamored of another woman,
+while she was young and full of hopes, ambitions, and
+love. His conduct, being anything but correct, immediately
+set the young wife, with her instincts of refinement
+and principles and habits of the <i>précieuses</i>, against her
+husband. The advent of a rival in the person of Mme. de
+Montbazon, one of the most noted beauties of the day,
+made the state of affairs even more unpleasant, the humiliation
+being so much keener because it was on account of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>[pg 89]</span>
+her charms that Montbazon was preferred to the wife.
+The latter's fate was a cruel one; she could not respect
+her husband, and, for her, respect was the only road to
+love. She continued to live at the Hôtel de Longueville
+and to attend all court functions, where, through her
+beauty, she early became the object of much attention
+from the young lords, among whom Coligny seemed to impress
+her more than any other.</p>
+
+<p>About this time occurred the deaths of Richelieu and
+Louis XIII., and the Importants, flocking to Paris to regain
+their rights and to share in the spoils of the new regency,
+began to make themselves felt. The leaders expected great
+favors from Anne of Austria who had been forced into
+obedience by the cardinal, but she was a great disappointment
+to them. A born lady of leisure, she was only too
+glad to be relieved of the arduous duties of government,
+and this her minister, Mazarin, quickly proceeded to do;
+his first object was to crush the influence of the Importants,
+who were very powerful in the salons, society, and politics.</p>
+
+<p>The house of Condé declared in favor of Mazarin, but
+at first this did not affect Mme. de Longueville, whose
+kindness of heart and indifference to politics and intrigues
+were generally known. Probably, she never would have
+taken a part in the Fronde had it not been for the rival
+who had been seeking, by every possible means, to injure
+her reputation&mdash;a design which Mme. de Montbazon well-nigh
+accomplished by declaring that two letters which, at
+a reception, had fallen from the pocket of Coligny had
+been written by Mme. de Longueville. In reality, they
+had been written by Mme. de Fouquerolles to the Marquis
+of Maulevrier. Mme. la Princesse, mother of Mme. de
+Longueville demanded full reparation, threatening that
+unless it was at once granted the house of Condé would
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>[pg 90]</span>
+withdraw from court, and Mazarin managed to induce the
+queen to compel Mme. de Montbazon to apologize publicly.
+It may be of interest to give, in full, the apology, to show
+the nature of court etiquette, hypocrisy, and intrigue of
+that day. Mme. de Montbazon called at the hôtel of the
+princess and spoke the following words, which were
+written on a paper attached to her fan: "Madame, I come
+here to attest that I am innocent of the spitefulness of
+which they accuse me, there being no person of honor
+capable of uttering such a calumny; and if I had committed
+such a crime, I would have submitted to the punishments
+that the queen would have imposed upon me, would never
+have shown myself before the world again, and would
+have asked your pardon. I beg you to believe that I shall
+never be lacking in the respect that I owe you because of
+the opinion which I have of the merit and virtue of
+Mme. de Longueville." To which the princess replied:
+"I very willingly receive the assurance you give me of
+having had no part in the spitefulness that was published,
+deferring all to the order the queen has given me."</p>
+
+<p>After this episode, the princess refused to be in the
+same place with Mme. de Montbazon. On one occasion,
+Mme. de Chevreuse had invited the queen to a collation
+at a place where the queen enjoyed walking; she requested
+the princess to join her, giving her word of honor
+that Mme. de Montbazon would not be there; she was
+present, however, and the princess was about to leave
+when the queen ordered Mme. de Montbazon to feign illness
+and retire; this she refused to do and remained, whereupon
+the queen and the princess left, and shortly afterward
+Mme. de Montbazon received orders to leave Paris.</p>
+
+<p>This excited the Importants to fever heat and a plot was
+formed, with Mme. de Chevreuse as the leader, to assassinate
+the cardinal. Shortly after this, Coligny, as champion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>[pg 91]</span>
+of the cause of Mme. de Longueville, challenged the Duc
+de Guise to a duel. The whole court was made up of two
+parties: the Importants with Mme. de Montbazon and
+Mme. de Chevreuse; and Condé and Mme. de Longueville
+with their friends; the result was the death of Coligny.
+Mme. de Longueville was a true <i>précieuse</i> and hardly loved
+Coligny, but allowed him and any other to serve and adore
+her in a respectable way&mdash;a principle followed by the
+better women of the age, such as Mme. de Rambouillet and Mme. de Sablé.</p>
+
+<p>Some time after these occurrences, Mme. de Longueville
+was stricken with smallpox which, fortunately, did not
+impair her beauty; it was said, on the contrary, that in
+taking away its first flower it left all the brilliancy which,
+joined to her culture and charming languor, made her one
+of the most attractive persons in France. La Rochefoucauld
+has left the following picture of her: "This princess
+had all the advantages of <i>esprit</i> and beauty to as great a
+degree as if nature had taken pleasure in completing, in her
+person, a perfect work; but these qualities shone less brilliantly
+on account of one characteristic which led her to
+imbibe so thoroughly the sentiments of those who adored
+her that she no longer recognized her own."</p>
+
+<p>After her twenty-fifth year, Mme. de Longueville became
+more and more imbued with the general spirit of the
+seventeenth century: coquetry and <i>bel esprit</i> became her
+chief occupation. The glory of her brother, the Duc
+d'Enghien, who was rapidly becoming a power, and the
+probability of the house of Condé becoming dangerous,
+made Mazarin realize that Mme. de Longueville was to be
+reckoned with, inasmuch as she had full control over
+D'Enghien and was constantly instilling new ideas into
+his mind and requesting from him the distribution of all
+sorts of favors. Mazarin, in 1646, succeeded in causing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>[pg 92]</span>
+her withdrawal to Münster for one year; there she ruled
+as queen of the Congress. On the death of her father,
+the Prince of Condé, and at the request of her mother to
+come home for her lying-in, the husband of Mme. de
+Longueville consented to her return to Paris.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, everything was being done by the
+Importants to win over the house of Condé and cause a
+breach between it and Mazarin. The court at this time
+was in full glory; to amuse the queen-regent, Mazarin
+was lavishing money on artists from Italy, and the nobility
+outdid itself in its attempts to rival royalty in elegance
+and luxury. Upon her return, everyone paid homage to
+Mme. de Longueville; it was at this period that La Rochefoucauld,
+who was anxious about his position at court, as
+he was accused of being in league with the Importants and
+was therefore refused the favors he desired, met Mme. de
+Longueville who was in the height of her glory and in full
+control of the most prominent house of the time&mdash;that of
+the Duc d'Enghien and the Prince de Conti, her brothers.</p>
+
+<p>In order to conquer for himself what the cardinal would
+not grant him, La Rochefoucauld put forth every effort to
+win Mme. de Longueville; captivated by his fine appearance,
+his chivalry and, above all, by his powerful intellect,
+she gave herself up entirely, willing to share his destiny,
+to sacrifice all her interests, even those of her family, and
+the deepest sentiment of her life&mdash;the tenderness for her brother.</p>
+
+<p>France at this time, 1648, was in a position to gain for
+herself a peace with the world at her own terms, and her
+future seemed to be without a cloud. It was the Fronde
+that checked her growth and glory, and the cause of this
+was the estrangement of the house of Condé through the
+action of Mme. de Longueville in passing with her husband
+over to the party of the Importants, she being the first of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>[pg 93]</span>
+her family to forsake the government. Under the leadership
+of La Rochefoucauld, she cast her lot with the opposing
+party, allowing herself to be identified with the interests
+of those who had endeavored to tarnish her early reputation.
+Becoming a leader with Mme. de Chevreuse and
+Mme. de Montbazon (her rival), she easily won over her
+young brother, the Prince de Conti. After the imprisonment
+of her husband and her two brothers, she began her
+real career as a woman of tactics, politics, and generalship.</p>
+
+<p>With the connivance of Mme. de Chevreuse and the
+Princess Palatine, a general plan had been formed to
+create a new government by the union of the aristocracy.
+The marriage, already spoken of, between the Duke of
+Enghien and one of the daughters of the Duke of Orléans
+and that arranged between the Prince of Conti and the
+daughter of Mme. de Chevreuse were to have united the
+Fronde with the house of Condé. The alliances, however,
+were declared off, and Mme. de Chevreuse went over to
+the cardinal and the queen; Condé's fall and Mazarin's
+success followed, being the result, mainly, of the determination
+of Mme. de Chevreuse to avenge herself upon
+Condé for having consented to the breaking of the marriage contracts.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Longueville did all in her power to continue the
+conflict that Condé had undertaken, but, exhausted by
+continual excitement and ill success, she was compelled to
+retire. After this, her life, spent in Normandy, at the
+Carmelites' convent and at Port Royal, became a long penance,
+which increased in austerity until she died in 1679.
+Thus, her career was at first one of unblemished brilliancy,
+then a period of elegant and intellectual debauch, and finally one of expiation.</p>
+
+<p>"Her politics," says Sainte-Beuve, "considered in the
+<i>ensemble</i>, are nothing more than a desire to please, to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>[pg 94]</span>
+shine&mdash;a capricious love. Her character lacked consistency
+and self-will, her mind was keen, ready, subtle, ingenious, but not reasonable."</p>
+
+<p>In her convent life, her crowning virtue was humility.
+Her enemies did not cease to attack her, but she received
+all their affronts with the noblest resignation. The following
+testimonies are taken from a Jansenist manuscript of 1685:</p>
+
+<p>"She never said anything to her own advantage. She
+made use of as many occasions as she could find for
+humiliating herself without any affectation. What she
+said, she said so well that it could not be better said. She
+listened much, never interrupted, and never showed any
+eagerness to speak. She spoke sensibly, modestly, charitably,
+and without passion. To court her was to speak
+with equity and without passion of everyone and to esteem
+the good in all. Her whole exterior, her voice, her face,
+her gestures, were a perfect music; and her mind and
+body served her so well in expressing what she wished to
+make heard, that she appeared the most perfect actress in the world."</p>
+
+<p>Her love for La Rochefoucauld was the secret of her
+failure in life. When she experienced the disappointments
+of her married life and discovered that her dream of being
+loved by her husband could not be realized, she looked to
+other sources for diversion. She was not an intriguing
+woman like Mme. de Chevreuse, but one of ambitions
+which were incited by her love for and interest in the
+objects of her affection. Although she carried on flirtations
+with Coligny and the Duke of Nemours, she really loved
+no one but La Rochefoucauld, to whom she sacrificed her
+reputation and tranquillity, her duties and interests. For
+him she took up the cause of the Fronde; for him she was
+a mere slave, her entire existence being given up to his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>[pg 95]</span>
+love, his whims, his service; when he failed her, she was
+lost, exhausted, and retired to a convent at the age of
+thirty-five and in the full bloom of her beauty. Her
+professed lover simply used her as a means to an end,
+seeking only his own interests in the Fronde, while she
+sought his; and this is the explanation of her seeming
+inconsistency of conduct. In her religious life she was
+happy and contented; surrounded by her friends, she lived
+peacefully for over twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, Marie de' Medici, a foreigner, Mme. de Chevreuse,
+and Mme. de Longueville represent the political women of
+the first half of the seventeenth century; Anne of Austria,
+who was of foreign extraction, was a mere tool in the
+hands of Mazarin, and exerted little influence in general.</p>
+
+<p>One of the principal differences between the conspicuous
+political women of the sixteenth and those of the
+seventeenth centuries lies in the possession by the latter
+of less personal force than that wielded by the former,
+who allowed nothing to thwart their plans. The women
+of both periods were beautiful, but those of the earlier one
+were of a magnetic and sensual type, "inspiring insensate
+passions and exciting a feverish unrest," thus ruling man
+through his lower instincts. The lack of refinement, sympathy,
+and charity reflected in their actions is in glaring
+contrast to the dignity, repose, reserve, and womanly
+modesty and grace displayed by their less masterful successors
+of the seventeenth century.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>[pg 97]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter IV</h2>
+
+<h2>Woman in Society and Literature</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>[pg 99]</span>
+
+
+<p>At the beginning of the seventeenth century, after the
+death of Henry IV., there were three classes in France,&mdash;the
+nobility, clergy, and third estate,&mdash;each with a distinct
+field of action: the nobility dominated customs, morality,
+and the government; the clergy supervised instruction and
+education; the third estate furnished the funds, that is, its
+work made possible the operations of the other classes.</p>
+
+<p>At court, various dialects and diverse pronunciations
+were in use by the representatives of the different provinces;
+the written language, though understood generally,
+was not used. Warriors were largely in evidence among
+the members of the nobility and court; entirely indifferent
+to decency of expression, purity of morals, and refinement
+of manners, and even boasting of their scorn of all restrictions,
+they took their boisterous rudeness into the drawing
+room where their influence was unlimited. The king,
+being of the same class, knew no better, or, if he did,
+had not the moral courage to compel a change; thus,
+the institution of a reformatory movement fell to the lot of woman.</p>
+
+<p>Then, however, woman was but little better than man;
+to gain his esteem, she would first have to make radical
+changes in her own behavior and become self-respecting.
+The customs of the time placed many disadvantages in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>[pg 100]</span>
+the way of her social and moral reform. As a rule, the
+young girl was confined to a convent until she reached
+marriageable age; when that came and with it an undesired
+husband, she was ready for almost any prank that
+would relieve the monotony of her uncongenial marital
+relations. The convents themselves were so corrupt or
+so easily corruptible, that, very frequently, young girls
+did not leave them with unstained purity. To certain of
+these institutions, women and men of standing often bought
+the privilege of access at any time, to drink, dine, sleep, or
+attend sacred exercises with other persons; thus, libertinage
+was not uncommon within the walls of those so-called religious establishments.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Rambouillet felt most keenly the degradation
+of woman and resolved to act against it by combating
+everything that could offend taste or delicacy. As in the
+beginning of every great age, all things tended to greatness.
+A period of discipline and coördination set in, and
+elegance, grace, and refinement became the most pronounced
+characteristics of the time; rough, crude, robust,
+vigorous, and energetic characteristics, combined with
+coarseness and brutality, were eliminated during the seventeenth
+century. The women who caused this general
+purification of morals and language were given the name
+of <i>précieuses</i> and the movement that of <i>préciosité</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The extent to which the <i>précieuses</i> went in inventing
+locutions by which they were to be recognized as elegant,
+is generally exaggerated; Livet says that out of six hundred
+women hardly thirty could be accused of such fatuity.
+The wiser and more conservative women did adopt a large
+number of expressions which were necessary for refinement
+of language and these classicisms were exaggerated
+by some of the provincial classes who received their expressions
+from books and the theatre; such authors as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>[pg 101]</span>
+Corneille, etc., were studied and their poetic licenses introduced
+into spoken language. These follies, pictured by
+Molière, naturally afforded much amusement in cultured
+circles where every event of the day was discussed, from
+the vital affairs of the government to the æsthetic interests
+of art and literature.</p>
+
+<p>The tremendous vogue of the seventeenth century salons
+or drawing rooms naturally gave a stimulus to literature;
+but, as they were so numerous and as each one claimed its
+large coterie of literary men, they proved to be disastrous
+to some while helpful to others. Two distinct classes of
+writers arose: the one, serious, elevated, thoughtful, classical,
+and independent of the salon, is well represented by
+Molière, Pascal, Boileau; the other, light, affected, gallant,
+superficial, was composed of the innumerable unimportant writers of the day.</p>
+
+<p>The salon movement must not be confounded with two
+other social movements or forces&mdash;those of court and society;
+while at the former all was formality, the latter was
+still gross and brutish. The Marquis de Caze, at a supper
+seized a leg of mutton and struck his neighbor in the face
+with it, sprinkling her with gravy, whereupon she laughed
+heartily; the Count of Brégis, slapped by the lady with
+whom he was dancing, tore off her headdress before the
+whole company; Louis XIII., noticing in the crowd admitted
+to see him dine a lady dressed too <i>décolleté</i>,
+filled his mouth with wine and squirted the liquid into
+the bosom of the unfortunate girl; the Prince of Condé,
+indulging in customary brutishness, ate dung and had the
+ladies follow his example; these are fair illustrations of
+social <i>elegances</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As will be seen, nothing of this nature occurred in the
+salon of Mme. de Rambouillet, whose object was to charm
+her leisure hours, distract and amuse the husband whom
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>[pg 102]</span>
+she adored, and be agreeable to her friends. Her amusements
+were most original&mdash;concerts, mythological representations,
+suppers, fireworks, comedies, readings, always
+something new, often in the form of a surprise or a joke.
+Of the latter, the best known is the one played on the
+Count of Guise whose fondness for mushrooms had become
+proverbial; on one occasion when he had consumed
+an immense number of them at table, his valet, who had
+been bribed, took in all his doublets; on trying to put them
+on again, he found them too narrow by fully four inches.
+"What in the world is the matter&mdash;am I all swollen&mdash;could
+it be due to having eaten too many mushrooms?" "That
+is quite possible," said Chaudebonne; "yesterday you ate
+enough of them to split." All the accomplices joined in
+ridiculing him, and he began to squirm and show a somewhat
+livid color. Mass was rung, and he was compelled
+to attend in his chamber robe. Laughing, he said: "That
+would be a fine end&mdash;to die at the age of twenty-one from
+having eaten too many mushrooms." In the meantime,
+Chaudebonne advised the use of an antidote which he
+wrote and handed to the count, who read: "Take a good
+pair of scissors and cut your doublet." Only then did the
+victim comprehend the joke.</p>
+
+<p>One day, Voiture, having met a bear trainer, took him
+with his animals to the room of the Marquise de Rambouillet;
+she, turning at the noise, saw four large paws
+resting upon her screen. She readily forgave the author
+of the surprise. Du Bled relates many more of these innocent jokes.</p>
+
+<p>Among the congenial people of the salons, the relations
+were always of the most cordial, friendly, free, and
+intimate nature; they were like the members of a large
+family. By them, love was not considered a weakness
+but a mark of the elevation of the soul, and every man
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>[pg 103]</span>
+had to be sensitive to beauty. When the Duchesse
+d'Aiguillon presented to society her nephew, who later became
+the Duke of Richelieu, she advised and encouraged
+him to complete his education and make of himself an
+<i>honnête homme</i> by association with the elder Mlle. du
+Vigean and other women; the object of this procedure was
+to polish his manners, elevate his instincts, and develop
+ease in deportment toward the ladies. There was no hint
+of the vulgar or licentious pleasures which became the
+characteristics of love in the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The woman who inaugurated the movement toward
+purity of morals, decency of language, polish of manners,
+and courtesy to woman, was Mme. de Rambouillet. Cathérine
+de Vivonne, Marquise de Rambouillet, whose mother
+was a great Roman lady and whose father had been ambassador
+to Rome, inherited that pride of race and independence
+of spirit for which she was so well known.
+In 1600, she was married, at the age of twelve, to the
+Marquis de Rambouillet who was her senior by eleven
+years, but who treated her with deference and respect
+rare at that time. Husband and wife were perfectly congenial,
+and their happy and peaceful life was a great
+contrast to that led by the majority of the married couples
+of the day. Absolutely irreproachable in conduct, she set
+a worthy example for all women who knew her.</p>
+
+<p>Her high ideals, independence of character, family duties,
+and the general debauchery, which was incompatible with
+her rigid chastity and "precocious wisdom," caused her to
+withdraw from the court in 1608; two years later, she decided
+to open her salon to such aristocratic and cultured
+persons as appreciated womanly grace, wit, and taste.
+Her familiarity with Italian and Spanish history and art
+placed her at the head of intellectual as well as moral
+movements. She surrounded herself with the distinguished
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>[pg 104]</span>
+men and women of the day, and her salon, which in every
+detail was decorated and arranged for pleasure, immediately
+became, through the exquisite charm with which
+she presided, the one goal of the cultured; her blue room
+was the sanctuary of polite society and she was its high priestess.</p>
+
+<p>The highest ambition of the <i>habitué</i> of the salon was to
+sing, dance, and converse artistically and with refinement.
+A reaction against the general social state immediately set
+in, even the brusque warriors acquiring a refinement of
+speech and manners; and as conversation developed and
+became a power, the great lords began to respect men of
+letters and to cultivate their society. Anyone who possessed
+good manners, vivacity, and wit was admitted to
+the salon, where a new and more elevating sociability was the aspiration.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Rambouillet was very particular in the choice
+of friends, and they were always sincere and devoted,
+knowing her to be undesirous of political favors and incapable
+of stooping to intrigue. Even Richelieu could not,
+as compensation to him for a favor to her husband, induce
+her to act as spy on some of the frequenters of her salon.</p>
+
+<p>While not a woman of remarkable beauty, she was the
+personification of reason and virtue; her unassuming frankness,
+exquisite tact, and exceptional reserve discouraged
+all advances on the part of those gallants who frequented
+every mansion and were always prepared to lay siege to
+the heart of any fair woman. Her wide culture, versatility,
+modesty, goodness, fidelity, and disinterestedness caused
+her to be universally sought. Mlle. de Scudéry, in her
+novel <i>Cyrus</i>, leaves a fine portrait of her:</p>
+
+<p>"The spirit and soul of this marvellous person surpass
+by far her beauty: the first has no limits in its extent and
+the other has no equal in its generosity, goodness, justice,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>[pg 105]</span>
+and purity. The intellect of Cléomire (Mme. de Rambouillet)
+is not like that of those whose minds have no
+brilliancy except that which nature has given them, for
+she has cultivated it carefully, and I think I can say that
+there are no <i>belles connaissances</i> that she has not acquired.
+She knows various languages, and is ignorant of hardly
+anything that is worth knowing; but she knows it all
+without making a display of knowing it; and one would
+say, in hearing her talk, 'she is so modest that she speaks
+admirably of things, through simple common sense only';
+on the contrary, she is versed in all things; the most advanced
+sciences are not beyond her, and she is perfectly
+acquainted with the most difficult arts. Never has any
+person possessed such a delicate knowledge as hers of fine
+works of prose and poetry; she judges them, however,
+with wonderful moderation, never abandoning <i>la bienséance</i>
+(the seemliness) of her sex, though she is far above it.
+In the whole court, there is not a person with any spirit
+and virtue that does not go to her house. Nothing is
+considered beautiful if it does not have her approval; no
+stranger ever comes who does not desire to see Cléomire
+and do her homage, and there are no excellent artisans
+who do not wish to have the glory of her approbation of
+their works. All people who write in Phénicie have sung
+her praises; and she possesses the esteem of everyone to
+such a marvellous degree that there is no one who has
+ever seen her who has not said thousands of favorable
+things about her&mdash;who has not been charmed likewise by
+her beauty, <i>esprit</i>, sweetness, and generosity."</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Scudéry describes the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet in the following:</p>
+
+<p>"Cléomire (Mme. de Rambouillet) had built, according
+to her own design, a place which is one of the finest in the
+world; she has found the art of constructing a palace of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>[pg 106]</span>
+vast extent in a situation of mediocre grandeur. Order,
+harmony, and elegance are in all the apartments, and in
+the furniture also; everything is magnificent, even unique;
+the lamps are different from those of other palaces, her
+cabinets are full of objects which show the judgment of
+her who chose them. In her palace, the air is always
+scented; many baskets full of magnificent flowers make a
+continual spring in her room, and the place which she
+frequents ordinarily is so agreeable and so imaginative
+as to make one feel as if she were in some enchanted place."</p>
+
+<p>The very names of the frequenters of the salon of Mme.
+de Rambouillet testify to the prominence of her position in
+the world of culture: Mlle. de Scudéry, Mlle. du Vigean;
+Mmes. de Longueville, de la Vergne, de La Fayette, de
+Sablé, de Hautefort, de Sévigné, de la Suze, Marie de Gonzague,
+Duchesse d'Aiguillon, Mmes. des Houlières, Cornuel,
+Aubry, and their respective husbands; the great
+literary men: Rotrou, Scarron, Saint-Evremond, Malherbe,
+Racan, Chapelain, Voiture, Conrart, Benserade, Pellisson,
+Segrais, Vaugelas, Ménage, Tallemant des Réaux, Balzac,
+Mairet, Corneille, Bossuet, etc. In the entire period of
+the French salon, no other such brilliant gathering of men
+and women of social standing, princely blood, genuine intelligence,
+and literary ability ever assembled from motives
+other than those of politics or intrigue; here was a gathering
+purely social and for purposes of mutual refinement.
+The nobility went through a process of polishing, and the
+men of letters sharpened their intelligence and modified
+their manners and customs.</p>
+
+<p>Julie, Duchess of Montausier, and Angélique, daughters
+of Mme. de Rambouillet, were popular, but the former lost
+much of her charm after she sacrificed her independence of
+thought and action by becoming governess of the children
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>[pg 107]</span>
+of the queen. Julie was the centre of attraction for all
+perfumed rhymesters, all sighers in prose and verse, who
+thronged about her. The stern and unbending Duke
+of Montausier was so under her influence that in 1641 he
+arranged and laid before her shrine the famous <i>guirlande</i>
+which was illustrated by Robert and to which nineteen
+authors contributed. After her marriage to the duke, the
+Hôtel de Rambouillet may be said to have ceased to exist,
+as madame, who was seventy years of age, had for a
+number of years kept herself in the background, and Julie
+had become the acknowledged leader.</p>
+
+<p>With the outbreak of the Fronde, friends were separated
+by their individual interests and the reunions at the salon
+were interrupted from about 1650 to 1652. After the death
+of her husband, Mme. de Rambouillet retired, to reside
+with her daughter, Mme. de Montausier; after that, she
+seldom appeared in public. She hardly lived to see the
+spirit of the salon changed to the real <i>préciosité</i>&mdash;the direction
+and aim she gave to it being gradually abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>In her salon, for nearly fifty years, no pedantry, no
+loose manners, no questionable characters, no social or
+political intrigues, no discourtesies of any kind, were recorded;
+hers was a reign of dignity and grace, of purity
+of language, manners, and morals. She died in 1665, at
+the advanced age of seventy-seven, esteemed and mourned
+by the entire social and intellectual world of France. Her
+influence was incalculable; it was the first time in the
+history of France that refined taste, intellectuality, and
+virtue had won importance, influence, and power.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that in the first period of the
+salon there were no blue-stockings, no pedants: these
+were later developments. It was, primarily, a gathering
+which found pleasure in parties, excursions, concerts, balls,
+fireworks, dramatic performances, living tableaux; the last
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>[pg 108]</span>
+form of amusement very strongly influenced the development
+of the art, for in the galleries there appeared a surprisingly
+large number of portraits of the women of the
+day in character&mdash;sometimes as a nymph, sometimes as a goddess.</p>
+
+<p>The salon, in its first phase, showed and developed tolerance
+in religion as well as in art and literature. It also
+encouraged progress and displayed acute discrimination,
+keeping pace with the time in all that was new and meritorious.
+It developed individual liberty, public interest,
+criticism, good taste, and the elegant, clear, and precise
+conversational language in which France has excelled up to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>When about to build the Hôtel Pisani, Mme. de Rambouillet,
+having no love for architects, planned its construction
+without their assistance. She revolutionized
+the architecture of the time by introducing large and high
+doors and windows and putting the stairway to one side in
+order to secure a large suite of rooms. She was also the
+first to decorate a room in other colors than red or tan.
+The construction of her hôtel completely changed domestic
+architecture; and it may be noted that when the Luxembourg
+was to be built, the designers were instructed to
+examine, for ideas, the Hôtel de Rambouillet.</p>
+
+<p>Legouvé gives as the object and mission of Mme. de
+Rambouillet: "to combat the sensualism of Rabelais,
+Villon, and Marot, to reform society through love by reforming
+love through chastity; to place women at the
+head of civilization, by beginning a crusade against vice in
+the disguise of sentiment. The word 'fame' must, in the
+seventeenth century, apply to both man and woman, meaning
+honor for the one and purity for the other. Her ideal
+falls with the accession of Louis XIV.; the dazzling luxury
+of royalty hardly conceals, under its exterior elegance,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>[pg 109]</span>
+the profound and deep-seated grossness of Versailles and Marly."</p>
+
+<p>To Mme. de Rambouillet, then, belongs the distinction
+of having been the first to bring together men of letters
+and great lords on a footing of social equality and for
+mutual benefit. Her salon and friends continued in the
+seventeenth century what Marguerite d'Angoulême had
+begun in the first part of the sixteenth&mdash;an intellectual,
+social, and moral reform.</p>
+
+<p>Many salons which were all more or less patterned after
+that of Rambouillet sprang into existence. Among these
+the Academy of the Vicomtesse d'Auchy, with Malherbe
+as president and tyrant, was of little influence as far as
+women were concerned. The members were all of second-rate
+importance, and Malherbe tolerated only the discussion
+of his verses, while Mme. d'Auchy was better known
+for her splendid neck than for any intellectuality. Every
+salon had a master of ceremonies, who performed the rite
+of presentation; these men were frequently abbés, and
+some of them, such as Du Buisson and Testu, became famous.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most noted of these salons was that of the
+celebrated beauty, Ninon de Lenclos, she who called
+the <i>précieuses</i> the "Jansenists of love," an expression
+which became very popular. Her salon was situated on
+the Rue des Tournelles. Ninon de Lenclos was a woman
+of the most brilliant mind and exquisite taste, and it was
+at her hôtel that Molière first read his <i>Tartuffe</i> before
+Condé, La Fontaine, Boileau, Lulli, Racine, and Chapelle,
+and it was there that he received the principal ideas for his drama.</p>
+
+<p>Ninon became famous for making staunch friends of her
+former lovers, in which connection some interesting tales
+are told. She was the mother of two children; upon the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>[pg 110]</span>
+arrival of the first, a heated discussion arose between
+Count d'Estrées and Abbé d'Effiat, both claiming the
+honor of paternity. When the mother was consulted, she
+made no attempt to conceal her amusement; finally, the
+rivals threw dice for "father or not father."</p>
+
+<p>The other child, whose father was the Marquis de Gersay,
+was the victim of an unnatural passion for his mother
+with whom, when a young man, he fell desperately in
+love, being ignorant of their relation. While pleading his
+cause, he learned from her lips the secret, and, in despair,
+blew out his brains, a tragedy which apparently had no
+effect upon the mother. At one time, at the request of
+the clergy Ninon was sent, for impiety, to the convent
+of the Benedictines at Lagny.</p>
+
+<p>Among her friends she counted the greatest men and
+women of the day and her salon was the foyer of <i>savoir-vivre</i>,
+of letters and art. At the age of sixty she met the
+Great Condé, who dismounted to greet her, something
+that he very seldom did, as he was not in the habit of
+paying compliments to women. The saying: <i>Elle eut
+l'estime de Lenclos</i> [she had the esteem of Lenclos] became
+a popular manner of expressing the fact that a certain
+woman was especially esteemed. Even to the last (she
+died at the age of eighty-five), Ninon preserved her grace,
+beauty, and intelligence. Colombey calls her <i>La mère
+spirituelle de Voltaire</i> [the spiritual mother of Voltaire].</p>
+
+<p>The generality of women had their lovers; even the
+famous Mlle. de Scudéry, in spite of her homeliness&mdash;she
+was a dark, large-boned, and lean sort of old maid&mdash;had
+admirers galore; among the latter was Pellisson who was
+said to be so ugly "that he really abused the privilege&mdash;which
+man enjoys&mdash;of being homely."</p>
+
+<p>The hôtel of the famous poet Scarron&mdash;Hôtel de l'Impécuniosité&mdash;received
+almost all the frequenters of Ninon's
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>[pg 111]</span>
+salon. At the former place there were no restrictions as
+to the manner of enjoyment; after elevating and edifying
+conversation at the salon of Ninon, the members would
+repair to that of Scarron for a feast of <i>broutilles rabelaisiennes</i>
+[Rabelaisian tidbits].</p>
+
+<p>The salon of Mme. de Montbazon had its frequenters
+who, however, were attracted mainly by her beauty; she
+was, to use the words of one of her friends, "One of
+those beauties that delight the eye and provoke a vigorous
+appetite." Her salon was one of suitors rather than of
+intellectuality or harmless sociability.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous of the men's salons was the Temple,
+constructed in 1667 by Jacques de Souvré and conducted
+from 1681 to 1720 by Phillipe de Vendôme and his intendant,
+Abbé de Chaulieu. These reunions, especially under
+the latter, were veritable midnight <i>convivia</i>; he himself
+boasted of never having gone to bed one night in thirty
+years without having been carried there dead drunk, a
+custom to which he remained "faithful unto death." His
+boon companion was La Duchesse de Bouillon. Most of
+his frequenters were jolly good persons, utterly destitute
+of the sense of sufficiency in matters of carousing; the
+better people declined his invitations.</p>
+
+<p>After that of Mme. de Rambouillet, there were, in the
+seventeenth century, but two great salons that exerted a
+lasting influence and that were not saturated with the decadent
+<i>préciosité</i>. Of these the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry
+has been called the salon of the <i>bourgeoisie</i>, because the
+majority of its frequenters belonged to the third estate,
+which was rapidly acquiring power and influence.</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Scudéry, who was born in 1608 and lived
+through the whole century, saw society develop, and
+therefore knew it better than did any of her contemporaries.
+Having lost her parents early in life, her uncle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>[pg 112]</span>
+reared her and she received advantages such as fell to
+the lot of few women of her condition; she was given an
+excellent education in literature, art, and the languages.</p>
+
+<p>Until the marriage of her brother, she was his constant
+and devoted companion, exiling herself to Marseilles when
+he was appointed governor of Notre Dame de La Garde,
+and returning to Paris with him in 1647. She first collaborated
+with him in a literary production of about eighty
+volumes. In their works, the brother furnished the rough
+draft, the dramatic episodes, adventures, and the Romanesque
+part, while she added the literary finish through
+charming character sketches, conversation, sentimental
+analyses, and letters. With a strong inclination toward
+society, and constantly fulfilling its obligations, she would
+from day to day write up her conversations of the evening before.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting anecdote is told in connection with the
+travels and coöperation of Mlle. de Scudéry and her
+brother; once, on the way to Paris, while stopping over
+night at Lyons, they were discussing the fate of one of
+their heroes, one proposing death and the other rescue,
+one poison and the other a more cruel death; a gentleman
+from Auvergne happened to overhear them and immediately
+notified the people of the inn, thinking it was a question
+of assassinating the king; the brother and sister were
+thrown into prison and only with great difficulty were they
+able to explain matters the next morning. From this incident
+Scribe drew the material for his drama, <i>L'Auberge ou
+les Brigands sans le Savoir</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the Hôtel de Rambouillet where Mlle. de Scudéry
+was received early, she won everyone by her modesty,
+simplicity, <i>esprit</i>, and lovable disposition, and, in spite of
+her homeliness and poor figure, she attracted many platonic
+lovers. She was one of the few brilliant and famous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>[pg 113]</span>
+women of the seventeenth century whose popularity was
+due solely to admirable qualities of mind and soul. With
+her, friendship became a cult, and it was in time of trouble
+that her friends received the strongest proof of her affection.
+She preferred to incur disgrace and the disfavor of
+Mazarin rather than forsake Condé and Madame de Longueville;
+to them she dedicated the ten volumes, successively,
+of her novel, <i>Cyrus</i>; the last volume was published after
+Mme. de Longueville's retirement and partial disgrace.</p>
+
+<p>After the brilliant society of the Hôtel de Rambouillet
+had been broken up by the marriage of Julie and the operations
+of the Fronde, and after her brother's marriage in
+1654, Mlle. de Scudéry became independent and established
+the custom of receiving her friends on Saturday; these
+receptions became famous under the name of <i>Samedi</i>, and
+besides the regular rather bourgeois gathering, the most
+brilliant talent and highest nobility flocked to them, regardless
+of rank or station, wealth or influence. Pellisson, the
+great master, the prince, the Apollo of her Saturdays, was
+a man of wonderfully inventive genius, and possessed in a
+higher degree than any of his contemporaries the art of inventing
+surprises for the society that lived on novelty.
+When, on account of his devotion to Fouquet, he was imprisoned
+in the Bastille, Mlle. de Scudéry managed to persuade
+Colbert to brighten his confinement by permitting
+him to see friends and relatives. Part of every day she
+spent in his prison, conversing and reading; and this is
+but one instance of her fidelity and friendship.</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Scudéry, considering all men as aspirants for authority
+who, when husbands, degenerate into tyrants, preferred
+to retain her independence. Her ideas on love were
+very peculiar and were innovations at the time: she wished
+to be loved, but her love must be friendship&mdash;a pure, platonic
+love, in which her lover must be her all, her confidant,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>[pg 114]</span>
+the participator in her sorrows and her conversation; and
+his happiness must be in her alone; he must, without feeling
+passion, love her for herself, and she must have the
+same feeling toward him. These sentiments are expressed
+in her novels, from which the following extracts are taken:</p>
+
+<p>"When friendship becomes love in the heart of a lover
+or when this love is mingled with friendship without
+destroying it, there is nothing so sweet as this kind of
+love; for as violent as it is, it is always held somewhat
+more in check than is ordinary love; it is more durable,
+more tender, more respectful, and even more ardent,
+although it is not subject to so many tumultuous caprices
+as is that love which arises without friendship. It can be
+said that love and friendship flow together like two streams,
+the more celebrated of which obscures the name of the
+other." ... "They agreed on even the conditions
+of their love; for Phaon solemnly promised Sapho (Mlle.
+de Scudéry)&mdash;who desired it thus&mdash;not to ask of her anything
+more than the possession of her heart, and she, also,
+promised him to receive only him in hers. They told each
+other all their thoughts, they understood them even without
+confessing them. Peace, however, was not so completely
+established that their affection could not become
+languishing or cool; for, although they loved each other as
+much as one can love, they at times complained of not
+being loved enough, and they had sufficient little difficulties
+to always leave something new to wish for; but they
+never had any troubles that were serious enough to essentially
+disturb their repose."</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Scudéry was mistress of the art of conversation,
+speaking without affectation and equally well on all
+affairs, serious, light, or gallant; she objected, however, to
+being called a <i>savante</i>, and she was far from resembling
+the false <i>précieuses</i> to whom she was likened by her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>[pg 115]</span>
+enemies. The occupations of her salon were somewhat
+different from those of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet.
+M. du Bled describes them as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"What they did in the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry you
+can guess readily: they amused themselves as at Mme.
+de Rambouillet's, they joked quite cheerfully, smiled
+and laughed, wrote farces in prose and poetry. There
+were readings, <i>loteries d'esprit</i>, sonnet-enigmas, <i>bouts-rimés</i>
+(rhymes given to be formed into verse), <i>vers-échos</i>, fine
+literary joustings, discussions between the casuists. This
+salon had its talkers and speakers, those who tyrannized
+over the audience and those who charmed it, those who
+shot off fireworks and those who prepared them, those
+who had made a symphony of conversation and those who
+made of it a monologue and had no flashes of silence.
+They did not follow fashion there&mdash;they rather made it; in
+art and literature as in toilets, smallness follows the fashion,
+pretension exaggerates it, taste makes a compact with it."</p>
+
+<p>A specimen of the <i>énigme-sonnets</i> may be of interest, to
+show in what intellectual playfulness and trivialities these wits indulged:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"Souvent, quoique léger, je lasse qui me porte.</p>
+<p>Un mot de ma façon vaut un ample discours.</p>
+<p>J'ai sous Louis le Grand commencé d'avoir cours,</p>
+<p>Mince, long, plat, étroit, d'une étoffe peu forte.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Les doigts les moins savants me taillent de la sorte;</p>
+<p>Sous mille noms divers je parais tous les jours;</p>
+<p>Aux valets étourdis je suis d'un grand secours.</p>
+<p>Le Louvre ne voit point ma figure à sa porte.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Une grossière main vient la plupart du temps</p>
+<p>Me prendre de la main des plus honnêtes gens.</p>
+<p>Civil, officieux, je suis né pour la ville.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Dans le plus rude hiver j'ai le dos toujours nu:</p>
+<p>Et, quoique fort commode, à peine m'a-t-on vu,</p>
+<p>Qu'ausitôt négligé, je deviens inutile."</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>[pg 116]</span>
+
+<p>[Often, although light, I weary the person who carries
+me. A word in my manner is worth a whole discourse.
+I began under Louis the Great to be in vogue,&mdash;slight,
+long, flat, narrow, of a very slight material.</p>
+
+<p>The most unskilled fingers cut me in their way; under a
+thousand different forms I appear every day; I am a great
+aid to the astonished valets. The Louvre does not see my face at its door.</p>
+
+<p>A coarse hand most of the time receives me from the
+hand of the nicest people. Civil, officious, I am born for the city.</p>
+
+<p>In the coldest weather, my back is always bare; and,
+although quite convenient, scarcely have they seen me,
+when I am neglected and useless.&mdash;Visiting card.]</p>
+
+<p>A more interesting one and one that caused no little amusement is the following:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"Je suis niais et fin, honnête et malhonnête,</p>
+<p>Moins sincère à la cour qu'en un simple taudis.</p>
+<p>Je fais d'un air plaisant trembler les plus hardis,</p>
+<p>Le fort me laisse aller, le sage m'arrête.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"A personne sans moi l'on ne fait jamais fête:</p>
+<p>J'embellis quelquefois, quelquefois, j'enlaidis.</p>
+<p>Je dédaigne tantôt, tantôt j'applaudis;</p>
+<p>Pour m'avoir en partage, il faut n'être pas bête.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Plus mon trône est petit, plus il a de beauté.</p>
+<p>Je l'agrandis pourtant d'un et d'autre côté,</p>
+<p>Faisant voir bien souvent des défauts dont on jase.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Je quitte mon éclat quand je suis sans témoins,</p>
+<p>Et je me puis vanter enfin d'être la chose</p>
+<p>Qui contente le plus et qui coûte le moins."</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>[I am both stupid and bright, honest and dishonest; less
+sincere at court than in a simple hovel; with a pleasant
+air, I make the boldest tremble, the strong let me pass, the wise stop me.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>[pg 117]</span>
+
+<p>There is no joy to anyone without me; I embellish at
+times, at times I distort; I disdain and I applaud; to share
+me, one must not be stupid.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller my throne, the greater my beauty; I enlarge
+it, however, on both sides, often showing defects which are made sport of.</p>
+
+<p>I leave my brilliancy when I am without witness, and I
+can boast of being the thing which contents the most and
+costs the least.&mdash;A smile.]</p>
+
+<p>Critics often reproach Mlle. de Scudéry for having portrayed
+herself&mdash;as Sapho&mdash;in a flattering light in her novel
+<i>Cyrus</i>; but it must be remembered that at that time this
+was a common custom, women of the highest quality
+indulging in such pastimes, there even being a prominent
+salon where verbal portraiture was the sole occupation.
+No one has written more or better on the condition of
+woman, for she, above all, had the experience upon which
+to base her writings. The idea of woman's education and
+aim, which was generally entertained by the intelligent
+and modest women of the seventeenth century, is well
+expressed by Mlle. de Scudéry in the following:</p>
+
+<p>"The difficulty of knowing something with seemliness
+does not come to a woman so much from what she knows
+as from what others do not know; and it is, without doubt,
+singularity that makes it difficult to be as others are not,
+without being exposed to blame. Seriously, is not the
+ordinary idea of the education of women a peculiar one?
+They are not to be coquettes nor gallants, and yet they
+are carefully taught all that is peculiar to gallantry without
+being permitted to know anything that can strengthen
+their virtue or occupy their minds. Don't imagine, however,
+that I do not wish woman to be elegant, to dance or
+to sing; but I should like to see as much care devoted to
+her mind as to her body, and between being ignorant and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>[pg 118]</span>
+<i>savante</i> I should like to see a road taken which would prevent
+annoyance from an impertinent sufficiency or from a
+tiresome stupidity. I should like very much to be able to
+say of anyone of my sex that she knows a hundred things
+of which she does not boast, that she has a well-balanced
+mind, that she speaks well, writes correctly, and knows
+the world; but I do not wish it to be said of her that she
+is a <i>femme savante</i>. The best women of the world when
+they are together in a large number rarely say anything
+that is worth anything and are more ennuyé than if they
+were alone; on the contrary, there is something that I
+cannot express, which makes it possible for men to enliven
+and divert a company of ladies more than the most amiable
+woman on earth could do."</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Scudéry considered marriage a long slavery
+and preferred virtuous celibacy enlivened by platonic gallantry.
+When youth and adorers had passed away, she
+found consolation in interchanges of wit, congenial conversation,
+and the cultivation of the mind by study. Making
+of love a doctrine, a manual of morals or <i>savoir-vivre</i>, has
+had a refining effect upon civilization; but the process
+has rendered the emotion itself too subtle, select, narrow,
+enervating, and exhausting; it has resulted in the production
+of splendid books with heroes and heroines of the
+higher type, and has purified the atmosphere of social life;
+this phase of its influence, however, is felt by only a set
+of the élite, and its adherents are scattered through every
+age and every country. Mlle. de Scudéry was a perfect
+representative of that type, but healthy and normal rather
+than morbidly æsthetic.</p>
+
+<p>An opposition party soon arose, formed by those, especially,
+who entertained different ideas of the sphere and
+duties of woman. Just as the type of the salon of Mme. de
+Rambouillet degenerated among the aristocracy into those
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>[pg 119]</span>
+of the Hôtel de Condé, Mme. de Sablé, and Mlle. de Luxembourg,
+so the type of the salon of Mlle. de Scudéry gave
+rise to a number of literary salons among the <i>bourgeoisie</i>.
+The aim of the latter institutions was to imitate her example
+in endeavoring to spread the taste for courtesy, elegant
+manners and the higher forms of learning; all these aspirations,
+however, drifted into mere affectation, while the
+requisites of welcome at the original salon were simplicity,
+freedom from affectation, delicacy, amiability, and dignity.</p>
+
+<p>As a writer, Mlle. de Scudéry occupies no mean position
+in the history of French literature of the seventeenth
+century. Her descriptions and anecdotes possess a wonderful
+charm and display unusual power of analysis; in
+them, Victor Cousin recognizes a truly virile spirit. In the
+history of the French novel, she forms a transition period,
+her productions having both a psychological interest and
+a historical value of a very high degree. Through her
+finesse and marvellous feminine penetration, her truthful,
+delicate and fine portraitures, which were widely imitated
+later, she has exerted an extensive influence.</p>
+
+<p>With Mlle. de Scudéry "we have substance, real character
+painting, true psychological penetration, and realism
+in observation," while previously the novel, under such
+men as Gomberville and La Calprenède, was imaginative
+and full of fancy. Her talent, then, in that field, lay in
+the analysis and development of sentiments, in delineation
+of character, in the creation and reproduction of refined
+and ingenious conversations, and in her reflections on subjects
+pertaining to morality and literature&mdash;in all of which
+she displayed justness and entire liberty and independence
+of thought. Her poetry, delicate compliment or innocent
+gallantries, was a mere bagatelle of the salon.</p>
+
+<p>Charming as well as accomplished, Mlle. de Scudéry
+was as intelligent, witty, and intellectual a woman as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>[pg 120]</span>
+could be found in the seventeenth century; and in the
+history of that period she retains an undisputed position
+as one of its great leaders of thought and progress. Her
+salon, inasmuch as the salon of Mme. de Lambert was not
+opened until 1710, and therefore the discussion of it belongs
+properly to the beginning of the eighteenth century,
+really closes the literary progress of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the seventeenth century salon was of
+a threefold nature&mdash;literary, moral, and social. According
+to the salon conception, artistic, literary, or musical pleasure
+being derived from form and mode of expression, it
+possessed a special and unique interest in proportion to
+the efforts made and the difficulties surmounted in attaining
+that form and expression: thus, woman introduced a new standard of excellence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Préciosité</i> treated language not as a work of art, but as a
+medium for the display of individual linguistic dexterity;
+giving no thing its proper name, it delighted in paraphrase,
+allusion, word play, unexpected comparisons and abundance
+of metaphors, and revelled in the elusive, delicate,
+subtle, and complex. Hence conversation turned constantly
+to love and gallantry; thus woman developed to
+a wonderful degree, unattainable to but few, the art
+of conversation, politeness and courtesy of manners, and
+social relations, at the same time purifying language and enriching it.</p>
+
+<p>French women of the seventeenth century are condemned
+for having treated serious things too lightly; and
+it is said that "in confining the French mind to the observation
+of society and its attractions, she has restricted and
+retarded a more realistic and larger activity." In answer
+to this it may be asserted that the French mind was not
+prepared for a broader field until it had passed through the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>[pg 121]</span>
+process of expurgating, refining, drilling, and disciplining.
+If <i>préciosité</i> influenced politics, it was by developing diplomacy,
+for, from the time that this spirit began to spread,
+French diplomacy became world-renowned.</p>
+
+<p>The social influence of the movement may be better
+appreciated by considering the condition of woman in
+earlier periods. Having practically no position except that
+of housewife or mother, she was merely a source of pleasure
+for man, for whom she had little or no respect. The
+<i>précieuses</i>, on the contrary, exacted respect, honor, and a
+place beside man, as rights that belonged to them.</p>
+
+<p>As the outcome of their desire to think, feel, and act
+with greater delicacy, women introduced propriety in expression,
+finesse in analysis, keenness of <i>esprit</i>, psychological
+subtleness: qualities that surely tended to higher
+standards of morality, purer social relations, finer and more
+subtle diplomacy, more elegance and precision in literature.
+Therefore, <i>préciosité</i> in France had a wholesome influence,
+which was possible because woman had won for herself
+her rightful position, and her aspirations were toward social
+and moral elevation.</p>
+
+<p>In general, the women of France have always been conscious
+of their duty, their importance, and their limitations,
+appreciating their power and cultivating the characteristics
+that attract man and retain his respect and attention:
+sociability, morality, <i>esprit</i>, artistic appreciation, sensitiveness,
+tact. These qualities became manifest to a remarkable
+degree in French women of the seventeenth century,
+and created in every writer, great or unimportant, the
+desire to win their favor. Thus, Corneille strove to write
+dramas with which he might establish the reign of decency
+on a stage the liberties of which had previously made the
+theatre inaccessible to woman; hence, his characters of
+humanity (Cid) and politeness (Menteur).</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>[pg 122]</span>
+
+<p>The purpose of the French Academy itself was not different
+from that of the <i>précieuses</i>. Richelieu, realizing that
+every great talent accepted the discipline of these women,
+sought to use this power for his own ends by interesting
+the world of letters in the accomplishment of his plans for
+a general political unity. Thus, when the first period of
+<i>préciosité</i> had reached its highest point and was beginning
+to decline, and other smaller and envious social groups
+were forming about Paris and causing a conflict of ideas,
+Richelieu conceived the scheme of joining all in a union,
+with strong ideals and with a language as dignified as the
+Latin and the Greek. The result was the formation of
+the French Academy. From this time begins the decline
+of the authority of woman; for while she still exerted a
+powerful influence, it was no longer absolute. After the
+decline of the Hôtel de Rambouillet, feminine influence
+became more general, expending itself in petty rivalries,
+gossip, intrigues, and partaking of the nature of that court
+life which was filled by the young king with parties, feasts,
+collations, walks, carousals, boating, concerts, ballets, and
+masquerades&mdash;a mode of living that gave rise to a new
+standard of politeness, which was freer and looser than
+that of <i>préciosité</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As the power of the young king became stronger, his
+favor became the goal of all men of letters. Although
+woman still to some extent controlled the destinies of those
+who were struggling for recognition and reputation, her
+influence was of a secondary nature, that of the king being
+supreme. Woman seemed to be overcoming the influence
+of woman&mdash;Mme. de Montespan replaced Mlle. de La Vallière,
+and she was in turn replaced by Mme. de Maintenon.</p>
+
+<p>The degeneration of the king was accompanied by that
+of literature, society, and morals. The characteristic
+inclination of the day was eagerly to seek and grasp that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>[pg 123]</span>
+which was new, and the noble, forceful, and dignified style
+of language of the previous period was replaced by one of
+much lighter description; many female writers directed
+their efforts entirely toward amusing, pleasing, and gaining applause.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of the eighteenth century, with Mme.
+de Lambert as its leader, there was a renascence of the
+<i>préciosité</i> of the Hôtel de Rambouillet, women protesting
+against the prevalent grossness and indecency of manners.
+The salon of Mme. de Lambert was the great antechamber
+to the Academy, election to which was generally gained
+through her. A new aristocracy was forming, a new
+society arose; from about 1720 to 1750, libertinism and
+atheism, licentiousness and intrigue, crept into the salons.</p>
+
+<p>The new aristocracy was of doubtful and impure source,
+cynical in manner, unbridled in habits, over-fastidious in
+taste, and politically powerful. In this society woman
+began to be felt as a political force. M. Brunetière said:
+"Mme. de Lambert made Academicians; the Marquise de
+Prie made a queen of France; Mme. de Tencin made cardinals
+and ambassadors." Montesquieu wrote: "There
+is not a person who has any employment at the court in
+Paris or in the provinces, who has not the influence (and
+sometimes the injustices which she can cause) of a woman
+through whom all favors pass;" and M. Brunetière added:
+"This woman is not his wife." The popular spirit in
+literature was one of subtleness, irony, superficial observations
+on manners and customs. From the beginning of
+the eighteenth century up to the eve of the Revolution,
+woman's influence continued to increase, but that influence
+was mainly in the direction of politics. Thus, in
+every period in French history, a group of women effectively
+moulds French thought and language, and directs
+intellectual activity in general.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>[pg 124]</span>
+
+<p>After the death of Louis XIV., society passed under the
+rule of the regent, the Duke of Orléans&mdash;the personification
+of gallantry and affability, of depravity which was a
+mania, and of licentiousness which was a disease. From
+this atmosphere the salon of Mme. de Lambert became a
+refuge to those who still cherished the ideals of the good
+old times of Mme. de Rambouillet; it was distinguished by
+its refined sentiment and polished manners, which were
+like those of the seventeenth century at its best.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Lambert believed that the demands of the time
+were just the opposite of those of the seventeenth century:
+"What a multitude of tastes nowadays&mdash;the table, play,
+theatre! When money and luxury are supreme, true
+honor loses its power. Persons seek only those houses
+where shameful luxury reigns." In her own salon, none
+might enter who were not of the small number of the elect.</p>
+
+<p>Very little is known of the life of Mme. de Lambert.
+She was born in 1647, and, in spite of the unfavorable
+surroundings of her youth and of a dissolute, extravagant,
+and unrefined mother, the observance of decorum and
+honor became the actuating principle of her life. Until
+her marriage (in 1666) to Henri de Lambert, Marquis de
+Bris en Auxerrois, she was in the midst of the grossest
+licentiousness and freedom of manners; when married,
+she entered a family the very opposite of her own.</p>
+
+<p>She was a woman who believed in the power of ambitious
+energy. To her son she once said: "Nothing is
+less becoming to a young man than a certain modesty that
+makes him believe that he is not capable of great things.
+This modesty is a languor of the soul, which prevents it
+from soaring and rapidly carrying itself to glory."</p>
+
+<p>At first she lived in the Hôtel de Lambert (in the
+Ile Saint-Louis), renowned for its splendidly sculptured
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>[pg 125]</span>
+decorations, painted ceilings, panels, and staircases. Her
+famous Salon des Muses and Cabinet d'Amours were filled
+with the finest works of art and the most exquisite paintings.
+There the élite of all classes were entertained until
+the death of her husband (1686), when the hôtel was
+closed; it was not reopened until 1710.</p>
+
+<p>Though left with immense wealth, her affairs were in a
+very complicated state. While actively employed in untangling
+her difficulties, she at the same time superintended
+the education of her son and daughter. After long and trying
+lawsuits, she managed to put her fortune in order and
+established herself at Paris, where the Duc de Nevers
+ceded to her, for life, a large portion of the magnificently
+furnished Palais Mazarin, now the National Library. On
+the completion of her work in remodelling this palace and
+furnishing it with the most costly and beautiful panel
+paintings by Watteau and other artists, she inaugurated
+her Tuesday and Wednesday dinner parties.</p>
+
+<p>One remarkable characteristic of her company was the
+age of her intimate associates&mdash;the Marquis de Saint-Aulaire,
+Fontenelle, Mme. Dacier, and her husband, Louis
+de Sacy, all of whom, as well as Mme. de Lambert herself,
+had passed threescore and more; but they still kept alive
+the cherished memories of the brilliant society of their
+youth. Mme. de Lambert did not personally know Mme.
+de Rambouillet, but she visited the latter's daughter, Julie
+d'Angennes, from whom she learned the customs and
+etiquette in vogue at the Hôtel de Rambouillet.</p>
+
+<p>The Wednesday dinners of Mme. de Lambert were to
+her intimate friends, while every Tuesday afternoon she
+received a general circle which indulged in general conversation
+and read and discussed books which were
+about to be published; gambling, which seemed to be the
+principal means of entertaining in those days, had no place
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>[pg 126]</span>
+there. Fontenelle says: "It was, with very few exceptions,
+the only house which had been preserved from the
+epidemic of gambling&mdash;the only house where persons congregated
+simply for the sake of talking sensibly and with
+<i>esprit</i>. Those who had their reasons for considering it bad
+taste that conversation was still carried on in any place,
+cast mean reflections, whenever they could, against the
+house of Mme. de Lambert." In the evening, she received
+only a few select friends with whom she talked seriously.
+Her salon soon became the envy of those who were not
+admitted (and they were numerous), and was the object
+of many calumnies and attacks.</p>
+
+<p>During this time she found leisure to write two treatises
+of practical morality, <i>Avis d'une mère à son fils</i>, and <i>Avis
+d'une mère à sa fille</i>, which appeared without her permission.
+The manuscripts, lent to friends, fell into the hands of
+a publisher; and although the authoress endeavored to prevent
+the distribution of the works by buying up the entire
+editions, they were published outside of France. The two
+works written to her children form an important contribution
+to the educational literature of the time; in them the
+religion of the eighteenth century is first defined.</p>
+
+<p>"Above all these duties&mdash;civil and human (says the
+mother to her son)&mdash;is the duty you owe to the Supreme
+Being. Religion is a commerce established between God
+and man through the grace of God to man and through the
+duty of man to God. Elevated souls have for their God
+sentiments and a cult apart, which do not resemble at all
+those of the people; everything issues from the heart and goes to God."</p>
+
+<p>In these works, she attacked also the fad of free-thinking
+in vogue among the young men of the time. She was one
+of the few women of that age who could not separate
+themselves from reason and thought, even in religion; the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>[pg 127]</span>
+latter was a matter for the reason and the intellect to
+decide, and was thus an elevated product of the mind
+rather than an instinct coming from the heart, or a positive
+revelation as it was in the seventeenth century. In
+this view, Madame de Lambert indicated the beginning of
+the later eighteenth-century spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Lambert taught her children to be satisfied
+with nothing but the highest attainable object. She advised
+her son to choose his friends from among men above
+him, in order to accustom himself to respectful and polite
+demeanor; "with his equals he might cultivate negligence
+and his mind might become dull." She desired her children
+to think differently from the people&mdash;"Those who think
+lowly and commonly, and the court is filled with such." To
+their servants they were to be good and kind, for humanity
+and Christianity make all equal. She was the first to use
+those words, "humanity" and "equality," which later became
+the bywords of everyone, and the first to teach that
+conscience is the best guide. "Conscience is defined as
+that interior sentiment of a delicate honor which assures you
+that you have nothing with which to reproach yourself."</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the most important and lasting effect of Mme.
+de Lambert's influence resulted from the expression of her
+ideas on the education of young women who "are destined
+to please, and are given lessons only in methods of
+delighting and pleasing." She was convinced that in order
+to resist temptation and be normal, women must be educated,
+must learn to think. Her counsels to her daughter
+are remarkable for an unusual insight into the temperament
+of her sex and for an extreme fear that makes her call to
+her aid all precautions and resources. She thus advises her daughter:</p>
+
+<p>"Try to find resources within yourself&mdash;this is a revenue
+of certain pleasures. Do not believe that your only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>[pg 128]</span>
+virtue is modesty; there are many women who know no
+other virtue, and who imagine that it relieves them of all
+duties toward society; they believe they are right in lacking
+all others and think themselves privileged to be proud
+and slanderous with impunity. You must have a gentle
+modesty; a good woman may have the advantages of a
+man's friendship without abandoning honesty and faithfulness
+to her duties. Nothing is so difficult as to please
+without the use of what seems like coquettishness. It is
+more often by their defects than by their good qualities
+that women please men; men seek to profit by the weaknesses
+of good and kind women, for whose virtues they
+care nothing, and they prefer to be amused by persons
+not very estimable than to be forced merely to admire virtuous persons."</p>
+
+<p>This is a most faithful description of the society of her
+time, and it was because her treatises struck home that
+they were severely criticised; but, nothing daunted, she
+carried out her plans in her own way, resorting neither to
+intrigue nor artifice. Many of her sayings became household
+maxims, such as&mdash;"It is not always faults that undo
+us; it is the manner of conducting ourselves after having committed them."</p>
+
+<p>Her reflections on women might be called the great plea,
+at the end of the seventeenth century, for woman's right
+to use her reason. After the severe and cruel satire of
+Molière, attacking women for their innocent amusements,
+they gave themselves up entirely to pleasure. "Mme. de
+Lambert now wrote to avenge her sex and demand for it
+the honest and strong use of the mind; and this was done
+in the midst of the wild orgies of the Regency."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Lambert was not a rare beauty, but she possessed
+recompensing charms. M. Colombey asserts that
+she became convinced of two things, about which she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>[pg 129]</span>
+became highly enthusiastic: first, that woman was more
+reasonable than man; secondly, that M. Fontenelle, who
+presided over or filled the functions of president of her
+salon, was always in the right. He was indeed in harmony
+with the tone of the salon, being considered the most
+polished, brilliant, and distinguished member of the intellectual
+society of Paris, as well as one of the most talented
+drawing room philosophers. He made the salon of Mme.
+de Lambert the most sought for and celebrated, the most
+intellectual and moral of the period.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Lambert has, possibly, exercised more influence
+upon men&mdash;and especially upon the Forty Immortals
+of her time&mdash;than did any woman before or after her.
+The Marquis d'Argenson states that "a person was seldom
+received at the Academy unless first presented at her
+salon. It is certain that she made at least half of our actual Academicians."</p>
+
+<p>Her salon was called a <i>bureau d'esprit</i>, which was due
+to the fact that it was about the only social gathering
+point where culture and morality were the primary requisites.
+As she advanced in years, she became even more
+influential. After her death in 1733, her salon ceased to
+exist, but others, patterned after hers, soon sprang up;
+to those, her friends attached themselves&mdash;Fontenelle frequented
+several, Hénault became the leader of that of Mme. du Deffand.</p>
+
+<p>The finest résumé that can be given of Mme. de Lambert,
+is found in the letters of the Marquis d'Argenson:
+"Her works contain a complete course in the most perfect
+morals for the use of the world and the present time.
+Some affectation of the <i>préciosité</i> is found; but, what beautiful
+thoughts, what delicate sentiments! How well she
+speaks of the duties of women, of friendship, of old age, of
+the difference between actual character and reputation!"</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>[pg 130]</span>
+
+<p>The salon of Mme. de Lambert forms a period of transition
+from the seventeenth century type in which elegance,
+politeness, courtesy, and morality were the first requisites,
+to the eighteenth century salon in which <i>esprit</i> and wit
+were the essentials demanded. It retained the dignity,
+discipline, refinement, and sentiments of morality of the
+Hôtel de Rambouillet; it showed, also, the first signs of
+pure intellectuality. The salons to follow, will exhibit
+decidedly different characteristics.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>[pg 131]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter V</h2>
+
+<h2>Mistresses and Wives of Louis XIV</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>[pg 133]</span>
+
+
+<p>The story of the wives and mistresses of Louis XIV.,
+embraces that which is most dramatic morally (or immorally
+dramatic) in the history of French women. The record
+of the eighteenth century heroines is essentially a tragic
+one, while that of those of the previous century is essentially
+dramatic in its sadness, remorse, and repentance.</p>
+
+<p>The mistress, as a rule, was unhappy; there were few
+months during the period of her glory, in which she was
+entirely free from anxiety or in which her conscience
+was at rest. Mme. de Montespan "was for so many
+years the sick nurse of a soul worn out with pride, passion,
+and glory." Mme. de Maintenon wrote to one of
+her friends: "Why cannot I give you my experience?
+Why cannot I make you comprehend the ennui which
+devours the great, and the troubles that fill their days?
+Do you not see that I am dying of sadness, in a fortune
+the vastness of which could not be easily imagined? I
+have been young and pretty; I have enjoyed pleasures;
+I have spent years in intellectual intercourse; I have
+attained favor; and I protest to you, my dear child, that
+all such conditions leave a frightful void." She said, also,
+to her brother, Count d'Aubigné: "I can hold out no longer;
+I would like to be dead." It was she too, who, after her
+successes, made her confession thus: "One atones heavily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>[pg 134]</span>
+for the pleasures and intoxications of youth. I find, in
+looking back at my life, that since the age of twenty-two&mdash;which
+was the beginning of my fortune&mdash;I have not
+had a moment free from sufferings which have constantly increased."</p>
+
+<p>M. Saint-Amand gives a description of the women of
+Louis XV. which well applies to those of his predecessor:
+"These pretended mistresses, who, in reality, are only
+slaves, seem to present themselves, one after the other,
+like humble penitents who come to make their apologies
+to history, and, like the primitive Christians, to reveal
+publicly the miseries, vexations, and remorses of their
+souls. They tell us to what their doleful successes
+amounted: even while their triumphal chariot made its
+way through a crowd of flatterers, their consciences hissed
+cruel accusations into their ears; like actresses before a
+whimsical and variable public, they were always afraid
+that the applause might change into an uproar, and it was
+with terror underlying their apparent coolness that they
+continued to play their sorry part.... If among
+these mistresses of the king there were a single one who
+had enjoyed her shameful triumphs in peace, who had
+called herself happy in the midst of her dearly bought
+luxury and splendor, one might have concluded that, from
+a merely human point of view, it is possible to find happiness
+in vice. But, no&mdash;there is not even one!" Massillon,
+the great preacher of truth and morality, said: "The worm
+of conscience is not dead; it is only benumbed. The
+alienated reason presently returns, bringing with it bitter
+troubles, gloomy thoughts, and cruel anxieties"&mdash;a true
+picture of every mistress.</p>
+
+<p>The remarkable power and influence of these women,
+the love and adoration accorded them, ceased with their
+death; the memory of them did not survive overnight.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>[pg 135]</span>
+When, during a terrible storm, the remains of the glorious
+Mme. de Pompadour were being taken to Paris, the king,
+seeing the funeral cortége from his window, remarked:
+"The Marquise will not have fine weather for her journey."</p>
+
+<p>Each one of these powerful mistresses represents a
+complete epoch of society, morals, and customs. Mme.
+de Montespan&mdash;that woman whose very look meant fortune
+or disfavor&mdash;with all her wit and wealth, her magnificence
+and pomp and superb beauty&mdash;she, in all her
+splendor, is a type of the triumphant France, haughty,
+dictatorial, scornful and proud, licentious and decayed at
+the core. Voluptuousness and haughtiness were replaced
+by religiosity and repentance in Mme. de Maintenon, with
+her temperate character, consistency, and propriety.</p>
+
+<p>The Regency was a period of scandal and wantonness,
+personified in the Duchess of Berry. The licentious and
+extravagant, yet brilliant and exquisite, frivolous but
+charming, intriguing and diplomatic, was represented by
+the talented and politically influential Mme. de Pompadour.
+Complete degeneracy, vice with all manner of disguise
+thrown off, adultery of the lowest order, were personified
+in the common Mme. du Barry, who might be classed with
+Louise of Savoy of the sixteenth century, while Mme. de
+Pompadour might be compared with Diana of Poitiers.</p>
+
+<p>In this period the queens of France were of little importance,
+being too timid and modest to assert their rights&mdash;a
+disposition which was due sometimes to their restricted
+youth, spent in Catholic countries, sometimes to a naturally
+unassuming and sensitive nature. To this rule Maria
+Theresa, the wife of Louis XIV., was no exception. She
+inherited her sweetness of disposition and her Christian
+character from her mother, Isabella of France, the daughter
+of Henry IV. and Marie de' Medici. She was pure and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>[pg 136]</span>
+candid; a type of irreproachable piety and goodness, of
+conjugal tenderness and maternal love; and recompensed
+outraged morality for all the false pride, selfish ambition,
+depravity, and scandals of court. She is conspicuous as a
+model wife, one that loved her husband, her family, and her children.</p>
+
+<p>Around Maria Theresa may be grouped the noble and
+virtuous women of the court of Louis XIV., for she was
+to that age what Claude of France was under Francis I.,
+Elizabeth of Austria under Charles V., Louise de Vaudemont
+under Henry III. However, in extolling these women,
+it must be remembered that they had not, as queens, the
+opportunity to participate in debauchery, licentiousness,
+and intrigue, as had the mistresses of their husbands; they
+had no power, were not consulted on state or social affairs,
+and had granted to them only those favors to the conferring
+of which the mistresses did not object.</p>
+
+<p>Maria Theresa was a perfect example of the self-sacrificing
+mother and devoted wife. Her feelings toward the
+king are best expressed by the Princesse Palatine: "She
+had such an affection for the king that she tried to read in
+his eyes whatever would give him pleasure; providing he
+looked kindly at her, she was happy all day." Mme. de
+Caylus wrote: "That poor princess had such a dread of
+the king and such great natural timidity that she dared
+neither to speak to him nor to run the risk of a tête-à-tête
+with him. One day, I heard Mme. de Maintenon say that
+the king having sent for the queen, the latter requested
+her to go with her so that she might not appear alone in
+his presence: but that she (Mme. de Maintenon) conducted
+her only to the door of the room and there took the liberty
+of pushing her so as to make her enter, and that she observed
+such a great trembling in her whole person that her
+very hands shook with fright."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>[pg 137]</span>
+
+<p>From about 1680, especially after the death of Mlle. de
+Fontanges, his last mistress, Louis XIV. began to look
+with disfavor upon the women of doubtful morality and to
+advance those who were noted for their conjugal fidelity.
+He became more attentive to the queen&mdash;a change of attitude
+which was due partly to the influence of Mme. de
+Maintenon and partly to the fact that he was satiated with
+the excesses of his debauches, by which his physical system
+had been almost wrecked. He would not have dared
+to legitimatize his bastard children, had he not been so
+thoroughly idolized by his greatest heroes and most powerful
+ministers. As an illustration, it may be remarked
+that the Great Condé proposed the marriage of his son to
+the king's daughter by Mlle. de La Vallière.</p>
+
+<p>The queen became so religious that she derived more
+enjoyment from praying at the convents or visiting hospitals
+than from remaining at her magnificent apartments.
+She waited upon the sick with her own hands and carried
+food to them; she never meddled in political affairs or took
+much interest in social functions.</p>
+
+<p>Timidity, an instinctive shrinking from the slanders,
+calumnies, and intrigues of the court, appeared to be the
+most pronounced characteristic of queens who seemed to
+believe themselves too inferior to their husbands to dare
+to offer any political counsel. While none of them were
+superior intellectually, they possessed dignity, good sense,
+and tact, "a reverential feeling for the sanctity of religion
+and the majesty of the throne," an admirable resignation,
+a painful docility and submission&mdash;qualities which might
+have been turned to the advantage of their owners and
+the state, had the former been more self-assertive.</p>
+
+<p>The infidelities of their husbands caused the queen-consorts
+constant torture; they were forced to behold the
+kings' favorites becoming part of their own households
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>[pg 138]</span>
+and were compelled to endure the presence, as ladies in
+waiting, of those who, as their rivals, caused them to
+suffer all possible torments of jealousy and outraged conjugal love.</p>
+
+<p>First among the mistresses of Louis XIV. was Mlle. de
+La Vallière, whom Sainte-Beuve mentions as the personification
+of the ideal of a lover, combining disinterestedness,
+fidelity, unique and delicate tenderness with a touching
+and sincere kindness. When, at the age of seventeen,
+she was presented at court, the king immediately selected
+her as one of his victims. Her beauty was so striking, of
+such an exquisitely tender type, that no woman actually
+rivalled her as queen of beauty. Distinguished by blond
+hair, dark blue eyes, a most sympathetic voice, and a
+complexion of rare whiteness mingled with red, she was
+guileless, animated, gentle, modest, graceful, unaffected,
+and ingenuous; although slightly lame, she was, by everyone,
+considered charming.</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de La Vallière was the mother of several children
+of whom Louis XIV. was the father. On realizing that
+she had rivals in the favor of the sovereign, she fled several
+times from the Tuileries to the convent; on her
+second return, the king, about to go to battle, recognized
+his daughter by her, whom he made a duchess. Remorse
+overcame the mistress so deeply that she, for the third
+and final time, left court. Especially on the rise to power
+of Mme. de Montespan was she painfully humiliated, suffering
+the most intense pangs of conscience. The evening
+before her final departure to the convent, she dined with
+Mme. de Montespan, to drink "the cup to the dregs and
+to enjoy the rejection of the world even to the last remains of its bitterness."</p>
+
+<p>Guizot describes this period most vividly: "When
+Mme. de Montespan began to supplant her in the king's
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>[pg 139]</span>
+favor, the grief of Mlle. de La Vallière was so great that
+she thought she would die of it. Then she turned to God,
+penitent and in despair; twice she sought refuge in a convent
+at Chaillot. On leaving, she sent word to the king:
+'After having lost the honor of your good graces I would
+have left the court sooner, if I could have prevailed upon
+myself never to see you again; but that weakness was so
+strong in me that hardly now am I capable of sacrificing
+it to God. After having given you all my youth, the remainder
+of my life is not too much for the care of my
+salvation.'" The king still clung to her. "He sent
+M. Colbert to beg her earnestly to come to Versailles
+that he might speak with her. M. Colbert escorted her
+thither and the king conversed for an hour with her and
+wept bitterly. Mme. de Montespan was there to meet
+her, with open arms and tears in her eyes." "It is all
+incomprehensible," adds Mme. de Sévigné; "some say
+that she will remain at Versailles and at court, others that
+she will return to Chaillot; we shall see."</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de La Vallière remained three years at court, "half
+penitent," she said, humbly, detained by the king's express
+wish, in consequence of the tempers and jealousies
+of Mme. de Montespan who felt herself judged and condemned
+by her rival's repentance. Attempts were made
+to turn Mlle. de La Vallière from her inclination for the
+Carmelites': "Madame," said Mme. Scarron to her, one
+day, "here are you one blaze of gold; have you really
+considered that, before long, at the Carmelites' you will
+have to wear serge?" She, however, was not to be dissuaded
+from her determination and was already practising,
+in secret, the austerities of the convent. "God has laid
+in this heart the foundation of great things," said Bossuet,
+who supported her in her conflict; "the world puts great
+hindrances in her way, and God great mercies; I have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>[pg 140]</span>
+hopes that God will prevail; the uprightness of her heart
+will carry everything before it."</p>
+
+<p>"When I am in trouble at the Carmelites'," said Mlle.
+de La Vallière, as for the last time she quitted the court,
+"I shall think of what those people have made me suffer."
+"The world itself makes us sick of the world,"
+said Bossuet in the sermon which he preached on the day
+she took the veil; "its attractions have enough of illusion,
+its favors enough of inconstancy, its rebuffs enough
+of bitterness. There is enough of bitterness, enough of
+injustice and perfidy in the dealings of men, enough of inconsistency
+and capriciousness in their intractable and
+contradictory humors&mdash;there is enough of it all, to disgust us."</p>
+
+<p>When, in 1675, she took the final vows, she cut off her
+beautiful hair and devoted herself to the church and to
+charity, receiving the veil from the queen, whose forgiveness
+she sought before entering the convent. The king
+showed himself to be such a jealous lover, that when
+Mlle. de La Vallière entirely abandoned him for God,
+he forgot her absolutely, never going to the convent to see her.</p>
+
+<p>She was by far the most interesting and pathetic of the
+three mistresses of Louis XIV.; her heart was superior to
+that of either of her successors, though her mind was
+inferior; she belonged to a different atmosphere&mdash;such
+kindness, charity, penitence, resignation, and absolute
+abandonment to God were rare among the conspicuous
+French women. Sainte-Beuve says: "She loved for love,
+without haughtiness, coquetry, arrogance, ambitious designs,
+self-interest, or vanity; she suffered and sacrificed
+everything, humiliated herself to expiate her wrong-doing,
+and finally surrendered herself to God, seeking in
+prayer the treasures of energy and tenderness; through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>[pg 141]</span>
+her heart, her mental powers attained their complete development."</p>
+
+<p>The fate of Mlle. de La Vallière was the same as that
+of nearly all royal mistresses; abandoned and absolutely
+forgotten by her lover, she sought refuge and consolation
+in religion and God's mercy. "She was dead to me the
+day she entered the Carmelites'," said the king, thirty-five
+years later, when the modest and fervent nun at last
+expired, in 1710, without having ever relaxed the severities of her penance.</p>
+
+<p>Of an entirely different type from Mlle. de La Vallière
+was that haughtiest and most supercilious of all French
+mistresses, Mme. de Montespan. The picture drawn by
+M. Saint-Amand does her full justice: "A haughty and
+opulent beauty, a forest of hair, flashing blue eyes, a complexion
+of splendid carnation and dazzling whiteness, one
+of those alluring and radiant countenances which shed
+brightness around them wherever they appear, an incisive,
+caustic wit, an unquenchable thirst for riches and pleasure,
+luxury and power, the manners of a goddess audaciously
+usurping the place of Juno on Olympus, passion without
+love, pride without true dignity, splendor without harmony&mdash;that
+was Mme. de Montespan." And these qualities
+were the secret of her success as well as of her fall.</p>
+
+<p>From this description it can easily be divined of what
+nature was her influence and how she gained and held her
+power over the king. She won Louis XIV. entirely by
+her sensual charms, provoked him by her imperious exactions,
+her ungovernable fits of temper, and her daring sarcasm;
+always extravagant and unreasonable, she talked
+constantly of balls and fêtes, the glories of court and its
+scandals. Most exacting, yet never satisfied, she had no
+regard for the interests or honor of the weak king, to
+whose lower nature only she appealed.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>[pg 142]</span>
+
+<p>Mme. de Montespan was of noble birth, being the youngest
+daughter of Rochechouart, first Duke of Mortemart.
+She was born in 1641, at the grand old château of Tonnay-Charente,
+and was educated at the convent of Sainte-Marie.
+Brought up religiously, she at first evinced a much
+greater tendency toward religion than toward worldly ambition
+and vanity. Mme. de Caylus, in her <i>Souvenirs</i>,
+wrote that "far from being born depraved, the future
+favorite had a nature inherently disinclined to gallantry and
+tending to virtue. She was flattered at being mistress, not
+solely for her own pleasure, but on account of the passion
+of the king; she believed that she could always make him
+desire what she had resolved never to grant him. She
+was in despair at her first pregnancy, consoled herself for
+the second one, and in all the others carried impudence as far as it could go."</p>
+
+<p>She was known first as Mlle. Tonnay-Charente, and
+was maid of honor to the Duchess of Orléans. When, at
+the age of twenty-two, she married the Marquis de Montespan
+and became lady in waiting to the queen, her
+beauty, wit, and brilliant conversational powers at once
+made her the centre of attraction; for several years, however,
+the king scarcely noticed her. Upon secretly becoming
+his mistress in 1668 and openly being declared as
+such two years later, her husband attempted to interfere,
+and was unceremoniously banished to his estates; in 1676
+he was legally separated from her. She persuaded the
+king to legitimatize their children, who were confided to
+Mme. Scarron,&mdash;afterward Mme. de Maintenon,&mdash;who later
+influenced the king to abandon his mistress.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Montespan's power, lasting fourteen years, was
+almost unlimited, and was the epoch of courtiers intoxicated
+with passion and consumed by vice, infatuated with
+the king and his mistress, whose title as <i>maîtresse-en-titre</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>[pg 143]</span>
+was considered an official one, conferring the same privileges
+and demanding the same ceremonies and etiquette
+as did a high court position. The only opposition incurred
+was from the clergy, who eventually, by uniting their
+forces with the influence of Mme. de Maintenon, brought
+about the disgrace of the mistress.</p>
+
+<p>When, in 1675, she desired to perform her Easter duties
+publicly at Versailles, the priest refused to grant absolution
+until she should discontinue her wanton, adulterous
+life. She appealed to the king, and he referred the decision
+of the matter to Bossuet, who decided that it was an
+imperative duty to deny absolution to public sinners of
+notorious lives who refused to abandon them. This was
+immediately before her legal separation from her husband.</p>
+
+<p>Influenced by the preaching of men like Bourdaloue and
+Bossuet, the king resolved to abandon his powerful mistress;
+in 1686 she was finally separated from Louis XIV.,
+but did not leave Versailles until 1691, when, becoming
+reconciled to her fate, she decided to retire to a convent.
+Bossuet became her spiritual adviser, and described her
+habits in the following letter to the king:</p>
+
+<p>"I find Mme. de Montespan sufficiently tranquil. She
+occupies herself greatly in good works. I see her much
+affected by the verities I propose to her, which are the
+same I uttered to your majesty. To her&mdash;as to you&mdash;I
+have offered the words by which God commands us to
+yield our whole hearts to him; they have caused her to
+shed many tears. May God establish these verities in the
+depths of the hearts of both of you, in order that so many
+tears, so much suffering, so many efforts as you have
+made to subdue yourselves, may not be in vain."</p>
+
+<p>The king did not wholly abandon his mistress; from a
+material point of view, she was more powerful than ever,
+for Louis XIV. gave orders to his minister, Colbert, to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>[pg 144]</span>
+do for Mme. de Montespan whatever she wished, and her
+wishes caused a heavy drain upon the treasury. The
+king continued to pay court to other favorites, such as
+the Princesse de Soubèse and Mlle. de Fontanges; the
+latter was his third mistress, but her career was of short
+duration, as one of the last acts of Mme. de Montespan
+was, it is said, the poisoning of Mlle. de Fontanges; this,
+however, is not generally accepted as true, although the
+Princesse Palatine wrote the following which throws suspicion
+upon the former favorite: "Mme. de Montespan
+was a fiend incarnate, but the Fontanges was good and
+simple. The latter is dead&mdash;because, they say, the former
+put poison in her milk. I do not know whether or not
+this is true, but what I do know well is that two of the
+Fontanges's people died, saying publicly that they had
+been poisoned." With the increasing influence of Mme. de
+Maintenon, the king completely forgot his former mistress.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Montespan was possibly the most arrogant and
+despotic of all French mistresses and she was, also, the
+most humiliated. She had inspired no confidence, friendship,
+love, or respect in Louis XIV., who eventually looked
+with shame and remorse upon his relations with her. It
+took her sixteen years to overcome her terrible passion
+and to give up the court forever. Not until 1691 did she
+become reconciled to departure from Versailles; thenceforth,
+penitence conquered immoral desires. M. Saint-Amand
+says she not only "arrived at remorse, but at
+macerations, fasts, and haircloths. She limited herself
+to the coarsest underlinen and wore a belt and garters
+studded with iron points. She came at last to give all she
+had to the poor;" she also founded a hospital in which she nursed the sick.</p>
+
+<p>While at the convent, she tried, in vain, to effect a
+reconciliation with her husband; not until every avenue
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>[pg 145]</span>
+to a social life was cut off from her, did she entirely surrender
+herself to charity and the service of God. In her
+latest years, she was so tormented by the horrors of death
+that she employed several women whose only occupation
+was to watch with her at night. She died in 1707, forgotten
+by the king and all her former associates; Louis XIV.
+formally prohibited her children, the Duke of Maine, the
+Comte de Toulouse, the Comte de Vexin, and Mlles. de
+Nantes, de Blois, and de Tours, from wearing mourning for her.</p>
+
+<p>A striking contrast to Mme. de Montespan in character,
+disposition, morality, and birth was Mme. de Maintenon,
+one of the greatest and most important women in French
+history. What is known of her is so enveloped in calumny
+and falsehood and made so uncertain by dispute, that to
+disentangle the actual facts is almost an impossibility,
+despite the glowing tribute paid to her in the immense
+work published recently by the Comte d'Haussonville and M. Gabriel Hanotaux.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem that the more the history of Mme. de
+Maintenon is studied, the more one is led away from a
+first impression&mdash;which usually proves to be an erroneous
+one. Thus, M. Lavallée, in his first work, <i>Histoire des
+Français</i>, wrote that she "was of the most complete aridity
+of heart, narrow in the scope of her affections, and
+meanly intriguing. She suggested fatal enterprises and inappropriate
+appointments; she forced mediocre and servile
+persons upon the king; she had, in fine, the major share
+in the errors and disasters of the reign of Louis XIV." A
+few years later he wrote, in his <i>Histoire de la maison royale
+de Saint-Cyr</i>: "Mme. de Maintenon gave Louis XIV. none
+but salutary and disinterested counsels which were useful
+to the state and instrumental in making less heavy the burdens of the people."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>[pg 146]</span>
+
+<p>Opinion in general, especially French opinion, has been
+very bitter toward her. History has even reproached her
+with having been a usurper, a tyrant, and a selfish master.
+The great preacher, Fénelon, wrote to her:</p>
+
+<p>"They say you take too little part in affairs. Your
+mind is more capable than you think. You are, perhaps,
+a little too distrustful of yourself, or, rather, you are too
+much afraid to enter into discussions contrary to the inclination
+you have for a tranquil and meditative life."</p>
+
+<p>Is this picture, left by Emile Chasles and accepted by
+M. Saint-Amand, truthful? "This intelligent woman, far
+from being too much heeded, was not enough so. There
+was in her a veritable love for the public welfare, a true
+sorrow in the midst of our misfortunes. To-day, it is
+necessary to retrench much from the grandeur of her
+worldly power and add a great deal to that of her soul."
+M. Saint-Amand believes her sincere when she wrote to Mme. des Ursins:</p>
+
+<p>"In whatever way matters turn, I conjure you, madame,
+to regard me as a person incapable of directing affairs, who
+heard them talked too late to be skilful in them, and who
+hates them more than she ignores them.... My
+interference in them is not desired and I do not desire to
+interfere. They are not concealed from me, but I know
+nothing consecutively and am often badly informed."</p>
+
+<p>The opinions of her contemporaries are not always flattering,
+but such are possibly due to envy and jealousy or to
+some purely personal prejudice. Thus, when the Duchess
+of Orléans, the Princesse Palatine, calls her "that nasty
+old thing, that wicked devil, that shrivelled-up, filthy old
+Maintenon, that concubine of the king," and casts upon her
+other gross aspersions that are unfit to be repeated, one
+must remember that the calumniator was a German, the
+daughter of the Elector Palatine Charles-Louis, a woman
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>[pg 147]</span>
+honest in her morals, but shameless in her speech, who
+loved the beauties of nature more than those of the palaces;
+more shocked at hypocrites than at religion or irreligion,
+she took Mme. de Maintenon to be a type of the
+impostors whom she detested. It was her son who became
+regent, and it was her son who married one of the
+illegitimate daughters of Louis XIV.&mdash;an alliance of which
+his mother had a horror.</p>
+
+<p>The memoirs of Saint-Simon are interesting, but the
+odious picture he has drawn of Mme. de Maintenon is
+hardly in accord with later appreciations. M. Saint-Amand
+sums up the two classes of critics thus:</p>
+
+<p>"The revolutionary school which likes to drag the
+memory of the great king through the mire, naturally
+detests the eminent woman who was that king's companion,
+his friend and consoler. Writers of this school
+would like to make of her a type not only odious and fatal,
+but ungraceful and unsympathetic, without radiance,
+charm or any sort of fascination. She is too frequently
+called to mind under the aspect of a worn old woman,
+stiff and severe, with tearless eyes and a face without a
+smile. We forget that in her youth she was one of the
+prettiest women of her time, that her beauty was wonderfully
+preserved, and that in her old age she retained that
+superiority of style and language, that distinction of
+manner and exquisite tact, that gentle firmness of character,
+that charm and elevation of mind, which, at every
+period of her life, gained her so much praise and so many friends."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Maintenon was born in prison. Her maiden
+name was Françoise d'Aubigné. She was the granddaughter
+of Agrippa d'Aubigné, the historian. Her father
+had planned to settle in the Carolinas, and his correspondence
+with the English government, to that effect, was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>[pg 148]</span>
+treated as treason; he was thrown into prison, where his
+wife voluntarily shared his fate and where the future
+Mme. de Maintenon was born. After the death of her
+father, she was confided to her aunt, Mme. de Villette, a
+Calvinist, who trained her in the principles of Protestantism.
+Because of the refusal of her daughter to attend
+mass, her mother put her in charge of the Countess of
+Neuillant who, with great difficulty, converted Françoise back to Catholicism.</p>
+
+<p>At the home of the Countess of Neuillant, she often met
+Scarron, the comic poet&mdash;a paralytic and cripple&mdash;who
+offered her money with which to pay for admission to a
+convent, a proposition which she refused; subsequently,
+however, the countess sent her to the Ursulines to be
+educated. When, after two years, she lost her mother
+and was thus left without home, fortune, or future prospects,
+she consented, at the age of seventeen, to marry
+the poet. Thus, born in a prison, without even a dowry,
+harshly reared by a mother who was under few obligations
+to life, more harshly treated in the convent, introduced
+as a poor relation into the society of her aunt and
+to the friends of her godmother, the Countess of Neuillant,
+she early learned to distrust life and suspect man, and to
+restrain her ambitions.</p>
+
+<p>Exceedingly beautiful, graceful, and witty, she soon
+won her way to the brilliant and fashionable society of the
+crippled wit, buffoon, and poet, who was coarse, profane,
+ungodly, and physically an unsightly wreck. In this
+society, which the burlesque poet amused by his inexhaustible
+wit and fancy, and his frank, Gallic gayety, she
+showed an infinite amount of tact and soon made his salon
+the most prominent social centre of Paris. There, Scarron,
+never tolerated a stupid person, no matter of what blood or rank.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>[pg 149]</span>
+
+<p>When asked what settlement he proposed to make upon
+his wife, he replied: "Immortality." At another time, he
+remarked: "I shall not make her commit any follies, but I
+shall teach her a great many." On his deathbed he said:
+"My only regret is that I cannot leave anything to my
+wife with whom I have every imaginable reason to be
+content." In this free-and-easy salon, a young noble said,
+soon after the marriage of Scarron: "If it were a question
+of taking liberties with the queen or Mme. Scarron, I
+would not deliberate; I would sooner take them with the queen."</p>
+
+<p>The reputation made by the young Mme. Scarron gained
+her many influential friends, especially among court
+people. At the death of her husband, in 1660, to avoid
+trouble with his family, she renounced the marriage dowry
+of twenty-four thousand livres. Her friends procured her
+a pension of two thousand livres from the queen. Thus
+freed from care, she lived according to her inclination, which
+tended toward pleasing and doing good; taking good cheer
+and her services voluntarily and unaffectedly to all families,
+she gradually made herself a necessity among them&mdash;thus
+she laid the foundation of her future greatness. She
+was received by the best families, grew in favor everywhere,
+and even won over all her enemies. Modest, complaisant,
+promptly and readily rendering a favor, prudent,
+practical and virtuous, her one desire was to make friends,
+not so much for the purpose of using them, but because
+she realized that a person in humble circumstances cannot have too many friends.</p>
+
+<p>Her portrait as a widow is admirably drawn by M. Saint-Amand:
+"Mme. Scarron seeks esteem, not love. To
+please while remaining virtuous, to endure, if need be,
+privations and even poverty, but to win the reputation
+of a strong character, to deserve the sympathy and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>[pg 150]</span>
+approbation of honest persons&mdash;such is the direction of
+all her efforts. Well dressed, though very simply; discreet
+and modest, intelligent and <i>distingué</i>, with that patrician
+elegance which luxury cannot create, but which is
+inborn and comes by nature only; pious, with a sincere
+and gentle piety; less occupied with herself than with
+others; talking well and&mdash;what is much rarer&mdash;knowing
+how to listen; taking an interest in the joys and sorrows
+of her friends, and skilful in amusing and consoling them&mdash;she
+is justly regarded as one of the most amiable as
+well as one of the superior women in Paris. Economical
+and simple in her tastes, she makes her accounts balance
+perfectly, thanks to an annual pension of two thousand
+livres granted her by Queen Anne of Austria."</p>
+
+<p>When Mme. Scarron was about to leave Paris because
+of lack of funds and the loss of her pension, after the
+death of Queen Anne, her friend Mme. de Montespan,
+the king's mistress, interfered in her behalf and had the
+pension renewed, thus inadvertently paving the way for
+her own downfall. Three years later Mme. Scarron was
+established in an isolated house near Paris, where she received
+the natural children of Louis XIV. and Mme. de
+Montespan, as they arrived, in quick succession, in 1669,
+1670, 1672, 1673, and 1674. There, acting as governess,
+she hid them from the world. This is the only blemish
+upon the fair record of her life. It is maintained by her
+detractors that a virtuous woman would not have undertaken
+the education of the doubly adulterous children of
+Louis XIV. (thus, in a way, encouraging adultery), and
+that she would have given up her charge upon the first proposals of love.</p>
+
+<p>However deep this stain may be considered, one must
+remember that the standard of honor at the court of
+Louis XIV. did not encourage delicacy in matters of love,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>[pg 151]</span>
+and Mme. Scarron knew only the standard of society; her
+morality was no more extraordinary than was her intelligence,
+and it was to her credit that she preserved intact
+her honor and her virtue. At first the king looked with
+much dissatisfaction upon her appointment, not admiring
+the extreme gravity and reserve of the young widow;
+however, the unusual order of her talents and wisdom
+soon attracted his attention, and her entrance at court was
+speedily followed by quarrels between the mistress and
+Louis XIV. In 1674 the king, wishing to acknowledge his
+recognition of her merits, purchased the estate of Maintenon
+for her and made her Marquise de Maintenon.</p>
+
+<p>Her primary object became the gaining of the favor of
+Mme. de Montespan; for this purpose she taught herself
+humility, while toward the king she directed the forces of
+her dignity, reserve, and intellectual attainments. Being
+the very opposite of the mistress who won and retained
+him by sensuous charms (in which the king was fast
+losing pleasure and satisfaction), she soon effected a
+change by entertaining her master with the solid attainments
+of her mind&mdash;religion, art, literature.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Maintenon was always amiable and sympathetic,
+kind and thoughtful, never irritating, crossing, or
+censuring the king; wonderfully judicious, modest, self-possessed,
+and calm, she was irreproachable in conduct
+and morals, tolerating no improper advances. Although
+the characteristics and general deportment of Mme. de
+Montespan were entirely different from those of Mme.
+de Maintenon, the latter entertained true friendship for her
+benefactress, displaying astonishing tact, shrewdness, and self-control.</p>
+
+<p>If Mme. de Maintenon were not, at first, loved by the
+king, it was because she appeared to him too ideal, sublime,
+spirituelle, too severely sensible. Then came the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>[pg 152]</span>
+turning point; at forty years of age she was "a beautiful
+and stately woman with brilliant dark eyes, clear complexion,
+beautiful white teeth, and graceful manners;"
+sedate, self-possessed, and astonished at nothing, she had
+learned the art of waiting, and studied the king&mdash;showing
+him those qualities he desired to see.</p>
+
+<p>Her aim became to take the king from his mistress and
+lead him back to the queen. After gaining his confidence
+by her sincerity and trustworthiness, and making herself
+indispensable to him, she succeeded in bringing about the
+desired separation, through the medium of the dauphiness,
+whom she won over to her cause. Thus, without perfidy,
+hypocrisy, intrigue, or man&oelig;uvring, by simply being
+herself, she replaced the haughty and beautiful Mme. de Montespan.</p>
+
+<p>When, after the queen's death, and after having lived
+about the king for fifteen years, "she had succeeded in
+making the devotee take precedence of the lover, when
+piety had overcome passion, when religion had effected its
+change, then Louis the Great offered his hand in marriage
+to her who had only veneration, gratitude, and devotion
+for him, but no passion or love." Reasons of state demanded
+the secrecy of the marriage; for had he raised her
+to the throne, political complications would have arisen
+and disturbed his subsequent career; Mme. de Maintenon
+fully appreciated the intricacies of the situation, and was
+therefore content to remain what she was.</p>
+
+<p>She came to the king when he was beginning to feel the
+effects of his former mode of life; he needed fidelity and
+friendship, and he saw these in her. His feelings for her
+are well described in the following extract by M. Saint-Amand:</p>
+
+<p>"To sum up: the king's sentiment for her was of the
+most complex nature. There was in it a mingling of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>[pg 153]</span>
+religion and of physical love, a calculation of reason and
+an impulse of the heart, an aspiration after the mild joys
+of family life and a romantic inclination&mdash;a sort of compact
+between French good sense, subjugated by the wit, tact,
+and wisdom of an eminent woman, and Spanish imagination
+allured by the fancy of having extricated this elect
+woman from poverty in order to make her almost a queen.
+Finally, it must be noted that Louis XIV., always religiously
+inclined, was convinced that Mme. de Maintenon
+had been sent to him by Heaven for his salvation, and that
+the pious counsels of this saintly woman, who knew how
+to render devotion so agreeable and attractive, seemed to
+him to be so many inspirations from on High."</p>
+
+<p>It must not be inferred, however, that the feeling for
+Mme. de Maintenon was purely ideal. "He was unwilling
+to remarry," says the Abbé de Choisy, "because of
+tenderness for his people. He had, already, three grandsons,
+and wisely judged that the princes of a second marriage
+might, in course of time, cause civil wars. On the
+other hand, he could not dispense with a wife and Mme. de
+Maintenon pleased him greatly. Her gentle and scintillating
+wit promised him an agreeable intercourse which would
+refresh him after the cares of royalty. Her person was still
+engaging and her age prevented her from having children."</p>
+
+<p>As his wife, Mme. de Maintenon took more interest in
+the king and his family than she did in the affairs of the
+kingdom. To be the wife of the hearth and home, to
+educate the princes, to rear the young Duchess of Bourgogne,
+granddaughter of Louis XIV., to calm and ease the
+old age of the king and to distract and amuse him, became
+her sole objects in life. Her power, thus directed, became
+almost unbounded; she was the dispenser of favors
+and the real ruler, sitting in the cabinet of the king; and her
+counsels were so wise that they soon became invaluable.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>[pg 154]</span>
+
+<p>At court, she opposed all foolish extravagance, such as
+the endless fêtes and amusements of all kinds which had
+become so popular under Mme. de Montespan&mdash;a procedure
+which caused her the greatest difficulties and provoked
+revolts and quarrels in the royal family. By her prudence,
+tact, wisdom, and the loyalty of her friendship,
+she won and retained the respect and favor&mdash;if not the
+love&mdash;of everyone. Her reputation was never tarnished
+by scandal. "When one reflects that Louis XIV. was only
+forty-seven years old and in the prime of life and Mme.
+de Montespan in the full blaze of her marvellous beauty,
+that this woman of humble birth, in her youth a Protestant,
+poor, a governess, the widow of a low, comic poet, should
+win so proud a man as Louis XIV., seems incredible."</p>
+
+<p>When one considers that throughout life her one aspiration
+was an irreproachable conduct, that her manner of
+action was always defensive, never offensive, that her
+chief aim was to restore the king to the queen (who died
+in her arms) and not to replace his mistress, one cannot
+withhold admiration and esteem from this truly great
+woman who accomplished all those honorable designs.</p>
+
+<p>The obstacles to be conquered before reaching her goal
+were indeed numerous, but she managed them all. There
+were so many persons hostile to her,&mdash;mistresses and intriguers,
+bishops and priests, courtesans and valets, princes
+and members of the royal family,&mdash;to overcome whom she
+had to be on her guard, make use of every opportunity,
+show a rare knowledge of society and court, a profound
+skill and address, resolution and will; and she was equal to all occasions.</p>
+
+<p>Her greatest defect was the narrowness of her religious
+views. Entirely in the hands of her spiritual advisers,
+obeying them faithfully and blindly, she was not inclined
+to theological investigation, but was sincerely devout.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>[pg 155]</span>
+More interested in the various persons than in doctrines,
+she showed a passion for making bishops, abbots, and
+priests, as well as for negotiating compromises, reconciling
+<i>amours propres</i> and doing away with all religious hatred.
+Lacking, above all else, clearness of conception, promptness
+and firmness of decision, she was finally persuaded
+to encourage the bigotry of Louis XIV. and his intolerance
+toward those who differed from him. Hence, in 1685,
+she permitted that fearfully destructive persecution of the
+Protestants, which caused over three hundred thousand
+of France's most solid people to leave the country; and
+by her fanaticism and false zeal, she caused the king to be
+a party to that awful catastrophe.</p>
+
+<p>"This one act of hers counterbalances nearly all her
+virtues, and we remember her more as the murderess of
+thousands of innocents than as the calm and virtuous governess.
+But we must remember the nature of her advisers
+and the eternal policy of the Catholic Church, which are
+ever identical with absolutism. To uphold the institutions
+and opinions already established, was the one sentiment of
+the age; innovation, progress, were destructive&mdash;Mme. de
+Maintenon became the watchful guardian of royalty and
+the Church." Such is the verdict of English opinion.
+M. Saint-Amand judges the affair differently:</p>
+
+<p>"A woman as pious and reasonable as she was, animated
+always by the noblest intentions, loving her country
+and always showing sympathy for the poor people&mdash;not
+merely in words but in deeds as well&mdash;detesting war and
+loving justice and peace, always moderate and irreproachable
+in her conduct&mdash;such a woman cannot be the mischievous,
+crafty, malicious, and vindictive bigot imagined
+by many writers; she did not encourage such an act, nor
+would her nature permit to do so.... The prayer
+she uttered every morning, best portrays the woman and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>[pg 156]</span>
+her rôle: 'Lord, grant me to gladden the king, to console
+him, to sadden him when it must be for Thy glory. Cause
+me to hide from him nothing which he ought to know
+through me, and which no one else would have courage to
+tell him.' ... To Madame de Glapion she said: 'I
+would like to die before the king; I would go to God; I would
+cast myself at the foot of His throne; I would offer Him
+the desires of a soul that He would have purified; I would
+pray Him to grant the king greater enlightenment, more
+love for his people, more knowledge of the state of the
+provinces, more aversion for the perfidy of the countries,
+more horror of the ways in which his authority is abused:
+and God would hear my prayers.'"</p>
+
+<p>This pious woman was weary of life before her marriage,
+and but changed the nature of her misery upon
+reaching the highest goal open to a woman. Marly, Versailles,
+Fontainebleau were only different names for the
+same servitude. When she had attained her desire, she
+thought her repose assured; instead, her ennui, her disgust
+of life and the world, only increased; realizing this,
+she began to direct her thoughts entirely toward God and
+her aspirations toward things not of this earth&mdash;hence the
+almost complete absence of her influence in politics.</p>
+
+<p>She was never happy, and that her life was a disappointment
+to her may be gathered from the following words from
+her pen: "Flee from men as from your mortal enemies;
+never be alone with them. Take no pleasure in hearing that
+you are pretty, amiable, that you have a fine voice. The
+world is a malicious deceiver which never means what it
+says; and the majority of men who say such things to young
+girls, do it hoping to find some means of ruining them."</p>
+
+<p>Her most intense desire seemed to be to please, and be
+esteemed&mdash;to receive the <i>honneur du monde</i>, which appeared
+to be her sole motive for living. When in power, she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>[pg 157]</span>
+did not use her influence as the intriguing women of the
+epoch would have done, because she did not possess
+their qualities&mdash;taste, breadth of vision, and selfish ambitions.
+Her objects in life were the reform of a wicked
+court, the extirpation of heresy, the elevation of men of
+genius, and the improvement of the society and religion
+of France. After the death of the king (in 1715), she retired
+to Saint-Cyr, and spent the remainder of her life in
+acts of charity and devotional exercises.</p>
+
+<p>After the king's death she dismissed all her servants
+and disposed of her carriages as well, "unable to reconcile
+herself to feeding horses while so many young girls were
+in need," as she said. For almost four years she peacefully
+and happily lived in a very modest apartment. She
+seldom went out and then only to the village to visit the
+sick and the poor. On June 10, 1717, when she was
+eighty-one years old, Peter the Great went to Saint-Cyr
+for the purpose of seeing and talking to the greatest
+woman of France. He found her confined to her bed; the
+chamber being but dimly lighted, he thrust aside the curtain
+in order to examine the features of the woman who
+had ruled the destinies of France for so many years. The
+Czar talked to her for some time, and when he asked
+Madame de Maintenon from what she was suffering, she
+replied: "From great old age." She died on August 15,
+1719, and was buried in the choir of the church of Saint-Cyr,
+where a modest slab of marble indicated the spot
+where her body reposed until, in 1794, when the church
+was being transformed into hospital wards, "the workmen
+opened the vault, and took out the body and dragged it
+into the court with dreadful yells and threw it, stripped
+and mutilated, into a hole in the cemetery."</p>
+
+<p>The greatest work of Mme. de Maintenon was the
+founding of the Seminary of Saint-Cyr, which the king
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>[pg 158]</span>
+granted to her about the time of their marriage and of his
+illness; it was probably intended as the penance of a sick
+man who wished to make reparation for the wrongs inflicted
+upon some of the young girls of the nobility, and as
+a wedding gift to Mme. de Maintenon. There, aided by
+nuns, she cared for and educated two hundred and fifty
+pupils, dowerless daughters of impoverished nobles. It
+was "the veritable offspring of her who was never a
+daughter, a wife, nor a mother." There she was happy
+and content; there she recalled her own youth when
+she was poor and forsaken; there she found respite from
+the turmoils and agitations of Versailles; there she was
+supreme; there she governed absolutely and was truly loved.</p>
+
+<p>For thirty years she was queen at Saint-Cyr, visiting it
+every other day and teaching the young girls for whom
+it was a protection against the world. Since childhood,
+she had been so accustomed to serve herself, to wait upon
+others and to care for the smallest details of the management
+of the household, that she introduced this spirit into
+society and at Saint-Cyr, where she managed every detail,
+from the linen to the provisions; this showed a reasonable
+and well-balanced mind, but not any high order of intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>Of the young girls in her charge, she desired to make
+model women, characterized by simplicity and piety; they
+were to be free from morbid curiosity of mind, were to
+practise absolute self-denial and to devote their lives to a
+practical labor. Her advice was: "Be reasonable or you
+will be unhappy; if you are haughty, you will be reminded
+of your misery, but if you are humble, people will recall
+your birth.... Commence by making yourself loved,
+without which you will never succeed. Is it not true that,
+had you not loved me or had you had an aversion for me,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>[pg 159]</span>
+you would not have accepted, with such good grace, the
+counsels that I have given you? This is absolutely certain&mdash;the
+most beautiful things when taught by persons
+who displease us, do not impress but rather harden us."</p>
+
+<p>A counsel that strikes home forcibly to-day, one which
+strongly attacks the modern fad of neglecting home for
+church, is expressed well in one of her letters: "Your
+piety will not be right if, when married, you abandon your
+husband, your children and your servants, to go to the
+churches at times when you are not obliged to go there.
+When a young girl says that a woman would do better
+properly to raise her children and instruct her servants,
+than to spend her morning in church, one can accommodate
+one's self to such religion, which she will cause to be loved and respected."</p>
+
+<p>At the hour of leisure, she gave the girls those familiar
+talks which were anticipated by them with so much pleasure,
+and extracts from which are still cherished by the
+young women of France. She believed that the aim of
+instruction for young girls should be to educate them to be
+Christian women with well-balanced and logical minds.
+With her varied experience of the ups and downs of life,
+she gradually came to the conclusion that, after all, there
+is nothing in the world so good as sound common sense,
+but one that is not enamored of itself, which obeys established
+laws and knows its own limits. Her sex is intended
+to obey, thus her reason was a Christian reason.</p>
+
+<p>"You can be truly reasonable only in proportion as you
+are subservient to God.... Never tell children fantastic
+stories, nor permit them to believe them; give them
+things for what they are worth. Never tell them stories
+of which, when they grow to independent reasoning, you
+must disillusion them. You must talk to a girl of seven
+as seriously and with as much reason as to a young lady
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>[pg 160]</span>
+of twenty. You must take part in the pleasures of children,
+but never accommodate them with a childish language
+or with foolish or puerile ways. You can never be
+too reasonable or too sane. Religion, reason, and truth are always good."</p>
+
+<p>To appreciate the importance of Mme. de Maintenon's
+position and the revolutionary effect which her attitude
+produced upon the customs of the time, one must remember
+with what she had to contend. Hers was a period of
+passion and adventure&mdash;a period which was followed by
+sorrow and disaster. The novels of Mlle. de Scudéry,
+which were at the height of their popularity, had over-refined
+the sentiments; the <i>chevaleresque</i> heroes and picturesque
+heroines turned the heads of young girls, who
+dreamed of an ideal and perfect love; their one longing
+was for the romantic&mdash;for the enchantments and delights
+of life. In this stilted and amorous atmosphere, Mme. de
+Maintenon preserved her poise and fought vigorously
+against the fads of the day. The young girls under her
+care were taught to love just as they were taught to do
+other things&mdash;with reason. Also, she guarded against the
+weaknesses of nature and the flesh. "Than Mme. de
+Maintenon, no one ever better knew the evils of the world
+without having fallen prey to them," says Sainte-Beuve;
+"and no one ever satisfied and disgusted the world more,
+while charming it at the same time."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Maintenon's ideal methods of education were
+not immediately effective; there were many periods of
+hardship, apprehension, and doubt. Thus, when Racine's
+<i>Esther</i> (written at the request of Mme. de Maintenon, to
+be presented by the pupils at Saint-Cyr) was performed,
+there sprang up a taste for poetry, writing, and literature
+of all kinds. The acting turned the girls' thoughts into
+other channels and threatened to counteract the teachings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>[pg 161]</span>
+of simplicity and reason; no one ever showed more genuine
+good sense, wholesomeness of mind, and breadth of
+view, than were displayed by Mme. de Maintenon in
+dealing with these disheartening drawbacks.</p>
+
+<p>In endeavoring to impress upon those young minds the
+correct use of language and the proper style of writing,
+she wrote for them models of letters which showed simplicity,
+precision, truth, facility, and wonderful clearness;
+and these were imitated by them in their replies to her.</p>
+
+<p>She wished, above all, to make them realize that her
+experience with that social and court life, for which they
+longed, was one of disappointment: that was a world apart,
+in which amusing and being amused was the one occupation.
+She had passed wearily through that period of life,
+and sought repose, truth, tranquillity, and religious resignation;
+to make those young spirits feel the fallacy of
+such a mode of existence was her earnest desire, and her
+efforts in that direction were characterized by a zeal,
+energy, and persistence which were productive of wonderful
+results. That was one phase of her greatness and influence.</p>
+
+<p>But Mme. de Maintenon was somewhat too severe, too
+narrow, too strict,&mdash;one might say, too ascetic,&mdash;in her
+teaching. There was too little of that which, in this world,
+cheers, invigorates, and enlivens. Her instruction was all
+reason, without relieving features; it lacked what Sainte-Beuve
+calls the <i>don des larmes</i> (gift of tears). Hers was
+a noble, just, courageous, and delicate judgment; but it
+was without the softening qualities of the truly feminine,
+which calls for tears and affection, tenderness and sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>She remains in educational affairs the greatest woman
+of the seventeenth century, if not of all her countrywomen.
+M. Faguet says: "This widow of Scarron, who was nearly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>[pg 162]</span>
+Queen of France, was born minister of public instruction."
+She powerfully upheld the cause of morality, was a
+liberal patroness of education and learning, and all aspiring
+geniuses were encouraged and financially aided by her.
+It was she who impressed upon Louis XIV. the truth of
+the existence of a God to whom he was accountable for his
+acts&mdash;a teaching which contributed no little to the general
+purification of morals at court.</p>
+
+<p>The writings of Mme. de Maintenon occupy a very high
+place in the history of French literature; in fact, her letters
+have often been compared with those of Mme. de Sévigné,
+although, unlike the latter, she never wrote merely
+to please, but to instruct, to convert, and to console. In
+her works there was no pretension to literary style; they
+were sermons on morals, characterized by discretion and
+simplicity, dignity and persuasiveness, seriousness and
+earnestness; Napoleon placed her letters above those of
+Mme. de Sévigné. M. Saint-Amand says of her writings:
+"More reflection than vivacity, more wisdom than passion,
+more gravity than charm, more authority than grace,
+more solidity than brilliancy&mdash;such are the characteristics
+of a correspondence which might justify the expression, the style is the woman."</p>
+
+<p>He gives, also, the following discriminating comparison
+between the two writers: "Enjoyment, Gallic animation,
+good-tempered gayety, fall to the lot of Mme. de Sévigné;
+what marks Mme. de Maintenon is experience, reason,
+profundity. The one laughs from ear to ear&mdash;the other
+barely smiles. The one has pleasant illusions about everything,
+admiration which borders on <i>naïveté</i>, ecstasies when
+in the presence of the royal sun: the other never permits
+herself to be fascinated by either the king or the court,
+by men, women, or things. She has seen human grandeur
+too close at hand not to understand its nothingness,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>[pg 163]</span>
+and her conclusions bear the imprint of a profound sadness.
+At times Mme. de Sévigné, also, has attacks of
+melancholy, but the cloud passes quickly and she is again
+in the sunshine. Gayety&mdash;frank, communicative, radiant
+gayety&mdash;is the basis of the character of this woman
+who is more witty, seductive, and amusing than is any
+other. Mme. de Sévigné shines by imagination&mdash;Mme.
+de Maintenon by judgment. The one permits herself to
+be dazzled, intoxicated&mdash;the other always preserves her
+indifference. The one exaggerates the splendors of the
+court&mdash;the other sees them as they are. The one is more
+of a woman&mdash;the other more of a saint."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Maintenon may be called "a woman of fate,"
+She was never daughter, mother, or wife; as a child, she
+was not loved by her mother, and her father was worthless;
+married to two men, both aged beyond their years, she
+was, indeed, but an instrument of fate. Truthful, candid,
+and discreet she was entirely free from all morbid tendencies,
+and was modest and chaste from inclination as well
+as from principle. Though outwardly cold, proud, and reserved,
+yet in her deportment toward those who were
+fortunate enough to possess her esteem, she was kind&mdash;even
+loving. While not intelligent to a remarkable degree,
+she was prudent, circumspect, and shrewd, never losing
+her self-control. When once interested, and convinced as
+to the proper course, she displayed marvellous strength of
+will, sagacity, and personal force. Beautiful and witty, she
+easily adapted herself to any position in which she might
+be placed; though intolerant and narrow in her religious
+views, she was otherwise gentle, charitable, and unselfish.
+Therefore, it is evident that she possessed, to a greater
+degree than did any other woman of her time, unusual as
+well as desirable qualities&mdash;qualities that made her powerful and incomparable.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>[pg 165]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter VI</h2>
+
+<h2>Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. Dacier, Mme. de Caylus</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>[pg 167]</span>
+
+
+<p>The seventeenth century was, in French history, the
+greatest century from the standpoint of literary perfection,
+the sixteenth century the richest in naissant ideas,
+and the eighteenth the greatest in the way of developing and
+formulating those ideas; and each century produced great
+women who were in perfect harmony with and expressed
+the ideals of each period of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>It is not within the limits of reason to expect women
+to rival, in literature, the great writers such as Corneille,
+Racine, Molière, Bossuet, La Fontaine, Descartes, Pascal&mdash;most
+of whom were but little influenced by femininity;
+there were those, however, among the sex, who were
+conspicuous for elevation of thought, dignity in manner
+and bearing, and brilliancy in conversation&mdash;attributes
+which they have left to posterity in numberless exquisite
+and charming letters, in interesting and invaluable
+memoirs, or in consummate psychological and social portraitures
+incorporated into the form of novels. Among
+female writers of letters, Mme. de Sévigné wears the
+laurel wreath; Mme. de La Fayette, with Mlle. de Scudéry,
+is the representative of the novel; Mme. Dacier
+was the great advocate of the more liberal education of
+women; and the <i>Souvenirs</i> of Mme. de Caylus made that authoress immortal.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>[pg 168]</span>
+
+<p>The association of La Rochefoucauld, the Cardinal de
+Retz, the Chevalier de Meré, Mme. de La Fayette, and
+Mme. de Sévigné, was responsible for almost everything
+elevating and of interest produced in the seventeenth century.
+Of that highly intellectual circle, Mme. de Sévigné
+was the leading spirit by force of her extraordinary faculty
+for making friends, her wonderful talent as a writer, her
+originality and her charming disposition. She gave the
+tone to letters; M. Faguet says that her epistles were all
+masterpieces of amiable badinage, lively narration, maternal
+passion, true eloquence. More than that, they are important
+sources of historical knowledge, inasmuch as they
+contain much information concerning the politics of the
+day, and furnish an excellent guide to the etiquette,
+fashions, tastes, and literature of the writer's period.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Sévigné was the most important figure of the
+time, being to that third prodigiously intellectual epoch of
+France what Marguerite de Navarre was to the sixteenth
+century, and the Hôtel de Rambouillet to the beginning
+of the seventeenth century. She represented the style,
+<i>esprit</i>, elegance, and <i>goût</i> of this greatest of French cultural
+periods. Her life may be considered as having had
+two distinct phases&mdash;one connected with an unhappy marriage
+and the other the period of a restless widowhood.</p>
+
+<p>Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marchioness of Sévigné, was
+born at Paris, in 1626; at the age of eighteen months she
+lost her father; at seven years of age, her mother; at
+eight, her grandmother; at ten, her grandfather on her
+mother's side; she was thus left with her paternal grandmother,
+Mme. de Chantal, who had her carefully educated
+under the best masters, such as Ménage and Chapelain
+(court favorites), from whom she early imbibed a genuine
+taste for solid reading; from these instructors she learned
+Spanish, Italian, and Latin.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>[pg 169]</span>
+
+<p>In 1644, she was married to the Marquis Henri de
+Sévigné, who was killed six years later in a duel, but who
+had, in the meantime, succeeded in making a considerable
+gap in her immense fortune, in spite of the precautions of
+her uncle, the Abbé of Coulanges. Henceforward, her
+interests in life were centred in the education of her two
+children; to them she wrote letters which have brought
+her name down to posterity as, possibly, the greatest
+epistolary writer that the history of literature has ever recorded.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Sévigné was but nineteen years old when,
+after the marriage of Julie d'Angennes, the frequenters of
+the Hôtel de Rambouillet began to disperse, and she was in
+much demand by the successors of Mme. de Rambouillet.
+While the women of the reign of Louis XIII.&mdash;Mmes. de
+Hautefort, de Sablé, de Longueville, de Chevreuse, etc.&mdash;were
+exceedingly talented talkers, they were poor writers:
+but in Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, and Mlle. de
+Scudéry both arts were developed to the highest degree.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Sévigné was on the best terms with every
+great writer of her time&mdash;Pascal, Racine, La Fontaine,
+Bossuet, Bourdaloue, La Rochefoucauld. She was a
+woman of such broad affections that numerous friends and
+admirers were a necessary part of her existence. Of all the
+eminent women of the seventeenth century, she had the
+greatest number of lovers&mdash;suitors who frequently became
+her tormentors. Ménage, her teacher, who threatened to
+leave her never to see her again, was brought back to her
+by kind words, such as: "Farewell, friend&mdash;of all my
+friends the best." The Abbé Marigny, that "delicate
+epicurean, that improviser of fine triolets, ballads, vaudevilles,
+that enemy of all sadness and sticklers for morality,"
+charmed her, at times, with sentimental ballads, such as the following:</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>[pg 170]</span>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"Si l'amour est un doux servage,</p>
+<p>Si l'on ne peut trop estimer</p>
+<p>Les plaisirs ou l'amour engage,</p>
+<p>Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Mais si l'on se sent enflammer</p>
+<p>D'un feu dont l'ardeur est extrême,</p>
+<p>Et qu'on n'ose pas l'exprimer,</p>
+<p>Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Si dans la fleur de son bel âge,</p>
+<p>Une qui pourrait tout charmer,</p>
+<p>Vous donne son c&oelig;ur en partage,</p>
+<p>Qu'on est sot de ne point aimer!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Mais s'il faut toujours s'alarmer,</p>
+<p>Craindre, rougir, devenir blême,</p>
+<p>Aussitôt qu'on s'entend nommer,</p>
+<p>Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Pour complaire au plus beau visage</p>
+<p>Qu'amour puisse jamais former,</p>
+<p>S'il ne faut rien qu'un doux langage,</p>
+<p>Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>"Mais quand on se voit consumer.</p>
+<p>Si la belle est toujours de même,</p>
+<p>Sans que rien la puisse animer,</p>
+<p>Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<center>"L'ENVOI.</center>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"En amour si rien n'est amer,</p>
+<p>Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!</p>
+<p>Si tout l'est au degré suprême,</p>
+<p>Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>[If love is a sweet bondage,</p>
+<p>If we cannot esteem too much</p>
+<p>The pleasures in which love engages,</p>
+<p>How foolish one is not to love!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>But if we feel ourselves inflamed</p>
+<p>With a passion whose ardor is extreme,</p>
+<p>And which we dare not express,</p>
+<p>How foolish we are, then, to love!</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>[pg 171]</span>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>If in the flower of her youth</p>
+<p>There is one who could charm all.</p>
+<p>And offers you her heart to share,</p>
+<p>How very foolish not to love!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>But if we must always be full of alarm&mdash;</p>
+<p>Fear, blush and become pallid,</p>
+<p>As soon as our name is spoken,</p>
+<p>How foolish to love!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>If to please the most beautiful countenance</p>
+<p>That love can ever form,</p>
+<p>Only a mellow language is necessary,</p>
+<p>How foolish not to love!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>But if we see ourselves wasting away,</p>
+<p>If the belle is always the same</p>
+<p>And cannot be animated,</p>
+<p>How very foolish to love!</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<center>ENVOY.</center>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>If in love, nothing is bitter,</p>
+<p>How dreadfully foolish not to love!</p>
+<p>If everything is so to the highest degree,</p>
+<p>How awfully foolish to love!]</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>Tréville went so far as to say that the figure of Mme.
+de Sévigné was beautiful enough to set the world afire.
+M. du Bled divides her lovers into three classes: the first
+was composed of her literary friends; the second, of those
+enamored, impassioned suitors, loving her from good
+motives or from the opposite, who strove to compensate
+her for the unfaithfulness of her husband while alive and
+for the ennui of her widowhood; the third class was composed
+of her Parisian friends, of whom she had hosts,
+court habitués who were leaders of society.</p>
+
+<p>Representatives of the second class were the Prince de
+Conti, the great Turenne, various counts and marquises,
+and Bussy-Rabutin, who was a type of the sensual lover
+and the more dangerous on account of the privileges he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>[pg 172]</span>
+enjoyed because of his close relationship to Mme. de Sévigné.
+His portrait of her is interesting: "I must tell you,
+madame, that I do not think there is a person in the world
+so generally esteemed as you are. You are the delight of
+humankind; antiquity would have erected altars to you,
+and you would certainly have been a goddess of something.
+In our century, when we are not so lavish with incense,
+and especially for living merit, we are contented to say
+that there is not a woman of your age more virtuous and
+more amiable than are you. I know princes of the blood,
+foreign princes, great lords with princely manners, great
+captains, gentlemen, ministers of state, who would be off
+and away for you, if you would permit them. Can you ask any more?"</p>
+
+<p>Such eulogies came not only from men like the perfidious
+and cruel cousin, but from her friends everywhere. The
+finest of these is the one by her friend Mme. de La Fayette,
+contained in one of the epistolary portraits so much
+in vogue at that time, and which were turned out, <i>par excellence</i>,
+in the salon of Mlle. de Luxembourg: "Know,
+madame,&mdash;if by chance you do not already know it,&mdash;that
+your mind adorns and embellishes your person so well
+that there is not another one on earth so charming as you
+when you are animated in a conversation in which all
+constraint is banished. Your soul is great, noble, ready
+to dispense with treasures, and incapable of lowering itself
+to the care of amassing them. You are sensible to glory
+and ambition, and to pleasures you are less so; yet you
+appear to be born for the latter, and they made for you;
+your person augments pleasures, and pleasures increase
+your beauty when they surround you. Joy is the veritable
+state of your soul, and chagrin is more unlike to you
+than to anyone. You are the most civil and obliging person
+that ever lived, and by a free and calm air&mdash;which is in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>[pg 173]</span>
+all your actions&mdash;the simplest compliments of seemliness
+appear, in your mouth, as protestations of friendship."</p>
+
+<p>The originality which gained Mme. de Sévigné so many
+friends lay principally in her force, wealth of resource,
+intensity, sincerity, and frankness. M. Scherer said she
+possessed "surprises for us, infinite energy, inexhaustible
+variety&mdash;everything that eternally revives interest."</p>
+
+<p>The interest of the modern world in this remarkable
+woman is centred mainly in her letters. Guizot says:
+"Mme. de Sévigné is a friend whom we read over and
+over again, whose emotions we share, to whom we go for
+an hour's distraction and delightful chat; we have no
+desire to chat with Mme. de Grignan (her daughter)&mdash;we
+gladly leave her to her mother's exclusive affection, feeling
+infinitely obliged to her for having existed, inasmuch
+as her mother wrote letters to her. Mme. de Sévigné's
+letters to her daughter are superior to all her other epistles,
+charming as they all are; when she writes to M. Pomponne,
+to M. de Coulanges, to M. de Bussy, the style is
+less familiar, the heart less open, the soul less stirred; she
+writes to her daughter as she would speak to her&mdash;it is
+not a letter, it is an animated and charming conversation,
+touching upon everything, embellishing everything with an inimitable grace."</p>
+
+<p>She had married her daughter to the Comte de Grignan,
+a man of forty, twice married, and with children, homely,
+but wealthy and aristocratic; writing to her cousin, Bussy-Rabutin,
+concerning this marriage, she said: "All these
+women (the count's former wives) died expressly to make
+room for your cousin." By marrying her daughter to such
+a man she encouraged all the questionable proprieties of
+the time. Mme. de Sévigné's affection for that daughter
+amounted almost to idolatry; it was to her that most of
+the mother's letters were written, telling her of her health,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>[pg 174]</span>
+what was being done at Vichy, and about her business
+and for that child the authoress gave up her life at Paris
+in order to economize and thereby to help Mme. de Grignan
+in her extravagance, her son-in-law being an expert in spending money.</p>
+
+<p>The intensity of her nature is well reflected in her letter
+upon the separation from her daughter: "In vain I seek
+my darling daughter; I can no longer find her, and every
+step she takes removes her farther from me. I went to
+St. Mary's, still weeping and dying of grief; it seemed as
+if my heart and my soul were being wrenched from me
+and, in truth, what a cruel separation! I asked leave to
+be alone; I was taken into Mme. du Housset's room, and
+they made me up a fire. Agnes sat looking at me, without
+speaking&mdash;that was our bargain. I stayed there till five
+o'clock, without ceasing to sob; all my thoughts were mortal
+wounds to me. I wrote to M. de Grignan (you can
+imagine in what key). Then I went to Mme. de La Fayette's,
+and she redoubled my griefs by the interest she
+took in them; she was alone, ill, and distressed at the death
+of one of the nuns; she was just as I should have desired,
+I returned hither at eight; but oh, when I came in! can
+you conceive what I felt as I mounted these stairs? That
+room into which I always used to go, alas! I found the
+doors of it open, but I saw everything upturned, disarranged,
+and your little daughter, who reminded me of
+mine.... The wakenings of the night were dreadful.
+I think of you continuously&mdash;it is what devotees call
+habitual thought, such as one should have of God, if one
+did one's duty. Nothing gives me diversion; I see that
+carriage which is forever going on and will never come
+near me. I am forever on the highways; it seems as if I
+were sometimes afraid that the carriage will upset with
+me; the rains there for the last three days, drove me to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>[pg 175]</span>
+despair. The Rhone causes me strange alarm. I have a
+map before my eyes&mdash;I know all the places where you
+sleep. This evening you are at Nevers; on Sunday you
+will be at Lyons where you will receive this letter. I
+have received only two of yours&mdash;perhaps the third will
+come; that is the only comfort I desire; as for others, I seek none."</p>
+
+<p>The letters of Mme. de Sévigné contain a great number
+of sayings applicable to habits and conduct, and these
+have had their part in shaping the customs and in depicting
+the time. To be modest and moderate, friendly, and
+conciliatory, to be content with one's lot and to bow to
+circumstances, to be sincere, to cultivate good sense and
+good grace&mdash;these counsels have been and still are, according
+to French opinion, the basis of French character:
+and Mme. de Sévigné's own popularity and success attest their wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>She had not the gift of seeing things vividly and reproducing
+them in living form; her talent was a rarer one&mdash;it
+induced the reader to form a mental picture of the scene
+described, so vivid as to be under the illusion of being
+present in reality; and this is done with so much grace,
+charm, happy ease and naturalness, that to read her letters
+means to love the writer. What mother or friend would
+not fall a willing victim to the charm of a woman who
+could write the following letter?</p>
+
+<p>"You ask me, my dear child, whether I continue to be
+really fond of life; I confess to you that I find poignant
+sorrows in it, but I am even more disgusted with death;
+I feel so wretched at having to end all thereby, that, if I
+could turn back again, I would ask for nothing better,
+I find myself under an obligation which perplexes me; I
+embark upon life without my consent, and so must I go
+out of it; that overwhelms me. And how shall I go?
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>[pg 176]</span>
+Which way? By what door? When will it be? In what
+condition? Shall I suffer a thousand, thousand pains which
+will make me die desperate? Shall I have brain fever?
+Shall I die of an accident? How shall I be with God?
+What shall I have to show Him? Shall fear, shall necessity
+bring me back to Him? Shall I have sentiment except
+that of dread? What can I hope? Am I worthy of
+heaven? Am I worthy of hell? Nothing is such madness
+as to leave one's salvation in uncertainty, but nothing is
+so natural. The stupid life I lead is the easiest thing in the
+world to understand; I bury myself in these thoughts and
+I find death so terrible that I hate life more because it leads
+me thereto, than because of the thorns with which it is
+planted. You will say that I want to live forever, then;
+not at all; but, if my opinion had been asked, I would have
+preferred to die in my nurse's arms; that would have removed
+me from the vexations of spirit and would have
+given me heaven full surely and easily."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Sévigné never bored her readers with her own
+reflections. She differed from her contemporaries, who
+seemed to be dead to nature's beauty, in her striking descriptions
+of nature. A close observer, she knew how to
+describe a landscape; animating and enlivening it, and
+making it talk, she inspired the reader with love of it.</p>
+
+<p>"I am going to be alone and I am very glad. Provided
+they do not take away from me the charming country, the
+shore of the Allier, the woods, streams, and meadows,
+the sheep and goats, the peasant girls who dance the
+<i>bourrée</i> in the fields, I consent to say adieu; the country
+alone will cure me.... I have come here to end the
+beautiful days and to say adieu to the foliage&mdash;it is still
+on the trees, it has only changed color; instead of being
+green, it is golden, and of so many golden tints that it
+makes a brocade of rich and magnificent gold, which we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>[pg 177]</span>
+are likely to find more beautiful than the green, if only it
+were not for the changing part."</p>
+
+<p>If the style of her letters did not make her the greatest
+prose writer of her time, it certainly entitled her to rank
+as one of the most original. The prose of the seventeenth
+century lacked "easy suppleness in lively movement, and
+imagination in the expression"&mdash;two qualities which Mme.
+de Sévigné possessed in a high degree. The slow and
+grave development, the just and harmonious equilibrium,
+the amplitude, are in her supplanted by a quick, alert,
+and free <i>saillie</i>; the detail and marvellous exactness are
+enriched by color, abundance of imagery, and metaphors.
+M. Faguet says she is to prose what La Fontaine is to poetry.</p>
+
+<p>The literary style of Mme. de Sévigné is not learned,
+studied, nor labored. In an epoch in which the language
+was already formed, she did what Montaigne did a century
+before, when, we may almost assert, he had to create
+the French language. Her most striking expressions are
+her own&mdash;newly coined, not taken from the vocabulary in
+usage. Her style cannot be duplicated, and for this
+reason she has few imitators. Her letters show that they
+were improvised&mdash;her pen doing, alone, the work over
+which she seemed to have no control when communicating
+with her daughter; to the latter she said: "I write prose
+with a facility that will kill you."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Sévigné was possibly not a beautiful woman,
+but she was a charming one; broad in the scope of her
+affections, she found the making of friends no difficult
+task. M. Vallery-Radot leaves the following picture of her:
+"A blonde, with exuberant health, a transparent complexion,
+blue eyes, so frank, so limpid, a nose somewhat
+square, a mouth ready to smile, shoulders that seem to
+lend splendor to her pearl necklace. Her gayety and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>[pg 178]</span>
+goodness are so in evidence that there is about her a kind
+of atmosphere of good humor."</p>
+
+<p>M. du Bled most admirably sums up her character and
+writings in the following: "She is the person who most
+resembles her writings&mdash;that is, those that are found; for
+alas! many (the most confidential, the most interesting, I
+think) are lost forever: in them she is reflected as she reflects
+French society in them. Endowed&mdash;morally and
+physically&mdash;with a robust health, she is expansive, loyal,
+confiding, impressionable, loving gayety in full abundance
+as much as she does the smile of the refined, as eager for
+the prattle of the court as for solid reading, smitten with
+nobiliary pride, a captive of the prejudices, superstitions
+and tastes of her caste (or of even her coterie), with her
+pen hardly tender for her neighbor&mdash;her daughter and intimates
+excepted. A manager and a woman of imagination,
+a Frondist at the bottom of her soul, and somewhat
+of a Jansenist&mdash;not enough, however, not to cry out that
+Louis XIV. will obscure the glory of his predecessors because
+he had just danced with her&mdash;faithful to her friends
+(Retz, Fouquet, Pomponne) in disgrace and detesting
+their persecutors, seeking the favor of court for her children.
+In the salons, she is celebrated for her <i>esprit</i>&mdash;and
+this at an age when one seldom thinks about reputation,
+when one is like the princess who replied to a question on
+the state of her soul, 'At twenty one has no soul;' and she
+possesses the qualities that are so essential to style&mdash;natural <i>éclat</i>,
+originality of expression, grace, color, amplitude
+without pomposity and abundance without prolixity;
+moreover, she invents nothing, but, knowing how to observe
+and to express in perfection everything she had seen
+and felt, she is a witness and painter of her century: also,
+she loves nature&mdash;a sentiment very rare in the seventeenth century."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>[pg 179]</span>
+
+<p>Mme. de Sévigné was endowed with the best qualities
+of the French race&mdash;good will and friendliness, which influence
+one to judge others favorably and to desire their
+esteem; of a very impressionable nature, she was gifted
+with a natural eloquence which enabled her to express her
+various emotions in a light or gay vein which often bordered
+on irony. Affectionate and appreciative and tender and
+kind to everyone in general, toward those whom she loved
+she was generous to a fault and unswerving in her fidelity.</p>
+
+<p>Her last years were spent in the midst of her family.
+She died in 1696, of small-pox, thanking God that she was
+the first to go, after having trembled for the life of her
+daughter, whom she had nursed back to health after a long
+and dangerous illness. Her son-in-law, M. de Grignan,
+wrote to her uncle, M. de Coulanges:</p>
+
+<p>"What calls far more for our admiration than for our
+regret, is the spectacle of a brave woman facing death&mdash;of
+which she had no doubt from the first days of her illness&mdash;with astounding
+firmness and submission. This person, so
+tender and so weak towards all whom she loved, showed
+nothing but courage and piety when she believed that her
+hour had come; and, impressed by the use she managed to
+make of that good store in the last moments of her life, we
+could not but remark of what utility and of what importance
+it is to have the mind stocked with the good matter
+and holy reading for which Mme. de Sévigné had a liking&mdash;not
+to say a wonderful hunger."</p>
+
+<p>In order to give an idea of the place that Mme. de
+Sévigné holds in the opinion of the average Frenchman,
+we quote the final words of M. Vallery-Radot:</p>
+
+<p>"To take a place among the greatest writers, without
+ever having written a book or even having thought of
+writing one&mdash;this is what seems impossible, and yet this is
+what happened to Mme. de Sévigné. Her contemporaries
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>[pg 180]</span>
+knew her as a woman distinguished for her <i>esprit</i>, frank,
+playful and sprightly humor, irreproachable conduct,
+loyalty to her friends, and as an idolizer of her daughter;
+no one suspected that she would partake of the glory of
+our classical authors&mdash;and she, less than any one. She
+had immortalized herself, without wishing or knowing it,
+by an intimate correspondence which is, to-day, universally
+regarded as one of the most precious treasures and
+one of the most original monuments to French literature.
+To deceive the <i>ennui</i> of absence, she wrote to her daughter
+all that she had in her heart and that came to her mind&mdash;what
+she did, wished to do, saw and learned, news of
+court, city, Brittany, army, everything&mdash;sadly or gayly,
+according to the subject, always with the most keen,
+ardent, delicate, and touching sentiments of tenderness
+and sympathy. She amuses, instructs, interests, moves
+to tears or laughter. All that passes within or before her,
+passes within and before us. If she depicts an object, we
+see it; if she relates an event, we are present at its
+occurrence; if she makes a character talk, we hear his
+words, see his gestures, and distinguish his accent. All is
+true, real, living: this is more than talent&mdash;it is enchantment.
+Generations pass away in turn; a single one, or,
+rather, a group escapes the general oblivion&mdash;the group of
+friends of Mme. de Sévigné."</p>
+
+<p>A woman with characteristics the very opposite of those
+of Mme. de Sévigné, but who in some respects resembled
+her, was Mme. de La Fayette. Of her life, very little
+is to be said, except in regard to her lasting friendship
+and attachment for La Rochefoucauld. She was born in
+1634, and, with Mme. de Sévigné, was probably the best
+educated among the great women of the seventeenth century.
+She was faithful to her husband, the Count of La
+Fayette, who, in 1665, took her to Paris, where she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>[pg 181]</span>
+formed her lifelong attachment for the great La Rochefoucauld,
+and where she won immediate recognition for her
+exquisite politeness and as a woman with a large fund of common sense.</p>
+
+<p>After her marriage, she seemed to have but one interest&mdash;La
+Rochefoucauld, just as that of Mme. de Maintenon
+was Louis XIV. and that of Mme. de Sévigné&mdash;her
+daughter. These three prominent women illustrate remarkably
+well that predominant trait of French women&mdash;faithfulness
+to a chosen cause; each one of the three was
+vitally concerned in an enduring, a legitimate, and sincere
+attachment, which state of affairs gives a certain distinction
+to the society of the time of Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de La Fayette, like Mme. de Sévigné, possessed
+an exceptional talent for making and retaining friends.
+She kept aloof from intrigues, in fact, knew nothing about
+them, and consequently never schemed to use her favor at
+court for purposes of self-interest. Two qualities belonged
+to her more than to any of her contemporaries&mdash;an instinct
+which was superior to her reason, and a love of truth in all things.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with those of Mme. de Rambouillet, it is said
+that her attainments were of a more solid nature; and
+while Mlle. de Scudéry had greater brilliancy, Mme. de
+La Fayette had better judgment. These qualities combined
+with an exquisite delicacy, fine sentiment, calmness,
+and depth of reason, the very basis of her nature, are
+reflected in her works. Sainte-Beuve says that "her
+reason and experience cool her passion and temper the
+ideal with the results of observation." She was one of
+the very few women playing any rôle in French history
+who were endowed with all things necessary to happiness&mdash;fortune,
+reputation, talent, intimate and ideal friendship.
+Extremely sensitive to surroundings, she readily received
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>[pg 182]</span>
+impressions&mdash;a gift which was the source of a somewhat doubtful happiness.</p>
+
+<p>In her later days, notwithstanding terrible suffering, she
+became more devout and exhibited an admirable resignation.
+A letter to Ménage will show the mental and physical
+state reached by her in her last days: "Although you
+forbid me to write to you, I wish, nevertheless, to tell
+you how truly affected I am by your friendship. I appreciate
+it as much as when I used to see it; it is dear to me
+for its own worth, it is dear to me because it is at present
+the only one I have. Time and old age have taken all my
+friends away from me.... I must tell you the state
+I am in. I am, first of all, a mortal divinity, and to an
+excess inconceivable; I have obstructions in my entrails&mdash;sad, inexpressible
+feelings; I have no spirit, no force&mdash;I
+cannot read or apply myself. The slightest things affect
+me&mdash;a fly appears an elephant to me; that is my ordinary
+state.... I cannot believe that I can live long in
+this condition, and my life is too disagreeable to permit me
+to fear the end. I surrender myself to the will of God;
+He is the All-Powerful, and, from all sides, we must go to
+Him at last. They assure me that you are thinking seriously
+of your salvation, and I am very happy over it."</p>
+
+<p>There probably never existed a more ideal friendship
+between two French women, one more lasting, sincere,
+perfect in every way, than that of Mme. de Sévigné and
+Mme. de La Fayette. The major part of the information we
+possess regarding events in the life of Mme. de La Fayette
+is obtained from their letters. Said Mme. de Sévigné:
+"Never did we have the smallest cloud upon our friendship.
+Long habit had not made her merit stale to me&mdash;the flavor
+of it was always fresh and new. I paid her many attentions,
+from the mere promptings of my affection, not because of
+the propriety by which, in friendships, we are bound. I was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>[pg 183]</span>
+assured, too, that I was her dearest consolation&mdash;which, for
+forty years past, had been the case."</p>
+
+<p>Shortly before her death, she wrote to Mme. de Sévigné:
+"Here is what I have done since I wrote you last. I have
+had two attacks of fever; for six months I had not been
+purged; I am purged once, I am purged twice; the day
+after the second time, I sit down at the table; oh, dear! I
+feel a pain in my heart&mdash;I do not want any soup. Have
+a little meat, then? No, I do not wish any. Well, you
+will have some fruit? I think I will. Very well, then,
+have some. I don't know&mdash;I think I will have some by
+and by. Let me have some soup and some chicken this
+evening.... Here is the evening, and there are the
+soup and the chicken; I don't desire them. I am nauseated,
+I will go to bed&mdash;I prefer sleeping to eating. I go to
+bed, I turn round, I turn back, I have no pain, but I have
+no sleep either. I call&mdash;I take a book&mdash;I close it. Day
+comes&mdash;I get up&mdash;I go to the window. It strikes four, five,
+six&mdash;I go to bed again, I doze until seven, I get up at eight,
+I sit down to table at twelve&mdash;to no purpose, as yesterday.... I
+lay myself down in my bed, in the evening,
+to no purpose, as the night before. Are you ill?
+Nay, I am in this state for three days and three nights.
+At present, I am getting some sleep again, but I still eat
+mechanically, horsewise&mdash;rubbing my mouth with vinegar.
+Otherwise, I am very well, and I haven't so much as a pain in my head."</p>
+
+<p>Her depressing melancholy kept her indoors a great
+deal; in fact, after 1683, after the death of the queen, who
+was one of her best friends, she was seldom seen at court.
+Mme. de Sévigné gives good reason for this in her letter:</p>
+
+<p>"She had a mortal melancholy. Again, what absurdity!
+is she not the most fortunate woman in the world?
+That is what people said; it needed that she should die to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>[pg 184]</span>
+prove that she had good reason for not going out and for
+being melancholy. Her reins and her heart were all gone&mdash;was
+not that enough to cause those fits of despondency
+of which she complained? And so, during her life she
+showed reason, and after death she showed reason, and
+never was she without that divine reason which was her principal gift."</p>
+
+<p>Her liaison with La Rochefoucauld is the one delicate
+and tender point in her life, a relation that afforded her
+much happiness and finally completed the ruin of her
+health. M. d'Haussonville said: "It is true that he took
+possession of her soul and intellect, little by little, so that
+the two beings, in the eyes of their contemporaries, were
+but one; for after his death (1680) she lived but an incomplete
+and mutilated existence."</p>
+
+<p>Some critics have ventured to pronounce this liaison one
+of material love solely, others are convinced of its morality
+and pure friendship. In favor of the latter view, M.
+d'Haussonville suggests the fact that Mme. de La Fayette
+was over thirty years of age when she became interested
+in La Rochefoucauld, and that at that age women rarely
+ally themselves with men from emotions of physical love
+merely. At that age it is reason that mutually attracts
+two beings; and this feeling was probably the predominant
+one in that case, because her entire career was one of the
+most extreme reserve, conservatism, good sense, and propriety.
+However, other proofs are brought forward to
+show that there was between the two a sort of moral
+marriage, so many examples of which are found in the
+seventeenth century between people of prominence, both
+of whom happened to have unhappy conjugal experiences.</p>
+
+<p>French society, one must remember, was different from
+any in the world; it seems to have been a large family
+gathering, the members of which were as intimate, took
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>[pg 185]</span>
+as much interest in each other's affairs, showed as much
+sympathy for one another and participated in each other's
+sorrows and pleasures, as though they were children of the same parents.</p>
+
+<p>In his early days, La Rochefoucauld found it convenient,
+for selfish purposes, to simulate an ardent passion for
+Mme. de Longueville, of which mention has been made in
+the chapter relating to Mme. de Longueville. In his later
+period, he had settled down to a normal mode of life and
+sought the friendship of a more reasonable and less passionate
+woman. He himself said:</p>
+
+<p>"When women have well-informed minds, I like their
+conversation better than that of men; you find, with them,
+a certain gentleness which is not met with among us; and
+it seems to me, besides, that they express themselves with
+greater clearness and that they give a more pleasant turn
+to the things they say."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de La Fayette exercised a great influence upon
+La Rochefoucauld&mdash;an influence that was wholesome in
+every way. It was through her influential friends at court
+that he was helped into possession of his property, and it
+was she who maintained it for him. As to his literary
+work (his <i>Maxims</i>), her influence over him was supposed
+to have somewhat modified his ideas on women and to
+have softened his tone in general. She wrote: "He gave
+me wit, but I reformed his heart." M. d'Haussonville has
+proved, without doubt, that her restraint modified many
+of his maxims that were tinged with the spirit of the
+commonplace and trivial. While Mme. de Sablé&mdash;essentially
+a moralist and a deeply religious woman&mdash;was more
+of a companion to him, and though his maxims were, for
+the greater part, composed in her salon, Mme. de La Fayette,
+by her tenderness and judgment, tempered the tone
+of them before they reached the public.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>[pg 186]</span>
+
+<p>Mme. de La Fayette will always be known, however,
+as the great novelist of the seventeenth century. Two
+novels, two stories, two historical works, and her memoirs,
+make up her literary budget. M. d'Haussonville claims
+that her memoirs of the court of France are not reliable,
+because she was so often absent from court; also, in them
+she shows a tendency to avenge herself, in a way, upon
+Mme. de Maintenon, whose friend she was until the trouble
+between this lady and Mme. de Montespan occurred. The
+latter was the intimate friend of Mme. de La Fayette. As
+for her literary work proper, her desire to write was possibly
+encouraged, if not created, by her indulgence in the
+general fad of writing portraitures, in which she was especially
+successful in portraying Mme. de Sévigné. Her
+literary effort was, besides, a revolt of her own taste and
+sense against the pompous and inflated language of the
+novels of the day and against the great length of the development
+of the events and adventures in them. Thus,
+Mme. de La Fayette inaugurated a new style of novel; to
+show her influence, it will be well to consider the state of
+the Romanesque novel at the period of her writing.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of the century, D'Urfé's novels were
+in vogue; these works were characterized by interminable
+developments, relieved by an infinite number of historical
+episodes. All characters, shepherds as well as noblemen,
+expressed the same sentiments and in the same language.
+There was no pretension to truth in the portraying of
+manners and customs.&mdash;A reaction was natural and took
+the form of either a kind of parody or gross realism.
+These novels, of which <i>Francion</i> and <i>Berger Extravagant</i>
+were the best known, depicted shepherds of the Merovingian
+times, heroes of Persia and Rome, or procurers,
+scamps, and scoundrels; but no descriptions of the manners
+of decent people (<i>honnêtes gens</i>) were to be found.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>[pg 187]</span>
+
+<p>The novels of Mlle. de Scudéry, while interesting as
+portraitures, are not thoroughly reliable in their representation
+of the sentiments and environment of the times; on
+the other hand, those of Mme. de La Fayette are impersonal&mdash;no
+one of the characters is recognizable; yet their
+atmosphere is that of the court of Louis XIV., and the
+language, never so correct as to be unnatural, is that used
+at the time. Her novels reflect perfectly the society of
+the court and the manner of life there. "Thus," says
+M. d'Haussonville, "she was the first to produce a novel
+of observation and sentiment, the first to paint elegant
+manners as they really were."</p>
+
+<p>Her first production was <i>La Princesse de Montpensier</i>
+(1662); in 1670, appeared <i>Zayde</i>, it was ostensibly the
+work of Segrais, her teacher and a writer much in vogue
+at the time; in 1678, <i>La Princesse de Clèves</i>, her masterpiece,
+stirred up one of the first real quarrels of literary
+criticism. For a long time after the appearance of that
+book, society was divided into two classes&mdash;the pros and
+the cons. It was the most popular work of the period.</p>
+
+<p>M. d'Haussonville says it is the first French novel which
+is an illustration of woman's ability to analyze the most
+subtile of human emotions. Mme. de La Fayette was,
+also, the first to elevate, in literature, the character of the
+husband who, until then, was a nonentity or a booby; she
+makes of him a hero&mdash;sympathetic, noble, and dignified.</p>
+
+<p>In no fictitious tale before hers was love depicted with
+such rare delicacy and pathos. In her novel, <i>La Princesse
+de Clèves</i>, "a novel of a married woman, we feel the
+woman who has loved and who knows what she is saying,
+for she, also, has struggled and suffered." The writer
+confesses her weakness and leaves us witness of her
+virtue. All the soul struggles and interior combats represented
+in her work the authoress herself has experienced.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>[pg 188]</span>
+As an example of this we cite the description of the sentiments
+of Mme. de Clèves when she realizes that her feeling
+toward one of the members of the court may develop
+into an emotion unworthy of her as a wife. She falls upon her knees and says:</p>
+
+<p>"I am here to make to you a confession such as has
+never been made to man; but the innocence of my conduct
+and my intentions give me the necessary courage. It is
+true that I have reasons for desiring to withdraw from
+court, and that I wish to avoid the perils which persons of
+my age experience. I have never shown a sign of weakness,
+and I would not fear of ever showing any, if you
+permitted me to withdraw from court, or if I still had, in
+my efforts to do right, the support of Mme. de Chartres.
+However dangerous may be the action I take, I take it
+with pleasure, that I may be worthy of your actions, I
+ask a thousand pardons; if I have sentiments displeasing
+to you, I shall at least never displease you by my actions.
+Remember, to do what I am doing, one must have for a
+husband more friendship and esteem than was ever before
+had. Have pity on me and lead me away&mdash;-and love me still, if you can."</p>
+
+<p><i>La Princesse de Clèves</i> is a novel of human virtue purely,
+and teaches that true virtue can find its reward in itself
+and in the austere enjoyment of duty accomplished. "It
+is a work that will endure, and be a comfort as well as a
+guide to those who aspire to a high morality which necessitates
+a difficult sacrifice."</p>
+
+<p>M. d'Haussonville regards the novels of Mmes. de Charrière,
+de Souza, de Duras, de Boigne, as mere imitations
+or as having been inspired by that masterpiece of Mme. de
+La Fayette. He says: "In fact, novels in general, that
+depict the struggle between passion and duty, with the victory
+on the side of virtue, emanate more or less from it."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>[pg 189]</span>
+
+<p>Taine wrote: "She described the events in the careers
+of society women, introducing no special terms of language
+into her descriptions. She painted for the sake of painting
+and did not think of attempting to surpass her predecessors.
+She reflects a society whose scrupulous care was to
+avoid even the slightest appearance of anything that might
+displease or shock. She shows the exquisite tact of a
+woman&mdash;and a woman of high rank."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de La Fayette is one of the very rare French
+writers that have succeeded in analyzing love, passion,
+and moral duty, without becoming monotonous, vulgar,
+brutal, or excessively realistic. Her creations contain the
+most minute analyses of heart and soul emotions, but
+these never become purely physiologic and nauseating, as
+in most novels. This achievement on her part has been
+too little imitated, but it, alone, will preserve the name of
+Mme. de La Fayette.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Motteville is deserving of mention among the
+important literary women of the seventeenth century.
+She is regarded as one of the best women writers in
+French literature, and her memoirs are considered authority
+on the history of the Fronde and of Anne of Austria.
+The poetry of Mme. des Houlières was for a long time
+much in vogue; to-day, however, it is not read. The
+memoirs of Mlle. de Montpensier are more occupied with
+herself than with events of the time or the numerous
+princes who tarried about her as longing lovers. Guizot
+says: "She was so impassioned and haughty, with her
+head so full of her own greatness, that she did not marry
+in her youth, thinking no one worthy of her except the
+king and the emperor, and they had no fancy for her."
+The following portrait of her was sketched by herself:</p>
+
+<p>"I am tall, neither fat nor thin, of a very fine and easy
+figure. I have a good mien, arms and hands not beautiful,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>[pg 190]</span>
+but a beautiful skin&mdash;and throat, too. I have a straight
+leg and a well-shaped foot; my hair is light and of a beautiful
+auburn; my face is long, its contour is handsome,
+nose large and aquiline; mouth neither large nor small,
+but chiselled and with a very pleasing expression; lips
+vermilion, not fine, but not frightful, either; my eyes are
+blue, neither large nor small, but sparkling, soft, and proud
+like my mien. I talk a great deal, without saying silly
+things or using bad words. I am a very vicious enemy,
+being very choleric and passionate, and that, added to my
+birth, may well make my enemies tremble; but I have,
+also, a noble and kindly soul. I am incapable of any
+base and black deed; and so I am more disposed to
+mercy than to justice. I am melancholic, and fond of
+reading good and solid books; trifles bore me&mdash;except
+verses, and them I like, of whatever sort they may be;
+and undoubtedly I am as good a judge of such things as if I were a scholar."</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the greatest female scholar that France ever
+produced was Mme. Dacier, a truly learned woman and
+one of whom French women are proud; during her last
+years she enjoyed the reputation of being one of the foremost
+scholars of all Europe. It was Mme. de Lambert who wrote of her:</p>
+
+<p>"I esteem Mme. Dacier infinitely. Our sex owes her
+much; she has protested against the common error which
+condemns us to ignorance. Men, as much from disdain as
+from a fancied superiority, have denied us all learning;
+Mme. Dacier is an example proving that we are capable
+of learning. She has associated erudition and good manners;
+for, at present, modesty has been displaced; shame
+is no longer for vices, and women blush over their learning
+only. She has freed the mind, held captive under this
+prejudice, and she alone supports us in our rights."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>[pg 191]</span>
+
+<p>Tanneguy-Lefèvre, the father of Mme. Dacier, was a
+savant and a type of the scholars of the sixteenth century.
+He brought up his sons to be like him&mdash;instructing them
+in Greek, Latin, and antiquities. The young daughter,
+present at all the lessons given to her brothers, acquired,
+unaided, a solid education; her father, amazed at her marvellous
+faculty for comprehending and remembering, soon
+devoted most of his energy to her. He was, at that time,
+professor at the College of Saumur; and he was conspicuous
+not only for the liberty he exhibited in his pedagogical
+duties, but for his general catholicity.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of her father, the young daughter went
+to Paris where her family friends, Chapelain and Huet,
+encouraged her in her studies, the latter, who was assistant
+preceptor to the dauphin, even going so far as to request her
+to assist him in preparing the Greek text for the use of
+the dauphin. She soon eclipsed all scholars of the time by
+her illuminating studies of Greek authors and of the quality
+of the new editions which she prepared of their works, but
+she was continually pestered on account of her erudition
+and her religion, the Protestant faith, to which she clung
+while realizing that it had been the cause of the failure of
+her father's advancement.</p>
+
+<p>From that time appeared her famous series of translations
+of Terence and Plautus, which were the delight of
+the women of the period and which gave her the reputation
+of being the most intellectual woman of the seventeenth
+century. In 1635, when nearly thirty years of
+age, she married M. Dacier, the favorite pupil of her
+father, librarian to the king and translator of Plutarch&mdash;a
+man of no means, but one who thoroughly appreciated
+the worth of Mlle. Lefèvre. This union was spoken
+of by her contemporaries as "the marriage of Greek and Latin."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>[pg 192]</span>
+
+<p>Two years after their marriage, after long and serious
+deliberation, both abjured Protestantism, adopted the Catholic
+religion, and succeeded in converting the whole town of
+Castres&mdash;an act which gained them royal favor, and
+Louis XIV. granted them a pension of two thousand livres.
+Sainte-Beuve states that their conversion was perfectly
+sincere and conscientious. In all their subsequent works
+were seen traces of Mme. Dacier's powerful intellect,
+which was much superior to that of her husband. Boileau
+said: "In their production of <i>esprit</i>, it is Mme. Dacier who
+is the father."</p>
+
+<p>Besides her translations of the plays of Plautus, all of
+Terence, the <i>Clouds</i> and <i>Plutus</i> of Aristophanes, she published her
+translation of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>
+(1711-1716), which gave her a prominent place in the history of French
+literature, especially as it appeared at the time of the
+"quarrels of the ancients and moderns," which concerned
+the comparative merits of ancient and modern literature.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Dacier thoroughly appreciated the grandeur of
+Homer and knew the almost insurmountable difficulties
+of a translation; therefore, when in 1714 the <i>Iliad</i> appeared
+in verse (in twelve songs by La Motte-Houdart),
+preceded by a discourse on Homer, in which the author
+announced that his aim was to purify and embellish Homer
+by ridding him "of his barbarian crudeness, his uncivil
+familiarities, and his great length," the ire of Mme. Dacier
+was aroused, and in defence of her god she wrote her
+famous <i>Des Causes de la Corruption du Goût</i> (Causes of
+the Corruption of Taste), a long defence of Homer, to
+which La Motte replied in his <i>Réflexions de la Critique</i>
+This rekindled the whole controversy, and sides were immediately formed.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Dacier was not politic; although she sustained
+her ideas well and displayed much erudition and depth of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>[pg 193]</span>
+reason, she is said to have injured her cause by the violence
+of her polemic. Her immoderate tone and bitter
+assaults upon the elegant and discerning favorite only
+detracted from his opponent's favor and grace. Voltaire
+said: "You could say that the work of M. de La Motte was
+that of a woman of <i>esprit</i>, while that of Mme. Dacier was of
+a <i>homme savant</i>. He translated the <i>Iliad</i> very poorly, but attacked
+very well." Mme. Dacier's translation remained
+a standard for two centuries. She and her adversary became
+reconciled at a dinner given by M. de Valincour for
+the friends of both parties; upon that festive occasion,
+"they drank to the health of Homer, and all was well."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Dacier died in 1720. "She was a <i>savante</i> only in
+her study or when with savants; otherwise, she was unaffected
+and agreeable in conversation, from the character
+of which one would never have suspected her of knowing
+more than the average woman." She was an incessant
+worker and had little time for social life; in the evening,
+after having worked all morning, she received visits from
+the literary men of France; and, to her credit may it be
+added, amid all her literary work, she never neglected her
+domestic and maternal duties.</p>
+
+<p>A woman of an entirely different type from that of
+Mme. Dacier, one who fitly closes the long series of great
+and brilliant women of the age of Louis XIV., who only
+partly resembles them and yet does not quite take on the
+faded and decadent coloring of the next age, was Mme. de
+Caylus, the niece of Mme. de Maintenon. It was she
+who, partly through compulsion, partly of her own free
+will, undertook the rearing of the young and beautiful
+Marthe-Marguerite de Villette. Mme. de Maintenon was
+then at the height of her power, and naturally her beautiful,
+clever, and witty niece was soon overwhelmed by
+proposals of marriage from the greatest nobles of France.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>[pg 194]</span>
+To one of these, M. de Boufflers, Mme. de Maintenon replied:
+"My niece is not a sufficiently good match for you.
+However, I am not insensible to the honor you pay me;
+I shall not give her to you, but in the future I shall consider you my nephew."</p>
+
+<p>She then married the innocent young girl to the Marquis
+de Caylus, a debauched, worthless reprobate&mdash;a union
+whose only merit lay in the fact that her niece could thus
+remain near her at court. At the latter place, her beauty,
+gayety, and caustic wit, her adaptable and somewhat superficial
+character and her freedom of manners and speech, did
+not fail to attract many admirers. Her frankness in expressing
+her opinions was the source of her disgrace; Louis XIV.
+took her at her word when she exclaimed, in speaking of
+the court: "This place is so dull that it is like being in
+exile to live here," and forbade her to appear again in the
+place she found so tiresome. Those rash words cost her
+an exile of thirteen years, and only through good behavior,
+submission, and piety was she permitted to return.</p>
+
+<p>She appeared at a supper given by the king, and, by the
+brilliancy of her beauty and <i>esprit</i>, she attracted everyone
+present and soon regained her former favor and friends.
+From that time she was the constant companion of Mme.
+de Maintenon, until the king's death, when she returned
+to Paris; at that place her salon became an intellectual
+centre, and there the traditions of the seventeenth century were perpetuated.</p>
+
+<p>Sainte-Beuve said that Mme. de Caylus perfectly exemplified
+what was called urbanity&mdash;"politeness in speech
+and accent as well as in <i>esprit</i>." In her youth she was
+famous for her extraordinary acting in the performance,
+at Saint-Cyr, of Racine's <i>Esther</i>. Mme. de Sévigné wrote:
+"It is Mme. de Caylus who makes Esther." Her brief and
+witty <i>Souvenirs</i> (Memoirs), showing marvellous finesse in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>[pg 195]</span>
+the art of portraiture, made her name immortal. M. Saint-Amand
+describes her work thus:</p>
+
+<p>"Her friends, enchanted by her lively wit, had long
+entreated her to write&mdash;not for the public, but for them&mdash;the
+anecdotes which she related so well. Finally, she
+acquiesced, and committed to paper certain incidents, certain
+portraits. What a treasure are these <i>Souvenirs</i>&mdash;so
+fluently written, so unpretentious, with neither dates nor
+chronological order, but upon which, for more than a century,
+all historians have drawn! How much is contained
+in this little book which teaches more in a few lines than
+interminable works do in many volumes! How feminine
+it is, and how French! One readily understands Voltaire's
+liking for these charming <i>Souvenirs</i>. Who, than Mme. de
+Caylus, ever better applied the famous precept: 'Go
+lightly, mortals; don't bear too hard.'"</p>
+
+<p>She belonged to that class of spontaneous writers who
+produce artistic works without knowing it, just as M. Jourdain
+wrote prose, and who do not even suspect that they
+possess that chief attribute of literary style&mdash;naturalness.
+What pure, what ready wit! What good humor, what unconstraint,
+what delightful ease! What a series of charming
+portraits, each more lifelike, more animated, still better
+than all the others! "These little miniatures&mdash;due to the
+brush of a woman of the world&mdash;are better worth studying
+than is many a picture or fresco."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>[pg 197]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter VII</h2>
+
+<h2>Woman in Religion</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>[pg 199]</span>
+
+
+<p>The entire religious agitation of the seventeenth century
+was due to women. Port-Royal was the centre from
+which issued all contention&mdash;the centre where all subjects
+were discussed, where the most important books were
+written or inspired, where the genius of that great century
+centred; and it was to Port-Royal that the greatest women
+of France went, either to find repose for their souls or to
+visit the noble members of their sex who had consecrated
+their lives to God&mdash;Mère Angélique, Jacqueline Pascal.
+Never in the history of the world had a religious sect or
+party gathered within its fold such an array of great minds,
+such a number of fearless and determined heroines and
+<i>esprits d'élite</i>. A short account of this famous convent
+must precede any story of its members.</p>
+
+<p>The original convent, Port-Royal des Champs, near
+Versailles, was founded as early as 1204, by Mathieu of
+Montmorency and his wife, for the Cistercian nuns who
+had the privileges of electing their abbess and of receiving
+into their community ladies who, tired of the social
+world, wished to retire to a religious asylum, without,
+however, being bound by any religious vows. Later on,
+the sisters were permitted to receive, also, young ladies of the nobility.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>[pg 200]</span>
+
+<p>These privileges were used to such advantage that the
+institution acquired great wealth; and through its boarders,
+some of whom belonged to the most important families
+of France, it became influential to an almost incalculable
+degree. For four centuries this convent had been developing
+liberal tendencies and gradually falling away from
+its primitive austerity, when, in 1605, Sister Angélique
+Arnauld became abbess and undertook a thorough reform.
+So great was her success in this direction that, after having
+effected similar changes at the Convent of Maubuisson
+and then returned to Port-Royal des Champs, the latter
+became so crowded that new and more commodious quarters had to be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The immense and beautiful Hôtel de Cluny, at Paris,
+was procured, and a portion of the community moved
+thither, establishing an institution which became the best
+known and most popular of those French convents which
+were patronized by women of distinction. The old abbey
+buildings near Versailles were later occupied by a community
+of learned and pious men who were, for the most part,
+pupils of the celebrated Abbé of Saint-Cyran, who, with
+Jansenius, was living at Paris at the time that Mère Angélique
+was perfecting her reforms; she, attracted by the
+ascetic life led by the abbé, fell under his influence, and
+the whole Arnauld family, numbering about thirty, followed her example.</p>
+
+<p>Soon "the nuns at Paris, with their numerous and
+powerful connections, and the recluses at Port-Royal des
+Champs, together with their pupils and the noble or
+wealthy families to which the latter belonged, were imbued
+with the new doctrines of which they became apostles."
+The primary aim was to live up to a common ideal
+of Christian perfection, and to react against the general
+corruption by establishing thoroughly moral schools and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>[pg 201]</span>
+publishing works denouncing, in strong terms, the glaring
+errors of the time, the source of which was considered, by
+both the Abbé of Saint-Cyran and Jansenius, to lie in the
+Jesuit Colleges and their theology. Thus was evolved a
+system of education in every way antagonistic to that of the Jesuits.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the convent at Paris became so crowded
+that Mère Angélique withdrew to the abbey near Versailles,
+the occupants of which retired to a neighboring
+farm, Les Granges; there was opened a seminary for females,
+which soon attracted the daughters of the nobility.
+An astounding literary and agricultural activity resulted,
+both at the abode of the recluses and at the seminary: by
+the recluses were written the famous Greek and Latin
+grammars, and by the nuns, the famous <i>Memoirs of the
+History of Port-Royal</i> and the <i>Image of the Perfect and
+Imperfect Sister</i>; a model farm was cultivated, and here the
+peasants were taught improved methods of tillage. During
+the time of the civil wars the convent became a resort
+where charity and hospitality were extended to the poor peasants.</p>
+
+<p>"The mode of life at Port-Royal was distinguished for
+austerity. The inmates rose at three o'clock in the morning,
+and, after the common prayer, kissed the ground as a
+sign of their self-humiliation before God. Then, kneeling,
+they read a chapter from the Gospels and one from the
+Epistles, concluding with another prayer. Two hours in
+the morning and a like number in the afternoon were devoted
+to manual labor in the gardens adjoining the convent;
+they observed, with great strictness, the season of
+Lent." Their theories and practices, and especially their
+sympathy with Jansenius, whose work <i>Mars Gallicus</i> attacked
+the French government and people, aroused the
+suspicions of Richelieu. When in 1640 the Port-Royalists
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>[pg 202]</span>
+openly and enthusiastically received the famous work,
+<i>Augustinus</i>, of Jansenius, the government became the declared
+opponent of the convent. Saint-Cyran had been
+imprisoned in 1638, and not until after the death of Richelieu,
+in 1642, was he liberated. After the appearance, in
+1643, of Arnauld's <i>De la Fréquente Communion</i>, in which
+he attacked the Jesuits for admitting the people to the
+Lord's Supper without due preparation, two parties formed&mdash;the
+Jesuits, supported by the Sorbonne and the government,
+and the Port-Royalists, supported by Parliament
+and illustrious persons, such as Mme. de Longueville.</p>
+
+<p>In 1644, the nuns were dispersed by order of Louis XIV.,
+against whose despotic caprices two Jansenist bishops had
+fought in support of the rights of the pope. The Paris
+convent remained closed until 1669, when it and the one
+at Chevreuse, near Versailles were made independent of
+each other, a proceeding which resulted in the two institutions
+becoming opponents. In 1708 the Convent of Port-Royal
+des Champs was suppressed, and, a year later, the
+beautiful and once prosperous community was destroyed,
+the buildings being levelled to the ground. In 1780 the
+Paris convent was abolished; five years later the structure
+was converted into a hospital, and in 1814 it became the
+lying-in asylum of <i>La Maternité</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In those two convents, which were practically one, was
+fomented and developed the entire religious movement of
+the seventeenth century, to which period belong the general
+study and development of theology, metaphysics, and
+morality. Such great, good, and brilliant women as the
+Countess of Maure, Mlle. de Vandy, Anne de Rohan,
+Mme. de Brégy, Mme. de Hautefort, Mme. de Longueville,
+Mme. de Sévigné, Mme. de La Fayette, and Mme.
+de Sablé were inmates of Port-Royal, or its friends and constant visitors.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>[pg 203]</span>
+
+<p>Port-Royal may have been the cause of the civil war
+waged by the Frondists against the government. It did
+bring on the struggle between the Jesuits, who were all-powerful
+in the Church, and the Jansenists. The latter
+denied the doctrine of free will, and taught the absolutism
+of religion, the "terrible God," the powerlessness of kings
+and princes before God&mdash;a doctrine which brought down
+upon them the wrath of Louis XIV., for whom their notion
+of virtue was too severe, their use of the Gospel too excessive,
+and their Christianity impossible.</p>
+
+<p>In its purest form, Port-Royalism was a return to the
+sanctity of the primitive church&mdash;an attempt at the use, in
+French, of the whole body of Scriptures and the writings
+of the Church Fathers; it aimed to maintain a vigorous
+religious reaction in the shape of a reform, and that reform
+was vigorously opposed by the Catholic Church.</p>
+
+<p>One family that is associated with Port-Royal gave to
+its cause no less than six sisters; the latter all belonged
+to the Convent of Port-Royal and were attached to the
+Jansenist party; of them, the Archbishop of Paris said that
+they were "as pure as angels, but as proud as devils."
+They were related to the one great Arnauld family,
+of which Antoine and his three sons&mdash;Robert, Henri, and
+the younger Antoine, called "the great Antoine"&mdash;were
+illustrious champions of Port-Royal.</p>
+
+<p>Marie Jacqueline Angélique, the oldest among the three
+abbesses, was born in 1591, and, at the early age of fourteen,
+was made abbess of Port-Royal des Champs; it was
+she who, after having instituted successful reforms at Port-Royal,
+was sent to reform the system of the Abbey of
+Maubuisson, thus initiating the important movement which
+later involved almost all France. She became convinced
+that she had not been lawfully elected abbess and resigned,
+securing, however, a provision which made the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>[pg 204]</span>
+election of abbesses a triennial event. To her belongs
+the honor of having made Port-Royal anew. She was a
+woman capable of every sacrifice,&mdash;a wonderful type in
+which were blended candor, pride, and submission,&mdash;and
+she exhibited indomitable strength of will and earnest zeal for her cause.</p>
+
+<p>Her sister, Agnes, but three years younger than Marie,
+also entered the convent, and, at the age of fifteen, was
+made mistress of the novices; during the absence of her
+sister, at Maubuisson, she was at the head of the convent;
+from that time, she governed Port-Royal alternately with
+her sister, for twenty-seven years. Her work, <i>The Secret
+Chapter of the Sacrament</i>, was suppressed at Rome, but
+without bringing formal censure upon her.</p>
+
+<p>The last of those great abbesses was Mère Angélique,
+who lived through the most troublous and critical times of
+Port-Royal (1624 to 1684). At the age of twenty she
+became a nun, having been reared in the convent by her
+aunt, Marie, who was the most perfect disciple of Saint-Cyran.
+Mère Angélique was especially conspicuous for
+her obstinacy, and when the nuns were forced to accept
+the formulary of Pope Alexander VI., she, alone, was excepted,
+because of that well known characteristic. Upon
+the reopening of Port-Royal (in 1689), her powerful protectress,
+Mme. de Longueville, died and the persecutions
+were renewed; Mère Angélique endeavored to avert the
+storm, but all in vain; amidst her efforts, she collapsed.
+She was also a writer, her <i>Memoirs of the History of Port
+Royal</i> being the most valuable history of that institution.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, about those three women is formed the religious
+movement which involved both the development of religious
+liberty, free will, and morality, and of the philosophical
+literature of the century&mdash;a century which boasts such
+writers and theologians as Nicole, Pascal, Racine, etc.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>[pg 205]</span>
+
+<p>The mission of Port-Royal seems to have been preparation
+of souls for the struggles of life, teaching how to
+resist oppression or to bear it with courage, and how, for
+a righteous cause, to brave everything, not only the persecutions
+of power&mdash;violence, prison, exile,&mdash;but the ruses
+of hypocrisy and the calumny of opposing opinion. The
+Port-Royalist nun combated and taught how to combat;
+she lacked humility, but possessed an abundance of courage
+which often bordered upon passion.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most pathetic and striking illustrations of
+the fervent devotion which was a characteristic product
+of Port-Royal, is supplied by Jacqueline Pascal, sister of
+the great Blaise Pascal. Young, <i>spirituelle</i>, very much
+sought after and the idol of brilliant companions, at the
+age of twenty-six she abandoned the world to devote herself
+to God. At thirty-six years of age she died of sorrow
+and remorse for having signed an equivocal formulary
+of Pope Alexander VI., "through pure deference to the
+authority of her superiors." The papal decision concerning
+Jansenius's book, already mentioned, was drawn up
+in a formula "turned with some skill, and in such a way
+that subscription did not bind the conscience; however, the
+nuns of Port-Royal refused to sign." Jacqueline Pascal wrote:</p>
+
+<p>"That which hinders us, what hinders all the ecclesiastics
+who recognize the truth from replying when the
+formulary is presented to them to subscribe is: I know
+the respect I owe the bishops, but my conscience does not
+permit me to subscribe that a thing is in a book in which
+I have not seen it&mdash;and after that, wait for what will
+happen. What have we to fear? Banishment and dispersion
+for the nuns, seizure of temporalities, imprisonment,
+and death if you will; but is not that our glory and
+should it not be our joy? Let us either renounce the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>[pg 206]</span>
+Gospel or faithfully follow the maxims of that Gospel and
+deem ourselves happy to suffer somewhat for righteousness'
+sake. I know that it is not for daughters to defend
+the truth, though, unfortunately, one might say that since
+the bishops have the courage of daughters, the daughters
+must have the courage of bishops; but, if it is not for us
+to defend the truth, it is for us to die for the truth and to
+suffer everything rather than abandon it."</p>
+
+<p>She subscribed, "divided between her instinctive repugnance
+and her desire to show herself an humble daughter
+of the Catholic Church." She said: "It is all we can
+concede; for the rest, come what may,&mdash;poverty, dispersion,
+imprisonment, death,&mdash;all those seem to me nothing
+in comparison with the anguish in which I should pass the
+remainder of my life, if I had been wretch enough to make
+a covenant with death on the occasion of so excellent an
+opportunity for proving to God the sincerity of the vows
+of fidelity which our lips have pronounced." According
+to Mme. Périer, the health of the writer of the above
+epistle was so undermined by the shock which all that
+commotion had caused her, that she became dangerously
+ill, dying soon after. Thus was sacrificed the first victim of the formulary.</p>
+
+<p>Cousin says that few women of the seventeenth century
+were as brilliantly endowed as Jacqueline Pascal; possessing
+the finesse, energy, and sobriety of her brother, she
+was capable of the most serious work, and yet knew perfectly
+how to lead in a social circle. Also, she was most
+happily gifted with a talent for poetry, in relation to which
+her reputation was everywhere recognized; at the convent,
+she consulted her superiors as to the advisability of
+continuing her verse making; and upon being told that
+such occupation was not a means of winning the grace of
+Jesus Christ, she abandoned it.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>[pg 207]</span>
+
+<p>Cousin maintained that the avowed principle of the
+Port-Royalists was the withdrawal from all worldly pleasure
+and attachment. "'Marriage is a homicide; absolute
+renunciation is the true régime of a Christian.' Jacqueline
+Pascal is an exaggeration of Port-Royal, and Port-Royal is
+an exaggeration of the religious spirit of the seventeenth
+century. Man is too little considered; all movement of
+the physical world comes from God; all our acts and
+thoughts, except those of crime and error, come from and
+belong to Him. Nothing is our own; there is no free will;
+will and reason have no power. The theory of grace is
+the source of all truth, virtue, and merit&mdash;and for this
+doctrine Jacqueline Pascal gives up her life."</p>
+
+<p>Among the great spirits of Port-Royal, the women especially
+were strong in their convictions and high in their
+ideals. They naturally followed the ideas of man and
+naturally fell into religious errors; but their firmness, constancy,
+and heroism were striking indeed. Their aspiration
+was the imitation of Christ, and they approached
+their model as near as ever was done by man. In an age
+of courtesans, when convictions were subservient to the
+pleasure of power, they set a worthy example of strength
+of mind, firmness of will, purity, and womanliness. M. du Bled says:</p>
+
+<p>"Port-Royal was the enterprise of the middle-class aristocracy
+of France; you can see here an anticipated attempt
+of a sort of superior third estate to govern for itself in the
+Church and to establish a religion not Roman, not aristocratic
+and of the court, not devout in the manner of the
+simple people, but freer from vain images and ceremonies,
+and freer, also, as to the temporal in the face of worldly
+authority&mdash;a sober, austere, independent religion which
+would have truly founded a Gallican reform. The illusion
+was in thinking that they could continue to exist in Rome&mdash;that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>[pg 208]</span>
+Richelieu and Louis XIV. would tolerate the boldness of this attempt."</p>
+
+<p>A celebrated woman of the seventeenth century, one
+who really belongs to the circle of Mme. de Longueville
+and Mme. de La Fayette, but who early in life, like Mme.
+de Longueville, devoted herself to religion and retired to
+live at Port-Royal, and is therefore more intimately associated
+with the religious movement, was Mme. de Sablé, a
+type of the social-religious woman.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Sablé is a heroine of Cousin, whom we closely
+follow in this account of her career. According to that
+writer, she is a type of the purely social woman, a woman
+who did less for herself than for others, in aiding whom
+she took delight, a woman who was the inspiration of
+many writers and many works.</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Souvré married the wealthy Marquis of Sablé,
+of the house of Montmorency, of whom little is known.
+He soon abandoned her; and she, most unhappy over
+unworthy rivals, fell very ill, retired from society for
+a time, and then reappeared; her career as a society
+woman then began. At an early age, by force of her
+decided taste for the high form of Spanish gallantry,
+then so much in vogue, and her inclination to all things
+intellectual, she became one of the leaders of the Hôtel de
+Rambouillet. She, Mmes. de Sévigné, de Longueville,
+and de La Fayette formed that circle of women who idealized friendship.</p>
+
+<p>Within a few years she lost her father, husband, two of
+her brothers, and her second son; and after putting her
+financial affairs into order, she and her friend, the Countess
+of Maure, took up their quarters at the famous Place
+Royale; there they decided to devote their lives to letters,
+and there assembled their friends, men and women, regardless
+of rank or party, personal merit being the only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>[pg 209]</span>
+means of access. Mmes. de Sablé and de Rambouillet
+were called the arbiters of elegance and good taste.</p>
+
+<p>To her friends, Mme. de Sablé was always accommodating
+and showed no partiality; well informed, she was
+constantly approached for counsel and favors; discreet and
+trustworthy, the most important secrets were intrusted to
+her&mdash;a confidence which she never betrayed. During the
+Fronde she remained faithful to the queen and Mazarin,
+but did not become estranged from her friends, so many
+of whom were Frondists, and who chose her as their
+counsellor, arbitrator, and pacifier.</p>
+
+<p>About 1655 she began to realize her unsettled position
+in the world and to long for a place where she might,
+modestly and becomingly, spend her declining years. She
+was then fifty-five years of age. The ideas of Jansenism
+had so impressed the great people of the day, that she decided
+to retire to Port-Royal, to end her days with sympathizers
+of the spiritual life around her and her former
+friends whenever she desired them. There she gathered
+about her the most exclusive and aristocratic people of the
+day: La Rochefoucauld, the Prince and Princess of Conti,
+Condé, Monsieur,&mdash;brother of Louis XIV.,&mdash;Mme. de La
+Fayette, Mme. de Hautefort, and others.</p>
+
+<p>At her apartments, not only were religious and literary
+affairs discussed, but the most delicate and delicious dishes
+were prepared and elixirs and remedies for disease compounded.
+Famous people were led to seek her, through
+her reputation and influence, and through friendship, for
+she seldom left her house. Mme. de Sablé possessed all
+the qualities that attract and hold, nothing extraordinary
+or rare, but abundant politeness and elegance.</p>
+
+<p>It was not long before she began to withdraw from even
+her friends, still continuing, however, her fine cuisine, the
+remarkable care of her health, and her medical experiments.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>[pg 210]</span>
+Her dinners became celebrated, and invitations to them were
+much in demand; about them there were no signs of opulence,
+but her gatherings were distinguished for refinement
+and taste. Her friends were constantly asking her
+for her recipes, of the preparation of which no one but herself knew the secret.</p>
+
+<p>At the salon of Mme. de Sablé originated many famous
+literary works, such as the <i>Conférences sur le Calvinisme</i>,
+works on Cartesian philosophy, the <i>Logique de Port-Royal</i>,
+<i>Questions sur l'Amour</i>, <i>Les Maximes</i>, etc. She will be
+remembered as the initiator of many maxims, in the composition
+of which she excelled. A number of her sayings
+concerning friendship have been preserved. Two treatises,
+in the form of maxims, on the education of children and on
+friendship, respectively, are supposed to have come from
+her pen; from them La Rochefoucauld conceived the ideas
+he utilized in his famous <i>Maxims</i>.</p>
+
+<p>La Rochefoucauld's maxims were composed according
+to the chance of conversation, which gave rise to various
+subjects and led to his serious reflection upon them.
+Cousin even goes so far as to say that the <i>Pensées</i> of
+Pascal would never have been published in that form had
+not the <i>Maxims</i> enjoyed such favor. Pascal often visited
+Port-Royal and naturally followed the general reflective
+tendency of its society. His <i>Discours sur les Passions de
+l'Amour</i> possibly originated at the salon of Mme. de Sablé,
+because the subject of which that work treated was one
+much discussed there. La Rochefoucauld was in the habit
+of sending his maxims to Mme. de Sablé with the message:
+"As you do nothing for nothing, I ask of you a carrot soup or mutton stew."</p>
+
+<p>When La Rochefoucauld entered the society of Mme.
+de Sablé, he had seen much of life, was familiar with
+most of the adventures and intrigues of the Fronde and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>[pg 211]</span>
+the society of the time; he himself had acted his part in
+all, and at the age of fifty was ready to put his experience
+into a permanent form of reflection. His <i>Maxims</i> created
+a stir, through the clearness and elegance of their character,
+their fine analyses of man as he was in the seventeenth
+century, and through their truthfulness and general
+applicability to men of every country. From all the illustrious
+women of the day, either he or Mme. de Sablé
+received letters of criticism or suggestion&mdash;eulogies and
+condemnations of which he took notice in his next edition.
+This shows the intense interest felt in the appearance of
+any new literary production.</p>
+
+<p>Cousin says that the whole literature of maxims and
+reflections issued directly from the salon of a kind and good
+woman who had retired to a convent with no other desire
+than to live over her life, to recall her past and what she
+had seen and felt therein; and upon her society, that
+woman impressed her own tastes, elegance, and seriousness.
+Her great act of benevolence was her protection of
+Port-Royal. When, after the death in 1661 of Mother
+Angélique Arnauld, that institution became the object of
+persecution and its tenants were either imprisoned or compelled
+to seek refuge in the various families of Paris, Mme.
+de Sablé remained faithful to its principles; she lived with
+her friends, Mme. de Longueville and Mme. de Montausier,
+until 1669, when, with the coöperation of Mme. de Longueville,
+who exerted all her influence for Port-Royal, she
+finally succeeded in bringing about its reopening. At least,
+Cousin ascribes this result to Mme. de Sablé, but he may
+have somewhat exaggerated her influence in this respect.
+From her retreat at Port-Royal, she kept up a constant
+correspondence with her friends all over France; she lived
+there until 1678, with but one intimate friend, Mme. de Longueville.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>[pg 212]</span>
+
+<p>Mme. de Sablé had remarkable gifts; her mission in
+politics, religion, and literature seems to have been to
+excite to action, to stimulate and to bring out to its fullest
+value, the talents and genius of others. In her modest
+salon, she inspired the great and illustrious work which
+will keep her memory alive as long as the <i>Maxims</i> and
+<i>Pensées</i> are read. Her name will be connected with that
+of Mme. de Longueville, because of their ideal friendship,
+and with that of Port-Royal because of her ardent and
+self-sacrificing support of it in the time of its direst persecution,
+when any exhibition of sympathy was dangerous
+in the extreme; and finally, her name will always be connected
+with that small circle of French society of the seventeenth
+century, which was noble, moral, and elevating to an unusual degree.</p>
+
+<p>Somewhat later in the century a different movement
+was started by a woman, which involved many of the
+highest in rank at court. This took the form of a kind of
+mystical enthusiasm, running into a theory of pure love,
+and was instigated by Mme. Guyon, a widow, still young,
+and gifted with a lofty and subtile mind. After losing her
+husband, whom she had converted to her religious views,
+she went, in 1680, to Paris to educate her children. Becoming
+interested in religion, she went to Geneva, where
+she became very intimate with a priest who was her spiritual
+director, and whom she soon wholly subjected to her
+influence. On account of their views on sanctification,
+they were ordered to leave.</p>
+
+<p>After travelling over Europe for a number of years, and
+writing several works, including <i>Spiritual Torrents</i> and
+<i>Short and Easy Method of Making Orison with the Heart</i>,
+the widow returned to Paris, with the intention of living
+in retirement; but so many persons of all ranks sought her
+out, that she organized, for ladies of rank, meetings for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>[pg 213]</span>
+purposes of prayer and religious conversation. The Duchess
+of Beauvilliers, the Duchess of Béthune, the Countess
+of Guiche, the Countess of Chevreuse, and many others,
+with their husbands, became her devoted adherents.</p>
+
+<p>According to Mme. Guyon, prayer should lose the character
+of supplication, and become simply the silence of a
+soul absorbed in God. "Why are not simple folks so
+taught? Shepherds, keeping their flocks, would have the
+spirit of the old anchorites; and laborers, whilst driving
+the plow, would talk happily with God. In a little while,
+vice would be banished and the kingdom of God would be
+realized on earth." Thus, her doctrine was directly opposite
+to the theories of the Jansenists.</p>
+
+<p>At that time, 1687 to 1688, all religious movements,
+however quiet, were condemned at Rome; and the teachings
+of Mme. Guyon were found to differ very little from
+those of the Spanish priest Molinas. The first arrest, that
+of her friend Lacombe, was soon followed by that of Mme.
+Guyon herself, by royal order; she was released through
+the intercession of Mme. de Maintenon, who was fascinated
+by her to the extent of permitting her to teach her doctrines
+at Saint-Cyr, Upon the appearance of her <i>Method of
+Prayer</i>, an examination was instituted by Bossuet and
+Fénelon, who marked out a few passages as erroneous&mdash;a
+procedure to which she submitted. However, Bossuet
+himself wrote a treatise against her <i>Method of Prayer</i>, in
+which he cast reflections upon her character and conduct;
+to that work Fénelon refused to subscribe, which antagonistic
+proceeding brought on the great quarrel between
+those two absolute ecclesiasts. In fact, Fénelon became
+imbued with the doctrines of Mme. Guyon.</p>
+
+<p>She was imprisoned at various times; and when a letter
+was received from Lacombe, who had been imprisoned at
+Vincennes for a long time, exhorting her to repent of their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>[pg 214]</span>
+criminal intimacy, Mme. Guyon's cause was hopeless.
+She was sent to the Bastille, her son was dismissed from
+the army, and many of her friends were banished. In
+1702 she was released from prison and banished to Diziers;
+she passed the remainder of her life in complete retirement at Blois.</p>
+
+<p>Fénelon had written a treatise, <i>Maxims of the Saints</i>,
+which was said to favor Mme. Guyon's doctrines, and
+which was sent to Rome for examination. He defined her
+doctrine of divine love in the following maxim, which was condemned at Rome:</p>
+
+<p>"There is an habitual state of love of God, which is
+pure charity without any taint of the motive of self-interest.
+Neither fear of punishment nor desire of reward
+has, any longer, part in this love; God is loved, not for the
+merit, but for the happiness to be found in loving Him."</p>
+
+<p>Such a doctrine made repentance unnecessary, destroyed
+all effort to withstand evil, and did not acknowledge the
+need of a Redeemer. This the great Bossuet foresaw;
+consequently, he, as the supreme religious potentate of
+his inferior in rank, Fénelon, demanded the condemnation
+by the latter of the works of Mme. Guyon. The refusal
+cost Fénelon exile for life. To Mme. de Maintenon he
+wrote a letter which shows the sincerity of his devotion to
+a friend in disgrace, even though his own reputation was thereby endangered:</p>
+
+<p>"So it is to secure my own reputation that I am wanted
+to subscribe that a lady&mdash;my friend&mdash;would plainly deserve
+to be burned, with all her writings, for an execrable
+form of spirituality which is the only bond of our friendship.
+I tell you, madame, I would burn my friend with
+my own hands, and I would burn myself joyfully, rather
+than let the Church be imperilled; but here is a poor,
+captive woman, overwhelmed with sorrows; there is none
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>[pg 215]</span>
+to defend her, none to excuse her; all are afraid to do so.
+I maintain that this stroke of the pen, given from a cowardly
+policy and against my conscience, would render me
+forever infamous and unworthy of my ministry and my position."</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in the seventeenth century, religious agitations
+and religious reform were the work preëminently of
+women; but that reform and those agitations were productive
+of good results to a far greater degree than was
+any similar movement in any other century, with the
+possible exception of the nineteenth. The seventeenth
+century was, as mentioned before, a century of stability,
+one that toned down and crushed all violations and abuses
+of the standard established by authority. Woman, in her
+constant striving for the complete emancipation and gradual
+purification of her sex, rebelled against the power of
+established authority; she did not consciously or intentionally
+violate law and order, but in her intense desire to act
+for good as she saw it, and in her noble efforts to ameliorate
+all undesirable conditions, she created commotion and
+confusion. The seventeenth-century woman is conspicuous
+as a champion of religion, moral purity, and social
+reform; therefore, her influence was mainly social, religious,
+moral, and literary, while that of the woman of
+the sixteenth century was mainly political. This difference
+was the result of the greater advantages of education
+and training enjoyed by the females of the later period.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of the seventeenth century, young girls
+were granted greater privileges and received more attention
+from men and society than did their predecessors;
+they thus had more opportunities for mental development,
+more occasion to become aware of the temptations and injustices
+of life, without falling prey to them. Such young
+girls as Julie d'Angennes, Mlle. d'Arquenay, and Mlle. de
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>[pg 216]</span>
+Pisani, took part in the balls, fêtes, garden parties, and all
+amusements in which society indulged. They met young
+men of their own age and became intimately acquainted
+with them, morals were purer, marriages of affection were
+much more frequent, and the state of married life was much
+more congenial, than in any other century. Young men
+paid court to the older ladies, to refine their manners and
+sharpen their intellects, but not for any immoral purpose.
+To a certain extent women were more world-wise when
+they reached the marriageable age, and inspired respect
+and admiration rather than passion and desire as in the next century.</p>
+
+<p>Young girls of the seventeenth century were early placed
+in a convent, and when they left it they were ready for
+marriage; in the meantime, they frequently visited home
+and associated with their parents and brothers; at the convents
+intellectual intercourse with people of high rank and
+men of letters was encouraged. Yet the discipline at those
+institutions was very rigid, the boarders being more carefully
+watched then than later on; two nuns always accompanied
+them on their walks, and when not busy with their
+studies, to prevent the mind from wandering, they were
+kept busy with their hands; "the transports of the soul
+of the young girl, as every reflection of the intelligence,
+are watched and held in check, every one of her inclinations
+opposed, all originality suppressed."</p>
+
+<p>At first the convents were reproached for stifling all culture
+and development and applying only correction and
+mortification of the flesh. Mme. de Maintenon opposed
+such a state of affairs, but her methods discouraged true
+independence. The happiness of her charges was her one
+aim, but they had no voice in the matter. When of marriageable
+age, they were given a trousseau and a husband;
+however, they were taught to be reasonable.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>[pg 217]</span>
+
+<p>In that century, the young girl, mixing more generally
+in society, received greater consideration&mdash;hence, she became
+more active and conspicuous. It will be seen that
+the rôle played by the eighteenth century woman was not
+so much played by the young woman as it was by the
+woman of mature years, of the mother, the counsellor&mdash;the
+indispensable element of society. There were three
+classes of women&mdash;young women, mature women who
+sought consideration, and old women who received respect
+and deference, and who, as arbiters of culture, upheld the
+principles already established.</p>
+
+<p>A young man making his début had to find favor with
+one of those classes which decided his future reputation
+and the extent of his favor at court, and assigned him his
+place and grade, upon which depended his marriage. All
+education was directed to the one end&mdash;social success.
+The duty of the tutor charged with the instruction of a
+young son was to give a well-rounded, general education;
+by the mother, he was taught politeness, grace, amiability&mdash;a
+part of his training to which more importance was
+attached than to the intellectual portion. Whenever a
+young man was guilty of misconduct toward a woman, his
+mother was notified of the occurrence, on the same evening,
+and he promptly received his reprimand. This spirit
+naturally fostered that rare politeness, exquisite taste
+and tact in conversation, in which the eighteenth century excels.</p>
+
+<p>But where did the young girls receive the education
+which gave them such prestige&mdash;that consummate art of
+conversation exemplified in Mme. de Boufflers, Mme. de
+Luxembourg, Mme. de Sabran, the Duchess of Choiseul,
+the Princess of Beauvau, the Countess of Ségur? The
+sons were educated in the usages of the <i>bonne compagnie</i>
+by the mothers, but the daughters did not enjoy that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>[pg 218]</span>
+attention, for, at the age of five or six years, they were
+sent to the convent; there the mother's influence could
+not have reached them, and they never left the convent
+except to marry. The middle class imitated the higher
+class, and family life became practically impossible. All
+men of any importance had a charge at court or a grade in
+the army, and lived away from their families. A large
+number of women were attached to the queen, spending
+the greater part of their time at Versailles; the little time
+passed at their homes was entirely occupied in preparation
+for the evening <i>causeries</i> at the salons, in reading new
+books, acquiring information upon current events, and in
+superintending the making of the many necessary and
+always elaborate gowns; as M. Perey so well says, "as
+the toilettes and hairdressing took up the greater part of the
+morning, they devoted the time used by the <i>coiffeur</i>, in
+constructing complicated edifices that crushed down the
+heads of women, to the reading of new books."</p>
+
+<p>Nearly every large establishment kept open house, dining
+from twenty to thirty persons every day. They dined at
+one, separated at three, were at the theatre at five, and
+returned with as many friends as possible&mdash;the more,
+the greater the reputation for hospitality and popularity.
+Under such circumstances, the mother had no time for the
+daughters, nor were the conversations at those dinners
+food for young, innocent girls&mdash;and innocence was the
+first requirement of a marriageable young woman.</p>
+
+<p>The great convents were the Abbaye-aux-Bois and
+Penthemont, where the daughters of the wealthiest and
+highest families were educated. In those convents or
+seminaries, strange to say, the young girls were taught
+the most practical domestic duties, as well as dancing,
+music, painting, etc. Such teachers as Molé and Larrive
+gave instruction in declamation and reading, and Noverre
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>[pg 219]</span>
+and Dauberval in dancing; the teaching nuns were all from
+the best families. The most complete costumes, scenic
+decorations, and other equipments of a complete theatre
+were supplied, special hours being set aside for the play.
+However, much intriguing went on there, and many
+friendships and lifelong enmities were formed, which later
+led to serious troubles.</p>
+
+<p>Often, from the midst of a group of young girls of from
+ten to fifteen years of age, one would be notified of her
+coming marriage with a man she had never seen, and
+whom, in all probability, she could not love, having given
+her heart to another. If it turned out to be an uncongenial
+marriage, a separate life would be the result, and, while
+still absolutely ignorant of the world, those young married
+women would fall prey to the charms of young gallants or
+men of quality, and a liaison would follow.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between a liaison of the seventeenth
+century and one of the eighteenth led to one essential difference
+in the standards of social and moral etiquette; in the
+former period, a liaison meant nothing more censurable than
+an intimate friendship, a purely platonic love; the lover
+simply paid homage to the lady of his choice; it was an attraction
+of common intellectual interests and usually lasted
+for life; in the eighteenth century, a liaison was essentially
+immoral, rarely a union of interests, but rather one of
+passions and physical propensities. Such relations developed
+and fostered deceit, intrigues, infidelity, and rivalry,
+one woman endeavoring to allure the lover of another;
+affairs of that nature were the chief topic of conversation
+in social circles, and were soon reflected in every phase of
+the intelligent world. This will be seen in the study of the eighteenth century.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>[pg 221]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter VIII</h2>
+
+<h2>Salon Leaders<br />
+Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle. de Lespinasse,
+Mme. du Châtelet</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>[pg 223]</span>
+
+
+<p>In studying the vast numbers of salons of the eighteenth
+century, three types are discernible, each of which was
+prominent and in full sway throughout the century up to
+the Revolution. To the first class belong the great literary
+and philosophical salons which, though not political in
+nature, finally changed politics; such were the circles of
+Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle.
+de Lespinasse, Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de
+Genlis; with these every literary student is familiar.
+The second class includes the smaller and less important
+literary, philosophical, and social salons&mdash;those of Mme.
+de Marchais, Mme. de Persan, Mme. de Villars, Mme. de
+Vaines, and of D'Alembert, D'Holbach, Helvétius. The
+third class is of a social nature exclusively, good breeding
+and good tone being the essentials; its conspicuous features
+were the dinners and suppers of Suard, Saurin, the Abbés
+Raynal and Morellet, of the Palais-Royal of Mme. de Blot,
+of the Temple of the Prince of Conti, those of Mme. de
+Beauvau, Mme. de Gramont, M. de La Popeliniére, and others.</p>
+
+<p>The distinctions thus made will not hold throughout,
+but they facilitate the presentation of a subject that is
+exceedingly complicated. It may almost be said that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>[pg 224]</span>
+each generation of the eighteenth century had a salon
+with a different physiognomy; those of 1710, 1730, 1760,
+and 1780 were all inspired by different motives, causes,
+and events, and were all led by women of different histories
+and aspirations, whose common idol was man, but
+whose ideas of what constituted a hero were as widely
+different as was the constitution of society in the respective
+periods. Not until the middle of the reign of
+Louis XIV. did social life become detached from Versailles,
+and, spreading out and circulating in a thousand hôtels,
+showed itself in all its force, splendor, and elegance. The
+celebrated women of the regency&mdash;Mme. de Prie, Mme. de
+Parabère, Mme. de Sabran&mdash;had no salon, while those of
+the Marquis d'Alluys and the Hôtels de Sully, de Duras,
+de Villars, and the suppers of Mme. de Chauvelin were of
+a distinctly different type from those of the earlier and the later periods.</p>
+
+<p>In a certain sense, the salons changed the complexion of
+the age. The eighteenth century itself was friendly and
+generous; it was, also, impatient and inexperienced, seeing
+things not as they were but as it wished them to be, compelling
+science and art to serve its purpose. It was frank,
+often brutally frank, a characteristic due partly to the
+conversational license of the salons. With its Fontenelle,
+Voltaire, Piron, etc., it was indeed a happy century. A
+<i>bon mot</i> was the event of the day and travelled over all
+the civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>Feeling keenly the need of a guiding principle, the need
+of a more substantial foundation in education, the women
+of the century thought and wrote much on that subject;
+such was, for the most part, the work of the great salons,
+but in them the philosophical tenets of the age were also
+discussed. The spirit of criticism thus created and cultivated,
+which finally spread through all classes of society,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>[pg 225]</span>
+gradually conquered the new power in the state&mdash;public
+opinion which, at the end of the century, ruled supreme
+in all its strength and vehemence, defying every effort of
+the government to stifle it. The highest form of agreeable
+and intellectual society which the world has ever
+seen attained to its most complete development in these salons.</p>
+
+<p>Every century has had its specialty: the twelfth had its
+crusades, the sixteenth its religious struggles, the seventeenth
+its grand <i>goût</i>, the eighteenth its conversation and
+love of reason, the nineteenth its political struggles; and
+each one displayed the French passion for <i>esprit</i>; the
+eighteenth, however, was, <i>par excellence</i>, the century of
+<i>esprit</i>, and it was most remarkably developed in woman.</p>
+
+<p>"Such astonishingly loquacious people as lived in Paris
+in the eighteenth century! ineffective, sardonic, verbose,
+sociable, intellectual, elegant, immoral&mdash;grand gentlemen
+and ladies, with tears for mimic woes and none for actual
+ones, praise for wit, rewards for cleverness, and absolute
+ignorance of the destinies they were preparing for themselves;"
+such is the story of women and society of the
+eighteenth century. Among these women the salon leaders
+will be found the most attractive, and the most influential
+in literature, theory of government, and social and
+moral development; to the mistresses belongs the title of "politicians."</p>
+
+<p><i>La Ménagerie de Mme. de Tencin</i> was one of the earliest
+of the eighteenth-century salons, although, in the strict
+sense of the word, Mme. de Tencin's salon was of a
+political rather than a literary nature. Successively nun,
+mistress, mother, she was one of the shrewdest women
+of the century. Born in 1681, she early became a nun;
+but such was the character of her life at the convent that
+it was not long before she became a mother. In 1714
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>[pg 226]</span>
+she abandoned her conventual life and went to Paris,
+where she rose to influence as the mistress of Cardinal
+Dubois and of the regent, the Duke of Orléans. At
+Paris her real activity began; she arrived at that gay
+capital with no other collateral than a pretty face and an
+extraordinary cunning, which soon brought her a fortune.
+Fertile in resources of all kinds, she succeeded immediately,
+and gained for her nephew the cardinal's hat. In
+1717 was born to her the afterward famous d'Alembert,
+whom she left upon the steps of the church Saint-Jean-le-Rond;
+afterward, when he had become eminent and her
+power was waning, she unsuccessfully used every means
+at her command to gain his favor and recognition; the
+father of that child was the Chevalier Destouches.</p>
+
+<p>About 1726, when lovers were numerous and friends
+plentiful, the death of Lafresnaye occurred at her salon.
+In his testament he stated that his death was caused by
+Mme. de Tencin; however, she was too shrewd, cunning,
+and careful to be guilty of permitting any weak points to
+appear in her plots, and it was not difficult for her to clear
+herself of that charge by the verdict of the judges, who
+considered the accusation a posthumous vengeance.</p>
+
+<p>The great literary men whom Mme. de Tencin gathered
+about her, Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Mairan, Marivaux,
+Helvétius, Marmontel, were called her menagerie, or her
+<i>bêtes</i>. Among them, Marivaux received a pension of one
+thousand écus from her, besides drawing at will upon
+the exchequer of an old maid by the name of Saint-Jean.
+Marmontel, desirous of writing tragedies, took lessons
+from the famous Mlle. Clairon&mdash;at his friend's expense.
+To give a correct idea of the character of woman's influence
+upon the literary style of that century, the words
+of Marmontel may be quoted: "He who wishes to write
+with precision, energy, and vigor, may live with man only;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>[pg 227]</span>
+but he who in his style wishes to have subtleness, amenity,
+charm, flexibility, will do well, I think, to live with woman."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Tencin exerted an immense influence upon the
+men of her circle, especially socially; for example, she
+married the wealthy M. de La Popelinière to Mlle. Dancourt.
+She was one of the few really consummate diplomats;
+later on, she became less associated with intrigues,
+and gave lessons in current diplomacy, with which she
+was perfectly familiar. Her counsel to her pupils was to
+gain friends among women rather than among men.
+"For," she would say, "we do whatever we wish with
+men; they are so dissipated, or so preoccupied with their
+personal interests, that to give attention to them would be
+to neglect your own interests."</p>
+
+<p>Every New Year's Day the <i>bêtes</i> of her menagerie received
+two yards of velvet, to make knickerbockers to be
+worn at her receptions; this custom was observed up to
+the last year of the existence of her salon. Her receptions
+were among the first of the kind in France. Like the
+majority of salon leaders, she was an authoress of no
+mean ability. Her novels were widely read at the time&mdash;<i>Le
+Siège de Calais</i> and <i>Les Malheurs de l'Amour</i>. Her
+memoirs, throwing light upon the intrigues and plots, social
+animosities, and general state of the society of the time,
+are historically valuable. She died in Paris, in 1749.</p>
+
+<p>Among all the great salons, that of Mme. de Tencin was
+the only one in which gambling was indulged in on a
+wholesale scale; fortunes changed hands every evening,
+a large part of the gains always falling to the lot of the
+hostess, as a sort of "rake off." She herself was a professional
+at the business, and by receiving private information
+from headquarters, through her famous friend Law,
+the <i>contrôleur-général</i>, and her lover Dubois, she was able
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>[pg 228]</span>
+to acquire an immense fortune which she distributed freely
+among her friends and favorites. Her place among the
+literary salon leaders depends mainly upon her endeavors
+to advance the interests of the aspiring young authors who
+were willing to place themselves under her protection.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Mme. de Tencin and that of Mme. de
+Châtelet, who had received many of the celebrities of the
+time, there remained but two distinguished, purely literary
+and philosophical salons open in Paris. By right of
+precedence, the <i>bêtes</i> should have gone over to the salon
+of Mme. du Deffand, as she had been established some
+years when Mme. Geoffrin began to receive at her residence,
+which gained its first renown through the exquisite
+dinners served there. But the <i>bêtes</i> all flocked to the
+<i>salon bourgeois</i>, and consequently a more brilliant gathering
+never assembled in a salon; here sat, enjoying the
+liberal hospitalities, Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Mairan, Marmontel,
+Helvétius, Diderot, D'Alembert, Thomas, D'Holbach,
+Hume, Morellet, Mlle. de Lespinasse, the Marquis
+de Duras, Comtesses d'Egmont and de Brionne. Here,
+conversation&mdash;which, in the eighteenth century, was not
+only a discussion or a dissertation, but an art&mdash;reached its
+highest development; the members did not need to be eloquent,
+to expatiate upon some theory or science; the conversation
+moved about the members, and they had to be a part of it.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Geoffrin was born in Paris in 1699, and was the
+daughter of M. Rodet, <i>valet de chambre</i> of the dauphiness,
+Duchesse de Bourgogne, mother of Louis XV. When
+barely fifteen she was married to the wealthy M. Geoffrin,
+the so-called founder of the celebrated <i>Manufacture des
+Glaces de Gobelins</i>. Through his wealth and his associations
+with people of nobility who bought his ware, she was
+soon encouraged in her desire to entertain the nobility; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>[pg 229]</span>
+her <i>esprit</i>, tact, intelligence, and admirable taste in dress
+were all effective in bringing about the desired results.</p>
+
+<p>Her career was one of continual successes. When she
+opened her salon, in 1741, she instituted the custom of receiving
+her friends at table, not only men of letters, but
+artists, architects, builders, painters, sculptors, all men of
+genius and prominence. Monday was the day reserved
+for artists exclusively; Marmontel, who lived with Mme.
+Geoffrin for ten years "as her tenant," and the indispensable
+Abbé Morellet were the exceptions who might be
+present upon that day. From the very beginning she
+formed the habit of permitting conversation to go just so
+far, then cutting it off with her famous: <i>Voil qui est bien!</i></p>
+
+<p>Her husband was the <i>maître d'hôtel</i>, of whom many
+interesting anecdotes are told; the best and one that illustrates
+well the appreciation of individuals in those days is
+the following, which is so admirably told by Lady Jackson
+that we quote from her: "For some years, there sat at
+the bottom of Mme. Geoffrin's dinner and supper table
+a dignified-looking, white-haired old gentleman, bland in
+manner, but very modest and retiring, speaking only when
+spoken to, but looking very happy when the guests seemed
+to enjoy the good cheer set before them. When, at last,
+his customary place became vacant, and some brilliant
+butterfly of madame's circle of <i>visiteurs flottants</i>, who,
+perhaps, had smiled patronizingly upon the silent old gentleman,
+becoming aware of his absence, would, perchance,
+carelessly inquire what had become of her constant dinner
+guest, madame would reply: <i>Mais, c'était mon mari. Hélas!
+il est mort, le bon homme.</i> [Why, that was my husband!
+alas, he is dead, poor man!] Just so little was the consideration
+shown this worthy creature in his own house!
+Yet it both pleased and amused him to sit there silently
+and gaze at the throng of rank, fashion, and learning,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>[pg 230]</span>
+assembled in his wife's salon, and to witness her social success."</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Mme. Geoffrin's husband, the immense
+fortune passed under her own management, whereupon
+began her real career as a social arbitress, during
+which she is said to have tempered both opinions and characters.
+Thomas said of her that "she was, in morals, like
+that divinity of the ancients which maintained or reëstablished
+limits." She was a great patroness of arts and her
+rooms were decorated with pictures by Vanloo, Greuze,
+Vernet, Robert, etc. She and her salon became, in time,
+the acknowledged judge and dictator of matters literary
+and artistic. Whenever a financier wished to purchase a
+certain work of art, it was taken to her Monday dinner,
+where the artists determined its artistic value and fixed the
+price. Her house was a real museum; there the precious
+Mariette collection was on permanent exhibition.</p>
+
+<p>Besides her Monday dinners to artists and her Wednesday
+dinners to the literary world, she gave private luncheons
+to a select few who were especially congenial. At
+those functions, such celebrities as the Comtesses d'Egmont
+and de Brionne, the Marquise de Duras, and the
+Prince de Rohan were frequent guests.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Geoffrin was shrewd and tactful enough to avoid
+politics and not to permit discussions of a political nature
+at her salon&mdash;precautions which she observed to keep the
+government from interfering with her fortune and mode of
+living. Her salon and dinners became so famous that every
+foreigner going to Paris had the ambition to be received at
+Mme. Geoffrin's; when any aspirant was successful in
+this, she would say to her friends: <i>Soyons aimables</i> [Let us
+be kind]. She spent freely of her immense fortune constantly
+seeking and aiding the poor. Persons who refused
+to accept her charity found little favor with her; Rousseau
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>[pg 231]</span>
+was one of these. It was her habit to go frequently to
+see friends, merely to ascertain their wants and to satisfy
+them. The Abbé Morellet, Thomas, D'Alembert, and
+Mlle. de Lespinasse (the only lady admitted to her Wednesdays)
+were given liberal pensions. Upon each New Year's
+Day, in commemoration of Mme. de Tencin, she sent each
+Wednesday guest a velvet cap. Her motto was: <i>Donner
+et pardonner</i> [Give and forgive].</p>
+
+<p>Stanislas, King of Poland, her <i>protégé</i>, whom she had
+rescued from the debtor's prison in Paris, and to whom
+she had shown many favors, upon being elected King of
+Poland in 1764, said to her: <i>Maman, votre fils est roi</i>
+[Mamma, your son is king]. Two years later, when she
+paid him a visit, the leading members of the Polish nobility
+met her on the road, and the king had a special residence
+prepared for her. As she passed through Vienna,
+Joseph II. received her, and the Empress Maria entertained
+her at dinner. Upon her return to Paris, after this triumphal
+tour through Europe, the members of the world of
+literature and art, and even the ministers and the nobility,
+flocked to see her; this demonstration was the more remarkable
+from the fact that she wielded no political influence,
+her only desire and pleasure seeming to lie in aiding her friends.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Geoffrin was too practical and had too much good
+common sense to be vain. The majority of men were influenced
+by and favored her, and, which seemed strange,
+she had few enemies among her own sex. Mme. Necker
+said: "The old age of Mme. Geoffrin is like that of old
+trees, whose age we know by the space they cover and
+the quantity of roots they spread. She has seen all the
+illustrious men of the century; she has discovered, with
+sagacity, their peculiarities and their defects. She judges
+them by their conduct, never by their talents."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>[pg 232]</span>
+
+<p>In her best years, she was intimately associated with
+the Encyclopædists, to whom she paid over one hundred
+thousand francs for the publication of their work. Of all
+the great women of that century, she was the closest
+friend of the philosophers and free-thinkers, being called
+<i>La Fontenelle des Femmes</i>. She was always ready with an
+answer; one day a friend pointed out to her the house of
+the farmer-general Bouvet, and asked her: "Have you
+ever seen anything as magnificent and in better taste?"
+She replied: "I would have nothing to say if Bouvet were
+the <i>frotteur</i> [floor polisher] of it."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Geoffrin, more than any other woman of the
+salons, possessed the three essential qualifications of a
+salon leader,&mdash;good sense, tact, and intelligence. She had
+also <i>esprit</i>, perfect simplicity, precision, and faultless taste;
+though a sceptic, she was a diplomat who perfectly understood
+the art of man&oelig;uvring. In short, Mme. Geoffrin
+was an intellectual authority, a sort of minister to society,
+and her salon was the great centre and rendezvous, a
+veritable institution of the eighteenth century. This seems
+the more remarkable when we consider that she belonged
+to the bourgeoisie, and that by dint of her exquisite tact, her
+almost infallible judgment, her admirable taste in dress,
+and her keen intelligence, she created for herself a position
+which was the envy of all Europe. Such women are
+rare. During the last eighteen months of her life, though
+suffering from paralysis and rheumatism, which she contracted
+at a religious fête at Notre-Dame, she was unremitting
+in her attention to her friends and the poor; and
+up to her death, in 1777, her friends were faithful to her.</p>
+
+<p>That spirit, or malady, which penetrated and ruled
+almost every creature in the eighteenth century found its
+most notable victim in Marie de Vichy-Chamrond&mdash;Mme.
+du Deffand. She, so to speak, yawned out her life in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>[pg 233]</span>
+blasé society without faith or ideal. That horrible affliction,
+with all its painful symptoms, ennui, whose origin
+was seen to lie in an excess and abuse of <i>esprit</i> in a society
+that based all its pleasures and happiness upon the mind
+without any higher interest than the self, infected a whole
+century with an "irremediable disenchantment of others
+and one's self." This self-cult, or life in and for the mind,
+developed sagacity, justness of views, and an incomparable
+penetration, but it neglected all the elements necessary to
+contentment and those other pleasures, of which the first
+is love for one's fellow beings. Mme. du Deffand exemplified
+this stage of mental unbalance; and when she
+wrote of her former friend and companion: "Mlle. de
+Lespinasse died to-day at two o'clock; formerly, that
+would have been an event for me; to-day, it is nothing at
+all," she gave an idea of the indifference which was characteristic
+of the society of the time&mdash;an indifference which
+developed into an incurable malady and an all-consuming
+egoism, stifling the heart-beat of that world which was
+weary of everything and yet was unwilling to close its eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Marie de Vichy-Chamrond was born in 1697, of a noble
+family. She began the same manner of life as that followed
+by most French women, being reared in the Convent
+of Madeleine de Frénel, where, when quite young,
+she evinced a strong spirit of impiety, giving expression to
+the most sceptical opinions upon religious subjects, to the
+great dismay of her superiors and parents. At the age of
+twenty she was married to the Marquis du Deffand, who
+had but his brevet of colonel of a regiment of dragoons,
+and whose intelligence and fortune were of a <i>nullité rare</i>.
+However, her marriage was a sort of emancipation which
+enabled her to enter society; and it is asserted that she
+soon became the mistress of Philippe of Orléans, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>[pg 234]</span>
+regent, from whom she received six thousand francs life income.</p>
+
+<p>As the result of a disagreement, she separated from her
+husband, and then began a life of pleasure among the
+gayest of the most fashionable world, where, through
+the power of her brilliancy, wit, charm, and fascinating
+beauty, she immediately became a leader. After passing
+through all the phases of social life and its varied experiences&mdash;from
+the society of Mme. de Prie, the type of the
+dissolute woman of the Regency, from the famous suppers
+of the regent, whose ingenious inventions of lewd and
+wanton pleasures made him notorious, from an association
+with the intriguing Duchesse de Maine, to all the great
+and influential social centres of Paris&mdash;in short, after pursuing
+a career of fashionable dissipation, she became
+reconciled to her husband, and lived with him in peace
+and happiness for a short time; but six months of regular
+life affected her behavior toward the poor marquis to such
+a degree that he thought it best to leave her. After that
+episode, she returned to her lover; and, rejected by him
+and her friends, and becoming the subject of the gossip of
+the entire city, she sought consolation from one acquaintance
+after another, and was miserable all the time.</p>
+
+<p>At the age of about thirty-four, Mme. du Deffand returned
+to a kind of regular life, and, in time, won a
+reputation for <i>esprit</i>, regained her honorable friends and
+established for herself a kind of accepted authority. Thus,
+when she opened a salon in 1742, she was able to attract
+a brilliant company, which became famous after 1749,
+when she took apartments in the Convent Saint-Joseph.
+Here wit and polished manners, taste, vivacity, and good
+sense were the requisites; literature, politics, and philosophy
+were not tolerated, but "sparkling <i>bons mots</i>, glancing
+epigrams, witty verses, were the avenues to social success."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>[pg 235]</span>
+
+<p>Until her dotage this woman, who, from a natural selfishness
+and lack of sympathy, was incapable of loving
+with the characteristic ardor of the women of her time, by
+knowing how to inspire love in others, controlled and held
+near her the famous men and women of her age. When
+she began to realize the calamity of her failing sight, which
+was probably due to her general state of restlessness and
+the resultant physical decay, she received, as companion,
+a relative, Mlle. de Lespinasse, who undertook the most
+difficult, disagreeable, and ungrateful task of waiting on
+the marquise. As Mme. du Deffand arose in time to receive
+at six, mademoiselle soon announced to the friends
+that she herself would be visible at an earlier hour. Thus,
+it happened that Marmontel, Turgot, Condorcet, and
+d'Alembert regularly assembled in mademoiselle's room&mdash;a
+proceeding which soon led to a rupture between the two
+women and a breach between Mme. du Deffand and
+d'Alembert. The marquise was therefore left alone, blind,
+but too proud to tolerate pity, yet by her conversation
+retaining her power of fascination. It was about this
+time that Horace Walpole became connected with her life.
+Upon the death of Mme. Geoffrin, she, hearing of the imposing
+ceremonies and funeral orations, exclaimed: <i>Voilà
+bien du bruit pour une omelette au lard</i>. [A great ado about
+a lard omelet!] Her latter years were dragged out most
+miserably, being marked by a singular feverishness and
+unavailing efforts toward the acceptance of some faith.
+Her death, in 1780, finally brought her relief.</p>
+
+<p>The career of Mme. du Deffand actually began as early
+as 1730, when she opened her establishment on the Rue
+de Beaune, at the time that she became attached to the
+president Hénault, who presided over her salon for more
+than thirty years. The famous salon Du Deffand at the
+Convent Saint-Joseph was not opened until 1749; there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>[pg 236]</span>
+she was very particular as to those whom she received,
+and access to her salon was a matter of difficulty. Grimm
+was never received, and Diderot was present but once.
+The conversation was always intellectual, and whenever
+she tired of French vivacity, she would spend an evening with Mme. Necker.</p>
+
+<p>A letter of Walpole to Montagu leaves, on the whole, a
+splendid picture of her: "I have heard her dispute with all
+sorts of people, upon all sorts of subjects, and never knew
+her to be in the wrong. She humbles the learned, sets
+right their disciples, and finds conversation for everybody.
+As affectionate as Mme. de Sévigné, she has none of her
+prejudices, but a more universal taste; and with the most
+delicate frame, her spirits hurry her through a life of fatigue
+that would kill me were I to remain here."</p>
+
+<p>The simple furnishings of her apartments, which were
+very spacious and had been occupied by the famous Mme.
+de Montespan, stood out in striking contrast to the elegance
+of her visitors. Here she gathered about her her
+two lovers, <i>le Président</i> Hénault and Pont de Veyle, besides
+D'Alembert, Turgot, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Necker,
+Walpole, the Abbés Barthélemy and Pernetty, the Chevalier
+de Lisle, de Formant, <i>le Docteur</i> Gatti, Hume, Gibbon,
+Baron de Gleichen, and many other celebrities, including
+the Princesses de Beauvau, de Poix, de Talmont,
+the Duchesses de Choiseul, d'Aiguillon, de Gramont, the
+Maréchale de Luxembourg, the Marquises de Boufflers and
+du Châtelet, the Comtesses de Rochefort, de Broglie, de
+Forcalquier, Mme. Necker, Lady Pembroke, De Lauzun,
+and many others, all of whom were society leaders. Whenever
+Mme. du Deffand had a special supper, it was said
+that Paris was at Mme. du Deffand's.</p>
+
+<p>Her salon, above all others, was the centre of cosmopolitanism,
+where all great men, foreigners and natives, found
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>[pg 237]</span>
+means of social intercourse, and where, more than in any
+other salon, were assembled the great beauties of the day,
+represented especially by the Countesses de Forcalquier
+and Choiseul-Beaupré, Duchesse de La Vallière. Gallantry
+and beauty were found in the Maréchale de Luxembourg
+and the Comtesse de Boufflers. The philosophical movement
+of the Encyclopædists and Economists was not encouraged
+at all. Thus, in Mme. du Deffand's salon, we
+find neither pure philosophy nor religion, nor the air of
+pedants and <i>déclamateurs</i>; it was a royalist salon without
+illusion, hence indifferent to all questions. It represented
+the perfect type of the French model of <i>esprit de finesse</i>,&mdash;that
+is, precision,&mdash;and its leader possessed a keen insight into human character.</p>
+
+<p>This wonderful woman, who, during a period of over
+forty years, had held at her feet the élite of the French
+world, at the age of about threescore and ten, fell desperately
+in love with a man of fifty&mdash;Horace Walpole. She
+who had never loved with her heart, but only with her
+mind, then declared it better to be dead than not to love
+someone. Although her actions and letters were pitiful in
+the extreme, her epistles are invaluable for their incomparable
+portraitures and keen reflections upon persons and
+events of the time. She attracted Walpole by the possibilities
+that were opened up to him by her position in
+society, and by her brilliant conversation, in which she
+scoffed at the clergy and the philosophers, showing a profound
+insight into human nature and the society of the
+time as well as into politics. Their correspondence shows
+one of the most pitiful, pathetic, and lamentable love tales
+in the history of society. He looked upon her friendship
+as a most valuable acquisition by which he was kept in
+touch with all the scandals and stories of society, of which
+he was so fond, and she mistook that friendship for love.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>[pg 238]</span>
+He felt himself flattered in being the one preferred by
+such a distinguished old lady of high society.</p>
+
+<p>All critics are at a loss for the explanation of such a love
+in a woman of seventy. Was it the result of the lifetime
+of disappointment of a woman who had constantly sought
+love but had never found it? Was it, thus, the hallucination
+of the childish old age of the woman who was physically
+consumed by incessant social functions and all-night
+reading? Mme. du Deffand sees in Walpole her ideal,
+and she gives expression to her feelings, regardless of
+propriety; for she is childish and irresponsible. To a
+certain extent, the same was true of Mme. de Staël, but
+she was still physically healthy and young enough to enjoy
+life and the realization of that which she had so long
+desired&mdash;an ideal affection. In the case of Mme. du Deffand,
+the soul was willing, but the body failed. Her
+emotion can scarcely be termed love, but is rather to be
+designated as a mental hallucination, an exaggerated intellectual
+affection bordering upon sentimentality&mdash;the outgrowth
+of that morbid imagination developed from her long suffering from ennui.</p>
+
+<p>She was a woman destined to pass by the side of happiness
+without ever reaching it. She hardly had enjoyed
+what may be called friendship; she was always either
+suspicious of it and of her friends' sentiments, or she herself
+broke off relations for some trivial reason. This woman,
+however, always longed to believe her friends sincere, but
+never succeeded. "Her friends either leave her, they die,
+or they are far away; or, if present, faithful and attached
+to her, she cannot believe in their affection; her cursed
+scepticism deceived her heart."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. du Deffand was one of the few women of the
+eighteenth century who saw reality and nothing but reality,
+and admitted what she saw; she was gifted with such
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>[pg 239]</span>
+quick penetration and such mental facility that she stands
+out prominently as one of the brightest and most intellectual
+of the spiritual women of her time. This quickness of
+perception and tendency to follow a mere impression made
+it difficult for her to examine closely, to be patient of details;
+too sure of herself, too emotional, too passionate, she
+displayed injustice, vehemence, over-enthusiasm; easily
+bored and disgusted, she was, at the same time, susceptible
+to infatuation. Scherer said: "She is a superior man in a
+body of a nervous and weak woman."</p>
+
+<p>She was a woman dominated by her reason&mdash;a characteristic
+which led to an incurable ennui, thus causing her
+terrible suffering, but equipping her with a penetration
+which saw through the world and knew man, whom she
+divided into three classes: <i>les trompeurs</i>, <i>les trompés</i>, <i>les
+trompettes</i>. According to her judgment, man is either
+fatiguing or, if brilliantly endowed, usually false or jealous;
+but she realized, also, her own shortcomings, the incompleteness
+of her faculties. "The force of her thought does
+not reach talent; her intelligence is active and responsive,
+but fails to respond. She often shows a sovereign disdain
+for herself, everybody, and everything. She arrives at a
+point in life when she no longer has passion, desire, or
+even curiosity; she detests life, and dreads death because
+she does not know that there is another world. She is
+not happy enough to do without those whom she scorns,
+and must therefore seek diversion in the conversation of
+stupid people, preferring anything to solitude; this refers
+to the time when her best friends are no more and when
+she herself is out of her former <i>milieu</i>); she was too old,
+or lived too long; she belongs to another age."</p>
+
+<p>By her friends she was called the feminine Voltaire, and
+the celebrated philosopher and she were drawn together
+by a very similar habit of mind, although, to her intimates,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>[pg 240]</span>
+she scorched Voltaire; but in writing to him she would
+overwhelm him with compliments, calling him the only
+orthodox representative of good taste. In general, she
+detested philosophers, because their hearts were cold and
+their minds preoccupied with themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. du Deffand had an inherent passion for simplicity,
+frankness, justice, and a hatred for deceit and affectation;
+but, strange as it may seem, her nature required variety
+in her pleasure&mdash;new people, new pursuits, new amusements,
+new agitations for her hungry mind; she was too
+critical to be contented and to put implicit trust in her
+friends. An agnostic, always endeavoring to probe into
+the nature of things, the possession of a personal, living
+faith was yet the strongest desire of her heart; all her life
+she longed for the peace that religion affords, but this was
+denied her, although she had the spiritual assistance of
+the most famous of the clergy, attended church, had her
+oratory, her confessor, and faithfully studied the Bible; all
+was vain&mdash;belief would not come to her. The marriage
+tie was not sacred to her, which was the case with many
+of the French women of the day, but she went further in
+lacking all reverence for religious ceremony, though she
+respected the beliefs of others.</p>
+
+<p>She was all wit and intellectuality. In order to keep
+her friends from falling under the spell of ennui, she devoted
+herself to the culinary art, and her suppers became
+famous for their rare dishes. "She is an example of the
+type that was predominant in the time&mdash;one that had lived
+too much and was dying from excess of knowledge and
+pleasure; but she sought that which did not exist in that
+age,&mdash;serenity, peace, faith. She was passionate, sensitive,
+and sympathetic, in a cold, heartless, and unfeeling
+world. She needed variety; being bored with society,
+solitude, husband, lovers, herself, nothing remained for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>[pg 241]</span>
+her but to await deliverance by death." This came to her in 1780.</p>
+
+<p>In matters literary, Mme. du Deffand preserved an absolute
+liberty and independence of opinion. She refused
+to accept the verdicts of the most competent judges; with
+instinctive attractions and repulsions, she found but few
+writers that pleased her. Boileau, Lesage, Chamfort, were
+her favorites. She said that Buffon was of an unendurable
+monotony. "He knows well what he knows, but he is
+occupied with beasts only; one must be something of a
+beast one's self in order to devote one's self to such an occupation."</p>
+
+<p>As a writer, she showed remarkable good sense, admirable
+sincerity, rare judgment, justness, and precision;
+depth and charm were present in a less degree than were
+other desirable qualities, but she exhibited excellent <i>esprit</i>.
+She was probably the most subtile, and at the same time
+the most fastidious person of the century. The best portraits
+of her were written by her own pen; two of them
+we give, one written at the beginning of her career in
+1728, the other at its end in 1774.</p>
+
+<p>"Mme. la Marquise du Deffand is an enemy of all falseness
+and affectation. Her talk and countenance are always
+the faithful interpreters of the sentiment of her soul. Her
+form is not fine nor bad. She has <i>esprit</i>, is reasonable and
+has a correct taste. If vivacity at times leads her off,
+truth soon brings her back. After she falls into an ennui
+which extinguishes all the light of her mind, she finds that
+state insupportable and the cause of such unhappiness,
+that she blindly embraces all that presents itself, without deliberation."</p>
+
+<p>(1774.) "They believe Mme. du Deffand to possess
+more <i>esprit</i> than she really has; they praise and fear her,
+but she merits neither the one nor the other. As far as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>[pg 242]</span>
+her <i>esprit</i> is concerned, she is what she is; in regard to her
+form, to her birth and fortune&mdash;nothing extraordinary,
+nothing distinguished. Born without great talent, incapable
+of great application, she is very susceptible to ennui, and,
+not finding any resource within herself, she resorts to those
+that surround her and this search is often without success."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. du Deffand arouses our curiosity because she was
+such an exceptional character, led such a strange life,
+made and retained friends in ways so different from those
+of the noted heroines of the salons. In her youth, she
+was beautiful and fascinating, with numerous lovers and
+numberless suitors, but she grew even more famous as
+her age increased; when infirm and blind, and living in a
+convent, she ruled by virtue of her acknowledged authority
+and was still able to cope with the greatest philosophers,
+the chief and dean of whom, Voltaire, wrote the following four lines:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"Qui vous voit et qui vous entend</p>
+<p>Perd bientôt sa philosophie;</p>
+<p>Et tout sage avec Du Deffand</p>
+<p>Voudrait en fou passer sa vie."</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>[He who sees and hears you,</p>
+<p>Soon loses his philosophy.</p>
+<p>Wise he who with Du Deffand</p>
+<p>Insane would pass his life.]</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>Living long enough to witness the reigns of three kings
+and one regent, she was brilliant enough to reign over the
+intellectual and social world for over fifty years, by virtue
+of her intellectuality, keenness, and wit; yet, among all the
+great women of France, she is truly the one who deserves
+genuine pity and sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>The salon of Mlle. de Lespinasse, her rival, was of a
+different type, being exclusively intellectual, but permitting
+absolute liberty of expression of opinions. Born in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>[pg 243]</span>
+1732, at the house of a surgeon of Lyons, she was the
+illegitimate daughter of the Comtesse d'Albon and was
+baptized as the child of a man supposed to be named
+Claude Lespinasse. From 1753 she was the constant
+attendant to Mme. du Deffand, her mother's sister-in-law,
+for a period of ten years, until she became completely
+worn out physically, morally, and mentally by incessant
+care and endless all-night readings. An attempt to end
+her existence with sixty grains of opium failed. Owing
+to the jealousy of Mme. du Deffand, a separation ensued
+in 1764, when she retired some distance from the Convent
+Saint-Joseph to very modest apartments, where, by
+means of her friends, she was able to receive in a dignified
+way. The Maréchale de Luxembourg completely fitted up
+her apartment, the Duc de Choiseul succeeded in getting
+her an annual pension from the king, and Mme. Geoffrin
+allowed her three thousand francs.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the members of her salon were from that
+of Mme. du Deffand, having followed Mlle. de Lespinasse
+after the rupture of the two women; besides these, there
+were Condorcet, Helvétius, Grimm, Marmontel, Condillac,
+Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, and many others. As her hours
+for receiving were after five o'clock, her friends were made
+to understand that her means were not such as to warrant
+suppers or dinners, four o'clock being the dinner hour in those days.</p>
+
+<p>Her salon immediately became known as the official
+encyclopædia resort, Mme. du Deffand dubbing it <i>La Muse
+de l'Encyclopédie</i>. D'Alembert was the high priest, and
+it was not long before he was comfortably lodged in the
+third story of her house, Mlle. de Lespinasse having nursed
+him through a malignant fever which the poor man had
+contracted in the wretched place where he lodged. A
+strange gathering, those salons! Mlle. de Lespinasse, one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>[pg 244]</span>
+of the leaders in the social world, with a prominent salon,
+was the illegitimate daughter of a Comtesse d'Albon, and
+her presiding genius was the illegitimate son of Mme. de
+Tencin; here we find the wealthiest and most elegant of
+the aristocracy coming from their palaces to meet, in
+friendly social and intellectual intercourse, men who lived
+on a mere pittance, dressed on almost nothing, lodged in
+the most wretched of dens, boarding wherever a salon or
+palace was opened to them. Surely, intellect was highly
+valued in those days, and moral etiquette was at a low ebb!</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Lespinasse possessed two characteristics which
+were prominent in a remarkable degree&mdash;love and friendship.
+She appeared to interest herself in everybody in
+such a way as to make him believe that he was the
+preferred of her heart; loving everybody sincerely and
+affectionately, she "lacked altogether the sentimental
+equilibrium." Especially pathetic was her love for two
+men&mdash;the Count de Mora, a Spanish nobleman, and a
+Colonel Guibert, who was celebrated for his relations with
+Frederick the Great; although this wore terribly on her,
+consuming her physical force, she always received her
+friends with the same good grace, but often, after their departure,
+she would fall into a frightful nervous fit from
+which she could find relief only by the use of opium.</p>
+
+<p>Her love for Guibert was known to her friends, but was
+a secret from her platonic lover, D'Alembert. When, after
+a number of years of untold sufferings which even opium
+could not relieve, she died in 1776, having been cared for
+to the last by D'Alembert, the Duke de La Rochefoucauld,
+and her cousin, the Marquis d'Enlezy, it was with these
+words on her dying lips, addressed to Guibert: "Adieu, my
+friend! If ever I return to life, I should like to use it in
+loving you; but there is no longer any time." When
+D'Alembert read in her correspondence that she had been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>[pg 245]</span>
+the mistress of Guibert for sixteen years, he was disconsolate,
+and retired to the Louvre, which was his privilege
+as Secretary of the Academy. He left there only to go
+walking in the evening with Marmontel, who tried to
+console him by recalling the changeableness of humor of
+Mlle. de Lespinasse. "Yes," he would reply, "she has
+changed, but not I; she no longer lived for me, but I
+always lived for her. Since she is no longer, I don't
+know why I am living. Ah, that I must still suffer these
+moments of bitterness which she knew so well how to
+soothe and make me forget! Do you remember the happy
+evenings we used to pass? What is there now? Instead
+of her, when coming home, I find only her shadow! This
+Louvre lodging is itself a tomb, which I enter only with fright."</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. de Lespinasse died of grief for a lover's death, but
+she left a group of lovers to lament her loss. In many
+respects she was not unlike Mlle. de Scudéry; exceptionally
+plain, her face was much marked with smallpox, a
+disfigurement not uncommon in those days; her exceedingly
+piercing and fine eyes, beautiful hair, tall and elegant
+figure, excellent taste in dress, pleasing voice and a
+most brilliant talent for conversation, combined to make
+her one of the most attractive and popular women of her
+time. As previously stated, she was the only female
+admitted to the dinners given by Mme. Geoffrin to her men of letters.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. du Deffand's friend, <i>le Président</i> Hénault, left the
+following portrait of Mlle. de Lespinasse: "You are cosmopolitan&mdash;you
+are suitable to all occasions. You like
+company&mdash;you like solitude. Pleasures amuse, but do
+not seduce you. You have very strong passions, and of
+the best kind, for they do not return often. Nature, in
+endowing you with an ordinary state, gave you something
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>[pg 246]</span>
+with which to rise above it. You are distinguished, and,
+without being beautiful, you attract attention. There is
+something piquant in you; one might obstinately endeavor
+to turn your head, but it would be at one's own expense.
+Your will must be awaited, because you cannot be made
+to come. Your cheerfulness embellishes you, and relaxes
+your nerves, which are too highly strung. You have your
+own opinion, and you leave others their own. You are
+extremely polite. You have divined <i>le monde</i>. In vain
+one would transplant you&mdash;you would take root anywhere.
+In short, you are not an ordinary person."</p>
+
+<p>The salon of Mlle. de Lespinasse was unique. Everyone
+was at perfect liberty to express and sustain his own
+opinions upon any subject, without danger of offending the
+hostess, which, as has been seen, was not the case in
+the salon of Mme. Geoffrin. Her high and sane intellectual
+culture permitted her to listen to all discussions
+and to take part in all. She had no strong prejudices,
+having read&mdash;for Mme. du Deffand&mdash;nearly everything
+that was read at that time; also, she had the talent of
+preserving harmony among her members by drawing from
+each one his best qualities.</p>
+
+<p>A woman who played a prominent part in society during
+the Regency, but who had no salon in the proper sense of
+that word, was Mme. du Châtelet, commonly called Voltaire's
+Emilie. She was especially interested in sciences,
+mathematics, geometry, and astronomy, and did more than
+any other woman of that time to encourage nature study.
+It was at her Château de Cirey that Voltaire found protection
+when threatened with a second visit to the Bastille;
+and there, from time to time for sixteen years, he did some
+of the best work of his life. It was Mme. du Châtelet who
+encouraged him, sympathized with him, and appreciated
+his mobile humor as well as his talent. During these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>[pg 247]</span>
+years, while he was under the influence of madame, appeared
+<i>Mérope</i>, <i>Alzire</i>, the <i>Siècle de Louis XIV</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. du Châtelet was the one great <i>femme savante</i> of
+that century. In the preface to her <i>Traduction des Principes
+Mathématiques de Newton</i>, Voltaire wrote: "Never
+was a woman so <i>savante</i> as she, and never did a woman
+merit less the saying, <i>she is a femme savante</i>. She did not
+select her friends from those circles where there was a
+war of <i>esprit</i>, where a sort of tribunal was established,
+where they judged their century, by which, in recompense,
+they were severely judged. She lived for a long time in
+societies which were ignorant of what she was, and she
+took no notice of this ignorance. The words precision,
+justness, and force are those which correctly describe her
+elegance. She would have written as Pascal and Nicole
+did rather than like Mme. de Sévigné; but this severe
+firmness and this tendency of her <i>esprit</i> did not make her
+inaccessible to the beauties of sentiment."</p>
+
+<p>Maupertuis, the astronomer, wrote: "What a marvel,
+moreover, to have been able to combine the fine qualities
+of her sex with the sublime knowledge which we believe
+uniquely made for us! This enterprising phenomenon will
+make her memory eternally respected."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>[pg 249]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter IX</h2>
+
+<h2>Salon Leaders&mdash;(Continued)<br />
+Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis: Minor Salons</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>[pg 251]</span>
+
+
+<p>It seems strange indeed that in a century in which the
+universal impulse was toward pleasure, and sameness of
+personality was visible everywhere, the types of great
+women showed such an absolute dissimilarity. The contrast
+between the natural inclinations of Mme. Necker,
+the wife of the great minister of finance, and the atmosphere
+in which she lived, makes the study of her a most
+interesting one. Born in Switzerland, the daughter of
+Curchod, a poor Protestant minister, "with patriarchal
+morals, solid education, and strong good sense," this moral
+and stern woman was thrown into the midst of depraved
+elegance, refined licentiousness, and physical debauchery.
+Sincere, chaste, enthusiastic, and essentially religious, she
+remained so amidst all the corruption and physical and
+mental degeneracy of the age.</p>
+
+<p>Critics have made much ado over her marriage, a union
+of pure love and mutual inclinations, amidst the marriages
+of mere convenience and the gallant liaisons, such
+as those of Mme. du Deffand and <i>le Président</i> Hénault, and
+Mme. d'Epinay and Grimm. The matrimonial selection
+of Susanne Curchod was natural in a girl of her serious
+make-up, her moral education and her pure ancestry of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>[pg 252]</span>
+strict Protestant type. As a girl of sixteen, she had given
+evidence of remarkable mental ability and had acquired a
+wide knowledge&mdash;physics, Latin, philosophy, metaphysics&mdash;when
+she was sent to Lausanne, possibly with the idea
+of meeting a future husband with whom she could become
+thoroughly acquainted before giving up her independence.
+There she became the centre of a group or academy of
+young people, who, under her leadership, discussed subjects
+of every nature. At first she showed a tendency
+toward <i>préciosité</i> and the spirit of the blue-stocking rather
+than toward the seriousness and dignity which marked her later career.</p>
+
+<p>It was at Lausanne that she met and fell in love with
+Gibbon, the English historian; this love affair met with opposition
+from Gibbon's father, and, after the death of the
+father of his fiancée, a calamity which left her poor and
+necessitated her teaching for a living, the Englishman, by
+his actions and manner toward her, compelled the breaking
+of their engagement. When, later in life, he went to
+her salon, they became intimate friends, enjoying "the
+intellectual union which had been impossible for them in their earlier days."</p>
+
+<p>Thus, at the age of twenty-four, Mlle. Curchod, beautiful,
+virtuous, and accomplished, and at the height of her
+reputation in a small town in Switzerland, was left an
+orphan. She was taken to Paris by Mme. de Vermenoux,
+a wealthy widow, who was sought in marriage by
+M. Necker, banker and capitalist; but, as she was unable
+to make up her mind to a definite answer, his attention
+was attracted to her young companion. The result was
+that, after a few months' sojourn in Paris, Mlle. Curchod
+became the wife of M. Necker, an event which caused rejoicing
+from Lausanne to Geneva. Their characters are
+well portrayed in two letters, written by them to their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>[pg 253]</span>
+friends after their marriage. M. Necker wrote, in reply
+to a letter of congratulation:</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, sir; your friend (Mlle. Curchod) was indeed
+willing to have me, and I believe myself as happy as one
+can be. I cannot understand how it can be you whom
+they congratulate, unless it is as my friend. Will money
+always be the measure of opinion? That is pitiable! He
+who wins a virtuous, kind, and sensible woman&mdash;has he
+not made a good transaction, whether or not she be
+seated on sacks of money? Humanity, what a poor judge you are!"</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after her marriage, Mme. Necker wrote to one
+of her friends: "My dear, I have married a man who,
+according to my ideas, is the kindest of mortals, and I am
+not the only one to judge thus. I had had a liking for him
+ever since I learned to know him. At present, I see, in
+all nature, only my husband. I take notice of other men
+only in so far as they come more or less up to the
+standard of my husband, and I compare them only for
+the pleasure of seeing the difference." The marital
+relations of this loving pair lasted throughout life; and
+among great women of the eighteenth century, Mme.
+Necker is one of the few examples of ideal marriage relations.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after their marriage, the Neckers took up their
+quarters at the Rue Michel-le-Comte, where they began
+to receive friends. As at that time every day in the week
+was reserved by other salons,&mdash;Monday and Wednesday
+at Mme. Geoffrin's, Tuesday at Helvétius's, Thursday and
+Sunday at the Baron d'Holbach's,&mdash;Mme. Necker was
+compelled to appoint Friday as her reception day. She
+soon succeeded in attracting to her hôtel the best <i>esprit</i> of
+Paris: Diderot, Suard, Grimm, Comte de Schomberg, Marmontel,
+D'Alembert, Thomas, Saint-Lambert, Helvétius,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>[pg 254]</span>
+Ducis, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, the Abbés Raynal, Armand,
+and Morellet, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand,
+Mme. de Marchais, Mme. Suard, the Maréchale de Luxembourg,
+the Duchesse de Lauzun, the Marquise de La Ferté-Imbault, Mme. de Boufflers.</p>
+
+<p>Among these visitors, most of whom were atheists,
+Mme. Necker preserved her own religious opinions and
+piety, although her friends at Geneva never ceased to be
+concerned about her. Her admirers were many, but they
+were kept within the bounds of propriety and never attempted
+any gallant liberties with the hostess&mdash;except her
+ardent admirer Thomas, the intensity of whose eulogies
+upon her she was forced to check occasionally. It was
+not long before she became very influential in filling the
+vacant seats of the Academy. In this and many other
+respects, her salon may be compared with that of Mme. de Lambert.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Necker's idea of conducting a salon and its conversation
+was much the same as the management of a
+state; she believed that the hostess must never join in
+the conversation as long as it goes on by itself, but, ever
+watchful, must never permit disturbances, disagreements,
+improprieties, or obstacles; she must animate it if it languish;
+she must see that conversation never takes a dangerous,
+disagreeable, or tiresome turn, and that it never
+brings into undue prominence one man especially, as this
+makes others jealous and displeases the entire society; it
+must always interest and include all members. The discussions
+at Mme. Necker's were literary and philosophical;
+and to prevent even the possibility of tedium, frequent
+readings were given in their place.</p>
+
+<p>It was at the salon of Mme. Necker that Bernardin de
+Saint-Pierre first read his <i>Paul et Virginie</i>, which received
+such a cold and indifferent welcome that the author, utterly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>[pg 255]</span>
+discouraged, was on the point of burning his manuscript,
+when he was prevailed upon by his friend Vernet, the
+great artist, to preserve all his works. Mme. Necker was
+always quite frank and outspoken, often showing a cutting
+harshness and a rigor which, as was said, was little in harmony
+with her bare neck and arms&mdash;a style then in vogue
+at court. She never judged persons by their reputations,
+but by their <i>esprit</i>; thus, it was possible for her to receive
+people of the most diverse tendencies. When the Marquise
+de La Ferté-Imbault, one of the few virtuous women
+of the time, and of the highest aristocracy, was invited to
+attend the salon of Mme. Necker and was told that the
+Maréchale de Luxembourg, Mme. du Deffand, Mme. de
+Boufflers, and Mme. Marchais were frequenters, she said:
+"These four women are so discredited by manners, and
+the first two are so dangerous, that for thirty years they
+have been the horror of society."</p>
+
+<p>The two portraits by Marmontel and Galiani are interesting,
+as throwing light upon the doings of her salon.
+Marmontel wrote: "Mme. Necker is very virtuous and
+instructed, but emphatic and stiff. She does not know
+Mme. de Sévigné, whom she praises, and only esteems
+Buffon and Thomas. She calculates all things; she sought
+men of letters only as trumpets to blow in honor of her
+husband. He never said a word; that was not very recreating."</p>
+
+<p>Galiani leaves a different impression: "There is not a
+Friday that I do not go to your house <i>en esprit</i>. I arrive,
+I find you now busy with your headdress, now busy with
+this duchess. I seat myself at your feet. Thomas quietly
+suffers, Morellet shows his anger aloud. Grimm and Suard
+laugh heartily about it, and my dear Comte de Greuze
+does not notice it. Marmontel finds the example worthy
+to be imitated, and you, madame, make two of your most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>[pg 256]</span>
+beautiful virtues do battle, bashfulness and politeness, and
+in this suffering you find me a little monster more embarrassing
+than odious. Dinner is announced. They leave
+the table and in the café all speak at the same time.
+M. Necker thinks everything well, bows his head and goes away."</p>
+
+<p>In summer her receptions were first held at the Château
+de Madrid, and, later on, in a château at Saint-Ouen; the
+guests were always called for and returned in carriages
+supplied by the hostess. It was in her salon, in 1770, that
+the plan originated to erect the statue of Voltaire, which is
+to-day the famous statue of the <i>Palais de l'Institute</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When, during the stirring times before the Revolution,
+her salon took on a purely political nature, Mme. Necker
+played a very secondary rôle. In 1788 she and her husband
+were compelled to leave Paris; but being recalled by
+Louis XVI., Necker managed affairs for thirteen months,
+after which he retired with Mme. Necker to Coppet, where,
+in 1794, the latter died.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Necker never became a thorough Frenchwoman;
+she always lacked the grace and charm which are the
+necessary qualifications of a salon leader; intelligence was
+her most meritorious quality. Her dinners were apt to
+become tiresome and to drag. A very interesting story
+is told of her by the Marquis de Chastellux, which was
+reported by Mme. Genlis, one of her intimate friends:</p>
+
+<p>"Dining at Mme. Necker's, the marquis was first to
+arrive, and so early that the hostess was not yet in the
+salon. In walking up and down the room, he noticed a
+small book under Mme. Necker's chair. He picked it up
+and opened it. It was a blank book, a few of the pages of
+which had been written upon by Mme. Necker. Certainly,
+he would not have read a letter, but, believing to
+find only a few spiritual thoughts, he read without any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>[pg 257]</span>
+scruples. It contained the plan for the dinner of that day,
+to which he had been invited, and had been written by
+Mme. Necker on the previous evening. It told what she
+would say to the most prominent of the invited guests.
+She wrote: 'I shall speak to the Chevalier de Chastellux
+about public felicity and Agatha; to M. d'Angeviller, I shall
+speak of love; between Marmontel and Guibert I shall raise
+some literary discussion.' After reading the note, he hurriedly
+replaced the book under the chair. A moment later,
+a valet entered, saying that madame had left her notebook
+in the salon. The dinner was charming for M. de
+Chastellux, because he had the pleasure of hearing Mme.
+Necker say, word for word, what she had written in her notebook."</p>
+
+<p>This woman was ever preoccupied with style, and,
+throughout her life, retained the solemn, studied, and academic
+air, as well as the simple, rural, innocent manner
+and spirit of her early surroundings. A mere bourgeoise,
+unaccustomed to elegance or to the manners of French
+social life, upon entering Parisian society she set her mind
+to observing, and immediately began to change her provincial
+ways and to make over her <i>esprit</i> for conversation,
+for circumstances, and for characters; she adjusted her
+provincial spirit to that of Paris, thus making of it an
+entirely new product. Later on, her salon became the
+first of the modern political salons, but it was far from
+reaching the prominence of that of Mme. Geoffrin, whose
+characteristics were social prudence and strict propriety,
+while those of Mme. Necker were virtue and goodness.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Necker was never in perfect sympathy with her
+visitors, the philosophers, the common basis of ideas and
+sentiments never existing between her and her friends as
+it did between Mme. Geoffrin and her frequenters; her tie
+was always artificial. "She represented the Swiss spirit
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>[pg 258]</span>
+in Parisian society; those serious and educated souls, virtuous
+and sentimental, somewhat sad and strictly moral,
+were rather tiresome to the Parisian world." Marmontel
+well describes her in another of his famous portraits:</p>
+
+<p>"A stranger to the customs of Paris, Mme. Necker had
+none of the charms and accomplishments of the young
+French woman. In her manner and language she had
+neither the air nor the tone of a woman reared in the
+school of arts, formed at the school of high society. Without
+taste in her headdress, without ease in her bearing,
+without fascination in her politeness, her mind&mdash;as was
+her countenance&mdash;was too properly adjusted to show
+grace. But a charm more worthy of her was that of propriety,
+of candor, of goodness. A virtuous education and
+solitary studies had given to her all that culture can add
+to an excellent nature. In her, sentiment was perfect,
+but her thought was often confused and vague; instead of
+clearing her ideas, meditation disturbed them; in exaggerating
+them, she believed to enlarge them; in order to
+extend them, she wandered off into abstractions and
+hyperboles. She seemed to see certain objects only
+through a fog, which augmented their importance in her
+eyes; and then her expression became so inflated that the
+pomposity of it would have been laughable if one had not
+known her to be entirely ingenuous."</p>
+
+<p>"In summing up the character of Mme. Necker, we find,"
+says Sainte-Beuve, "first of all, a genuine individuality and
+a personality with defects which at first impression are
+shocking, but which only helped to render the woman and
+all her aspirations the more admirable. Entering a Parisian
+society with the firm decision of becoming a woman of
+<i>esprit</i> and of being in relation with the <i>beaux esprits</i>, she
+was able to preserve the moral conscience of her Protestant
+training, to protest against the false doctrines about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>[pg 259]</span>
+her, to give herself up to duties in the midst of society, to
+found institutions for the sick and needy,&mdash;and to leave a
+memory without a stain."</p>
+
+<p>While, among the famous salon leaders of the eighteenth
+century, Mme. Necker stands out preëminently for her
+strict moral integrity and fidelity to her marriage relations,
+Mme. d'Epinay is unique for the constancy of her affections
+for the men to whom she owes her celebrity, Rousseau
+and Grimm. Born in 1725, the record of her life
+runs like that of most French women. At the age of
+twenty she was married to her cousin, La Live, who later
+took the name of d'Epinay, from an estate his father, the
+wealthy M. de Bellegarde, had bought&mdash;a man who was
+really in love with her for a whole month after their marriage,
+but who, tiring of the pure affections of a loving
+wife, soon began to lavish his time and fortune upon a
+<i>danseuse</i>. The poor young wife was between two fires,
+the extravagance and wild dissipations of her husband
+and the rigid discipline and orthodoxy of her mother.
+Never was a woman treated so outrageously and insultingly
+as was this woman by a man who contrived in every
+manner to corrupt her morals by throwing her among his
+dissolute companions, Mme. d'Artz, the mistress of the
+Prince de Conti, and Mlle. d'Ette, an intriguing woman
+of the time; to the latter, Mme. d'Epinay confided her
+troubles, and, as the result of her counsels, fell into the
+hands of a M. de Francueil, handsome, clever, accomplished,
+but as morally depraved as was her husband.</p>
+
+<p>When Mme. d'Epinay was finally convinced that her
+husband was untrue to her, she felt nothing but disdain
+and contempt for him, and decided to live a virtuous life;
+after holding for a short time to her resolution "that a
+woman may have the most profound and tender sentiment
+for a man and yet remain faithful to her duties," she lost
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>[pg 260]</span>
+herself under the influence of the professional seducer
+Francueil, and, completely carried away by that passion,
+she cries out, in her memoirs: <i>Francueil, Francueil, tu
+m'as perdue, et tu disais que tu m'aimais</i> [You have undone
+me&mdash;and you said you loved me]! Such was the lot, as
+was seen, of most women of those days, who had noble
+intentions, but a woman's weakness. The century did
+not demand faithfulness to the marital vows; but when a
+woman had once abandoned herself to love, it required
+that the attachment be to a man of honor and standing.
+Marriage was simply a preliminary step to freedom; after
+that ceremony came the natural election of the heart and
+mutual tenderness of the beings who could be mated only
+through the freedom which married life afforded. A superior
+illegitimate liaison was nothing unnatural&mdash;on the
+contrary, it was but a natural human selection; such was
+the nature of the affection of Mme. d'Epinay for this débauché Francueil.</p>
+
+<p>As she enjoyed absolute liberty, her lover paid his respects
+to her at Epinay; there he inaugurated amusements
+and took his friends. It was he who suggested the erection
+of a theatre at which her friends' productions might
+be offered to the world of critics. Through his efforts,
+the great men who made her salon famous were gathered
+at "La Chevrette," where the actors and players soon
+drew the attention of literary Paris. After a year or two
+of attachment, Francueil became indifferent to Mme.
+d'Epinay and transferred his affections to an actress&mdash;the
+sister of M. d'Epinay's mistress. Thus runs the story of
+the life of the average married woman. If she remained
+virtuous, she usually became resigned to her fate and lived
+happily; if she undertook to imitate her husband's tactics,
+she fell from the good graces of one lover to those of
+another, ending her life in absolute wretchedness.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>[pg 261]</span>
+
+<p>These two men&mdash;the lover and the husband&mdash;carried on
+with two sisters their licentious living and extravagances
+to such an extent that the injured wife demanded a separation
+of her fortune from that of her husband, in which
+project her father-in-law aided her and gave her thirteen
+thousand francs income. Mme. d'Epinay, in the midst of
+success, became acquainted with Mlle. Quinault, the
+daughter of the famous actor of the time, and herself a
+great actress. This woman invited Mme. d'Epinay to her
+so-called salon, which was, possibly, the most licentious
+and irreligious of the salons then in vogue, where she
+met Duclos, with whom she immediately formed a strong friendship.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of M. de Bellegarde, her wealth was
+considerably increased, a piece of good fortune which enabled
+her to carry out all her plans. It was at this time,
+1755, that she induced Rousseau to live in her cottage,
+"l'Hermitage;" and for about two years she enjoyed perfect
+happiness with him. By a peculiar freak of fate she
+fell in with Grimm, who was introduced to her by Rousseau
+and who had, for some time, been on the hunt for a
+"faithful mistress." This German by birth, but Frenchman
+in spirit, had championed her at a dinner, where she
+was the object of the severest reproach. She had burned
+the papers of her sister, Mme. de Jully, who had betrayed
+an honest husband. Stricken with smallpox, just before
+dying, she confessed all to Mme. d'Epinay. The latter
+owed Mme. de Jully fifty écus and the note was among
+the papers of Mme. de Jully. Mme. d'Epinay was accused
+of having burned the note to which it was asserted
+she had access; and Grimm undertook to plead her cause,
+an act which so elated madame that she turned all her affection
+upon her defender, whereupon Rousseau departed.
+Later on, the note having been found, Mme. d'Epinay was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>[pg 262]</span>
+completely vindicated. Grimm then became her third lover.</p>
+
+<p>This third marriage, so to speak, was one of reason; the
+first was one of mere emancipation; the second, one of
+passion and genuine love. In 1755, worn out physically,
+she took a trip to Switzerland, to be treated by the famous
+Dr. Tronchin; there she became so ill that Grimm was
+summoned. They remained together for about two years,
+and after her return to Paris she reopened her salon of
+"La Chevrette." Her reunions partook more of the nature
+of our house parties; the salon was an immense room,
+in which the members would pair off and divert themselves
+as they pleased; in that respect "La Chevrette"
+was unique. After her fortune, which at one time was
+quite large, became diminished, partly through her own
+extravagance and partly through that of her son, who was
+the very counterpart of his father, she was forced to rent
+"La Chevrette" and, later on, "La Briche," where she
+had opened her second salon.</p>
+
+<p>The last years of her life she spent in Paris with Grimm.
+She had reached such a physical condition that her sufferings
+could be relieved only by the use of opium. Financial
+relief came to her in 1783, when the Academy awarded
+her the Montyon prize, then given for the first time, for
+her <i>Conversations d'Emilie</i>. She died in the same year,
+surrounded by her dearest friends&mdash;Grimm, M. and Mme.
+Belgunce, and Mme. d'Houdetot.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. d'Epinay, in many respects, was a remarkable
+woman. Amid all her social duties, with all her physical
+and mental troubles, she found time to help others and to
+manage her own business affairs and those of her children,
+took an active interest in art, music, and literature, raised,
+with the utmost care, her granddaughter, produced one of
+the best works of the time for children, made tapestry,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>[pg 263]</span>
+and wrote innumerable letters. Her fortune was lost
+through the reforms of Necker.</p>
+
+<p>She was not a beautiful woman; but she was distinguished
+by a small, thin figure, an abundance of rich dark hair,
+which brought out in striking relief the peculiar whiteness
+of her skin, and large brown eyes. Her five lovers she
+called her five bears: Rousseau, Grimm, Desmoulin, Saint-Lambert,
+Gauffecourt. An epistle to Grimm begins thus;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"Moi, de cinq ours la souveraine,</p>
+<p>Qui leur donne et present des lois,</p>
+<p>Faut-il que je sois à la fois</p>
+<p>Et votre esclave et votre reine,</p>
+<p>O des tyrans le plus tyran?"</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>[I, sovereign over five bears,</p>
+<p>Who give and prescribe laws for them&mdash;</p>
+<p>Must I be your slave and queen at the same time,</p>
+<p>O among tyrants, the greatest?]</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>As far as the care of the education of her children is concerned,
+with its sacrifice and real application to duty, she
+was sometimes called&mdash;and not unadvisedly&mdash;the type of
+the ideal mother. From 1757 on her ideas and thoughts ran
+to education. Her friends were all of the philosophical
+trend, and intellectual labor was their chief pleasure. After
+having passed through a career of excitement and love's
+caprices, she longed for a peaceful, quiet existence; at that
+point, however, her health gave way, and she entered upon
+a new territory at Geneva. There she conquered Voltaire,
+who was profuse with his compliments and kindnesses.
+Upon her return she became the recognized leader
+or champion of the philosophic and foreign group and the
+Encyclopædists, and was regarded as the central figure
+of the philosophical movement in general.</p>
+
+<p>The ideas of the philosophers had been gaining ground,
+and were disseminated through all classes. The mere
+love of pleasure and luxury at first found under Louis XV.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>[pg 264]</span>
+gave way to more serious reflections when society was
+confronted with those all-important questions which finally
+culminated in the Revolution. The salon of Mme. d'Epinay
+grew to be the most important and, intellectually, the most
+brilliant of the time. Rousseau, Diderot, Helvétius, Duclos,
+Suard, the Abbés Galiani, Raynal, the Florentine
+physician Gatti, Comte de Schomberg, Chevalier de Chastellux,
+Saint-Lambert, Marquis de Croixmare, the different
+ambassadors, counts and princes, were frequent visitors
+In this brilliant circle her letters from Voltaire, read aloud,
+were always eagerly awaited. Such dramas as Voltaire's
+<i>Tancred</i>, Diderot's <i>Le Père de Famille</i>, were given under
+her patronage and discussed in her salon; after the performance
+she entertained all the friends at supper.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the departure of Abbé Galiani from Paris, Mme.
+d'Epinay and Diderot were intrusted with the revision and
+printing of his famous <i>Dialogues sur les Blés</i>; Grimm left
+to them the continuance of his <i>Correspondance Littéraire</i>.
+She was known for her wonderful analytical ability and
+her keen power of observation&mdash;faculties which won the
+esteem and respect of such men and caused her collaboration
+to be anxiously sought by them; however, she never
+attempted to rival them in their particular sphere. In her
+writings she displayed a reactionary tendency against the
+educational methods of the day, her chief work of real
+literary worth being mostly in the form of sound advice to
+a child. Being a reasonable, careful, and sensible woman,&mdash;in
+spite of the defects in her moral life,&mdash;she desired to
+show the possibilities of a moral revolution against the
+habits and customs of the time, of which she herself had
+been a most unfortunate victim. She was relieved of
+actual want by means of this work, which gained for her
+a pension from Catherine II. of Russia, who adopted
+her methods for her own children, and the award of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>[pg 265]</span>
+Montyon prize, which was given her in a competition with a
+large number of aspirants, the most famous of whom was
+Mme. de Genlis. It was her ability to gain and retain the
+respect of great men which won that honor for her.</p>
+
+<p>The memoirs of Mme. d'Epinay leave one of the most
+accurate and faithful pictures of the polished society of the
+France of about 1750. "Her salon was the centre about
+which circled the greatest activity; it was filled with men
+who ordered events, thinkers whose minds were bent upon
+untangling the knotty problems of the age; it was her
+salon, more than any other, that quickened the philosophical
+movement of the day. Mme. d'Epinay made her
+reputation not so much through her <i>esprit</i>, intelligence, or
+beauty, possibly, as through the strength of her affection.
+Timid, irresolute, and highly impressionable, and amiable
+in disposition, she was constantly influenced by circumstances&mdash;a
+quality which led her on to the two principal
+occupations of her later life, education and philosophy.
+To-day, her name is recalled principally for its association
+with that of Rousseau, whose mistress and benefactress
+she was; it is to her that the world owes his famous <i>Nouvelle Héloïse</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The last of the great literary and social leaders of the
+eighteenth century was Mme. de Genlis, a prodigy in every
+respect, an amateur performer upon nearly every instrument,
+an authority on intellectual matters as well, a fine
+story teller, a consummate artist, entertainer, and general
+charmer. Authoress, governess of Louis-Philippe, councillor
+of Bonaparte, her success as a social leader established
+her reputation and places her in the file of great
+women, although she was not a salon leader such as Mme.
+Geoffrin or Mme. du Deffand.</p>
+
+<p>She was born in 1746, and at a very early age showed
+a remarkable talent for music, but her general education
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>[pg 266]</span>
+was much neglected. At the age of about seventeen she
+was married to a Comte de Genlis, who had fallen in love
+with her on seeing her portrait. As his relatives refused
+to welcome the young girl, she was placed in the convent
+of Origny, where she remained until 1764, after which
+her husband took her to his brother's estate, where they
+lived happily for a short time. When, in 1765, she became
+a mother, her husband's family became reconciled to his
+union, and, later on, took her to court.</p>
+
+<p>Before her marriage, upon the departure of her father
+to San Domingo to retrieve his fortunes, her mother had
+found an asylum for her at the elegant home of the farmer-general
+M. de La Popelinière. This occurred at the time
+that Paris was theatre mad, and when great actors and
+actresses were the heroes and heroines of society. At
+this house the young girl became the central figure in
+the theatrical and musical entertainments. After passing
+through this schooling, she stood the test of the court
+without any difficulty, and completely won the favor of
+her husband's family, as well as that of the court ladies
+and the members of the other distinguished households
+where she was introduced. With an insatiable appetite
+for frolics, quite in keeping with the customs of the time,
+she plunged into social life with a vigor and an aptitude
+which soon attracted attention. She played all sorts of
+rôles at the most fashionable houses, "through her consummate
+acting and <i>bons mots</i> drawing tears of vexation
+from her less gifted sisters. She plays nine instruments,
+writes dramas, recasts others, organizes and drills amateurs,
+besides attending to a thousand and one other things."</p>
+
+<p>Through the influence of her aunt, Mme. de Montesson,
+who was secretly married to the Duke of Orléans, Mme.
+de Genlis was appointed lady-in-waiting in the household
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>[pg 267]</span>
+of the Duchesse de Chartres, the duke's daughter-in-law,
+whose salon was celebrated in Paris. She soon won the
+confidence of the duchess, and became her confessor, secretary,
+guide, and oracle, but did not abandon in the least
+her pursuit of pleasure. She even took possession of
+the heart of the duke himself, and in 1782 was made
+"<i>gouverneur</i>" to his children, the Duc de Valois, later
+Louis-Philippe, the Duc de Montpensier, the Comte de
+Beaujolais, and Mlle. Adelaïde; for the education of her
+pupils she had the use of several châteaux. Many a
+piquant epigram and chanson were composed for the edification
+of the "<i>gouverneur</i>." It is said that she acted as
+panderer for the princes, especially Louis-Philippe, of a
+"legitimate means of satisfying these ardent desires of
+which I am being devoured," by leading them to the nuns
+in the convents by means of a subterranean passage. The
+following passages from the journal of Louis-Philippe show
+the nature of his relations with her:</p>
+
+<p>(December, 1790.) "I went to dine with my mother
+and grandfather. Although I am delighted to dine often
+with my mother, I am deeply sorry to give only three
+days out of the seven to my dear Bellechasse [that is, to Mme. de Genlis]."</p>
+
+<p>(January, 1791.) "Last evening, returned to my friend
+[Mme. de Genlis]; remained there until after midnight; I
+was the first one to have the good fortune of wishing her
+a 'Happy New Year.' Nothing can make me happier; I
+don't know what will become of me when I am no longer with her."</p>
+
+<p>(January, 1791.) "Yesterday, I was at the Tuileries.
+The queen spoke to my father, to my brother, and said
+nothing to me&mdash;neither did the king nor Monsieur, in fact,
+no one. I remained at my friend's until half-past twelve.
+No one in the world is so agreeable to me as is she."
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>[pg 268]</span>
+(February, 1791.) "I was at the assembly at Bellechasse,
+dined at the Palais-Royal, I was at the Jacobins,
+returned to Bellechasse, after supper went to my friend's.
+I remained with her alone; she treated me with an infinite
+kindness; I left, the happiest man in the world." Such
+language speaks for itself.</p>
+
+<p>No sons of a nobleman ever received a finer, more typically
+modern education than did her pupils. She was,
+possibly, the first teacher to use the natural method system,
+teaching German, English, and Italian by conversation.
+The boys were compelled to act, in the park, the
+voyages of Vasco da Gama; in the dining room the great
+historical tableaux were presented; in the theatre, built
+especially for them, they acted all the dramas of the
+<i>Théâtre d'Education</i>. She taught them how to make portfolios,
+ribbons, wigs, pasteboard work, to gild, to turn,
+and to do carpentering. They visited museums and manufactories,
+during which expeditions they were taught to observe,
+criticise, and find defects. This was the first step
+taken in France in the eighteenth century toward a modern
+education. Although it was superficial, in consequence of
+its great breadth, yet this education inculcated manliness and courage.</p>
+
+<p>In 1778 Mme. de Genlis published her moral teachings
+in <i>Adèle et Théodore</i>, a work which created quite a little
+talk at the time, but which eventually brought upon her
+the condemnation of the philosophers and Encyclopædists,
+because in it she opposed liberty of conscience. When,
+on the occasion of the first communion of the Duc de
+Valois, she wrote her <i>Religion Considered as the Only True
+Foundation of Happiness and of True Philosophy</i>, all the
+Palais-Royal place hunters, philosophers, and her political
+enemies, in a mass, opposed and ridiculed her. Rivarol
+declared that she had no sex, that heaven had refused the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>[pg 269]</span>
+magic of talent to her productions, as it had refused the
+charm of innocence to her childhood.</p>
+
+<p>One of the best portraits of her is in the memoirs of
+the Baroness d'Oberkirch (it was she who disturbed Mme.
+de Genlis and the Duc d'Orléans while they were walking
+in the gardens one night):</p>
+
+<p>"I did not like her, in spite of her accomplishments and
+the charm of her conversation; she was too systematic.
+She is a woman who has laid aside the flowing robes of
+her sex for the costume of a pedagogue. Besides, nothing
+about her is natural; she is constantly in an attitude, as it
+were, thinking that her portrait&mdash;physical or moral&mdash;is
+being taken by someone. One of the great follies of this
+masculine woman is her harp, which she carries about
+with her; she speaks about it when she hasn't it&mdash;she
+plays on a crust of bread and practises with a thread.
+When she perceives that someone is looking at her, she
+rounds her arm, purses up her mouth, assumes a sentimental
+expression and air, and begins to move her fingers.
+Gracious! what a fine thing naturalness is!... I
+spent a delightful evening at the Comtesse de La Massais's;
+she had hired musicians whom she paid dear; but
+Mme. de Genlis sat in the centre of the assembly, commanded,
+talked, commented, sang, and would have put
+the entire concert in confusion, had not the Marquise de
+Livry very drolly picked a quarrel with her about her
+harp, which she had brought to her. Decidedly, this
+young D'Orléans has a singular governor. She holds too
+closely to her rôle, and never forgets her <i>jupons</i> [skirts]
+except when she ought most to remember them."</p>
+
+<p>During her visit to England she was petted by everyone;
+but even in England there was a widespread prejudice
+against her&mdash;a feeling which the mere sight of her immediately
+dissipated. An English lady wrote about her:</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>[pg 270]</span>
+
+<p>"I saw her at first with a prejudice in her disfavor,
+from the cruel reports I had heard; but the moment I
+looked at her it was removed. There was a dignity with
+her sweetness and a frankness with her modesty, that
+convinced me, beyond all power of contrary report, of her
+real worth and innocence."</p>
+
+<p>During the Revolution Mme. de Genlis travelled about
+Switzerland, Germany, and England. At Berlin, owing
+to her poverty, she supported herself by writing, making
+trinkets, and teaching, until she was recalled to France,
+under the Consulate. In Paris she produced some of her
+best works&mdash;although they were written to order. Napoleon
+gave her a pension of six thousand francs and handsome
+apartments at the Arsenal. To this liberal pension,
+the wife of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, added three thousand francs.</p>
+
+<p>From Mme. de Genlis, Napoleon received a letter fortnightly,
+in which epistle she communicated to him her
+opinions and observations upon politics and current events.
+Upon the return to power of the Orléans family, she was
+put off with a meagre pension. Like many other French
+women, she became more and more melancholy and misanthropic.
+She was unable to control her wrath against
+the philosophers and some of the contemporary writers,
+such as Lamartine, Mme. de Staël, Scott, and Byron. Her
+death, in 1830, was announced in these words: "Mme. de
+Genlis has ceased to write&mdash;which is to announce her death."</p>
+
+<p>Throughout life she was so generous that as soon as
+she received her pensions, presents, or earnings from her
+work, the money was distributed among the poor. When
+she died, she left nothing but a few worn and homely
+dresses and articles of furniture. The diversity of her
+works and her conduct, the politics in which she was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>[pg 271]</span>
+steeped, the satires, the perfidious accusations that have
+pursued her, have contributed to leave of her a rather
+doubtful portrait; however, those who have written bitterly
+against her have done so mostly from personal or
+political animosity. She was so many-sided&mdash;a reformer,
+teacher, pietist, politician, actress&mdash;that a true estimate
+of her character is difficult. A woman of all tastes and of
+various talents, she was a living encyclopædia and mistress
+of all arts of pleasing. She had studied medicine,
+and took special delight in the art of bleeding, which she
+practised upon the peasants, each one of whom she would
+present with thirty sous (thirty cents), after the bleeding&mdash;and
+she never lacked patients. Mme. de Genlis was
+an expert rider and huntress; also, she was graceful, with
+an elegant figure, great affability, and a talent for quickly
+and accurately reading character; and these gifts were
+stepping-stones to popularity.</p>
+
+<p>She wrote incessantly, on all things, essaying every
+style, every subject. "She has discoursed for the education
+of princes and of lackeys; prepared maxims for the
+throne and precepts for the pantry; you might say she
+possessed the gift of universality. She was gifted with a
+singular confidence in her own abilities, infinite curiosity,
+untiring industry, and never-ending and inexhaustible energy.
+She wrote nearly as much as Voltaire, and barely
+excelled him in the amount of unreadable work, which, if
+printed, would fill over one hundred volumes."</p>
+
+<p>"Let us remember," says Mr. Dobson, "her indefatigable
+industry and untiring energy, her kindness to her relatives
+and admirers, her courage and patience when in exile and
+poverty, her great talent, perseverance, and rare facility."
+In protesting vigorously against the universal neglect of
+physical development, against the absence of the gymnasium
+and the lack of practical knowledge in the education
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>[pg 272]</span>
+of her time, in advocating the study of modern languages
+as a means of culture and discipline, in applying to her
+pupils the principles of the modern experimental and observational
+education, Mme. de Genlis will retain a place
+as one of the great female educators&mdash;as a woman pedagogue,
+<i>par excellence</i>, of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>A great number of minor salons existed, which were
+partly literary, partly social. From about 1750 to 1780
+the amusements varied constantly, from all-day parties in
+the country to cafés served by the great women themselves,
+from playing proverbs to playing synonyms, from
+impromptu compositions to questionable stories, from laughter
+to tears, from Blind-man's-buff to Lotto. Some of the
+proverbs were quite ingenious and required elaborate
+preparations; for example, at one place Mme. de Lauzun
+dances with M. de Belgunce, in the simplest kind of a
+costume, which represented the proverb: <i>Bonne renommée
+vaut mieux que ceinture dorée</i> [A good name is rather to be
+chosen than great riches]. Mme. de Marigny danced with
+M. de Saint-Julien as a negro, passing her handkerchief
+over her face in the various figures of the dance, meaning
+<i>A laver la tête d'un More on perd sa lessive</i> [To wash a
+blackamoor white].</p>
+
+<p>Among the social salons, the finest was the Temple of
+the Prince de Conti and his mistress, the Countess de
+Boufflers. It was a salon of pleasure, liberty, and unceremonious
+intimacy; his <i>thés à l'anglaise</i> were served by the
+great ladies themselves, attired in white aprons. The exclusive
+and élite of the social world made up his company.
+The most elegant assembly was that of the Maréchale de
+Luxembourg; it will be considered later on. The salon of
+Mme. de Beauvau rivalled that of the Maréchale de Luxembourg;
+she was mistress of elegance and propriety, an
+authority on and model of the usages of society. A manner
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>[pg 273]</span>
+perhaps superior to that of any other woman, gave Mme. de
+Beauvau a particular <i>politesse</i> and constituted her one of
+the women who contributed most to the acceptance of Paris
+as the capital of Europe, by well-bred people of all countries.
+Her <i>politesse</i> was kind and without sarcasm, and,
+by her own naturalness, she communicated ease. She
+was not beautiful, but had a frank and open expression
+and a marvellous gift of conversation, which was her delight
+and in which she gloried. Her salon was conspicuous
+for its untarnished honor and for the example it set of a pure conjugal love.</p>
+
+<p>The salon of Mme. de Grammont, at Versailles, was
+visited at all hours of the day and night by the highest
+officials, princes, lords, and ladies. It had activity, authority,
+the secret doors, veiled and redoubtable depths of a
+salon of the mistress of a king. Everybody went there
+for counsel, submitted plans, and confided projects to this
+lady who had willingly exiled herself from Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The house of M. de La Popelinière, at Passy, was noted
+for its unique entertainment; there the celebrated Gossec
+and Gaïffre conducted the concerts, Deshayes, master of
+the ballet at the Comédie-Italienne, managed the amusements.
+It was a house like a theatre and with all the
+requisites of the latter; there artists and men of letters,
+virtuosos and <i>danseuses</i>, ate, slept, and lodged as in a hotel.
+With Mme. de Blot, mistress of the Duke of Orléans, as
+hostess, the Palais-Royal ranked next to the Temple of
+the Prince de Conti; it was open only to those who were
+presented; after that ceremony, all those who were thus
+introduced could, without invitation, dine there on all days
+of the Grand Opera. On the <i>petits jours</i> a select twenty
+gathered, who, when once invited, were so for all time.
+The "Salon de Pomone," of Mme. de Marchais, received
+its name from Mme. du Deffand on account of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>[pg 274]</span>
+exquisite fruits and magnificent flowers which the hostess
+cultivated and distributed among her friends.</p>
+
+<p>"La Paroisse," of Mme. Doublet de Persan, was the
+salon of the sceptics and was under the constant surveillance
+of the police. All the members arrived at the same
+time and each took possession of the armchair reserved
+for him, above which hung his portrait. On a large stand
+were two registers, in which the rumors of the day were
+noted&mdash;in one the doubtful, in the other the accredited.
+On Saturday, a selection was made, which went to the
+<i>Grand Livre</i>, which became a journal entitled <i>Nouvelles à
+la Main</i>, kept by the <i>valet-de-chambre</i> of Mme. Doublet.
+This book furnished the substance of the six volumes of
+the <i>Mémoires Secrets</i>, which began to appear in 1770.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these salons of the nobility, there were those of
+the financiers, a profession which had risen into prominence
+within the last half century, after the death of
+Louis XIV. According to the Goncourt brothers, the
+greatest of these salons was that of Mme. de Grimrod de
+La Reynière, who, by dint of shrewd man&oelig;uvring, by
+unheard-of extravagances, excessive opulence in the furnishings
+of her salon, and by the most gorgeous and rare
+fêtes and suppers, had succeeded in attracting to her
+establishment a number of the court and nobility.</p>
+
+<p>The salon of M. de La Popelinière belonged to this
+class, although he was ranked, more or less, among
+the nobility. There were the weekly suppers of Mme.
+Suard, Mme. Saurin, the Abbé Raynal, and the luncheons
+of the Abbé Morellet on the first Sunday of the month; to
+the latter functions were invited all the celebrities of the
+other salons, as well as artists and musicians&mdash;it was there
+that the famous quarrel of the Gluck and Piccini parties
+originated. The Tuesday dinners of Helvétius became
+famous; it was at them that Franklin was one of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>[pg 275]</span>
+favorites; after the death of Helvétius, he attempted in
+vain to put an end to the widowhood of madame. No
+man at that time was more popular than Franklin or had
+as much public attention shown him.</p>
+
+<p>There were a number of celebrated women whose reputations
+rest mainly on their wit and conversational abilities;
+they may be classed as society leaders, to distinguish them from salon leaders.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>[pg 277]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter X</h2>
+
+<h2>Social Classes</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>[pg 279]</span>
+
+
+<p>The belief generally prevails that devotion and constancy
+did not exist among French women of the eighteenth
+century; but, in spite of the very numerous instances of
+infidelity which dot the pages of the history of the French
+matrimonial relations of those days, many examples of
+rare devotion are found, even among the nobility. Love
+of the king and self-eliminating devotion to him were feelings
+to which women aspired; yet we have one countess,
+the Countess of Perigord, who, true to her wifehood, repels
+the advances of the king, preferring a voluntary exile
+to the dishonor of a life of royal favors and attentions.
+There is also the example of Mme. de Trémoille; having
+been stricken with smallpox, she was ministered to by
+her husband, who voluntarily shared her fate and died with her.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem that the highest types of devotion are to
+be found in the families of the ministers and men of state,
+where the wife was intimately associated with the fortune
+and the success of her husband. The Marquis de Croisy
+and his wife were married forty years; M. and Mme. de
+Maurepas lived together for fifty years, without being
+separated one day. Instances are many in which reconciliations
+were effected after years of unfaithfulness; these
+seldom occurred, however, until the end of life was near.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>[pg 280]</span>
+The normal type of married life among the higher classes
+still remained one of most ideal and beautiful devotion, in
+spite of the great number of exceptions.</p>
+
+<p>It must be observed that in the middle class the young
+girl grew up with the mother and was given her most
+tender care; surrounded with wholesome influences, she
+saw little or nothing of the world, and, the constant companion
+of her mother, developed much like the average
+young girl of to-day. At the age of about eleven she was
+sent to a convent, where&mdash;after having spent some time
+in the <i>pension</i>, where instruction in religion was given her&mdash;she
+was instructed by the sisters for one year.</p>
+
+<p>After her confirmation and her first communion, and the
+home visits to all the relatives, she was placed in a <i>maison
+religieuse</i>, where the sisters taught the daughters of the
+common people free of charge. The young girl was also
+taught dancing, music, and other accomplishments of a
+like nature, but there was nothing of the feverish atmosphere
+of the convent in which the daughters of the nobility
+were reared; these institutions for the middle classes were
+peaceful, silent, and calm, fostering a serenity and quietude.
+The days passed quickly, the Sundays being eagerly
+looked forward to because of the visits of the parents, who
+took their daughters for drives and walks and indulged
+them in other innocent diversions. Such a life had its
+after effects: the young girls grew up with a taste for
+system, discipline, piety, and for a rigid devotion, which
+often led them to an instinctive need of doctrine and sacrifice;
+consequently, in later life many turned to Jansenism.</p>
+
+<p>However, the young girls of this class who were not
+thus educated, because their assistance was required at
+home, received an early training in social as well as in
+domestic affairs; they had a solid and practical, if uncouth,
+foundation, combined with a worldly and, often, a frivolous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>[pg 281]</span>
+temperament. To them many privileges were opened:
+they were taken to the opera, to concerts and to balls, to
+the salons of painting, and it often happened that they developed
+a craving for the society to which only the nobly
+born demoiselle was admitted. When this craving went
+too far, it frequently led to seduction by some of the
+chevaliers who make seduction a profession.</p>
+
+<p>The marriage customs in these circles differed little from
+those of to-day. The suitor asked permission to call and
+to continue his visits; then followed the period of present
+giving. The young girl was almost always absolute mistress
+of the decision; if the father presented a name, the
+daughter insisted upon seeing, receiving, and becoming
+intimately acquainted with the suitor, a custom quite different
+from that practised among the nobility. Instead of
+giving her rights as it did the girl of the nobility, marriage
+imposed duties upon the girl of the middle class; it closed
+the world instead of opening it to her; it ended her brilliant,
+gay, and easy life, instead of beginning it, as was
+the case in the higher classes. This she realized, therefore
+hesitated long before taking the final step which was to bind her until death.</p>
+
+<p>With her, becoming a wife meant infinitely more than it
+did to the girl of the nobility; her husband had the management
+of her money, and his vices were visited upon
+her and her children&mdash;in short, he became her master in
+all things. These disadvantages she was taught to consider
+deeply before entering the marriage state.</p>
+
+<p>This state of affairs developed distinctive physiognomies
+in the different classes of the middle-class society: thus,
+"the wives of the financiers are dignified, stern, severe;
+those of the merchants are seductive, active, gossiping,
+and alert; those of the artists are free, easy, and independent,
+with a strong taste for pleasure and gayety&mdash;and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>[pg 282]</span>
+they give the tone." As we approach the end of the
+century, the <i>bourgeoisie</i> begins to assume the airs, habits,
+extravagances, and even the immoralities, of the higher classes.</p>
+
+<p>Below the <i>bourgeoise</i> was the workingwoman, whose
+ideas were limited to those of a savage and who was a
+woman only in sex. Her ideas of morality, decency,
+conjugal happiness, children, education, were limited by
+quarrels, profanity, blows, fights. At that time brandy
+was the sole consolation for those women; it supplied their
+moral force and their moral resistance, making them forget
+cold, hunger, fatigue, evil, and giving them courage and
+patience; it was the fire that sustained, comforted, and incited them.</p>
+
+<p>These women were not much above the level of animals,
+but from them, we find, often sprang the entertainers of
+the time, the queens of beauty and gallantry&mdash;Laguerre,
+D'Hervieux, Sophie Arnould. Having lost their virtue
+with maturity, these women had no sense of morality; in
+them, nothing preserved the sense of honor&mdash;their religion
+consisted of a few superstitious practices. The constituents
+of duty and the virtue of women they could only
+vaguely guess; marriage itself was presented to them
+under the most repugnant image of constant contention.</p>
+
+<p>It was in such an atmosphere as this that the daughters
+of these women grew up. Their talents found opportunity
+for display at the public dances where some of them
+would in time attract especial attention. Some became
+opera singers, dancers, or actresses, and were very popular;
+others became influential, and, through the efforts of
+some lover, allured about them a circle of ambitious
+<i>débauchés</i> or aspirants for social favors. Through their
+adventures they made their way up in the world to high society.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>[pg 283]</span>
+
+<p>From this element of prostitution was disentangled, to a
+large extent, the great gallantry of the eighteenth century.
+This was accomplished by adding an elegance to debauch,
+by clothing vice with a sort of grandeur, and by adorning
+scandal with a semblance of the glory and grace of the
+courtier of old. Possessing the fascination of all gifts,
+prodigalities, follies, with all the appetites and tendencies
+of the time, these women attracted the society of the
+period&mdash;the poets, the artists, even the scientists, the philosophers,
+and the nobility. Their reputation increased
+with the number and standing of their lovers. The
+genius of the eighteenth century circled about these street
+belles&mdash;they represented the fortune of pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>As the church would not countenance the marriage of
+an actress, she was forced to renounce the theatre when
+she would marry, but once married a permit to return to
+the stage was easily obtained. Society was not so severe
+as the laws; it received actresses, sought out, and even
+adored them; it received the women of the stage as equals,
+and many of them were married by counts and dukes,
+given a title, and presented at court. The regular type
+of the prostitute was tolerated and even received by
+society; "a word of anger, malediction, or outrage, was
+seldom raised against these women: on the contrary, pity
+and the commiseration of charity and tenderness were felt
+for them and manifested." This was natural, for many of
+them&mdash;through notoriety&mdash;reached society and, as mistresses
+of the king, even the throne itself. "If such
+women as Mme. de Pompadour were esteemed, what
+principles remained in the name of which to judge without
+pity and to condemn the <i>débauchés</i> of the street," says
+Mme. de Choiseul, one of the purest of women.</p>
+
+<p>This class usually created and established the styles.
+There is a striking contrast between the standards of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>[pg 284]</span>
+beauty and fashions of the respective periods of Louis XIV.
+and Louis XV.: "The stately figure, rich costume, awe-inspiring
+peruke of the magnificent Louis XIV.&mdash;the satins,
+velvets, embroideries, perfumes, and powder of the indolent
+and handsome Louis XV., well illustrate the two
+epochs." The beauty of the Louis XIV. age was more
+serious, more imposing, imperial, classic; later in the
+eighteenth century, under Louis XV., she developed into
+a charming figure of <i>finesse, sveltesse et gracilité</i>, with
+an extremely delicate complexion, a small mouth and thin
+nose, as opposed to the strong, plump mouth and <i>nez léonin</i>
+(leonine nose). More animated, the face was all movement,
+the eyes talked; the <i>esprit</i> passed to the face. It
+was the type of Marivaux' comedies, with an <i>esprit mobile</i>,
+animated and colored by all the coquetries of grace.</p>
+
+<p>Later in the century, the very opposite type prevailed;
+the aspiration then became to leave an emotion ungratified
+rather than to seduce; a languishing expression was cultivated;
+women sought to sweeten the physiognomy, to
+make it tender and mild. The style of beauty changed
+from the brunette with brown eyes&mdash;so much in vogue
+under Louis XV., to the blonde with blue eyes under
+Louis XVI. Even the red which formerly "dishonored
+France," became a favorite. To obtain the much admired
+pale complexion, women had themselves bled; their dress
+corresponded to their complexion, light materials and pure
+white being much affected.</p>
+
+<p>In these three stages of the development of beauty,
+fashion changed to harmonize with the popular style in
+beauty. In general, styles were influenced by an important
+event of the day: thus, when Marie Leczinska, introduced
+the fad of quadrilles, there were invented ribbons
+called "quadrille of the queen"; and many other fads
+originated in the same way. French taste and fashions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>[pg 285]</span>
+travelled over entire Europe; all Europe was <i>à la française</i>,
+yoked and laced in French styles, French in art, taste,
+industry. The domination of the French <i>Galerie des
+Modes</i> was due to the inventive minds of French women
+in relation to everything pertaining to headdress, to
+detailed and delicate arrangements of every phase of ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>Every country had, in Paris, its agents who eagerly
+waited for the appearance of the famous doll of the Rue
+Saint-Honoré; this figure was an exponent of the latest
+fashions and inventions, and, changing continually, was
+watched and copied by all Europe. Alterations in style
+frequently originated at the supper of a mistress, in the box
+of a dancer or in the atelier of a fine modiste; therefore,
+in that respect, that century differed little from the present
+one. Trade depended largely upon foreign patronage.
+Fortunes were made by the modistes, who were the
+great artists of the day and who set the fashion; but
+the hairdresser and shoemaker, also, were artists, as
+was seen, at least in name, and were as impertinent as prosperous.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting illustration of the change of fashion is
+the following anecdote: In 1714, at a supper of the king,
+at Versailles, two English women wore low headdress,
+causing a scandal which came near costing them their
+dismissal. The king happened to mention that if French
+women were reasonable, they would not dress otherwise.
+The word was spread, and the next day, at the king's
+mass the ladies all wore their hair like the English women,
+regardless of the laughter of the women who, being absent
+the previous evening, had their hair dressed high. The
+compliment of the king as he was leaving mass, to the
+ladies with the low headdress, caused a complete change in the mode.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>[pg 286]</span>
+
+<p>It now remains but to illustrate these various classes
+by types&mdash;by women who have become famous. The
+Duchesse de Boufflers, Maréchale de Luxembourg, was
+the woman who most completely typified the spirit and
+tone of the eighteenth-century <i>classique</i> in everything that
+belonged to the ancient régime which passed away with
+the society of 1789. She was the daughter of the Duc de
+Villeroy, and married the Duc de Boufflers in 1721; after
+the death of the latter in 1747, and after having been the
+mistress of M. de Luxembourg for several years, she married
+him in 1750. Her youth was like that of most women
+of the social world. A <i>savante</i> in intrigues at court, present
+at all suppers, bouts, and pleasure trips as lady-of-the-palace
+to the queen, intriguing constantly, holding her
+own by her sharp wit, in a society of <i>roués et élégants
+enervés</i> she soon became a leader. Mme. du Deffand left
+a striking portrait of her:</p>
+
+<p>"Mme. la Duchesse de Boufflers is beautiful without
+having the air of suspecting it. Her physiognomy is keen
+and piquant, her expression reveals all the emotions of
+her soul&mdash;she does not have to say what she thinks, one
+guesses it. Her gestures are so natural and so perfectly
+in accord with what she says, that it is difficult not to be
+led to think and feel as she does. She dominates wherever
+she is, and she always makes the impression she desires
+to make. She makes use of her advantages almost like a
+god&mdash;she permits us to believe that we have a free will
+while she determines us. In general, she is more feared
+than loved. She has much <i>esprit</i> and gayety. She is
+constant in her engagements, faithful to her friends, truthful,
+discreet, generous. If she were more clairvoyant or
+if men were less ridiculous, they would find her perfect."</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion M. de Tressan composed this famous couplet:</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>[pg 287]</span>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"Quand Boufflers parut à la cour,</p>
+<p>On crut voir la mère d'Amour,</p>
+<p>Chacun s'empressait à lui plaire,</p>
+<p>Et chacun l'avait à son tour."</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>[When Boufflers appeared at court,</p>
+<p>The mother of love was thought to be seen,</p>
+<p>Everyone became so eager to please her,</p>
+<p>And each one had her in his turn.]</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>One day Mme. de Boufflers mumbled this before M. de
+Tressan, saying to him: "Do you know the author? It
+is so beautiful that I would not only pardon her, but I believe
+I would embrace her." Whereupon he stammered:
+<i>Eh bien! c'est moi.</i> She quickly dealt him two vigorous
+slaps in the face. All feared her; no one equalled her in
+skill and shrewdness, or in knowing and handling men.</p>
+
+<p>After her marriage to the Maréchal de Luxembourg,
+she decided, about 1750, to open a salon in Paris; it
+became one of the real forces of the eighteenth century,
+socially and politically. While her husband lived, she did
+not enjoy the freedom she desired; after his death in 1764
+she was at liberty to do as she pleased, and she then
+began her career as a judge and counsellor in all social
+matters. She was regarded as the oracle of taste and
+urbanity, exercised a supervision over the tone and usage
+of society, was the censor of <i>la bonne compagnie</i> during
+the happy years of Louis XVI. This power in her was
+universally recognized. She tempered the Anglomania of
+the time, all excesses of familiarity and rudeness; she
+never uttered a bad expression, a coarse laugh or a <i>tutoiement</i>
+(thee and thou). The slightest affectation in tone
+or gesture was detected and judged by her. She preserved
+the good tone of society and permitted no contamination.
+She retarded the reign of clubs, retained the urbanity
+of French society, and preserved a proper and unique
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>[pg 288]</span>
+character in the <i>ancien salon français</i>, in the way of
+excellence of tone.</p>
+
+<p>The Marquise de Rambouillet, Mme. de La Fayette,
+Mme. de Maintenon, Mme. de Caylus, and Mme. de
+Luxembourg are of the same type&mdash;the same world, with
+little variance and no decadence; in some respects, the
+last may be said to have approached nearest to perfection.
+"In her, the turn of critical and caustic severity was exempt
+from rigidity and was accompanied by every charm
+and pleasingness in her person. She often judged [a person]
+by [his] ability at repartee, which she tested by
+embarrassing questions across the table, judging [the
+person] by the reply. She herself was never at a loss
+for an answer: when shown two portraits&mdash;one of Molière
+and one of La Fontaine&mdash;and asked which was the greater,
+she answered: 'That one,' pointing to La Fontaine, 'is
+more perfect in a <i>genre</i> less perfect.'"</p>
+
+<p>By the Goncourt brothers, her salon has been given its
+merited credit: "The most elegant salon was that of the
+Maréchale de Luxembourg, one of the most original women
+of the time. She showed an originality in her judgments,
+she was authority in usage, a genius in taste. About her
+were pleasure, interest, novelty, letters; here was formed
+the true elegance of the eighteenth century&mdash;a society
+that held sway over Europe until 1789. Here was formed
+the greatest institution of the time, the only one that survived
+till the Revolution, that preserved&mdash;in the discredit
+of all moral laws&mdash;the authority of one law, <i>la parfaite
+bonne compagnie</i>, whose aim was a social one&mdash;to distinguish
+itself from bad company, vulgar and provincial
+society, by the perfection of the means of pleasing, by
+the delicacy of friendship, by the art of considerations,
+complaisances, of <i>savoir vivre</i>, by all possible researches
+and refinements of <i>esprit</i>. It fixed everything&mdash;usages,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>[pg 289]</span>
+etiquette, tone of conversation; it taught how to praise
+without bombast and insipidness, to reply to a compliment
+without disdaining or accepting it, to bring others to
+value without appearing to protect them; it prevented all
+slander. If it did not impart modesty, goodness, indulgence,
+nobleness of sentiment, it at least imposed the forms,
+exacting the appearances and showing the images of them.
+It was the guardian of urbanity and maintained all the
+laws that are derived from taste. It represented the religion
+of honor; it judged, and when it condemned a man he was socially-ruined."</p>
+
+<p>A type of what may be called the social mistress of the
+nobility&mdash;the personification of good taste, elegance and
+propriety such as it should be&mdash;was the Comtesse de
+Boufflers, mistress of the Prince de Conti, intimate friend
+of Hume, Rousseau, and Gustave III., King of Sweden.
+The countess was one of the most influential and spirituelle
+members of French society, her special mission and
+delight being the introduction of foreign celebrities into
+French society. She piloted them, was their patroness,
+spoke almost all modern languages, and visited her friends
+in their respective countries. She was the most travelled
+and most hospitable of great French women, hence the
+woman best informed upon the world in general.</p>
+
+<p>She was born in Paris in 1725, and in 1746 was married
+to the Comte de Boufflers-Rouvrel; soon after, becoming
+enamored of the Prince de Conti, she became his
+acknowledged mistress. To give an idea of the light in
+which the women of that time considered those who were
+mistresses of great men, the following episodes may be
+cited: One day, Mme. de Boufflers, momentarily forgetting
+her relations to the Prince de Conti, remarked that
+she scorned a woman who <i>avait un prince du sang</i> (was
+mistress of a prince of the blood). When reminded of her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>[pg 290]</span>
+apparent inconsistency, she said: "I wish to give by
+my words to virtue what I take away from it by my
+actions...." On another occasion, she reproached
+the Maréchale de Mirepoix for going to see Mme. de
+Pompadour, and in the heat of argument said: "Why, she
+is nothing but the first <i>fille</i> (mistress) of the kingdom!"
+The maréchale replied: "Do not force me to count even
+unto three" (Mme. de Pompadour, Mlle. Marquise, Mme.
+de Boufflers). In those days, the position of mistress of
+an important man attracted little more attention than
+might a petty, trivial, light-hearted flirtation nowadays.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of M. de Boufflers, in 1764, the all-absorbing
+question of society, and one of vital importance
+to madame, was, Will the prince marry her? If not, will
+she continue to be his mistress? In this critical period,
+Hume showed his friendship and true sympathy by giving
+Mme. de Boufflers most persuasive and practical advice in
+reference to morals&mdash;which she did not follow. Her relations
+with Rousseau showed her capable of the deepest
+and most profound friendship and sympathy. According
+to Sainte-Beuve, it was she who, by aid of her friends in
+England, procured asylum for him with Hume at Wootton.
+When Rousseau's rashness brought on the quarrel which
+set in commotion and agitated the intellectual circles of
+both continents, Mme. de Boufflers took his part and remained
+faithful to him, securing a place for him in the
+Château de Trie, which belonged to the Prince de Conti.</p>
+
+<p>All who came in contact with her recognized the distinction,
+elevation of <i>esprit</i>, and sentiment of Mme. de Boufflers.
+With her are associated the greatest names of the
+time; being perfectly at home on all the political questions
+of the day, she was better able to converse upon these
+subjects than was any other woman of the time. When
+in 1762 she visited England, she was lionized everywhere.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>[pg 291]</span>
+She was fêted at court and in the city, and all conversation
+was upon the one subject, that of her presence, which was
+one of the important events of London life. Everyone
+was anxious to see the famous woman, the first of rank to
+visit England in two hundred years. She even received
+some special attention from the eccentric Samuel Johnson,
+in this manner: "Horace Walpole had taken the countess
+to call on Johnson. After the conventional time of a
+formal call had expired, they left, and were halfway down
+stairs, when it dawned upon Johnson that it was his duty,
+as host, to pay the honors of his literary residence to a
+foreign lady of quality; to show himself gallant, he jumped
+down from the top of the stairway, and, all agitation,
+seized the hand of the countess and conducted her to her carriage."</p>
+
+<p>No woman at court had more friends and fewer enemies
+than did Mme. de Boufflers, because "she united to the
+gifts of nature and the culture of <i>esprit</i> an amiable simplicity, charming
+graces, a goodness, kindness, and sensibility,
+which made her forget herself always and constantly
+seek to aid those about her." She made use of her influence
+over the prince in such ways as would, in a measure,
+recompense for her fault, and thus recommended herself
+by her good actions. She was the soul of his salon, "Le
+Temple." The love of these two people, through its intimacy
+and public display, through its constancy, happiness,
+and decency, dissipated all scandal. Always cheerful and
+pleased to amuse, knowing how to pay attention to all,
+always rewarding the bright remarks of others with a
+smile, which all sought as a mark of approbation, no one
+ever wished her any ill fortune.</p>
+
+<p>The last days of the Prince de Conti were cheered by
+the presence of Mme. de Boufflers and the friends whom
+she gathered about him to help bear his illness. The letter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>[pg 292]</span>
+to her from Hume, on his deathbed, is most pathetic, showing
+the influence of this woman and the nature of the
+impression she left upon her friends:</p>
+
+<p class="author">"Edinburgh, 20th of August, 1776.</p>
+
+<p>"Although I am certainly within a few weeks, dear Madame,
+and perhaps within a few days, of my own death, I
+could not forbear being struck with the death of the Prince
+of Conti&mdash;so great a loss in every particular. My reflection
+carried me immediately to your situation in this melancholy
+incident. What a difference to you in your whole
+plan of life! Pray write me some particulars, but in such
+terms that you need not care, in case of my decease, into
+whose hands your letter may fall.... My distemper
+is a diarrh&oelig;a or disorder in my bowels, which has been
+gradually undermining me for these two years, but within
+these six months has been visibly hastening me to my end.
+I see death approach gradually, without any anxiety or
+regret. I salute you with great affection and regard, for the last time.</p>
+
+<p class="author">"<span class="sc">David Hume</span>."</p>
+
+<p>Hume died five days after this letter was written.</p>
+
+<p>The last years of her life she spent with her daughter-in-law,
+at Auteuil, where she lived a happy life and received
+the best society of Paris. When she died or under
+what circumstances is not known. During the Revolution
+she lived in obscurity, busying herself with charitable
+work; she was one of the few women of the nobility to
+escape the guillotine, "This woman, who had kept the
+intellectual world alive with her <i>esprit</i> and goodness, of a
+sudden vanishes like a star from the horizon; she lives on,
+unnoticed by everyone, and, in that new society, no one
+misses her or regrets her death."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>[pg 293]</span>
+
+<p>In order to fully appreciate the mistress of the eighteenth
+century, her power and influence, her rise to popularity
+and social standing, the general and accepted idea and
+nature of the sentiment called love must be explained; for
+it was to the peculiar development of that emotion that the
+mistress owed her fortune.</p>
+
+<p>In the eighteenth century love became a theory, a cult;
+it developed a language of its own. In the preceding age
+love was declared, it spoke, it was a virtue of grandeur
+and generosity, of courage and delicacy, exacting all proofs
+of decency and gallantry, patient efforts, respect, vows,
+discretion, and reciprocal affection. The ideal was one of
+heroism, nobleness, and bravery. In the eighteenth century
+this ideal became mere desire; love became voluptuousness,
+which was to be found in art, music, styles,
+fashions&mdash;in everything. Woman herself was nothing
+more than the embodiment of voluptuousness; it made
+her what she was, directing and fashioning her. Every
+movement she made, every garment she wore, all the care
+she applied to her appearance&mdash;all breathed this <i>volupté</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In paintings it was found in impure images, coquettish
+immodesties, in couples embraced in the midst of flowers,
+in scenes of tenderness: all these representations were
+hung in the rooms of young girls, above their beds. They
+grew up to know <i>volupté</i>, and, when old enough, they
+longed for it. It was useless for women to try to escape
+its power, and chastity naturally disappeared under these
+temptations. The young girl inherited the impure instincts
+of the mother, and, when matured, was ready and eager
+for all that could enchant and gratify the senses.</p>
+
+<p>True domestic friendship and intimacy were rare, because
+the husband given to a young girl had passed
+through a long list of mistresses, and talked&mdash;from experience&mdash;gallant
+confidences which took away the veil of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>[pg 294]</span>
+illusion. She was immediately taken into society, where
+she became familiar with the spicy proverbs and the salty
+prologues of the theatre, where supposedly decent women
+were present, in curtained boxes. At the suppers and
+dinners, by songs and plays, at the gatherings where held
+forth Duclos and others like him, in the midst of champagne,
+<i>ivresse d'esprit</i>, and eloquence, she was taught and
+saw the corruption of society and marriage, the disrespect
+to modesty; in such an atmosphere all trace of innocence
+was destroyed. She was taught that faithfulness to a
+husband belonged only to the people, that it was an evidence
+of stupidity. Manners, customs, and even religion
+were against the preservation of innocence and purity;
+and in this depravity the abbés were the leaders.</p>
+
+<p>Such conditions were dangerous and disastrous not to
+young girls only, they affected the young men also; the
+latter, amidst this social demoralization, developed their
+evil tendencies, and, in a few generations, there was
+formed a Paris completely debauched. Love meant nothing
+more elevated than desire; for man, the paramount
+idea was to have or possess; for woman, to capture.
+There was no longer any mystery, any secret; the lover
+left his carriage at the door of his love, as if to publish his
+good fortune; he regularly made his appearance at her
+house, at the hour of the toilette, at dinner and at all the
+fêtes; the public announcement of the liaison was made at
+the theatre when he sat in her box.</p>
+
+<p>There came a period when so-called love fell so low
+that woman no longer questioned a man's birth, rank, or
+condition, and vice versa, as long as he or she was in
+demand; a successful man had nearly every woman of
+prominence at his feet. The men planned their attacks
+upon the women whom they desired, and the women connived,
+posed, and set most ingenious traps and devised
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>[pg 295]</span>
+most extraordinary means to captivate their hero. As the
+century wore on and the vices and appetites gradually
+consumed the healthy tissues, there sprang up a class of
+monsters, most accomplished <i>roués</i>, consummate leaders
+of theoretical and practical immorality, who were without
+conscience. To gain their ends, they manipulated every
+medium&mdash;valets, chambermaids, scandal, charity; their one
+object was to dishonor woman.</p>
+
+<p>Women were no better; "a natural falseness, an acquired
+dissimulation, a profound observation, a lie without
+flinching, a penetrating eye, a domination of the
+senses&mdash;to these they owed their faculties and qualities
+so much feared at the time, and which made them
+professional and consummate politicians and ministers.
+Along with their gallantry, they possessed a calmness,
+a tone of liberty, a cynicism; these were their weapons
+and deadly ones they were to the man at whom they
+were aimed."</p>
+
+<p>There were, in this century, superior women in whom
+was exhibited a high form of love, but who realized that
+perfect love was impossible in their age; yet they desired
+to be loved in an intense and legitimate manner. This
+phase of womanhood is well represented by Mlle. Aïssé
+and Mlle. de Lespinasse, both of whom felt an irresistible
+need of loving; they proclaimed their love and not only
+showed themselves to be capable of loving and of intense
+suffering, but proved themselves worthy of love which, in
+its highest form, they felt to be an unknown quantity at
+that time. Their love became a constant inspiration, a
+model of devotion, almost a transfiguration of passion.
+These women were products of the time; they had to be,
+to compensate for the general sterility and barrenness, to
+equalize the inequalities, and to pay the tribute of vice
+and debauch.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>[pg 296]</span>
+
+<p>All the customs of the age were arrayed against pure
+womanhood and offered it nothing but temptation. Inasmuch
+as the husband belonged to court and to war more
+than to domestic felicity, he left his wife alone for long
+periods. The husbands themselves seemed actually to
+enjoy the infidelity of their wives and were often intimate
+friends of their wives' lovers; and it was no rare thing
+that when the wife found no pleasure in lovers, she did
+not concern herself about her husband's mistresses (unless
+they were intolerably disagreeable to her), often advising
+the mistress as to the best method of winning her husband.</p>
+
+<p>It must be admitted that this separation in marriage,
+this reciprocity of liberty, this absolute tolerance, was not
+a phase of the eighteenth century marriage, but was the
+very character of it. In earlier times, in the sixteenth
+century, infidelity was counted as such and caused trouble
+in the household. If the husband abused his privileges,
+the wife was obliged to bear the insult in silence, being
+helpless to avenge it. If she imitated his actions, it was
+under the gravest dangers to her own life and that of her
+lover. The honor of the husband was closely attached to
+the virtue of the wife; thus, if he sought diversion elsewhere,
+and his wife fell victim to the fascinations of
+another, he was ridiculed. Marriage was but an external
+bond; in the eighteenth century, it was a bond only as
+long as husband and wife had affection for one another;
+when that no longer existed, they frankly told each other
+and sought that emotion elsewhere; they ceased to be lovers and became friends.</p>
+
+<p>A very fertile source of so much unfaithfulness was the
+frequent marriage of a ruined nobleman to a girl of fortune,
+but without rank. Giving her his name was the only
+moral obligation; the marriage over and the dowry portion
+settled, he pursued his way, considering that he owed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>[pg 297]</span>
+her no further duty. Very frequently, the husband, overcome
+by jealousy or humiliated by the low standard of his
+wife who injured or brought ridicule upon his name, would
+have her kidnapped and taken to a convent. This right
+was enjoyed by the husband in spite of the general liberty
+of woman. A letters-patent was obtained through proof of
+adultery, and the wife was imprisoned in some convent for
+the rest of her life, being deprived of her dowry which fell to her husband.</p>
+
+<p>At one time, the great ambition of woman was to procure
+a legal separation&mdash;an ambition which seems to have
+developed into a fad, for at one period there were over
+three hundred applicants for legal separation, a state of
+affairs which so frightened Parliament that it passed rigid
+laws. A striking contrast to this was the custom connected
+with mourning. At the death of the husband, the
+wife wore mourning, her entire establishment, with every
+article of interior furnishing, was draped in the sombre hue;
+she no longer went out and her house was open only to
+relatives and those who came to pay visits of condolence.
+Unless she married again, she remained in mourning all
+her life; but it should not be understood that the veil concealed
+her coquetry or prevented her from enjoying her
+liberty and planning her future. Then, as to-day, there
+were many examples of fanaticism and folly; one widow
+would endeavor to commit suicide; another lived with the
+figure of her husband in wax; another conversed, for several
+hours of the day, with the shade of her husband;
+others consecrated themselves to the church.</p>
+
+<p>This all-supreme sway of love and its attributes, left its
+impression and lasting effect upon the physiognomy of the
+mistress; in the early part of the century, the mistress was
+chosen from the respectable aristocracy and the nobility;
+gradually, however, the limits of selection were extended
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>[pg 298]</span>
+until they included the <i>bourgeoisie</i> and, finally, the offspring
+of the common <i>femme du peuple</i>. A woman from
+any profession, from any stratum of society, by her charm
+and intelligence, her original discoveries and inventions
+of debauch and licentiousness, could easily become the
+heroine of the day, the goddess of society, the goal and
+aspiration of the used-up <i>roués</i> of the aristocracy. Under
+Louis XIV., such popularity was an impossibility to a
+woman of that sort, but society under the Regency seemed
+to have awakened from the torpor and gloom of the later
+years of the monarchy to a reign of unrestrained gayety and vice.</p>
+
+<p>The first woman to infect the social atmosphere of the
+nobility with a new form of extravagance and licentiousness
+was Adrienne Le Couvreur, who was the heroine of
+the day during the first years of the Regency. She was
+the daughter of a hatter, who had gone to Paris about
+1702; while employed as a laundress, she often gave proof
+of the possession of remarkable dramatic genius by her
+performances at private theatricals. In 1717, through the
+influence of the great actor Baron, she made her appearance
+at the Comédie Française; the reappearance of that
+favorite with Adrienne Le Couvreur as companion, in the
+plays of Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire, reëstablished
+the popularity of the French theatre. Adrienne immediately
+became a favorite with the titled class, was frequently
+present at Mme. de Lambert's, gave the most
+sumptuous suppers herself, and was compelled to repulse
+lovers of the highest nobility.</p>
+
+<p>Her principal lovers were Voltaire, whom she nursed
+through smallpox, spending many hours in reading to him,
+and Maurice of Saxony; she had children of whom the
+latter was the father, and it was she who, by selling her
+plate and jewelry, supplied him with forty thousand francs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>[pg 299]</span>
+in order to enable him to equip his soldiers when he proposed
+to recover the principality of Courland. She was
+generous to prodigality; but when she died, the Church
+refused to grant consecrated ground for the reception of
+her remains, although it condescended to accept her munificent
+gift of a hundred thousand francs to charity. Her
+death was said to have been caused by her rival, the
+Duchesse de Bouillon, by means of poisoned pastilles administered
+by a young abbé. In the night, her body was
+carried by two street porters to the Rue de Bourgogne,
+where it was buried. Voltaire, in great indignation at
+such injustice, wrote his stinging poem <i>La Mort de Mademoiselle
+Le Couvreur</i>, which was the cause of his being again obliged to leave Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The popularity of the Comédie Française declined after
+the deaths of Baron and Adrienne Le Couvreur, until the
+appearance of Mlle. Clairon, who was one of the greatest
+actresses of France. Born in Flanders in 1723, at a very
+early age she had wandered about the provinces, from
+theatre to theatre, with itinerant troupes, winning a great
+reputation at Rouen. In 1738 the leading actresses were
+Mlle. Quinault, who had retired to enjoy her immense
+fortune in private life, and Mlle. Dumesnil, the great
+<i>tragédienne</i>. When Mlle. Clairon received an offer to
+play alternately with the favorite, Mlle. Dumesnil, she
+selected as her opening part <i>Phèdre</i>, the <i>rôle de triomphe</i>
+of her rival.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of a débutante was an event, and its
+announcement brought out a large crowd; the presumption
+of a provincial artist in selecting a rôle in which to rival a
+great favorite had excited general ridicule, and an unusually
+large audience had assembled, expecting to witness an
+ignominious failure. Mlle. Clairon's stately figure, the
+dignity and grace of her carriage, "her finely chiselled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>[pg 300]</span>
+features, her noble brow, her air of command, her clear,
+deep, impassioned voice," made an immediate impression
+upon the audience. She was unanimously acknowledged
+as superior to Mlle. Dumesnil, and the entire social and
+literary world hastened to do her homage.</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. Clairon did as much for the theatre as did Adrienne
+Le Couvreur, especially in discarding, in her <i>Phèdre</i>, the
+plumes, spangles, the panier, the frippery, which had been
+the customary equipments of that rôle. She and Lecain,
+the prominent actor of the day, introduced the custom of
+wearing the proper costume of the characters represented.
+The grace and dignity of her stage presence caused her to
+be sought by the great ladies, who took lessons in her
+famous courtesy <i>grande révérence</i>, which was later supplanted
+by the courtesy of Mme. de Pompadour.</p>
+
+<p>Mlle. Clairon became the recipient of great favors and
+honors, her most prominent slave being Marmontel, to
+whom she had given a room in her hôtel after Mme. Geoffrin
+had withdrawn from him the privilege of occupying an
+apartment in her spacious establishment. She contributed
+largely to the success of his plays, as well as to those of
+Voltaire, whom she visited at Ferney, performing in his
+private theatre. Her success was uninterrupted until she
+declined to play, in the <i>Siège de Calais</i>, with an actor who
+had been guilty of dishonesty; she was then thrown into
+prison, and refused to reappear. When about fifty years
+of age she became the mistress of the Margrave of Ansbach,
+at whose court she resided for eighteen years. In
+1791 she returned to Paris, where, poor and forgotten, she died in 1803.</p>
+
+<p>An actress or a singer who left a greater reputation
+through her wit, the promptness and malignity of her repartee,
+and her extravagance, than through her voice was
+Sophie Arnould, the pupil of Mlle. Clairon. She was the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>[pg 301]</span>
+daughter of an innkeeper; her first success was won through
+her charming figure and her flexible voice. Some of the
+ladies attached to the court of Louis XV., having heard
+her sing at evening service during Passion week, had induced
+the royal chapel master to employ her in the choir.
+There, and by the warm eulogies of Marmontel during one
+of his toilette visits to Mme. de Pompadour, the attention
+of the <i>maîtresse-en-titre</i> was called to her beauty and vocal charm.</p>
+
+<p>Her début was made with unusual success, but she afterward
+eloped with the Comte de Lauraguais, who had made
+a wager that he could win the beautiful artist. After her
+reappearance at Paris her career became a long series of
+dissipations and unprecedented extravagances. She was
+as witty as she was licentious, and many of her <i>bons mots</i>
+have been collected. It was she who characterized the
+great Necker and Choiseul, on being shown a box containing
+their portraits: "That is receipt and expenditure"&mdash;the
+credit and debit. She was one of the few prominent
+women who died in favor and in comfortable circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The lowest and most depraved of this licentious class of
+women was Mlle. La Guimard, the legitimate daughter
+of a factory inspector of cloth. In 1758 she entered the
+opera as a ballet girl, but very little is known of her during
+the first years of her career except in connection with
+her numerous lovers. In about 1768 she was living in
+most sumptuous style, her extravagances being paid for
+by two lovers, the Prince de Soubise, her <i>amant utile</i>, and
+the farmer-general, M. de La Borde, her <i>amant honoraire</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At this period she gave three suppers weekly: one for
+all the great lords at court and of distinction; the second
+for authors, scholars, and artists; the third being a supper
+of <i>débauchées</i>, the most seductive and lascivious girls of
+the opera; at the last function, luxury and debauch were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>[pg 302]</span>
+carried to unknown extremes. At her superb country
+home, "Pantin," she gave private performances, the
+magnificence of which was unprecedented and admission
+to which was an honor as eagerly sought as was that of attendance at Versailles.</p>
+
+<p>There was another side to the nature of Mlle. La Guimard:
+during the terrible cold of the winter of 1768, she
+went about alone visiting the poor and needy, distributing
+food and clothing purchased with the six thousand livres
+given her by her lover, the Prince de Soubise, as a New
+Year's gift. Her charity became so general that people of
+all professions and classes went to her for assistance&mdash;actors
+and artists to borrow the money with which to pay
+their debts, officers with the same object in view. To one
+of the latter to whom she had just lent a hundred louis
+and who was about to sign a note, she said: "Sir, your
+word is sufficient. I imagine that an officer will have as
+much honor as <i>fille d'opéra</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Her performances at "Pantin" and her luxurious mode
+of life required more money than the two lovers were able
+to supply; therefore, another was accepted in the person
+of the Bishop of Orléans, Monseigneur de Jarente, who
+supplied her with money and other necessaries. In 1771
+she decided to build a hôtel with an elegant theatre which
+would comfortably seat five hundred people. The opening
+of this Temple de Terpsichore was the great event of the
+year (1772). All the nobility was there, even the princes
+of the blood, and the "delicious licenses of the presentation
+were fully enjoyed by those who were fortunate enough to obtain admission."</p>
+
+<p>Her costumes were of such taste and became so renowned
+that Marie Antoinette consulted her in reference
+to her own wonderful inventions; the dresses became
+known as the <i>Robe à la La Guimard</i>. Inasmuch as the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>[pg 303]</span>
+management of the Opéra supplied all gowns, the expense
+for this one artist was enormous, in 1779 amounting to
+thirty thousand livres for dresses alone. In 1785, being in
+financial straits, she sold her hôtel on the Rue Chaussée-d'Antin
+by lottery, two thousand five hundred tickets at
+one hundred and twenty livres each. None of the salons
+of Paris could compare with hers in the "costliness of the
+crystal and the plate of her table service, in the taste and
+elegance of her floral decorations&mdash;choice exotics obtained
+from a distance, regardless of expense."</p>
+
+<p>After appearing at the Haymarket Opera House in
+London in 1789, Mlle. La Guimard decided to retire to
+private life, and married M. Despréaux, the ballet master,
+fifteen years her junior. During the Revolution the government
+ceased to pay pensions, and as she had saved
+very little of her wealth the two lived in the most straitened
+circumstances. Her fate was similar to that of the average
+woman of pleasure&mdash;forgotten, half-witted, stooping to any
+act of indecency to gain a few sous.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the principal heroines of the stage, opera,
+and ballet; they were in harmony with the general state
+of that depraved society of which they were natural products;
+transitory lights that shone for but a short space of
+time, consumed by their own sensuous instinct, they
+were forgotten with death. The royal mistresses lived
+the same life and followed the same ideals, but exerted a
+greater and more lasting influence in the state.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>[pg 305]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter XI</h2>
+
+<h2>Royal Mistresses</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>[pg 307]</span>
+
+
+<p>In the study of the royal mistresses of the eighteenth
+century, we encounter two in particular,&mdash;Mme. de Pompadour
+and Mme. du Barry,&mdash;who, though totally different
+types of women, both reflect the gradual decline of ideals and
+morals in the first and last years of the reign of Louis XV.
+The former dominated the king by means of her intelligence,
+but the latter swayed the sovereign, already consumed
+by his sensual excesses, through her peculiarly seductive sensuality.</p>
+
+<p>During the first years of the reign of Louis XV., one of
+the most influential women was Mme. de Prie, who brought
+about the marriage of the king to Marie Leczinska, the
+daughter of the King of Poland, by which man&oelig;uvre she
+made herself <i>Dame de Palais de la Reine</i>. The queen
+naturally took her and her husband into favor, regarding
+them as her and her father's benefactors and as entitled
+to her warmest gratitude. Mme. de Prie succeeded in
+winning the queen's affection and confidence; however,
+these were of little value, inasmuch as the queen's influence
+upon society and morals was not felt, for she led a
+life of seclusion, shut up in her oratory and constantly on
+her <i>prie-dieu</i>, and was an object of pity and ridicule.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Prie and M. le Duc, having planned to deprive
+M. Fleury, the minister, of his power,&mdash;he had been the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>[pg 308]</span>
+king's preceptor,&mdash;suddenly had the tables turned against
+them. Both were exiled, and a new coterie of ladies came
+into power; the Duchesse d'Alincourt replaced Mme. de
+Prie, and the king and M. Fleury themselves took up the affairs of state.</p>
+
+<p>M. Fleury, now cardinal, perceiving that a mistress was
+inevitable, consented to the choice by the dissolute men
+and women of court of Mme. de Mailly,&mdash;or Mlle. de Nesle,&mdash;who
+was supposed to be a disinterested person. The
+king, who had no love for her, accepted her as he would
+have accepted anything put before him by the court. The
+queen was incapable of exerting any beneficial influence
+upon him; in fact, the more he became alienated from
+her, the more humble and timid did she appear when in
+his presence. The reign of Mlle. de Nesle had lasted less
+than a year, when the beautiful Mme. de La Tournelle,
+created Duchesse de Châteauroux, replaced her; the
+latter lived but a short time, being the second mistress of
+Louis XV. to die within a year. After her death the
+king raised the beautiful Mme. d'Etioles to the honor of
+<i>maîtresse-en-titre</i>; she, as Mme. de Pompadour, was, without
+doubt, the most prominent, possibly the most intelligent
+and intellectual, certainly the most powerful, of all
+French mistresses. It was the first time that a <i>bourgeoise</i>
+of the financier class had usurped the position of mistress&mdash;that
+honor having belonged exclusively to the nobility.</p>
+
+<p>After the first infidelities of the king, Marie Leczinska's
+life became more and more austere and secluded; she
+remained indoors, far from the noise and activity of Versailles,
+leaving only for charitable purposes or for the
+theatre. Her mornings were entirely occupied in prayers
+and moral readings, after which followed a visit to the
+king, a little painting, the toilette, mass, and dinner. After
+dinner, she retired to her apartments and passed the time
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>[pg 309]</span>
+making tapestry, embroidering, and in charity work&mdash;no
+longer the recreation of leisure, but the duty of charity
+which the poor expected. Her taste for music, the guitar,
+the clavecin, all amusements in which she delighted before
+her marriage, were abandoned. Under such circumstances
+the mistress had full control of everything.</p>
+
+<p>It was prophesied of Mlle. Jeanne Poisson, at the age of
+nine, that she would become the mistress of Louis XV.
+(Mme. Lebon, who made this pleasing prediction, was
+later rewarded with a pension of six hundred livres.)
+Mlle. Jeanne was the natural daughter of a butcher, but
+received a good education and, at the age of twenty, was
+married to Le Normand d'Etioles, farmer of taxes. It
+was shortly after this that she managed to attract the
+king's attention, at a hunting party in the forest of Senart.
+With the assistance of her friends, she was successful in
+winning the king, and, in April, 1754, at a supper which
+lasted far into the early morning, reposing in his arms,
+she virtually became the mistress of Louis XV. The
+actual accomplishment of this, however, depended upon
+the disposal of her husband, which was easily arranged
+by Louis, who ordered Le Normand d'Etioles from Paris,
+thus securing her from any harm from him. The brothers
+De Goncourt write thus of her talents:</p>
+
+<p>"Marvellous aptitudes, a scholarly and rare education,
+had given to this young woman all the gifts and virtues
+that made of a woman what the eighteenth century called
+a virtuoso, an accomplished model of the seductions of her
+time. Jeliotte had taught her singing and the clavecin;
+Guibaudet, dancing; Crébillon had taught her declamation
+and the art of diction; the friends of Crébillon had formed
+her young mind to <i>finesse</i>, to delicacies, to lightness of
+sentiment, and to irony of the <i>esprit</i> of the time. All the
+talents of grace seemed to be united in her. No woman
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>[pg 310]</span>
+mounted a horse better; none captured applause more
+quickly than did she with her voice and instrument; none
+recalled in a better way the tone of Gaussin or the accent
+of Clairon; none could tell a story better. And there where
+others could vie with her in coquetry, she carried off the
+honors by her genius of toilette, by the graceful turn she
+gave to a mere rag, by the air she imparted to a mere
+nothing which ornamented her, by the characteristic signature
+which her taste gave to everything she wore."</p>
+
+<p>To please and charm, Mme. d'Etioles had a complexion
+of the most striking whiteness, lips somewhat pale, and
+eyes of an indescribable color in which were blended
+and compounded the seduction of black eyes, the seduction
+of blue eyes. She had magnificent chestnut hair,
+ravishing teeth, and the most delicious smile which "hollowed
+her cheeks into two dimples which the engraving of
+<i>La Jardinière</i> shows; she had a medium-sized and round
+waist, perfect hands, a play of gestures lively and passionate
+throughout, and, above all, a physiognomy of a
+mobility, of a changeableness, of a marvellous animation,
+wherein the soul of the woman passed ceaselessly, and
+which, constantly in process of change, showed in turn an
+impassioned and imperious tenderness, a noble seriousness, or roguish graces."</p>
+
+<p>In September, 1745, she was formally presented to the
+queen and court as the Marquise de Pompadour, and, in
+October, was installed at Fontainebleau in the apartments
+formerly occupied by Mme. de Châteauroux, who
+had just died. Her position was not an easy one, for all
+the superb jealousy and hateful scorn which the aristocracy
+cherished against the power and wealth of the
+<i>bourgeoisie</i> were turned against her; but the court scandal-mongers
+and intriguers found their match in Mme. de
+Pompadour, who showed herself so superior in every
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>[pg 311]</span>
+respect to the court ladies that the hostilities gradually
+ceased, but not until the public itself had expended all its
+efforts against this upstart.</p>
+
+<p>Her first move was to surround herself with friends, the
+first of whom she wisely sought in the queen. Paying her
+every possible attention, she persuaded the king to show
+her more consideration. The Prince de Conti, the Paris
+brothers, and others of the great financiers of France
+were added to her circle. After this she began her rule
+as first minister, in place of the dead Fleury, by giving
+places and pensions to her favorites. The reign of
+economy and domestic morality came to an end with the
+accession of Mme. de Pompadour; in fact, it was soon generally
+considered that those upon whom she did not
+shower favors were her enemies. At this time the
+nobility of France was too corrupt to raise any serious
+objections to the dispensing of favors by the <i>maîtresse-en-titre</i>,
+whether she were of noble birth or not.</p>
+
+<p>As mistress, her duties were many: to manipulate and
+manage Versailles, please and captivate the king, make
+allies, win over the highest officials and keep control of
+them, put her own friends in office, attach to her favor
+every man of prominence,&mdash;princes and ministers,&mdash;keep
+in touch with the court, appease, humor, and win the honor
+of the courtiers, "attach consciences, recompense capitulations,
+organize about the mistress an emulation of devotion
+and servility by means of prodigality of the favors of
+the king and the money of the state; but what was a
+more burdensome task,&mdash;she must occupy the king, aid
+and agitate him, fight off constantly, from day to day and hour to hour, ennui."</p>
+
+<p>This terrible ennui, indifference, enervation, this lazy
+and splenetic humor of the king, she succeeded in distracting,
+in soothing, and amusing. She understood him
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>[pg 312]</span>
+perfectly&mdash;therein lie the great secret of the favor of Mme.
+de Pompadour and the great reason of her long domination
+which only death could end. She had the patience and
+genius to soothe the many ills of the monarch, possessing
+an intuitive understanding of his moral temperament, and a
+complete comprehension of his nervous sensibility; these
+gifts were a science with her and enabled her to keep alive
+his taste for and enjoyment of life. Mme. de Pompadour
+is said to have taken possession of the very existence of Louis XV.</p>
+
+<p>"She appropriates and kills his time, robs him of the
+monotony of hours, draws him through a thousand pastimes
+in this eternity of ennui between morning and night,
+never abandoning him for a minute, not permitting him to
+fall back upon himself. She takes him away from work,
+disputes him to the ministers, hides him from the ambassadors.
+In his face must not be seen a cloud or the
+slightest trace of care of affairs; to Maurepas, in the act
+of reading some reports to the king, she says: 'Come
+now, M. de Maurepas, you turn the king yellow....
+Adieu, M. de Maurepas'; and Maurepas gone, she takes
+the king, she smiles upon the lover, she cheers the man."</p>
+
+<p>In 1747, two years after her installation, she interested
+the king in a theatre, and inaugurated the famous representations
+at the Théâtre des Petits Appartements; she
+herself was one of its best actresses, singers, and musicians.
+All the members of the nobility vied with one
+another in procuring admission to these performances, as
+auditors or actors. Her contemporaries say that she was
+without a rival in acting, for in that art she found opportunity
+to show her vivacity, her <i>esprit</i> of tone, and her
+malice of expression, the effect of which was heightened
+by her voice, graceful figure, and tasteful attire, which
+became the envy of every court lady.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>[pg 313]</span>
+
+<p>Almost all rising young artists and men of letters were
+encouraged or pensioned by Mme. de Pompadour. Her
+salon would have become one of the most distinguished
+of the period, as she was, herself, the most remarkably
+talented and beautiful woman of her time, had not lack of
+moral principles and an intense love of power led her to
+seek the gratification of her ambitions in the much envied
+position of mistress of the king. To assist at her toilette
+became a favor more eagerly desired than presence at the
+<i>petit lever</i> of the king. The court became more brilliant,
+the middle class rose, the prestige of the nobility declined;
+the last became, in general, but a crowd of <i>cordons bleus</i>,
+eager to claim the favor of any of her protégés. Every
+noble house offered a daughter in marriage to her brother,
+whom she made <i>intendant</i> of public buildings, and who
+looked with much displeasure upon the actions of his sister.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Pompadour made a thorough study of the politics
+of Europe in relation to the affairs of the nation&mdash;a
+proceeding in which she was aided by her extraordinary
+intelligence, acute perception of difficulties and conditions,
+domestic and foreign; by the exercise of these qualities,
+she put herself in touch with the politics of France, always
+consulting the best of minds and winning many friends
+among them. In 1749 she succeeded in ridding herself of
+her pronounced enemy, Maurepas, minister and confidential
+adviser of the king, and subsequently began her reign as
+absolute mistress and governor of France.</p>
+
+<p>Her life then became one of constant labor, which gradually
+undermined her health. Appreciating the mental
+indolence of Louis, she would place before him a clear and
+succinct résumé of all important questions of state affairs,
+which she, better than any other, knew how to present
+without wearying him. Realizing that her power depended
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>[pg 314]</span>
+upon her influence over the king, and that she was surrounded
+by men and women who were simply waiting for
+a favorable opportunity to cause her downfall, she was
+constantly on the defensive. She considered it "the business
+of her life to make her yoke so easy and pleasant,
+and from habit so necessary to him, that an effort to
+shake it off would be an effort that would cause him
+real pain." Her happiest hours&mdash;for she did not love the
+king&mdash;were those spent with her brother, the Marquis de
+Marigny, in the midst of artists, musicians, and men of letters.</p>
+
+<p>As for the queen, she was in the background, absolutely.
+"All the prerogatives of a princess of a sovereign house
+were, at this time, about 1750, conferred by the king upon
+Mme. de Pompadour, and all the pomp and parade then
+deemed indispensable to rank so exalted were fully assumed
+by her." At the opera, she had her <i>loge</i> with the king,
+her tribune at the chapel of Versailles where she heard
+mass, her servants were of the nobility, her carriage had the
+ducal arms, her etiquette was that of Mme. de Montespan,
+Her father was ennobled to De Marigny, her brother to be
+Marquis de Vandières. The marriage of her daughter to
+a son of the king and his former mistress was planned,
+then with a son of Richelieu, then with others of the
+nobility; fortunately, the girl died.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Pompadour gradually amassed a royal fortune,
+buying the magnificent estate of Crécy for six hundred
+and fifty thousand livres; "La Celle," near Versailles, for
+twenty-six thousand livres; the Hôtel d'Evreaux, at Paris,
+for seventy-five thousand livres&mdash;and these were her minor
+expenses; her paintings, sculpture, china, pottery, etc.,
+cost France over thirty-six million livres. Her imagination
+in art and inventions was wonderful; she retouched
+and decorated the château in which she was received by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>[pg 315]</span>
+the king; she made "Choisy"&mdash;the king's property&mdash;her
+own, as it were, by all the embellishments she ordered
+and the expenditures which her lover lavished upon it at
+her request. All the luxuries of the life at "Choisy," all
+the refinements even to the smallest detail, had their origin
+in her inventions. It was she who planned the fairy
+château with its wonderful furniture, her own invention.</p>
+
+<p>At that time, her whole life was spent in adding variety
+to the life of the king and in distracting the ennui which
+pursued him. In her retreats she affected the simplicity
+of country life; the gardens contained sheepfolds and were
+free from the pomp of the conventional French gardens;
+there were cradles of myrtle and jasmine, rosebushes,
+rustic hiding places, statues of Cupid, and fields of jonquils
+filled the air with the most intoxicating perfume. There
+she amused her sovereign by appearing in various characters
+and acting the parts&mdash;now a royal personage, now a gardener's maid.</p>
+
+<p>However, in spite of all cunning study of the sensuous
+nature of the king, in spite of this perpetual enchantment
+of his senses, this favorite was obliged to fight for her
+power every minute of her existence. If hers were a
+conquest, it was a laborious one, held only through ceaseless
+activity; continual brainwork, all the countermoves
+and man&oelig;uvres of the courtesan, were required to keep
+Mme. de Pompadour seated in this position, which was
+surrounded by snares and dangers.</p>
+
+<p>To possess the time of the king, occupy his enemies,
+soothe his fatigue, arouse his wearied body condemned to
+a milk diet, to preserve her beauty&mdash;all these were the
+least of her tasks. She must be ever watchful, see evil
+in every smile, danger in every success, divine secret
+plots, be on guard to resist the court, the royal family, the
+ministry. For her there was no moment of repose: even
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>[pg 316]</span>
+during the effusions of love she must act the spy upon the
+king, and, with presence of mind and calmness, must seek
+in the deceitful face of the man the secrets of the master.</p>
+
+<p>Every morning witnessed the opening of a new comedy:
+a gay smile, a tranquil brow, a light song, must ever disguise
+the mind's preoccupation and all the machinations of
+her fertile brain. At one time the Comte d'Argenson,
+desiring to succeed Fleury as minister, almost arrived
+at supplanting Mme. de Pompadour by young Mme. de
+Choiseul, who, having charmed the king on one occasion,
+obtained from him a promise that he would make her his
+mistress&mdash;which would necessitate desertion of Mme. de
+Pompadour; but, by the natural charms of which age had
+not robbed her and by bringing all her past experience
+into play, Mme. de Pompadour once more scored a triumph
+and remained the actual minister to the king. All this
+nervous strain was gradually killing her, and, to overcome
+her physical weakness, her weary senses, her frigid disposition,
+she resorted to artificial stimulants to keep her
+blood at the boiling point and enable her to satisfy the phlegmatic king.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly the most disgraceful act of this all-powerful
+woman was the maintaining of a house of pleasure for the
+king, to which establishment she allured some of the most
+beautiful girls of the nobility, as well as of the <i>bourgeoisie</i>.
+These young women supposed that they were being supported
+by a wealthy nobleman; their children were given
+a pension of from three thousand to twelve thousand livres,
+and the mother received one hundred thousand francs and
+was sent to the provinces to marry; a father and mother
+were easily bought for the child. Thus was this clandestine
+trade carried on by those two&mdash;the king satisfying his
+utter depravity, and Mme. de Pompadour making herself
+all the more secure against a possible rival.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>[pg 317]</span>
+
+<p>All this time her active brain was ever planning for
+higher honors and greater power. She aspired to becoming
+<i>dame de palais</i>, but as an excommunicated soul, a
+woman living in flagrant violation of the laws of morality
+and separated from her husband, she could not receive
+absolution from the Church, in spite of her intriguing to
+that effect. She did succeed, however, in influencing the
+king to make her lady of honor to the queen; therefore,
+in gorgeous robes, she was ever afterward present at all court functions.</p>
+
+<p>She began to patronize the great men of the day, to
+make of them her debtors, pension them, lodge them in
+the Palais d'Etat, secure them from prison, and to place
+them in the Academy. Voltaire became her favorite, and
+she made of him an Academician, historiographer of
+France, ordinary gentleman of the chamber, with permission
+to sell his charge and to retain the title and privileges.
+For these favors he thanked her in the following poem:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p class="i8">"Ainsi donc vous réunissez</p>
+<p>Tous les arts, tous les goûts, tous les talents de plaire;</p>
+<p class="i8">Pompadour vous embellissez</p>
+<p class="i8">La Cour, le Parnasse et Cythère,</p>
+<p>Charme de tous les c&oelig;urs, trésor d'un seul mortel,</p>
+<p class="i8">Qu'un sort si beau soit éternel!"</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>[Thus you unite all the arts, all the tastes, all the talents,
+of pleasing; Pompadour, you embellish the court, Parnassus,
+and Cythera. Charm of all hearts, treasure of one
+mortal, may a lot so beautiful be eternal!]</p>
+
+<p>Voltaire dedicated his <i>Tancrède</i> to her; in fact, his influence
+and favor were so great that he was about to receive
+an invitation to the <i>petits soupers</i> of the king, when the
+nobility rose up in arms against him, and, as Louis XV.
+disliked him, the coveted honor was never attained. To
+Crébillon, who had given her elocution lessons in her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>[pg 318]</span>
+early days and who was now in want, she gave a pension
+of a hundred louis and quarters at the Louvre. Buffon,
+Montesquieu, Marmontel, and many other men of note
+were taken under her protection.</p>
+
+<p>It was Mme. de Pompadour who founded, supported,
+and encouraged a national china factory; the French owe
+Sèvres to her, for its artists were complimented and inspired
+by her inveterate zeal, her persistency, her courage,
+and were assisted by her money. She brought it into
+favor, established exhibits, sold and eulogized the ware
+herself, until it became a favorite. Also, through her
+management and zeal the Military School was founded.</p>
+
+<p>The disasters of the Seven Years' War are all charged
+to Mme. de Pompadour. The motive which caused her
+to decide in favor of an alliance with Austria against Frederick
+the Great was a personal desire for revenge; the
+latter monarch had dubbed her "Cotillon IV," and had
+rather scorned her, refusing to have anything to do with
+a Mlle. de Poisson, "especially as she is arrogant and
+lacks the respect due to crowned heads." The flattering
+propositions of the Austrian ambassador, Kaunitz, who
+treated with her in person and won her over, did much to
+set her against Germany, and induced her to influence
+Louis XV. to accept her view of the situation&mdash;a scheme
+in which she was victorious over all the ministers; the
+result was the Austrian alliance. The letter of Kaunitz to
+her, in 1756, will illustrate her position:</p>
+
+<p>"Everything done, Madame, between the two courts,
+is absolutely due to your zeal and wisdom. I feel it and
+cannot refuse myself the satisfaction of telling you and of
+thanking you for having been my guide up to the present
+time. I must not even keep you ignorant of the fact that
+their Imperial Majesties give you the full justice due you
+and have for you all the sentiments you can desire. What
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>[pg 319]</span>
+has been done must merit, it seems to me, the approbation
+of the impartial public and of posterity. But what
+remains to be done is too great and too worthy of you for
+you to give up the task of contributing and to leave imperfect
+a work which cannot fail to make you forever dear to
+your country. I am, therefore, persuaded that you will
+continue your attention to an object so important. In
+this case, I look upon success as certain and I already
+share, in advance, the glory and satisfaction which
+must come to you, no one being able to be more sincerely
+and respectfully attached to you than is your very
+humble and obedient servant, the Count de Kaunitz-Rietberg."</p>
+
+<p>She received her first check when, Damiens having
+attempted to assassinate the king, the dauphin was regent
+for eleven days. She was confined to her room and heard
+nothing from the king, who was in the hands of the clergy.
+Among the friends who abandoned her was her protégé
+Machault, the guard of the seals, who conspired with
+D'Argenson to deprive her of her power and went so far
+as to order her departure. After the king's recovery, both
+D'Argenson and Machault were dismissed and Mme. de
+Pompadour became more powerful than before.</p>
+
+<p>Her influence and usurpation of power bore heavily upon
+every department of state; she appointed all the ministers,
+made all nominations, managed the foreign policy and politics,
+directed the army and even arranged the plans of
+battle. Absolute mistress of the ministry, she satisfied
+all demands of the Austrian court, a move which brought
+her the most flattering letter from Kaunitz, in which he
+gives her the credit for all the transactions between the two courts.</p>
+
+<p>Despite all her political duties and intrigues, she found
+time for art and literature. Not one minute of the day
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>[pg 320]</span>
+was lost in idleness, every moment being occupied with
+interviews with artists and men of letters, with the furnishers
+of her numerous châteaux, architects, designers,
+engineers, to whom she confided her plans for embellishing
+Paris. Being herself an accomplished artist, she was able
+to win the respect and attention of these men. Her correspondence
+was immense and of every nature, political and
+personal. She was an incessant reader, or rather student,
+of books on the most serious questions, which furnished
+her knowledge of terms of state, precedents of history,
+ancient and modern law; she was familiar with the contents
+of works on philosophy, the drama, singing, and
+music, and with novels of all nations; her library was large and well selected.</p>
+
+<p>During the latter years of her life she was considered
+as the first minister of state or even as regent of the kingdom,
+rather than as mere mistress. Louis XV. looked to
+her for the enforcement of the laws and his own orders.
+She was forced to receive, at any time, foreign ambassadors
+and ministers; she had to meet in the Cabinet de
+Travail and give counsel to the generals who were her
+protégés; the clergy went to her and laid before her their
+plaints, and through her the financiers arranged their transactions
+with the state.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding all this influence and power, the record
+of her last years is a sorrowful one. More than ever
+queen, she was no longer loved by the king, who went
+to Passy to continue his liaison with a young girl, the
+daughter of a lawyer. When Louis XV. as much as
+recognized a son by this woman, Mme. de Pompadour
+became deeply concerned; but the king was too much a
+slave to her domination to replace her, so she retained
+favor and confidence; the following letter shows that she enjoyed little else:</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>[pg 321]</span>
+
+<p>"The more I advance in years, my dear brother, the more
+philosophical are my reflections. I am quite sure that you
+will think the same. Except the happiness of being with
+the king, who assuredly consoles me in everything, the rest
+is only a tissue of wickedness, of platitudes, of all the
+miseries to which poor human beings are liable. A fine
+matter for reflection (especially for anyone born as meditative
+as I)!..." Later on, she wrote: "Everywhere
+where there are human beings, my dear brother, you will
+find falseness and all the vices of which they are capable.
+To live alone would be too tiresome, thus we must endure
+them with their defects and appear not to see them."</p>
+
+<p>She realized that the king kept her only out of charity
+and for fear of taking up any energetic resolution. Her
+greatest disappointment was the utter failure of her political
+plans and aspirations, which came to naught by the
+Treaty of Paris. There was absolutely no glory left for
+her, and chagrin gradually consumed her. Her health had
+been delicate from youth; consumption was fast making
+inroads and undermining her constitution, and the numerous
+miscarriages of her early years as mistress contributed
+to her physical ruin. For years she had kept herself up
+by artificial means, and had hidden her loss of flesh and
+fading beauty by all sorts of dress contrivances, rouges,
+and powders. She died in 1764, at the age of forty-two.</p>
+
+<p>Writers differ as to the true nature of Mme. de Pompadour,
+some saying that she was bereft of all feeling, a
+callous, hard-hearted monster; others maintain that she
+was tender-hearted and sympathetic. However, the majority
+agree as to her possession of many of the essential
+qualifications of an able minister of state, as well as great
+aptitude for carrying on diplomatic negotiations.</p>
+
+<p>She was the greatest patroness of art that France ever
+possessed, giving to it the best hours of her leisure; it was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>[pg 322]</span>
+her pastime, her consolation, her extravagance, and her
+ruin. All eminent artists of the eighteenth century were
+her clients. Artists were nourished, so to speak, by her
+favors. It may truthfully be said that the eighteenth-century
+art is a Pompadour product, if not a creation.
+The whole century was a sort of great relic of the favorite.
+Fashions and modes were slaves to her caprice, every new
+creation being dependent upon her approbation for its survival&mdash;the
+carriage, the <i>cheminée</i>, sofa, bed, chair, fan, and
+even the <i>étui</i> and toothpick, were fashioned after her ideas.
+"She is the godmother and queen of the rococo." Such a
+eulogy, given by the De Goncourt brothers, is not shared
+by all critics. Guizot wrote: "As frivolous as she was
+deeply depraved and base-minded in her calculating easiness
+of virtue, she had more ambition than comported with
+her mental calibre or her force of character; she had taken
+it into her head to govern, by turns promoting and overthrowing
+the ministers, herself proffering advice to the
+king, sometimes to good purpose, but still more often with
+a levity as fatal as her obstinacy."</p>
+
+<p>In <i>The Old Régime</i>, Lady Jackson has given an unprejudiced
+estimate of her: "She was the most accomplished
+and talented woman of her time; distinguished, above all
+others, for her enlightened patronage of science and of the
+arts, also for the encouragement she gave to the development
+of improvements in various manufactures which had
+stood still or were on the decline until favored by her; a
+fresh impulse was given to progress, and a perfection attained
+which has never been surpassed and, in fact, rarely
+equalled. <i>Les Gobelins</i>, the carpets of the Savonnerie, the
+<i>porcelaine de Sèvres</i>, were all, at her request, declared
+<i>Manufactures Royales</i>. Some of the finest specimens of
+the products of Sèvres, in ornamental groups of figures,
+were modelled and painted by Mme. de Pompadour, as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>[pg 323]</span>
+presents to the queen.... The name of Pompadour
+is, indeed, intimately associated with a whole school of art
+of the Louis Quinze period&mdash;art so inimitable in its grace
+and elegance that it has stood the test of time and remains
+unsurpassed. Artists and poets and men of science vied
+with each other in admiration of her talents and taste.
+And it was not mere flattery, but simply the praise due to
+an enlightened patroness and a distinguished artist."</p>
+
+<p>If we consider the morals of high society, we shall
+scarcely find one woman of rank who could cast a stone at
+Madame de Pompadour. While admitting her moral shortcomings,
+it must nevertheless be acknowledged that she
+showed an exceptional ability in maintaining, for twenty
+years, her influence over such a man as Louis XV. Such
+was the power of this woman, the daughter of a tradesman,
+mistress, king in all save title. She was, however,
+less powerful than her successor,&mdash;that successor who
+was less clever and less ambitious, who "never made the
+least scrupulous blush at the lowness of her origin and
+the irregularity of her life,"&mdash;Mme. du Barry.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. du Barry was the natural daughter of Anne Béqus,
+who was supported by M. Dumonceau, a rich banker at
+Paris. The child was put into a convent, and, after passing
+through different phases of life, she was finally placed
+in a house of pleasure, where she captivated the Comte du
+Barry, at whose harem she became the favorite. The
+count, who had once before tried to supply the king with a
+mistress, now planned for his favorite. The king ordered
+the brother of Du Barry, Guillaume, to hasten to Paris
+to marry a lady of the king's choice. The girl's name
+had been changed officially and by the clergy, and a
+dowry had been given her. Thus was it possible for the
+king, after she had become the Comtesse du Barry, to
+take her as a mistress. Her husband was sent back
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>[pg 324]</span>
+to Toulouse, where he was stationed, while his wife was
+lodged at Versailles, within easy access of the king's own chamber.</p>
+
+
+<p>After much intriguing and diplomacy on the part of her
+friends, especially Richelieu, she was to be presented at
+court. The scene is well described by the De Goncourt
+brothers, and affords a truthful picture of court manners
+and customs of the latter part of the reign of Louis XV.:</p>
+
+<p>"The great day had arrived&mdash;Paris was rushing to Versailles.
+The presentation was to take place in the evening,
+after worship. The hour was approaching. Richelieu,
+filling his charge as first gentleman, was with the king,
+Choiseul was on the other side. Both were waiting,
+counting the moments and watching the king. The latter,
+ill at ease, restless, agitated, looked every minute at his
+watch. He paced up and down, uttered indistinct words,
+was vexed at the noise at the gates and the avenues, the
+reason of which he inquired of Choiseul. 'Sire, the people&mdash;informed
+that to-day Mme. du Barry is to have the
+honor of being presented to Your Majesty&mdash;have come
+from all parts to witness her <i>entrée</i>, not being able to witness
+the reception Your Majesty will give her.' The time
+has long since passed&mdash;Mme. du Barry does not appear.
+Choiseul (her enemy) and his friends radiate joy; Richelieu,
+in a corner of the room, feels assurance failing him.
+The king goes to the window, looks into the night&mdash;nothing.
+Finally, he decides, he opens his mouth to countermand
+the presentation. 'Sire, Mme. du Barry!' cries
+Richelieu, who had just recognized the carriage and the
+livery of the favorite; 'she will enter if you give the order.'
+Just then, Mme. du Barry enters behind the Comtesse de
+Béarn, bedecked with the hundred thousand francs' worth
+of diamonds the king had sent her, coifed in that superb
+headdress whose long scaffolding had almost made her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>[pg 325]</span>
+miss the hour of presentation, dressed in one of those triumphant
+robes which the women of the eighteenth century
+called 'robes of combat,' armed in that toilette in which
+the eyes of a blind woman (Mme. du Deffand) see the
+destiny of Europe and the fate of ministers; and it is an
+apparition so beaming, so dazzling, that, in the first moments
+of surprise, the greatest enemies of the favorite
+cannot escape the charm of the woman, and renounce calumniating her beauty."</p>
+
+<p>According to reports, her beauty must have been of the
+ideal type of the time. All the portraits and images that
+Mme. du Barry has left of herself, in marble, engraving, or
+on canvas, show a <i>mignonne</i> perfection of body and face.
+Her hair was long, silky, of an ashen blonde, and was
+dressed like the hair of a child; her brows and lashes were
+brown, her nose small and finely cut. "It was a complexion
+which the century compared to a roseleaf fallen
+into milk. It was a neck which was like the neck of an
+antique statue...." In her were victorious youth,
+life, and a sort of the divinity of a Hébé; about her hovered
+that charm of intoxication, which made Voltaire cry out
+before one of her portraits: <i>L'original était fait pour les
+dieux!</i> [The original was made for the gods!]</p>
+
+<p>In her lofty position, Mme. du Barry sought to overcome
+the objections of the titled class, to quell jealousies and
+petty quarrels; she did not usurp any power and always
+endeavored not to trouble or embarrass anyone. After
+some time, she succeeded in winning the favor of some of
+the ladies, and, when her influence was fairly well established,
+she began to plan the overthrow of her enemy,
+De Choiseul, minister of Louis XV. She became the
+favorite of artists and musicians, and all Europe began to
+talk and write about this woman whom art had immortalized
+on canvas and who was then controlling the destinies
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>[pg 326]</span>
+of France. She succeeded, under the apprenticeship of
+her lover, the Duc d'Aiguillon, who was the outspoken
+enemy of De Choiseul, in accomplishing the fall of the
+minister and the fortune of her friend. This success required
+but a short time for its culmination, for in 1770 he
+was deprived of his office and was exiled to Chantilly.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. du Barry was never an implacable enemy; she
+was too kind-hearted for that; thus, when her friend
+D'Aiguillon insisted on depriving De Choiseul of his fortune,
+she managed to procure for the latter a pension of
+sixty-thousand livres and one million écus in cash, in spite
+of the opposition of D'Aiguillon. After the fall of that
+minister all the princes of the blood were glad to pay her
+homage. She became almost as powerful as Mme. de
+Pompadour, but her influence was not directed in the same channels.</p>
+
+<p>Her life was a mere senseless dream of <i>femme galante</i>,
+a luxurious revel, a constant whirl of pleasures, and extravagance
+in jewelry, silks, gems, etc. A service in silver
+was no longer rich enough&mdash;she had one in solid gold. To
+house all her gems of art, rare objects, furniture, she
+caused to be constructed a temple of art, "Luciennes,"
+one of the most sumptuous, exquisite structures ever fitted
+out. The money for this was supplied by the <i>contrôleur
+général</i>, the Abbé Ferray, whose politics, science, duty,
+and aim in life consisted in never allowing Mme. du Barry
+to lack money. All discipline, morality, in fact everything, degenerated.</p>
+
+<p>She had no rancor or desire for vengeance; she never
+humiliated those whom she could destroy; she always
+punished by silence, yet never won eternal silence by
+letters patent; generous to a fault, giving and permitting
+everything about her to be taken, she opened her purse to
+all who were kind to her and to all who happened in some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>[pg 327]</span>
+way to please her. Keeping the heart of Louis XV. was
+no easy matter, as the case of Mme. de Pompadour clearly
+showed. The majority of his friends and her enemies
+endeavored to force a new mistress upon the king; surrounded
+on all sides by candidates for her coveted position,
+Mme. du Barry managed to hold her own. When the
+king was prostrated by smallpox, he sent her away on the last day.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Mme. du Barry was not one of tyranny,
+nor was it a domination in the strict sense of that word;
+for she was a nonentity politically, without ideas or plans.
+"Study the favor of Mme. du Barry: nothing that emanates
+from her belongs to her; she possesses neither an
+idea nor an enemy; she controls all the historical events of
+her time, without desiring them, without comprehending
+them.... She serves friendships and individuals,
+without knowing how to serve a cause or a system or a
+party, and she is protected by the providential course of
+things, without having to worry about an effort, intrigues, or gratitude."</p>
+
+<p>Her power and influence cannot be compared with those
+of her predecessor, Mme. de Pompadour. Modes were followed,
+but never invented by her. "With her taste for
+the pleasures of a grisette, her patronage falls from the
+opera to the couplet, from paintings and statuaries to
+bronzes and sculptures in wood; her <i>clientèle</i> are no longer
+artists, philosophers, poets&mdash;they are the gods of lower
+domains, mimics, buffoons, dancers, comedians." She
+was the lowest and most common type of woman ever influential in France.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of the king, she was ordered to leave
+Versailles and live with her aunt. Later on, she was permitted
+to reside within ten leagues of Paris; all her former
+friends and admirers then returned, and she continued to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>[pg 328]</span>
+live the life of old, buying everything for which she had a
+fancy and living in the most sumptuous style, never worrying
+about the payment of her debts. After a few years
+she was entirely forgotten, living at Luciennes with but a
+few intimate friends and her lover, the Duc de Brissac.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the Revolution, she was living at
+Luciennes in great luxury on the fortune left her by the
+duke. Probably she would have escaped the guillotine had
+she not been so possessed with the idea of retaining her
+wealth. Four trips to England were undertaken by her,
+and on her return she found her estates usurped by a man
+named Grieve, who, anxious to obtain possession of her
+riches, finally succeeded in procuring her arrest while
+her enemies were in power. From Sainte-Pélagie they
+took her to the Conciergerie, to the room which Marie Antoinette had occupied.</p>
+
+<p>Accused of being the instrument of Pitt, of being an
+accomplice in the foreign war, of the insurrection in La
+Vendée, of the disorders in the south, the jury, out one
+hour, brought in a verdict of guilty, fixing the punishment
+at death within twenty-four hours, on the Place de la
+République. Upon hearing her sentence, she broke down
+completely and confessed everything she had hidden in
+the garden at Luciennes. On her way to the scaffold,
+she was a most pitiable sight to behold&mdash;the only prominent
+French woman, victim of the Revolution, to die a
+coward. The last words of this once famous and popular
+mistress were: "Life, life, leave me my life! I will give
+all my wealth to the nation. Another minute, hangman!
+<i>A moi! A moi!</i>" and the heavy iron cut short her pitiful
+screams, thus ending the life of the last royal mistress.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>[pg 329]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter XII</h2>
+
+<h2>Marie Antoinette and the Revolution</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>[pg 331]</span>
+
+
+<p>The condition of France at the end of the reign of
+Louis XV. was most deplorable&mdash;injustice, misery, bankruptcy,
+and instability everywhere. The action of the
+law could be overridden by the use of arbitrary warrants
+of arrest&mdash;<i>lettres de cachet</i>. The artisans of the towns
+were hampered by the system of taxation, but the peasant
+had the greatest cause for complaint; he was oppressed
+by the feudal dues and many taxes, which often amounted
+to sixty per cent of his earnings. The government was
+absolute, but rotten and tottering; the people, oppressively
+and unjustly governed, were just beginning to be conscious
+of their condition and to seek the cause of it, while
+the educated classes were saturated with revolutionary
+doctrines which not only destroyed their loyalty to the
+old institutions, but created constant aspirations toward new ones.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, when Louis XVI., a mere boy, began to reign,
+the whole French administrative body was corrupt, self-seeking,
+and in the hands of lawyers, a class that dominated
+almost every phase of government. In general,
+inefficiency, idleness, and dishonesty had obtained a ruling
+place in the governing body; the few honest men who had
+a minor share in the administration either fell into a sort
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>[pg 332]</span>
+of disheartened acquiescence or lost their fortunes and
+reputations in hopeless revolt.</p>
+
+<p>Under these conditions Louis XVI. began his reign; and
+although peace seemed to exist externally, the country
+was in revolution. France was as much under the modern
+"ring rule" as any country ever was&mdash;a condition of
+affairs largely due to the nature of the young king, whose
+predominant characteristics might be called a supreme
+awkwardness and an unpardonable lack of will power.
+He was a man who, during the first part of his reign, led
+a pure life; he possessed good and philanthropic intentions,
+but was hampered by a weak intellect and a stubbornness
+which bore little resemblance to real strength of will.
+Also, he entertained strong religious convictions, which
+were extremely detrimental to his policy and caused disagreements
+with his ministers&mdash;Turgot, on account of
+his philosophical principles, Necker, on account of his Protestantism.</p>
+
+<p>His wife had those qualities which he lacked, decision
+and strength of character; unfortunately, she wielded no
+influence over him in the beginning, and when she did
+gain it, she used it in a fatal manner, because she was
+ignorant of the needs of France. Throughout her career of
+power, she evinced headstrong wilfulness in pursuing her
+own course. Thus, totally incapable of acting for himself,
+Louis XVI. was practically at the mercy of his aunts, wife,
+courtiers, and ministers, who fitted his policy to their own
+desires and notions; therefore, the vast stream of emoluments
+and honors was diverted by the ministers and courtiers
+into channels of their own selection. There were
+formed parties and combinations which were constantly
+intriguing for or against each other.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the accession of Louis XVI., when poverty
+was general over the kingdom, the household of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>[pg 333]</span>
+king consisted of nearly four thousand civilians, nine thousand
+military men, and relatives to the enormous number
+of two thousand, the supporting of which dependents cost
+France some forty-five million francs annually. Luckily
+there was no mistress to govern, as under Louis XV., but,
+in place of one mistress who was the dispenser of favors,
+there were numerous intriguing court women who were as
+corrupt and frivolous as the men. These split the court
+into factions. As the finances of the country sank to the
+lowest ebb, odium was naturally cast upon the whole court,
+without exception, by the people; hence, the wholesale
+slaughter of the nobility during the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>In this period, the most critical in the history of France,
+the queen, Marie Antoinette, as the central figure, the
+leader of society, the model and example to whom all
+looked for advice upon morals and fashions, played an important
+rôle. Although not of French birth, she deserves
+to be ranked among the women influential in France, since
+she became so thoroughly imbued with French traits and
+characteristics that she forgot her native tongue. French
+life and spirit moulded her in such fashion that even the
+French look upon her as a French woman.</p>
+
+<p>Before judging this unfortunate princess who has been
+condemned by so many critics, we must take into consideration
+the demands that were made upon her. Parade
+was the primary requisite: she was obliged to keep up the
+splendor and attractiveness of the French monarchy; in
+this she excelled, for her manner was dignified, gracious,
+and "appropriately discriminating. It is said that she
+could bow to ten persons with one movement, giving, with
+her head and eyes, the recognition due to each one." It is
+said, also, that as she passed among the ladies of her court,
+she surpassed them all in the nobility of her countenance
+and the dignified grace of her carriage. All foreigners
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>[pg 334]</span>
+were enchanted with her, and to them she owes no small
+part of her posthumous popularity.</p>
+
+<p>She was reproached by French women for being exclusively
+devoted to the society of a select, intimate circle.
+Moreover, her conduct brought slander upon her; as her
+companions she chose men and women of bad reputation,
+and was constantly surrounded by dissipated young noblemen
+whom she permitted to come into her presence in
+costumes which shocked conservative people; she encouraged
+gambling, frequented the worst gambling house of
+the time, that of the Princesse de Guéménée, and visited
+masked balls where the worst women of the capital jostled
+the great nobles of the court; her husband seldom accompanied
+her to these pleasure resorts.</p>
+
+<p>During part of the reign of Marie Antoinette the country
+was waging an expensive war and was deeply in debt, but
+the queen did not set an example of economy by retrenching
+her expenses; although her personal allowance was much
+larger than that of the preceding queen, she was always
+in debt and lost heavily at gambling. Generally, she
+avoided interference with the government of the state, but
+as the wife of so incapable a king she was forced into an
+attempt at directing public matters. Whenever she did
+mingle in state affairs, it was generally fatal to her interests
+and popularity. She usually carried out her wishes,
+for the king shrank from disappointing his wife and dreaded
+domestic contentions.</p>
+
+<p>He permitted her to go out as she did with the Comte
+d'Artois, her brother-in-law, to masked balls, races, rides
+in the Bois de Boulogne, and on expeditions to the salon
+of the Princesse de Guéménée, where she contracted
+the ills of a chronically empty purse and late hours.
+When attacked by measles, to relieve her ennui&mdash;which
+her ladies were not successful in doing&mdash;she procured the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>[pg 335]</span>
+consent of the king to the presence of four gentlemen,
+who waited upon her, coming at seven in the morning and
+not departing until eleven at night; and these were some
+of the most depraved and debauched among the nobility&mdash;such
+as De Besenval, the Duc de Coigny, and the Duc de Guines.</p>
+
+<p>While in power, she always sided with extravagance
+and the court, against economy and the nation. If we
+add to all these defects a vain and frivolous disposition, a
+nature fond of admiration, pleasure, and popularity, and
+lending a willing ear to all flattery, compliments, and counsels
+of her favorites, her Austrian birth, and as "little
+dignity as a Paris grisette in her escapades with the dissipated
+and arrogant Comte d'Artois," we have, in general,
+the causes of her wide unpopularity.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that as long as she was frivolous and
+imprudent, she was flattered and admired; as soon as she
+became absolutely irreproachable, she was overwhelmed
+with harsh judgments and expressions of ill will. The first
+period was during the first years of the reign of Louis XVI.,
+while he was still all-powerful and popular; the second
+phase of her character developed during the trying days
+of the king's first fall into disfavor and his ultimate imprisonment
+and death. From this account of her career,
+it will be seen that Marie Antoinette, as dauphiness and
+queen, was rather the victim of fate and the invidious
+intrigues of a depraved court than herself an instigator
+and promulgator of the extravagance and dissipation of which she was accused.</p>
+
+<p>We must remember the atmosphere into which Marie
+Antoinette was thrust upon her arrival in France. One
+of the first to sup with her was that most licentious of all
+royal mistresses, Mme. du Barry, who asked for the privilege
+of dining with the new princess&mdash;a favor which the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>[pg 336]</span>
+dissipated and weak king granted. Louis XV. was nothing
+more than a slave to vice and his mistresses. The king's
+daughters&mdash;Mmes. Adelaïde, Victoire, and Sophie&mdash;were
+pious but narrow-minded women, resolutely hostile to
+Mme. du Barry and intriguing against her. The Comtes
+de Provence and d'Artois were both pleasure-loving princes
+of doubtful character; their sisters&mdash;Mmes. Clotilde and
+Elisabeth&mdash;had no importance. The family was divided
+against itself, each member being jealous of the others.
+The dauphin, being of a retiring disposition and of a close
+and self-contained nature, did little to add to the happiness
+of the young princess. Thus, she was literally forced
+to depend upon her own resources for pleasure and amusement
+and was at the mercy of the court, which was
+never more divided than in about 1770&mdash;the time of her appearance.</p>
+
+<p>At that time there were two parties&mdash;the Choiseul,
+or Austrian, party, and those who opposed the policy of
+Choiseul, especially in the expulsion of the Jesuits; the
+latter were called the party of the <i>dèvôts</i> and were led by
+Chancellor Maupeau and the Duc d'Aiguillon. This faction,
+with the mistress&mdash;Mme. du Barry&mdash;as the motive power,
+soon broke up the power of Choiseul. The young and
+innocent foreign princess, unschooled in intrigue and politics,
+could not escape both political parties; upon her
+entrance into the French court, she was immediately
+classed with one or the other of these rival factions and
+thus made enemies by whatever turn she took, and was
+caught in a network of intrigues from which extrication was almost impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Here, in this whirl of social excesses, her habits were
+formed; hers being a lively, alert, active nature, fond of
+pleasure and somewhat inclined toward raillery, she soon
+became so absorbed in the many distractions of court life
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>[pg 337]</span>
+that little time was left her for indulgence in reflection of
+a serious nature. Her manner of life at this time in part
+explains her subsequent career of heedlessness, excessive
+extravagance, and gayety.</p>
+
+<p>At first her aunts&mdash;Mmes. Adelaïde and Sophie&mdash;succeeded
+in partially estranging her from Louis XV., who
+had taken a strong fancy to his granddaughter; but this
+influence was soon overcome&mdash;then these aunts turned
+against her. Her popularity, however, increased. Innumerable
+instances might be cited to show her kindness
+to the poor, to her servants, to anyone in need&mdash;a quality
+which made her popular with the masses. In time almost
+everyone at court was apparently enslaved by her attractions
+and endeavored to please the dauphiness&mdash;this was
+about 1774, when she was at the height of her popularity.</p>
+
+<p>However, there developed a striking contrast between
+the dauphiness and the queen; Burke called the former
+"the morning star, full of life and splendor and joy." In
+fact, she was a mere girl, childlike, passing a gay and
+innocent life over a road mined with ambushes and intrigues
+which were intended to bring ruin upon her and
+destined eventually to accomplish their purpose. By
+being always prompt in her charities, having inherited
+her mother's devotion to the poor, she won golden opinions
+on all sides; and the reputation thus gained was
+augmented by her animated, graceful manner and her youthful beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Little accustomed to the magnificence that surrounded
+her, she soon wearied of it, craving simpler manners and
+the greater freedom of private intercourse. When, as
+queen, she indulged these desires, she brought upon herself
+the abuse and vilification of her enemies. While
+dauphiness, her actions could not cause the nation's reproach
+or arouse public resentment; as queen, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>[pg 338]</span>
+her behavior was subject to the strictest rules of etiquette,
+and she was responsible for the morals and general tone
+of her court. This responsibility Marie Antoinette failed
+to realize until it was too late.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the accession of Louis XVI., a clean sweep was
+made of the licentious and discredited agents of Mme. du
+Barry, and a new ministry was created. The former mistress,
+with her lover, the Duc d'Aiguillon, was banished,
+although Mme. Adelaïde succeeded in having Maurepas,
+uncle of the Duc d'Aiguillon, made minister. Marie Antoinette
+had little interest in the appointment after she failed
+to gain the honor for her favorite, De Choiseul, who had
+negotiated her marriage.</p>
+
+<p>The queen then proceeded to carry out her long-cherished
+wishes for society dinners at which she could preside.
+Her every act, however, was governed by inflexible
+laws of etiquette, some of which she most impatiently
+suffered, but many of which she impatiently put aside.
+With this manner of entertaining begins her reign as queen
+of taste and fashion, for Louis XVI. left to his wife the
+responsibility of organizing all entertainments, and her
+aspiration was to make the court of France the most
+splendid in the world. From that time on, all her movements,
+her apparel, her manners, to the minutest detail,
+were imitated by the court ladies. This custom, of course,
+led to reckless extravagance among the nobility, for whenever
+Marie Antoinette appeared in a new gown, which
+was almost daily, the ladies of the nobility must perforce copy it.</p>
+
+<p>Tidings of these extravagances of the queen and her
+court in time reached the empress-mother in Vienna.
+Marie Thérèse severely reproached her daughter, writing:
+"My daughter, my dear daughter, the first queen&mdash;is she
+to grow like this? The idea is insupportable to me." Yet,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>[pg 339]</span>
+"to speak the exact truth," said her counsellor, Mercy,
+when writing to the empress-mother, "there is less to
+complain of in the evil which exists than in the lack of all
+the good which might exist." It is chronicled to her credit
+that all her expenditure was not upon herself alone, but
+that she was equally lavish when she attempted charity.</p>
+
+<p>Her first political act, the removal of Turgot, was disastrous.
+She thought she was humoring public opinion,
+which was strongly against the minister on account of his
+many reforms, but her primary reason was rather one of
+personal vengeance. Turgot had been openly hostile to
+her friend and favorite, the Duc de Guines. She was
+then in the midst of her period of dissipation; "dazzled by
+the glory of the throne, intoxicated by public approval,"
+she overstepped the bounds of royal propriety, neglecting
+etiquette and forgetting that she was secretly hated by the
+people because of her origin; her greatest error was in
+forgetting that she was Queen of France and no longer the mere dauphiness.</p>
+
+<p>Under the escort of her brother-in-law, the Comte d'Artois,
+she was constantly occupied with pleasures and had
+time for little else. The king, retiring every night at
+eleven and rising at five, had all the doors locked; so the
+queen, who returned early in the morning, was compelled
+to enter by the back door and pass through the servants'
+apartments. Such behavior gave plentiful material to
+M. de Provence, the king's brother, who remained at
+home and composed, for the <i>Mercure de France</i>, all sorts
+of stories, from so-called trustworthy information, on the
+king, on society, and especially on the doings of the queen.</p>
+
+<p>Marie Antoinette's fondness for the chase and the English
+racing fad, for gambling, billiards, and her <i>petits soupers</i>
+after the riding and racing, gave ample opportunity to
+the gossipmongers and enemies. In spite of the vigorous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>[pg 340]</span>
+remonstrances of her mother, the empress, she persisted in
+her wild career of dissipation and extravagance, and drew
+upon herself more and more the disrespect of the people,
+especially in appearing at places frequented by the disreputable
+of both sexes, by entering into all noisy and
+vulgar amusements, by her disregard and disdain of all the
+conventionalities of the court. She increased her unpopularity
+by reviving the sport of sleighing; for this purpose
+she had gorgeous sleighs constructed at a time when the
+population of France was in misery. Such proceedings
+caused libels, epigrams, and satirical chansonnettes to flow
+thick and fast from her enemies. Her one idea was to
+seek congenial pleasures: she appeared to be wholly oblivious
+to the disapproval of public opinion.</p>
+
+<p>The slanderous tongues of her husband's aunts, the
+"jealousies and bitter backbiting of her own intimate
+circle of friends," the infamous accusations brought against
+her by her sisters-in-law, the attacks of the Comte de
+Provence, and the indifference of the king himself, all
+helped to increase her unpopularity.</p>
+
+<p>Among her personal friends was the Princesse de Lamballe,
+whose influence was preponderant for several years;
+she was not a conspicuously wise woman, but one of spotless
+character. Her ambitions, personal and for her relatives,
+often caused much trouble, for she became the
+mouthpiece of her allies and her clients, for whom she
+"solicited recommendations with as much pertinacity as
+if she had been the most inveterate place hunter on her
+own account." Her favors were too much in one direction
+to suit the queen, for, much attached to the memory of
+her husband, the princess naturally sympathized with the
+Orléans faction. As superintendent of the household of
+the queen, replacing the Comtesse de Noailles, she gave
+rise to much scandal. Her salary, through intrigues, had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>[pg 341]</span>
+been raised to fifty thousand écus, while her privileges
+were enormous; for instance, no lady of the queen could
+execute an order given her without first obtaining the consent
+of the superintendent. The displeasure and vexation
+which this restriction caused among the court ladies may
+be imagined; complaints became so frequent that the
+queen tired of them, and her affection for her friend was thus cooled.</p>
+
+<p>She sought other friends, among whom Mme. de Polignac
+was the favorite and almost supplanted the Princesse de
+Lamballe in the regard of the queen. To her she presented
+a large grant of money, the tabouret of a duchess,
+the post of governess to the children of France; and her
+friends received the appointments of ambassadors, and
+nominations to inferior offices. She was not by nature
+an intriguing woman, but was soon surrounded by a set of
+young men and women who made use of her favor and
+took advantage of her influence; the result was the formation
+of a regular Polignac set, almost all questionable persons,
+but an exclusive circle, permitting no division of
+favor, and undoing all who endeavored to rival them.
+This coterie of favorites may be said to have caused Marie
+Antoinette as much unpopularity and contributed as much
+to her ruin, and even to that of royalty, as did any other
+cause originating at court. Mme. de Lamballe was no
+match for her rival, so she retired, a move which increased
+the influence of Mme. de Polignac, to whose house the
+whole court flocked. The queen followed her wherever
+she went, made her husband duke, and permitted her to sit in her presence.</p>
+
+<p>By spending so much of her time at the salons of Mme.
+de Polignac and the Princesse de Guéménée, the queen
+excited the displeasure and enmity of many of the court
+and the people; at those places, De Besenval, De Ligny,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>[pg 342]</span>
+De Lauzun,&mdash;men of the most licentious habits and expert
+spendthrifts,&mdash;seemed to enjoy her intimate friendship, a
+state of affairs which caused many scandalous stories and
+helped to alienate some of the greatest houses of France.
+This injudicious display of preference for her own circle of
+friends also fostered a general distrust and dislike among
+the people. The first families of France preferred to absent
+themselves from her weekly balls at Versailles, since
+attendance would probably result in their being ignored by
+the queen, who permitted herself to be so engrossed by a
+bevy of favorites and her own amusements as scarcely to notice other guests.</p>
+
+<p>Her eulogists find excuse for all this in her lightness of
+heart and gay spirits, as well as in the manner of her
+rearing, having been brought up in the court of Louis XV.,
+where she saw shameless vice tolerated and even condoned.
+Although she preserved her virtue in the midst of
+all this dissipation, she became callous to the shortcomings
+of her friends and her own finer perceptions became
+blunted. Thus, in the most critical years of her reign,
+her nobler nature suffered deterioration, which resulted fatally.</p>
+
+<p>Despite many warnings, she could not or would not do
+without those friends. She excused anything in those
+who could make themselves useful to her amusement:
+everyone who catered to her taste received her favor.
+M. Rocheterie, in his admirable work, <i>The Life of Marie
+Antoinette</i>, gives as the source of her great love of pleasure
+her very strongly affectionate disposition,&mdash;the need
+of showering upon someone the overflowing of an ardent
+nature,&mdash;together with the desire for activity so natural
+in a princess of nineteen. As a place in which to vent all
+these emotions, these ebullitions of affections and amusements,
+the king presented her with the château "Little
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>[pg 343]</span>
+Trianon," where she might enjoy herself as she liked,
+away from the intrigues of court.</p>
+
+<p>Marie Antoinette has become better known as the queen
+of "Little Trianon" than as a queen of Versailles. At
+the former place she gave full license to her creative bent.
+Her palace, as well as her environments, she fashioned
+according to her own ideas, which were not French and
+only made her stand out the more conspicuously as a foreigner.
+From this sort of fairy creation arose the distinctively
+Marie Antoinette art and style; she caused artists to
+exhaust their fertile brains in devising the most curious and
+magnificent, the newest and most fanciful creations, quite
+regardless of cost&mdash;and this while her people were starving
+and crying for bread! The angry murmurings of the
+populace did not reach the ears of the gay queen, who, had
+she been conscious of them, might have allowed her bright
+eyes to become dim for a time, but would have soon forgotten the passing cloud.</p>
+
+<p>There was constant festivity about the queen and her
+companions, but no etiquette; there was no household,
+only friends&mdash;the Polignacs, Mme. Elisabeth, Monsieur,
+the Comte d'Artois, and, occasionally, the king. To be
+sure, the amusements were innocent&mdash;open-air balls, rides,
+lawn fêtes, all made particularly attractive by the affability
+of the young queen, who showed each guest some particular
+attention; all departed enchanted with the place and its
+delights and, especially, with the graciousness of the royal
+hostess. There all artists and authors of France were encouraged
+and patronized&mdash;with the exception of Voltaire;
+the queen refused to patronize a man whose view upon
+morality had caused so much trouble.</p>
+
+<p>Music and the drama received especial protection from
+her. The triumph of Gluck's <i>Iphigénie en Aulide</i>, in 1774,
+was the first victory of Marie Antoinette over the former
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>[pg 344]</span>
+mistress and the Piccini party. This was the second
+musical quarrel in France, the first having occurred in
+1754, between the lovers of French and Italian music,
+with Mme. de Pompadour as protectress. After Gluck
+had monopolized the French opera for eight years, the
+Italian, Piccini, was brought from Italy in 1776. Quinault's
+<i>Roland</i> was arranged for him by Marmontel and
+was presented in 1778, unsuccessfully; Gluck presented
+his <i>Iphigénie en Aulide</i>, and no opera ever received such
+general approbation. "The scene was all uproar and confusion,
+demoniacal enthusiasm; women threw their gloves,
+fans, lace kerchiefs, at the actors; men stamped and yelled;
+the enthusiasm of the public reached actual frenzy. All
+did honor to the composer and to the queen."</p>
+
+<p>Marie Antoinette, however, also gave Piccini her protection.
+Gluck, armed with German theories and supporting
+French music, maintained for dramatic interest,
+the subordination of music to poetry, the union or close
+relation of song and recitative; whereas, the Italian opera
+represented by Piccini had no dramatic unity, no great
+ensembles, nothing but short airs, detached, without connection&mdash;no
+substance, but mere ornamentation. Gluck
+proved, also, that tragedy could be introduced in opera,
+while Piccini maintained that opera could embrace only the
+fable&mdash;the marvellous and fairylike. This musical quarrel
+became a veritable national issue, every salon, the Academy,
+and all clubs being partisans of one or the other theory;
+it did much to mould the later French and German music,
+and much credit is due the queen for the support given and
+the intelligence displayed in so important an issue.</p>
+
+<p>All singers, actors, writers, geniuses in all things, were
+sure of welcome and protection from Marie Antoinette; but
+she permitted her passion for the theatre to carry her to
+extremes unbecoming her position, for she consorted with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>[pg 345]</span>
+comedians, played their parts, and associated with them
+as though they were her equals. Such conduct as this,
+and her exclusiveness in court circles, encouraged calumny.
+Versailles was deserted by the best families, and all the
+pomp and traditions of the French monarchs were abandoned.
+The king, in sanctioning these amusements at the
+"Little Trianon," lost the respect and esteem of the nobility,
+but the queen was held responsible for all evil,&mdash;for
+the deficit in the treasury, and the increase in taxes; to
+such an extent was she blamed, that the tide of public
+popularity turned and she was regarded with suspicion, envy, and even hatred.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1777 the queen's brother, the Emperor
+Joseph II. of Austria, arrived in Paris for a visit to his
+sister and the court of France. The relations between him
+and Marie Antoinette became quite intimate; the emperor,
+always disposed to be critical, did not hesitate to warn his
+sister of the dangers of her situation, pointing out to her
+her weakness in thus being led on by her love of pleasure,
+and the deplorable consequences which this weakness
+would infallibly entail in the future. The queen acknowledged
+the justness of the emperor's reasoning, and, though
+often deeply offended by his frankness and severity, she
+determined upon reform. This resolution was, to some
+extent, influenced by the hope of pregnancy; so, when
+her expectations in that direction proved to be without
+foundation, so keen was the disappointment thus occasioned,
+that, in order to forget it, she plunged into dissipation
+to such an extent that it soon developed into a
+veritable passion. Bitterly disappointed, vexed with a
+husband whose coldness constantly irritated her ardent
+nature, fretful and nervous, there naturally developed a
+morbid state of mind which explains the impetuosity with
+which she attempted to escape from herself.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>[pg 346]</span>
+
+<p>In December, 1778, a daughter was born to the queen,
+and she welcomed her with these words: "Poor little one,
+you are not desired, but you will be none the less dear to
+me! A son would have belonged to the state&mdash;you will
+belong to me." After this event the queen gave herself
+up to thoughts and pursuits of a more serious nature.
+In 1779 the dauphin was born, and from that period Marie
+Antoinette considered herself no longer a foreigner.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Maurepas, minister and counsellor to
+the king, the queen became more influential in court matters.
+She relieved the indolent monarch of much responsibility,
+but only to hand it over to her favorites. The
+period from 1781 to 1785 was the most brilliant of the
+court of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, one of dissipation
+and extravagance, the rich <i>bourgeoisie</i> vying with the
+nobility in their luxurious style of living and in lavish
+expenditure. "The finest silks that Lyons could weave,
+the most beautiful laces that Alençon could produce, the
+most gorgeous equipages, the most expensive furniture,
+inlaid and carved, the tapestry of Beauvais and the porcelain
+of Sèvres&mdash;all were in the greatest demand." Necker
+was replaced by incompetent ministers, the treasury was
+depleted, and the poor became more and more restless and
+threatening. Once more, and with increased vehemence,
+was heard the cry: <i>A bas l'Autrichienne!</i></p>
+
+<p>During the American war of the Revolution, Marie Antoinette
+was always favorable to the Colonial cause, protecting
+La Fayette and encouraging all volunteers of the
+nobility, who embarked for America in great numbers.
+She presented Washington with a full-length portrait of
+herself, loudly and publicly proclaiming her sympathy for
+things American. She assured Rochambeau of her good
+will, and procured for La Fayette a high command in the
+<i>corps d'armée</i> which was to be sent to America. When
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>[pg 347]</span>
+Necker and other ministers were negotiating for peace,
+from 1781 to 1785, she persisted in asserting that American
+independence should be acknowledged; and when it
+was declared, she rejoiced as at no political event in her own country.</p>
+
+<p>Her political adventures were few; in fact, she disliked
+politics and desired to keep aloof from the intrigues of the
+ministers. She may have been instrumental in the downfall
+of Necker&mdash;at least, she secured the appointment, as
+minister of finance, of the worthless Calonne, who, it will
+be remembered, brought about the ruin of France in a
+short period. In time, however, the queen recognized his
+worthlessness and would have nothing to do with him,
+thus making in him another implacable enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Events were fast diminishing the popularity of the
+queen. When, after the long-disputed question of presenting
+the <i>Marriage of Figaro</i>, she herself undertook to
+play in <i>The Barber of Seville</i> in her theatre at the Trianon,
+she overstepped the bounds of propriety. Then followed
+the affair of the diamond necklace, in which the worst,
+most cunning, and most notorious rogues abused the name
+of the queen. That was the great adventure of the eighteenth
+century. Boehmer, the court jeweler, had, in a
+number of years, procured a collection of stones for an
+incomparable necklace. This was intended for Mme. du
+Barry, but Boehmer offered it to the queen, who refused
+to purchase it, and he considered himself ruined. It may
+be well to add that the queen had previously purchased
+a pair of diamond earrings which had been ordered by
+Louis XV. for his mistress; for those ornaments she paid
+almost half her annual pin money, amounting to nine
+hundred thousand francs. The jeweler, therefore, had
+good reason to hope that she would relieve him of the necklace.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>[pg 348]</span>
+
+<p>An adventuress, a Mme. de La Motte, acquainted at
+court and also with the Prince Louis de Rohan, who had
+incurred the displeasure of the queen, informed the cardinal
+that Marie Antoinette was willing to again extend to
+him her favor. She counterfeited notes, and even went
+so far as to appoint a meeting at midnight in the park at
+Versailles. The supposed queen who appeared was no
+other than an English girl, who dropped a rose with the
+words: "You know what that means." The cardinal was
+informed that the queen desired to buy the necklace, but
+that it was to be kept secret&mdash;it was to be purchased for
+her by a great noble, who was to remain unknown. All
+necessary papers were signed, and the necklace turned
+over to the Prince de Rohan, who, in turn, intrusted it to
+Mme. de La Motte to be given to the queen; but the agent
+was not long in having it taken apart, and soon her husband
+was selling diamonds in great quantities to English jewelers.</p>
+
+<p>In time, as no payments were received and no favors
+were shown by the queen, an investigation followed. The
+result was a trial which lasted nine months; the cardinal
+was declared not guilty, the signature of the queen false,
+Mme. de La Motte was sentenced to be whipped, branded,
+and imprisoned for life, and her husband was condemned
+to the galleys. Nevertheless, much censure fell to the
+share of the queen. It was the beginning of the end of
+her reign as a favorite whose faults could be condoned.
+She was beginning to reap the fruits of her former dissipations.
+In about 1787, when she least deserved it, she
+became the butt of calumny, intrigues, and pamphlets.</p>
+
+<p>During these years she was the most devoted of mothers;
+she personally looked after her four children, watched by
+their bedsides when they were ill, shutting herself up with
+them in the château so that they would not communicate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>[pg 349]</span>
+their disease to the children who played in the park. In
+1785 the king purchased Saint-Cloud and presented it to
+the queen, together with six millions in her own right,
+to enjoy and dispose of as she pleased. That act added
+the last straw to the burden of resentment of the overwrought
+public; from that time she was known as "Madame
+Deficit." Also she was accused of having sent her brother,
+Joseph II., one hundred million livres in three years. She
+was hissed at the opera. In 1788 there were many who
+refused to dance with the queen. In the preceding year a
+caricature was openly sold, showing Louis XVI. and his
+queen seated at a sumptuous table, while a starving crowd
+surrounded them; it bore the legend: "The king drinks,
+the queen eats, while the people cry!" Calonne, minister
+of finance, an intimate friend of the Polignacs, but in disfavor
+with the queen, also made common cause with the
+enemies, in songs and perfidious insinuations. Upon his
+fall, in 1787, the queen's position became even worse.</p>
+
+<p>The last period of the life of the queen, La Rocheterie
+calls the militant period&mdash;it was one in which the joy of
+living was no more; trouble, sorrows upon sorrows, and
+anxieties replaced the former care-free, happy radiance of
+her youth. At the reunion of the States-General, while
+the country at large was full of confidence and the king
+was still a hero, the queen was the one dark spot; calumny
+had done its work&mdash;the whole country seemed to be saturated
+with an implacable hatred and prejudice against her
+whom they considered the source of all evil. Throughout
+the ceremonies attending the States-General, the queen
+was received with the same ominous silence; no one lifted
+his voice to cheer her, but the Duc d'Orléans was always
+applauded, to her humiliation.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may have been the faults and excesses of
+her youth, their period was over and in their place arose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>[pg 350]</span>
+all the noble sentiments so long dormant. When the king
+was about to go to Paris as the prisoner of the infuriated
+mob, La Fayette asked the queen: "Madame, what is your
+personal intention?" "I know the fate which awaits me,
+but my duty is to die at the feet of the king and in the
+arms of my children," replied the queen. During the following
+days of anxiety she showed wonderful courage and
+graciousness, "winning much popularity by her serene
+dignity, the incomparable charm which pervaded her whole
+person, and her affability."</p>
+
+<p>Upon the urgent request of the queen the Polignac set
+departed, and Mme. de Lamballe endeavored to do the
+honors for the queen, by receptions three times a week,
+given to make friends in the Assembly. At those functions
+all conditions of people assembled, and instead of
+the witty, brilliant conversations of the old salon there
+were politics, conspiracies, plots; instead of the gay and
+laughing faces of the old times there were the worn and
+anxious faces of weary, discouraged men and women.
+There was, indeed, a sad contrast between the gay, frivolous,
+haughty queen of the early days, and this captive
+queen&mdash;submissive, dignified, "majestic in her bearing,
+heroic, and reconciled to her awful fate."</p>
+
+<p>Her period of imprisonment, the cruelty, neglect, inadequate
+food and garments, her torture and indescribable
+sufferings, the insults of the crowd and the newspapers,
+her heroic death, all belong to history. "The first crime
+of the Revolution was the death of the king, but the most
+frightful was the death of the queen." Napoleon said:
+"The queen's death was a crime worse than regicide."
+"A crime absolutely unjustifiable," adds La Rocheterie,
+"since it had no pretext whatever to offer as an excuse; a
+crime eminently impolitic, since it struck down a foreign
+princess, the most sacred of hostages; a crime beyond
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>[pg 351]</span>
+measure, since the victim was a woman who possessed honors without power."</p>
+
+<p>Because Marie Antoinette played a romantic rôle in
+French history, it is quite natural to find conflicting and
+contradictory opinions among her biographers. The most
+conflicting may be summed up in these words: the queen's
+influence upon the Revolution was great&mdash;her extravagances,
+her haughty bearing, her scorn of the etiquette of
+royalty, her enemies, her prejudices, the arrests which
+she caused, etc. Then her pernicious influence upon the
+king, after the breaking out of the Revolution&mdash;she caused
+his hesitancy, which led to such disastrous results, and his
+plan of annihilating the States Assembly; the gathering of
+the foreign troops and his many contradictory and uncertain
+commands were all laid at her door, making of her an
+important and guilty party to the Revolution. Another
+estimate is more humane and, probably, is the result of
+cooler reflection, yet is not always accepted by Frenchmen
+or the world at large. It represents her as neither saint
+nor sinner, but as a pure, fascinating woman, always
+chaste, though somewhat rash and frivolous. Proud and
+energetic, if inconsiderate in her political actions and somewhat
+too impulsive in the selection of friends upon whom
+to bestow her favors, she is yet worthy of the title of
+queen by the very dignity of her bearing; always a true
+woman, seductive and tender of heart, she became a martyr
+"through the extremity of her trials and her triumphant death."</p>
+
+<p>Although history makes Marie Antoinette a central figure
+during the reign of Louis XVI. and the period of the Revolution,
+yet her personal influence was practically limited
+to the domain of the social world of customs and manners;
+her political influence issued mainly from or was due to the
+concatenation of conditions and circumstances, the results
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>[pg 352]</span>
+of her friends' doings, while her social triumphs were
+products of her own activity. The two women&mdash;her intimate
+friends&mdash;who during this period were of greatest
+prominence, who owed their elevation and standing entirely
+to the queen, were women of whom little has survived.
+In her time, Mme. de Polignac was an influential
+woman, wielding tremendous power, contributing largely
+to the shaping and climaxing of France's fate; yet this
+influence was centred in reality in the Polignac set, which
+was composed of the most important, daring, and consummate
+intriguers that the court of France had ever seen.
+She escaped the guillotine, and by doing so escaped the attention of posterity.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Lamballe, who wrote nothing, did nothing, effected
+nothing, is better known to the world at large, is
+more respected and honored, than is Mme. de Polignac or
+even the great salon leaders such as Mme. de Genlis or
+Mlle. de Lespinasse. She owes this prominence to her
+undying devotion to her queen, to her marvellous beauty,
+and to her tragic death on the guillotine. She was not
+even bright or witty, the essentials of greatness among
+French women&mdash;not one <i>bon mot</i> has survived her; but
+she may well be placed by the side of her queen for one
+sublime virtue, too rare in those days,&mdash;chastity. She
+was Princess of Sardinia; upon the request of the Duke
+of Penthièvre to Louis XV. to select a wife for his son,
+the Prince of Lamballe, she was chosen. A year after the
+marriage the prince died; and although the marriage had
+not been a happy one, because of the dissolute life of the
+prince, his wife forgave him, and "sorrowed for him as though he deserved it."</p>
+
+<p>When in 1768 the queen died, two parties immediately
+formed, the object of both of them being to provide
+Louis XV. with a wife: one may be called the reform
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>[pg 353]</span>
+party, striving to keep the old king in the paths of decency;
+while the other was composed of the typical eighteenth
+century intriguers, endeavoring to revive the "grand
+old times." The candidate of the former was Mme. de
+Lamballe, that of the latter, the dissolute Duchesse du
+Barry. This state of affairs was made possible by the
+disagreement of the political and social schemes of the
+court and ministry. Soon after, in 1770, the king negotiated
+the marriage of Marie Antoinette and the dauphin,
+and from that time began the friendship of the future
+queen and the Princesse de Lamballe. Entering the unfamiliar
+circle of this highly debauched court, the young
+dauphiness sought a sympathetic friend, and found her in
+the princess. No figure in that society was more disinterested
+and unselfishly devoted. In all the queen's undertakings,
+fêtes, and other amusements, she was inseparable
+from the princess, who was indeed a rare exception to the
+majority of the women of that time.</p>
+
+<p>The friendship of these two women was uninterrupted,
+save for a period extending from 1778 to 1785, when
+Mme. de Polignac and her set of intriguers succeeded in
+estranging them and usurping all the favors of the queen.
+When the outside world was accrediting to Marie Antoinette
+every popular misfortune, when she lost by death both the
+dauphin and the Princess Beatrice, when fate was against
+her, when the future promised nothing but evil, she found
+no stauncher friend, better consoler, more ardent admirer,
+than her old companion. Learning of the removal of the
+royal family to the Tuileries, she rejoined the queen. In
+1791, with the escape of the royal fugitives, the princess
+left for England, to seek the protection of the English government
+for her royal friends.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Dobson says she was scarcely the <i>discrète et insinuante
+et touchante Lamballe</i>, with a marvellous sang-froid,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>[pg 354]</span>
+hardly the astute diplomatist, that De Lescure makes her.
+"She was rather the quiet, imposing Lamballe of old, interested
+in her friends and what she could do for them, but
+never shrewd and diplomatic." In November she returned
+to France, to meet her queen and to suffer death for her
+sake,&mdash;and for this unswerving devotion she has a place
+in history. She stands out also as the one normal woman
+in the crowds of impetuous, shallow, petty, and, in many
+cases, pitifully debauched women of the time. Not majestic
+greatness, but a direct, unaffected sweetness and consistent
+goodness entitle her to rank among the great women of France.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>[pg 355]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter XIII</h2>
+
+<h2>Women of the Revolution and the Empire</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>[pg 357]</span>
+
+
+<p>Many women of the revolutionary period have no claim
+for mention other than a last glorious moment on the
+guillotine&mdash;"ennobled and endeared by the self-possession
+and dignity with which they faced death, their whole life
+seems to have been lived for that one moment." The
+society which had brought on and stirred up the Revolution
+was enervated and febrile. Paris was one large
+kennel of libellers and pamphleteers and intriguers. The
+salon frequenters were trained conversationalists and brilliant
+beauties who danced and drank, discoursed and intrigued.
+It was a superficial elegance, with virtue only
+assumed. The art of pleasing had been developed to perfection,
+but, instead of the actual accomplishments of the
+old régime, there was merely the outward appearance&mdash;luxury,
+dress, and magnificence; the bearing and language
+were of the ambitious common people. "The great women
+are those who, the day before, were taken from the cellar
+or garret of the salon."</p>
+
+<p>During the Directorate, luxury and libertinism reigned
+almost as absolutely as during the monarchy. Barras was
+supreme. He had his mistress, or <i>maîtresse-en-titre</i>, in the
+beautiful Mme. Tallien, the queen of beauty of the salon of
+<i>la mode</i>. Ease and dissolute enjoyment were the aims
+of Barras, and in these his mistress was his equal. They
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>[pg 358]</span>
+gave the most sumptuous dinners, prepared by the famous
+chefs of the late aristocratic kitchens, while the people
+were starving or living on black bread. She impudently
+arrayed herself in the crown diamonds and appeared at
+the reception given to Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>The salons under the Empire are said to have preserved
+French politeness, courtesy, and the usages of <i>la bonne
+compagnie</i>, but intolerance and tyranny reigned there; the
+spirit of intrigue only was obeyed. From the beginning
+of the Revolution to the Empire, it may be said that the
+streets of Paris from one end to the other were a wild
+turmoil of people in fever heat&mdash;ready for any crime or
+cruelty, anxious for anything promising excitement. Where
+formerly the elegant lovers of the nobility were wont to
+promenade, the rabid populace held undisputed possession.</p>
+
+<p>These were years, about 1780 to 1800, during which
+women shared the same fate with men; and, consigned to
+the same prisons, ever resigned and ready to die for principle,
+they knew how to die nobly. It was truly an age
+of the martyrdom of woman&mdash;an age in which she lived,
+through almost superhuman conditions, at the side of man.
+She was all-powerful, triumphant as never before; not,
+however, through her intellectual superiority as in the
+previous age, but through her courage. There was not one
+powerful woman standing out alone, but groups of them,
+hosts of them. It was during the Directorate especially
+that woman controlled almost every phase of activity.</p>
+
+<p>The woman who embodied all the heterogeneous vices
+of the past nobility and the rising plebs was Mme. Tallien,
+the goddess of vice and of the vulgar display of wealth.
+Her caprices were scrupulously followed, while about her
+jealousy and slanders were thick. Then immorality had
+no veil, but was low, brutish, and open to everyone. With
+the accession of Napoleon to absolute power, there was a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>[pg 359]</span>
+fusion of the element just described with the remnant of
+the old régime. Josephine soon formed a select and congenial
+social circle, excluding Mme. Tallien and the Directorate
+adherents. Evidences of saddening memories of the
+past and a general gloom were visible everywhere in this
+circle. The disappointment of the nobility on returning
+from their exile was somewhat lessened by the very select
+bi-weekly reunions in the salon of Talleyrand, and by
+the brilliant suppers of the old régime, which were revived
+at the Hôtel d'Anjou.</p>
+
+<p>The salon of Mme. de Staël was a political debating club
+rather than a purely social reunion. She being an ardent
+Republican, it was in her salon that the Royalist plot to
+bring back the Bourbons was overthrown. In a short
+time there were a number of brilliant salons, each one
+showing a nature as distinct as those of the eighteenth
+century. Thus, Joseph Bonaparte received the distinguished
+governmentals and the intriguing women of
+society at the Château de Mortfoulaine; at Lucien Bonaparte's
+hôtel youth and beauty assembled; at Mme. de
+Permon's salon there were music and conversation, tea,
+lemonade, and biscuits, twice a week. It remains but to
+characterize these different ages of French social and
+political evolution by the great women who, each one of
+her age, are the representative types.</p>
+
+<p>The woman who, during the Revolution, not only added
+her name to the long list of martyrs, but who also made
+history and contributed to the very nature of those days
+of terror and uncertainty, was Mme. Roland, whom critics
+both extol and condemn&mdash;the fate of all historical characters.
+It would be difficult to estimate this remarkable
+person and her work without some details of her life.</p>
+
+<p>When a mere girl she showed signs of a tempestuous
+future; she was seductive, but impulsive, with an inborn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>[pg 360]</span>
+love for the common people&mdash;which is not always credited
+to her&mdash;and for democracy. These qualities were quickened
+during her experience at Versailles, for while there
+for a few days' visit she saw the pitiless social world in all
+its orgies, revelries of luxury, and wanton extravagances.
+There, also, she contracted that deep-seated hatred for the queen and royalty.</p>
+
+<p>There was, indeed, a long list of suitors for the hand of
+the impulsive maiden; but owing to her views as to a husband
+and her restless, unsettled state of mind, she could
+not decide upon any one of them. To her mother, when
+urged to accept one, she said: "I should not like a husband
+to order me about, for he would teach me only to
+resist him; but neither do I wish to rule my husband.
+Either I am much mistaken, or those creatures, six feet
+high, with beard on their chins, seldom fail to make us feel
+that they are stronger; now, if the good man should suddenly
+bethink himself to remind me of his strength he
+would provoke me, and if he submitted to me he would
+make me feel ashamed of my power." For such a woman
+marriage was certainly a difficult problem. Finally, Roland
+de la Platières came within her circle; and although somewhat
+adverse to him at first, after a number of his visits
+she wrote: "I have been much charmed by the solidity of
+his judgment and his cultured and interesting conversation."
+Just such a man appealed to her nature and was
+in harmony with her views. After months of monotonous
+life in the convent to which she had retired, she at last
+consented to become the wife of Roland, not from expectations
+of any fortune, but purely from a sense of devoting
+herself to the happiness of an honorable man, to making his life sweeter.</p>
+
+<p>Roland, scrupulously conscientious, painstaking, and observing,
+had won the position of inspector of manufactures,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>[pg 361]</span>
+which took him away on foreign travels part of the time.
+He had acquired a thorough knowledge of manufacturing
+and the principles of political economy. The first years
+of their life were spent in each other's society exclusively,
+as he was insanely jealous of her; she rarely left his side,
+and they studied the same works, copied and revised his
+manuscripts, and corrected his proofs. In this she was
+indispensable to him. But her activity did not stop with
+literary work; she managed her husband's household, and
+for miles around her home the peasants soon learned to
+know her through her charitable deeds. She was the village
+doctor, often going for miles to attend the poor in distress.
+With her own hands she prepared dainty dishes
+with which to tempt her husband's appetite. Thus, her
+best years were spent upon things for which much less
+ability would have sufficed. She watched with breathless
+interest the installation of Necker and the dismissal
+of Turgot, the convocation of the notables, the struggles for
+financial recovery, and, finally, the calling of a States-General,
+which had not been in session since 1614. During
+the first stormy years, 1789-1790, she wrote burning
+missives to her friend Bosc, at Paris, which appeared
+anonymously in the <i>Patriote Français</i>, edited by Brissot,
+the future Girondist leader. Soon came the commission of
+Roland as the first citizen of the city of Lyons, which had
+a debt of forty million francs, to acquaint the National
+Assembly with its affairs.</p>
+
+<p>When, in 1791, Mme. Roland arrived at Paris&mdash;for she
+accompanied her husband&mdash;she had already become an
+ardent Republican. She immediately threw herself into
+the whirlwind of popular enthusiasm. Her house became
+the centre of an advanced political group, which met
+there four times a week to discuss state questions. There
+Danton, Robespierre, Pétion, Condorcet, Buzot, and others
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>[pg 362]</span>
+were seen. She ably aided her husband in all his work as
+commissioner to the National Assembly. She was indefatigable
+in penning stirring letters and petitions to the
+Jacobin societies in the different departments. A staunch
+friend of Robespierre, she did much to protect him in his
+first efforts in public. On returning home, after her husband
+had completed his mission, she was no longer the
+same quiet, contented, submissive woman; she longed for
+activity in the midst of excitement.</p>
+
+<p>With the meeting of the Legislative Assembly, in 1791,
+the group of men sent up from the Gironde immediately
+became the leaders, and when Mme. Roland returned to
+Paris she became the centre of this circle, exhorting and
+stimulating, advising and ordering. Through her friend
+Brissot, who was all-powerful in the Assembly, about
+February, 1792, as leader of the Girondists, who were
+looking for men not yet practically involved in politics,
+but qualified by experience for political life, her husband
+was made minister of the interior, and in March, 1792, he
+and his wife entered upon their duties. She was a keen
+reader of human nature, at first glance giving her husband
+a penetrating and generally truthful judgment of men.
+Being able to comprehend the temperaments of the ministers,
+she managed them with inimitable tact. Although all
+the Girondist ministers were supposed friends, she readily
+saw how difficult it would be for a small group of men with
+the same principles to act in concert. Seeing the political
+machine in motion at close range, she lost some of her
+enthusiasm for revolutionary leaders; above all, she recognized
+the need of a great leader. As wife of the minister,
+installed in the ministerial residence with no other
+woman present, she gave two dinners weekly to her husband's
+colleagues, to the members of the Assembly, and to political friends.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>[pg 363]</span>
+
+<p>Her husband, the French Quaker of the Revolution, in
+all his simplicity of dress and honesty, was being constantly
+duped by the apparent good nature and sincerity
+of the king, against whom his wife was constantly warning
+him. It was she who, convinced of the king's duplicity
+and the need of a safeguard for the country, originated
+the plan of a federate camp of twenty thousand men to
+protect Paris when war had been declared against Austria.
+It was she who wrote a letter to the king in the name of
+the council, but sent in Roland's own name, imploring him
+not to arouse the mistrust of the nation by constantly betraying
+his suspicion of it, but to show his love by adopting
+measures for the welfare and safety of the country.
+The effect of this letter, which became historical, was the
+fall of the ministers. After their recall, her husband became
+more and more powerful. The political circulars which
+were published by his paper, <i>The Sentinel</i>, were composed
+by her. Then came the horrible massacres and executions
+by the hundreds, which inspired Mme. Roland with
+hatred for Danton, a feeling she communicated to the
+whole Girondist party. She desired above everything to
+see punished the perpetrators of the September massacres.
+In this plan the Girondists failed. Robespierre, Danton, and
+Marat were victorious, and Mme. Roland and her party fell.</p>
+
+<p>When all parties and the whole populace vied with each
+other in welcoming back the victorious General Dumouriez,
+there seemed to be a possibility of a reconciliation between
+Danton and Mme. Roland, for when the general went to
+dine with her he presented her with a bouquet of magnificent
+oleanders. This dinner, on October 14th, auguring
+good fortune to all, was the last success of Mme. Roland.
+She had been pushed to the very front of the Revolution.
+She coöperated in composing and promulgating the
+numerous writings of her husband by which public opinion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>[pg 364]</span>
+was to be instructed. But she retained her implacable
+hatred for Danton, who, when her husband, ready to resign,
+was pressed to remain in office, cried out in the convention:
+"Why not invite Mme. Roland to the ministry,
+too! everyone knows that Roland is not alone in the
+office!" At this period her husband made the fatal mistake
+of appropriating a chest of important state papers and
+examining them himself instead of calling together a commission.
+As is known, the papers turned out to be fatal
+to Louis XVI. Libels and denunciations were pronounced
+against Roland, but his wife, called before the convention,
+not only succeeded in turning aside all accusations, but
+was voted the honors of the sitting.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the trial of the king, the power and influence
+of the Girondists were waning; then the Rolands became
+the butt of many violent and unreasonable outbursts.
+With the resignation of Roland on January 22, 1792, the
+day of the execution of the king, the fate of the Girondists
+was sealed. This time the minister was not asked to reconsider;
+in fact, his exposure of the pilfering then going
+on among the officials made him one of the most unpopular
+men in Paris. Upon their return to private life, Mme.
+Roland was accused of forming the plot to destroy the
+republic. When an armed force arrived one morning at
+half-past five o'clock to arrest her husband, she resisted
+them, herself going to the convention to expose the iniquity
+of such a proceeding. Failing in this, she returned to her
+husband, to find him safe with a friend. Being again arrested,
+she met the ordeal with her accustomed courage;
+and when the officers offered to pull down the blinds of
+the carriage, to shield her from the gaze of the unfriendly
+public, she said: "No, gentlemen! innocence, however
+oppressed, should not assume the attitude of guilt. I fear
+the eyes of no one, and do not wish to escape even those
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>[pg 365]</span>
+of my enemies." "You have much more character than
+many men," they replied; "you can calmly await justice,"
+"Justice!" she cried; "if it existed, I should not be in
+your power! I would go to the scaffold as calmly as if
+sent by iniquitous men. I fear only guilt, and despise injustice and death!"</p>
+
+<p>She has been deeply criticised for her letters written to
+her friend Buzot while she was in prison; yet it should be
+remembered that there was not the slightest chance of
+their meeting again, and, besides, the letters reveal the
+terrible struggle through which she had passed. While
+in prison, her beauty, grace, and fearlessness won and
+humanized nearly all who came under her spell. She was
+once unexpectedly set at liberty, but only to be sentenced
+to the lowest of prisons&mdash;Sainte-Pélagie. There, in the
+space of about one month, her memoirs, now among the
+French classics, were written. At the Conciergerie, where
+the lowest criminals and the filthiest paupers were crowded
+into cells with the highest of the nobility, and where the
+cowardly Mme. du Barry spent her last hours, Mme. Roland,
+by her quiet dignity and patient serenity, commanded
+silence and respect, and calmness and peace replaced angry
+and pitiful wrangling. The prisoners clung to her, crying
+and kissing her hand, while she spoke words of advice and
+consolation to the doomed women, who "looked upon her
+as a beneficent divinity." Her conduct under these circumstances
+alone is sufficient to keep alive her memory.
+In the last days, she clung to and upheld most passionately
+her principles of liberty and moderation, and in her conversation
+with Beugnot it was evident that she had been
+the real inspiration in the Girondist party for all that was
+best and most uplifting.</p>
+
+<p>The charge against her when before the bar of judgment
+of Fouquier-Tinville, the terrible prosecutor, consisted in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>[pg 366]</span>
+her relation to the Girondists who had been condemned to
+death as traitors to the republic. She met her death heroically,
+as became a woman who had lived bravely. At
+the very last moment of her life, she offered consolation
+to fellow victims. Her death was that of the greatest
+heroine of the Revolution, the climax of a life the one
+ambition of which had been to save her country and to
+shed her blood for it. As she rode through the city in her
+pure white raiment, serenely radiant in her own innocence,
+she was the embodiment of all that was highest and
+purest in the Revolution&mdash;one of the best and greatest
+women known to French history. She stands out as a
+representative of the French Republic.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of traits of Mme. Roland which
+should be considered before giving a final estimate of her
+character, of her rôle in French history, and of her right
+to be ranked among the most illustrious women of France.
+Critics in general seem to show her a marked hostility;
+such men as Caro assert that she had no modesty, that
+she lacked sentiment, delicacy, and reserve. M. Saint-Amand
+said that she reflected the vices and virtues of her
+age, summing up the passions and illusions, being intellectually
+and morally the disciple of Rousseau, but socially
+personifying the third estate, which in the beginning asked
+for nothing, but later demanded all. Politics made her
+cruel at times, although by nature she was good and sensible.
+He declared that with her acquaintance with Buzot
+began her career of love and ambition. In love, she believed
+herself a patriot, but all the various phases of her
+public career were simply the results of her emotions.
+Thus, for example, in order to see Buzot, she persuaded
+her husband to return to Paris to seek his fortune and
+make the realization of her dreams possible. She desired
+to play a rôle for which her origin had not destined her,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>[pg 367]</span>
+which made her actions appear theatrical and affected. It
+is evident that she hated both the king and the queen, and
+at the council for the Girondist ministry demanded the
+death of the royal couple. And yet, Saint-Amand cites
+her as the most beautiful of that group of martyrs who
+lost their lives in the first heat of the Revolution&mdash;as the
+genius among them by her force, purity, and grace&mdash;the
+brilliant and austere muse in all the saintliness of martyrdom.</p>
+
+<p>The two maxims which Mme. Roland followed throughout
+her career had much to do with her fall: security is
+the tomb of liberty; indulgence toward men in authority
+is the means of pushing them to despotism. These maxims
+as her motto or impulse, united with the spirit of push,
+energy, and at times rashness and impropriety, naturally
+led her to her ruin in those days of revolutionary ideas.
+She was a woman of powerful passion controlled by reason,
+and with frankness, devotion, courage, and fidelity as
+forces impelling her to activity. But there was one great
+defect which was at the bottom of her misfortunes,&mdash;a too
+great ambition, which often led her into perilous paths,
+even to the scaffold, which, in its turn, covered her errors.</p>
+
+<p>She is said to have married M. Roland more as a theory
+than as a husband, for her ideas of marriage were such as
+to make pure, disinterested love impossible. Her husband
+was in many respects her intellectual superior, but she
+excelled him in versatility. Being her senior by twenty
+years, when he grew old and infirm he depended upon her
+for a great deal, all of which contributed to her restlessness
+and unhappiness. Then there developed in her that
+terrible struggle between loyalty to her husband and passion
+for Buzot, in which reason conquered. This devotion
+to duty was indeed rare in those days, when passion was
+supreme and pure love was almost unknown. Mr. Dobson
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>[pg 368]</span>
+says that this one trait by which she gave real expression
+of virtue is profoundly a product of her mental self. Her
+instinct would have led her to self-abandonment, so
+common in that day, but her "man by the head" self
+was stronger than her "woman by the heart" self. These
+two sides of her character, fostered by incessant reading,
+incited her fearful and unrelenting hatreds as well as her
+passion, "masculine enough to be mistrusted and feminine
+enough to be admired." These two qualities made her a
+power and an attraction. Her better side will continue to
+shine clearer as the horror of those days is revealed.
+Whatever may be the effects of her ambitious nature and
+of her unfortunate passion for Buzot, by the very virtue of
+her intellect and reasoning she will remain the one great
+woman of the Revolution who willingly and conscientiously
+sacrificed her life for her country.</p>
+
+<p>A type perhaps more universally known in her relation
+to the Revolution than is Mme. Roland, though no better
+understood, was Charlotte Corday. Possessed of a most
+intense patriotism and an unusual emotional nature, she
+represented better than any other woman of her age the
+peculiar French trait&mdash;namely, the emotional perfectly
+combined with the mathematical. She was unique; her
+compatriots practised the art of studying themselves, in
+order to be attractive, and thus accomplished their ends,
+while her ambition was not to please merely, but to be of
+some real, practical value to her troubled country. She
+stands out, however, as the product of the end of the
+eighteenth century, a natural result of the reading of
+philosophy and political pamphlets. Quite naturally, she
+entertained such philosophical sentiments as this: "No
+one will lose in losing me, and the country may be better
+off for the sacrifice. Death comes only once, and let us
+use it to the good of the country or the greatest number of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>[pg 369]</span>
+people." Thus, her philosophy led her to a complete
+detachment from her individual self, and fostered the idea
+of dying for her country.</p>
+
+<p>Her decision to rid France of Marat was arrived at by
+degrees of silent brooding over the evils which beset her
+native land; at last she felt herself called to some great
+act which would necessitate the loss of her life. "The
+time brought forth desperation, intense warmth of feeling,
+concentrated upon some purpose or object;" the reasoning
+self seemed to be stifled by the intensity of the emotion.
+Yet, reason was to conquer in her. When the Girondists
+returned to Caen and described Robespierre and Marat in
+the darkest colors, she at once felt moved to put forth all
+her efforts to rid France of that evil blot&mdash;Marat. She
+was beautiful, strong, and graceful, presenting a most
+striking appearance. Loved by all, she felt love and
+devotion only for her country. Desperate and determined,
+she set out to fulfil her mission. She was a mere expression
+of the conservative element which acts only when
+driven by sheer necessity. Her reason impressed her
+with her duty and circumstances; the time acted upon
+her mind. "Easy, calm, resigned, she looked upon the
+angry masses of people who cursed her," confident that
+she had done her country a service, and proud that she
+had been the fortunate one to render it. This was her
+glory, and for this she will be remembered in history.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the rarest phenomenon in the history of the
+illustrious women of France is Mme. Récamier, who, by
+force of her beauty and social fascination, and without intellectual
+gifts or even wit, won for herself the position of
+queen of French society, which she held for nearly half a
+century. The very name of Récamier has come to evoke
+a vision of beauty, a beauty so well known to every lover
+of art who has visited the Luxembourg and gazed upon the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>[pg 370]</span>
+figure "so flexible and elegant, with head well poised,
+brilliant complexion, little rosy mouth with pearly teeth,
+black curling hair, soft expressive eyes, and a bearing indicative
+of indolence and pride, yet with a face beaming
+with good nature and sympathy." Her beauty has been
+considered perfect, but a recent writer has proved this to
+be an error. M.J. Turquan, in a new volume on Mme.
+Récamier, is everything but sympathetic to the woman at
+whom criticism has rarely been pointed. "Quite a contrast
+to her extraordinary beauty of face," he declares,
+"were her hands, with big fingers square at the end and
+having flat nails. The same may be said of her feet,
+which were not only big, but were without the slightest
+trace of <i>finesse</i> in their lines." But though Turquan has
+raised numerous points in her disfavor, they are not at all
+likely to detract from her unrivalled reputation for beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Critics have made of her a sort of enigmatic figure,
+supernatural and having only the form of the human.
+Thus, in Lamartine we find the following description:
+"The young girl was, they say, a <i>sous-entendu</i> of nature:
+she could be a wife, she could not be a mother. These are
+the two mysteries we must respect, but which we must
+know to have been the secret of the entire life of Mme.
+Récamier&mdash;a mournful and eternal enigma which will never
+have its words divined,... All her looks produced an
+intoxication, but brought hope to no heart. The divine
+statue had not descended from its pedestal for anyone,
+as though such a performance would have been too divine
+for a mortal." Her beauty was so marked, so singular,
+that wherever she appeared&mdash;at the ball, the theatre&mdash;it
+caused a sensation; all turned to look at her and admire in
+subdued astonishment. Her form was said to be marvellously
+elegant and supple, her neck of an exquisite perfection,
+her mouth "deliciously small and pink, her teeth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>[pg 371]</span>
+veritable pearls set in coral, her arms splendidly moulded,
+her eyes full of sweetness and admiration, her nose most
+attractive in its regularity, her physiognomy candid and
+spiritual, her air indolent and haughty, and her attitude reserved.
+Before this ensemble, you remained in ecstasy."
+All this beauty was particularly well set off by an exquisite
+white dress adorned with pearls&mdash;a style she affected the year around.</p>
+
+<p>But her beauty alone could hardly have contributed to
+the marvellous success of Mme. Récamier, as some critics
+assert. Guizot, for instance, suspects her nature to have
+been less superficial than other writers might lead one to
+suppose. He said: "This passionate admiration, this constant
+affection, this insatiable taste for society and conversation,
+won her a wide friendship. All who approached
+and knew her&mdash;foreigners and Frenchmen, princes and the
+middle classes, saints and worldlings, philosophers and
+artists, adversaries as well as partisans&mdash;all she inspired
+with the ideas and causes she espoused." Her qualities
+outside of her beauty were tact, generosity, and elevation
+of soul, combined with an amiable grace which was unlimited,
+however superficial it may have been. Knowing
+how to maintain, in her salon, harmony and even cordial
+relations between men of the most varied temperaments
+and political ideas, it was possible for her to remain all her
+life an intelligent and warm-hearted bond between the
+élite minds and their diverse sentiments, which she tactfully
+tempered. Though ever faithful to one cause, she
+admitted men and women of all parties to her salon. She
+was moderate and just in the midst of the most arduous
+struggles, tolerant toward her adversaries, generous toward
+the conquered, sympathetic to all, and remarkably successful
+in conciliating all political, literary, and philosophical
+opinions as well as the passions which she aroused in her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>[pg 372]</span>
+worshippers. To these qualities, as much as to her beauty,
+were due the harmony of her life, the unity of her character&mdash;which
+were never troubled by the turmoils of politics
+or the emotions of love. She was not wife, mother, or
+lover; "she never belonged to anyone in soul or sense."
+Always mistress of her imagination as well as of her heart,
+she permitted herself to be charmed but never carried
+away&mdash;receiving from all, but giving nothing in return.
+Her life was brilliant, but there was lurking in the background
+the demon of sadness and lassitude and the terrible
+disease of the eighteenth century,&mdash;ennui.</p>
+
+<p>Two splendid portraits of Mme. Récamier are left to us:
+one by her passionate but unsuccessful lover, Benjamin
+Constant, picturing her as the personification of attractiveness;
+the other by M. Lenormant, showing that she
+desired constant admiration: "She lacked the affections
+which bring veritable happiness and the true dignity of
+woman. Her barren heart, desirous of tenderness and
+devotion, sought recompense for this need of living, in the
+homage of passionate admiration, the language of which
+pleases the ears." Mme. Récamier, while still a child,
+seemed to realize the power of her beauty, and even
+before her marriage in 1793 she would often say, when
+demanded in marriage: "Mon Dieu! how beautiful I must
+be already!" A mere girl when married, being only sixteen
+years of age, she felt no love for her husband, who
+was her senior by twenty-five years. Soon after the
+terrible times of "the Reign of Terror" she found herself
+one of the most beautiful women in Paris, and her husband
+one of the wealthiest of bankers. The three rival
+women of the times were Mme. Récamier, Mme. Tallien,
+and Josephine. The terrible days of the guillotine were
+succeeded by an uninterrupted reign of pleasure, "when
+a fever of amusement possessed everyone, and the desire
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>[pg 373]</span>
+for distraction of all kinds seemed to have been pushed to
+its limits." M. Turquan states that in the reign of dissolute
+extravagance, immorality, and gorgeous splendor,
+Mme. Récamier formed a striking contrast by her simplicity.
+Her first triumph was at the church Saint-Roche,
+the most fashionable of Paris, where she was selected to
+raise a purse for charity. On one occasion the collection
+amounted to twenty thousand francs, all due to the beauty
+of the woman passing the plate. She was soon invited by
+her friend Barras to all the balls and fêtes under the Directorate.</p>
+
+<p>In 1798 M. Récamier bought the house formerly tenanted
+by Necker, and later established himself in a château at
+Clichy, where he received his friends, among whom was
+Lucien Bonaparte, who attempted the ruin of the beautiful
+hostess, but without success. Napoleon himself attempted
+in vain to win her to his court as maid of honor and as an
+ornament, her refusal incurring his anger, especially as
+she was the height of fashion and courted by all the great
+men of the age. Through her preference for the Royalists&mdash;persisting
+in her line of conduct in spite of her friend
+Fouché&mdash;she finally incurred the enmity of the emperor.
+Even the Princess Caroline endeavored to obtain Mme.
+Récamier's friendship for Napoleon, "but, although the
+princess gave her <i>loge</i> twice to the favorite, and upon each
+occasion the emperor went to the theatre expressly to
+gaze upon her, she remained firm in her refusal, which
+was one of the causes of the downfall of her banker husband,
+whom Napoleon might have saved had his wife been
+the emperor's friend." Napoleon certainly resented her
+refusal, for when requested to save Récamier's bank he
+replied: "I am not in love with Mme. Récamier!" Thus,
+because his wife preferred the aristocracy to the favors of
+Napoleon, the banker lost his fortune.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>[pg 374]</span>
+
+<p>She, however, bore her misfortunes with great reserve,
+immediately selling her jewels and her hôtel; after which
+they both retired to small apartments, where they were
+even more honored and had greater social prestige than
+ever. She at once made her salon the centre of hostility
+against the emperor, who, according to Turquan, did not
+banish her, but her friend Mme. de Staël, with whom she
+passed over into Switzerland. Here began her romance
+with Prince August of Prussia, who became so enamored
+of her that he asked her hand in marriage. Encouraged
+by Mme. de Staël, she even went so far as to ask her husband
+for a divorce, that she might wed the royal aspirant.
+Her husband generously consented to this, but at the same
+time set forth to her the peculiar position which she would
+occupy, an argument that opened her eyes to her ingratitude,
+and she refused the prince.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the fall of Napoleon, Mme. Récamier returned to
+Paris and, her husband's fortune being restored, gathered
+about her all the great nobles of the ancient régime. But
+fortune was unkind to her husband for the second time,
+and she withdrew to the Abbaye-au-Bois, where she occupied
+a small apartment on the third floor. Here her distinguished
+friends followed her&mdash;such as Chateaubriand
+and the Duc de Montmorency. Between her and the
+famous author of <i>Le Génie du Christianisme</i> there sprang
+up a friendship which lasted thirty years. During this
+time it is said that he visited her at a certain hour each
+day, the people in the neighborhood setting their clocks
+by his appearance. When he was absent on missions, he
+wrote her of every act of his life. Both, weary of the
+dissipations of society and its flatteries, sought a pure and
+lofty friendship, spiritual and affectionate, with no improper
+intimacy. There was mutual admiration and mutual respect.
+Even Chateaubriand's wife, who was an invalid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>[pg 375]</span>
+and with whom he spent every evening, encouraged his
+friendship with Mme. Récamier. When, through the fall
+of Charles X., Chateaubriand lost his power, the friendship
+did not cease. M. Turquan insists that he did not
+really care seriously for Mme. Récamier, that his visits
+were the outgrowth of mere habit. But it is to be seen
+that throughout his book Turquan has little sympathy
+for his subject, whom he pictures as a beautiful, heartless,
+intriguing woman with immense hands, flat, square fingers, and large feet.</p>
+
+<p>The influence possessed by Mme. Récamier was most
+remarkable; for with the new statesmen, Thiers, Guizot,
+Mignet, De Tocqueville, Sainte-Beuve, as well as the nobles
+and princes, she was on most cordial terms, and was received
+in any salon which she chose to visit. Her unbounded
+sympathy, tact, and common sense made her
+friendship and counsel much in demand by great men.
+One trait, however, her exclusiveness, caused much discomfort
+in her life, such as bringing upon her the ill will of Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>In her later years her physical beauty gradually developed
+into a moral beauty. She was never a passionate
+woman, but rather passively affectionate; purely unselfish,
+her one desire always was to make people love her and to
+be happy. Her friendship with Chateaubriand in the later
+days was possibly the most ideal and noble in the history
+of French women. He never failed to make his appearance
+in the afternoon at the <i>abbaye</i>, driven in a carriage to
+her threshold, where he was placed in an armchair and
+wheeled to a corner by her fireplace. On one of those
+visits, he asked her to marry him&mdash;he being seventy-nine,
+she seventy-one&mdash;and bear his illustrious name. "Why
+should we marry at our age?" Mme. Récamier replied.
+"There is no impropriety in my taking care of you. If
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>[pg 376]</span>
+solitude is painful to you, I am ready to live in the same
+house with you. The world will do justice to the purity
+of our friendship. Years and blindness give me this right.
+Let us change nothing in so perfect an affection." Her
+charm never deserted her, and she continued to the very
+last to receive the greatest men and women of the day.
+Still the reigning beauty and the queen of French society,
+she died at the age of seventy-two, of cholera.</p>
+
+<p>There is a wide difference between Mme. Récamier and
+Josephine, the two women of the Napoleonic era who exerted
+so powerful an influence upon the social and political
+fortunes of France. At the time of Napoleon's first success,
+the former was only twenty-one, with Madonna-like
+charms and attractiveness; the latter, thirty-five, but with
+exquisite taste in dress and skill in beautifying. Possessed
+of unstudied natural grace and elegance, and always attired
+in perfect harmony with her beauty of face and form, she
+could easily stand a comparison with the other beauties of
+the day, all of whom studied her air and manner and
+marked the aristocratic ease and poise of her real <i>noblesse</i>
+of the old régime.</p>
+
+<p>"Josephine had a faded and brown complexion, which
+she remedied with rouge and powder; her small mouth
+concealed her bad teeth; her elegant figure and graceful
+movements, refined expression, gentle voice and dignity,
+all dexterously expressed with an air of coquetry, made
+her delightful." The happiest part of the life of Napoleon
+and Josephine was during their stay in Italy, when he
+was absolutely faithful to her. As soon as Napoleon left
+for Egypt, Talleyrand secured the erasure of many noble
+names from the list of the proscribed exiles and soon gathered
+about him a large number of Royalists, who immediately
+began to pay court to Josephine. Napoleon had
+enjoined her to keep her salon according to the means he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>[pg 377]</span>
+provided and to entertain all influential people. To this
+she was equal; and all men of elevated rank, the most
+distinguished artists, men of letters, orators, and musicians,
+found her salon an enjoyable retreat. No greater
+galaxy of talent and genius ever assembled under the old
+régime than was found there,&mdash;David, Lebrun, Lesueur,
+Grétry, Cherubini, Méhul, J. Chénier, Hoffman, Ducis,
+Désaugiers, Legouvé, and others.</p>
+
+<p>But her life was not without its difficulties. She was
+always annoyed by the Bonaparte family, who were jealous
+of her influence over Bonaparte. Exceedingly extravagant,
+in fact a spendthrift, she was always in need of
+money. Her virtues, however, easily offset these defects.
+Josephine never offended anyone, never argued politics;
+she made friends in all classes, thus conciliating Republicans
+and aristocrats; therefore, her greatest influence was
+as a mediator between two classes of society, by which
+she, more than any other woman, unconsciously contributed
+to the forming of a new social France. Napoleon
+was wise enough to recognize such diplomacy, and encouraged
+her to intrigue like an experienced diplomat.
+She was the most efficient aid and means to his future
+plans, and M. Saint-Amand says that without her he would
+possibly never have become emperor. When he returned
+from Egypt and found her away,&mdash;she had gone to meet
+him, but missed him,&mdash;his suspicions were aroused as to
+her fidelity, as she had been accused of many misdeeds.
+When the reconciliation finally took place, after a day of
+sobbing and pleading, she put to work all her tact and
+knowledge of Parisian society to help her husband to the <i>coup d'état</i>.</p>
+
+<p>She was always of great service to Napoleon in his
+relations with the men of whom he wished to make use;
+fascinating them and drawing them over to him, she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>[pg 378]</span>
+charmed such persons as Barras, Gohier, Fouché, Moreau,
+Talleyrand, Sièyes, and others. By her skill she kept
+hidden Napoleon's plans until all was ripe for them. She
+was in the secret of the 18th Brumaire; "nothing was
+concealed from her. In every conference at which she
+was present, her discretion, gentleness, grace, and the
+ready ingenuity of her delicate and cool intelligence were
+of great service." During the Directorate she allayed
+jealousies and appeased the differences between Republicans
+and Royalists. As wife of the First Consul, she conciliated
+the <i>émigrés</i>. At that time she was probably the
+most important figure in France. The <i>émigrés</i> would call
+at her salon in the morning so as to avoid meeting her
+husband, with whom they refused to associate. Her task
+was not easy, but she knew so well how to say a kind
+word to all, and her tact was so great that when she became
+empress the duties and requirements of that office
+were natural to her. She won the Republicans by her
+friendship with Fouché, the representative of the revolutionary
+element&mdash;the aristocracy, by her dignity and
+refinement. Her whole appearance had a peculiar charm.</p>
+
+<p>In 1803 the conditions began to be reversed. In 1796
+Josephine had worried Napoleon on account of her inconstancy;
+she was then young and beautiful, while he was
+penniless and ailing. In 1803 he was thirty-four and she
+forty&mdash;he in his prime, wealthy and popular, she faded
+and powerless, no longer able to give cause for suspicion.
+However, nothing could make Napoleon reject her, because
+she was useful to him. "Her kindness was a weapon
+against her enemies, a charm for her friends, and the
+source of her power over her husband." "I gained battles,
+Josephine gained me hearts," are the well-known
+words of Napoleon. As empress she had every wish
+gratified, but she realized that a woman of her age could
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>[pg 379]</span>
+not continue indefinitely her fascination over a man as
+capricious as Napoleon. In the brilliant court of Fontainebleau
+she held the highest place, and no one could suspect
+the anxieties that tormented her, so cool and happy did she appear.</p>
+
+<p>Josephine did many things that later on gradually helped
+reconcile Napoleon to a divorce: her pride, her aristocratic
+tendencies, extravagance and lavishness; her objection to
+the marriage of Hortense to General Duroc on the grounds
+of humble birth; her religious tendencies; her difficulty in
+keeping secrets, which led to highly tragic scenes between
+her and Bonaparte; the encouragement she gave to the
+jealousies and hatred of her brothers and sisters-in-law,
+who maliciously slandered her at every opportunity; and finally, her barrenness.</p>
+
+<p>Her career after her divorce was honorable, and to-day
+Josephine is still held in the highest esteem in France and
+in the world at large. Her greatness is not in having been
+the wife of a great emperor, but in knowing how to adapt
+herself to the conditions in France into which she was
+suddenly thrust. As a conciliator and a mediator between
+two almost hopelessly irreconcilable classes of society, she
+deserves a prominent place among great French women.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>[pg 381]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>Chapter XIV</h2>
+
+<h2>Women of the Nineteenth Century</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>[pg 383]</span>
+
+
+<p>Among the unusually large number of prominent French
+women which the nineteenth century produced, possibly
+not more than a half-dozen names will survive,&mdash;Mme.
+de Staël, George Sand, Rosa Bonheur, Sarah Bernhardt,
+Mme. Lebrun, and Rachel. This circumstance is, possibly,
+largely due to the character of the century: its activity,
+its varied accomplishments, its wide progress along so
+many lines, its social development, its absolute freedom
+and tolerance&mdash;all of which tended to open a field for
+women more extensive than in any preceding century.</p>
+
+<p>The salon, in its old-time glory, became a thing of the
+past; and the passing of this institution lessened, to a large
+extent, the possibility of great influence on the part of
+women. In short, the mode of life became, in the nineteenth
+century, unfavorable to the absolute power exercised
+by woman in former times. She was now on a level
+with man, enjoying more privileges and being looked upon
+more as the equal and possible rival of man. It became
+necessary for woman to make and establish her own position,
+whereas, under the old régime, her power and position
+were established by custom, which regarded her vocation
+as entirely distinct from that of man. The result was a
+host of prominent and active women, but few really great
+ones. Undoubtedly by far the most important and influential
+was Madame de Staël, but her influence and work
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>[pg 384]</span>
+are so intimately associated with her life that any account
+of her which aims at giving a true estimate of her significance
+must necessarily involve much biography.</p>
+
+<p>Her mother, the Mme. Necker of salon fame, endeavored
+to bring up her daughter as the <i>chef d'&oelig;uvre</i> of natural
+art,&mdash;pious, modest in her conversation, dignified in her
+behavior, without pride or frivolity, but with wide knowledge.
+In this ambition she partly succeeded. At the age
+of eleven the young girl was present at receptions, where
+she listened to discussions by such men as Grimm, Buffon,
+Suard, and others. Her parents took her to the theatre,
+and she would subsequently compose short stories on
+what she had heard and seen. Rousseau became her
+ideal, but she enjoyed all literature, showing an insatiable
+desire for knowledge. From her early youth to her death,
+her conversation was ever the result of her own impulse;
+consequently, it was uncontrolled and lacked the seriousness
+imparted by deep reflection.</p>
+
+<p>Interested in all things except Nature, which seemed
+mournful to her, while solitude horrified her, society was
+her delight. At the age of twenty she wrote: "A woman
+must have nothing to herself and must find all power in
+that which she loves." Her masculine ideal was a man of
+society, of success, a hero of the Academy, a superior
+genius, animated more by the desire to please than to be
+useful. During these early years she wrote a great deal,
+her work being mostly in the form of sentimental utterances,
+but very little has survived her.</p>
+
+<p>When she reached marriageable age, many ambitions of
+her parents were frustrated by her independent will. Pitt,
+Mirabeau, Bonaparte, were considered, but destiny had in
+store for her a Swedish ambassador, Staël-Holstein, a man
+of good family, but with little money and plenty of debts,
+who had been looking out for a comfortable dowry. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>[pg 385]</span>
+1786, at the time when Marie Antoinette was at the height
+of her popularity, this girl of twenty years was married to
+a man seventeen years her senior, who had no affection
+for her and whom she could not love.</p>
+
+<p>At Paris she immediately opened a salon, which soon
+eclipsed, both in beauty and wit, that of her mother; there
+her eloquence, enthusiasm, and conversational gifts captivated
+all, but her imprudent language, the recklessness
+of her conduct, her scorn of all etiquette, her outspoken
+preferences, frightened away women and stunned men.
+Her sympathy for her friends, Talleyrand, Narbonne, De
+Montmorency, together with the approaching Revolution,
+drew her into politics. When her father was called by the
+nation to the control of its finances, his daughter shared his glories.</p>
+
+<p>Her salon was the centre of the élite and of all literary
+and political discussions; but as the majority of its frequenters
+were partisans of the English constitution and
+expressed their views openly and freely, her enemies
+became numerous. When Narbonne was made minister
+of war, a great triumph for her and her party, the eloquence
+of his reports was attributed to her, and when he
+fell into disgrace she rescued him. However, the atmosphere
+of Paris was too unfriendly, so she left in 1792 for
+her home at Coppet, which became an asylum for all the
+proscribed. When she visited England, she began a thorough
+study of its mode of life, its customs, and its parliamentary
+institutions. Upon her return to Coppet she
+wrote <i>Réflexions sur le Procès de la Reine</i>, to excite the
+commiseration of the judges. After the death of her
+mother in 1794, she devoted her energies to the education of her two boys.</p>
+
+<p>After the violence of her love for Benjamin Constant,
+who drew her back to politics, was somewhat cooled, she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>[pg 386]</span>
+became an ardent Republican, writing her treatise <i>Réflexions
+sur la Paix adressées a M. Pitt et aux Anglais</i>, which
+facilitated her return in 1795 to Paris, where she found
+her husband reinstalled as ambassador. Her hôtel in the
+Rue de Bac was reopened, and she proceeded to form a
+salon from the débris of society floating about in Paris. It
+was an assembly of queer characters&mdash;elements of the old
+and new régime, but not at all reconciled, converts of the
+Jacobin party returning for the first time into society,
+surrounded by the women of the old régime, using all
+imaginable efforts and flattery to obtain the <i>rentrée</i> of a
+brother, a son, or a lover; it was composed of the most
+moderate Revolutionists, of former Constitutionalists, of
+exiles of the Monarchy, whom she endeavored to bring
+over to the Republican cause.</p>
+
+<p>Through the influence of Mme. de Staël, the decree of
+banishment was repealed by the convention, thus opening
+Paris to Talleyrand. In 1795 appeared her <i>Réflexions sur
+la Paix Intérieure</i>; the aim of that work being to organize
+the French Republic on the plan of the United States; it
+strongly opposed the restoration of the Monarchy. The
+Comité du Salut Publique accused her of double play, of
+favoring intrigues, and, seeing the plots of the Royalists,
+she adopted a new plan in her salon; politics being too
+dangerous, she decided to devote herself more to literature.
+In her book <i>Les Passions</i> she endeavored to crush her
+calumniators; she wrote: "Condemned to celebrity, without
+being able to be known I find need of making myself known by my writings."</p>
+
+<p>It was not safe for her to return to Paris until 1797, when
+her friend Talleyrand was made minister of foreign affairs.
+Her efforts to charm Napoleon led only to estrangement,
+although he appointed her friend Benjamin Constant to
+the tribunate; but when he publicly announced the advent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>[pg 387]</span>
+of the tyrant Napoleon, she was accused of inciting her
+friends against the government, and was again banished
+to Coppet, where she wrote the celebrated work <i>De la
+Littérature Considérée sous ses Rapports avec les Institutions
+Sociales</i>, a singular mixture of satirical allusions to Napoleon's
+government and cabals against his power; in that
+work she announced, also, her belief in the regeneration
+of French literature by the influence of foreign literature,
+and endeavored to show the relations which exist between
+political institutions and literature. Thus, she was the
+first to bring the message of a general cosmopolitan relationship
+of literatures and literary ideas.</p>
+
+<p>In 1802 she returned to Paris and began to show, on
+every possible occasion, a morbid hatred for Napoleon.
+When her father published his work <i>Dernières Vues de
+Politique et de Finance</i>, expressing a desire to write against
+the tyranny of one, after having fought so long that of the
+multitude, the emperor immediately accused Mme. de Staël
+of instilling these ideas into her father. Her salon and
+forty of her friends were put into the interdict.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of her husband in 1802, she was free to
+marry Benjamin Constant; and after refusing him, she
+wrote her novel <i>Delphine</i> to give vent to her feelings.
+The two famous lines found in almost every work on
+Mme. de Staël may be quoted here, as they well express
+her ideas on marriage: "A man must know how to brave
+an opinion, and a woman must submit to it." This qualification
+Benjamin Constant lacked, and at that time she
+was unable to give the submission.</p>
+
+<p>Her travels in Germany, Russia, and Italy were one
+great succession of triumphs; by her brilliancy, her wonderful
+gift of conversation, and her quickness of comprehension,
+she everywhere baffled and astounded those with
+whom she conversed. Schiller declared that when she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>[pg 388]</span>
+left he felt as though he were just convalescing after a long
+spell of illness. One day she abruptly asked the staid old
+philosopher Fichte: "M. Fichte, can you give me, in a
+short time, an <i>aperçu</i> of your system of philosophy, and
+tell me what you mean by your ego? I find it very obscure."
+He began by translating his thoughts into French,
+very deliberately. After talking for some ten minutes, in
+the midst of a deep argument she interrupted him, crying
+out: "Enough, M. Fichte, quite enough! I understand you
+perfectly; I have seen your system in illustration&mdash;it is an
+adventure of Baron Münchhausen." The philosopher assumed
+a tragic attitude, and a spell of silence fell upon the audience.</p>
+
+<p>The result of her visit to Italy was her novel <i>Corinne</i>,
+in which the problems of the destiny of women of genius&mdash;the
+relative joys of love and glory&mdash;are discussed. This
+work remained for a whole generation the standard of
+love and ideals, and at the same time revealed Italy to the
+French, After a second visit to Germany, she began to
+labor seriously on her work on that country, in 1810 going
+<i>incognito</i> to Paris to have it printed. Ten thousand copies,
+ready for sale, were destroyed before reaching the public.
+This work opened the German world to the French; it
+applied, to a great nation, the doctrine of progress, defending
+the independence and originality of nations, while
+endeavoring to show that the future lay in the reciprocal
+respect of the rights of people, declaring that nations are
+not at all the arbitrary work of men or the fatal work of
+circumstances, and that the submission of one people to
+another is contrary to nature. She wished to make "poor
+and noble Germany" conscious of its intellectual riches,
+and to prove that Europe could obtain peace only through
+the liberation of that country. The censors accused
+her of lack of patriotism in provoking the Germans to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>[pg 389]</span>
+independence, and of questionable taste in praising their
+literature; consequently, the book was denounced, all the
+copies obtainable were destroyed, and a vigorous search
+for the manuscript was undertaken. After this episode,
+her friends were not permitted to visit her at Coppet.</p>
+
+<p>In 1811 she was secretly married to a young Italian officer,
+Albert de Rocca, a handsome man of twenty-three&mdash;she
+was then forty-five. In him she realized the conditions
+which she described in <i>Delphine</i>, namely, a man who
+braved an opinion and prejudices; and she was ready to
+submit herself to him, Coppet became the centre for
+endless pleasures and fêtes; Mme. de Staël began to write
+comedies and to forget Paris entirely. This blissful happiness
+was suddenly checked by the emperor, who determined
+to show his displeasure and also to give evidence of
+his power by banishing Schlegel and exiling Mme. Récamier
+and De Montmorency, who continued to visit Mme.
+de Staël. Fear for the safety of her husband and children
+influenced her to leave for Russia, where the czar ordered
+all Russians to honor her as the enemy of Napoleon. Indeed,
+she was everywhere received like a visiting queen.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1816 she returned to Paris, and spent
+a number of months very happily in her old style&mdash;in the
+society of the salon. Though devoured by insomnia,
+enervated by the use of opium, and besieged by fear of
+death, she accepted all invitations, and kept open house
+herself, receiving in the morning, at dinner, and in the
+evening; and though at night she paced the floor for hours
+or tossed about on her bed until morning, she was yet
+fresh for all the pleasures of the next day. But this mode
+of existence was undermining her health.</p>
+
+<p>She endured this constant strain until one evening in
+February, 1817, when, at a ball at the Duke of Decazes's,
+in the midst of her pleasure, she was stricken with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>[pg 390]</span>
+paralysis. At the Rue des Mathurins, she had all her friends
+come and dine with her. Chateaubriand, who was one of
+the party, entered her room upon one occasion and found
+her suffering intensely, but able to raise herself and say:
+"Bonjour, my dear Francis! I am suffering, but that does
+not hinder me from loving you." She lingered until July,
+when there ended a life which not only influenced but
+even modified politics and the institutions of nations,
+which exercised, by writings, an incalculable influence upon
+French literature, opening paths which previously had not been trod.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of her works is <i>De l'Allemagne</i>, in
+writing which her only desire was to make Germany
+known to the French, to explain it by comparison with
+France and to make her people admire it, and to open new
+paths to poetry. According to her, Germany possessed
+no classic prose, because the Germans attributed less importance
+to style than did the French. German poetry,
+however, had a distinct charm, being all sentiment and
+poetry of the soul, touching and penetrating; whereas
+French poetry was all <i>esprit</i>, eloquence, reason, raillery.</p>
+
+<p>In her treatise on the drama, she was the first in French
+literature to use the term "romantic" and to define it;
+but she had not invented the word, Wieland having used
+it to designate the country in which the ancient Roman
+literature flourished. Her definition was: "The classic
+word is sometimes taken as a synonym of perfection. I
+use it in another acceptance by considering classic poetry
+that of the ancients and romantic poetry that which
+holds in some way to the chivalresque traditions. The
+literature of the ancients is a transplanted literature with
+us; but romantic or chivalresque literature is indigenous.
+An imitation of works coming from a political, social, and
+religious midst different from ours means a literature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>[pg 391]</span>
+which is no longer in relation with us, which has never
+been popular, and which will become less so every day.
+On the contrary, the romantic literature is the only one
+which is susceptible of being perfected, because it bears
+its roots from our soil and is, consequently, the only one
+which can be revived and increased. It expresses our
+religion and recalls our history." This opinion alone
+was enough to create a revolt among her contemporaries.
+Almost all other interpretations of <i>Faust</i> were based on her conception.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of its publication, her book was considered
+to have been written in a political spirit, but her motive
+was far from that; it was the action of a generous heart, a
+book as true and loyal to the French as was ever a book
+written by a Frenchman. In her work <i>Considérations sur
+la Révolution Française</i> she expressed the most advanced
+ideas on politics and government. The Revolution freed
+France and made it prosper; "every absolute monarch
+enslaves his country, and freedom reigns not in politics
+nor in the arts and sciences. Local and provincial liberties
+have formed nations, but royalty has deformed the
+nation by turning it to profit." Mme. de Staël found
+nothing to admire in Louis XIV., and to Richelieu she
+attributed the destruction of the originality of the French
+character, of its loyalty, candor, and independence. In
+that work she advocated education, which she considered
+a duty of the government to the people. "Schools must
+be established for the education of the poor, universities
+for the study of all languages, literatures, and sciences;"
+these ideas took root after her death.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Staël was a finished writer; because of its
+force, openness, and seriousness, her style might be
+termed a masculine one; she wrote to persuade and, as a
+rule, succeeded. Her grave defect seemed to be in her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>[pg 392]</span>
+inspirations, which were always superior to her ideas, and
+in her sentiments, which she invariably turned to passions.</p>
+
+<p>Few French writers have exercised such a great influence
+in so many directions, and it became specially marked
+after her death; while living, the gossip against her salon
+prevented her opinions from being accepted or taking root.
+Her political influence was great at her time and lasted
+some twenty years. Directly influenced by her were
+Narbonne, De Montmorency, Benjamin Constant, and the
+Duc Victor de Broglie, her son-in-law. By her and her
+father, the Globe, the orators of the Academy and the
+tribune, and the politicians of the day, were inspired.
+The greatest was Guizot, who interpreted and preached in
+the spirit of Mme. de Staël. In history her influence was
+equally felt, especially in Guizot's <i>Essays on the History of
+France</i>, and in his <i>History of Civilization</i>, wherein civilization
+was considered as the constant progress in justice, in
+society, and in the state. To her Guizot owed his idea of
+<i>Amour dans le Mariage</i>. <i>The Historical Essays on England</i>,
+by Rémusat, an ardent admirer of hers, was largely influenced
+by her <i>Considérations</i>, while Tocqueville's <i>Ancien
+Régime</i> contains many of her ideas.</p>
+
+<p>Literature owes even more to her works, which encouraged
+the study of foreign literatures; almost all translations
+were due to her works. Michelet, Quinet, Nodier, Victor
+Hugo, so much influenced by German literature, owe their
+knowledge of it mainly to her. Too much credit may be
+given her when it is stated that all Mignons, Marguerites,
+Mephistopheles, etc., proceeded indirectly from her work,
+as well as nearly all descriptions of travels. Lamartine
+undoubtedly used her <i>De l'Allemagne</i> and her <i>Des Passions</i>
+freely. The heroine of <i>Jocelyn</i> is called but a daughter of
+<i>Delphine</i>, and the same author's terrible invective against
+Napoleon was inspired by her.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>[pg 393]</span>
+
+<p>Mme. de Staël had an indestructible faith in human
+reason, liberty, and justice; she believed in human perfection
+and in the hope of progress. "From Rousseau, she
+received that passionate tenderness, that confidence in the
+inherent goodness of man. Believing in an intimate communion
+of man with God, her religion was spirit and sentiment
+which had no need of pomp or symbols, of an
+intermediary between God and man." She was not so
+much a great writer as she was a great thinker, or rather
+a discoverer of new thoughts. By instituting a new criticism
+and by opening new literatures to the French, she
+succeeded in emancipating art from fixed rules and in
+facilitating the sudden growth of romanticism in France.</p>
+
+<p>In her life, her great desire was to spread happiness and
+to obtain it, to love and to be loved in return. In politics
+it was always the sentiment of justice which appealed to
+her, in literature it was the ideal. Sincerity was manifested
+in everything she said and did. Pity for the misery
+of her fellow beings, the sentiment of the dignity of man and
+his right to independence, of his future grandeur founded
+on his moral elevation, the cult of justice, and the love of
+liberty&mdash;such were the prevailing thoughts of her life and works.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Staël's chief influence will always remain in
+the domain of literature; she was the first French writer
+to introduce and exercise a European or cosmopolitan influence
+by uniting the literatures of the north and the south
+and clearly defining the distinction between them. By
+the expression of her idea that French literature had decayed
+on account of the exclusive social spirit, and that
+its only means of regeneration lay in the study and absorption
+of new models, she cut French taste loose from
+traditions and freed literature from superannuated conventionalities.
+Also, by her idea that a common civilization
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>[pg 394]</span>
+must be fostered, a union of the eastern and western
+ideals, and that literature must be the common expression
+thereof, whose object must be the amelioration of humanity,
+morally and religiously, she gave to the world at large
+ideas which are only now being fully appreciated and
+nearing realization. In her novels she vigorously protested
+against the lot of woman in modern society, against
+her obligation to submit everything to opinion, against the
+innumerable obstacles in the way of her development&mdash;thus
+heralding George Sand and the general movement
+toward woman's emancipation. France has never had a
+more forceful, energetic, influential, cosmopolitan, and at
+the same time moral, writer than Mme. de Staël.</p>
+
+<p>The events in the life of George Sand had comparatively
+little influence upon her works, which were mainly the expression
+of her nature. As a young girl, she was strongly
+influenced by her mother, an amiable but rather frivolous
+woman, and by her grandmother, a serious, cold, ceremonious
+old lady. Calm and well balanced, and possessing
+an ardent imagination, she followed her own inclinations
+when, as a girl of sixteen, she was married to a man for
+whom she had no love. After living an indifferent sort of
+life with her husband for ten years, they separated; and
+she, with her children, went to Paris to find work.</p>
+
+<p>After a number of unsuccessful efforts of a literary nature,
+she wrote <i>Indiana</i>, which immediately made her
+success. Her articles were sought by the journals, and
+from about 1830 her life was that of the average artist
+and writer of the time. Her relations with Chopin and
+Alfred de Musset are too well known to require repetition.
+After 1850 she retired to her home, the Château
+de Nohant, where she enjoyed the companionship of her
+son, her daughter-in-law, and her grandchildren; she died there in 1876.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>[pg 395]</span>
+
+<p>To appreciate her works, it is more important to study
+her nature than her career. This has been admirably
+done by the Comte d'Haussonville. George Sand is said
+to have possessed a dual nature, which seemed to contradict
+itself, but which explains her works&mdash;a dreamy and
+meditative, and a lively, frolicsome nature; the first might
+throw light upon her religious crisis, the second, upon her
+social side. The combination of these two phases caused
+the numerous conflicts of opinions and doctrines, extending
+her knowledge and inciting her curiosity; the not
+infrequent result was an intellectual and moral bewilderment
+and the deepest melancholy, from which she with
+great difficulty freed herself. Because of these peculiarities
+she was constantly agitated, her strongly reflective
+nature keeping her awake to all important questions of the day.</p>
+
+<p>Her intellectual development may be traced in her works,
+which, from 1830 to 1840, were personal, lyrical, spontaneous&mdash;a
+direct flow from inspiration, issuing from a common
+source of emotions and personal sorrows, being the
+expressions of her habitual reflections, of her moral agitations,
+of her real and imaginary sufferings. These first
+works were a protest against the tyranny of marriage,
+and expressed her conception of a woman in love&mdash;a love
+profound and naïve, exalted and sincere, passionate and
+chaste: such is pictured in <i>Indiana</i>. In <i>Valentine</i> she
+portrays the impious and unfortunate marriage that the
+sacrilegious conventions of the world have imposed, and
+the results issuing therefrom. In all of these early works
+are seen an inventiveness, a lively <i>allure</i>, an exquisite
+style, a freshness and brilliancy, <i>finesse</i> and grace; but
+they show an undisciplined talent, giving vent to feelings
+that her unbounded enthusiasm would not allow to be
+checked&mdash;there is emotion, but no system.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>[pg 396]</span>
+
+<p>In her second period, from about 1840 to 1848, her reflection
+and emotion combined produced a system and
+theories. The higher problems took stronger hold on her
+as she matured; philosophy and religious science in their
+deeper phases excited her emotive faculties, which threw
+out a mere echo of what she had heard and studied. Her
+inspiration thus came from without, throwing out those
+endless declamatory outbursts which we meet in <i>Consuelo</i>
+and in <i>Comtesse de Rudolstadt</i>. These theory-novels
+were soon followed by novels dealing with social problems,
+now and then relieved by delightful idyllics such
+as <i>La Mare au Diable</i> and <i>François le Champi</i>. This
+third tendency M. d'Haussonville considers the least successful.</p>
+
+<p>After 1850 there appeared from her pen a series of historical
+novels, especially fine in the portrayal of characters,
+variety of situations, movement, and intrigues; these are
+free from all social theories; in these, reverting to her first
+tendencies, she is at her best in elegance and clearness, in
+analysis of characters. Thus does the work of George
+Sand change from a personal lyricism, in which the emotions,
+held in check during a solitary and dreamy youth,
+burst forth in brilliant and passionate fiction, to a theoretical,
+systematic novel, finally reverting to the first efforts,
+but tempered by experience and age.</p>
+
+<p>M. d'Haussonville says that in the strict sense of the
+word George Sand had no doctrines, but possessed a powerful
+imagination that manifested itself at various periods
+of her life. Whatever the principles might have been at
+first, they were made concrete under a sentiment with
+her, for her heart was her first inspiration, her teacher in
+all things. The ideas are thus analyzed through her sentiments
+under a threefold inspiration,&mdash;love, passion for
+humanity, sentiment for Nature.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>[pg 397]</span>
+
+<p>According to other novels, love is the unique affair of
+life; without love we do not really live, before love enters
+life we do not live, and after we cease to love there is
+no object in life. This love comes directly from God, of
+whom George Sand had ideas peculiar to herself. The
+majority of her characters have a sort of mystic, exalted
+love, looking upon it as a sacred right, making of themselves
+great priests rather than genuine human lovers.
+This love, issuing from God, is sacred; therefore, the
+yielding to it is a pious act; he who resists commits sacrilege,
+while he who blames others for it is impious; for
+love legitimizes itself by itself. Such a theory naturally
+led her to a sensual ideality, and her heroes rose to the
+highest phase of fatalism and voluptuousness; this impelled
+her to protest against the social laws. Jacques says:</p>
+
+<p>"I do not doubt at all that marriage will be abolished if
+humankind makes any progress toward justice and reason;
+a bond more human and none the less sacred will replace
+this one and will take care of the children which may
+issue from a man and woman, without ever interfering
+with the liberty of either. But men are too coarse and
+women are too cowardly to ask for a law more noble than
+the iron law which binds them&mdash;beings without conscience&mdash;and
+virtue must be burdened with heavy chains."</p>
+
+<p>Yet, in none of her books did George Sand ever submit
+any theories as to how such children would be cared for;
+apparently, such a difficulty never troubled her, since
+almost all of the children of her books die of some disease,
+while to one&mdash;Jacques&mdash;she gives the advice to take his
+own life, so that his wife may be free to love elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Her social theories are marked by an exaltation of sentiment,
+a weakness, an incoherency in conception, caused
+by her ardent love for theories and ideas, but which, in
+her passionate sentiment and her loyal enthusiasm, she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>[pg 398]</span>
+always confounds and confuses. From early youth she
+manifested an immense goodness, a profound tenderness,
+and a deep compassion for human misery. She rarely
+became angry, even though she suffered cruelly. Her
+own law of life and her message to the world was&mdash;be
+good. The only strong element within her, she said, was
+the need of loving, which manifested itself under the form
+of tenderness and emotion, devotion and religious ecstasy;
+and when this faith was shaken, doubt and social disturbances overwhelmed her.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout life her consolation was Nature. "It was
+half of her genius and the surest of her inspirations." No
+other French novelist has been able to "express in words
+the lights and shades, harmonies and contrasts, the magic
+of sounds, the symphonies of color, the depth and distances
+of the woods, the infinite movement of the sea and
+the sky&mdash;the interior soul of Nature, that vibrates in everything
+and everybody." With Lamartine and Michelet, she
+has best reflected and expressed the dreams and hopes and
+loves of the first half of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>George Sand saw Nature, lived in her, sympathized with
+her, and loved her as did few other French writers; therefore,
+she showed more memory than pure imagination in
+her work, for she always found Nature more beautiful
+in actuality than she could picture her mentally, while
+other great writers, like Lamartine, saw her less beautiful
+in reality than in their imagination; hence, they were disappointed
+in Nature, while for George Sand she was the
+truest friend. The world will always be interested in her
+descriptions of Nature, because with Nature she always
+associated something of human life&mdash;a thought or a sentiment;
+her landscapes belonged to her characters&mdash;there is
+always a soul living in them, for, to George Sand, man
+and Nature were inseparable.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>[pg 399]</span>
+
+<p>Thus, every novel of this authoress consists of a situation
+and a landscape, the poetic union of which nothing
+can mar. "Man associated with Nature and Nature with
+man is a great law of art; no painter has practised it
+with instinct more delicate or sure." Because Nature, in
+her early youth, was her inspiration, guide, even her God,
+she returned to her later in life. M. Jules Lemaître wrote
+that her works will remain eternally beautiful, because
+they teach us how to love Nature as divine and good, and
+to find in that love peace and solace. There are many
+parts of her work which show as detailed, accurate, and
+realistic descriptions as those by Balzac. She constantly
+employed two elements&mdash;the fanciful and the realistic.</p>
+
+<p>George Sand never studied or knew how to compose a
+work, how to preserve the unity of the subject or the
+unity in tone in characters; hence, there was nothing
+calculated or premeditated&mdash;everything was spontaneous.
+No preparation of plan did she ever think of&mdash;a mode of
+procedure which naturally resulted in a negligent style
+and caused the composition to drag. Her inspiration
+seemed to go so far, then she resorted to her imagination,
+to the chimerical, forcing events and characters. "There
+are many defects in the style&mdash;such as the sentimental
+part, the romanesque in the violent expression of sentiments
+or invention of situations, the exaggerated improbabilities
+of events, the excessive declamation; but how
+many compensating qualities are there to offset these defects!"</p>
+
+<p>Her method of writing was very simple. It was the
+love of writing that impelled her, almost without premeditation,
+to put into words her dreams, meditations, and
+chimeras under concrete and living forms. Yet, by the
+largeness of her sympathy and the ardor of her passions,
+by the abundant inventions of stories, and by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>[pg 400]</span>
+harmonious word-flow, she deserves to be ranked among
+the greatest writers of France. Her career, taken as a
+whole, is one of prodigious fecundity&mdash;a literary life that
+has "enchanted by its fictions or troubled by its dreams"
+four or five generations. Never diminishing in quality or
+inspiration, there are surprises in every new work.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt George Sand has, for a generation or more,
+been somewhat forgotten, but what great writer has not
+shared the same fate? When the materialistic age has
+passed away, many famous writers of the past will be
+resurrected, and with them George Sand; for her novels,
+although written to please and entertain, discuss questions
+of religion, philosophy, morality, problems of the heart,
+conscience, and education,&mdash;and this is done in such a
+dramatic way that one feels all to be true. More than
+that, her characters are all capable of carrying out, to the
+end, a common moral and general theme with eloquence seldom found in novels.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting comparison might be made between Mme.
+de Staël and George Sand, the two greatest women writers
+of France. Both wrote from their experience of life, and
+fought passionately against the prejudices and restrictions
+of social conventions; both were ideal natures and were
+severely tried in the school of life, profiting by their experiences;
+both possessed highly sensitive natures, and
+suffered much; both were keenly enthusiastic and sympathetic,
+with pardonable weaknesses; both lived through
+tragic wars; both evinced a dislike for the commonplace
+and strove for greater freedom, but for different publics,
+after unhappy marriages, both rose up as accusers against
+the prevalent system of marrying young girls. But Mme.
+de Staël was a virtuoso in conversation, a salon queen,
+and her happiness was to be found in society alone; while
+George Sand found her happiness in communion with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>[pg 401]</span>
+Nature. This explains the two natures, their sufferings,
+their joys, their writings.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest punishment ever inflicted upon Mme. de
+Staël was her exile, for it deprived her of her social life, a
+fact of which the emperor was well aware. Her entire
+literary effort was directed to describing her social life
+and the relation of society to life. "She belongs to the
+moralists and to the writers who wrote of society and
+man&mdash;social psychologists." Not poetic or artistic by nature,
+but with an exceptional power of observation, she
+shows on every side the influence of a pedagogical, literary,
+and social training; she was the product of an artificial culture.</p>
+
+<p>George Sand, on the contrary, was a product of Nature,
+reared in free intercourse and unrestrained relation with
+her genius and Nature. A powerful passion and a mighty
+fantasy made of her a poetess and an artist. These two
+qualities were manifested in her intense and deep feeling
+for the beauty of Nature, in her power of invention, in a
+harmonious equilibrium between idealism and realism.
+Her fantasy overbalanced her reason, impeding its development
+and thus relegating it to a secondary rôle.
+"She is possibly the only French writer who possessed
+no <i>esprit</i> (in the sense that it is used in French
+society)&mdash;that playful, epigrammatic, querulous wit of conversation."</p>
+
+<p>She never enjoyed communion with others for any length
+of time, or the companionship of anyone for a long period;
+the companions of which she never tired were the fields
+and woods, birds and dogs; therefore, she enjoyed those
+people most who were nearer her ideals, the peasants and
+workmen, and these she best describes. Thus, her whole
+creation is one of instinct rather than of reason, as it
+was with Mme. de Staël. George Sand was a genius, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>[pg 402]</span>
+master-product of Nature, while Mme. de Staël was a talent,
+a consummate work of the art of modern culture; she reflects,
+while George Sand creates from impulse; the latter
+was a true poetess, communing with Nature, while the
+banker's daughter was an observing thinker, communicating
+with society&mdash;but both were great writers.</p>
+
+<p>Intimately associated with George Sand is Rosa Bonheur,
+in all of whose canvases we find the same aim, the
+same spirit, the same message, that are found in so many
+of the novels of George Sand. They were two women
+who have contributed, through different branches, masterworks
+that will be enjoyed and appreciated at all times.
+"It would be difficult not to speak of <i>La Mare au Diable</i>
+and the <i>Meunier d'Angibault</i> when recalling the fields
+where Rosa Bonheur speeds the plow or places the oxen
+lowering their patient heads under the yoke."</p>
+
+<p>In the evening, at home, while other members of the
+family were at work, one member read aloud to the rest;
+and George Sand was a favorite author with the Bonheur
+group of artists. It was while reading <i>La Mare au Diable</i>
+that Rosa conceived the idea of the work which by some
+critics is pronounced her masterpiece, <i>Plowing in Nivernais</i>.
+The artist's deep sympathy was aroused by her love of
+Nature, which no contemporary novelist expressed or appreciated
+as did George Sand. In all her works, and
+throughout the long life of the artist, there is absolutely
+nothing unhealthy or immoral to be found. The novelist
+had theories which were inspired by her passion, and these
+became unhealthy at times; she belongs first of all to
+France, while Rosa Bonheur belongs first of all to the
+world, her message reaching the young and old of every
+clime and every people. The novelist is to be associated
+with the artist by virtue of her exquisite, simple, and
+wholesome peasant stories.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>[pg 403]</span>
+
+<p>The entire Bonheur family were artists, and all were
+moral and genuinely sympathetic. As a young girl, Rosa
+manifested an intense love for Nature, sunshine, and
+the woods; always independent in manners, she used to
+caricature her teachers; and while walking out into the
+country, she would draw, with charcoal or in sand, any
+objects that met her eye. Her father was not long in
+detecting her talent. She was wedded to her art from the
+very beginning, showing no taste for or interest in any
+other subject. As soon as her father gave permission to
+follow art as a profession, she devoted all her energy
+to advancing herself in what she felt to be her life's work.
+For four years the young girl could be seen every day at
+the Louvre, copying the great masters and receiving principally
+from them her ideas of coloring and harmony, while
+from her father she learned her technique. After she had
+mastered these two principles, she decided to specialize in pastoral nature.</p>
+
+<p>From that time her whole life was given up to the study
+of Nature and animals. Not able to study those near by,
+she procured a fine Beauvais sheep, which served as her
+model for two years. From the very first her work showed
+accuracy, purity, and an intuitive perception of Nature,
+and these qualities soon placed her among the foremost
+artists of the time. Her struggle for reputation and glory
+was not a long and arduous one, for after 1845 her fame
+was established&mdash;she was then but twenty-three years
+old; and after 1849, having exhibited some thirty pictures,
+her reputation had become European.</p>
+
+<p>In order to be able to study her models with greater
+ease and freedom from the annoyance and coarse incivilities
+of the workmen at the slaughter houses, farmyards,
+and markets that she was in the habit of visiting, she adopted the garb of man.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>[pg 404]</span>
+
+<p>Her honors in life were many, though always unsought.
+The Empress Eugénie, while regent during the absence
+of Napoleon III., went in person to her château and put
+around her neck the ribbon of the decoration of the Grand
+Cross of the Legion of Honor, then for the first time bestowed
+upon woman for merit other than bravery and
+charity. The Emperor Maximilian of Mexico conferred
+upon her the decoration of San Carlos; the King of Belgium
+created her a chevalier of his order, the first honor
+won by a woman; the King of Spain made her a Commander
+of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic; and
+President Carnot created her an Officer of the Legion of Honor.</p>
+
+<p>With qualities such as she possessed, Rosa Bonheur
+could not fail to attain immortality. Her success was due
+in no small degree to the scientific instruction which she
+received when a mere child; having been taught, from the
+very first, how to paint directly from a model, she supplemented
+this training by a period of four years of copying
+great masters. In the latter period she studied Paul
+Potter's work rather slavishly, but was individual enough
+to combine only the best in him with the best in herself;
+this gave her an originality such as possibly no other
+animal painter ever possessed&mdash;-not even Landseer, who is
+said to be "stronger in telling the story than in the manner of telling it."</p>
+
+<p>Rosa Bonheur was too independent and original to follow
+any particular school or master, for her only inspiration
+and guide were her models, always living near by and
+upon intimate terms with her. Thus, in all her paintings,
+we instinctively feel that she painted from conviction,
+from her own observation, nothing being added for mere
+artistic effect. To some extent her pictures impress one
+as a perfect French poem in which there is no superfluous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>[pg 405]</span>
+word, in which no word could be changed without destroying
+the effect of the whole; thus, in her paintings
+there is not a superfluous brush stroke; everything is
+necessary to the telling of the story; but she excels the
+perfect poem, for, in French literature, it seldom has a
+message distinct from its technique, while her pictures
+breathe the very essence of sympathy, love, and life.
+We feel that she thoroughly knew her subjects as a connoisseur;
+but her animals do not impress one as the production
+of an artist who knew them as do horse traders
+and cattle dealers, who know their stock from the purely
+physical standpoint; the animals of this artist are from the
+brush of one who was familiar with their habits, who loved
+them, had lived with and studied them&mdash;who knew and
+appreciated their higher qualities. Rosa Bonheur most harmoniously
+united two essential elements in art&mdash;a scientific
+as well as sympathetic conception of her subject. Possibly
+this is the reason that her pictures appeal to animal
+lovers throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>As was stated, she was independent, hence kept aloof
+from the corruptions of contemporary French art and its
+technique lovers, always pursuing an even tenor in her
+art and never permitting one of her pictures to leave
+her studio in a crude or unfinished state. In all her long
+career she kept her original sketches, never parting with
+one, in spite of the most tempting offers; and this explains
+the fact that the work of her later years exhibits the freshness
+and other qualities of that of her youth. Thus, her
+art has gained by her experience, even though her best
+work was done between about 1848 and 1860, and is especially
+marked by its excellence in composition, the anatomy,
+the breadth of touch, the harmony of coloring, and
+the action, although it is said to lack the spontaneity, the
+originality, and the highly imaginative quality which are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>[pg 406]</span>
+at their best in <i>The Horse Fair</i>; the same qualities seem to
+have been possessed by many of her contemporaries, such as Troyon.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding these apparent defects, Rosa Bonheur
+stands for something higher in art than do most of her contemporaries.
+She was not influenced by the skilled and
+often corrupt technicians; she perfected her technique by
+study of the old masters and learned her art from Nature;
+wisely keeping free from the ornamental, gorgeous, and
+highly imaginative and exaggerated historical Romantic
+school, in French art she stands out almost alone with
+Millet. Whatever may be said of the more virile and
+masculine art of other great animal painters, Rosa Bonheur,
+by her truthfulness, her science, her close association
+and intimate communion with her animal world, by
+the glad and healthy vigor which her paintings breathe,
+has taught the world the great lesson that there are intelligence,
+will, love, and even soul, in animals.</p>
+
+<p>Her art and life inspired respect and admiration; we
+have nothing to regret, nothing to conceal; we desire to
+love her for her animals, and we must esteem her for her
+grand devotion to her art and family, for her purity and
+charity, for her kindness to and love for those in the lower
+walks of life, for her goodness and honesty. An illustration
+of the last quality may be taken from her dealings
+with art collectors. After having offered her <i>Horse Fair</i>,
+which she desired should remain in France, to her own
+town for twelve thousand francs, she sold it for forty
+thousand francs to Mr. Gambert, but with the condition
+which she thus expressed: "I am grateful for your giving
+me such a noble price, but I do not like to feel that I have
+taken advantage of your liberality. Let us see how we
+can combine matters. You will not be able to have an
+engraving made from so large a canvas; suppose I paint you
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>[pg 407]</span>
+a small one of the same subject, of which I will make you a
+present." Naturally, the gift was accepted, and the smaller
+canvas now hangs in the National Gallery of London.</p>
+
+<p>In all her dealings she showed this kindness and uprightness,
+sympathy and honesty. Although numberless orders
+were constantly coming to her, she never let them hurry
+her in her work. She was, possibly, the highest and
+noblest type&mdash;certainly among great French women&mdash;of
+that strong and solid virtue which constitutes the backbone
+and the very essence of French national strength.
+The reputation of Rosa Bonheur has never been blemished
+by the least touch of petty jealousy, hatred, envy, vanity,
+or pride&mdash;and, among all great French women, she is one
+of the few of whom this may be said. She won for herself
+and her noble art the genuine and lasting sympathy of the world at large.</p>
+
+<p>The only woman artist in France deserving a place
+beside Rosa Bonheur belongs properly under the reign of
+Louis XVI., although she lived almost to the middle of the
+nineteenth century. At the age of twenty, Mme. Lebrun
+was already famous as the leading portrait painter; this
+was during the most popular period of Marie Antoinette&mdash;1775
+to 1785. In 1775, but a young girl, admitted to all
+the sessions of the Academy as recognition of her portraits
+of La Bruyère and Cardinal Fleury, she made her life
+unhappy and gave her art a serious blow by consenting to
+marry the then great art critic and collector of art, Lebrun.
+His passion for gambling and women ruined her fortune
+and almost ended her career as an artist. Her own conduct
+was not irreproachable.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Lebrun will be remembered principally as the
+great painter of Marie Antoinette, who posed for her more
+than twenty times. The most prominent people of Europe
+eagerly sought her work, while socially she was welcomed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>[pg 408]</span>
+everywhere. Her famous suppers and entertainments in
+her modestly furnished hôtel, at which Garat sang, Grétry
+played the piano, and Viotti and Prince Henry of Prussia
+assisted, were the events of the day. Her reputation as a
+painter of the great ladies and gentlemen of nobility, and
+her entertainments, naturally associated her with the nobility;
+hence, she shared their unpopularity at the outbreak
+of the Revolution and left France.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtful whether any artist&mdash;certainly no French
+artist&mdash;ever received more attention and honors, or was
+made a member of so many art academies, than Mme.
+Lebrun. It would be difficult to make any comparison
+between her and Rosa Bonheur, their respective spheres
+of art being so different. Only the future will speak as to
+the relative positions of each in French art.</p>
+
+<p>In the domain of the dramatic art of the nineteenth century,
+two women have made their names well known
+throughout Europe and America,&mdash;Rachel, and Sarah Bernhardt,
+both tragédiennes and both daughters of Israel.
+While Rachel was, without question, the greatest tragédienne
+that France ever produced, excelling Bernhardt in
+deep tragic force, she yet lacked many qualities which our
+contemporary possesses in a high degree. She had constantly
+to contend with a cruel fate and a wicked, grasping
+nature, which brought her to an early grave. The wretched
+slave of her greedy and rapacious father and managers,
+who cared for her only in so far as she enriched them by
+her genius and popularity, hers was a miserable existence,
+which detracted from her acting, checked her development,
+and finally undermined her health.</p>
+
+<p>After her critical period of apprenticeship was successfully
+passed and she was free to govern herself, she rose
+to be queen of the French stage&mdash;a position which she
+held for eighteen years, during which she was worshipped
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>[pg 409]</span>
+and petted by the whole world. As a social leader, she was
+received and made much of by the great ladies of the Faubourg
+Saint-Germain. Her taste in dress was exquisite in
+its simplicity, being in perfect harmony with the reserved,
+retiring, and amiable actress herself.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly no actress, singer, or other public woman ever
+received such homage and general recognition. With all
+her great qualities as an actress, vigor, grandeur, wild,
+savage energy, superb articulation, irreproachable diction,
+and a marvellous sense of situations, she lacked the one
+quality which we miss in Sarah Bernhardt also&mdash;a true
+tenderness and compassion. As a tragédienne she can be
+compared to Talma only. Her greed for money soon ended
+her brilliant career; unlike her sister in art, she amassed a
+fortune, leaving over one million five hundred thousand francs.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with Bernhardt, Rachel is said to have been
+the greater in pure tragedy, but she did not possess as
+many arts of fascination. There are many points of
+similarity between the two actresses: Rachel was at
+times artificial, wanting in tenderness and depth, while
+at times she was superhuman in her passion and emotion,
+and often put more into her rôle than was intended;
+and the acting of Sarah Bernhardt has the same
+characteristics. Rachel, however, was much more subject
+to moods and fits of inspiration than is Bernhardt&mdash;especially
+was she incapable of acting at her best on
+evenings of her first appearance in a new rôle. Her
+critical power was very weak in comparison with her intellectual
+power, the reverse being true of her modern rival.
+Rachel's greatest inspiration was <i>Phèdre</i>, and in this rôle
+Bernhardt "is weak, unequal. We see all the viciousness
+in <i>Phèdre</i> and none of her grandeur. She breaks herself
+to pieces against the huge difficulties of the conception
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>[pg 410]</span>
+and does not succeed in moving us.... Rachel was
+the mouthpiece of the gods; no longer a free agent, she
+poured forth every epithet of adoration that Aphrodite
+could suggest, clambering up higher and higher in the intensity
+of her emotions, whilst her audience hung breathless,
+riveted on every word, and dared to burst forth in
+thunders of applause only after she had vanished from their sight."</p>
+
+<p>Both of these artists were children of the lower class,
+and struggled with a fate which required grit, tenacity, and
+determination to win success. The artist of to-day is no
+social leader&mdash;"never the companion of man, but his slave
+or his despot." It is entirely her physical charms and the
+outward or artificial requisites of her art that make her
+what she is. According to Mr. Lynch, her tragedy "is
+but one of disorder, fury, and folly&mdash;passions not deep, but
+unbridled and hysterical in their intensest display. Her
+<i>forte</i> lies in the ornate and elaborate exhibition of rôles,"
+for which she creates the most capricious and fantastic
+garbs. She is a great manager,&mdash;omitting the financial
+part,&mdash;quite a writer, somewhat of a painter and sculptor,
+throwing her money away, except to her creditors, adored
+by some and execrated by others. Her care of her physical
+self and her utter disregard for money have undoubtedly
+contributed to her long and brilliant career; rest and
+idleness are her most cruel punishments. All nervous
+energy, never happy, restless, she is a true <i>fin de siècle</i> product.</p>
+
+<p>Among the large number of women who wielded influence
+in the nineteenth century, either through their salons
+or through their works, Mme. Guizot was one of the most
+important as the author of treatises on education and as a
+moralist. As an intimate friend of Suard, she was placed,
+as a contributor, on the <i>Publiciste</i>, and for ten years wrote
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>[pg 411]</span>
+articles on morality, society, and literature which showed a
+varied talent, much depth, and justness. Fond of polemics,
+she never failed to attack men like La Harpe, De Bonald,
+etc., thus making herself felt as an influence to be reckoned
+with in matters literary and moral.</p>
+
+<p>As Mme. Guizot, she naturally had a powerful influence
+upon her husband, shaping his thoughts and theories, for
+she immediately espoused his principles and interests. In
+1821, at the age of forty-eight, she began her literary
+work again, after a period of rest, writing novels in which
+the maternal love and the ardent and pious sentiments of a
+woman married late in life are reflected. In her theories
+of education she showed a highly practical spirit. Sainte-Beuve
+said that, next to Mme. de Staël, "she was the
+woman endowed with the most sagacity and intelligence;
+the sentiment that she inspires is that of respect and
+esteem&mdash;and these terms can only do her justice."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. de Duras, in her salon, represented the Restoration,
+"by a composite of aristocracy and affability, of
+brilliant wit and seriousness, semi-liberal and somewhat
+progressive." Her credit lies in the fact that, by her keen
+wit, she kept in harmony a heterogeneous mixture of
+social life. She wrote a number of novels, which are, for
+the most part, "a mere delicate and discreet expression of her interior life."</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Ackermann, German in her entire makeup, was,
+among French female writers, one of the deepest thinkers
+of the nineteenth century. A true mystic, she was, from
+early youth, filled with ardent, dreamy vagaries, to which
+she gave expression in verse&mdash;poems which reflect a pessimism
+which is rather the expression of her life's experiences,
+and of twenty-four years of solitude after two
+years of happy wedded state, than an actual depression and
+a discouraging philosophy of life. Her poetry shows a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>[pg 412]</span>
+vigor, depth, precision of form, and strength of expression
+seldom found in poetry of French women.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most conspicuous figures in the latter half of
+the nineteenth century is Mme. Adam,&mdash;Juliette Lamber,&mdash;an
+unusual woman in every respect. In 1879 she founded
+the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>, on the plan of the <i>Revue des Deux
+Mondes</i>, for which she wrote political and literary articles
+which showed much talent. In politics she is a Republican
+and something of a socialist, a somewhat sensational&mdash;but
+modestly sensational&mdash;figure. She has been called "a
+necessary continuator of George Sand." Her salon was the
+great centre for all Republicans and one of the most brilliant
+and important of this century. In literature her name
+is connected with the movement called neo-Hellenism, the
+aim of which seems to have been to inspire a love and
+sympathy for the art, religion, and literature of ancient
+and modern Greece. In her works she shows a deep
+insight into Greek life and art. Her name will always
+be connected with the Republican movement in France;
+as a salon leader, <i>femme de lettres</i>, journalist, and female
+politician, no woman is better known in France in the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>A woman who might be called the rival of Mme. Adam,
+but whose activity occurred much earlier in the century,
+was Mme. Emile de Girardin,&mdash;Delphine Gay,&mdash;who ruled,
+at least for a short time, the social and literary world of
+Paris at her hôtel in the Rue Chaillot. Her very early
+precocity, combined with her rare beauty, made her famous.
+In 1836, after having written a number of poems which
+showed a weak sentimentality and a quite mannered emotion,
+she founded the <i>Courrier Français</i>, for which she wrote
+articles on the questions of the day&mdash;effusions which were
+written upon the spur of the moment and were very unreliable.
+Her dramas were hardly successful, although they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>[pg 413]</span>
+were played by the great Rachel. Her present claim to
+fame is based upon the brilliancy of her salon.</p>
+
+<p>The future will possibly remember Mme. Alphonse
+Daudet more as the wife of the great Daudet than as a
+writer, although, according to M. Jules Lemaître, she possessed
+the gift of <i>écriture artiste</i> to a remarkable degree.
+According to him, sureness and exactness and a striking
+truth of impressions are her characteristics as a writer.
+She exercised a most wholesome power over Alphonse
+Daudet, taking him away from bad influences, giving him
+a home, dignity, and happiness, and saving him from brutality
+and pessimism; she was his guardian and censor;
+she preserved his grace and noble sentiments. The nature
+of her relations to him should ensure the preservation of her name to posterity.</p>
+
+<p>We are accustomed to give Gyp&mdash;Sybille Gabrielle Marie
+Antoinette de Riquetti de Mirabeau, Comtesse de Martel
+de Janville&mdash;little credit for seriousness or morality, associating
+her with the average brilliant, flippant novelists,
+who write because they possess the knack of writing in a
+brilliant style. Her object is to show that man, in a civilized
+state in society, is vain, coarse, and ridiculous. She
+paints Parisian society to demonstrate that the apparently
+fortunate ones of the world are not to be envied, that they
+are miserable in their so-called joys and ridiculous in their
+pleasures and their elegance. She has described the most
+<i>risqué</i> situations and the most delightful women, but she
+gives us to understand that the latter are not to be loved.
+The vanity of the social world might be called her text.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Blanc&mdash;Thérèse de Solms&mdash;is known to us to-day
+as the first woman to reveal English and American authors
+and habits to her contemporaries. By advocating American
+customs she has done much to ameliorate the condition
+of French girls, by giving them a freer intercourse
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>[pg 414]</span>
+with young men and permitting them to see more of the
+world before entering upon married life.</p>
+
+<p>Mme. Gréville, who died recently, deserves a place
+among the prominent women writers of France. No
+<i>femme de lettres</i> ever received more honors, prizes, and
+decorations than she; a number of her writings were
+crowned by the Academy. A member of the Société des
+Gens de Lettres, with all her literary work she was a
+domestic woman, keeping aloof from all feminist movements.
+Her husband, Professor Durand, to show his
+esteem and admiration for her, adopted her name&mdash;a wise
+act, for it may preserve his name with that of his talented wife.</p>
+
+<p>Many other names might be cited, but, as the list of
+prominent women is practically without end, owing to the
+indefiniteness of the term "prominent," we shall close
+with these names, which have become familiar in both continents.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Women of Modern France, by Hugo P.  Thieme
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+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Women of Modern France, by Hugo P.  Thieme
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Women of Modern France
+       Woman In All Ages And In All Countries
+
+Author: Hugo P.  Thieme
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2005 [EBook #17159]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOMEN OF MODERN FRANCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, William Flis and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team Europe at http://dp.rastko.net
+
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Note: The Table of Contents
+  was added by the Transcriber.
+
+
+
+WOMAN
+
+in all ages and in all countries
+
+
+WOMEN OF MODERN FRANCE
+
+by
+
+HUGO P. THIEME, Ph.D.
+
+Of the University of Michigan
+
+
+THE RITTENHOUSE PRESS PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+
+
+Copyrighted at Washington and entered at Stationer's Hall, London,
+
+1907--1908
+
+and printed by arrangement with George Barrie's Sons.
+
+
+PRINTED IN U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                PREFACE
+
+     Chapter I. Woman in politics
+
+    Chapter II. Woman in Family Life, Education, and Letters
+
+   Chapter III. The Seventeenth Century: Woman at Her Best
+
+    Chapter IV. Woman in Society and Literature
+
+     Chapter V. Mistresses and Wives of Louis XIV
+
+    Chapter VI. Mme. de Sevigne, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. Dacier,
+                Mme. de Caylus
+
+   Chapter VII. Woman in Religion
+
+  Chapter VIII. Salon Leaders Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme.
+                du Deffand, Mlle. de Lespinasse, Mme. du Chatelet
+
+    Chapter IX. Salon Leaders--(Continued): Mme. Necker, Mme.
+                d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis: Minor Salons
+
+
+     Chapter X. Social Classes
+
+    Chapter XI. Royal Mistresses
+
+   Chapter XII. Marie Antoinette and the Revolution
+
+  Chapter XIII. Women of the Revolution and the Empire
+
+   Chapter XIV. Women of the Nineteenth Century
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Among the Latin races, the French race differs essentially in one
+characteristic which has been the key to the success of French
+women--namely, the social instinct. The whole French nation has always
+lived for the present time, in actuality, deriving from life more of
+what may be called social pleasure than any other nation. It has been
+a universal characteristic among French people since the sixteenth
+century to love to please, to make themselves agreeable, to bring joy
+and happiness to others, and to be loved and admired as well. With
+this instinctive trait French women have always been bountifully
+endowed. Highly emotional, they love to charm, and this has become
+an art with them; balancing this emotional nature is the mathematical
+quality. These two combined have made French women the great leaders
+in their own country and among women of all races. They have developed
+the art of studying themselves; and the art of coquetry, which
+has become a virtue, is a science with them. The singular power of
+discrimination, constructive ability, calculation, subtle intriguing,
+a clear and concise manner of expression, a power of conversation
+unequalled in women of any other country, clear thinking: all these
+qualities have been strikingly illustrated in the various great women
+of the different periods of the history of France, and according to
+these they may by right be judged; for their moral qualities have not
+always been in accordance with the standard of other races.
+
+According as these two fundamental qualities, the emotional and
+mathematical, have been developed in individual women, we meet the
+different types which have made themselves prominent in history. The
+queens of France, in general, have been submissive and pious, dutiful
+and virtuous wives, while the mistresses have been bold and frivolous,
+licentious and self-assertive. The women outside of these spheres
+either looked on with indifference or regret at the all-powerfulness
+of this latter class, unable to change conditions, or themselves
+enjoyed the privilege of the mistress.
+
+It must be remembered that in the great social circles in France,
+especially from the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries,
+marriage was a mere convention, offences against it being looked upon
+as matters concerning manners, not morals; therefore, much of the
+so-called gross immorality of French women may be condoned. It will
+be seen in this history that French women have acted banefully on
+politics, causing mischief, inciting jealousy and revenge, almost
+invariably an instrument in the hands of man, acting as a disturbing
+element. In art, literature, religion, and business, however, they
+have ever been a directing force, a guide, a critic and judge, an
+inspiration and companion to man.
+
+The wholesome results of French women's activity are reflected
+especially in art and literature, and to a lesser degree in religion
+and morality, by the tone of elegance, politeness, _finesse_,
+clearness, precision, purity, and a general high standard which man
+followed if he was to succeed. In politics much severe blame and
+reproach have been heaped upon her--she is made responsible for
+breaking treaties, for activity in all intrigues, participating in
+and inciting to civil and foreign wars, encouraging and sanctioning
+assassinations and massacres, championing the Machiavelian policy and
+practising it at every opportunity.
+
+It has been the aim of this history of French women to present the
+results rather than the actual happenings of their lives, and
+these have been gathered from the most authoritative and scholarly
+publications on the subject, to which the writer herewith wishes to
+give all credit.
+
+Hugo Paul Thieme.
+
+_University of Michigan._
+
+
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+Woman in politics
+
+
+French women of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries,
+when studied according to the distinctive phases of their influence,
+are best divided into three classes: those queens who, as wives,
+represented virtue, education, and family life; the mistresses, who
+were instigators of political intrigue, immorality, and vice; and the
+authoresses and other educated women, who constituted themselves the
+patronesses of art and literature.
+
+This division is not absolute by any means; for we see that in the
+sixteenth century the regent-mother (for example, Louise of Savoy and
+Catherine de' Medici), in extent of influence, fills the same position
+as does the mistress in the eighteenth century; though in the former
+period appears, in Diana of Poitiers, the first of a long line of
+ruling mistresses.
+
+Queen-consorts, in the sixteenth as in the following centuries,
+exercised but little influence; they were, as a rule, gentle and
+obedient wives--even Catherine, domineering as she afterward showed
+herself to be, betraying no signs of that trait until she became
+regent.
+
+The literary women and women of spirit and wit furthered all
+intellectual and social development; but it was the mistresses--those
+great women of political schemes and moral degeneracy--who were vested
+with the actual importance, and it must in justice to them be said
+that they not infrequently encouraged art, letters, and mental
+expansion.
+
+Eight queens of France there were during the sixteenth century,
+and three of these may be accepted as types of purity, piety, and
+goodness: Claude, first wife of Francis I.; Elizabeth of France, wife
+of Charles IX.; and Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III. These
+queens, held up to ridicule and scorn by the depraved followers of
+their husbands' mistresses, were reverenced by the people; we find
+striking contrasts to them in the two queens-regent, Louise of Savoy
+and Catherine de' Medici, who, in the period of their power, were
+as unscrupulous and brutal, intriguing and licentious, jealous and
+revengeful, as the most wanton mistresses who ever controlled a
+king. In this century, we find two other remarkable types: Marguerite
+d'Angouleme, the bright star of her time; and her whose name comes
+instantly to mind when we speak of the Lady of Angouleme--Marguerite
+de Navarre, representing both the good and the doubtful, the broadest
+sense of that untranslatable term _femme d'esprit_.
+
+The first of the royal French women to whom modern woman owes a great
+and clearly defined debt was Anne of Brittany, wife of Louis XII.
+and the personification of all that is good and virtuous. To her
+belongs the honor of having taken the first step toward the social
+emancipation of French women; she was the first to give to woman an
+important place at court. This precedent she established by requesting
+her state officials and the foreign ambassadors to bring their wives
+and daughters when they paid their respects to her. To the ladies
+themselves, she sent a "royal command," bidding them leave their
+gloomy feudal abodes and repair to the court of their sovereign.
+
+Anne may be said to belong to the transition period--that period
+in which the condition of slavery and obscurity which fettered the
+women of the Middle Ages gave place to almost untrammelled liberty.
+The queen held a separate court in great state, at Blois and Des
+Tournelles, and here elegance, even magnificence, of dress was
+required of her ladies. At first, this unprecedented demand caused
+discontent among men, who at that time far surpassed women in
+elaborateness of costume and had, consequently, been accustomed to
+the use of their surplus wealth for their own purposes. Under Anne's
+influence, court life underwent a complete transformation; her
+receptions, which were characterized by royal splendor, became the
+centre of attraction.
+
+Anne of Brittany, the last queen of France of the Middle Ages and the
+first of the modern period, was a model of virtuous conduct, conjugal
+fidelity, and charity. Having complete control over her own
+immense wealth, she used it largely for beneficent purposes; to her
+encouragement much of the progress of art and literature in France was
+due. Hers was an example that many of the later queens endeavored to
+follow, but it cannot be said that they ever exerted a like influence
+or exhibited an equal power of initiation and self-assertion.
+
+The first royal woman to become a power in politics in the period that
+we are considering was Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., a type
+of the voluptuous and licentious female of the sixteenth century. Her
+pernicious activity first manifested itself when, having conceived
+a violent passion for Charles of Bourbon, she set her heart upon
+marrying him, and commenced intrigues and plots which were all the
+more dangerous because of her almost absolute control over her son,
+the King.
+
+At this time there were three distinct sets or social castes at the
+court of France: the pious and virtuous band about the good Queen
+Claude; the lettered and elegant belles in the coterie of Marguerite
+d'Angouleme, sister of Francis I.; and the wanton and libertine young
+maids who formed a galaxy of youth and beauty about Louise of Savoy,
+and were by her used to fascinate her son and thus distract him from
+affairs of state.
+
+Louise used all means to bring before the king beautiful women through
+whom she planned to preserve her influence over him. One of these
+frail beauties, Francoise de Foix, completely won the heart of the
+monarch; her ascendency over him continued for a long period, in spite
+of the machinations of Louise, who, when Francis escaped her control,
+sought to bring disrepute and discredit upon the fair mistress.
+
+The mother, however, remained the powerful factor in politics. With an
+abnormal desire to hoard money, an unbridled temper, and a violent and
+domineering disposition, she became the most powerful and dangerous,
+as well as the most feared, woman of all France. During her regency
+the state coffers were pillaged, and plundering was carried on on all
+sides. One of her acts at this time was to cause the recall of Charles
+of Bourbon, then Governor of Milan; this measure was taken as much
+for the purpose of obtaining revenge for his scornful rejection of her
+offer of marriage as for the hope of eventually bringing him to her
+side.
+
+Upon the return of Charles, she immediately began plotting against
+him, including in her hatred Francoise de Foix, the king's mistress,
+at whom Bourbon frequently cast looks of pity which the furiously
+jealous Louise interpreted as glances of love. As a matter of fact,
+Bourbon, being strictly virtuous, was out of reach of temptation by
+the beauties of the court, and there were no grounds for jealousy.
+
+This love of Louise for Charles of Bourbon is said to have owed most
+of its ardor to her hope of coming into possession of his immense
+estates. She schemed to have his title to them disputed, hoping that,
+by a decree of Parliament, they might be taken from him; the idea in
+this procedure was that Bourbon, deprived of his possessions, must
+come to her terms, and she would thus satisfy--at one and the same
+time--her passion and her cupidity.
+
+Under her influence the character of the court changed entirely;
+retaining only a semblance of its former decency, it became utterly
+corrupt. It possessed external elegance and _distingue_ manners, but
+below this veneer lay intrigue, debauchery, and gross immorality. In
+order to meet the vast expenditures of the king and the queen-mother,
+the taxes were enormously increased; the people, weighed down by the
+unjust assessment and by want, began to clamor and protest. Undismayed
+by famine, poverty, and epidemic, Louise continued her depredations
+on the public treasury, encouraging the king in his squanderings;
+and both mother and son, in order to procure money, begged, borrowed,
+plundered.
+
+Louise was always surrounded by a bevy of young ladies, selected
+beauties of the court, whose natural charms were greatly enhanced by
+the lavishness of their attire. Always ready to further the plans of
+their mistress, they hesitated not to sacrifice reputation or honor to
+gratify her smallest whim. Her power was so generally recognized that
+foreign ambassadors, in the absence of the king, called her "that
+other king." When war against France broke out between Spain and
+England, Louise succeeded in gaining the office of constable for the
+Duc d'Alencon; by this means, she intended to displace Charles of
+Bourbon (whom she was still persecuting because he continued cold to
+her advances), and to humiliate him in the presence of his army; the
+latter design, however, was thwarted, as he did not complain.
+
+To the caprice of Louise of Savoy were due the disasters and defeats
+of the French army during the period of her power; by frequently
+displacing someone whose actions did not coincide with her plans, and
+elevating some favorite who had avowed his willingness to serve her,
+she kept military affairs in a state of confusion.
+
+Many wanton acts are attributed to her: she appropriated forty
+thousand crowns allowed to Governor Lautrec of Milan for the
+payment of his soldiers, and caused the execution of Samblancay,
+superintendent of finances, who had been so unfortunate as to incur
+her displeasure. It was Charles of Bourbon, who, with Marshal Lautrec,
+investigated the episode of the forty thousand crowns and exposed the
+treachery and perfidy of the mother of his king.
+
+Finding that Bourbon intended to persist in his resistance to her
+advances, Louise decided upon drastic measures of retaliation. With
+the assistance of her chancellor (and tool), Duprat, she succeeded in
+having withheld the salaries which were due to Bourbon because of the
+offices held by him. As he took no notice of these deprivations, she
+next proceeded to divest him of his estates by laying claim to them
+for herself; she then proposed to Bourbon that, by accepting her hand
+in marriage, he might settle the matter happily. The object of her
+numerous schemes not only rejected this offer with contempt, but added
+insult to injury by remarking: "I will never marry a woman devoid of
+modesty." At this rebuff, Louise was incensed beyond measure, and when
+Queen Claude suggested Bourbon's marriage to her sister, Mme. Renee
+de France (a union to which Charles would have consented gladly), the
+queen-mother managed to induce Francis I. to refuse his consent.
+
+After the death of Anne of Beaujeu, mother-in-law of Charles of
+Bourbon, her estates were seized by the king and transferred to
+Louise while the claim was under consideration by Parliament. When
+the judges, after an examination of the records of the Bourbon estate,
+remonstrated with Chancellor Duprat against the illegal transfer, he
+had them put into prison. This rigorous act, which was by order of
+Louise, weakened the courage of the court; when the time arrived for a
+final decision, the judges declared themselves incompetent to decide,
+and in order to rid themselves of responsibility referred the matter
+to the king's council. This great lawsuit, which was continued for a
+long time, eventually forced Charles of Bourbon to flee from France.
+Having sworn allegiance to Charles V. of Spain and Henry VIII. of
+England against Francis I., he was made lieutenant-general of the
+imperial armies.
+
+When Francis, captured at the battle of Pavia, was taken to Spain,
+Louise, as regent, displayed unusual diplomatic skill by leaguing the
+Pope and the Italian states with Francis against the Spanish king.
+When, after nearly a year's captivity, her son returned, she welcomed
+him with a bevy of beauties; among them was a new mistress, designed
+to destroy the influence of the woman who had so often thwarted the
+plans of Louise--the beautiful Francoise de Foix whom the king had
+made Countess of Chateaubriant.
+
+This new beauty was Anne de Pisseleu, one of the thirty children of
+Seigneur d'Heilly, a girl of eighteen, with an exceptional education.
+Most cunning was the trap which Louise had set for the king. Anne was
+surrounded by a circle of youthful courtiers, who hung upon her words,
+laughed at her caprices, courted her smiles; and when she rather
+confounded them with the extent of the learning which--with a sort of
+gay triumph--she was rather fond of showing, they pronounced her "the
+most charming of learned ladies and the most learned of the charming."
+
+The plot worked; Francis was fascinated, falling an easy prey to the
+wiles of the wanton Anne. The former mistress, Francoise de Foix, was
+discarded, and Louise, purely out of revenge and spite, demanded the
+return of the costly jewels given by the king and appropriated them
+herself.
+
+The duty assigned to the new mistress was that of keeping Francis
+busy with fetes and other amusements. While he was thus kept under the
+spell of his enchantress, he lost all thought of his subjects and the
+welfare of his country and the affairs of the kingdom fell into the
+hands of Louise and her chancellor, Duprat. The girl-mistress, Anne,
+was married by Louise to the Duc d'Etampes whose consent was gained
+through the promise of the return of his family possessions which,
+upon his father's departure with Charles of Bourbon, had been
+confiscated.
+
+The reign of Louise of Savoy was now about over; she had accomplished
+everything she had planned. She had caused Charles of Bourbon, one of
+the greatest men of the sixteenth century, to turn against his king;
+and that king owed to her--his mother--his defeat at Pavia, his
+captivity in Spain, and his moral fall. Spain, Italy, and France were
+victims of the infamous plotting and disastrous intrigues of this one
+woman whose death, in 1531, was a blessing to the country which she
+had dishonored.
+
+At the time of the marriage of Francis I. to Eleanor of Portugal
+(one of the last acts of Louise), Europe was beginning to look upon
+France as ahead of all other nations in the "superlativeness of
+her politeness." The most rigid etiquette and the most punctilious
+politeness were always observed, fines being imposed for any
+discourtesy toward women.
+
+After the death of Louise, the lot of managing the king and directing
+his policy fell to the share of his mistress, the Duchesse d'Etampes,
+who at once became all-powerful at court; her influence over him was
+like that of the drug which, to the weak person who begins its use,
+soon becomes an absolute necessity.
+
+After the death of the dauphin, all the court flatteries were directed
+toward Henry, the eldest son of Francis. Though his mistress, Diana
+of Poitiers, ruled him, she exercised no influence politically; that
+she was not lacking in diplomacy, however, was proved by her attitude
+toward Henry's wife, Catherine, whom she treated with every indication
+of friendship and esteem, in marked contrast to the disdain exhibited
+by other ladies of the court. These two women became friends, working
+together against the mistress of the king--the Duchesse d'Etampes--and
+causing, by their intrigues, dissensions between father and son.
+
+The duchess was not a bad woman; her dissuasion of Francis I. from
+undertaking war with Solyman II. against Charles V. is one instance of
+the use of her influence in the right direction. By some historians,
+she is accused of having played the traitress, in the interest of
+Emperor Charles V., during the war of Spain and England against
+France. It was she who urged the Treaty of Crepy with Charles V.; by
+it, through the marriage of the French king's second son, the Duke of
+Orleans, to the niece of Charles V., the duchess was sure of a safe
+retreat when her bitter enemy, Henry's mistress, should reign after
+the king's death. Her plans, however, did not materialize, as the duke
+died and the treaty was annulled.
+
+The death of Francis I. occurred in 1547; with his reign ends the
+first period of woman's activity--a period influenced mainly by Louise
+of Savoy, whose relations to France were as disastrous as were those
+of any mistress. The influence exerted by her may in some respects be
+compared with that of Mme. de Pompadour; though, were the merits and
+demerits of both carefully tested, the results would hardly be
+in favor of Louise. Strong in diplomacy and intrigue, she was
+unscrupulous and wanton--morally corrupt; she did nothing to further
+the development of literature and art; if she favored men of genius it
+was merely from motives of self-interest.
+
+With the accession of Henry II. his mistress entered into possession
+of full power. The absolute sway of Diana of Poitiers over this
+weakest of French kings was due to her strong mind, great ability,
+wide experience, fascination of manner, and to that exceptional beauty
+which she preserved to her old age. Immediately upon coming into
+power, she dispatched the Duchesse d'Etampes to one of her estates
+and at the same time forced her to restore the jewels which she had
+received from Francis I., a usual procedure with a mistress who knew
+herself to be first in authority.
+
+After being thus displaced, the duchess spent her time in doing
+charitable work, and is said to have afforded protection to the
+Protestants. Eventually, hers was the fate of almost all the
+mistresses. Compelled to give up many of her possessions, miserable
+and forgotten by all, her last days were most unhappy.
+
+Early in her career, Henry made Diana Duchesse de Valentinois. So
+powerful did she become that Sieur de Bayard, secretary of state,
+having referred in jest to her age (she was twenty years the king's
+senior), was deprived of his office, thrown into prison, and left to
+die. In her management of Queen Catherine, Diana was most politic;
+she never interfered, but constituted herself "the protectress of the
+legitimate wife, settling all questions concerning the newly born,"
+for which she received a large salary. When, while the king was in
+Italy, the queen became ill, she owed her recovery to the watchful
+care of the mistress. The latter appointed to the vacant estates and
+positions members of her house--that of Guise. In time, this house
+gained such an ascendency that it conceived the project of setting
+aside all the princes of the blood royal.
+
+Having (through one of her favorites) gained control of the royal
+treasury, Diana appropriated everything--lands, money, jewels. Her
+influence was so astonishing to the people that she was accused of
+wielding a magic power and bewitching the king who seemed, verily,
+to be leading an enchanted existence; he had but one thought, one
+aim--that of pleasing and obeying his aged mistress. To make
+amends for his adultery, he concluded to extirpate heretics. Such
+a combination of luxury and extravagance with licentiousness and
+brutality, such wholesale murder, persecution, and burning at the
+stake have never been equalled, except under Nero.
+
+Michelet reveals the character of Diana in these words: "Affected by
+nothing, loving nothing, sympathizing with nothing; of the passions
+retaining only those which will give a little rapidity to the
+blood; of the pleasures preferring those that are mild and without
+violence--the love of gain and the pursuit of money; hence, there was
+absence of soul. Another phase was the cultivation of the body, the
+body and its beauty uniquely cared for by virile treatment and a rigid
+regime which is the guardian of life--not weakly adored as by women
+who kill themselves by excessive self-love." M. Saint-Amand continues,
+after quoting the above: "At all seasons of the year, Diana plunges
+into a cold bath on rising. As soon as day breaks, she mounts a horse,
+and, followed by swift hounds, rides through dewy verdure to her royal
+lover to whom--fascinated by her mythological pomp--she seems no
+more a woman but a goddess. Thus he styles her in verses of burning
+tenderness:
+
+  "'Helas, mon Dieu! combien je regrette
+  Le temps que j'ai perdu en ma jeunesse!
+  Combien de fois je me suis souhaite
+  Avoir Diane pour ma seule maitresse.
+  Mais je craignais qu'elle, qui est deesse,
+  Ne se voulut abaisser jusque la.'"
+
+[Alas, my God! how much I regret the time lost in my youth! How often
+have I longed to have Diana for my only mistress! But I feared that
+she who is a goddess would not stoop so low as that.]
+
+Catherine remained quietly in the palace, preferring her position,
+unpleasant as it was, to the persecution and possible incarceration in
+a convent which would result from any interference on her part between
+the king and his mistress. Without power or privileges, she was a
+mere figurehead--a good mother looking after her family. However,
+she was not idle; without taking part in the intrigues, she was
+studying them--planning her future tactics; in all relations she was
+diplomatic, her conversation ever displaying exquisite tact.
+
+While France groaned under the burdens of seemingly interminable wars
+and exorbitant taxes, her king revelled in excessive luxury; the aim
+of his favorite mistress seemed to be to acquire wealth and spend
+it lavishly for her own pleasure. Voluptuousness, cruelty, and
+extravagance were the keynotes of the time. All means were used to
+procure revenues, the king easing any pangs of conscience by burning a
+few heretics whose estates were then quickly confiscated.
+
+Diana, even at the age of sixty, still held Henry in her toils; an
+easy prey for the wiles of the flatterer, he was kept in ignorance of
+the hatred and anger heaping up against him. In the midst of riotous
+festivity, Henry II. died, a victim of the lance of Montgomery;
+and the twelve years' reign of debauchery, cruelty, and shameless
+extravagance came to an end.
+
+Whatever else may be said of Diana, she proved to be a liberal
+patroness of art and letters; this was possible for her, since,
+in addition to inherited wealth and the gifts of lands and jewels
+from the king, she procured the possessions of many heretics whose
+confiscated wealth was assigned to her as a faithful servant and
+supporter of the church.
+
+Her hotel at Anet was one of the most elaborate, tasteful, and elegant
+in all France; there the finest specimens of Italian sculpture,
+painting, and woodwork were to be seen. The king, upon making her
+a duchess, presented her with the beautiful chateau of Chenonceaux,
+which was so much coveted by Catherine. The latter attempted to make
+Diana pay for the chateau, thus interrupting her plans for building;
+upon discovering this, Henry sent his own artists and workmen to carry
+out Diana's desires. Such was the power of his mistress over the weak
+king that he respected her wishes far more than he did those of his
+queen. This was one of those instances in which Catherine saw fit to
+remain silent and plan revenge.
+
+The death of Diana of Poitiers was that common to all women of her
+position. She died in 1566, forgotten by the world--her world. In
+her will she made "provision for religious houses, to be opened to
+women of evil lives, as if, in the depth of her conscience, she
+had recognized the likeness between their destiny and her own."
+Like the former mistresses, she had been required to give up the
+jewels received from Henry II.; but as this order was from Francis
+II. instead of from his mistress, the gems were returned to the
+crown after having passed successively through the hands of three
+mistresses.
+
+Catherine's time had not yet come, for she dared not interfere
+when Mary Stuart (a beautiful, inexperienced, and impetuous girl of
+seventeen) gained ascendency over Francis II.--a mere boy. The house
+of Guise was then supreme and began its bloody campaign against its
+enemies; fortunately, however, its power was short-lived, for in 1560
+the king died after reigning only seventeen months. At this point,
+Catherine enters upon the scene of action. Jealous of Mary Stuart
+and fearing that the young king, Charles IX., then but ten years old,
+might become infatuated with her and marry her, she promptly returned
+the fair young woman to Scotland.
+
+The task before the regent was no light one; her kingdom was
+divided against itself, the country was overburdened with taxes, and
+discontent reigned universally. All who surrounded her were full of
+prejudice and actuated solely by personal aspirations--she realized
+that she could trust no one.
+
+Her first act of a political nature was to rescue the house of
+Valois and solidify the royal authority. Some critics maintain that
+she began her reign with moderation, gentleness, impartiality, and
+reconciliation. This view finds support in the fact that during the
+first years she favored Protestantism; finding, however, that the
+latter was weakening royal power and that the country at large was
+opposed to it, she became its most bitter enemy. To the Protestants
+and their plottings she attributed all the disastrous effects of the
+civil war, all thefts, murders, incests, and adulteries, as well
+as the profanation of the sepulchres of the ancestors of the royal
+family, the burning of the bones of Louis XI. and of the heart of
+Francis II.
+
+The Machiavellian policy was Catherine's guide; bitter experience had
+robbed her of all faith in humanity--she had learned to despise it
+and the judgment of her contemporaries. At first she was amiable and
+polite, seemingly intent upon pleasing those with whom she talked;
+in fact, it is said that she was then more often accused of excessive
+mildness and moderation than of the violence and cruelty which later
+characterized her. Experience having taught her how to deal with
+people, she never lost her self-control.
+
+Subsequent history shows that any gentle and conciliatory policy of
+Catherine was merely a method of furthering her own interests, and
+was therefore not the outcome of any inborn feeling of sympathy or
+womanly tenderness. Whether her signing of the Edict of Saint-Germain,
+admitting the Protestants to all employments and granting them the
+privilege of Calvinistic worship in two cities of every province, and
+her refusal, upon the urgent solicitations of her son-in-law, Philip
+II., to persecute heretics were really snares laid for the Huguenots,
+is a matter which historians have not decided.
+
+Inasmuch as the entire history of France plays about the personality
+of Catherine de' Medici, no attempt will be made to give a detailed
+chronological account of her career; the results, rather than the
+events themselves, will be given. M. Saint-Amand, in his work on
+_French Women of the Valois Court_, presents one of the strongest
+pictures drawn of Catherine. We shall follow him in the greater part
+of this sketch.
+
+According to some historians, Catherine was a mere intriguer, without
+talent or ability, living but in the moment, often caught in her
+own snares; according to others, by her intelligence, ability, and
+strength of character she advanced a cause truly national--that of
+French unity; thus, she worked either the ruin or the salvation of
+France. Michelet calls her a nonentity, a stage queen with merely
+the externals--the attire--of royalty, remaining exactly on a level
+with the rulers of the smaller Italian principalities, contriving
+everything and fearing everything, with no more heart than she had
+sense or temperament. Being a female, she loved her young; she loved
+the arts, but cared to cultivate only their externalities. In this,
+however, Michelet goes to an extreme; for no woman ever lived who had
+so great a talent for intrigues and politics as she--a very type of
+the deceit and cunning which were inherent in her race. If she were
+not important, had not wielded so much influence and decided the
+fate of so many great men, women, and even states, she would not
+be the subject of so much writing, of such fierce denunciation
+and strong praise. To her family, France owes her finest palaces,
+her masterpieces of art--painting, bookmaking, printing, binding,
+sculpture.
+
+M. Saint-Amand declares that "isolated from her contemporaries,
+Catherine de' Medici is a monster; brought back within the circle of
+their passions and their theories, she once more becomes a woman."
+But Catherine was the instigator, the embodiment of all that is vice,
+deceit, cunning, trickery, wickedness, and bold intrigue; she set
+the example, and her ladies followed her in all that she did; "the
+heroines bred in her school (and what woman was not in her school?)
+imitate, with docility, the examples she gives them." She was not
+only the type of her civilization,--brutal, gross, immoral, elegant,
+polished, and _mondain_,--but she was also its leader.
+
+Greatness of soul, real moral force, strict virtue, are not attributes
+of the sixteenth-century woman--they are isolated and rare exceptions;
+these Catherine did not possess. Nor was she influenced deeply by
+her environments; the latter but encouraged and developed those
+qualities which were hers inherently,--will, intelligence, inflexible
+perseverance, tenacity of purpose, unscrupulousness, cruelty;
+hence, to say "She is the victim rather than the inspiration of the
+corruption of her time" is misleading, to say the least. If, upon
+her arrival at court, "she at once pleased every one by her grace and
+affability, modest air, and, above all, by her extreme gentleness,"
+she could not have changed, say her defenders, into the perfidious,
+wicked, and cruel creature she is said to have become as soon as she
+stepped into power. "During the reign of Henry II., she wisely avoided
+all danger; faithful to her wifely duties, she gave no cause for
+scandal, and, realizing that she was not strong enough to overcome her
+all-powerful rival, she bided her time. She was loved and respected by
+everyone for her personal qualities and her benevolence." But why
+may it not be true that all this was but part of her politics, the
+politics in which she had been educated? Wise from experience, she
+foresaw the future and what was in store for her if she remained
+prudent and made the best of the surroundings until the time should
+come when she could strike suddenly and boldly.
+
+Brought up from infancy amidst snares, intrigues, the clash of arms,
+the furious shouts of popular insurrections, tempests, and storms, she
+could not escape the influence of her early environment. Her talent
+for studying and penetrating the designs of her enemies, for facing or
+avoiding dangers with such sublime calmness and prudence, was partly
+inherited, partly acquired. That spirit she took with her to France,
+where her experience was widened and her opportunities for the study
+of human nature were increased.
+
+It is not generally known that her mother was a French woman--a
+Madeleine de La Tour d'Auvergne, daughter of Jean, Count of Boulogne,
+and Catherine of Bourbon, daughter of the Count of Vendome; thus, her
+gentler nature was a French product. Her mother and father both died
+when she was but twenty-two days old, and from that time until her
+marriage she was cast about from place to place. But from the very
+first she showed that talent of adapting herself to her surroundings,
+living amidst intrigues and discords and yet making friends. She
+has been called "the precocious heiress of the craftiness of her
+progenitors."
+
+In her thirteenth year, after being sought by many powerful princes,
+Clement VII. (her greatuncle), in order to secure himself against the
+powerful Charles V., married her to Henry, Duke of Orleans, the second
+son of Francis I. Even at that early age she was fully aware of all
+the dreariness and danger attached to positions of power, and knew
+that the art of governing was not an easy one. She had studied
+Machiavelli's famous work, _The Prince_, which had been dedicated to
+her father, and it was from it, as well as from her ancestors, that
+she derived her wisdom and astuteness. Her childhood had prepared
+her for the work of the future, and she went at it with caution and
+reserve until she was sure of her ground.
+
+She first proceeded to study the king, Francis I., watching his
+actions, extracting his secrets; a fine huntress and at his side
+constantly, she pleased him and gained his favor. Brantome says
+she was subtle and diplomatic, quickly learning the craft of her
+profession; she sought friends among all classes and ranks, directing
+her overtures specially toward the ladies of the court, whom she soon
+won and gathered about her.
+
+In 1536 the dauphin died, and Catherine's husband became heir to
+the throne of France. Though they had been married three years,
+no offspring had resulted, which unfortunate circumstance made her
+position a most uncertain one, especially as Diana of Poitiers was
+then at the height of her power, controlling Henry absolutely. A
+furious rivalry sprang up between the Duchesse d'Etampes, mistress
+of Francis I., and Diana and Catherine; the two mistresses formed two
+parties, and a war of slanders, calumnies, and unpleasant epigrams
+ensued. Queen Eleanor, the second wife of Francis I., took no active
+part, thus leaving all power in the hands of the mistress of her
+husband. (It was at this time that the Emperor Charles V. gained the
+Duchesse d'Etampes over to his cause.) Poets and artists, politicians
+and men of genius took sides, extolling the beauty of the one they
+championed. Catherine, although befriended and treated with apparent
+respect by Diana, remained a good friend to both women, thus evincing
+her tact. By keeping her own personality in the background, she won
+the esteem of both her husband and the king.
+
+Brantome leaves a picture of Catherine at this time: "She was a fine
+and ample figure; very majestic, yet agreeable and very gentle when
+necessary; beautiful and gracious in appearance, her face fair and her
+throat white and full, very white in body likewise.... Moreover, she
+dressed superbly, always having some pretty innovation. In brief,
+she had beauties fitted to inspire love. She laughed readily, her
+disposition was jovial, and she liked to jest." M. Saint-Amand
+continues: "The artistic elegance that surrounded her whole person,
+the tranquil and benevolent expression of her countenance, the good
+taste of her dress, the exquisite distinction of her manners, all
+contributed to her charm. And then she was so humble in the presence
+of her husband! She so carefully avoided whatever might have the
+semblance of reproach! She closed her eyes with such complaisance!
+Henry told himself that it would be difficult to find another woman
+so well-disposed, another wife so faithful to her duties, another
+princess so accomplished in point of instruction and intelligence. The
+_menage a trois_ (household of three) was continued, therefore, and if
+the dauphin loved his mistress, he certainly had a friendship for his
+wife. And, on her part, whenever she felt an inclination to complain
+of her lot, Catherine bethought herself that if she quitted her
+position she would probably find no refuge but the cloister, and
+that--taking it all around--the court of France (in spite of the
+humiliations and vexations one might experience there) was an abode
+more desirable than a convent;" this, then, is the secret of her
+submission. In spite of her beauty, mildness, and distinction of
+manner, she could not overcome the prestige of Diana.
+
+After nine years, Catherine was still without children and began to
+fear the fate in store for her; but when she gave birth to a son in
+1543, she felt assured that divorce no longer threatened her and she
+resolved that as soon as she came into power she would be revenged
+upon her enemies and Diana of Poitiers. When, in 1547, her husband
+succeeded his father as King of France, she did not feel that the time
+had yet arrived to interfere in any social or domestic arrangements
+or affairs of state; not until ten years later did she show the first
+sign of remarkable statesmanship or ability as a politician.
+
+After the battle and capture of Saint-Quentin, France was in a most
+deplorable state; the enemy was believed to be beneath the walls of
+Paris; everybody was fleeing; the king had gone to Compiegne to muster
+a new army. Catherine was alone in Paris "and of her own free will
+went to the Parliament in full state, accompanied by the cardinals,
+princes, and princesses; and there, in the most impressive language,
+she set forth the urgent state of affairs at the moment.... With so
+much sentiment and eloquence that she touched the heart of everybody,
+the queen then explained to the Parliament that the king had need of
+three hundred thousand livres, twenty-five thousand to be paid every
+two months; and she added that she would retire from the place of
+session, so as not to interfere with the liberty of discussion;
+accordingly, she retired to another room. A resolution to comply with
+the wishes of her majesty was voted, and the queen, having resumed her
+place, received a promise to that effect. A hundred nobles of the
+city offered to give at once three thousand francs apiece. The queen
+thanked them in the sweetest form of words, and thus terminated this
+session of Parliament--with so much applause for her majesty and such
+lively marks of satisfaction at her behavior, that no idea can be
+given of them. Throughout the city, nothing was spoken of but the
+queen's prudence and the happy manner in which she proceeded in this
+enterprise" (Guizot). From this act dates Catherine's entrance into
+political consideration.
+
+During the reign of Francis II., Catherine de' Medici exercised no
+influence at court, the king being completely under the dominion
+of his wife and the Duke of Guise, who was not favorable to the
+queen-mother's schemes and policies. Catherine, however, was plotting;
+caring little about religion so long as it did not further her plans,
+she connected herself with the Huguenots; her scheme was to bring the
+Guises to destruction and to form a council of regency which, while
+composed of the Huguenot leaders, was to be under her guidance. As
+this plan failed, bringing ruin to many princes, she deserted the
+Huguenots and allied herself with the Catholics.
+
+She is next found attempting the assassination of the Duke of Conde,
+but she failed to accomplish that crime because her son, the king,
+refused his consent. Soon after, Francis II. died, it is said from
+the effect of poison dropped into his ear while he was sleeping; it
+is probable that this crime was committed at the instigation of the
+mother, since by his death and the accession of Charles IX. she became
+regent (1560). She was then all-powerful and in a position to exercise
+her long dormant talents.
+
+Her first plan was to incapacitate all her children by plunging
+them "into such licentious pleasure and voluptuous dissipation
+that they were speedily unfitted for mental activity or exertion."
+Most unprejudiced historians credit her with the Massacre of Saint
+Bartholomew; she is said to have boasted about it to Catholic
+governments and excused it to Protestant powers. For a number of
+years, she had been planning the destruction of the Huguenot princes,
+and as early as 1565 she and Charles IX. had an interview with the
+Duke of Alva (representative of Philip II), to consult as to the means
+of delivering France from heretics. It was decided that "this great
+blessing could not have accomplishment save by the deaths of all the
+leaders of the Huguenots."
+
+That fearful crime, the bloody Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, is
+familiar to everyone. The only excuse offered for this most heinous of
+Catherine's many offences is her intense sentiment of national unity;
+the actual reason for it is to be sought in the fact that as long
+as the Protestants retained their prestige and influence, Catherine
+and her Catholic party could not do as they pleased, could not
+gain absolute control over the government. History holds her more
+responsible than it does her weak son. The climax came on the occasion
+of the wedding of Marguerite of Valois with the Prince of Navarre,
+which meant the union of the branches--the Catholic and the
+Protestant. This resulted in the first breach between the king and
+Catherine; the latter at that time perpetrated one of her dastardly
+deeds by poisoning the mother of the Prince of Navarre--Jeanne
+d'Albret, her bitter enemy.
+
+After the death of Charles IX., Henry III. was the sole survivor of
+the four sons of Catherine. Although her power was limited during his
+reign, she managed to continue her murderous plans and accomplished
+the death of Henry of Guise and his brother the cardinal, which crime
+united the majority of the Catholics of France against the king and
+was the cause of his assassination in 1589. This ended the power of
+Catherine de' Medici; when she died, no one rejoiced, no one lamented.
+Wherever she had turned her eyes, she had seen nothing but occasions
+for uneasiness and sadness; she had retired from court, feeling her
+helplessness and disgrace as well as the decline in power of that son
+in whom her hopes were centred. She decided to reenter the scene of
+action and save Henry. The stormy scenes of the Barricades and the
+League and the murder of the Duke of Guise hastened her death, which
+occurred in 1589.
+
+Catherine de' Medici may rightfully be called the initiator and
+organizer of social and court etiquette and courtesy--of conventional
+and social laws. However great her political activity, she made
+herself deeply felt in the social and moral worlds also. She taught
+her husband the secret of being king; she introduced the _lever_
+audience; in the afternoon of every day, she held a reunion of all the
+ladies of the court, at which the king was to be found after dinner
+and every lord entertained the lady he most loved; two hours were
+spent in this pleasure which was continued after supper if there were
+no balls; bitter railleries and anything that passed the restrictions
+of good company were forbidden.
+
+Her ladies of honor obeyed her as they would their God. Marguerite
+of Valois said of her: "I did not dare to speak to her, and when
+she looked at me I trembled for fear of having done something that
+displeased her." Ladies who had been delinquent were stripped and
+beaten with lashes; for correction--frequently for mere pastime--she
+would have them undressed and slapped vigorously with the back of
+the hand. Francoise of Rohan, cousin of Jeanne d'Albret, wrote the
+following poem:
+
+  "Plus j'ai de toi souvent este battue,
+  Plus mon amour s'efforce et s'evertue
+  De regretter ceste main qui me bat;
+  Car ce mal-la m'estait plaisant esbat.
+  Or, adieu done la main dont la rigueur
+  Je preferais a tout bien et honneur."
+
+[The more often I have been struck by you, the more my love struggles
+and strives to regret the hand that beats me; for that punishment
+was a pleasant pastime for me. Now farewell to the hand whose rigor I
+preferred to every fortune and honor.]
+
+The following portrait and poetry, taken from M. Saint-Amand, does
+the subject full justice: "Catherine de' Medici represented with a
+sinister glance, deadly mien, mysterious and savage aspect--a spectre,
+not a woman--is not true to nature. Her self-possession, cool cunning,
+supreme elegance, imperturbable tranquillity, calmness, moderation,
+noble serenity, and dignified poise, gave her an individuality such as
+few women ever possessed. Gentle in crime and tragedy, polite like an
+executioner toward his victim--this Machiavellianism which is equal
+to every trial, which nothing alarms or surprises, and which
+with tranquil dexterity makes sport of every law of morality and
+humanity--this is the real character of Catherine de' Medici." The
+following burlesque poetry was composed for her:
+
+  "La reine qui ci-git fut un diable et un ange,
+  Toute pleine de blame et pleine de louange,
+  Elle soutint l'Etat, et l'Etat mit a bas;
+  Elle fit maints accords et pas moins de debats;
+  Elle enfanta trois rois et trois guerres civiles,
+  Fit batir des chateaux et ruiner des villes,
+  Fit bien de bonnes lois et de mauvais edits.
+  Souhaite-lui, passant, enfer et paradis."
+
+[The queen lying here was both devil and angel, blamed and praised;
+she both put down and upheld the state; she caused many an agreement
+and no end of disputes; she produced three kings and three civil wars;
+she built castles and ruined cities, made many good laws and many bad
+decrees. Wish her, passer-by, hell and paradise.]
+
+With the reign of Henry IV.--the first king of the house of Bourbon,
+and the first king of the sixteenth century with a will of his own and
+the courage to assert it--begins a period of revelling, debauch, and
+the most depraved immorality. Three mistresses in turn controlled
+him--morally, not politically.
+
+Henry was master of his own will, and, had he desired to do so, could
+have overcome his evil tendencies; instead, he openly countenanced and
+even encouraged dissoluteness and elegant debauchery, as long as he
+himself was not deprived of the lady upon whom his capricious fancy
+happened to fall. His advances were but seldom repulsed; but upon
+making his usual audacious proposals to the Marquise de Guercheville,
+he was informed that she was of too insignificant a house to be the
+king's wife and of too good a race to be his mistress; and when the
+king, in spite of this rebuff, made her lady of honor to his wife,
+Marie de' Medici, she continued to resist him and remained virtuous.
+Such types of purity, honor, and moral courage were very exceptional
+during this reign.
+
+The three principal mistresses of this sovereign represent three
+phases of influence and three periods of his life. Corisande
+d'Andouins, Comtesse de Guiche and Duchesse de Gramont, fascinated him
+for eight years, while he was King of Navarre (1582-1590); to her he
+was deeply attached, and recompensed her for her devotion; this is
+called his _chevaleresque_ period. The beautiful Gabrielle d'Estrees,
+Duchesse de Beaufort, was called his mate after victory; "she refined,
+sharpened, softened, and tamed his customs; she made him king of the
+court instead of the field." It was she who ventured to meddle in his
+politics, she whom Marguerite of Valois, his wife, so detested that
+she refused to consent to a divorce as long as Gabrielle (by whom he
+had several children) remained his mistress. The latter even went so
+far as to demand the baptism, as a child of France, of her son by the
+king. Sully, in a rage, declared there were no "children of France,"
+and took the order to the king, who had it destroyed; he then asked
+his minister to go to his mistress and satisfy her, "in so far as you
+can." To his efforts she replied: "I am aware of all, and do not care
+to hear any more; I am not made as the king is, whom you persuade that
+black is white." Upon receiving this report, the king said: "Here,
+come with me; I will let you see that women have not the possession
+of me that certain malignant spirits say they have." Accompanied by
+Sully, he immediately went to the Duchesse de Beaufort, and, taking
+her by the hand, said: "Now, madame, let us go into your room, and let
+nobody else enter except Rosny. I want to speak to you both and teach
+you how to be good friends." Then, having closed the door, holding
+Gabrielle with one hand and Rosny with the other, he said: "Good God,
+madame! What is the meaning of this? So you would vex me from sheer
+wantonness of heart in order to try my patience? By God, I swear to
+you that, if you continue these fashions of going on, you will find
+yourself very much out in your expectations! I see quite well that you
+have been put up to all this pleasantry in order to make me dismiss
+a servant whom I cannot do without, and who has served me loyally for
+five-and-twenty years. By God, I will do nothing of the kind! And I
+declare to you that if I were reduced to such a necessity as to
+choose between losing one or the other, I could better do without ten
+mistresses like you than one servant like him." Shortly after this
+episode, Gabrielle died so suddenly that she was supposed to have been
+poisoned. Immediately after her death the divorce was granted, and
+Henry married Marie de' Medici.
+
+The third mistress, Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues, Marquise de
+Verneuil, who led Henry IV. along a path of the worst debauchery,
+gained control over him by lewd, lascivious methods. While
+negotiations were being carried on for his divorce from Marguerite,
+only a few weeks after the death of Gabrielle, he signed a promise to
+marry Henriette; this, however, he failed to keep. She, more than any
+other of his mistresses, was the cause of national distress and of
+more than one ruinous war. When, after the marriage of the king
+to Marie de' Medici, Henriette began to nag, rail, intrigue, and
+conspire, she was disgraced by Henry, who at least had the courage to
+honor his own family above that of his mistresses. She is accused of
+having had, solely from motives of revenge, a hand in the death of the
+king.
+
+Thus, around the queens-regent and the mistresses of the kings of
+France in the sixteenth century there is constant intriguing, murder,
+assassination, immorality, and debauchery, jealousy and revenge,
+marriage and divorce, honor and disgrace, despotism and final
+repentance and misery. The greatest and lowest of these women
+was Catherine de' Medici; Diana of Poitiers was famed as the most
+marvellously beautiful woman in France, and she was the most powerful
+and intelligent mistress until the time of Mme. de Pompadour. Amid all
+this bribery and corruption, elegant and refined immorality, there
+are some few types that represent education, family life, purity, and
+culture.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter II
+
+Woman in Family Life, Education, and Letters
+
+
+The queens of France exerted little or no influence upon the cultural
+or political development of that country. Frequently of foreign
+extraction and reared in the strict religious discipline of
+Catholicism, they spent their time in attending masses, aiding the
+poor and, with the little money allowed them, erecting hospitals and
+other institutions for the weak and needy. Thus, they are, as a rule,
+types of gentleness, virtue, piety, and self-sacrifice.
+
+The little information which history gives concerning them is confined
+mainly to their matrimonial alliances. To them, marriage represented
+nothing more than a contract--a union entered into for the purpose of
+settling some political negotiation; thus they were often cast upon
+strange and unfriendly soil where intrigues and jealousy immediately
+affected them.
+
+Seldom did they venture to interfere with the intrigues of the
+mistress; in their uncertain position, any manifestation of resentment
+or opposition resulted in humiliation and disgrace; if wise, they
+contented themselves with quietly performing their functions as
+dutiful wives. Such women were Claude, daughter of Louis XII., and
+Eleanor of Spain--wives of Francis I.; lacking the power to act
+politically, both passed uneventful and virtuous lives in comparative
+obscurity. The wife of Charles IX.--Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of
+Maximilian II.--had absolutely no control over her husband; however,
+he condescended to flatter himself with having, as he said, "in an
+amiable wife, the wisest and most virtuous woman not only of France
+and Europe, but of the universe." Her nature is well portrayed in
+the answer she gave to the remark made to her, after the death of her
+husband: "Ah, Madame, what a misfortune that you have no son! Your
+lot would be less pitiful and you would be queen-mother and regent."
+"Alas, do not suggest such a disagreeable thing!" she replied. "As
+if France had not afflictions enough without my producing another to
+complete its ruin! For, if I had a son, there would be more divisions
+and troubles, more seditions to obtain the administration and
+guardianship during his infancy and minority; all would try to profit
+themselves by despoiling the poor child--as they wanted to do with the
+late king, my husband." Returning to Austria, she erected a convent,
+treated the nuns as friends and refused to marry again even to ascend
+the throne of Spain.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III, was a French woman by
+birth and blood. After the death of the Princess of Conde, whom he
+passionately loved and desired to marry, Henry conceived an intense
+affection for Louise, daughter of Nicholas of Lorraine, Count of
+Vaudemont--a young lady of education and culture--"a character of
+exquisite sweetness lends distinction to her beauty and her piety;
+her thorough Christian modesty and humility are reflected in her
+countenance." Brantome wrote: "This princess deserves great praise;
+in her married life she comported herself so wisely, chastely, and
+loyally toward the king that the nuptial tie which bound her to him
+always remained firm and indissoluble,--was never found loosened or
+undone,--even though the king liked and sometimes procured a change,
+according to the custom of the great who keep their full liberty."
+Soon after the marriage, however, Henry began to make life unpleasant
+for the queen, one of his petty acts being to deprive her of the moral
+ladies in waiting whom she had brought with her.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont was a striking contrast to the perverted woman of
+the day; the latter, no longer charmed by the gentler emotions, sought
+the exaggerated and the eccentric, extraordinary incidents, dramatic
+situations, unexpected crises, finding all amusements insipid unless
+they involved fighting and romantic catastrophes. "_Billets doux_ were
+written in blood and ferocity reigned even in pleasure."
+
+In the midst of this turmoil, Louise busied herself with charity,
+appearing among the poor and distributing all the funds which her
+father gave her for pocket money; the evils of her surroundings threw
+her virtues, by contrast, into so much the brighter light. Though she
+held herself aloof from intrigues and rivalries, favoring no one and
+encouraging no slander, she was, strange to say, respected, admired
+and honored by Protestants and Catholics alike.
+
+Calumny and all the agitations about her did not disturb Louise in her
+prayers. "The waves of the angry ocean broke at the foot of the
+altar as the queen knelt; but Huguenots and Catholics, leaguers and
+royalists, united to pay her homage. They were amazed to see such
+purity in an atmosphere so corrupt, such gentleness in a society so
+violent. Their eyes rested with satisfaction on a countenance whose
+holy tranquillity was undisturbed by pride and hatred. The famous
+women of the century, wretched in spite of all their amusements and
+their feverish pursuit of pleasure, made salutary reflections as they
+contemplated a woman still more highly honored for her virtues than
+for her crown." That she was not a mother was, with her, an enduring
+sorrow; even that, however, did not alter her calmness and benign
+resignation.
+
+Louise de Vaudemont was indeed a bright star in a heaven of
+darkness--one of the best queens of whom French history can boast;
+she is an example of goodness and gentleness, of purity, charity, and
+fidelity in a world of corruption, cruelty, hatred, and debauch--where
+sympathy was rare and chastity was ridiculed. Although a highly
+educated woman, the faithful performance of her duties as queen and
+as a devout Catholic left her little time for literature and art; she
+remains the type of piety and purity--an ideal queen and woman.
+
+A heroine in the fullest sense of that word was Jeanne d'Albret, the
+great champion of Protestantism; she was the mother of Henry IV. and
+the wife of the Duke of Bourbon, Count of Vendome, a direct descendant
+of Saint Louis. This despotic, combative, and war-loving queen reigned
+as absolute monarch, and was as autocratic and severe as Calvin
+himself, confiscating church property, destroying pictures and
+altars--even going so far as to forbid the presence of her subjects
+at mass or in religious processions. "Her natural eloquence, the
+lightning flashes from her eyes, her reputation as a Spartan matron
+and an intractable Calvinist, all contributed to give her great
+influence with her party. The military leaders--Coligny, La
+Rochefoucauld, Rohan, La Noue--submitted their plans of campaign to
+her."
+
+Though Jeanne was, perhaps, as fanatical, intolerant, and cruel as her
+adversaries, she was driven to this by the hostility shown her by
+the Catholic party--a party in which she felt she could place no
+confidence. Her retreat was amid rocks and inaccessible peaks, whence
+she defied both the pope and Philip II. She brought up her son--the
+future Henry IV.--among the children of the people, exercising toward
+him the severest discipline, and inuring him to the cold of the winter
+and the heat of the summer; she taught him to be judicious, sincere,
+and compassionate--qualities which she possessed to a remarkable
+degree. Chaste and pure herself, she considered the court of France
+a hotbed of voluptuousness and debauchery, and at every opportunity
+strengthened herself against its possible influence.
+
+The political and religious troubles of Jeanne d'Albret began when
+Pope Paul IV. invested Philip II. of Spain with the sovereignty of
+Navarre--her territory; she resisted, and, following the impulses of
+her own nature, formally embraced Calvinism, while her weak husband
+acceded to the commands of the Church, and, applying to the pope for
+the annulment of his marriage, was prepared, as lieutenant-general of
+the kingdom, a position he accepted from the pontiff, to deprive
+his wife of her possessions. His death before the realization of his
+project made it possible for Jeanne to retain her sovereignty; alone,
+an absolute monarch, she declared Calvinism the established religion
+of Navarre. After the assassination of Conde she remained the champion
+of the Huguenots, defying her enemies and scorning the court of
+France.
+
+So great were her power and influence over the soldiery that Catherine
+de' Medici, her bitter enemy, desiring to bring her into her power,
+or, at least, to conciliate her, planned a marriage between Jeanne's
+son and Marguerite of Valois--sister of Charles IX. When the
+suggestion that the marriage should take place came from the king of
+France, Jeanne d'Albret suspected an ambush; with the determination
+to supervise personally all arrangements for the nuptials, she set
+out for the French court. Venerated by the Protestants, and hated but
+admired by the Catholics, she had become celebrated throughout Europe
+for her beauty, intelligence, and strength of mind; thus, her arrival
+at Paris created a sensation.
+
+She was so scandalized at the luxury and bold debauchery at court that
+she decided to give up the marriage; she had detected the intrigues
+and falsity of both the king and Catherine, and had a foreboding of
+evil. She wrote to her son Henry:
+
+"Your betrothed is beautiful, very circumspect and graceful, but
+brought up in the worst company that ever existed (for I do not see
+a single one who is not infected by it) ... I would not for anything
+have you come here to live; this is why I desire you to marry and
+withdraw yourself and your wife from this corruption which (bad as I
+supposed it to be) I find still worse than I thought. Here, it is not
+the men who invite the women, but the women who invite the men. If you
+were here, you could not escape contamination without a great grace
+from God."
+
+In the meantime, Catherine, undecided whether to strike immediately or
+to wait, was redoubling her kindness and courtesy and her affectionate
+overtures; her enemies were in her hands. Although Jeanne suspected
+that Catherine was capable of every perfidy, she at times believed
+that her suspicions were unjust or exaggerated. The situation between
+these two great women was indeed a dramatic one: both were tactful,
+powerful, experienced in war and diplomacy; both were mothers with
+children for whose future they sought to provide. Jeanne's hesitancy,
+however, was fatal; physically exhausted from suffering and sorrow,
+worry and excitement, she suddenly died, in the midst of her
+preparations for the marriage. While it is not absolutely certain that
+her death was due to poison, subsequent events lead strongly to the
+belief that Catherine was instrumental in causing it--that, probably,
+being but the first act toward the awful catastrophe she was planning.
+
+"A few hours before her agony, Jeanne dictated the provisions of her
+will. She recommended her son to remain faithful to the religion
+in which she had reared him, never to permit himself to be lured by
+voluptuousness and corruption, and to banish atheists, flatterers, and
+libertines.... She begged him to take his sister, Catherine, under his
+protection and to be, after God, her father. 'I forbid my son ever
+to use severity towards his sister; I wish, to the contrary, that he
+treat her with gentleness and kindness; and that--above all--he have
+her brought up in Bearn, and that she shall never leave there until
+she is old enough to be married to a prince of her own rank and
+religion, whose morals shall be such that the spouses may live happily
+together in a good and holy marriage.'" D'Aubigne wrote of her:
+"A princess with nothing of a woman but sex--with a soul full of
+everything manly, a mind fit to cope with affairs of moment, and a
+heart invincible in adversity."
+
+It was in deep mourning that her son, then King of Navarre, arrived at
+Paris; the eight hundred gentlemen who attended him were all likewise
+in mourning. "But," says Marguerite de Valois, "the nuptials took
+place in a few days, with triumph and magnificence that none others,
+of even my quality, had ever beheld. The King of Navarre and his troop
+changed their mourning for very rich and fine clothes, I being dressed
+royally, with crown and corsage of tufted ermine all blazing with
+crown jewels, and, the grand blue mantle with a train four ells long
+borne by three princesses. The people down below, in their eagerness
+to see us as we passed, choked one another." (Thus quickly was Jeanne
+d'Albret forgotten.) The ceremonies were gorgeous, lasting four days;
+but when Admiral Coligny, the Huguenot leader, was struck in the hand
+by a musket ball, the festive aspect of affairs suddenly changed.
+On the second day after the wounding of Coligny, and before the
+excitement caused by that act had subsided, Catherine accomplished
+the crowning work of her invidious nature, the tragedy of Saint
+Bartholomew.
+
+Peace and quiet never appeared upon the countenance of Catherine
+de' Medici--that woman who so faithfully represents and pictures the
+period, the tendencies of which she shaped and fostered by her own
+pernicious methods; and Charles IX., her son, was no better than his
+mother. Saint-Amand, in his splendid picture of the period, gives a
+truthful picture of Catherine as well: "It is interesting to observe
+how curiously the later Valois represented their epoch. Francis I. had
+personified the Renaissance; Charles IX. sums up in himself all the
+crises of the religious wars--he is the true type of the morbid and
+disturbed society where all is violent; where the blood is scorched
+by the double fevers of pleasure and cruelty; where the human soul,
+without guide or compass, is tossed amid storms; where fanaticism
+is joined to debauchery, superstition to incredulity, cultured
+intelligence to depravity of heart. This wholly unbalanced
+character--which stretches evil to its utmost limits while preserving
+the knowledge of what is good, which mistrusts everybody and yet
+has at least the aspiration toward friendship and love, if not its
+experience--is it not the symbol and living image of its time?"
+
+Marguerite de Valois, sister of Charles IX. and wife of Henry IV., by
+her own actions and intrigues exercised little influence politically;
+she was, above all else, a woman of culture and may be taken as an
+example of the type which was largely instrumental in developing
+social life in France. Famous for her beauty, talents, and profligacy,
+it seems that historians are prone to dwell too exclusively upon the
+last quality, overlooking her principal role--that of social leader.
+
+She first came into prominence through her relations with the Duke of
+Guise who paid assiduous court to her for some time; for a while, no
+topic was more discussed than that of their marriage. When, however,
+Charles IX. heard that the duke had been carrying on a secret
+correspondence with his sister, he exclaimed, savagely: "If it be so,
+we will kill him!" Thereupon, the duke hurriedly contracted a marriage
+with Catherine of Cleves. That Marguerite, at this early date, had
+become the mistress of Henry of Guise is hardly likely and becomes
+even less probable when it is considered how closely she was watched
+by her mother, Catherine de' Medici.
+
+Her marriage, previously mentioned, to Henry of Navarre was a mere
+political match, there being absolutely no love, no affection, no
+sympathy. This union was looked upon as the surest covenant of peace
+between Catholicism and Protestantism and put an end to the disastrous
+religious wars that had been carried on uninterruptedly for years;
+both the parties to this contract lived at court, leading an existence
+of pleasure and immorality. Remarkably intelligent, Marguerite was a
+scholar of no mean ability; she displayed much wit and talent, but
+no judgment or discretion; though conveying the impression of being
+rather haughty and proud, she lacked both self respect and true
+dignity. Her beauty was marvellous, but "calculated, to ruin and damn
+men rather than to save them."
+
+Henry, the husband of Marguerite, was constantly sneered at and
+taunted by the Catholics; although Catholic in name he was Protestant
+at heart and keenly felt his false position. During Catherine's short
+term as queen-regent, he was held in captivity until the arrival
+of Henry III., when he escaped to his own Bearn people; for this,
+Marguerite was held responsible and kept under guard.
+
+Although hating his religion, his wife went to live with him,
+tolerating his infidelities while he refused to tolerate her religion.
+The unhappiness of this marriage was not due to Marguerite alone; the
+first trouble arose when she discovered his love for his mistress,
+Gabrielle d'Estrees, and, thinking herself equally privileged,
+she began to indulge in the same excesses. The result of so many
+annoyances and debaucheries, so much vexation, was an illness; as soon
+as she became convalescent, she returned to her mother at court where
+she speedily gained the ill will of the king by her profligate habits,
+her quarrels with both Catholics and Protestants, her intimacy with
+the Duke of Guise, her plottings with her younger brother, her cutting
+satires on court favorites.
+
+She was sent back to Henry, upon the way meeting with the mishap of
+being insulted by archers and, with her maids, led away prisoner. Her
+husband was with difficulty persuaded to receive her, and, finding him
+all attentive to his mistress, Marguerite fled to Agen, where she
+made war upon him as a heretic; unable to hold her position there on
+account of her licentious manner of living and the exorbitant taxes
+imposed upon the inhabitants, she fled again and continued moving
+from one place to another, causing mischief everywhere, "consuming the
+remainder of her youth in adventures more worthy of a woman who had
+abandoned her husband than of a daughter of France." At last, she was
+seized and imprisoned in the fortress of Usson; here she was supported
+mainly by Elizabeth of Austria, widow of Charles IX.
+
+When her husband became King of France, he refused to liberate her
+until she should renounce her rank; to this condition she refused
+to accede until after the death of her rival, the mistress of
+Henry--Gabrielle d'Estrees, Duchess de Beaufort. After the annulment
+of the marriage, Marguerite said: "If our household has been little
+noble and less bourgeois, our divorce was royal." She was permitted
+to retain the title of queen, her debts were paid and other great
+concessions granted. Her subsequent relations with Henry IV. were very
+cordial and fraternal; she even revealed political plots to him.
+
+When, after nearly twenty years of captivity, Marguerite returned to
+Paris (1605), she gained the favor of everybody--the king, dauphin,
+and court ladies. She was present at the coronation of Marie de'
+Medici, and, by being tactful enough to keep apart from all intrigues,
+quarrels, and jealousies, she managed to win the good will of the
+king's favorites. She became the social leader, the queen inviting her
+to all court ceremonies and consulting her on all disputed questions
+of etiquette--even going so far as to intrust her with the reception
+of the Duke of Pastrana, who had come to ask the hand of Elizabeth
+of France. It is reported that in her last years she led a worse life
+than in her earlier days--she had become a woman of the bad world,
+resorting to every possible means to hide her age and to gain any
+vantage ground. In order to be well supplied with blond wigs, she kept
+fair-haired footmen who were shorn from time to time to furnish
+the supply. In the latter part of her life, spent at Paris and its
+vicinity, she fell a victim to hypochondria, suffering the most bitter
+pangs of remorse and terrible fear at approaching death. To alleviate
+this, she founded a convent where she taught the children music. She
+died in 1615, in Paris, "in that blended piety and coquetry which
+formed the basis of a character unable to give up gallantries and
+love."
+
+One of the very few historians who give due credit to her social
+importance and assign her the position she may rightfully command
+among French women of the sixteenth century is M. Du Bled. According
+to him, she was the leader of fashion, and in all its components
+she showed excellent taste and judgment. Forced to marry the king of
+Navarre, she said, after the ceremony: "I received from marriage all
+the evil I ever received, and I consider it the greatest plague of my
+life. They tell me that marriages are made in heaven; heaven did not
+commit such an injustice;" and this seems to be the secret of her
+"vicious life."
+
+As soon as she discovered that the king's favorites were determined
+to make life hard and disagreeable for her, she sought consolation in
+love and the toilette, in balls and fetes, in ballets and hunting, in
+promenades and gallant conversations, in tennis and carousals, and in
+an infinite variety of ingeniously planned pleasures. The spirit of
+chivalry, the habits of exalted devotion, were again in full sway
+about her. She worried little about virtue: "She had the gift of
+pleasing, was beautiful, and made full use of the liberality of the
+gods. Whatever may be said of her morals, it can truthfully be stated
+that she showed art in her love and practised it more in spirit than
+with the body." Music was a favorite art with her; she encouraged
+and rewarded singing, especially in the convent which she founded and
+where she spent almost all of her later days instructing the children.
+
+Her court at Usson, where, as a prisoner, she lived for twenty years,
+was the most brilliant and least material of all France; there poets,
+artists, and scholars were held in high esteem, and were on familiar
+footing with Marguerite; the latter showed no despotism, but, with the
+most consummate skill, directed conversations and proposed subjects,
+encouraging discussion, and skilfully drawing from her friends the
+most brilliant repartees. She received people of distinction without
+ceremony.
+
+She introduced the two elements which were combined in the
+eighteenth-century salon: a fine cuisine and freedom among her friends
+from the restraint usually imposed by distinction. She was, also,
+one of the first to have a circle--well organized according to modern
+etiquette--where the highest aristocracy, men of letters, magistrates,
+artists, and men of genius met on equal terms and in familiar and
+social intercourse; Montaigne, Brantome, and other great writers
+dedicated their works to her. She also directed a select few, an
+academy, to instruct and distract herself. It is said that every
+coquette, every bourgeois woman, and almost every court lady
+endeavored to imitate her. When she died, at the age of sixty-two,
+poets and preachers sang and chanted her merits, and all the poor wept
+over their loss; she was called the queen of the indigent. Richelieu
+mentioned her devotion to the state, her style, her eloquence, the
+grace of her hospitality, her infinite charity. "She remains, _par
+excellence_, the one great sympathetic woman of the sixteenth century;
+her admirers, during life and after death, were legion. She shared
+in the lesser evils of the century, but it cannot be said that she
+participated in the brutalities, grossness, or glaring immoralities
+of her time; her weaknesses, compared with the great debauches of the
+age, seemed like virtues."
+
+Such is this great woman of the sixteenth century, who has received
+almost universal condemnation at the hands of historians. It is to be
+taken into consideration that she was forced to marry a man whom she
+did not love, and to live in a country utterly uncongenial to
+her nature and opposed to the religion in which she was reared;
+furthermore, that her husband first defiled the marital union, thus
+driving her to follow the general tendencies of the time or to seek
+solace in religious activity, for which she had too much energy. After
+due consideration of the extenuating circumstances, her faults and
+vices, such as they were, may easily be condoned. Because she was the
+wife of a powerful Protestant king, she was condemned by Catholics and
+by them regarded with suspicion; and, in order to save herself, she
+was forced to commit unwise acts and even follies.
+
+In fine, whatever may be said against Marguerite de Valois, whom
+despair drove to acts which are not generally pardoned, she stands
+foremost among the social leaders and cultured women of the sixteenth
+century, a century whose prominent women were notorious for their
+licentiousness and lack of conscience rather than famous for their
+virtue and womanly accomplishments. Undeniably powerful and brilliant,
+these unscrupulous women were never happy; usually proud, they finally
+suffered the most cruel humiliations; "voluptuous, they found anguish
+underlying pleasure." Their misfortunes are, possibly more interesting
+than those successes of which chagrin anxiety, and heavy hearts were
+the inseparable associates.
+
+Religion, which in the sixteenth century was so badly understood, and
+practised even worse--obscured and falsified by fanaticism, disfigured
+and exaggerated by passion and hatred--was the secret cause of all
+downfalls crimes, horrors, intrigues, and brutality. Yet, it alone
+survives, and all the important figures of history return to it after
+a period of negligence and forgetfulness. In their religious aspect,
+the women of the sixteenth century differ as a rule, from those of
+the eighteenth, who, though equally powerful, witty, refined, sensual,
+frivolous, and scoffing, were far less devout; for "'tis religion
+which restores the great female sinners of the sixteenth century 'tis
+religion which saves a society ploughed up by so many elements of
+dissolution and so many causes of moral and material ruin, rescuing
+it from barbarism, vandalism, and from irretrievable decay;" but the
+women of the eighteenth century clung, to the end, to the scepticism
+and material philosophy which served them as their religion, their
+God.
+
+Among the conspicuous women of the sixteenth century to whom, thus
+far, we have been able to attribute so little of the wholesome
+and pleasing, the womanly or love-inspiring, there is one striking
+exception in Marguerite d'Angouleme, a representative of letters, art,
+culture, and morality. With the study of this character we are taken
+back to the beginning of the century and carried among men of letters
+especially, for she formed the centre of the literary world. She, her
+mother, Louise of Savoy, and her brother, Francis I., were called a
+"trinity," to the existence of which Marguerite bore witness in the
+poem:
+
+  "Such boon is mine--to feel the amity
+  That God hath putten in our trinity
+  Wherein to make a third, I, all unfitted
+  To be that number's shadow, am admitted."
+
+Marguerite inherited many of her qualities from her mother, "a most
+excellent and a most venerable dame," though anything but moral and
+conscientious; she, upon discovering that her daughter possessed rare
+intellectual gifts, provided her with teachers in every branch of the
+learning of the age. "At fifteen years of age, the spirit of God
+began to manifest itself in her eyes, in her face, in her walk, in her
+speech, and in all her actions generally." Brantome says: "She had
+a heart mightily devoted to God and she loved mightily to compose
+spiritual songs. She devoted herself to letters, also, in her young
+days and continued them as long as she lived, in the time of her
+greatness, loving and conversing with the most learned folks of her
+brother's kingdom, who honored her so greatly that they called her
+their Maecenas." Tenderness, particularly for her brother, seemed to
+develop in her as a passion.
+
+Marguerite was a rare exception in a period described by M.
+Saint-Amand as one in which women were Christian in certain aspects
+of their character and pagan in others, taking an active part in
+every event, ruling by wit and beauty, wisdom and courage; an age of
+thoughtless gaiety and morbid fanaticism, and of laughter and tears,
+still rough and savage, yet with an undercurrent of subtle grace and
+exquisite politeness; an age in which the extremes of elegance and
+cruelty were blended, in which the most glaring scepticism and intense
+superstitions were everywhere evident; an age which was religious as
+well as debauched and whose women were both good and evil, innocent
+and intriguing. Everything was fluctuating; there was inconstancy
+even in the things most affected: pleasure, pomp, display. The natural
+outcome of this undefined restlessness was dissatisfaction; and when
+dissatisfaction brought in its train the inevitable reaction against
+falseness and immorality, Marguerite d'Angouleme stood at the head of
+the movement.
+
+With her begins the cultural and moral development of France. It was
+she who encouraged that desire for a new phase of existence,
+which arose through contact with Italian culture. The men of
+learning--poets, artists, scholars--who soon gathered about the French
+court received immediate recognition from the king's sister, who had
+studied all languages, was gay, brilliant, and aesthetic. While her
+mother and brother were in harmony with the age, no better, no worse
+than their environment, Marguerite aspired to the most elevated morals
+and ideals; thus, she is a type of all that is refined, sensitive,
+loving, noble, and generous in humanity, a woman vastly superior to
+her time; in fact, the modern woman, with her highest attributes.
+
+In Marguerite d'Angouleme contemporaries admired prudence, chastity,
+moderation, piety, an invincible strength of soul, and her habit of
+"hiding her knowledge instead of displaying it." "In an age wholly
+depraved, she approached the ideal woman of modern times; in spite
+of her virtue, she was brilliant and honored, the centre of a coterie
+that delighted in music, verse, ingenious dialogues and gossip, story
+telling, singing, rhyming. Deeply afflicted by the sad and odious
+spectacle of the vices, abuses, and crimes which unroll before her,
+she suffers through her imagination, mind and heart." Serious and
+sympathetic, she was interested in every movement, feeling with those
+who were persecuted on account of their religious opinions.
+
+Various are the names by which she is known: daughter of Charles of
+Orleans, Count of Angouleme, Duchesse d'Alencon through her first
+marriage, and Queen of Navarre through her second, she was called
+Marguerite d'Angouleme, Marguerite of Navarre, of Valois, Marguerite
+de France, Marguerite des Princesses, the Fourth Grace, and the Tenth
+Muse. A most appreciative and just account of her life is given by
+M. Saint-Amand, which will be followed in the main outline of this
+sketch.
+
+She was born in 1492, and, as already stated, received a thorough
+education under the direction of her mother, Louise of Savoy. At
+seventeen she was married to Charles III., Duke of Alencon; as he
+did not prove to be her ideal, she sought consolation in love for her
+brother, sharing the almost universal admiration for the young king,
+whose tendency to favor everything new and progressive was stimulated
+by her. She became his constant and best adviser in general affairs
+as well as in those of state. The foreign ambassadors sought her after
+having accomplished their mission, and were referred to her when
+the king was busy; they were enraptured, and carried back wonderful
+reports of Marguerite.
+
+The world of art was opened to the French by a bevy of such painters
+and sculptors as Leonardo da Vinci, Rosso, Primaticcio, Benvenuto
+Cellini, and Bramante, and they were encouraged and feted by
+Marguerite especially. In those days a new picture from Italy by
+Raphael was received with as much pomp and ceremony as, in olden
+times, were accorded the holiest relics from the East.
+
+Men of letters gathered about the sister of the king, forming what
+might be termed a court of sentimental metaphysics; for the questions
+discussed were those of love. This refined gallantry, empty and vapid,
+formed the foundation of the seventeenth-century salon, where the
+language and fine points of sentiment were considered and cultivated
+until sentiment acquired poise, grandeur, and an air of dignity and
+reserve.
+
+The period was one in which, during times of trial and misfortune, the
+presence of an underlying religious sentiment became unmistakable. In
+such an atmosphere, the propensity toward mysticism, which Marguerite
+had manifested as a child, grew more and more apparent. When Francis
+I. was captured at the battle of Pavia, his sister immediately sought
+consolation in devotion, the nature of which is well illustrated in a
+letter to the captive king:
+
+"Monseigneur, the further they remove you from us, the greater becomes
+my firm hope of your deliverance and speedy return, for the hour
+when men's minds are most troubled is the hour when God achieves His
+masterstroke ... and if He now gives you, on one hand, a share in the
+pains which He has borne for you, and, on the other hand, the grace
+to bear them patiently, I entreat you, Monseigneur, to believe
+unfalteringly that it is only to try how much you love Him and to give
+you leisure to think how much He loves you. For He desires to have
+your heart entirely, as, for love, He has given you His own; He has
+permitted this trial, in order, after having united you to Him by
+tribulation, to deliver you for His own glory--so that, through you,
+His name may be known and sanctified, not in your kingdom alone, but
+in all Christendom and even to the conversion of the infidels. Oh, how
+blessed will be your brief captivity by which God will deliver so many
+souls from that infidelity and eternal damnation! Alas, Monseigneur!
+I know that you understand all this far better than I do; but seeing
+that in other things I think only of you, as being all that God has
+left me in this world,--father, brother, husband,--and not having the
+comfort of telling you so, I have not feared to weary you with a
+long letter, which to me is short, in order to console myself for my
+inability to talk with you."
+
+After his incarceration in the gloomy prison in Spain where he was
+taken ill, Francis asked for the safe conduct of Marguerite; this
+was gladly granted. Ignorant of her future duty in Spain, she wrote:
+"Whatever it may be, even to the giving of my ashes to the winds to do
+you a service, nothing will seem strange, difficult or painful to me,
+but will be only consolation, repose, and honor." So impatient was she
+to arrive at her brother's side that she could not travel fast enough.
+
+Her presence only increased his fever and a serious crisis soon came
+on, the king remaining for some time "without hearing or seeing or
+speaking." Marguerite, in this critical time, implored the assistance
+of God. She had an altar erected in her chamber, and all the French of
+the household, great lords and domestics alike, knelt beside the
+sick man's sister and received the communion from the hands of the
+Archbishop of Embrun, who, drawing near the bed, entreated the king to
+turn his eyes to the holy sacrament. Francis came out of his lethargy
+and asked to commune likewise, saying: "It is my God who will heal my
+soul and body; I entreat you that I may receive him." Then, the
+Host having been divided in two, the king received one half with the
+greatest devotion, and his sister the other half. The sick man felt
+himself sustained by a supernatural force; a celestial consolation
+descended into the soul that had been despairing. Marguerite's prayer
+had not been unavailing--Francis I. was saved.
+
+She then proceeded to visit different cities and royalties,
+endeavoring to secure concessions for her brother. From the people in
+the streets as well as from the lords in their houses, she received
+the most unmistakable proofs of friendly feeling; in fact, her favor
+was so great that Charles V. informed "the Duke of Infantado that, if
+he wished to please the emperor, neither he nor his sons must speak to
+Madame d'Alencon." The latter, unable to secure her brother's release,
+planned a marriage between him and Eleanor of Portugal, sister of
+Charles V.; her successes at court and in the family of the emperor
+furthered this scheme. Brantome says: "She spoke to the emperor so
+bravely and so courteously that he was quite astonished, and she spoke
+even more to those of his council with whom she had audience; there
+she produced an excellent impression, speaking and arguing with an
+easy grace in which she was proficient, and making herself rather
+agreeable than hateful or tiresome. Her reasons were found good and
+pertinent and she retained the high esteem of the emperor, his court
+and council."
+
+Although she failed in her attempts to free the king, she succeeded,
+by arranging the marriage, in completely changing the rigorous
+captivity to which Charles had subjected him. Finally, by giving his
+two eldest sons as hostages, the king obtained his release, and in
+March, 1526, he again set foot, as sovereign, on French soil. Thus the
+king's life was saved and he was permitted to return to his country,
+Marguerite's devotion having accomplished that in which the most
+skilled diplomatist would have failed.
+
+All historians agree that Marguerite d'Angouleme was a devout
+Catholic, but that she was too broad and liberal, intelligent
+and humane, to sanction the unbridled excesses of fanaticism. The
+acknowledged leader of moral reform, she protected and assisted those
+persecuted on account of their religious views and sympathized with
+the first stages of that movement which revolted against abuses, vice,
+scandals, immorality, and intrigue. With her, the question was not one
+of dogma, but concerned, instead, the religion which she considered
+most conducive to progress and reform. It grieved her to see her
+religion defile itself by cruel and inhuman persecutions and tortures,
+by intolerance and injustice. She felt for, but not with, the heretics
+in their errors. "She typifies her age in all that is good and noble,
+in artistic aspirations, in literary ideals, in pure politics--in
+short,--in humanity; in her is not found the chaotic vagueness which
+so often breaks out in license and licentiousness, cruelty, and
+barbarism."
+
+During the absence in Spain of Francis I. and Marguerite, the
+mother-regent sought to gain the support and favor of Rome by ordering
+imprisonments, confiscations, and punishments of heretics; but upon
+the return of the king and his sister, the banished were recalled and
+tolerance again ruled. When (in 1526) Berquin was seized and tried for
+heresy, he found but one defender. Marguerite wrote to her brother,
+still at Madrid:
+
+"My desire to obey your commands was sufficiently strong without
+having it redoubled by the charity you have been pleased to show poor
+Berquin according to your promise; I feel that He for whom I believe
+him to have suffered will approve of the mercy which, for His honor,
+you have had upon His servant and your own."
+
+Marguerite had saved Berquin and had even taken him into her service.
+Her letter to the constable, Anne de Montmorency, shows her esteem of
+men of genius and especially of Berquin:
+
+"I thank you for the pleasure you have afforded me in the matter of
+poor Berquin whom I esteem as much as if he were myself; and so you
+may say you have delivered me from prison, since I consider in that
+light the favor done me."
+
+When on June 1, 1528, a statue of the Virgin was thrown down and
+mutilated by unknown hands, a reversion of feeling arose immediately,
+and even Marguerite was not able to save poor Berquin, and he was
+burned at the stake. Upon learning of his imminent peril, she wrote to
+Francis from Saint-Germain:
+
+"I, for the last time, very humbly make you a request; it is that
+you will be pleased to have pity upon poor Berquin, whom I know to be
+suffering for nothing other than loving the word of God and obeying
+yours. You will be pleased, Monseigneur, so to act that it be not
+said that separation has made you forget your most humble and obedient
+sister and subject, Marguerite."
+
+Encouraged by their success in that instance, the intolerant party
+began furious attacks upon her, one monk going so far as to say from
+the pulpit that she should be put into a sack and thrown into the
+Seine. Upon her publication of a religious poem, _Miroir de l'ame
+pecheresse_, in which she failed to mention purgatory or the saints,
+she was vigorously attacked by Beda, who had the verses condemned
+by the Sorbonne and caused the pupils of the College of Navarre to
+perform a morality in which Marguerite was represented under the
+character of a woman quitting her distaff for a French translation
+of the Gospels presented to her by a Fury. This was too much even for
+Francis, and he ordered the principal and his actors arrested; it was
+then that Marguerite showed her gentleness, mercy, and humanity by
+throwing herself at her brother's feet and asking for their pardon.
+
+After but a short respite the persecution broke out anew, and with
+the full sanction of the king, who, upon finding at his door a placard
+against the mass, went even so far as to sign letters patent ordering
+the suppression of printing (1535). While away from the soothing
+influence of his sister, Francis I. was easily persuaded to sign, for
+the Catholic party, any permit of execution or cruelty. The life
+of Marguerite herself was constantly in danger, but in spite of
+persistent efforts to turn brother against sister, the king continued
+to protect and defend the latter; and though she gradually drew closer
+to Catholicism, she continued to protect the Protestants. She founded
+nunneries and showed a profound devotion toward the Virgin; although
+realizing the dangers and follies of the new doctrine, she had too
+much humanity to encourage cruelty.
+
+The husband whom the king forced upon her was twelve years her junior,
+poor, and subsidized by Francis; by him she had a daughter, Jeanne
+d'Albret, who became the champion of Protestantism. Her married life
+at Pau, where she had erected beautiful buildings and magnificent
+terraces, was not happy; the subjects of love that formerly had amused
+her had lost their charm; and the incurable disease with which her
+brother was stricken caused her constant worry and mental suffering.
+When banquets, the chase, and other amusements no longer attracted
+Francis, he summoned Marguerite to comfort and console him; her
+devotion and goodness never failed. Unable to recover from the grief
+caused by his death in 1547, she expressed her sorrow in the most
+beautiful poems.
+
+She gave the remainder of her life to religion and charity, abandoning
+her literary ambitions and plans. "The life after death gave her much
+trouble and many moments of perplexity and uneasiness. She survived
+her brother only two years, dying in 1549; the helper and protector
+of good literature, the defence, consolation, and shelter of the
+distressed, she was mourned by all France more than was any other
+queen." Sainte-Marthe says: "How many widows are there, how many
+orphans, how many afflicted, how many old persons, whom she pensioned
+every year, who now, like sheep whose shepherd is dead, wander hither
+and thither, seeking to whom to go, crying in the ears of the wealthy
+and deploring their miserable fate!" Poets, scholars, all learned and
+professional men, commemorated their protectress in poems and funeral
+orations. France was one large family in deep mourning.
+
+Marguerite d'Angouleme must first be considered as the real power
+behind the supreme authority of her period, her brother the king;
+secondly, as a furtherer of the development and encouragement of
+good literature, good taste, high art, and pure morals; thirdly, as
+a critic of importance. She is entitled to the first consideration by
+the fact that as the confidential adviser of Francis I. she moulded
+his opinions and checked his evil tendencies: the affairs of the
+kingdom were therefore, to a large extent, in her hands. She collected
+and partly organized the chaotic mass of material thrown upon the
+sixteenth-century world, leaving its moulding into a classic
+French form to the next century; and by her spirit of tolerance she
+endeavored to further all moral development: thus is she entitled to
+the second consideration. Gifted with rare delicacy of taste, solidity
+of judgment, and the ability to select, discriminate, and adapt, she
+set the standards of style and tone: therefore, she is entitled to the
+third consideration.
+
+The love of Marguerite for her brother, and her unselfish devotion to
+his interests, is a precedent unparalleled in French history until
+the time of Madame de Sevigne. In all her letters we find the same
+tenderness, gentleness, passion, inexhaustible emotion, sympathy, and
+compassion that distinguished her actions.
+
+In her _Contes_ (the _Heptameron_) _de la Reine de Navarre_ we have
+an accurate representation of society, its manners and style of
+conversation; in it we find, also, remnants of the brutality and
+grossness of the Middle Ages, as well as reflections of the higher
+tendencies and aspirations of the later time. In having a thorough
+knowledge of the tricks, deceits, and follies of the professional
+lovers of the day, and of their object in courting women, Marguerite
+was able to warn her contemporaries and thus guard them against
+immorality and its dangers. In her works she upheld the purity of
+ideal love, exposing the questionable and selfish designs of the
+clever professional seducers. A specimen may be cited to show her
+style of writing and the trend of her thought:
+
+"Emarsuite has just related the history of a gentleman and a young
+girl who, being unable to be united, had both embraced the religious
+life. When the story is ended, Hircan, instead of showing himself
+affected, cries: 'Then there are more fools and mad women than there
+ever were!' 'Do you call it folly,' says Oisille, 'to love honestly
+in youth and then to turn all love to God?' ... 'And yet I have the
+opinion,' says Parlemente, 'that no man will ever love God perfectly
+who has not perfectly loved some creature in this world.' 'What do you
+by loving perfectly?' asks Saffredant; 'do you call perfect lovers
+who are bashful and adore ladies from a distance, without daring
+to express their wishes?' 'I call those perfect lovers,' replies
+Parlemente, 'who seek some perfection in what they love--whether
+goodness, beauty or kindness--and whose hearts are so lofty and honest
+that they would rather die than perform those base deeds which honor
+and conscience forbid; for the soul which was created only to return
+to its Sovereign Good cannot, while it is in the body, do otherwise
+than desire to win thither; but because the senses, by which it can
+have tidings of that which it seeks, are dull and carnal on account
+of the sin of our first parents, they can show it only those visible
+things which most nearly approach perfection; and the soul runs after
+them, believing that in visible grace and moral virtues it may find
+the Sovereign Grace, Beauty and Virtue. But without finding whom it
+loves, it passes on like the child who, according to his littleness,
+loves apples, pears, dolls and other little things--the most beautiful
+that his eye can see--and thinks it riches to heap little stones
+together; but, on growing larger he loves living things, and,
+therefore, amasses the goods necessary for human life; but he knows,
+by the greatest experiences, that neither perfection nor felicity is
+attained by possessions only, and he desires true felicity and the
+Maker and Source thereof.'"
+
+In her writings, much apparent indelicacy and grossness are
+encountered; but it must be remembered for whom she was writing, the
+condition of morality and the taste of the public at that time, and
+that she aimed faithfully to depict the society that lay before her
+eyes. It is argued by some critics that these indecencies could not
+have emanated from a pure, chaste woman; that Marguerite must have
+experienced the sins she depicted; but such reasoning is not sound.
+The expressions used by her were current in her time; there
+was greater freedom of manners, and coarseness and drastic
+language--examples of which are found so frequently in the writings of
+Luther--were very common.
+
+Marguerite was less remarkable for what she did than for what she
+aspired to do. "She invoked, against the vices and prejudices of her
+epoch, those principles of morality and justice, of tolerance and
+humanity, which must be the very foundation of all stable society. She
+wished to make her brother the protector of the oppressed, the support
+of the learned, the crowned apostle of the Renaissance, the promoter
+of salutary reforms in the morals of the clergy; in politics, he was
+to follow a straight line and methodically advance the accomplishment
+of the legitimate ambitions of France."
+
+She expressed the most modern ideas on the rights of woman,
+particularly on her relative rights in the married state:
+
+"It is right that man should govern us as our head, but not that he
+should abandon us or treat us ill. God has so well ordered both man
+and woman, that I think marriage, if it is not abused, one of the most
+beautiful and secure estates that can be in this world, and I am sure
+that all who are here, no matter what pretense they make, think as
+much or more; and as much as man calls himself wiser than woman, so
+much the more grievously will he be punished if the fault be on his
+side. Those who are overcome by pleasure ought not to call themselves
+women any longer, but men, whose honor is but augmented by fury and
+concupiscence; for a man who revenges himself upon his enemy and slays
+him for a contradiction is esteemed a better companion for so doing;
+and the same is true if he love a dozen other women besides his wife;
+but the honor of woman has another foundation: it is gentleness,
+patience, chastity."
+
+Desire Nisard says that Marguerite d'Angouleme was the first to write
+prose that can be read without the aid of a vocabulary; in verse, she
+excels all poets of her time in sympathy and compassion; her poetry
+is "a voice which complains--a heart which suffers and which tells us
+so." "It is not so much her own deep sentiment that is reflected, but
+her emotion, which is both intellectual and sympathetic, volitional
+and spontaneous." Her letters were epoch-making; nothing before
+her time nor after her (until Madame de Sevigne) can equal them in
+precision, purity of language, sincerity and frankness of expression,
+passion and religious fervor.
+
+In spite of what may be said to the contrary, her life was an
+ideal one, an example of perfect moral beauty and elevation; noble,
+generous, refined, pious, and sincere, she possessed qualities which
+were indeed rare in her time. She was attacked for her charity, and is
+to-day the victim of narrow sectarian and biased devotees. Her act of
+renouncing all gorgeous dress, even the robes of gold brocade so much
+worn by every princess, in order to give all her money to the poor;
+her protection of the needy and persecuted; her court of poets and
+scholars; her visits to the sick and stricken; even her untiring love
+for her brother and her acts of clemency--all have frequently been
+misinterpreted.
+
+The greatest poets and men of letters of the sixteenth century
+were encouraged financially and morally or protected by Marguerite
+d'Angouleme--Rabelais, Marot, Pelletier, Bonaventure-Desperiers,
+Mellin de Saint-Gelais, Lefevre d'Etaples, Amyot, Calvin, Berquin.
+Charles de Sainte-Marthe says: "In seeing them about this good lady,
+you would say it was a hen which carefully calls and gathers her
+chicks and shelters them with her wings."
+
+Many critics believe that her literary work was imitative rather than
+original; even if this be true, it in no measure detracts from her
+importance, which is based upon the fact that she was the leading
+spirit of the time and typified her environment. Her followers, and
+they included all the intellectual spirits, looked up to her as
+the one incentive for writing and pleasing. Her disposition was
+characterized by restlessness, haste--too great eagerness to absorb
+and digest and appropriate all that was unfolded before her. She
+imitated the _Decameron_ and drew up for herself a _Heptameron_; her
+poetry showed much skill and great ease, but little originality.
+Her extreme facility, her wonderfully active mind, her power of
+_causerie_, and her ability to discuss and write upon philosophical
+and religious abstractions, won the deep admiration and respect of her
+followers, who were not only content to be aided financially by her,
+but looked to her for guidance and counsel in their own work, though
+she never imposed her ideas and taste upon others. By her tact,
+she was able practically to control and guide the entire literary,
+artistic, and social development of the sixteenth century. Every form
+of intellectual movement of this period is impregnated with the spirit
+of Marguerite d'Angouleme.
+
+With her affable and loving manners, her refined taste and superior
+knowledge, she was able to influence her brother and, through him,
+the government. Just as her mother controlled in politics, so
+did Marguerite in arts and manners. In her are found the main
+characteristics to which later French women owed their influence--a
+form of versatility which included exceptional tact and enabled the
+possessor to appreciate and sympathize with all forms of activity, to
+deal with all classes, to manage and be managed in turn.
+
+The writings of Marguerite are quite numerous, consisting of six
+moralities or comedies, a farce, epistles, elegies, philosophical
+poems, and the _Heptameron_, her principal work--a collection of prose
+tales in which are reflected the customary conversation, the morals of
+polite society, and the ideal love of the time. They are a medley of
+crude equivocalities, of the grossness of the _fabliaux_, of Rabelais,
+and of the delicate preciosity of the seventeenth century. Love is
+the principal theme discussed--youth, nobility, wealth, power, beauty,
+glory, love for love, the delicate sensation of feeling one's self
+loved, elegant love, obsequious love; perfect love is found in those
+lovers who seek perfection in what they love, either of goodness,
+beauty, or grace--always tending to virtue.
+
+Thoroughly to appreciate Marguerite d'Angouleme's position and
+influence and her contributions to literature, the conditions existing
+in her epoch must be carefully considered. It was in the sixteenth
+century that the charms of social life and of conversation as an art
+were first realized; all questions of the day were treated gracefully,
+if not deeply; woman began to play an important part, to appear
+at court, and, by her wit and beauty, to impress man. From the
+semi-barbaric spirit of the Middle Ages to the Italian and Roman
+culture of the Renaissance was a tremendous stride; in this cultural
+development, Marguerite was of vital importance. In intellectual
+attainments far in advance of the age, among its great women she
+stands out alone in her spirit of humanity, generosity, tolerance,
+broad sympathies, exemplary family life, and exalted devotion to her
+brother.
+
+Of the other literary women of the sixteenth century, mention may be
+made of two who have left little or no work of importance, but who are
+interesting on account of the peculiar form of their activity.
+
+Mlle. de Gournay, _fille d'alliance_ of Montaigne, is a unique
+character. Having conceived a violent passion for the philosopher
+and essayist, she would have no other consort than her honor and good
+books. She called the ladies of the court "court dolls," accusing
+them of deforming the French language by affecting words that had
+apparently been greased with oil in order to facilitate their flow.
+She was one of the first woman suffragists and the most independent
+spirit of the age. In 1592, to see the country of her master, she
+undertook a long voyage, at a time when any trip was fraught with the
+gravest dangers for a woman.
+
+She is a striking example of the effect of sixteenth-century sympathy,
+admiration, and enthusiasm; she was protected by some of the greatest
+literary men of the age--Balzac, Grotius, Heinsius; the French Academy
+is said to have met with her on several occasions, and she is said
+to have participated in its work of purifying and fixing the French
+language. Her adherence to the Montaigne cult has brought her name
+down to posterity.
+
+M. du Bled relates a droll story in connection with her meeting
+Richelieu. Mlle. de Gournay was an old maid, who lived to the ripe age
+of eighty. Being a pronounced _feministe_, she--like her sisters of
+to-day--cultivated cats. The story runs as follows:
+
+"Bois-Robert conducted her to the Cardinal, who paid her a compliment
+composed of old words taken from one of her books; she saw the point
+immediately. 'You laugh over the poor old girl, but laugh, great
+genius, laugh! everybody must contribute something to your diversion.'
+The Cardinal, surprised at her ready wit, asked her pardon, and said
+to Bois-Robert: 'We must do something for Mlle. de Gournay. I give
+her two hundred ecus pension.' 'But she has servants,' suggested
+Bois-Robert. 'Who?' 'Mlle. Jamyn (bastard), illegitimate daughter
+of Amadis Jamyn, page of Ronsard.' 'I will give her fifty livres
+annually.' 'There is still dear little Piaillon, her cat.' 'I give her
+twenty livres pension, on condition that Piaillon shall have tripes.'
+'But, Monseigneur, she has had kittens!' The Cardinal added a pistole
+for the little kittens."
+
+A woman of large fortune, she spent it freely in study, in her
+household, and especially in alchemy. Her peculiar ideas about love
+kept her from falling prey to the wealth-seeking gallants of the time.
+She was one of the few women who made a profession of writing; she
+compiled moral dissertations, defences of woman, and treatises on
+language, all of which she published at her own expense; while they
+are of no real importance, they show a remarkable frankness and
+courage.
+
+Mlle. de Gournay was, possibly, the first woman to demand the
+acceptance of woman on an equal status with man; for she wrote two
+treatises on woman's condition and rank, insisting upon a better
+education for her, though she herself was well educated. Following the
+events of the day with a careful scrutiny and interpreting them in her
+writings, she showed a remarkable gift of perspective and deduction
+and an intimate knowledge of politics. The fact that she was severely,
+even spitefully, attacked in both poetry and prose but proves that her
+writings on women were effective.
+
+Some writers claim that the founding of the French Academy had its
+inception at her rooms, where many of the members met and where, later
+on, they discussed the work of the Academy. Her one desire for the
+language was to have it advance and develop, preserving every word,
+resorting to old ones, accepting new ones only when necessary. Thus,
+among French female educators, Mlle. de Gournay deserves a prominent
+place, because of her high ideals and earnest efforts in the study of
+the language, for the courage with which she advanced her convictions
+regarding woman, and for the high moral standard which she set by her
+own conduct.
+
+In Louise Labe--_La Belle Cordiere_--we meet a warrior, as well as a
+woman of letters. The great movement of the Renaissance, as it swept
+northward, invaded Lyons; there Louise Labe endeavored to do what
+Ronsard and the Pleiade were doing at Paris. A great part of her youth
+she passed in war, wearing man's apparel and assuming the name of
+"Captain Loys"; at an early age, she left home with a company of
+soldiers passing through Lyons on the way to lay siege to Perpignan,
+where she showed pluck, bravery, and skill. Upon her return, she
+married a merchant ropemaker, whence her sobriquet--_La Belle
+Cordiere_.
+
+She soon won a reputation by gathering about her a circle of men, who
+complimented her in the most elegant language and read poetry with
+her. Science and literature were discussed and the praises of love
+sung with passionate, inflamed eloquence. In this circle of congenial
+spirits, "she gave rise to doubts as to her virtue." As her husband
+was wealthy, she was able to collect an immense library and to
+entertain at her pleasure; she could converse in almost any language,
+and all travellers stopped at Lyons and called to see her at her
+salon. Her writings consisted of sonnets, elegies, and dialogues in
+prose; her influence, being too local, is not marked. Her greatest
+claim to attention is that she encouraged letters in a city which was
+beyond the reach of every literary movement. Such were the women of
+the sixteenth century; in no epoch in French history have women played
+a greater role; art, literature, morals, politics, all were governed
+by them. They were active in every phase of life, hunting with men,
+taking part in and causing duels, intriguing and initiating intrigues.
+"In the midst of battle, while cannon-balls and musket-shots rained
+about her, Catherine de' Medici was as brave and unconcerned as the
+most valiant of men. Diana of Poitiers was called the most wondrous
+woman, the woman of eternal youth, the beautiful huntress; it was
+she whom Jean Goujon sculptured, nude and triumphant, embracing with
+marble arms a mysterious stag, enamoured like Leda's swan."
+
+In general, the women of that century "liked better to be feared
+than loved; they inspired mad passions, insensate devotions, ecstatic
+admirations. The epoch was one in which life counted for little, when
+balls alternated with massacres; when virtue was befitting only
+the lowly born and ugly (Brantome recommends the beautiful to be
+inconstant because they should resemble the sun who diffuses his light
+so indiscriminately that everybody in the world feels it). It was the
+age of beauty--a beauty that fascinated and entranced, but the glow
+of which melted and killed; but this glow also reacted upon them
+that caused it and they became victims of their own passions--through
+either jealousy or their own weaknesses. No age was ever more
+luxurious, pompous, elegant, brilliant, and wanton, yet beneath all
+the glitter there were much misery and bitter repentance; amongst the
+violent wickedness there were noble and pure women such as Elizabeth
+of Austria and Louise de Vaudemont."
+
+The whole century seemed to be afire and to tingle with that spirit of
+liberty, imitation, and experimentation, which, so often abused, led
+to much disaster. In spite of that unsettled and excited condition,
+the sixteenth century attained greater development, had more avenues
+of intellectual activity opened to it, imitated, thought and imagined
+more and produced as much as any other century; in every field,
+we find the names of its masters. As M. Faguet says, the sixteenth
+century was, in France, the century _createur par excellence_; and in
+this, woman's part was, above all, political, her social, moral, and
+literary influence being less marked.
+
+
+
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+The Seventeenth Century: Woman at Her Best
+
+
+In the seventeenth century, the influence exerted by the women of
+France, departing from the political aspect which had characterized it
+in the preceding century, became of a social, literary, religious,
+and moral nature, the last predominating. Inasmuch as the reins of
+government were in the hands of the king and his ministers, political
+affairs were but slightly affected by the feminine element. Woman,
+realizing the uselessness as well as danger of plotting against
+the inviolate person and power of the king, contented herself with
+scheming against those ministers whose attitudes she considered
+unfavorable to her plans.
+
+Of all social and literary movements, however, woman was the
+acknowledged leader; in that institution of culture and development,
+the seventeenth century salon, her undisputed supremacy placed her in
+the position of patroness and protectress of men of letters. In the
+general religious movement her role was one of secondary importance;
+and as mistress, she ceased with the sixteenth century to be either
+active politically or disastrous morally and became merely a temporary
+recipient of capriciously bestowed wealth and favors. In order
+to fully comprehend woman's position and the exact nature of her
+influence in this century and the following one, the position and
+constitution of the nobility before, during and after the ministry of
+Richelieu, must be studied.
+
+The great houses of Carolingian origin were those of Alencon,
+Bourgogne, Bourbon, Vendome, Kings of Navarre, Counts of Valois,
+and Artois; the great gentlemen were the Dukes of Guise, Nemours,
+Longueville, Chevreuse, Nevers, Bouillon, Rohan, Montmorency, and,
+later, Luxembourg, Mortemart, Crequi, Noailles; names which are
+constantly met with in French history. Before the time of Louis XIV.,
+men of such rank, when dissatisfied or discontented, might leave
+court at their will and were requested to return; but with Louis XIV.,
+departure from court was considered a disgrace, and offending parties
+were permitted, not asked, to return.
+
+Outside the army, there was open to the princes of the nobility no
+occupation in which they might expend their surplus energy; thus,
+being free from the burden of taxes, it was but natural that they
+should seek amusement in literature, society, and intrigue. The honor
+of their respective houses and the fear of being damned in the next
+world were their only sources of deep concern; other than these, they
+assumed no responsibilities, desiring absolute freedom from care.
+
+Legal, judicial, and ecclesiastical offices were open to them but were
+little favored except as convenient means of obtaining revenues
+and positions otherwise not procurable. The first requisites toward
+advancement were bravery and skill, not learning; the majority of
+the members of the nobility much preferred buying a regiment to being
+president of a tribunal, and their primary ambition was to acquire a
+reputation for magnificence, heroism, and gallantry. They fought for
+glory, to show their skill and courage; the sentiment of patriotism
+was but weakly developed, and war was indulged in merely for the sake
+of fighting, passing the time, and being occupied. As in the preceding
+century, death was but little feared; in fact, the scorn of it was
+carried to the extreme. "The French went to death as though they were
+to be resuscitated on the morrow."
+
+That man went to war was not sufficient proof of his bravery; in
+addition, he must, upon the smallest pretext, draw his sword, must
+fight constantly, and especially with adversaries better armed and
+larger in force; the love of woman was for such men only. Adventure
+was the fad: it is said of one seigneur that he took pleasure in going
+every night to a certain corner and, from pure malice, striking with
+his sword the first person who chanced that way; this unique pastime
+he continued until he himself was killed.
+
+Marriage, until the eighteenth century, was not a union of affection,
+but merely an alliance between two families and in the interest of
+both; women, to preserve their identity after marriage, signed their
+family names. As maturity was reached at the age of twelve, marriage
+meant simply cohabitation. Until the Revolution, free marriages, or
+liaisons, were recognized as natural if not legitimate institutions,
+and the offspring of such unions, who were said to be more numerous
+than legitimate children, were legitimatized and became heirs simply
+through recognition by the father. (At first, princes were unwilling
+to accept, as wives, the natural daughters of kings; however, the Duke
+of Orleans and the Prince of Conti married the natural daughters
+of Louis XIV.) As a rule, titles could not be transmitted through
+females; when a woman married beneath her rank she lost her titles,
+but they were given to her children.
+
+In the seventeenth century, woman's influence was of a nature vastly
+superior to that exerted by her in the sixteenth century, in that it
+rendered sacred both her and her honor; but, in spite of the refining
+restraint of the salon, brutality was still the main characteristic
+of man. To express beautiful sentiments in the midst of jealousies,
+rivalries, adventures, complaints, and despair, was the _savoir-vivre_
+of the Catherine de' Medici type of elegance brought from Italy in the
+sixteenth century. This caused the extremes of external fastidiousness
+and internal grossness to be embodied in the same individual; in the
+eighteenth century, man was, inwardly as well as outwardly, refined,
+mild, kind, a friend of pleasure; and therein lies the fundamental
+difference between the _honnete homme_ of Louis XIV. and the _homme
+du monde_ of Louis XV. The seventeenth century type of man is midway
+between that of the sixteenth and eighteenth--more polished and less
+gross than the former, yet lacking the knowledge and culture of the
+latter.
+
+When in the seventeenth century the two all-powerful forces, brute
+force and money, of the preceding century were replaced by those of
+money and the pen, the decay of the impoverished and unintellectual
+nobility became but a question of time. The day when great gentlemen
+might scorn men of letters and learning was rapidly passing; with
+the French Academy arose a new spirit, a fresh impulse was given to
+intellectual attainments. Although treated as inferiors, the literary
+men of the seventeenth century spoke of the aristocracy in a spirit
+of raillery, but slightly veiled with respect; and the nobility while
+remaining, in its way, courageous and glorious, lost its prestige,
+force, and influence.
+
+In the seventeenth century, money acquired a certain purchasing value
+which procured advantages and luxuries impossible in the preceding
+period when the brave man was worth infinitely more than the rich
+who, scorned and considered as a rapacious Jew, was isolated and in
+constant fear of being robbed or killed. As the number of government
+officials increased, individual fortunes grew; men became enormously
+wealthy through the various offices bought by them or given to them by
+the government. The financier was a king and many marriages of princes
+and dukes with daughters of men of wealth are recorded. Women of
+station, however, seldom married beneath their rank, because they
+lost their titles by so doing, and titles were still the only road
+to social success. As a rule, titles could not be transmitted through
+females; when a woman made a misalliance her titles were given to her
+children. Almost all rich men of the period, from the time of Louis
+XIII. to the Revolution, became nobles, as almost every brave man was
+made a knight up to the seventeenth century. It was possible for
+the wealthy to buy a marquisate or baronetage and give it to their
+children; a grand-marshal of France was no longer so powerful as a
+rich banker.
+
+The complete change, under Louis XIV., of the customs of the time,
+caused numberless petty jealousies, scandals, and intrigues in the
+aristocracy, which could no longer maintain its old form and yet had
+to be considered by the government. The question of reform arose--how
+to restrict the number of nobles, which increased every year. Rank
+was bestowed for service and, sometimes, even for wealth; the old
+families, being poor, had no distinctive prestige except that given by
+their privileges at court; their titles no longer distinguished them
+from the newcomers, whom they gradually began to disdain, and the
+result was a general lowering of the standing, importance, and
+influence of nobility. Another party which gained prominence was that
+of the bench; the judges, as interpreters of the king's laws, became
+powerful, for law was absolute. A deadly rivalry sprang up between the
+parties of rank with no money or power and of power and money without
+rank.
+
+The desire of every man of rank to be independent, to be a force in
+himself instead of a part of a unit which might be useful to the
+state as a whole, was one of the principal defects of the French
+aristocracy; poverty crushed it, idleness robbed it of its alertness,
+intriguing and gradual oppression reduced it to despair. Appointed to
+offices, its members failed in the performance of their duties; the
+latter fell to the under men who, while the aristocracy was busy at
+fetes, in society, at the table, became experts in the affairs of the
+government--shrewd politicians and financiers. The new nobility,
+that of the robe, replaced that of the sword in all interests of the
+government except war; gradually, Parliament was made up of men who,
+having been elevated to the rank of nobility, retained their aversion
+to those who were noble by birth, recognizing only the king as their
+superior and refusing precedence to even the princes of the blood.
+Louis XIV., however, objecting to and fearing such a strong class as
+that of the robe, employed, wherever possible, people of lower rank.
+Thus it happened in the seventeenth century that the still powerful
+nobility of higher rank was scorned and kept down; but in the
+eighteenth century, when the gentlemen of the robe had become
+all-powerful and therefore constituted a dangerous party, it was they
+who became the objects of scorn and persecution, while the aristocrats
+of blood, the gentlemen of the court, recovered the royal favors
+through their political powerlessness.
+
+French aristocracy really had no object, no _raison d'etre_, after
+its disappearance from all governmental functions; it became an
+encumbrance to the state; having no particular part to play, it did
+nothing; this is one of the causes of its dissolution and of the
+Revolution as well. Thus France gradually passed from inequality of
+classes under the sanction of custom to equality of classes before
+the law: this change in the condition and constitution of the French
+nobility accounts for many intrigues and scandals and explains the
+social and moral actions of French women, as well as the difference
+in the nature of their activities in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries.
+
+The seventeenth was, _par excellence_, the century which can boast
+of that incomparable society the cult of which was the highest in all
+things--art, religion, philosophy, poetry, politics, war, and beauty.
+From the convent of the Carmelites to the Hotel de Rambouillet, from
+the Place Royale to the various chateaux and salons, we must seek only
+that which is elevating and spiritual, beautiful and religious. In
+the famous society which kept pace with the political reputation
+and influence of France is found a coterie of women who combined
+remarkable beauty and intelligence with a high moral standard, and
+whose names are intimately connected with the history of France.
+Where again can we find such a galaxy of beauties as that formed by
+Charlotte de Montmorency, Mme. de Chevreuse, Mme. de Hautefort, Mme.
+de Montbazon, Mme. de Guemene, Mme. de Chatillon, Mme. de Longueville,
+Marie de Gonzague, Henriette de la Valliere, Mme. de Montespan, Mme.
+de Maintenon, without enumerating such great writers and leaders of
+salons as Mme. de Rambouillet, Mlle. de Scudery, Mme. de Lambert,
+Mme. de Sevigne, and Mme. de la Fayette? The seventeenth century
+could tolerate no mediocrity; grandeur was in the very atmosphere;
+its political movements were great movements; it produced in art
+a Poussin, in letters a Corneille, in science and philosophy a
+Descartes.
+
+The various movements of which woman was the head may be divided into
+two periods, and each period into two parts. The political women may
+well be grouped about Marie de' Medici,--whose career will not be
+given separate treatment, inasmuch as there was no drop of French
+blood in her veins,--and the social and literary women about Mme.
+de Rambouillet and her salon. In the latter half of the seventeenth
+century and at the beginning of the eighteenth, politics are
+represented by Mme. de Montespan--the mistress--and Mme. de
+Maintenon--the wife; social life and literature have their purest
+representative in Mme. de Lambert. The two queens of the seventeenth
+century, Anne of Austria and Maria Theresa, were without influence;
+the religious movement was represented by the galaxy of women of whom
+we write in a later chapter.
+
+After the death of Henry IV., Marie de' Medici succeeded in having
+herself made queen-regent for Louis XIII., who was then but nine years
+old. A woman of no particular capacity, who had in no way adapted
+herself to French life and customs, she allowed herself to be governed
+by an adventurer, an Italian who understood and appreciated French
+ideals no more than did Marie; these two--the queen and Concini, her
+minister--immediately began to concoct plans to gain control of the
+state. The king was kept in virtual captivity until he reached the age
+of seventeen, when, having asserted his rights, Concini was killed,
+and Marie's dominant power and influence came to an abrupt end.
+
+Louis XIII. reigned, with his minister, the Prince de Luynes, from
+1617 to 1624, when he became reconciled to his mother and appointed
+her favorite, Richelieu, his minister. From 1610 to about 1640,
+Marie de' Medici exercised more or less influence, always of a nature
+disastrous to France.
+
+After the king's death, Anne of Austria, as queen-regent, with
+Mazarin, directed the destinies of France. During the ministry of the
+two cardinals, Richelieu and Mazarin, occurred the political intrigues
+and astute diplomatic movements of Mme. de Chevreuse and the unwise
+and short-sighted aspirations of Mme. de Longueville. These intimate
+friends were women of the highest intelligence, most perfect beauty,
+and uncapitulating devotion, and were working for the same cause,
+though from different motives.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse was the daughter of M. de Rohan, Duke of Montbazon.
+She had married M. de Luynes, the minister of Louis XIII., who
+overthrew the power of Marie de' Medici, and who, by initiating his
+wife into his secrets, gave her the schooling and experience which she
+later used to such advantage. De Luynes presented her at court
+with instructions to ingratiate herself with the queen--Anne of
+Austria--and the king. In this design she succeeded so well that she
+was soon made superintendent of the household of the queen, and became
+as influential with Anne as was her husband with the king.
+
+In 1621 M. de Luynes died; a year later his widow married Claude of
+Lorraine, Duke of Chevreuse; but as that was an unhappy union,
+she soon began her career as an intriguer. On the arrival of Lord
+Kensington, the English ambassador, she fell in love with him, that
+escapade being the first of a long series; the two proceeded to
+inveigle Queen Anne into a liaison with the Duke of Buckingham, which
+scheme, as history so well records, partly succeeded.
+
+When Mme. de Chevreuse accompanied to England the new queen,
+Henriette-Marie, wife of Charles I., both Buckingham and Kensington
+outdid themselves in showing her attention, Richelieu, fearing her
+influence and intrigues at the court of England, hastened the recall
+of her husband, but she received through her friends, from the English
+monarch himself, an invitation to remain; during the time, she gave
+birth to a child.
+
+Her next famous undertaking, which involved the lives of various
+persons of high rank, was the scheme to persuade Monsieur the Dauphin
+to refuse to marry Mlle. de Montpensier; Queen Anne was opposed to
+this union, and Mme. de Chevreuse gained to their cause a number of
+influential friends who were all madly in love with her. The ever
+vigilant Richelieu having discovered the plot, Monsieur confessed.
+In this conspiracy, M. de Chalais lost his head, other plotters lost
+their positions, and some were exiled. Mme. de Chevreuse was forced
+to retire to Lorraine; there she set in movement a vast plan against
+Richelieu and France, allying England and various princes, but, by the
+arrest of Montaigu, the plot was discovered, the alliance broken up,
+and peace restored.
+
+In 1626, by request of England, Mme. de Chevreuse returned to France.
+For a time she was quiet and seemed to favor Richelieu, but she soon
+captivated one of his ministers, the Marquis of Chateauneuf.
+Richelieu discovered the latter's weakness, and, having captured his
+correspondence, sent him to prison, where he remained for ten years.
+The fair intriguer was exiled to Dampierre, the cardinal fearing to
+send her out of France on account of her influence with the Duke of
+Lorraine. She managed to steal into Paris at night and see the
+queen; when discovered, she was sent to Touraine where she began the
+dangerous task of carrying on the correspondence between the Dukes of
+Savoy and Lorraine and England, and between Spain and Queen Anne. Even
+when this correspondence was intercepted and the queen confessed all,
+Richelieu was afraid to banish Mme. de Chevreuse; though he believed
+her to be at the bottom of all the current intrigues, he knew that out
+of France she would stir up the rulers of England and Spain as well as
+the Duke of Lorraine and others hostile to the cardinal.
+
+Violence being out of the question, because of her influence in
+England and of the prominence of her family, he decided to win her
+over by kindness; he even sent her money, but she was too shrewd to
+permit Richelieu to outwit her, always paying him back in his own
+coin. However, that kind of play was too dangerous for her and she
+escaped to Spain. As soon as her departure became known, Richelieu
+set to work every means in his power to bring her back, sending her an
+urgent invitation to return and promising to pardon her past. When his
+messages reached her, she was already in Madrid, where she was royally
+received as the friend of the king's sister, Anne; there, by means of
+her beauty and wonderful intelligence, she conquered every cavalier.
+When the war broke out between France and Spain, she left for England
+where she was welcomed like a visiting queen.
+
+Richelieu, anxious for the support of the Duke of Lorraine in his
+war against Spain and Austria, needed the cooeperation of Mme. de
+Chevreuse, and with that end in view sent ambassadors to London
+to arrange for her return; but an agreement was not an easy matter
+between two such astute politicians, and negotiations went on
+unsuccessfully for over a year. Her subtleness, apparent docility
+and invincible precautions were pitted against the artifices and
+dissimulation of the cardinal; both employed all the astute manoeuvres
+of diplomacy and exhausted the resources of consummate skill in
+gaining the point desired by each. The cardinal failed to convince her
+of her safety.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse soon formed about her a circle of emigres--Marie de'
+Medici, Duc La Vallette, Soubese, La Vieuville, and many others. This
+coterie was in open correspondence with Spain, Austria, and the Duke
+of Lorraine. From every side, Richelieu felt the intriguing hand
+and influence of Mme. de Chevreuse, and decided to put forth another
+effort to get her to return, this time sending her husband; but
+not sure of the latter's sincerity and in fear of him, the duchess
+concluded to leave England for Flanders, and, escorted by a squad of
+dukes and lords, departed like a queen.
+
+At Brussels, she entered into open relations with Spain, drawing
+over the Duke of Lorraine. She was accused of being in the plot of
+Cinq-Mars and the Duke of Bouillon with Spain; when Richelieu exposed
+this to Queen Anne, the latter for the first time became her enemy.
+Just at this time of his triumph, Richelieu died, his death being
+followed soon after by that of Louis XIII., who left a special
+order for the exile forever of Mme. de Chevreuse, whom he called _Le
+Diable_. The queen-regent, however, recalled her, and set at liberty
+her friend, Chateauneuf, who had been imprisoned for ten years.
+
+When Mme. de Chevreuse returned to Paris after an absence of ten
+years, her beauty was still unimpaired, she possessed an experience
+such as no man of the day could boast, was personally acquainted with
+nearly every great statesman and aware of the weak points in every
+court of Europe. While she could now count on the support of
+the majority of the princes, plots were being formed about the
+queen-regent, the object of which was to persuade the latter to give
+up the friends who had served her faithfully for so many years. La
+Rochefoucauld was sent to meet Mme. de Chevreuse and to inform her of
+the change of attitude of the queen-regent; as her devoted friend, he
+advised her to abandon, for the present, all hopes of governing the
+queen and to devote herself entirely to regaining her favor and to
+preparing for the possible fall of Mazarin.
+
+After securing the release of her friend Chateauneuf, Mme. de
+Chevreuse set to work to restore him to his former office of Guard
+of the Seals, but did not succeed. She then turned her attention to
+undermining the power of Mazarin, agitating all emigres returning to
+France and starting the most outspoken denunciation of the policy
+of the cardinal, his injustice and tyranny against the nobility. The
+cries of disapproval became so general that Mazarin was kept busy
+warding off the blows aimed at him by his enemy; the latter succeeded
+in placing Chateauneuf as _Chancelier des ordres du roi_ and in having
+his estates restored to him, while Alexandre de Campion she placed in
+the household of the queen. Mazarin, living in constant dread of her,
+managed to thwart two of her cherished schemes--the restoration to
+the Duke of Vendome of the government of Brittany and the placing of
+Chateauneuf in the ministry--upon the success of which depended her
+own influence and power.
+
+Finding that ruse, flattery, insinuation, and ordinary court intrigues
+were of no avail, she turned to other methods. The Importants, a party
+made up of adventurers and a large number of the nobility, were making
+themselves felt more and more; they were opposed to Richelieu and
+Mazarin, and Mme. de Chevreuse became their chief and instigator.
+Failing to succeed with the cardinal's own methods, she decided to
+assassinate him, but the plot was discovered, the Duke of Beaufort
+was arrested and all the princes of the party of the Importants were
+ordered to leave Paris. Mme. de Chevreuse was compelled to depart from
+court and retire to Dampierre, and then to Touraine, where she did
+everything in her power to assist the friends who had compromised
+themselves for her. During her first exile she had had the consolation
+of the friendship of the queen; but now she was banished by the very
+friend whom she had served so well and who had up to this time been
+able and willing to afford her comfort and protection. Through
+Lord Goring, Count Craft, and the Commander de Jars, she opened up
+correspondence and negotiations with England, but was again surprised
+by the vigilant Mazarin and sent to Angouleme; determining to escape,
+after many hardships, she successfully reached Liege; from there, as
+head of all foreign intrigues against France, she continued to thwart
+Mazarin's foreign policy.
+
+As soon as the first signs of the Fronde broke out, Mme. de Chevreuse
+became active and succeeded in attracting to her the young Marquis de
+Laigues with whom, later on, she contracted a _mariage de conscience_.
+As ambassador of the Fronde, she prevailed upon Spain to promise
+troops and subsidies to her party. After the peace of 1649, she went
+to Paris where she found almost all her friends ready to follow
+her and to pay her homage. It was she who conceived the idea of an
+aristocratic league which, under the auspices of the two great princes
+of the blood, the Duke of Orleans and the Prince of Conde, would unite
+the best part of the nobility.
+
+Her plan was to marry her daughter to the Prince de Conti and the
+young Duc d'Enghien to one of the daughters of the Duke of Orleans.
+The contracts were signed and all was in readiness when Mazarin was
+exiled, and the following Frondists came into power: the Duke
+of Orleans at court, Conde and Turenne at the head of the army,
+Chateauneuf in the Cabinet, Mole in Parliament, while Mme. de
+Chevreuse and Mme. de Longueville managed to keep harmony among all.
+Queen Anne in a short time annulled the marriage contracts; and on the
+return of Mazarin, Mme. de Chevreuse took up her work with him, the
+cardinal being wise enough to appreciate the fact that she was a
+greater force with than against him.
+
+Strange as it may seem, Mme. de Chevreuse in time became the great
+acting and controlling force of royalty, winning over the Duke of
+Lorraine and becoming a staunch friend to both the regent and the
+cardinal; after the death of the latter, she became all-powerful, and
+it may be said that she made Colbert what he was. In the fulness of
+her power, she gradually retired, having seen, in turn, the passing
+away or the fall of Richelieu, Mazarin, Louis XIII., Anne of Austria,
+the Queen of England, Chateauneuf, the Duke of Lorraine, her daughter,
+and the Marquis de Laigues. She ceased plotting, renounced politics
+and intrigues, and retired to the country, where she died in 1679.
+
+Mme. de Chevreuse was undoubtedly one of the most important political
+characters of the seventeenth century, just as she was also one of its
+greatest beauties--possibly the most seductive and charming woman of
+her epoch. A consummate diplomat and an untiring worker, she was at
+the head of more intrigues and plots, had more thrilling adventures,
+controlled and ruined more men, than any other woman of her century,
+if not of all French history. Thinking little of religion, she was
+yet in the very midst of the Catholic party; unswerving in her
+friendships, she scorned danger, opinion, fortune, for those whom she
+loved or whose cause she espoused; an implacable foe, she was the most
+dreaded enemy of both Richelieu and Mazarin.
+
+With a remarkable ability for grasping the details of an antagonist's
+position she combined all the other qualities of an astute politician;
+thus, upon the desired consummation of her plots she brought to bear
+a sagacity, finesse, and energy that baffled all her adversaries. With
+her, politics became a passion and a necessity; even while in exile,
+her zeal was unflagging and she intrigued over all Europe. Scorning
+peril as well as all petty restraints, and characterized by courage,
+loyalty, and devotion, she was without an equal among the members of
+her sex.
+
+Mme. de Hautefort, while less powerful than Mme. de Chevreuse and of
+quite a different type, is associated with her in the history of the
+time. Pure, beautiful, and virtuous, she everywhere inspired love and
+respect; without political aspirations and seeking neither power nor
+favors, she refused to deliver her soul or betray her friends for
+Richelieu or Mazarin; she was their enemy, but not their rival.
+
+Because of her desire to serve the queen, of whom she was an intimate
+friend, and to further her interests, she was connected with the first
+intrigues of Mme. de Chevreuse, but as an innocent and disinterested
+party. Louis XIII. conceived an ardent attachment for her, and
+Richelieu endeavored to win her over to his policies, but she remained
+faithful to her queen and refused to sacrifice her honor to the king.
+
+The cardinal did not rest until he had prevailed upon the king to
+exile her, ostensibly for only fifteen days; and as her unselfishness
+and generosity had made an impression upon the whole court, her
+departure was much regretted, though no demonstration was made. When,
+after the king's death, Mme. de Hautefort returned to Paris, she soon
+reestablished herself in the affection, admiration, and respect of her
+associates.
+
+As Mazarin gained ascendency over Queen Anne, that regent changed her
+policy and abandoned her former friends. Mme. de Hautefort was opposed
+to the queen on account of her liaison with her minister and her lack
+of fidelity to those who, in time of trouble, had served her so well.
+As _dame d'atours_, she was forced either to close her eyes to all
+scenes between the cardinal and Anne or to combat the regent and
+resign. She was not to be tempted by the honors and favors with which
+the two sought to purchase her criminal connivance or her silence;
+preferring poverty and exile to a guilty conscience, she soon retired
+to the convent of the Daughters of Sainte-Marie, where she was
+followed by her admirers, who were willing to place themselves and
+their fortunes at her disposal. At the age of thirty she accepted
+the hand of the Duke of Schomberg, and, away from the court and its
+intrigues, lived in peace.
+
+Indifferent to the powerful, but kind and compassionate to the poor
+and oppressed, Mme. de Hautefort is a type of those great women of
+the seventeenth century who stood for honor, courage, generosity,
+sympathy, and virtue; fervently, even austerely, religious, she was
+yet far removed from anything resembling bigotry. Among the ladies
+of the Hotel de Rambouillet, she was one of the most popular; her
+vivacity, modesty, and reserve, combined with a tall figure, imposing
+bearing, and large, expressive blue eyes, won the hearts of many
+cavaliers, among whom the most prominent were the Dukes of Lorraine
+and La Rochefoucauld.
+
+A close second to Mme. de Chevreuse in influence and power, was Mme.
+de Longueville, a woman of exquisite and aristocratic beauty, of
+brilliant mind, and an adept in the art of conversation. Tender and
+kind, but ambitious, she, like many others of her time and sex, had
+two distinct periods--one of conquest and one of penitence and pious
+devotion.
+
+Born in a prison at Vincennes during the captivity of her father,
+the great Henry of Bourbon, Prince of Conde, she in time developed
+remarkable personal charms. Her early days were spent at the convent
+of the Carmelites and at the Hotel de Rambouillet, her mind--in these
+opposite worlds of religion and society--being divided between pious
+meditations and romantic dreams. At the time of the execution at
+Toulouse of her uncle, M. de Montmorency, she seriously considered
+entering the Carmelite convent.
+
+Upon making her social debut, she immediately became one of the
+leaders about whom all the gallants gathered. She formed a fast
+friendship with Mme. de Sable, Mme. de Rambouillet, Mme. de
+Bouteville, and Mlle. du Vigean. Her beauty, which was quite
+phenomenal, soon became the subject of poetry. Voltaire wrote:
+
+  "De perles, d'astres et de fleurs,
+  Bourbon, le ciel fit tes couleurs,
+  Et mit dedans tout ce melange
+    L'esprit d'un ange!
+  L'on jugerait par la blancheur
+  De Bourbon, et par sa fraicheur,
+  Qu'elle a prit naissance des lis."
+
+[The heaven made thy colors, Bourbon, of pearls, of stars, of flowers,
+and to all this mixture added the spirit of an angel. One would judge
+by the whiteness and freshness of Bourbon that she was born of the
+lilies.]
+
+In 1642, at the age of twenty-three, she was married, against her
+will, to M. de Longueville who was, after the princes of the blood,
+the greatest seigneur of France; he was old and indifferent, and
+enamored of another woman, while she was young and full of hopes,
+ambitions, and love. His conduct, being anything but correct,
+immediately set the young wife, with her instincts of refinement and
+principles and habits of the _precieuses_, against her husband. The
+advent of a rival in the person of Mme. de Montbazon, one of the
+most noted beauties of the day, made the state of affairs even more
+unpleasant, the humiliation being so much keener because it was on
+account of her charms that Montbazon was preferred to the wife. The
+latter's fate was a cruel one; she could not respect her husband, and,
+for her, respect was the only road to love. She continued to live at
+the Hotel de Longueville and to attend all court functions, where,
+through her beauty, she early became the object of much attention from
+the young lords, among whom Coligny seemed to impress her more than
+any other.
+
+About this time occurred the deaths of Richelieu and Louis XIII., and
+the Importants, flocking to Paris to regain their rights and to share
+in the spoils of the new regency, began to make themselves felt. The
+leaders expected great favors from Anne of Austria who had been forced
+into obedience by the cardinal, but she was a great disappointment to
+them. A born lady of leisure, she was only too glad to be relieved
+of the arduous duties of government, and this her minister, Mazarin,
+quickly proceeded to do; his first object was to crush the influence
+of the Importants, who were very powerful in the salons, society, and
+politics.
+
+The house of Conde declared in favor of Mazarin, but at first this
+did not affect Mme. de Longueville, whose kindness of heart and
+indifference to politics and intrigues were generally known. Probably,
+she never would have taken a part in the Fronde had it not been for
+the rival who had been seeking, by every possible means, to injure her
+reputation--a design which Mme. de Montbazon well-nigh accomplished by
+declaring that two letters which, at a reception, had fallen from the
+pocket of Coligny had been written by Mme. de Longueville. In reality,
+they had been written by Mme. de Fouquerolles to the Marquis of
+Maulevrier. Mme. la Princesse, mother of Mme. de Longueville demanded
+full reparation, threatening that unless it was at once granted the
+house of Conde would withdraw from court, and Mazarin managed to
+induce the queen to compel Mme. de Montbazon to apologize publicly. It
+may be of interest to give, in full, the apology, to show the nature
+of court etiquette, hypocrisy, and intrigue of that day. Mme. de
+Montbazon called at the hotel of the princess and spoke the following
+words, which were written on a paper attached to her fan: "Madame, I
+come here to attest that I am innocent of the spitefulness of which
+they accuse me, there being no person of honor capable of uttering
+such a calumny; and if I had committed such a crime, I would have
+submitted to the punishments that the queen would have imposed upon
+me, would never have shown myself before the world again, and would
+have asked your pardon. I beg you to believe that I shall never be
+lacking in the respect that I owe you because of the opinion which
+I have of the merit and virtue of Mme. de Longueville." To which the
+princess replied: "I very willingly receive the assurance you give
+me of having had no part in the spitefulness that was published,
+deferring all to the order the queen has given me."
+
+After this episode, the princess refused to be in the same place with
+Mme. de Montbazon. On one occasion, Mme. de Chevreuse had invited the
+queen to a collation at a place where the queen enjoyed walking; she
+requested the princess to join her, giving her word of honor that Mme.
+de Montbazon would not be there; she was present, however, and the
+princess was about to leave when the queen ordered Mme. de Montbazon
+to feign illness and retire; this she refused to do and remained,
+whereupon the queen and the princess left, and shortly afterward Mme.
+de Montbazon received orders to leave Paris.
+
+This excited the Importants to fever heat and a plot was formed, with
+Mme. de Chevreuse as the leader, to assassinate the cardinal. Shortly
+after this, Coligny, as champion of the cause of Mme. de Longueville,
+challenged the Duc de Guise to a duel. The whole court was made up
+of two parties: the Importants with Mme. de Montbazon and Mme. de
+Chevreuse; and Conde and Mme. de Longueville with their friends;
+the result was the death of Coligny. Mme. de Longueville was a true
+_precieuse_ and hardly loved Coligny, but allowed him and any other to
+serve and adore her in a respectable way--a principle followed by
+the better women of the age, such as Mme. de Rambouillet and Mme. de
+Sable.
+
+Some time after these occurrences, Mme. de Longueville was stricken
+with smallpox which, fortunately, did not impair her beauty; it was
+said, on the contrary, that in taking away its first flower it left
+all the brilliancy which, joined to her culture and charming
+languor, made her one of the most attractive persons in France. La
+Rochefoucauld has left the following picture of her: "This princess
+had all the advantages of _esprit_ and beauty to as great a degree as
+if nature had taken pleasure in completing, in her person, a perfect
+work; but these qualities shone less brilliantly on account of one
+characteristic which led her to imbibe so thoroughly the sentiments of
+those who adored her that she no longer recognized her own."
+
+After her twenty-fifth year, Mme. de Longueville became more and more
+imbued with the general spirit of the seventeenth century: coquetry
+and _bel esprit_ became her chief occupation. The glory of her
+brother, the Duc d'Enghien, who was rapidly becoming a power, and the
+probability of the house of Conde becoming dangerous, made Mazarin
+realize that Mme. de Longueville was to be reckoned with, inasmuch as
+she had full control over D'Enghien and was constantly instilling new
+ideas into his mind and requesting from him the distribution of all
+sorts of favors. Mazarin, in 1646, succeeded in causing her withdrawal
+to Muenster for one year; there she ruled as queen of the Congress. On
+the death of her father, the Prince of Conde, and at the request
+of her mother to come home for her lying-in, the husband of Mme. de
+Longueville consented to her return to Paris.
+
+In the meantime, everything was being done by the Importants to win
+over the house of Conde and cause a breach between it and Mazarin.
+The court at this time was in full glory; to amuse the queen-regent,
+Mazarin was lavishing money on artists from Italy, and the nobility
+outdid itself in its attempts to rival royalty in elegance and luxury.
+Upon her return, everyone paid homage to Mme. de Longueville; it
+was at this period that La Rochefoucauld, who was anxious about his
+position at court, as he was accused of being in league with the
+Importants and was therefore refused the favors he desired, met Mme.
+de Longueville who was in the height of her glory and in full control
+of the most prominent house of the time--that of the Duc d'Enghien and
+the Prince de Conti, her brothers.
+
+In order to conquer for himself what the cardinal would not grant him,
+La Rochefoucauld put forth every effort to win Mme. de Longueville;
+captivated by his fine appearance, his chivalry and, above all, by his
+powerful intellect, she gave herself up entirely, willing to share his
+destiny, to sacrifice all her interests, even those of her family, and
+the deepest sentiment of her life--the tenderness for her brother.
+
+France at this time, 1648, was in a position to gain for herself a
+peace with the world at her own terms, and her future seemed to be
+without a cloud. It was the Fronde that checked her growth and glory,
+and the cause of this was the estrangement of the house of Conde
+through the action of Mme. de Longueville in passing with her husband
+over to the party of the Importants, she being the first of her family
+to forsake the government. Under the leadership of La Rochefoucauld,
+she cast her lot with the opposing party, allowing herself to be
+identified with the interests of those who had endeavored to tarnish
+her early reputation. Becoming a leader with Mme. de Chevreuse and
+Mme. de Montbazon (her rival), she easily won over her young brother,
+the Prince de Conti. After the imprisonment of her husband and her two
+brothers, she began her real career as a woman of tactics, politics,
+and generalship.
+
+With the connivance of Mme. de Chevreuse and the Princess Palatine, a
+general plan had been formed to create a new government by the union
+of the aristocracy. The marriage, already spoken of, between the Duke
+of Enghien and one of the daughters of the Duke of Orleans and that
+arranged between the Prince of Conti and the daughter of Mme. de
+Chevreuse were to have united the Fronde with the house of Conde. The
+alliances, however, were declared off, and Mme. de Chevreuse went
+over to the cardinal and the queen; Conde's fall and Mazarin's success
+followed, being the result, mainly, of the determination of Mme. de
+Chevreuse to avenge herself upon Conde for having consented to the
+breaking of the marriage contracts.
+
+Mme. de Longueville did all in her power to continue the conflict that
+Conde had undertaken, but, exhausted by continual excitement and ill
+success, she was compelled to retire. After this, her life, spent in
+Normandy, at the Carmelites' convent and at Port Royal, became a long
+penance, which increased in austerity until she died in 1679. Thus,
+her career was at first one of unblemished brilliancy, then a period
+of elegant and intellectual debauch, and finally one of expiation.
+
+"Her politics," says Sainte-Beuve, "considered in the _ensemble_, are
+nothing more than a desire to please, to shine--a capricious love. Her
+character lacked consistency and self-will, her mind was keen, ready,
+subtle, ingenious, but not reasonable."
+
+In her convent life, her crowning virtue was humility. Her enemies did
+not cease to attack her, but she received all their affronts with
+the noblest resignation. The following testimonies are taken from a
+Jansenist manuscript of 1685:
+
+"She never said anything to her own advantage. She made use of as
+many occasions as she could find for humiliating herself without any
+affectation. What she said, she said so well that it could not be
+better said. She listened much, never interrupted, and never showed
+any eagerness to speak. She spoke sensibly, modestly, charitably, and
+without passion. To court her was to speak with equity and without
+passion of everyone and to esteem the good in all. Her whole exterior,
+her voice, her face, her gestures, were a perfect music; and her mind
+and body served her so well in expressing what she wished to make
+heard, that she appeared the most perfect actress in the world."
+
+Her love for La Rochefoucauld was the secret of her failure in life.
+When she experienced the disappointments of her married life and
+discovered that her dream of being loved by her husband could not be
+realized, she looked to other sources for diversion. She was not an
+intriguing woman like Mme. de Chevreuse, but one of ambitions which
+were incited by her love for and interest in the objects of her
+affection. Although she carried on flirtations with Coligny and the
+Duke of Nemours, she really loved no one but La Rochefoucauld, to
+whom she sacrificed her reputation and tranquillity, her duties and
+interests. For him she took up the cause of the Fronde; for him she
+was a mere slave, her entire existence being given up to his love, his
+whims, his service; when he failed her, she was lost, exhausted, and
+retired to a convent at the age of thirty-five and in the full bloom
+of her beauty. Her professed lover simply used her as a means to an
+end, seeking only his own interests in the Fronde, while she sought
+his; and this is the explanation of her seeming inconsistency of
+conduct. In her religious life she was happy and contented; surrounded
+by her friends, she lived peacefully for over twenty years.
+
+Thus, Marie de' Medici, a foreigner, Mme. de Chevreuse, and Mme. de
+Longueville represent the political women of the first half of the
+seventeenth century; Anne of Austria, who was of foreign extraction,
+was a mere tool in the hands of Mazarin, and exerted little influence
+in general.
+
+One of the principal differences between the conspicuous political
+women of the sixteenth and those of the seventeenth centuries lies in
+the possession by the latter of less personal force than that wielded
+by the former, who allowed nothing to thwart their plans. The women
+of both periods were beautiful, but those of the earlier one were of a
+magnetic and sensual type, "inspiring insensate passions and exciting
+a feverish unrest," thus ruling man through his lower instincts. The
+lack of refinement, sympathy, and charity reflected in their actions
+is in glaring contrast to the dignity, repose, reserve, and womanly
+modesty and grace displayed by their less masterful successors of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IV
+
+Woman in Society and Literature
+
+
+At the beginning of the seventeenth century, after the death of Henry
+IV., there were three classes in France,--the nobility, clergy, and
+third estate,--each with a distinct field of action: the nobility
+dominated customs, morality, and the government; the clergy supervised
+instruction and education; the third estate furnished the funds, that
+is, its work made possible the operations of the other classes.
+
+At court, various dialects and diverse pronunciations were in use by
+the representatives of the different provinces; the written language,
+though understood generally, was not used. Warriors were largely
+in evidence among the members of the nobility and court; entirely
+indifferent to decency of expression, purity of morals, and refinement
+of manners, and even boasting of their scorn of all restrictions,
+they took their boisterous rudeness into the drawing room where their
+influence was unlimited. The king, being of the same class, knew no
+better, or, if he did, had not the moral courage to compel a change;
+thus, the institution of a reformatory movement fell to the lot of
+woman.
+
+Then, however, woman was but little better than man; to gain his
+esteem, she would first have to make radical changes in her own
+behavior and become self-respecting. The customs of the time placed
+many disadvantages in the way of her social and moral reform. As
+a rule, the young girl was confined to a convent until she reached
+marriageable age; when that came and with it an undesired husband, she
+was ready for almost any prank that would relieve the monotony of her
+uncongenial marital relations. The convents themselves were so corrupt
+or so easily corruptible, that, very frequently, young girls did not
+leave them with unstained purity. To certain of these institutions,
+women and men of standing often bought the privilege of access at any
+time, to drink, dine, sleep, or attend sacred exercises with other
+persons; thus, libertinage was not uncommon within the walls of those
+so-called religious establishments.
+
+Mme. de Rambouillet felt most keenly the degradation of woman and
+resolved to act against it by combating everything that could offend
+taste or delicacy. As in the beginning of every great age, all things
+tended to greatness. A period of discipline and cooerdination set
+in, and elegance, grace, and refinement became the most pronounced
+characteristics of the time; rough, crude, robust, vigorous, and
+energetic characteristics, combined with coarseness and brutality,
+were eliminated during the seventeenth century. The women who caused
+this general purification of morals and language were given the name
+of _precieuses_ and the movement that of _preciosite_.
+
+The extent to which the _precieuses_ went in inventing locutions by
+which they were to be recognized as elegant, is generally exaggerated;
+Livet says that out of six hundred women hardly thirty could be
+accused of such fatuity. The wiser and more conservative women
+did adopt a large number of expressions which were necessary for
+refinement of language and these classicisms were exaggerated by some
+of the provincial classes who received their expressions from books
+and the theatre; such authors as Corneille, etc., were studied and
+their poetic licenses introduced into spoken language. These follies,
+pictured by Moliere, naturally afforded much amusement in cultured
+circles where every event of the day was discussed, from the vital
+affairs of the government to the aesthetic interests of art and
+literature.
+
+The tremendous vogue of the seventeenth century salons or drawing
+rooms naturally gave a stimulus to literature; but, as they were so
+numerous and as each one claimed its large coterie of literary men,
+they proved to be disastrous to some while helpful to others. Two
+distinct classes of writers arose: the one, serious, elevated,
+thoughtful, classical, and independent of the salon, is well
+represented by Moliere, Pascal, Boileau; the other, light, affected,
+gallant, superficial, was composed of the innumerable unimportant
+writers of the day.
+
+The salon movement must not be confounded with two other social
+movements or forces--those of court and society; while at the former
+all was formality, the latter was still gross and brutish. The Marquis
+de Caze, at a supper seized a leg of mutton and struck his neighbor
+in the face with it, sprinkling her with gravy, whereupon she laughed
+heartily; the Count of Bregis, slapped by the lady with whom he was
+dancing, tore off her headdress before the whole company; Louis XIII.,
+noticing in the crowd admitted to see him dine a lady dressed too
+_decollete_, filled his mouth with wine and squirted the liquid into
+the bosom of the unfortunate girl; the Prince of Conde, indulging in
+customary brutishness, ate dung and had the ladies follow his example;
+these are fair illustrations of social _elegances_.
+
+As will be seen, nothing of this nature occurred in the salon of Mme.
+de Rambouillet, whose object was to charm her leisure hours, distract
+and amuse the husband whom she adored, and be agreeable to her
+friends. Her amusements were most original--concerts, mythological
+representations, suppers, fireworks, comedies, readings, always
+something new, often in the form of a surprise or a joke. Of the
+latter, the best known is the one played on the Count of Guise whose
+fondness for mushrooms had become proverbial; on one occasion when he
+had consumed an immense number of them at table, his valet, who had
+been bribed, took in all his doublets; on trying to put them on again,
+he found them too narrow by fully four inches. "What in the world is
+the matter--am I all swollen--could it be due to having eaten too many
+mushrooms?" "That is quite possible," said Chaudebonne; "yesterday you
+ate enough of them to split." All the accomplices joined in ridiculing
+him, and he began to squirm and show a somewhat livid color. Mass was
+rung, and he was compelled to attend in his chamber robe. Laughing, he
+said: "That would be a fine end--to die at the age of twenty-one from
+having eaten too many mushrooms." In the meantime, Chaudebonne advised
+the use of an antidote which he wrote and handed to the count, who
+read: "Take a good pair of scissors and cut your doublet." Only then
+did the victim comprehend the joke.
+
+One day, Voiture, having met a bear trainer, took him with his animals
+to the room of the Marquise de Rambouillet; she, turning at the noise,
+saw four large paws resting upon her screen. She readily forgave the
+author of the surprise. Du Bled relates many more of these innocent
+jokes.
+
+Among the congenial people of the salons, the relations were always of
+the most cordial, friendly, free, and intimate nature; they were like
+the members of a large family. By them, love was not considered a
+weakness but a mark of the elevation of the soul, and every man had
+to be sensitive to beauty. When the Duchesse d'Aiguillon presented
+to society her nephew, who later became the Duke of Richelieu, she
+advised and encouraged him to complete his education and make of
+himself an _honnete homme_ by association with the elder Mlle. du
+Vigean and other women; the object of this procedure was to polish his
+manners, elevate his instincts, and develop ease in deportment toward
+the ladies. There was no hint of the vulgar or licentious pleasures
+which became the characteristics of love in the eighteenth century.
+
+The woman who inaugurated the movement toward purity of morals,
+decency of language, polish of manners, and courtesy to woman, was
+Mme. de Rambouillet. Catherine de Vivonne, Marquise de Rambouillet,
+whose mother was a great Roman lady and whose father had been
+ambassador to Rome, inherited that pride of race and independence of
+spirit for which she was so well known. In 1600, she was married, at
+the age of twelve, to the Marquis de Rambouillet who was her senior by
+eleven years, but who treated her with deference and respect rare at
+that time. Husband and wife were perfectly congenial, and their happy
+and peaceful life was a great contrast to that led by the majority of
+the married couples of the day. Absolutely irreproachable in conduct,
+she set a worthy example for all women who knew her.
+
+Her high ideals, independence of character, family duties, and the
+general debauchery, which was incompatible with her rigid chastity and
+"precocious wisdom," caused her to withdraw from the court in 1608;
+two years later, she decided to open her salon to such aristocratic
+and cultured persons as appreciated womanly grace, wit, and taste. Her
+familiarity with Italian and Spanish history and art placed her at
+the head of intellectual as well as moral movements. She surrounded
+herself with the distinguished men and women of the day, and her
+salon, which in every detail was decorated and arranged for pleasure,
+immediately became, through the exquisite charm with which she
+presided, the one goal of the cultured; her blue room was the
+sanctuary of polite society and she was its high priestess.
+
+The highest ambition of the _habitue_ of the salon was to sing, dance,
+and converse artistically and with refinement. A reaction against the
+general social state immediately set in, even the brusque warriors
+acquiring a refinement of speech and manners; and as conversation
+developed and became a power, the great lords began to respect men
+of letters and to cultivate their society. Anyone who possessed good
+manners, vivacity, and wit was admitted to the salon, where a new and
+more elevating sociability was the aspiration.
+
+Mme. de Rambouillet was very particular in the choice of friends, and
+they were always sincere and devoted, knowing her to be undesirous of
+political favors and incapable of stooping to intrigue. Even Richelieu
+could not, as compensation to him for a favor to her husband, induce
+her to act as spy on some of the frequenters of her salon.
+
+While not a woman of remarkable beauty, she was the personification
+of reason and virtue; her unassuming frankness, exquisite tact, and
+exceptional reserve discouraged all advances on the part of those
+gallants who frequented every mansion and were always prepared to lay
+siege to the heart of any fair woman. Her wide culture, versatility,
+modesty, goodness, fidelity, and disinterestedness caused her to be
+universally sought. Mlle. de Scudery, in her novel _Cyrus_, leaves a
+fine portrait of her:
+
+"The spirit and soul of this marvellous person surpass by far her
+beauty: the first has no limits in its extent and the other has no
+equal in its generosity, goodness, justice, and purity. The intellect
+of Cleomire (Mme. de Rambouillet) is not like that of those whose
+minds have no brilliancy except that which nature has given them, for
+she has cultivated it carefully, and I think I can say that there are
+no _belles connaissances_ that she has not acquired. She knows various
+languages, and is ignorant of hardly anything that is worth knowing;
+but she knows it all without making a display of knowing it; and one
+would say, in hearing her talk, 'she is so modest that she speaks
+admirably of things, through simple common sense only'; on the
+contrary, she is versed in all things; the most advanced sciences
+are not beyond her, and she is perfectly acquainted with the most
+difficult arts. Never has any person possessed such a delicate
+knowledge as hers of fine works of prose and poetry; she judges them,
+however, with wonderful moderation, never abandoning _la bienseance_
+(the seemliness) of her sex, though she is far above it. In the whole
+court, there is not a person with any spirit and virtue that does not
+go to her house. Nothing is considered beautiful if it does not
+have her approval; no stranger ever comes who does not desire to see
+Cleomire and do her homage, and there are no excellent artisans who
+do not wish to have the glory of her approbation of their works. All
+people who write in Phenicie have sung her praises; and she possesses
+the esteem of everyone to such a marvellous degree that there is no
+one who has ever seen her who has not said thousands of favorable
+things about her--who has not been charmed likewise by her beauty,
+_esprit_, sweetness, and generosity."
+
+Mlle. de Scudery describes the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet in the
+following:
+
+"Cleomire (Mme. de Rambouillet) had built, according to her own
+design, a place which is one of the finest in the world; she has found
+the art of constructing a palace of vast extent in a situation
+of mediocre grandeur. Order, harmony, and elegance are in all the
+apartments, and in the furniture also; everything is magnificent,
+even unique; the lamps are different from those of other palaces, her
+cabinets are full of objects which show the judgment of her who chose
+them. In her palace, the air is always scented; many baskets full of
+magnificent flowers make a continual spring in her room, and the place
+which she frequents ordinarily is so agreeable and so imaginative as
+to make one feel as if she were in some enchanted place."
+
+The very names of the frequenters of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet
+testify to the prominence of her position in the world of culture:
+Mlle. de Scudery, Mlle. du Vigean; Mmes. de Longueville, de la Vergne,
+de La Fayette, de Sable, de Hautefort, de Sevigne, de la Suze, Marie
+de Gonzague, Duchesse d'Aiguillon, Mmes. des Houlieres, Cornuel,
+Aubry, and their respective husbands; the great literary men: Rotrou,
+Scarron, Saint-Evremond, Malherbe, Racan, Chapelain, Voiture, Conrart,
+Benserade, Pellisson, Segrais, Vaugelas, Menage, Tallemant des Reaux,
+Balzac, Mairet, Corneille, Bossuet, etc. In the entire period of the
+French salon, no other such brilliant gathering of men and women of
+social standing, princely blood, genuine intelligence, and literary
+ability ever assembled from motives other than those of politics
+or intrigue; here was a gathering purely social and for purposes of
+mutual refinement. The nobility went through a process of polishing,
+and the men of letters sharpened their intelligence and modified their
+manners and customs.
+
+Julie, Duchess of Montausier, and Angelique, daughters of Mme. de
+Rambouillet, were popular, but the former lost much of her charm after
+she sacrificed her independence of thought and action by becoming
+governess of the children of the queen. Julie was the centre of
+attraction for all perfumed rhymesters, all sighers in prose and
+verse, who thronged about her. The stern and unbending Duke of
+Montausier was so under her influence that in 1641 he arranged and
+laid before her shrine the famous _guirlande_ which was illustrated by
+Robert and to which nineteen authors contributed. After her marriage
+to the duke, the Hotel de Rambouillet may be said to have ceased to
+exist, as madame, who was seventy years of age, had for a number
+of years kept herself in the background, and Julie had become the
+acknowledged leader.
+
+With the outbreak of the Fronde, friends were separated by their
+individual interests and the reunions at the salon were interrupted
+from about 1650 to 1652. After the death of her husband, Mme. de
+Rambouillet retired, to reside with her daughter, Mme. de Montausier;
+after that, she seldom appeared in public. She hardly lived to see the
+spirit of the salon changed to the real _preciosite_--the direction
+and aim she gave to it being gradually abandoned.
+
+In her salon, for nearly fifty years, no pedantry, no loose manners,
+no questionable characters, no social or political intrigues, no
+discourtesies of any kind, were recorded; hers was a reign of dignity
+and grace, of purity of language, manners, and morals. She died in
+1665, at the advanced age of seventy-seven, esteemed and mourned by
+the entire social and intellectual world of France. Her influence
+was incalculable; it was the first time in the history of France
+that refined taste, intellectuality, and virtue had won importance,
+influence, and power.
+
+It must be remembered that in the first period of the salon there were
+no blue-stockings, no pedants: these were later developments. It was,
+primarily, a gathering which found pleasure in parties, excursions,
+concerts, balls, fireworks, dramatic performances, living tableaux;
+the last form of amusement very strongly influenced the development
+of the art, for in the galleries there appeared a surprisingly large
+number of portraits of the women of the day in character--sometimes as
+a nymph, sometimes as a goddess.
+
+The salon, in its first phase, showed and developed tolerance in
+religion as well as in art and literature. It also encouraged progress
+and displayed acute discrimination, keeping pace with the time in all
+that was new and meritorious. It developed individual liberty, public
+interest, criticism, good taste, and the elegant, clear, and precise
+conversational language in which France has excelled up to the present
+day.
+
+When about to build the Hotel Pisani, Mme. de Rambouillet, having
+no love for architects, planned its construction without their
+assistance. She revolutionized the architecture of the time by
+introducing large and high doors and windows and putting the stairway
+to one side in order to secure a large suite of rooms. She was also
+the first to decorate a room in other colors than red or tan. The
+construction of her hotel completely changed domestic architecture;
+and it may be noted that when the Luxembourg was to be built,
+the designers were instructed to examine, for ideas, the Hotel de
+Rambouillet.
+
+Legouve gives as the object and mission of Mme. de Rambouillet:
+"to combat the sensualism of Rabelais, Villon, and Marot, to reform
+society through love by reforming love through chastity; to place
+women at the head of civilization, by beginning a crusade against vice
+in the disguise of sentiment. The word 'fame' must, in the seventeenth
+century, apply to both man and woman, meaning honor for the one and
+purity for the other. Her ideal falls with the accession of Louis
+XIV.; the dazzling luxury of royalty hardly conceals, under its
+exterior elegance, the profound and deep-seated grossness of
+Versailles and Marly."
+
+To Mme. de Rambouillet, then, belongs the distinction of having
+been the first to bring together men of letters and great lords on
+a footing of social equality and for mutual benefit. Her salon
+and friends continued in the seventeenth century what Marguerite
+d'Angouleme had begun in the first part of the sixteenth--an
+intellectual, social, and moral reform.
+
+Many salons which were all more or less patterned after that of
+Rambouillet sprang into existence. Among these the Academy of the
+Vicomtesse d'Auchy, with Malherbe as president and tyrant, was of
+little influence as far as women were concerned. The members were all
+of second-rate importance, and Malherbe tolerated only the discussion
+of his verses, while Mme. d'Auchy was better known for her splendid
+neck than for any intellectuality. Every salon had a master of
+ceremonies, who performed the rite of presentation; these men were
+frequently abbes, and some of them, such as Du Buisson and Testu,
+became famous.
+
+Among the most noted of these salons was that of the celebrated
+beauty, Ninon de Lenclos, she who called the _precieuses_ the
+"Jansenists of love," an expression which became very popular. Her
+salon was situated on the Rue des Tournelles. Ninon de Lenclos was a
+woman of the most brilliant mind and exquisite taste, and it was at
+her hotel that Moliere first read his _Tartuffe_ before Conde, La
+Fontaine, Boileau, Lulli, Racine, and Chapelle, and it was there that
+he received the principal ideas for his drama.
+
+Ninon became famous for making staunch friends of her former lovers,
+in which connection some interesting tales are told. She was the
+mother of two children; upon the arrival of the first, a heated
+discussion arose between Count d'Estrees and Abbe d'Effiat, both
+claiming the honor of paternity. When the mother was consulted, she
+made no attempt to conceal her amusement; finally, the rivals threw
+dice for "father or not father."
+
+The other child, whose father was the Marquis de Gersay, was the
+victim of an unnatural passion for his mother with whom, when a young
+man, he fell desperately in love, being ignorant of their relation.
+While pleading his cause, he learned from her lips the secret, and, in
+despair, blew out his brains, a tragedy which apparently had no effect
+upon the mother. At one time, at the request of the clergy Ninon was
+sent, for impiety, to the convent of the Benedictines at Lagny.
+
+Among her friends she counted the greatest men and women of the day
+and her salon was the foyer of _savoir-vivre_, of letters and art. At
+the age of sixty she met the Great Conde, who dismounted to greet
+her, something that he very seldom did, as he was not in the habit
+of paying compliments to women. The saying: _Elle eut l'estime de
+Lenclos_ [she had the esteem of Lenclos] became a popular manner of
+expressing the fact that a certain woman was especially esteemed. Even
+to the last (she died at the age of eighty-five), Ninon preserved
+her grace, beauty, and intelligence. Colombey calls her _La mere
+spirituelle de Voltaire_ [the spiritual mother of Voltaire].
+
+The generality of women had their lovers; even the famous Mlle. de
+Scudery, in spite of her homeliness--she was a dark, large-boned,
+and lean sort of old maid--had admirers galore; among the latter
+was Pellisson who was said to be so ugly "that he really abused the
+privilege--which man enjoys--of being homely."
+
+The hotel of the famous poet Scarron--Hotel de
+l'Impecuniosite--received almost all the frequenters of Ninon's salon.
+At the former place there were no restrictions as to the manner of
+enjoyment; after elevating and edifying conversation at the salon
+of Ninon, the members would repair to that of Scarron for a feast of
+_broutilles rabelaisiennes_ [Rabelaisian tidbits].
+
+The salon of Mme. de Montbazon had its frequenters who, however, were
+attracted mainly by her beauty; she was, to use the words of one of
+her friends, "One of those beauties that delight the eye and provoke
+a vigorous appetite." Her salon was one of suitors rather than of
+intellectuality or harmless sociability.
+
+The most famous of the men's salons was the Temple, constructed in
+1667 by Jacques de Souvre and conducted from 1681 to 1720 by Phillipe
+de Vendome and his intendant, Abbe de Chaulieu. These reunions,
+especially under the latter, were veritable midnight _convivia_; he
+himself boasted of never having gone to bed one night in thirty years
+without having been carried there dead drunk, a custom to which he
+remained "faithful unto death." His boon companion was La Duchesse
+de Bouillon. Most of his frequenters were jolly good persons, utterly
+destitute of the sense of sufficiency in matters of carousing; the
+better people declined his invitations.
+
+After that of Mme. de Rambouillet, there were, in the seventeenth
+century, but two great salons that exerted a lasting influence and
+that were not saturated with the decadent _preciosite_. Of these
+the salon of Mlle. de Scudery has been called the salon of the
+_bourgeoisie_, because the majority of its frequenters belonged to the
+third estate, which was rapidly acquiring power and influence.
+
+Mlle. de Scudery, who was born in 1608 and lived through the whole
+century, saw society develop, and therefore knew it better than did
+any of her contemporaries. Having lost her parents early in life, her
+uncle reared her and she received advantages such as fell to the lot
+of few women of her condition; she was given an excellent education in
+literature, art, and the languages.
+
+Until the marriage of her brother, she was his constant and devoted
+companion, exiling herself to Marseilles when he was appointed
+governor of Notre Dame de La Garde, and returning to Paris with him
+in 1647. She first collaborated with him in a literary production of
+about eighty volumes. In their works, the brother furnished the rough
+draft, the dramatic episodes, adventures, and the Romanesque part,
+while she added the literary finish through charming character
+sketches, conversation, sentimental analyses, and letters. With a
+strong inclination toward society, and constantly fulfilling its
+obligations, she would from day to day write up her conversations of
+the evening before.
+
+An interesting anecdote is told in connection with the travels and
+cooeperation of Mlle. de Scudery and her brother; once, on the way to
+Paris, while stopping over night at Lyons, they were discussing the
+fate of one of their heroes, one proposing death and the other rescue,
+one poison and the other a more cruel death; a gentleman from Auvergne
+happened to overhear them and immediately notified the people of the
+inn, thinking it was a question of assassinating the king; the brother
+and sister were thrown into prison and only with great difficulty
+were they able to explain matters the next morning. From this incident
+Scribe drew the material for his drama, _L'Auberge ou les Brigands
+sans le Savoir_.
+
+At the Hotel de Rambouillet where Mlle. de Scudery was received early,
+she won everyone by her modesty, simplicity, _esprit_, and lovable
+disposition, and, in spite of her homeliness and poor figure, she
+attracted many platonic lovers. She was one of the few brilliant
+and famous women of the seventeenth century whose popularity was due
+solely to admirable qualities of mind and soul. With her, friendship
+became a cult, and it was in time of trouble that her friends received
+the strongest proof of her affection. She preferred to incur disgrace
+and the disfavor of Mazarin rather than forsake Conde and Madame de
+Longueville; to them she dedicated the ten volumes, successively,
+of her novel, _Cyrus_; the last volume was published after Mme. de
+Longueville's retirement and partial disgrace.
+
+After the brilliant society of the Hotel de Rambouillet had been
+broken up by the marriage of Julie and the operations of the Fronde,
+and after her brother's marriage in 1654, Mlle. de Scudery became
+independent and established the custom of receiving her friends on
+Saturday; these receptions became famous under the name of _Samedi_,
+and besides the regular rather bourgeois gathering, the most brilliant
+talent and highest nobility flocked to them, regardless of rank or
+station, wealth or influence. Pellisson, the great master, the prince,
+the Apollo of her Saturdays, was a man of wonderfully inventive
+genius, and possessed in a higher degree than any of his
+contemporaries the art of inventing surprises for the society that
+lived on novelty. When, on account of his devotion to Fouquet, he
+was imprisoned in the Bastille, Mlle. de Scudery managed to persuade
+Colbert to brighten his confinement by permitting him to see friends
+and relatives. Part of every day she spent in his prison, conversing
+and reading; and this is but one instance of her fidelity and
+friendship.
+
+Mlle. de Scudery, considering all men as aspirants for authority
+who, when husbands, degenerate into tyrants, preferred to retain
+her independence. Her ideas on love were very peculiar and were
+innovations at the time: she wished to be loved, but her love must be
+friendship--a pure, platonic love, in which her lover must be her all,
+her confidant, the participator in her sorrows and her conversation;
+and his happiness must be in her alone; he must, without feeling
+passion, love her for herself, and she must have the same feeling
+toward him. These sentiments are expressed in her novels, from which
+the following extracts are taken:
+
+"When friendship becomes love in the heart of a lover or when this
+love is mingled with friendship without destroying it, there is
+nothing so sweet as this kind of love; for as violent as it is, it is
+always held somewhat more in check than is ordinary love; it is more
+durable, more tender, more respectful, and even more ardent, although
+it is not subject to so many tumultuous caprices as is that love which
+arises without friendship. It can be said that love and friendship
+flow together like two streams, the more celebrated of which obscures
+the name of the other." ... "They agreed on even the conditions of
+their love; for Phaon solemnly promised Sapho (Mlle. de Scudery)--who
+desired it thus--not to ask of her anything more than the possession
+of her heart, and she, also, promised him to receive only him in hers.
+They told each other all their thoughts, they understood them even
+without confessing them. Peace, however, was not so completely
+established that their affection could not become languishing or cool;
+for, although they loved each other as much as one can love, they at
+times complained of not being loved enough, and they had sufficient
+little difficulties to always leave something new to wish for; but
+they never had any troubles that were serious enough to essentially
+disturb their repose."
+
+Mlle. de Scudery was mistress of the art of conversation, speaking
+without affectation and equally well on all affairs, serious, light,
+or gallant; she objected, however, to being called a _savante_, and
+she was far from resembling the false _precieuses_ to whom she was
+likened by her enemies. The occupations of her salon were somewhat
+different from those of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet. M. du Bled
+describes them as follows:
+
+"What they did in the salon of Mlle. de Scudery you can guess readily:
+they amused themselves as at Mme. de Rambouillet's, they joked quite
+cheerfully, smiled and laughed, wrote farces in prose and
+poetry. There were readings, _loteries d'esprit_, sonnet-enigmas,
+_bouts-rimes_ (rhymes given to be formed into verse), _vers-echos_,
+fine literary joustings, discussions between the casuists. This salon
+had its talkers and speakers, those who tyrannized over the audience
+and those who charmed it, those who shot off fireworks and those who
+prepared them, those who had made a symphony of conversation and those
+who made of it a monologue and had no flashes of silence. They did not
+follow fashion there--they rather made it; in art and literature as
+in toilets, smallness follows the fashion, pretension exaggerates it,
+taste makes a compact with it."
+
+A specimen of the _enigme-sonnets_ may be of interest, to show in what
+intellectual playfulness and trivialities these wits indulged:
+
+  "Souvent, quoique leger, je lasse qui me porte.
+  Un mot de ma facon vaut un ample discours.
+  J'ai sous Louis le Grand commence d'avoir cours,
+  Mince, long, plat, etroit, d'une etoffe peu forte.
+
+  "Les doigts les moins savants me taillent de la sorte;
+  Sous mille noms divers je parais tous les jours;
+  Aux valets etourdis je suis d'un grand secours.
+  Le Louvre ne voit point ma figure a sa porte.
+
+  "Une grossiere main vient la plupart du temps
+  Me prendre de la main des plus honnetes gens.
+  Civil, officieux, je suis ne pour la ville.
+
+  "Dans le plus rude hiver j'ai le dos toujours nu:
+  Et, quoique fort commode, a peine m'a-t-on vu,
+  Qu'ausitot neglige, je deviens inutile."
+
+[Often, although light, I weary the person who carries me. A word in
+my manner is worth a whole discourse. I began under Louis the Great to
+be in vogue,--slight, long, flat, narrow, of a very slight material.
+
+The most unskilled fingers cut me in their way; under a thousand
+different forms I appear every day; I am a great aid to the astonished
+valets. The Louvre does not see my face at its door.
+
+A coarse hand most of the time receives me from the hand of the nicest
+people. Civil, officious, I am born for the city.
+
+In the coldest weather, my back is always bare; and, although quite
+convenient, scarcely have they seen me, when I am neglected and
+useless.--Visiting card.]
+
+A more interesting one and one that caused no little amusement is the
+following:
+
+  "Je suis niais et fin, honnete et malhonnete,
+  Moins sincere a la cour qu'en un simple taudis.
+  Je fais d'un air plaisant trembler les plus hardis,
+  Le fort me laisse aller, le sage m'arrete.
+
+  "A personne sans moi l'on ne fait jamais fete:
+  J'embellis quelquefois, quelquefois, j'enlaidis.
+  Je dedaigne tantot, tantot j'applaudis;
+  Pour m'avoir en partage, il faut n'etre pas bete.
+
+  "Plus mon trone est petit, plus il a de beaute.
+  Je l'agrandis pourtant d'un et d'autre cote,
+  Faisant voir bien souvent des defauts dont on jase.
+
+  "Je quitte mon eclat quand je suis sans temoins,
+  Et je me puis vanter enfin d'etre la chose
+  Qui contente le plus et qui coute le moins."
+
+[I am both stupid and bright, honest and dishonest; less sincere at
+court than in a simple hovel; with a pleasant air, I make the boldest
+tremble, the strong let me pass, the wise stop me.
+
+There is no joy to anyone without me; I embellish at times, at times I
+distort; I disdain and I applaud; to share me, one must not be stupid.
+
+The smaller my throne, the greater my beauty; I enlarge it, however,
+on both sides, often showing defects which are made sport of.
+
+I leave my brilliancy when I am without witness, and I can boast
+of being the thing which contents the most and costs the least.--A
+smile.]
+
+Critics often reproach Mlle. de Scudery for having portrayed
+herself--as Sapho--in a flattering light in her novel _Cyrus_; but it
+must be remembered that at that time this was a common custom, women
+of the highest quality indulging in such pastimes, there even being a
+prominent salon where verbal portraiture was the sole occupation. No
+one has written more or better on the condition of woman, for she,
+above all, had the experience upon which to base her writings. The
+idea of woman's education and aim, which was generally entertained by
+the intelligent and modest women of the seventeenth century, is well
+expressed by Mlle. de Scudery in the following:
+
+"The difficulty of knowing something with seemliness does not come to
+a woman so much from what she knows as from what others do not know;
+and it is, without doubt, singularity that makes it difficult to be as
+others are not, without being exposed to blame. Seriously, is not the
+ordinary idea of the education of women a peculiar one? They are not
+to be coquettes nor gallants, and yet they are carefully taught all
+that is peculiar to gallantry without being permitted to know anything
+that can strengthen their virtue or occupy their minds. Don't imagine,
+however, that I do not wish woman to be elegant, to dance or to sing;
+but I should like to see as much care devoted to her mind as to her
+body, and between being ignorant and _savante_ I should like to see
+a road taken which would prevent annoyance from an impertinent
+sufficiency or from a tiresome stupidity. I should like very much to
+be able to say of anyone of my sex that she knows a hundred things of
+which she does not boast, that she has a well-balanced mind, that she
+speaks well, writes correctly, and knows the world; but I do not wish
+it to be said of her that she is a _femme savante_. The best women of
+the world when they are together in a large number rarely say anything
+that is worth anything and are more ennuye than if they were alone; on
+the contrary, there is something that I cannot express, which makes it
+possible for men to enliven and divert a company of ladies more than
+the most amiable woman on earth could do."
+
+Mlle. de Scudery considered marriage a long slavery and preferred
+virtuous celibacy enlivened by platonic gallantry. When youth and
+adorers had passed away, she found consolation in interchanges of
+wit, congenial conversation, and the cultivation of the mind by study.
+Making of love a doctrine, a manual of morals or _savoir-vivre_, has
+had a refining effect upon civilization; but the process has rendered
+the emotion itself too subtle, select, narrow, enervating, and
+exhausting; it has resulted in the production of splendid books
+with heroes and heroines of the higher type, and has purified the
+atmosphere of social life; this phase of its influence, however,
+is felt by only a set of the elite, and its adherents are scattered
+through every age and every country. Mlle. de Scudery was a perfect
+representative of that type, but healthy and normal rather than
+morbidly aesthetic.
+
+An opposition party soon arose, formed by those, especially, who
+entertained different ideas of the sphere and duties of woman. Just
+as the type of the salon of Mme. de Rambouillet degenerated among the
+aristocracy into those of the Hotel de Conde, Mme. de Sable, and Mlle.
+de Luxembourg, so the type of the salon of Mlle. de Scudery gave rise
+to a number of literary salons among the _bourgeoisie_. The aim of
+the latter institutions was to imitate her example in endeavoring to
+spread the taste for courtesy, elegant manners and the higher forms
+of learning; all these aspirations, however, drifted into mere
+affectation, while the requisites of welcome at the original salon
+were simplicity, freedom from affectation, delicacy, amiability, and
+dignity.
+
+As a writer, Mlle. de Scudery occupies no mean position in the history
+of French literature of the seventeenth century. Her descriptions
+and anecdotes possess a wonderful charm and display unusual power of
+analysis; in them, Victor Cousin recognizes a truly virile spirit. In
+the history of the French novel, she forms a transition period, her
+productions having both a psychological interest and a historical
+value of a very high degree. Through her finesse and marvellous
+feminine penetration, her truthful, delicate and fine portraitures,
+which were widely imitated later, she has exerted an extensive
+influence.
+
+With Mlle. de Scudery "we have substance, real character painting,
+true psychological penetration, and realism in observation," while
+previously the novel, under such men as Gomberville and La Calprenede,
+was imaginative and full of fancy. Her talent, then, in that field,
+lay in the analysis and development of sentiments, in delineation of
+character, in the creation and reproduction of refined and ingenious
+conversations, and in her reflections on subjects pertaining to
+morality and literature--in all of which she displayed justness and
+entire liberty and independence of thought. Her poetry, delicate
+compliment or innocent gallantries, was a mere bagatelle of the salon.
+
+Charming as well as accomplished, Mlle. de Scudery was as intelligent,
+witty, and intellectual a woman as could be found in the seventeenth
+century; and in the history of that period she retains an undisputed
+position as one of its great leaders of thought and progress. Her
+salon, inasmuch as the salon of Mme. de Lambert was not opened until
+1710, and therefore the discussion of it belongs properly to the
+beginning of the eighteenth century, really closes the literary
+progress of the seventeenth century.
+
+The influence of the seventeenth century salon was of a threefold
+nature--literary, moral, and social. According to the salon
+conception, artistic, literary, or musical pleasure being derived
+from form and mode of expression, it possessed a special and unique
+interest in proportion to the efforts made and the difficulties
+surmounted in attaining that form and expression: thus, woman
+introduced a new standard of excellence.
+
+_Preciosite_ treated language not as a work of art, but as a medium
+for the display of individual linguistic dexterity; giving no thing
+its proper name, it delighted in paraphrase, allusion, word play,
+unexpected comparisons and abundance of metaphors, and revelled in
+the elusive, delicate, subtle, and complex. Hence conversation turned
+constantly to love and gallantry; thus woman developed to a wonderful
+degree, unattainable to but few, the art of conversation, politeness
+and courtesy of manners, and social relations, at the same time
+purifying language and enriching it.
+
+French women of the seventeenth century are condemned for having
+treated serious things too lightly; and it is said that "in confining
+the French mind to the observation of society and its attractions, she
+has restricted and retarded a more realistic and larger activity."
+In answer to this it may be asserted that the French mind was not
+prepared for a broader field until it had passed through the process
+of expurgating, refining, drilling, and disciplining. If _preciosite_
+influenced politics, it was by developing diplomacy, for, from
+the time that this spirit began to spread, French diplomacy became
+world-renowned.
+
+The social influence of the movement may be better appreciated
+by considering the condition of woman in earlier periods. Having
+practically no position except that of housewife or mother, she was
+merely a source of pleasure for man, for whom she had little or no
+respect. The _precieuses_, on the contrary, exacted respect, honor,
+and a place beside man, as rights that belonged to them.
+
+As the outcome of their desire to think, feel, and act with greater
+delicacy, women introduced propriety in expression, finesse in
+analysis, keenness of _esprit_, psychological subtleness: qualities
+that surely tended to higher standards of morality, purer social
+relations, finer and more subtle diplomacy, more elegance and
+precision in literature. Therefore, _preciosite_ in France had a
+wholesome influence, which was possible because woman had won for
+herself her rightful position, and her aspirations were toward social
+and moral elevation.
+
+In general, the women of France have always been conscious of their
+duty, their importance, and their limitations, appreciating their
+power and cultivating the characteristics that attract man and retain
+his respect and attention: sociability, morality, _esprit_, artistic
+appreciation, sensitiveness, tact. These qualities became manifest to
+a remarkable degree in French women of the seventeenth century, and
+created in every writer, great or unimportant, the desire to win their
+favor. Thus, Corneille strove to write dramas with which he might
+establish the reign of decency on a stage the liberties of which
+had previously made the theatre inaccessible to woman; hence, his
+characters of humanity (Cid) and politeness (Menteur).
+
+The purpose of the French Academy itself was not different from that
+of the _precieuses_. Richelieu, realizing that every great talent
+accepted the discipline of these women, sought to use this power for
+his own ends by interesting the world of letters in the accomplishment
+of his plans for a general political unity. Thus, when the first
+period of _preciosite_ had reached its highest point and was beginning
+to decline, and other smaller and envious social groups were forming
+about Paris and causing a conflict of ideas, Richelieu conceived
+the scheme of joining all in a union, with strong ideals and with a
+language as dignified as the Latin and the Greek. The result was the
+formation of the French Academy. From this time begins the decline
+of the authority of woman; for while she still exerted a powerful
+influence, it was no longer absolute. After the decline of the Hotel
+de Rambouillet, feminine influence became more general, expending
+itself in petty rivalries, gossip, intrigues, and partaking of the
+nature of that court life which was filled by the young king with
+parties, feasts, collations, walks, carousals, boating, concerts,
+ballets, and masquerades--a mode of living that gave rise to a new
+standard of politeness, which was freer and looser than that of
+_preciosite_.
+
+As the power of the young king became stronger, his favor became
+the goal of all men of letters. Although woman still to some extent
+controlled the destinies of those who were struggling for recognition
+and reputation, her influence was of a secondary nature, that of the
+king being supreme. Woman seemed to be overcoming the influence of
+woman--Mme. de Montespan replaced Mlle. de La Valliere, and she was in
+turn replaced by Mme. de Maintenon.
+
+The degeneration of the king was accompanied by that of literature,
+society, and morals. The characteristic inclination of the day was
+eagerly to seek and grasp that which was new, and the noble, forceful,
+and dignified style of language of the previous period was replaced
+by one of much lighter description; many female writers directed their
+efforts entirely toward amusing, pleasing, and gaining applause.
+
+In the beginning of the eighteenth century, with Mme. de Lambert as
+its leader, there was a renascence of the _preciosite_ of the Hotel
+de Rambouillet, women protesting against the prevalent grossness
+and indecency of manners. The salon of Mme. de Lambert was the great
+antechamber to the Academy, election to which was generally gained
+through her. A new aristocracy was forming, a new society arose;
+from about 1720 to 1750, libertinism and atheism, licentiousness and
+intrigue, crept into the salons.
+
+The new aristocracy was of doubtful and impure source, cynical in
+manner, unbridled in habits, over-fastidious in taste, and politically
+powerful. In this society woman began to be felt as a political force.
+M. Brunetiere said: "Mme. de Lambert made Academicians; the Marquise
+de Prie made a queen of France; Mme. de Tencin made cardinals and
+ambassadors." Montesquieu wrote: "There is not a person who has any
+employment at the court in Paris or in the provinces, who has not
+the influence (and sometimes the injustices which she can cause) of
+a woman through whom all favors pass;" and M. Brunetiere added: "This
+woman is not his wife." The popular spirit in literature was one of
+subtleness, irony, superficial observations on manners and customs.
+From the beginning of the eighteenth century up to the eve of
+the Revolution, woman's influence continued to increase, but that
+influence was mainly in the direction of politics. Thus, in every
+period in French history, a group of women effectively moulds French
+thought and language, and directs intellectual activity in general.
+
+After the death of Louis XIV., society passed under the rule of the
+regent, the Duke of Orleans--the personification of gallantry and
+affability, of depravity which was a mania, and of licentiousness
+which was a disease. From this atmosphere the salon of Mme. de Lambert
+became a refuge to those who still cherished the ideals of the good
+old times of Mme. de Rambouillet; it was distinguished by its
+refined sentiment and polished manners, which were like those of the
+seventeenth century at its best.
+
+Mme. de Lambert believed that the demands of the time were just the
+opposite of those of the seventeenth century: "What a multitude of
+tastes nowadays--the table, play, theatre! When money and luxury are
+supreme, true honor loses its power. Persons seek only those houses
+where shameful luxury reigns." In her own salon, none might enter who
+were not of the small number of the elect.
+
+Very little is known of the life of Mme. de Lambert. She was born in
+1647, and, in spite of the unfavorable surroundings of her youth and
+of a dissolute, extravagant, and unrefined mother, the observance of
+decorum and honor became the actuating principle of her life. Until
+her marriage (in 1666) to Henri de Lambert, Marquis de Bris en
+Auxerrois, she was in the midst of the grossest licentiousness and
+freedom of manners; when married, she entered a family the very
+opposite of her own.
+
+She was a woman who believed in the power of ambitious energy. To her
+son she once said: "Nothing is less becoming to a young man than a
+certain modesty that makes him believe that he is not capable of great
+things. This modesty is a languor of the soul, which prevents it from
+soaring and rapidly carrying itself to glory."
+
+At first she lived in the Hotel de Lambert (in the Ile Saint-Louis),
+renowned for its splendidly sculptured decorations, painted ceilings,
+panels, and staircases. Her famous Salon des Muses and Cabinet
+d'Amours were filled with the finest works of art and the most
+exquisite paintings. There the elite of all classes were entertained
+until the death of her husband (1686), when the hotel was closed; it
+was not reopened until 1710.
+
+Though left with immense wealth, her affairs were in a very
+complicated state. While actively employed in untangling her
+difficulties, she at the same time superintended the education of her
+son and daughter. After long and trying lawsuits, she managed to put
+her fortune in order and established herself at Paris, where the Duc
+de Nevers ceded to her, for life, a large portion of the magnificently
+furnished Palais Mazarin, now the National Library. On the completion
+of her work in remodelling this palace and furnishing it with the most
+costly and beautiful panel paintings by Watteau and other artists, she
+inaugurated her Tuesday and Wednesday dinner parties.
+
+One remarkable characteristic of her company was the age of her
+intimate associates--the Marquis de Saint-Aulaire, Fontenelle, Mme.
+Dacier, and her husband, Louis de Sacy, all of whom, as well as Mme.
+de Lambert herself, had passed threescore and more; but they still
+kept alive the cherished memories of the brilliant society of their
+youth. Mme. de Lambert did not personally know Mme. de Rambouillet,
+but she visited the latter's daughter, Julie d'Angennes, from whom
+she learned the customs and etiquette in vogue at the Hotel de
+Rambouillet.
+
+The Wednesday dinners of Mme. de Lambert were to her intimate friends,
+while every Tuesday afternoon she received a general circle which
+indulged in general conversation and read and discussed books which
+were about to be published; gambling, which seemed to be the principal
+means of entertaining in those days, had no place there. Fontenelle
+says: "It was, with very few exceptions, the only house which had been
+preserved from the epidemic of gambling--the only house where persons
+congregated simply for the sake of talking sensibly and with _esprit_.
+Those who had their reasons for considering it bad taste that
+conversation was still carried on in any place, cast mean reflections,
+whenever they could, against the house of Mme. de Lambert." In the
+evening, she received only a few select friends with whom she talked
+seriously. Her salon soon became the envy of those who were not
+admitted (and they were numerous), and was the object of many
+calumnies and attacks.
+
+During this time she found leisure to write two treatises of practical
+morality, _Avis d'une mere a son fils_, and _Avis d'une mere a sa
+fille_, which appeared without her permission. The manuscripts, lent
+to friends, fell into the hands of a publisher; and although the
+authoress endeavored to prevent the distribution of the works by
+buying up the entire editions, they were published outside of France.
+The two works written to her children form an important contribution
+to the educational literature of the time; in them the religion of the
+eighteenth century is first defined.
+
+"Above all these duties--civil and human (says the mother to her
+son)--is the duty you owe to the Supreme Being. Religion is a commerce
+established between God and man through the grace of God to man and
+through the duty of man to God. Elevated souls have for their God
+sentiments and a cult apart, which do not resemble at all those of the
+people; everything issues from the heart and goes to God."
+
+In these works, she attacked also the fad of free-thinking in vogue
+among the young men of the time. She was one of the few women of that
+age who could not separate themselves from reason and thought, even in
+religion; the latter was a matter for the reason and the intellect to
+decide, and was thus an elevated product of the mind rather than an
+instinct coming from the heart, or a positive revelation as it was in
+the seventeenth century. In this view, Madame de Lambert indicated the
+beginning of the later eighteenth-century spirit.
+
+Mme. de Lambert taught her children to be satisfied with nothing
+but the highest attainable object. She advised her son to choose his
+friends from among men above him, in order to accustom himself to
+respectful and polite demeanor; "with his equals he might cultivate
+negligence and his mind might become dull." She desired her children
+to think differently from the people--"Those who think lowly and
+commonly, and the court is filled with such." To their servants they
+were to be good and kind, for humanity and Christianity make
+all equal. She was the first to use those words, "humanity" and
+"equality," which later became the bywords of everyone, and the first
+to teach that conscience is the best guide. "Conscience is defined as
+that interior sentiment of a delicate honor which assures you that you
+have nothing with which to reproach yourself."
+
+Possibly the most important and lasting effect of Mme. de Lambert's
+influence resulted from the expression of her ideas on the education
+of young women who "are destined to please, and are given lessons
+only in methods of delighting and pleasing." She was convinced that in
+order to resist temptation and be normal, women must be educated, must
+learn to think. Her counsels to her daughter are remarkable for an
+unusual insight into the temperament of her sex and for an extreme
+fear that makes her call to her aid all precautions and resources. She
+thus advises her daughter:
+
+"Try to find resources within yourself--this is a revenue of certain
+pleasures. Do not believe that your only virtue is modesty; there are
+many women who know no other virtue, and who imagine that it relieves
+them of all duties toward society; they believe they are right in
+lacking all others and think themselves privileged to be proud and
+slanderous with impunity. You must have a gentle modesty; a good
+woman may have the advantages of a man's friendship without abandoning
+honesty and faithfulness to her duties. Nothing is so difficult as to
+please without the use of what seems like coquettishness. It is more
+often by their defects than by their good qualities that women please
+men; men seek to profit by the weaknesses of good and kind women,
+for whose virtues they care nothing, and they prefer to be amused by
+persons not very estimable than to be forced merely to admire virtuous
+persons."
+
+This is a most faithful description of the society of her time, and
+it was because her treatises struck home that they were severely
+criticised; but, nothing daunted, she carried out her plans in her own
+way, resorting neither to intrigue nor artifice. Many of her sayings
+became household maxims, such as--"It is not always faults that undo
+us; it is the manner of conducting ourselves after having committed
+them."
+
+Her reflections on women might be called the great plea, at the end
+of the seventeenth century, for woman's right to use her reason. After
+the severe and cruel satire of Moliere, attacking women for their
+innocent amusements, they gave themselves up entirely to pleasure.
+"Mme. de Lambert now wrote to avenge her sex and demand for it the
+honest and strong use of the mind; and this was done in the midst of
+the wild orgies of the Regency."
+
+Mme. de Lambert was not a rare beauty, but she possessed recompensing
+charms. M. Colombey asserts that she became convinced of two things,
+about which she became highly enthusiastic: first, that woman was more
+reasonable than man; secondly, that M. Fontenelle, who presided over
+or filled the functions of president of her salon, was always in the
+right. He was indeed in harmony with the tone of the salon, being
+considered the most polished, brilliant, and distinguished member of
+the intellectual society of Paris, as well as one of the most talented
+drawing room philosophers. He made the salon of Mme. de Lambert the
+most sought for and celebrated, the most intellectual and moral of the
+period.
+
+Mme. de Lambert has, possibly, exercised more influence upon men--and
+especially upon the Forty Immortals of her time--than did any woman
+before or after her. The Marquis d'Argenson states that "a person was
+seldom received at the Academy unless first presented at her salon. It
+is certain that she made at least half of our actual Academicians."
+
+Her salon was called a _bureau d'esprit_, which was due to the fact
+that it was about the only social gathering point where culture and
+morality were the primary requisites. As she advanced in years, she
+became even more influential. After her death in 1733, her salon
+ceased to exist, but others, patterned after hers, soon sprang up; to
+those, her friends attached themselves--Fontenelle frequented several,
+Henault became the leader of that of Mme. du Deffand.
+
+The finest resume that can be given of Mme. de Lambert, is found in
+the letters of the Marquis d'Argenson: "Her works contain a complete
+course in the most perfect morals for the use of the world and the
+present time. Some affectation of the _preciosite_ is found; but, what
+beautiful thoughts, what delicate sentiments! How well she speaks
+of the duties of women, of friendship, of old age, of the difference
+between actual character and reputation!"
+
+The salon of Mme. de Lambert forms a period of transition from the
+seventeenth century type in which elegance, politeness, courtesy, and
+morality were the first requisites, to the eighteenth century salon in
+which _esprit_ and wit were the essentials demanded. It retained the
+dignity, discipline, refinement, and sentiments of morality of
+the Hotel de Rambouillet; it showed, also, the first signs of
+pure intellectuality. The salons to follow, will exhibit decidedly
+different characteristics.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter V
+
+Mistresses and Wives of Louis XIV
+
+
+The story of the wives and mistresses of Louis XIV., embraces that
+which is most dramatic morally (or immorally dramatic) in the history
+of French women. The record of the eighteenth century heroines is
+essentially a tragic one, while that of those of the previous century
+is essentially dramatic in its sadness, remorse, and repentance.
+
+The mistress, as a rule, was unhappy; there were few months during the
+period of her glory, in which she was entirely free from anxiety or in
+which her conscience was at rest. Mme. de Montespan "was for so many
+years the sick nurse of a soul worn out with pride, passion, and
+glory." Mme. de Maintenon wrote to one of her friends: "Why cannot
+I give you my experience? Why cannot I make you comprehend the ennui
+which devours the great, and the troubles that fill their days? Do you
+not see that I am dying of sadness, in a fortune the vastness of which
+could not be easily imagined? I have been young and pretty; I have
+enjoyed pleasures; I have spent years in intellectual intercourse;
+I have attained favor; and I protest to you, my dear child, that
+all such conditions leave a frightful void." She said, also, to her
+brother, Count d'Aubigne: "I can hold out no longer; I would like
+to be dead." It was she too, who, after her successes, made
+her confession thus: "One atones heavily for the pleasures and
+intoxications of youth. I find, in looking back at my life, that since
+the age of twenty-two--which was the beginning of my fortune--I
+have not had a moment free from sufferings which have constantly
+increased."
+
+M. Saint-Amand gives a description of the women of Louis XV. which
+well applies to those of his predecessor: "These pretended mistresses,
+who, in reality, are only slaves, seem to present themselves,
+one after the other, like humble penitents who come to make their
+apologies to history, and, like the primitive Christians, to reveal
+publicly the miseries, vexations, and remorses of their souls. They
+tell us to what their doleful successes amounted: even while their
+triumphal chariot made its way through a crowd of flatterers, their
+consciences hissed cruel accusations into their ears; like actresses
+before a whimsical and variable public, they were always afraid that
+the applause might change into an uproar, and it was with terror
+underlying their apparent coolness that they continued to play their
+sorry part.... If among these mistresses of the king there were a
+single one who had enjoyed her shameful triumphs in peace, who had
+called herself happy in the midst of her dearly bought luxury and
+splendor, one might have concluded that, from a merely human point of
+view, it is possible to find happiness in vice. But, no--there is not
+even one!" Massillon, the great preacher of truth and morality,
+said: "The worm of conscience is not dead; it is only benumbed. The
+alienated reason presently returns, bringing with it bitter troubles,
+gloomy thoughts, and cruel anxieties"--a true picture of every
+mistress.
+
+The remarkable power and influence of these women, the love and
+adoration accorded them, ceased with their death; the memory of them
+did not survive overnight. When, during a terrible storm, the remains
+of the glorious Mme. de Pompadour were being taken to Paris, the king,
+seeing the funeral cortege from his window, remarked: "The Marquise
+will not have fine weather for her journey."
+
+Each one of these powerful mistresses represents a complete epoch of
+society, morals, and customs. Mme. de Montespan--that woman whose
+very look meant fortune or disfavor--with all her wit and wealth, her
+magnificence and pomp and superb beauty--she, in all her splendor, is
+a type of the triumphant France, haughty, dictatorial, scornful
+and proud, licentious and decayed at the core. Voluptuousness and
+haughtiness were replaced by religiosity and repentance in Mme. de
+Maintenon, with her temperate character, consistency, and propriety.
+
+The Regency was a period of scandal and wantonness, personified in the
+Duchess of Berry. The licentious and extravagant, yet brilliant and
+exquisite, frivolous but charming, intriguing and diplomatic, was
+represented by the talented and politically influential Mme. de
+Pompadour. Complete degeneracy, vice with all manner of disguise
+thrown off, adultery of the lowest order, were personified in the
+common Mme. du Barry, who might be classed with Louise of Savoy of
+the sixteenth century, while Mme. de Pompadour might be compared with
+Diana of Poitiers.
+
+In this period the queens of France were of little importance, being
+too timid and modest to assert their rights--a disposition which was
+due sometimes to their restricted youth, spent in Catholic countries,
+sometimes to a naturally unassuming and sensitive nature. To this rule
+Maria Theresa, the wife of Louis XIV., was no exception. She inherited
+her sweetness of disposition and her Christian character from her
+mother, Isabella of France, the daughter of Henry IV. and Marie de'
+Medici. She was pure and candid; a type of irreproachable piety and
+goodness, of conjugal tenderness and maternal love; and recompensed
+outraged morality for all the false pride, selfish ambition,
+depravity, and scandals of court. She is conspicuous as a model wife,
+one that loved her husband, her family, and her children.
+
+Around Maria Theresa may be grouped the noble and virtuous women of
+the court of Louis XIV., for she was to that age what Claude of France
+was under Francis I., Elizabeth of Austria under Charles V., Louise de
+Vaudemont under Henry III. However, in extolling these women, it
+must be remembered that they had not, as queens, the opportunity to
+participate in debauchery, licentiousness, and intrigue, as had the
+mistresses of their husbands; they had no power, were not consulted on
+state or social affairs, and had granted to them only those favors to
+the conferring of which the mistresses did not object.
+
+Maria Theresa was a perfect example of the self-sacrificing mother and
+devoted wife. Her feelings toward the king are best expressed by the
+Princesse Palatine: "She had such an affection for the king that she
+tried to read in his eyes whatever would give him pleasure; providing
+he looked kindly at her, she was happy all day." Mme. de Caylus
+wrote: "That poor princess had such a dread of the king and such great
+natural timidity that she dared neither to speak to him nor to run the
+risk of a tete-a-tete with him. One day, I heard Mme. de Maintenon say
+that the king having sent for the queen, the latter requested her to
+go with her so that she might not appear alone in his presence: but
+that she (Mme. de Maintenon) conducted her only to the door of the
+room and there took the liberty of pushing her so as to make her
+enter, and that she observed such a great trembling in her whole
+person that her very hands shook with fright."
+
+From about 1680, especially after the death of Mlle. de Fontanges, his
+last mistress, Louis XIV. began to look with disfavor upon the women
+of doubtful morality and to advance those who were noted for their
+conjugal fidelity. He became more attentive to the queen--a change of
+attitude which was due partly to the influence of Mme. de Maintenon
+and partly to the fact that he was satiated with the excesses of his
+debauches, by which his physical system had been almost wrecked. He
+would not have dared to legitimatize his bastard children, had he not
+been so thoroughly idolized by his greatest heroes and most powerful
+ministers. As an illustration, it may be remarked that the Great Conde
+proposed the marriage of his son to the king's daughter by Mlle. de La
+Valliere.
+
+The queen became so religious that she derived more enjoyment from
+praying at the convents or visiting hospitals than from remaining
+at her magnificent apartments. She waited upon the sick with her own
+hands and carried food to them; she never meddled in political affairs
+or took much interest in social functions.
+
+Timidity, an instinctive shrinking from the slanders, calumnies,
+and intrigues of the court, appeared to be the most pronounced
+characteristic of queens who seemed to believe themselves too inferior
+to their husbands to dare to offer any political counsel. While none
+of them were superior intellectually, they possessed dignity, good
+sense, and tact, "a reverential feeling for the sanctity of religion
+and the majesty of the throne," an admirable resignation, a painful
+docility and submission--qualities which might have been turned to
+the advantage of their owners and the state, had the former been more
+self-assertive.
+
+The infidelities of their husbands caused the queen-consorts constant
+torture; they were forced to behold the kings' favorites becoming part
+of their own households and were compelled to endure the presence,
+as ladies in waiting, of those who, as their rivals, caused them to
+suffer all possible torments of jealousy and outraged conjugal love.
+
+First among the mistresses of Louis XIV. was Mlle. de La Valliere,
+whom Sainte-Beuve mentions as the personification of the ideal of
+a lover, combining disinterestedness, fidelity, unique and delicate
+tenderness with a touching and sincere kindness. When, at the age of
+seventeen, she was presented at court, the king immediately selected
+her as one of his victims. Her beauty was so striking, of such an
+exquisitely tender type, that no woman actually rivalled her as
+queen of beauty. Distinguished by blond hair, dark blue eyes, a most
+sympathetic voice, and a complexion of rare whiteness mingled
+with red, she was guileless, animated, gentle, modest, graceful,
+unaffected, and ingenuous; although slightly lame, she was, by
+everyone, considered charming.
+
+Mlle. de La Valliere was the mother of several children of whom Louis
+XIV. was the father. On realizing that she had rivals in the favor
+of the sovereign, she fled several times from the Tuileries to the
+convent; on her second return, the king, about to go to battle,
+recognized his daughter by her, whom he made a duchess. Remorse
+overcame the mistress so deeply that she, for the third and final
+time, left court. Especially on the rise to power of Mme. de Montespan
+was she painfully humiliated, suffering the most intense pangs of
+conscience. The evening before her final departure to the convent, she
+dined with Mme. de Montespan, to drink "the cup to the dregs and
+to enjoy the rejection of the world even to the last remains of its
+bitterness."
+
+Guizot describes this period most vividly: "When Mme. de Montespan
+began to supplant her in the king's favor, the grief of Mlle. de La
+Valliere was so great that she thought she would die of it. Then she
+turned to God, penitent and in despair; twice she sought refuge in
+a convent at Chaillot. On leaving, she sent word to the king: 'After
+having lost the honor of your good graces I would have left the court
+sooner, if I could have prevailed upon myself never to see you again;
+but that weakness was so strong in me that hardly now am I capable
+of sacrificing it to God. After having given you all my youth, the
+remainder of my life is not too much for the care of my salvation.'"
+The king still clung to her. "He sent M. Colbert to beg her earnestly
+to come to Versailles that he might speak with her. M. Colbert
+escorted her thither and the king conversed for an hour with her and
+wept bitterly. Mme. de Montespan was there to meet her, with open arms
+and tears in her eyes." "It is all incomprehensible," adds Mme. de
+Sevigne; "some say that she will remain at Versailles and at court,
+others that she will return to Chaillot; we shall see."
+
+Mlle. de La Valliere remained three years at court, "half penitent,"
+she said, humbly, detained by the king's express wish, in consequence
+of the tempers and jealousies of Mme. de Montespan who felt herself
+judged and condemned by her rival's repentance. Attempts were made to
+turn Mlle. de La Valliere from her inclination for the Carmelites':
+"Madame," said Mme. Scarron to her, one day, "here are you one
+blaze of gold; have you really considered that, before long, at the
+Carmelites' you will have to wear serge?" She, however, was not to
+be dissuaded from her determination and was already practising, in
+secret, the austerities of the convent. "God has laid in this heart
+the foundation of great things," said Bossuet, who supported her in
+her conflict; "the world puts great hindrances in her way, and God
+great mercies; I have hopes that God will prevail; the uprightness of
+her heart will carry everything before it."
+
+"When I am in trouble at the Carmelites'," said Mlle. de La Valliere,
+as for the last time she quitted the court, "I shall think of what
+those people have made me suffer." "The world itself makes us sick of
+the world," said Bossuet in the sermon which he preached on the day
+she took the veil; "its attractions have enough of illusion, its
+favors enough of inconstancy, its rebuffs enough of bitterness.
+There is enough of bitterness, enough of injustice and perfidy in the
+dealings of men, enough of inconsistency and capriciousness in their
+intractable and contradictory humors--there is enough of it all, to
+disgust us."
+
+When, in 1675, she took the final vows, she cut off her beautiful hair
+and devoted herself to the church and to charity, receiving the veil
+from the queen, whose forgiveness she sought before entering the
+convent. The king showed himself to be such a jealous lover, that when
+Mlle. de La Valliere entirely abandoned him for God, he forgot her
+absolutely, never going to the convent to see her.
+
+She was by far the most interesting and pathetic of the three
+mistresses of Louis XIV.; her heart was superior to that of either
+of her successors, though her mind was inferior; she belonged to a
+different atmosphere--such kindness, charity, penitence, resignation,
+and absolute abandonment to God were rare among the conspicuous French
+women. Sainte-Beuve says: "She loved for love, without haughtiness,
+coquetry, arrogance, ambitious designs, self-interest, or vanity; she
+suffered and sacrificed everything, humiliated herself to expiate her
+wrong-doing, and finally surrendered herself to God, seeking in prayer
+the treasures of energy and tenderness; through her heart, her mental
+powers attained their complete development."
+
+The fate of Mlle. de La Valliere was the same as that of nearly all
+royal mistresses; abandoned and absolutely forgotten by her lover, she
+sought refuge and consolation in religion and God's mercy. "She
+was dead to me the day she entered the Carmelites'," said the king,
+thirty-five years later, when the modest and fervent nun at last
+expired, in 1710, without having ever relaxed the severities of her
+penance.
+
+Of an entirely different type from Mlle. de La Valliere was that
+haughtiest and most supercilious of all French mistresses, Mme. de
+Montespan. The picture drawn by M. Saint-Amand does her full justice:
+"A haughty and opulent beauty, a forest of hair, flashing blue eyes, a
+complexion of splendid carnation and dazzling whiteness, one of those
+alluring and radiant countenances which shed brightness around them
+wherever they appear, an incisive, caustic wit, an unquenchable thirst
+for riches and pleasure, luxury and power, the manners of a goddess
+audaciously usurping the place of Juno on Olympus, passion without
+love, pride without true dignity, splendor without harmony--that was
+Mme. de Montespan." And these qualities were the secret of her success
+as well as of her fall.
+
+From this description it can easily be divined of what nature was her
+influence and how she gained and held her power over the king. She
+won Louis XIV. entirely by her sensual charms, provoked him by her
+imperious exactions, her ungovernable fits of temper, and her daring
+sarcasm; always extravagant and unreasonable, she talked constantly of
+balls and fetes, the glories of court and its scandals. Most exacting,
+yet never satisfied, she had no regard for the interests or honor of
+the weak king, to whose lower nature only she appealed.
+
+Mme. de Montespan was of noble birth, being the youngest daughter of
+Rochechouart, first Duke of Mortemart. She was born in 1641, at the
+grand old chateau of Tonnay-Charente, and was educated at the convent
+of Sainte-Marie. Brought up religiously, she at first evinced a much
+greater tendency toward religion than toward worldly ambition and
+vanity. Mme. de Caylus, in her _Souvenirs_, wrote that "far from being
+born depraved, the future favorite had a nature inherently disinclined
+to gallantry and tending to virtue. She was flattered at being
+mistress, not solely for her own pleasure, but on account of the
+passion of the king; she believed that she could always make him
+desire what she had resolved never to grant him. She was in despair at
+her first pregnancy, consoled herself for the second one, and in all
+the others carried impudence as far as it could go."
+
+She was known first as Mlle. Tonnay-Charente, and was maid of honor
+to the Duchess of Orleans. When, at the age of twenty-two, she married
+the Marquis de Montespan and became lady in waiting to the queen, her
+beauty, wit, and brilliant conversational powers at once made her the
+centre of attraction; for several years, however, the king scarcely
+noticed her. Upon secretly becoming his mistress in 1668 and openly
+being declared as such two years later, her husband attempted to
+interfere, and was unceremoniously banished to his estates; in 1676 he
+was legally separated from her. She persuaded the king to legitimatize
+their children, who were confided to Mme. Scarron,--afterward Mme. de
+Maintenon,--who later influenced the king to abandon his mistress.
+
+Mme. de Montespan's power, lasting fourteen years, was almost
+unlimited, and was the epoch of courtiers intoxicated with passion
+and consumed by vice, infatuated with the king and his mistress,
+whose title as _maitresse-en-titre_ was considered an official one,
+conferring the same privileges and demanding the same ceremonies and
+etiquette as did a high court position. The only opposition incurred
+was from the clergy, who eventually, by uniting their forces with
+the influence of Mme. de Maintenon, brought about the disgrace of the
+mistress.
+
+When, in 1675, she desired to perform her Easter duties publicly at
+Versailles, the priest refused to grant absolution until she should
+discontinue her wanton, adulterous life. She appealed to the king, and
+he referred the decision of the matter to Bossuet, who decided that
+it was an imperative duty to deny absolution to public sinners of
+notorious lives who refused to abandon them. This was immediately
+before her legal separation from her husband.
+
+Influenced by the preaching of men like Bourdaloue and Bossuet,
+the king resolved to abandon his powerful mistress; in 1686 she was
+finally separated from Louis XIV., but did not leave Versailles until
+1691, when, becoming reconciled to her fate, she decided to retire
+to a convent. Bossuet became her spiritual adviser, and described her
+habits in the following letter to the king:
+
+"I find Mme. de Montespan sufficiently tranquil. She occupies herself
+greatly in good works. I see her much affected by the verities I
+propose to her, which are the same I uttered to your majesty. To
+her--as to you--I have offered the words by which God commands us
+to yield our whole hearts to him; they have caused her to shed many
+tears. May God establish these verities in the depths of the hearts of
+both of you, in order that so many tears, so much suffering, so many
+efforts as you have made to subdue yourselves, may not be in vain."
+
+The king did not wholly abandon his mistress; from a material point of
+view, she was more powerful than ever, for Louis XIV. gave orders
+to his minister, Colbert, to do for Mme. de Montespan whatever she
+wished, and her wishes caused a heavy drain upon the treasury. The
+king continued to pay court to other favorites, such as the Princesse
+de Soubese and Mlle. de Fontanges; the latter was his third mistress,
+but her career was of short duration, as one of the last acts of Mme.
+de Montespan was, it is said, the poisoning of Mlle. de Fontanges;
+this, however, is not generally accepted as true, although the
+Princesse Palatine wrote the following which throws suspicion upon
+the former favorite: "Mme. de Montespan was a fiend incarnate, but the
+Fontanges was good and simple. The latter is dead--because, they say,
+the former put poison in her milk. I do not know whether or not this
+is true, but what I do know well is that two of the Fontanges's
+people died, saying publicly that they had been poisoned." With the
+increasing influence of Mme. de Maintenon, the king completely forgot
+his former mistress.
+
+Mme. de Montespan was possibly the most arrogant and despotic of all
+French mistresses and she was, also, the most humiliated. She had
+inspired no confidence, friendship, love, or respect in Louis XIV.,
+who eventually looked with shame and remorse upon his relations with
+her. It took her sixteen years to overcome her terrible passion and to
+give up the court forever. Not until 1691 did she become reconciled
+to departure from Versailles; thenceforth, penitence conquered immoral
+desires. M. Saint-Amand says she not only "arrived at remorse, but
+at macerations, fasts, and haircloths. She limited herself to the
+coarsest underlinen and wore a belt and garters studded with iron
+points. She came at last to give all she had to the poor;" she also
+founded a hospital in which she nursed the sick.
+
+While at the convent, she tried, in vain, to effect a reconciliation
+with her husband; not until every avenue to a social life was cut
+off from her, did she entirely surrender herself to charity and the
+service of God. In her latest years, she was so tormented by the
+horrors of death that she employed several women whose only occupation
+was to watch with her at night. She died in 1707, forgotten by the
+king and all her former associates; Louis XIV. formally prohibited
+her children, the Duke of Maine, the Comte de Toulouse, the Comte
+de Vexin, and Mlles. de Nantes, de Blois, and de Tours, from wearing
+mourning for her.
+
+A striking contrast to Mme. de Montespan in character, disposition,
+morality, and birth was Mme. de Maintenon, one of the greatest and
+most important women in French history. What is known of her is so
+enveloped in calumny and falsehood and made so uncertain by dispute,
+that to disentangle the actual facts is almost an impossibility,
+despite the glowing tribute paid to her in the immense work published
+recently by the Comte d'Haussonville and M. Gabriel Hanotaux.
+
+It would seem that the more the history of Mme. de Maintenon is
+studied, the more one is led away from a first impression--which
+usually proves to be an erroneous one. Thus, M. Lavallee, in his
+first work, _Histoire des Francais_, wrote that she "was of the most
+complete aridity of heart, narrow in the scope of her affections, and
+meanly intriguing. She suggested fatal enterprises and inappropriate
+appointments; she forced mediocre and servile persons upon the king;
+she had, in fine, the major share in the errors and disasters of the
+reign of Louis XIV." A few years later he wrote, in his _Histoire de
+la maison royale de Saint-Cyr_: "Mme. de Maintenon gave Louis XIV.
+none but salutary and disinterested counsels which were useful to
+the state and instrumental in making less heavy the burdens of the
+people."
+
+Opinion in general, especially French opinion, has been very bitter
+toward her. History has even reproached her with having been a
+usurper, a tyrant, and a selfish master. The great preacher, Fenelon,
+wrote to her:
+
+"They say you take too little part in affairs. Your mind is more
+capable than you think. You are, perhaps, a little too distrustful
+of yourself, or, rather, you are too much afraid to enter into
+discussions contrary to the inclination you have for a tranquil and
+meditative life."
+
+Is this picture, left by Emile Chasles and accepted by M. Saint-Amand,
+truthful? "This intelligent woman, far from being too much heeded,
+was not enough so. There was in her a veritable love for the public
+welfare, a true sorrow in the midst of our misfortunes. To-day, it is
+necessary to retrench much from the grandeur of her worldly power and
+add a great deal to that of her soul." M. Saint-Amand believes her
+sincere when she wrote to Mme. des Ursins:
+
+"In whatever way matters turn, I conjure you, madame, to regard me
+as a person incapable of directing affairs, who heard them talked too
+late to be skilful in them, and who hates them more than she ignores
+them.... My interference in them is not desired and I do not desire
+to interfere. They are not concealed from me, but I know nothing
+consecutively and am often badly informed."
+
+The opinions of her contemporaries are not always flattering, but
+such are possibly due to envy and jealousy or to some purely personal
+prejudice. Thus, when the Duchess of Orleans, the Princesse
+Palatine, calls her "that nasty old thing, that wicked devil, that
+shrivelled-up, filthy old Maintenon, that concubine of the king," and
+casts upon her other gross aspersions that are unfit to be repeated,
+one must remember that the calumniator was a German, the daughter of
+the Elector Palatine Charles-Louis, a woman honest in her morals, but
+shameless in her speech, who loved the beauties of nature more than
+those of the palaces; more shocked at hypocrites than at religion or
+irreligion, she took Mme. de Maintenon to be a type of the impostors
+whom she detested. It was her son who became regent, and it was her
+son who married one of the illegitimate daughters of Louis XIV.--an
+alliance of which his mother had a horror.
+
+The memoirs of Saint-Simon are interesting, but the odious picture
+he has drawn of Mme. de Maintenon is hardly in accord with later
+appreciations. M. Saint-Amand sums up the two classes of critics thus:
+
+"The revolutionary school which likes to drag the memory of the great
+king through the mire, naturally detests the eminent woman who was
+that king's companion, his friend and consoler. Writers of this
+school would like to make of her a type not only odious and fatal, but
+ungraceful and unsympathetic, without radiance, charm or any sort of
+fascination. She is too frequently called to mind under the aspect
+of a worn old woman, stiff and severe, with tearless eyes and a
+face without a smile. We forget that in her youth she was one of
+the prettiest women of her time, that her beauty was wonderfully
+preserved, and that in her old age she retained that superiority of
+style and language, that distinction of manner and exquisite tact,
+that gentle firmness of character, that charm and elevation of mind,
+which, at every period of her life, gained her so much praise and so
+many friends."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon was born in prison. Her maiden name was Francoise
+d'Aubigne. She was the granddaughter of Agrippa d'Aubigne, the
+historian. Her father had planned to settle in the Carolinas, and
+his correspondence with the English government, to that effect,
+was treated as treason; he was thrown into prison, where his wife
+voluntarily shared his fate and where the future Mme. de Maintenon
+was born. After the death of her father, she was confided to her aunt,
+Mme. de Villette, a Calvinist, who trained her in the principles of
+Protestantism. Because of the refusal of her daughter to attend mass,
+her mother put her in charge of the Countess of Neuillant who, with
+great difficulty, converted Francoise back to Catholicism.
+
+At the home of the Countess of Neuillant, she often met Scarron, the
+comic poet--a paralytic and cripple--who offered her money with which
+to pay for admission to a convent, a proposition which she refused;
+subsequently, however, the countess sent her to the Ursulines to be
+educated. When, after two years, she lost her mother and was thus left
+without home, fortune, or future prospects, she consented, at the age
+of seventeen, to marry the poet. Thus, born in a prison, without even
+a dowry, harshly reared by a mother who was under few obligations
+to life, more harshly treated in the convent, introduced as a poor
+relation into the society of her aunt and to the friends of her
+godmother, the Countess of Neuillant, she early learned to distrust
+life and suspect man, and to restrain her ambitions.
+
+Exceedingly beautiful, graceful, and witty, she soon won her way to
+the brilliant and fashionable society of the crippled wit, buffoon,
+and poet, who was coarse, profane, ungodly, and physically an
+unsightly wreck. In this society, which the burlesque poet amused by
+his inexhaustible wit and fancy, and his frank, Gallic gayety, she
+showed an infinite amount of tact and soon made his salon the most
+prominent social centre of Paris. There, Scarron, never tolerated a
+stupid person, no matter of what blood or rank.
+
+When asked what settlement he proposed to make upon his wife, he
+replied: "Immortality." At another time, he remarked: "I shall not
+make her commit any follies, but I shall teach her a great many." On
+his deathbed he said: "My only regret is that I cannot leave anything
+to my wife with whom I have every imaginable reason to be content." In
+this free-and-easy salon, a young noble said, soon after the marriage
+of Scarron: "If it were a question of taking liberties with the queen
+or Mme. Scarron, I would not deliberate; I would sooner take them with
+the queen."
+
+The reputation made by the young Mme. Scarron gained her many
+influential friends, especially among court people. At the death of
+her husband, in 1660, to avoid trouble with his family, she renounced
+the marriage dowry of twenty-four thousand livres. Her friends
+procured her a pension of two thousand livres from the queen. Thus
+freed from care, she lived according to her inclination, which tended
+toward pleasing and doing good; taking good cheer and her services
+voluntarily and unaffectedly to all families, she gradually made
+herself a necessity among them--thus she laid the foundation of her
+future greatness. She was received by the best families, grew in favor
+everywhere, and even won over all her enemies. Modest, complaisant,
+promptly and readily rendering a favor, prudent, practical and
+virtuous, her one desire was to make friends, not so much for the
+purpose of using them, but because she realized that a person in
+humble circumstances cannot have too many friends.
+
+Her portrait as a widow is admirably drawn by M. Saint-Amand: "Mme.
+Scarron seeks esteem, not love. To please while remaining virtuous,
+to endure, if need be, privations and even poverty, but to win
+the reputation of a strong character, to deserve the sympathy and
+approbation of honest persons--such is the direction of all her
+efforts. Well dressed, though very simply; discreet and modest,
+intelligent and _distingue_, with that patrician elegance which luxury
+cannot create, but which is inborn and comes by nature only; pious,
+with a sincere and gentle piety; less occupied with herself than with
+others; talking well and--what is much rarer--knowing how to listen;
+taking an interest in the joys and sorrows of her friends, and skilful
+in amusing and consoling them--she is justly regarded as one of the
+most amiable as well as one of the superior women in Paris. Economical
+and simple in her tastes, she makes her accounts balance perfectly,
+thanks to an annual pension of two thousand livres granted her by
+Queen Anne of Austria."
+
+When Mme. Scarron was about to leave Paris because of lack of funds
+and the loss of her pension, after the death of Queen Anne, her friend
+Mme. de Montespan, the king's mistress, interfered in her behalf and
+had the pension renewed, thus inadvertently paving the way for her
+own downfall. Three years later Mme. Scarron was established in an
+isolated house near Paris, where she received the natural children
+of Louis XIV. and Mme. de Montespan, as they arrived, in quick
+succession, in 1669, 1670, 1672, 1673, and 1674. There, acting as
+governess, she hid them from the world. This is the only blemish upon
+the fair record of her life. It is maintained by her detractors that
+a virtuous woman would not have undertaken the education of the
+doubly adulterous children of Louis XIV. (thus, in a way, encouraging
+adultery), and that she would have given up her charge upon the first
+proposals of love.
+
+However deep this stain may be considered, one must remember that
+the standard of honor at the court of Louis XIV. did not encourage
+delicacy in matters of love, and Mme. Scarron knew only the standard
+of society; her morality was no more extraordinary than was her
+intelligence, and it was to her credit that she preserved intact
+her honor and her virtue. At first the king looked with much
+dissatisfaction upon her appointment, not admiring the extreme gravity
+and reserve of the young widow; however, the unusual order of her
+talents and wisdom soon attracted his attention, and her entrance at
+court was speedily followed by quarrels between the mistress and Louis
+XIV. In 1674 the king, wishing to acknowledge his recognition of
+her merits, purchased the estate of Maintenon for her and made her
+Marquise de Maintenon.
+
+Her primary object became the gaining of the favor of Mme. de
+Montespan; for this purpose she taught herself humility, while
+toward the king she directed the forces of her dignity, reserve, and
+intellectual attainments. Being the very opposite of the mistress who
+won and retained him by sensuous charms (in which the king was fast
+losing pleasure and satisfaction), she soon effected a change
+by entertaining her master with the solid attainments of her
+mind--religion, art, literature.
+
+Mme. de Maintenon was always amiable and sympathetic, kind and
+thoughtful, never irritating, crossing, or censuring the king;
+wonderfully judicious, modest, self-possessed, and calm, she was
+irreproachable in conduct and morals, tolerating no improper advances.
+Although the characteristics and general deportment of Mme. de
+Montespan were entirely different from those of Mme. de Maintenon, the
+latter entertained true friendship for her benefactress, displaying
+astonishing tact, shrewdness, and self-control.
+
+If Mme. de Maintenon were not, at first, loved by the king, it was
+because she appeared to him too ideal, sublime, spirituelle, too
+severely sensible. Then came the turning point; at forty years of age
+she was "a beautiful and stately woman with brilliant dark eyes, clear
+complexion, beautiful white teeth, and graceful manners;" sedate,
+self-possessed, and astonished at nothing, she had learned the art of
+waiting, and studied the king--showing him those qualities he desired
+to see.
+
+Her aim became to take the king from his mistress and lead him back
+to the queen. After gaining his confidence by her sincerity and
+trustworthiness, and making herself indispensable to him, she
+succeeded in bringing about the desired separation, through the medium
+of the dauphiness, whom she won over to her cause. Thus, without
+perfidy, hypocrisy, intrigue, or manoeuvring, by simply being herself,
+she replaced the haughty and beautiful Mme. de Montespan.
+
+When, after the queen's death, and after having lived about the king
+for fifteen years, "she had succeeded in making the devotee take
+precedence of the lover, when piety had overcome passion, when
+religion had effected its change, then Louis the Great offered his
+hand in marriage to her who had only veneration, gratitude, and
+devotion for him, but no passion or love." Reasons of state demanded
+the secrecy of the marriage; for had he raised her to the throne,
+political complications would have arisen and disturbed his subsequent
+career; Mme. de Maintenon fully appreciated the intricacies of the
+situation, and was therefore content to remain what she was.
+
+She came to the king when he was beginning to feel the effects of his
+former mode of life; he needed fidelity and friendship, and he saw
+these in her. His feelings for her are well described in the following
+extract by M. Saint-Amand:
+
+"To sum up: the king's sentiment for her was of the most complex
+nature. There was in it a mingling of religion and of physical love, a
+calculation of reason and an impulse of the heart, an aspiration after
+the mild joys of family life and a romantic inclination--a sort of
+compact between French good sense, subjugated by the wit, tact, and
+wisdom of an eminent woman, and Spanish imagination allured by the
+fancy of having extricated this elect woman from poverty in order to
+make her almost a queen. Finally, it must be noted that Louis XIV.,
+always religiously inclined, was convinced that Mme. de Maintenon
+had been sent to him by Heaven for his salvation, and that the pious
+counsels of this saintly woman, who knew how to render devotion so
+agreeable and attractive, seemed to him to be so many inspirations
+from on High."
+
+It must not be inferred, however, that the feeling for Mme. de
+Maintenon was purely ideal. "He was unwilling to remarry," says
+the Abbe de Choisy, "because of tenderness for his people. He had,
+already, three grandsons, and wisely judged that the princes of a
+second marriage might, in course of time, cause civil wars. On the
+other hand, he could not dispense with a wife and Mme. de Maintenon
+pleased him greatly. Her gentle and scintillating wit promised him
+an agreeable intercourse which would refresh him after the cares of
+royalty. Her person was still engaging and her age prevented her from
+having children."
+
+As his wife, Mme. de Maintenon took more interest in the king and his
+family than she did in the affairs of the kingdom. To be the wife of
+the hearth and home, to educate the princes, to rear the young Duchess
+of Bourgogne, granddaughter of Louis XIV., to calm and ease the old
+age of the king and to distract and amuse him, became her sole objects
+in life. Her power, thus directed, became almost unbounded; she was
+the dispenser of favors and the real ruler, sitting in the cabinet
+of the king; and her counsels were so wise that they soon became
+invaluable.
+
+At court, she opposed all foolish extravagance, such as the endless
+fetes and amusements of all kinds which had become so popular
+under Mme. de Montespan--a procedure which caused her the greatest
+difficulties and provoked revolts and quarrels in the royal family. By
+her prudence, tact, wisdom, and the loyalty of her friendship, she won
+and retained the respect and favor--if not the love--of everyone. Her
+reputation was never tarnished by scandal. "When one reflects that
+Louis XIV. was only forty-seven years old and in the prime of life
+and Mme. de Montespan in the full blaze of her marvellous beauty,
+that this woman of humble birth, in her youth a Protestant, poor, a
+governess, the widow of a low, comic poet, should win so proud a man
+as Louis XIV., seems incredible."
+
+When one considers that throughout life her one aspiration was
+an irreproachable conduct, that her manner of action was always
+defensive, never offensive, that her chief aim was to restore the king
+to the queen (who died in her arms) and not to replace his mistress,
+one cannot withhold admiration and esteem from this truly great woman
+who accomplished all those honorable designs.
+
+The obstacles to be conquered before reaching her goal were indeed
+numerous, but she managed them all. There were so many persons hostile
+to her,--mistresses and intriguers, bishops and priests, courtesans
+and valets, princes and members of the royal family,--to overcome whom
+she had to be on her guard, make use of every opportunity, show a
+rare knowledge of society and court, a profound skill and address,
+resolution and will; and she was equal to all occasions.
+
+Her greatest defect was the narrowness of her religious views.
+Entirely in the hands of her spiritual advisers, obeying them
+faithfully and blindly, she was not inclined to theological
+investigation, but was sincerely devout. More interested in the
+various persons than in doctrines, she showed a passion for making
+bishops, abbots, and priests, as well as for negotiating compromises,
+reconciling _amours propres_ and doing away with all religious hatred.
+Lacking, above all else, clearness of conception, promptness and
+firmness of decision, she was finally persuaded to encourage the
+bigotry of Louis XIV. and his intolerance toward those who differed
+from him. Hence, in 1685, she permitted that fearfully destructive
+persecution of the Protestants, which caused over three hundred
+thousand of France's most solid people to leave the country; and by
+her fanaticism and false zeal, she caused the king to be a party to
+that awful catastrophe.
+
+"This one act of hers counterbalances nearly all her virtues, and we
+remember her more as the murderess of thousands of innocents than as
+the calm and virtuous governess. But we must remember the nature of
+her advisers and the eternal policy of the Catholic Church, which
+are ever identical with absolutism. To uphold the institutions and
+opinions already established, was the one sentiment of the age;
+innovation, progress, were destructive--Mme. de Maintenon became the
+watchful guardian of royalty and the Church." Such is the verdict of
+English opinion. M. Saint-Amand judges the affair differently:
+
+"A woman as pious and reasonable as she was, animated always by the
+noblest intentions, loving her country and always showing sympathy for
+the poor people--not merely in words but in deeds as well--detesting
+war and loving justice and peace, always moderate and irreproachable
+in her conduct--such a woman cannot be the mischievous, crafty,
+malicious, and vindictive bigot imagined by many writers; she did not
+encourage such an act, nor would her nature permit to do so.... The
+prayer she uttered every morning, best portrays the woman and her
+role: 'Lord, grant me to gladden the king, to console him, to sadden
+him when it must be for Thy glory. Cause me to hide from him nothing
+which he ought to know through me, and which no one else would have
+courage to tell him.' ... To Madame de Glapion she said: 'I would like
+to die before the king; I would go to God; I would cast myself at the
+foot of His throne; I would offer Him the desires of a soul that
+He would have purified; I would pray Him to grant the king greater
+enlightenment, more love for his people, more knowledge of the state
+of the provinces, more aversion for the perfidy of the countries, more
+horror of the ways in which his authority is abused: and God would
+hear my prayers.'"
+
+This pious woman was weary of life before her marriage, and but
+changed the nature of her misery upon reaching the highest goal open
+to a woman. Marly, Versailles, Fontainebleau were only different names
+for the same servitude. When she had attained her desire, she thought
+her repose assured; instead, her ennui, her disgust of life and
+the world, only increased; realizing this, she began to direct her
+thoughts entirely toward God and her aspirations toward things not
+of this earth--hence the almost complete absence of her influence in
+politics.
+
+She was never happy, and that her life was a disappointment to her may
+be gathered from the following words from her pen: "Flee from men as
+from your mortal enemies; never be alone with them. Take no pleasure
+in hearing that you are pretty, amiable, that you have a fine voice.
+The world is a malicious deceiver which never means what it says; and
+the majority of men who say such things to young girls, do it hoping
+to find some means of ruining them."
+
+Her most intense desire seemed to be to please, and be esteemed--to
+receive the _honneur du monde_, which appeared to be her sole motive
+for living. When in power, she did not use her influence as the
+intriguing women of the epoch would have done, because she did
+not possess their qualities--taste, breadth of vision, and selfish
+ambitions. Her objects in life were the reform of a wicked court,
+the extirpation of heresy, the elevation of men of genius, and the
+improvement of the society and religion of France. After the death of
+the king (in 1715), she retired to Saint-Cyr, and spent the remainder
+of her life in acts of charity and devotional exercises.
+
+After the king's death she dismissed all her servants and disposed of
+her carriages as well, "unable to reconcile herself to feeding horses
+while so many young girls were in need," as she said. For almost four
+years she peacefully and happily lived in a very modest apartment. She
+seldom went out and then only to the village to visit the sick and the
+poor. On June 10, 1717, when she was eighty-one years old, Peter the
+Great went to Saint-Cyr for the purpose of seeing and talking to
+the greatest woman of France. He found her confined to her bed; the
+chamber being but dimly lighted, he thrust aside the curtain in order
+to examine the features of the woman who had ruled the destinies of
+France for so many years. The Czar talked to her for some time, and
+when he asked Madame de Maintenon from what she was suffering, she
+replied: "From great old age." She died on August 15, 1719, and was
+buried in the choir of the church of Saint-Cyr, where a modest slab of
+marble indicated the spot where her body reposed until, in 1794, when
+the church was being transformed into hospital wards, "the workmen
+opened the vault, and took out the body and dragged it into the court
+with dreadful yells and threw it, stripped and mutilated, into a hole
+in the cemetery."
+
+The greatest work of Mme. de Maintenon was the founding of the
+Seminary of Saint-Cyr, which the king granted to her about the time
+of their marriage and of his illness; it was probably intended as the
+penance of a sick man who wished to make reparation for the wrongs
+inflicted upon some of the young girls of the nobility, and as a
+wedding gift to Mme. de Maintenon. There, aided by nuns, she cared
+for and educated two hundred and fifty pupils, dowerless daughters of
+impoverished nobles. It was "the veritable offspring of her who was
+never a daughter, a wife, nor a mother." There she was happy and
+content; there she recalled her own youth when she was poor and
+forsaken; there she found respite from the turmoils and agitations of
+Versailles; there she was supreme; there she governed absolutely and
+was truly loved.
+
+For thirty years she was queen at Saint-Cyr, visiting it every other
+day and teaching the young girls for whom it was a protection against
+the world. Since childhood, she had been so accustomed to serve
+herself, to wait upon others and to care for the smallest details of
+the management of the household, that she introduced this spirit into
+society and at Saint-Cyr, where she managed every detail, from the
+linen to the provisions; this showed a reasonable and well-balanced
+mind, but not any high order of intelligence.
+
+Of the young girls in her charge, she desired to make model women,
+characterized by simplicity and piety; they were to be free from
+morbid curiosity of mind, were to practise absolute self-denial and
+to devote their lives to a practical labor. Her advice was: "Be
+reasonable or you will be unhappy; if you are haughty, you will be
+reminded of your misery, but if you are humble, people will recall
+your birth.... Commence by making yourself loved, without which you
+will never succeed. Is it not true that, had you not loved me or had
+you had an aversion for me, you would not have accepted, with such
+good grace, the counsels that I have given you? This is absolutely
+certain--the most beautiful things when taught by persons who
+displease us, do not impress but rather harden us."
+
+A counsel that strikes home forcibly to-day, one which strongly
+attacks the modern fad of neglecting home for church, is expressed
+well in one of her letters: "Your piety will not be right if, when
+married, you abandon your husband, your children and your servants, to
+go to the churches at times when you are not obliged to go there. When
+a young girl says that a woman would do better properly to raise
+her children and instruct her servants, than to spend her morning in
+church, one can accommodate one's self to such religion, which she
+will cause to be loved and respected."
+
+At the hour of leisure, she gave the girls those familiar talks which
+were anticipated by them with so much pleasure, and extracts from
+which are still cherished by the young women of France. She believed
+that the aim of instruction for young girls should be to educate them
+to be Christian women with well-balanced and logical minds. With her
+varied experience of the ups and downs of life, she gradually came to
+the conclusion that, after all, there is nothing in the world so good
+as sound common sense, but one that is not enamored of itself, which
+obeys established laws and knows its own limits. Her sex is intended
+to obey, thus her reason was a Christian reason.
+
+"You can be truly reasonable only in proportion as you are subservient
+to God.... Never tell children fantastic stories, nor permit them to
+believe them; give them things for what they are worth. Never tell
+them stories of which, when they grow to independent reasoning, you
+must disillusion them. You must talk to a girl of seven as seriously
+and with as much reason as to a young lady of twenty. You must take
+part in the pleasures of children, but never accommodate them with a
+childish language or with foolish or puerile ways. You can never be
+too reasonable or too sane. Religion, reason, and truth are always
+good."
+
+To appreciate the importance of Mme. de Maintenon's position and the
+revolutionary effect which her attitude produced upon the customs of
+the time, one must remember with what she had to contend. Hers was a
+period of passion and adventure--a period which was followed by sorrow
+and disaster. The novels of Mlle. de Scudery, which were at the
+height of their popularity, had over-refined the sentiments; the
+_chevaleresque_ heroes and picturesque heroines turned the heads
+of young girls, who dreamed of an ideal and perfect love; their one
+longing was for the romantic--for the enchantments and delights
+of life. In this stilted and amorous atmosphere, Mme. de Maintenon
+preserved her poise and fought vigorously against the fads of the day.
+The young girls under her care were taught to love just as they were
+taught to do other things--with reason. Also, she guarded against the
+weaknesses of nature and the flesh. "Than Mme. de Maintenon, no one
+ever better knew the evils of the world without having fallen prey to
+them," says Sainte-Beuve; "and no one ever satisfied and disgusted the
+world more, while charming it at the same time."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon's ideal methods of education were not immediately
+effective; there were many periods of hardship, apprehension, and
+doubt. Thus, when Racine's _Esther_ (written at the request of Mme. de
+Maintenon, to be presented by the pupils at Saint-Cyr) was performed,
+there sprang up a taste for poetry, writing, and literature of all
+kinds. The acting turned the girls' thoughts into other channels and
+threatened to counteract the teachings of simplicity and reason; no
+one ever showed more genuine good sense, wholesomeness of mind, and
+breadth of view, than were displayed by Mme. de Maintenon in dealing
+with these disheartening drawbacks.
+
+In endeavoring to impress upon those young minds the correct use of
+language and the proper style of writing, she wrote for them models
+of letters which showed simplicity, precision, truth, facility, and
+wonderful clearness; and these were imitated by them in their replies
+to her.
+
+She wished, above all, to make them realize that her experience
+with that social and court life, for which they longed, was one of
+disappointment: that was a world apart, in which amusing and being
+amused was the one occupation. She had passed wearily through that
+period of life, and sought repose, truth, tranquillity, and religious
+resignation; to make those young spirits feel the fallacy of such
+a mode of existence was her earnest desire, and her efforts in that
+direction were characterized by a zeal, energy, and persistence
+which were productive of wonderful results. That was one phase of her
+greatness and influence.
+
+But Mme. de Maintenon was somewhat too severe, too narrow, too
+strict,--one might say, too ascetic,--in her teaching. There was
+too little of that which, in this world, cheers, invigorates, and
+enlivens. Her instruction was all reason, without relieving features;
+it lacked what Sainte-Beuve calls the _don des larmes_ (gift of
+tears). Hers was a noble, just, courageous, and delicate judgment; but
+it was without the softening qualities of the truly feminine, which
+calls for tears and affection, tenderness and sympathy.
+
+She remains in educational affairs the greatest woman of the
+seventeenth century, if not of all her countrywomen. M. Faguet says:
+"This widow of Scarron, who was nearly Queen of France, was born
+minister of public instruction." She powerfully upheld the cause of
+morality, was a liberal patroness of education and learning, and all
+aspiring geniuses were encouraged and financially aided by her. It was
+she who impressed upon Louis XIV. the truth of the existence of a God
+to whom he was accountable for his acts--a teaching which contributed
+no little to the general purification of morals at court.
+
+The writings of Mme. de Maintenon occupy a very high place in the
+history of French literature; in fact, her letters have often been
+compared with those of Mme. de Sevigne, although, unlike the latter,
+she never wrote merely to please, but to instruct, to convert, and to
+console. In her works there was no pretension to literary style; they
+were sermons on morals, characterized by discretion and simplicity,
+dignity and persuasiveness, seriousness and earnestness; Napoleon
+placed her letters above those of Mme. de Sevigne. M. Saint-Amand
+says of her writings: "More reflection than vivacity, more wisdom
+than passion, more gravity than charm, more authority than grace,
+more solidity than brilliancy--such are the characteristics of a
+correspondence which might justify the expression, the style is the
+woman."
+
+He gives, also, the following discriminating comparison between the
+two writers: "Enjoyment, Gallic animation, good-tempered gayety,
+fall to the lot of Mme. de Sevigne; what marks Mme. de Maintenon is
+experience, reason, profundity. The one laughs from ear to ear--the
+other barely smiles. The one has pleasant illusions about everything,
+admiration which borders on _naivete_, ecstasies when in the presence
+of the royal sun: the other never permits herself to be fascinated by
+either the king or the court, by men, women, or things. She has seen
+human grandeur too close at hand not to understand its nothingness,
+and her conclusions bear the imprint of a profound sadness. At times
+Mme. de Sevigne, also, has attacks of melancholy, but the cloud
+passes quickly and she is again in the sunshine. Gayety--frank,
+communicative, radiant gayety--is the basis of the character of this
+woman who is more witty, seductive, and amusing than is any other.
+Mme. de Sevigne shines by imagination--Mme. de Maintenon by judgment.
+The one permits herself to be dazzled, intoxicated--the other always
+preserves her indifference. The one exaggerates the splendors of
+the court--the other sees them as they are. The one is more of a
+woman--the other more of a saint."
+
+Mme. de Maintenon may be called "a woman of fate," She was never
+daughter, mother, or wife; as a child, she was not loved by her
+mother, and her father was worthless; married to two men, both aged
+beyond their years, she was, indeed, but an instrument of fate.
+Truthful, candid, and discreet she was entirely free from all morbid
+tendencies, and was modest and chaste from inclination as well as
+from principle. Though outwardly cold, proud, and reserved, yet in
+her deportment toward those who were fortunate enough to possess
+her esteem, she was kind--even loving. While not intelligent to a
+remarkable degree, she was prudent, circumspect, and shrewd, never
+losing her self-control. When once interested, and convinced as to the
+proper course, she displayed marvellous strength of will, sagacity,
+and personal force. Beautiful and witty, she easily adapted herself
+to any position in which she might be placed; though intolerant and
+narrow in her religious views, she was otherwise gentle, charitable,
+and unselfish. Therefore, it is evident that she possessed, to a
+greater degree than did any other woman of her time, unusual as
+well as desirable qualities--qualities that made her powerful and
+incomparable.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VI
+
+Mme. de Sevigne, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. Dacier, Mme. de Caylus
+
+
+The seventeenth century was, in French history, the greatest century
+from the standpoint of literary perfection, the sixteenth century the
+richest in naissant ideas, and the eighteenth the greatest in the way
+of developing and formulating those ideas; and each century produced
+great women who were in perfect harmony with and expressed the ideals
+of each period of civilization.
+
+It is not within the limits of reason to expect women to rival, in
+literature, the great writers such as Corneille, Racine, Moliere,
+Bossuet, La Fontaine, Descartes, Pascal--most of whom were but little
+influenced by femininity; there were those, however, among the sex,
+who were conspicuous for elevation of thought, dignity in manner and
+bearing, and brilliancy in conversation--attributes which they have
+left to posterity in numberless exquisite and charming letters, in
+interesting and invaluable memoirs, or in consummate psychological and
+social portraitures incorporated into the form of novels. Among female
+writers of letters, Mme. de Sevigne wears the laurel wreath; Mme. de
+La Fayette, with Mlle. de Scudery, is the representative of the novel;
+Mme. Dacier was the great advocate of the more liberal education
+of women; and the _Souvenirs_ of Mme. de Caylus made that authoress
+immortal.
+
+The association of La Rochefoucauld, the Cardinal de Retz, the
+Chevalier de Mere, Mme. de La Fayette, and Mme. de Sevigne, was
+responsible for almost everything elevating and of interest produced
+in the seventeenth century. Of that highly intellectual circle,
+Mme. de Sevigne was the leading spirit by force of her extraordinary
+faculty for making friends, her wonderful talent as a writer, her
+originality and her charming disposition. She gave the tone to
+letters; M. Faguet says that her epistles were all masterpieces of
+amiable badinage, lively narration, maternal passion, true eloquence.
+More than that, they are important sources of historical knowledge,
+inasmuch as they contain much information concerning the politics of
+the day, and furnish an excellent guide to the etiquette, fashions,
+tastes, and literature of the writer's period.
+
+Mme. de Sevigne was the most important figure of the time, being to
+that third prodigiously intellectual epoch of France what Marguerite
+de Navarre was to the sixteenth century, and the Hotel de Rambouillet
+to the beginning of the seventeenth century. She represented the
+style, _esprit_, elegance, and _gout_ of this greatest of French
+cultural periods. Her life may be considered as having had two
+distinct phases--one connected with an unhappy marriage and the other
+the period of a restless widowhood.
+
+Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marchioness of Sevigne, was born at Paris,
+in 1626; at the age of eighteen months she lost her father; at seven
+years of age, her mother; at eight, her grandmother; at ten, her
+grandfather on her mother's side; she was thus left with her paternal
+grandmother, Mme. de Chantal, who had her carefully educated under
+the best masters, such as Menage and Chapelain (court favorites), from
+whom she early imbibed a genuine taste for solid reading; from these
+instructors she learned Spanish, Italian, and Latin.
+
+In 1644, she was married to the Marquis Henri de Sevigne, who was
+killed six years later in a duel, but who had, in the meantime,
+succeeded in making a considerable gap in her immense fortune,
+in spite of the precautions of her uncle, the Abbe of Coulanges.
+Henceforward, her interests in life were centred in the education of
+her two children; to them she wrote letters which have brought her
+name down to posterity as, possibly, the greatest epistolary writer
+that the history of literature has ever recorded.
+
+Mme. de Sevigne was but nineteen years old when, after the marriage of
+Julie d'Angennes, the frequenters of the Hotel de Rambouillet began
+to disperse, and she was in much demand by the successors of Mme. de
+Rambouillet. While the women of the reign of Louis XIII.--Mmes.
+de Hautefort, de Sable, de Longueville, de Chevreuse, etc.--were
+exceedingly talented talkers, they were poor writers: but in Mme.
+de Sevigne, Mme. de La Fayette, and Mlle. de Scudery both arts were
+developed to the highest degree.
+
+Mme. de Sevigne was on the best terms with every great writer of
+her time--Pascal, Racine, La Fontaine, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, La
+Rochefoucauld. She was a woman of such broad affections that numerous
+friends and admirers were a necessary part of her existence. Of all
+the eminent women of the seventeenth century, she had the greatest
+number of lovers--suitors who frequently became her tormentors.
+Menage, her teacher, who threatened to leave her never to see her
+again, was brought back to her by kind words, such as: "Farewell,
+friend--of all my friends the best." The Abbe Marigny, that "delicate
+epicurean, that improviser of fine triolets, ballads, vaudevilles,
+that enemy of all sadness and sticklers for morality," charmed her, at
+times, with sentimental ballads, such as the following:
+
+  "Si l'amour est un doux servage,
+  Si l'on ne peut trop estimer
+  Les plaisirs ou l'amour engage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+
+  "Mais si l'on se sent enflammer
+  D'un feu dont l'ardeur est extreme,
+  Et qu'on n'ose pas l'exprimer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  "Si dans la fleur de son bel age,
+  Une qui pourrait tout charmer,
+  Vous donne son coeur en partage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne point aimer!
+
+  "Mais s'il faut toujours s'alarmer,
+  Craindre, rougir, devenir bleme,
+  Aussitot qu'on s'entend nommer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  "Pour complaire au plus beau visage
+  Qu'amour puisse jamais former,
+  S'il ne faut rien qu'un doux langage,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+
+  "Mais quand on se voit consumer.
+  Si la belle est toujours de meme,
+  Sans que rien la puisse animer,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+"L'ENVOI.
+
+  "En amour si rien n'est amer,
+  Qu'on est sot de ne pas aimer!
+  Si tout l'est au degre supreme,
+  Qu'on est sot alors que l'on aime!
+
+  [If love is a sweet bondage,
+  If we cannot esteem too much
+  The pleasures in which love engages,
+  How foolish one is not to love!
+
+  But if we feel ourselves inflamed
+  With a passion whose ardor is extreme,
+  And which we dare not express,
+  How foolish we are, then, to love!
+
+  If in the flower of her youth
+  There is one who could charm all.
+  And offers you her heart to share,
+  How very foolish not to love!
+
+  But if we must always be full of alarm--
+  Fear, blush and become pallid,
+  As soon as our name is spoken,
+  How foolish to love!
+
+  If to please the most beautiful countenance
+  That love can ever form,
+  Only a mellow language is necessary,
+  How foolish not to love!
+
+  But if we see ourselves wasting away,
+  If the belle is always the same
+  And cannot be animated,
+  How very foolish to love!
+
+ENVOY.
+
+  If in love, nothing is bitter,
+  How dreadfully foolish not to love!
+  If everything is so to the highest degree,
+  How awfully foolish to love!]
+
+Treville went so far as to say that the figure of Mme. de Sevigne was
+beautiful enough to set the world afire. M. du Bled divides her lovers
+into three classes: the first was composed of her literary friends;
+the second, of those enamored, impassioned suitors, loving her from
+good motives or from the opposite, who strove to compensate her for
+the unfaithfulness of her husband while alive and for the ennui of her
+widowhood; the third class was composed of her Parisian friends, of
+whom she had hosts, court habitues who were leaders of society.
+
+Representatives of the second class were the Prince de Conti, the
+great Turenne, various counts and marquises, and Bussy-Rabutin, who
+was a type of the sensual lover and the more dangerous on account of
+the privileges he enjoyed because of his close relationship to Mme. de
+Sevigne. His portrait of her is interesting: "I must tell you, madame,
+that I do not think there is a person in the world so generally
+esteemed as you are. You are the delight of humankind; antiquity
+would have erected altars to you, and you would certainly have been a
+goddess of something. In our century, when we are not so lavish with
+incense, and especially for living merit, we are contented to say that
+there is not a woman of your age more virtuous and more amiable than
+are you. I know princes of the blood, foreign princes, great lords
+with princely manners, great captains, gentlemen, ministers of state,
+who would be off and away for you, if you would permit them. Can you
+ask any more?"
+
+Such eulogies came not only from men like the perfidious and cruel
+cousin, but from her friends everywhere. The finest of these is
+the one by her friend Mme. de La Fayette, contained in one of the
+epistolary portraits so much in vogue at that time, and which were
+turned out, _par excellence_, in the salon of Mlle. de Luxembourg:
+"Know, madame,--if by chance you do not already know it,--that your
+mind adorns and embellishes your person so well that there is not
+another one on earth so charming as you when you are animated in a
+conversation in which all constraint is banished. Your soul is great,
+noble, ready to dispense with treasures, and incapable of lowering
+itself to the care of amassing them. You are sensible to glory and
+ambition, and to pleasures you are less so; yet you appear to be born
+for the latter, and they made for you; your person augments pleasures,
+and pleasures increase your beauty when they surround you. Joy is the
+veritable state of your soul, and chagrin is more unlike to you than
+to anyone. You are the most civil and obliging person that ever lived,
+and by a free and calm air--which is in all your actions--the simplest
+compliments of seemliness appear, in your mouth, as protestations of
+friendship."
+
+The originality which gained Mme. de Sevigne so many friends lay
+principally in her force, wealth of resource, intensity, sincerity,
+and frankness. M. Scherer said she possessed "surprises for us,
+infinite energy, inexhaustible variety--everything that eternally
+revives interest."
+
+The interest of the modern world in this remarkable woman is centred
+mainly in her letters. Guizot says: "Mme. de Sevigne is a friend whom
+we read over and over again, whose emotions we share, to whom we go
+for an hour's distraction and delightful chat; we have no desire to
+chat with Mme. de Grignan (her daughter)--we gladly leave her to her
+mother's exclusive affection, feeling infinitely obliged to her for
+having existed, inasmuch as her mother wrote letters to her. Mme.
+de Sevigne's letters to her daughter are superior to all her other
+epistles, charming as they all are; when she writes to M. Pomponne, to
+M. de Coulanges, to M. de Bussy, the style is less familiar, the heart
+less open, the soul less stirred; she writes to her daughter as she
+would speak to her--it is not a letter, it is an animated and charming
+conversation, touching upon everything, embellishing everything with
+an inimitable grace."
+
+She had married her daughter to the Comte de Grignan, a man of
+forty, twice married, and with children, homely, but wealthy and
+aristocratic; writing to her cousin, Bussy-Rabutin, concerning this
+marriage, she said: "All these women (the count's former wives) died
+expressly to make room for your cousin." By marrying her daughter
+to such a man she encouraged all the questionable proprieties of the
+time. Mme. de Sevigne's affection for that daughter amounted almost
+to idolatry; it was to her that most of the mother's letters were
+written, telling her of her health, what was being done at Vichy, and
+about her business and for that child the authoress gave up her life
+at Paris in order to economize and thereby to help Mme. de Grignan in
+her extravagance, her son-in-law being an expert in spending money.
+
+The intensity of her nature is well reflected in her letter upon the
+separation from her daughter: "In vain I seek my darling daughter; I
+can no longer find her, and every step she takes removes her farther
+from me. I went to St. Mary's, still weeping and dying of grief; it
+seemed as if my heart and my soul were being wrenched from me and, in
+truth, what a cruel separation! I asked leave to be alone; I was taken
+into Mme. du Housset's room, and they made me up a fire. Agnes sat
+looking at me, without speaking--that was our bargain. I stayed there
+till five o'clock, without ceasing to sob; all my thoughts were mortal
+wounds to me. I wrote to M. de Grignan (you can imagine in what key).
+Then I went to Mme. de La Fayette's, and she redoubled my griefs by
+the interest she took in them; she was alone, ill, and distressed at
+the death of one of the nuns; she was just as I should have desired,
+I returned hither at eight; but oh, when I came in! can you conceive
+what I felt as I mounted these stairs? That room into which I always
+used to go, alas! I found the doors of it open, but I saw everything
+upturned, disarranged, and your little daughter, who reminded me of
+mine.... The wakenings of the night were dreadful. I think of you
+continuously--it is what devotees call habitual thought, such as one
+should have of God, if one did one's duty. Nothing gives me diversion;
+I see that carriage which is forever going on and will never come
+near me. I am forever on the highways; it seems as if I were sometimes
+afraid that the carriage will upset with me; the rains there for the
+last three days, drove me to despair. The Rhone causes me strange
+alarm. I have a map before my eyes--I know all the places where you
+sleep. This evening you are at Nevers; on Sunday you will be at
+Lyons where you will receive this letter. I have received only two of
+yours--perhaps the third will come; that is the only comfort I desire;
+as for others, I seek none."
+
+The letters of Mme. de Sevigne contain a great number of sayings
+applicable to habits and conduct, and these have had their part
+in shaping the customs and in depicting the time. To be modest and
+moderate, friendly, and conciliatory, to be content with one's lot and
+to bow to circumstances, to be sincere, to cultivate good sense and
+good grace--these counsels have been and still are, according to
+French opinion, the basis of French character: and Mme. de Sevigne's
+own popularity and success attest their wisdom.
+
+She had not the gift of seeing things vividly and reproducing them in
+living form; her talent was a rarer one--it induced the reader to form
+a mental picture of the scene described, so vivid as to be under the
+illusion of being present in reality; and this is done with so much
+grace, charm, happy ease and naturalness, that to read her letters
+means to love the writer. What mother or friend would not fall a
+willing victim to the charm of a woman who could write the following
+letter?
+
+"You ask me, my dear child, whether I continue to be really fond of
+life; I confess to you that I find poignant sorrows in it, but I am
+even more disgusted with death; I feel so wretched at having to end
+all thereby, that, if I could turn back again, I would ask for nothing
+better, I find myself under an obligation which perplexes me; I
+embark upon life without my consent, and so must I go out of it; that
+overwhelms me. And how shall I go? Which way? By what door? When will
+it be? In what condition? Shall I suffer a thousand, thousand pains
+which will make me die desperate? Shall I have brain fever? Shall I
+die of an accident? How shall I be with God? What shall I have to show
+Him? Shall fear, shall necessity bring me back to Him? Shall I have
+sentiment except that of dread? What can I hope? Am I worthy of
+heaven? Am I worthy of hell? Nothing is such madness as to leave one's
+salvation in uncertainty, but nothing is so natural. The stupid life I
+lead is the easiest thing in the world to understand; I bury myself
+in these thoughts and I find death so terrible that I hate life more
+because it leads me thereto, than because of the thorns with which
+it is planted. You will say that I want to live forever, then; not at
+all; but, if my opinion had been asked, I would have preferred to die
+in my nurse's arms; that would have removed me from the vexations of
+spirit and would have given me heaven full surely and easily."
+
+Mme. de Sevigne never bored her readers with her own reflections. She
+differed from her contemporaries, who seemed to be dead to nature's
+beauty, in her striking descriptions of nature. A close observer, she
+knew how to describe a landscape; animating and enlivening it, and
+making it talk, she inspired the reader with love of it.
+
+"I am going to be alone and I am very glad. Provided they do not take
+away from me the charming country, the shore of the Allier, the woods,
+streams, and meadows, the sheep and goats, the peasant girls who dance
+the _bourree_ in the fields, I consent to say adieu; the country alone
+will cure me.... I have come here to end the beautiful days and to say
+adieu to the foliage--it is still on the trees, it has only changed
+color; instead of being green, it is golden, and of so many golden
+tints that it makes a brocade of rich and magnificent gold, which we
+are likely to find more beautiful than the green, if only it were not
+for the changing part."
+
+If the style of her letters did not make her the greatest prose writer
+of her time, it certainly entitled her to rank as one of the most
+original. The prose of the seventeenth century lacked "easy suppleness
+in lively movement, and imagination in the expression"--two qualities
+which Mme. de Sevigne possessed in a high degree. The slow and grave
+development, the just and harmonious equilibrium, the amplitude, are
+in her supplanted by a quick, alert, and free _saillie_; the detail
+and marvellous exactness are enriched by color, abundance of imagery,
+and metaphors. M. Faguet says she is to prose what La Fontaine is to
+poetry.
+
+The literary style of Mme. de Sevigne is not learned, studied, nor
+labored. In an epoch in which the language was already formed, she did
+what Montaigne did a century before, when, we may almost assert, he
+had to create the French language. Her most striking expressions are
+her own--newly coined, not taken from the vocabulary in usage. Her
+style cannot be duplicated, and for this reason she has few imitators.
+Her letters show that they were improvised--her pen doing, alone, the
+work over which she seemed to have no control when communicating with
+her daughter; to the latter she said: "I write prose with a facility
+that will kill you."
+
+Mme. de Sevigne was possibly not a beautiful woman, but she was a
+charming one; broad in the scope of her affections, she found the
+making of friends no difficult task. M. Vallery-Radot leaves the
+following picture of her: "A blonde, with exuberant health, a
+transparent complexion, blue eyes, so frank, so limpid, a nose
+somewhat square, a mouth ready to smile, shoulders that seem to lend
+splendor to her pearl necklace. Her gayety and goodness are so in
+evidence that there is about her a kind of atmosphere of good humor."
+
+M. du Bled most admirably sums up her character and writings in the
+following: "She is the person who most resembles her writings--that
+is, those that are found; for alas! many (the most confidential, the
+most interesting, I think) are lost forever: in them she is reflected
+as she reflects French society in them. Endowed--morally and
+physically--with a robust health, she is expansive, loyal, confiding,
+impressionable, loving gayety in full abundance as much as she does
+the smile of the refined, as eager for the prattle of the court as
+for solid reading, smitten with nobiliary pride, a captive of the
+prejudices, superstitions and tastes of her caste (or of even her
+coterie), with her pen hardly tender for her neighbor--her daughter
+and intimates excepted. A manager and a woman of imagination, a
+Frondist at the bottom of her soul, and somewhat of a Jansenist--not
+enough, however, not to cry out that Louis XIV. will obscure the glory
+of his predecessors because he had just danced with her--faithful to
+her friends (Retz, Fouquet, Pomponne) in disgrace and detesting their
+persecutors, seeking the favor of court for her children. In the
+salons, she is celebrated for her _esprit_--and this at an age when
+one seldom thinks about reputation, when one is like the princess who
+replied to a question on the state of her soul, 'At twenty one has
+no soul;' and she possesses the qualities that are so essential to
+style--natural _eclat_, originality of expression, grace, color,
+amplitude without pomposity and abundance without prolixity; moreover,
+she invents nothing, but, knowing how to observe and to express in
+perfection everything she had seen and felt, she is a witness and
+painter of her century: also, she loves nature--a sentiment very rare
+in the seventeenth century."
+
+Mme. de Sevigne was endowed with the best qualities of the French
+race--good will and friendliness, which influence one to judge others
+favorably and to desire their esteem; of a very impressionable nature,
+she was gifted with a natural eloquence which enabled her to express
+her various emotions in a light or gay vein which often bordered on
+irony. Affectionate and appreciative and tender and kind to everyone
+in general, toward those whom she loved she was generous to a fault
+and unswerving in her fidelity.
+
+Her last years were spent in the midst of her family. She died in
+1696, of small-pox, thanking God that she was the first to go, after
+having trembled for the life of her daughter, whom she had nursed back
+to health after a long and dangerous illness. Her son-in-law, M. de
+Grignan, wrote to her uncle, M. de Coulanges:
+
+"What calls far more for our admiration than for our regret, is the
+spectacle of a brave woman facing death--of which she had no doubt
+from the first days of her illness--with astounding firmness and
+submission. This person, so tender and so weak towards all whom she
+loved, showed nothing but courage and piety when she believed that her
+hour had come; and, impressed by the use she managed to make of that
+good store in the last moments of her life, we could not but remark
+of what utility and of what importance it is to have the mind stocked
+with the good matter and holy reading for which Mme. de Sevigne had a
+liking--not to say a wonderful hunger."
+
+In order to give an idea of the place that Mme. de Sevigne holds in
+the opinion of the average Frenchman, we quote the final words of M.
+Vallery-Radot:
+
+"To take a place among the greatest writers, without ever having
+written a book or even having thought of writing one--this is what
+seems impossible, and yet this is what happened to Mme. de Sevigne.
+Her contemporaries knew her as a woman distinguished for her _esprit_,
+frank, playful and sprightly humor, irreproachable conduct, loyalty to
+her friends, and as an idolizer of her daughter; no one suspected that
+she would partake of the glory of our classical authors--and she, less
+than any one. She had immortalized herself, without wishing or knowing
+it, by an intimate correspondence which is, to-day, universally
+regarded as one of the most precious treasures and one of the most
+original monuments to French literature. To deceive the _ennui_ of
+absence, she wrote to her daughter all that she had in her heart and
+that came to her mind--what she did, wished to do, saw and learned,
+news of court, city, Brittany, army, everything--sadly or gayly,
+according to the subject, always with the most keen, ardent, delicate,
+and touching sentiments of tenderness and sympathy. She amuses,
+instructs, interests, moves to tears or laughter. All that passes
+within or before her, passes within and before us. If she depicts
+an object, we see it; if she relates an event, we are present at its
+occurrence; if she makes a character talk, we hear his words, see his
+gestures, and distinguish his accent. All is true, real, living: this
+is more than talent--it is enchantment. Generations pass away in turn;
+a single one, or, rather, a group escapes the general oblivion--the
+group of friends of Mme. de Sevigne."
+
+A woman with characteristics the very opposite of those of Mme.
+de Sevigne, but who in some respects resembled her, was Mme. de La
+Fayette. Of her life, very little is to be said, except in regard to
+her lasting friendship and attachment for La Rochefoucauld. She
+was born in 1634, and, with Mme. de Sevigne, was probably the best
+educated among the great women of the seventeenth century. She was
+faithful to her husband, the Count of La Fayette, who, in 1665, took
+her to Paris, where she formed her lifelong attachment for the great
+La Rochefoucauld, and where she won immediate recognition for her
+exquisite politeness and as a woman with a large fund of common sense.
+
+After her marriage, she seemed to have but one interest--La
+Rochefoucauld, just as that of Mme. de Maintenon was Louis XIV. and
+that of Mme. de Sevigne--her daughter. These three prominent
+women illustrate remarkably well that predominant trait of French
+women--faithfulness to a chosen cause; each one of the three
+was vitally concerned in an enduring, a legitimate, and sincere
+attachment, which state of affairs gives a certain distinction to the
+society of the time of Louis XIV.
+
+Mme. de La Fayette, like Mme. de Sevigne, possessed an exceptional
+talent for making and retaining friends. She kept aloof from
+intrigues, in fact, knew nothing about them, and consequently never
+schemed to use her favor at court for purposes of self-interest. Two
+qualities belonged to her more than to any of her contemporaries--an
+instinct which was superior to her reason, and a love of truth in all
+things.
+
+Compared with those of Mme. de Rambouillet, it is said that her
+attainments were of a more solid nature; and while Mlle. de Scudery
+had greater brilliancy, Mme. de La Fayette had better judgment.
+These qualities combined with an exquisite delicacy, fine sentiment,
+calmness, and depth of reason, the very basis of her nature, are
+reflected in her works. Sainte-Beuve says that "her reason and
+experience cool her passion and temper the ideal with the results of
+observation." She was one of the very few women playing any role
+in French history who were endowed with all things necessary to
+happiness--fortune, reputation, talent, intimate and ideal
+friendship. Extremely sensitive to surroundings, she readily received
+impressions--a gift which was the source of a somewhat doubtful
+happiness.
+
+In her later days, notwithstanding terrible suffering, she became more
+devout and exhibited an admirable resignation. A letter to Menage will
+show the mental and physical state reached by her in her last days:
+"Although you forbid me to write to you, I wish, nevertheless, to tell
+you how truly affected I am by your friendship. I appreciate it as
+much as when I used to see it; it is dear to me for its own worth, it
+is dear to me because it is at present the only one I have. Time and
+old age have taken all my friends away from me.... I must tell you the
+state I am in. I am, first of all, a mortal divinity, and to an excess
+inconceivable; I have obstructions in my entrails--sad, inexpressible
+feelings; I have no spirit, no force--I cannot read or apply myself.
+The slightest things affect me--a fly appears an elephant to me; that
+is my ordinary state.... I cannot believe that I can live long in this
+condition, and my life is too disagreeable to permit me to fear the
+end. I surrender myself to the will of God; He is the All-Powerful,
+and, from all sides, we must go to Him at last. They assure me that
+you are thinking seriously of your salvation, and I am very happy over
+it."
+
+There probably never existed a more ideal friendship between two
+French women, one more lasting, sincere, perfect in every way, than
+that of Mme. de Sevigne and Mme. de La Fayette. The major part of
+the information we possess regarding events in the life of Mme. de La
+Fayette is obtained from their letters. Said Mme. de Sevigne: "Never
+did we have the smallest cloud upon our friendship. Long habit had not
+made her merit stale to me--the flavor of it was always fresh and new.
+I paid her many attentions, from the mere promptings of my affection,
+not because of the propriety by which, in friendships, we are bound. I
+was assured, too, that I was her dearest consolation--which, for forty
+years past, had been the case."
+
+Shortly before her death, she wrote to Mme. de Sevigne: "Here is what
+I have done since I wrote you last. I have had two attacks of fever;
+for six months I had not been purged; I am purged once, I am purged
+twice; the day after the second time, I sit down at the table; oh,
+dear! I feel a pain in my heart--I do not want any soup. Have a little
+meat, then? No, I do not wish any. Well, you will have some fruit? I
+think I will. Very well, then, have some. I don't know--I think I
+will have some by and by. Let me have some soup and some chicken
+this evening.... Here is the evening, and there are the soup and the
+chicken; I don't desire them. I am nauseated, I will go to bed--I
+prefer sleeping to eating. I go to bed, I turn round, I turn back,
+I have no pain, but I have no sleep either. I call--I take a book--I
+close it. Day comes--I get up--I go to the window. It strikes four,
+five, six--I go to bed again, I doze until seven, I get up at eight,
+I sit down to table at twelve--to no purpose, as yesterday.... I lay
+myself down in my bed, in the evening, to no purpose, as the night
+before. Are you ill? Nay, I am in this state for three days and three
+nights. At present, I am getting some sleep again, but I still eat
+mechanically, horsewise--rubbing my mouth with vinegar. Otherwise, I
+am very well, and I haven't so much as a pain in my head."
+
+Her depressing melancholy kept her indoors a great deal; in fact,
+after 1683, after the death of the queen, who was one of her best
+friends, she was seldom seen at court. Mme. de Sevigne gives good
+reason for this in her letter:
+
+"She had a mortal melancholy. Again, what absurdity! is she not the
+most fortunate woman in the world? That is what people said; it needed
+that she should die to prove that she had good reason for not going
+out and for being melancholy. Her reins and her heart were all
+gone--was not that enough to cause those fits of despondency of which
+she complained? And so, during her life she showed reason, and after
+death she showed reason, and never was she without that divine reason
+which was her principal gift."
+
+Her liaison with La Rochefoucauld is the one delicate and tender point
+in her life, a relation that afforded her much happiness and finally
+completed the ruin of her health. M. d'Haussonville said: "It is true
+that he took possession of her soul and intellect, little by little,
+so that the two beings, in the eyes of their contemporaries, were
+but one; for after his death (1680) she lived but an incomplete and
+mutilated existence."
+
+Some critics have ventured to pronounce this liaison one of material
+love solely, others are convinced of its morality and pure friendship.
+In favor of the latter view, M. d'Haussonville suggests the fact
+that Mme. de La Fayette was over thirty years of age when she became
+interested in La Rochefoucauld, and that at that age women rarely ally
+themselves with men from emotions of physical love merely. At that age
+it is reason that mutually attracts two beings; and this feeling was
+probably the predominant one in that case, because her entire career
+was one of the most extreme reserve, conservatism, good sense, and
+propriety. However, other proofs are brought forward to show that
+there was between the two a sort of moral marriage, so many examples
+of which are found in the seventeenth century between people
+of prominence, both of whom happened to have unhappy conjugal
+experiences.
+
+French society, one must remember, was different from any in the
+world; it seems to have been a large family gathering, the members of
+which were as intimate, took as much interest in each other's affairs,
+showed as much sympathy for one another and participated in each
+other's sorrows and pleasures, as though they were children of the
+same parents.
+
+In his early days, La Rochefoucauld found it convenient, for selfish
+purposes, to simulate an ardent passion for Mme. de Longueville,
+of which mention has been made in the chapter relating to Mme. de
+Longueville. In his later period, he had settled down to a normal
+mode of life and sought the friendship of a more reasonable and less
+passionate woman. He himself said:
+
+"When women have well-informed minds, I like their conversation better
+than that of men; you find, with them, a certain gentleness which is
+not met with among us; and it seems to me, besides, that they express
+themselves with greater clearness and that they give a more pleasant
+turn to the things they say."
+
+Mme. de La Fayette exercised a great influence upon La
+Rochefoucauld--an influence that was wholesome in every way. It was
+through her influential friends at court that he was helped into
+possession of his property, and it was she who maintained it for him.
+As to his literary work (his _Maxims_), her influence over him was
+supposed to have somewhat modified his ideas on women and to have
+softened his tone in general. She wrote: "He gave me wit, but I
+reformed his heart." M. d'Haussonville has proved, without doubt, that
+her restraint modified many of his maxims that were tinged with
+the spirit of the commonplace and trivial. While Mme. de
+Sable--essentially a moralist and a deeply religious woman--was more
+of a companion to him, and though his maxims were, for the greater
+part, composed in her salon, Mme. de La Fayette, by her tenderness and
+judgment, tempered the tone of them before they reached the public.
+
+Mme. de La Fayette will always be known, however, as the great
+novelist of the seventeenth century. Two novels, two stories, two
+historical works, and her memoirs, make up her literary budget. M.
+d'Haussonville claims that her memoirs of the court of France are not
+reliable, because she was so often absent from court; also, in
+them she shows a tendency to avenge herself, in a way, upon Mme. de
+Maintenon, whose friend she was until the trouble between this lady
+and Mme. de Montespan occurred. The latter was the intimate friend
+of Mme. de La Fayette. As for her literary work proper, her desire to
+write was possibly encouraged, if not created, by her indulgence in
+the general fad of writing portraitures, in which she was especially
+successful in portraying Mme. de Sevigne. Her literary effort was,
+besides, a revolt of her own taste and sense against the pompous
+and inflated language of the novels of the day and against the great
+length of the development of the events and adventures in them. Thus,
+Mme. de La Fayette inaugurated a new style of novel; to show her
+influence, it will be well to consider the state of the Romanesque
+novel at the period of her writing.
+
+In the beginning of the century, D'Urfe's novels were in vogue; these
+works were characterized by interminable developments, relieved by an
+infinite number of historical episodes. All characters, shepherds
+as well as noblemen, expressed the same sentiments and in the same
+language. There was no pretension to truth in the portraying of
+manners and customs.--A reaction was natural and took the form of
+either a kind of parody or gross realism. These novels, of which
+_Francion_ and _Berger Extravagant_ were the best known, depicted
+shepherds of the Merovingian times, heroes of Persia and Rome, or
+procurers, scamps, and scoundrels; but no descriptions of the manners
+of decent people (_honnetes gens_) were to be found.
+
+The novels of Mlle. de Scudery, while interesting as portraitures, are
+not thoroughly reliable in their representation of the sentiments
+and environment of the times; on the other hand, those of Mme. de La
+Fayette are impersonal--no one of the characters is recognizable; yet
+their atmosphere is that of the court of Louis XIV., and the language,
+never so correct as to be unnatural, is that used at the time. Her
+novels reflect perfectly the society of the court and the manner of
+life there. "Thus," says M. d'Haussonville, "she was the first to
+produce a novel of observation and sentiment, the first to paint
+elegant manners as they really were."
+
+Her first production was _La Princesse de Montpensier_ (1662); in
+1670, appeared _Zayde_, it was ostensibly the work of Segrais, her
+teacher and a writer much in vogue at the time; in 1678, _La Princesse
+de Cleves_, her masterpiece, stirred up one of the first real quarrels
+of literary criticism. For a long time after the appearance of that
+book, society was divided into two classes--the pros and the cons. It
+was the most popular work of the period.
+
+M. d'Haussonville says it is the first French novel which is an
+illustration of woman's ability to analyze the most subtile of human
+emotions. Mme. de La Fayette was, also, the first to elevate, in
+literature, the character of the husband who, until then, was a
+nonentity or a booby; she makes of him a hero--sympathetic, noble, and
+dignified.
+
+In no fictitious tale before hers was love depicted with such rare
+delicacy and pathos. In her novel, _La Princesse de Cleves_, "a novel
+of a married woman, we feel the woman who has loved and who knows what
+she is saying, for she, also, has struggled and suffered." The writer
+confesses her weakness and leaves us witness of her virtue. All
+the soul struggles and interior combats represented in her work the
+authoress herself has experienced. As an example of this we cite the
+description of the sentiments of Mme. de Cleves when she realizes that
+her feeling toward one of the members of the court may develop into an
+emotion unworthy of her as a wife. She falls upon her knees and says:
+
+"I am here to make to you a confession such as has never been made
+to man; but the innocence of my conduct and my intentions give me
+the necessary courage. It is true that I have reasons for desiring to
+withdraw from court, and that I wish to avoid the perils which persons
+of my age experience. I have never shown a sign of weakness, and I
+would not fear of ever showing any, if you permitted me to withdraw
+from court, or if I still had, in my efforts to do right, the support
+of Mme. de Chartres. However dangerous may be the action I take, I
+take it with pleasure, that I may be worthy of your actions, I ask a
+thousand pardons; if I have sentiments displeasing to you, I shall
+at least never displease you by my actions. Remember, to do what I am
+doing, one must have for a husband more friendship and esteem than was
+ever before had. Have pity on me and lead me away---and love me still,
+if you can."
+
+_La Princesse de Cleves_ is a novel of human virtue purely, and
+teaches that true virtue can find its reward in itself and in the
+austere enjoyment of duty accomplished. "It is a work that will
+endure, and be a comfort as well as a guide to those who aspire to a
+high morality which necessitates a difficult sacrifice."
+
+M. d'Haussonville regards the novels of Mmes. de Charriere, de Souza,
+de Duras, de Boigne, as mere imitations or as having been inspired by
+that masterpiece of Mme. de La Fayette. He says: "In fact, novels in
+general, that depict the struggle between passion and duty, with the
+victory on the side of virtue, emanate more or less from it."
+
+Taine wrote: "She described the events in the careers of society
+women, introducing no special terms of language into her descriptions.
+She painted for the sake of painting and did not think of attempting
+to surpass her predecessors. She reflects a society whose scrupulous
+care was to avoid even the slightest appearance of anything that might
+displease or shock. She shows the exquisite tact of a woman--and a
+woman of high rank."
+
+Mme. de La Fayette is one of the very rare French writers that have
+succeeded in analyzing love, passion, and moral duty, without becoming
+monotonous, vulgar, brutal, or excessively realistic. Her creations
+contain the most minute analyses of heart and soul emotions, but these
+never become purely physiologic and nauseating, as in most novels.
+This achievement on her part has been too little imitated, but it,
+alone, will preserve the name of Mme. de La Fayette.
+
+Mme. de Motteville is deserving of mention among the important
+literary women of the seventeenth century. She is regarded as one
+of the best women writers in French literature, and her memoirs are
+considered authority on the history of the Fronde and of Anne of
+Austria. The poetry of Mme. des Houlieres was for a long time much
+in vogue; to-day, however, it is not read. The memoirs of Mlle. de
+Montpensier are more occupied with herself than with events of the
+time or the numerous princes who tarried about her as longing lovers.
+Guizot says: "She was so impassioned and haughty, with her head
+so full of her own greatness, that she did not marry in her youth,
+thinking no one worthy of her except the king and the emperor, and
+they had no fancy for her." The following portrait of her was sketched
+by herself:
+
+"I am tall, neither fat nor thin, of a very fine and easy figure.
+I have a good mien, arms and hands not beautiful, but a beautiful
+skin--and throat, too. I have a straight leg and a well-shaped foot;
+my hair is light and of a beautiful auburn; my face is long, its
+contour is handsome, nose large and aquiline; mouth neither large
+nor small, but chiselled and with a very pleasing expression; lips
+vermilion, not fine, but not frightful, either; my eyes are blue,
+neither large nor small, but sparkling, soft, and proud like my mien.
+I talk a great deal, without saying silly things or using bad words. I
+am a very vicious enemy, being very choleric and passionate, and that,
+added to my birth, may well make my enemies tremble; but I have, also,
+a noble and kindly soul. I am incapable of any base and black deed;
+and so I am more disposed to mercy than to justice. I am melancholic,
+and fond of reading good and solid books; trifles bore me--except
+verses, and them I like, of whatever sort they may be; and undoubtedly
+I am as good a judge of such things as if I were a scholar."
+
+Possibly the greatest female scholar that France ever produced was
+Mme. Dacier, a truly learned woman and one of whom French women are
+proud; during her last years she enjoyed the reputation of being one
+of the foremost scholars of all Europe. It was Mme. de Lambert who
+wrote of her:
+
+"I esteem Mme. Dacier infinitely. Our sex owes her much; she has
+protested against the common error which condemns us to ignorance.
+Men, as much from disdain as from a fancied superiority, have denied
+us all learning; Mme. Dacier is an example proving that we are capable
+of learning. She has associated erudition and good manners; for, at
+present, modesty has been displaced; shame is no longer for vices,
+and women blush over their learning only. She has freed the mind,
+held captive under this prejudice, and she alone supports us in our
+rights."
+
+Tanneguy-Lefevre, the father of Mme. Dacier, was a savant and a type
+of the scholars of the sixteenth century. He brought up his sons to be
+like him--instructing them in Greek, Latin, and antiquities. The young
+daughter, present at all the lessons given to her brothers, acquired,
+unaided, a solid education; her father, amazed at her marvellous
+faculty for comprehending and remembering, soon devoted most of his
+energy to her. He was, at that time, professor at the College of
+Saumur; and he was conspicuous not only for the liberty he exhibited
+in his pedagogical duties, but for his general catholicity.
+
+After the death of her father, the young daughter went to Paris where
+her family friends, Chapelain and Huet, encouraged her in her studies,
+the latter, who was assistant preceptor to the dauphin, even going so
+far as to request her to assist him in preparing the Greek text for
+the use of the dauphin. She soon eclipsed all scholars of the time by
+her illuminating studies of Greek authors and of the quality of
+the new editions which she prepared of their works, but she was
+continually pestered on account of her erudition and her religion, the
+Protestant faith, to which she clung while realizing that it had been
+the cause of the failure of her father's advancement.
+
+From that time appeared her famous series of translations of Terence
+and Plautus, which were the delight of the women of the period and
+which gave her the reputation of being the most intellectual woman of
+the seventeenth century. In 1635, when nearly thirty years of age, she
+married M. Dacier, the favorite pupil of her father, librarian to
+the king and translator of Plutarch--a man of no means, but one who
+thoroughly appreciated the worth of Mlle. Lefevre. This union was
+spoken of by her contemporaries as "the marriage of Greek and Latin."
+
+Two years after their marriage, after long and serious deliberation,
+both abjured Protestantism, adopted the Catholic religion, and
+succeeded in converting the whole town of Castres--an act which
+gained them royal favor, and Louis XIV. granted them a pension of
+two thousand livres. Sainte-Beuve states that their conversion was
+perfectly sincere and conscientious. In all their subsequent works
+were seen traces of Mme. Dacier's powerful intellect, which was much
+superior to that of her husband. Boileau said: "In their production of
+_esprit_, it is Mme. Dacier who is the father."
+
+Besides her translations of the plays of Plautus, all of Terence, the
+_Clouds_ and _Plutus_ of Aristophanes, she published her translation
+of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ (1711-1716), which gave her a prominent
+place in the history of French literature, especially as it appeared
+at the time of the "quarrels of the ancients and moderns," which
+concerned the comparative merits of ancient and modern literature.
+
+Mme. Dacier thoroughly appreciated the grandeur of Homer and knew the
+almost insurmountable difficulties of a translation; therefore,
+when in 1714 the _Iliad_ appeared in verse (in twelve songs by La
+Motte-Houdart), preceded by a discourse on Homer, in which the author
+announced that his aim was to purify and embellish Homer by ridding
+him "of his barbarian crudeness, his uncivil familiarities, and his
+great length," the ire of Mme. Dacier was aroused, and in defence of
+her god she wrote her famous _Des Causes de la Corruption du Gout_
+(Causes of the Corruption of Taste), a long defence of Homer, to which
+La Motte replied in his _Reflexions de la Critique_ This rekindled the
+whole controversy, and sides were immediately formed.
+
+Mme. Dacier was not politic; although she sustained her ideas well
+and displayed much erudition and depth of reason, she is said to have
+injured her cause by the violence of her polemic. Her immoderate tone
+and bitter assaults upon the elegant and discerning favorite only
+detracted from his opponent's favor and grace. Voltaire said: "You
+could say that the work of M. de La Motte was that of a woman of
+_esprit_, while that of Mme. Dacier was of a _homme savant_. He
+translated the _Iliad_ very poorly, but attacked very well." Mme.
+Dacier's translation remained a standard for two centuries. She and
+her adversary became reconciled at a dinner given by M. de Valincour
+for the friends of both parties; upon that festive occasion, "they
+drank to the health of Homer, and all was well."
+
+Mme. Dacier died in 1720. "She was a _savante_ only in her study or
+when with savants; otherwise, she was unaffected and agreeable
+in conversation, from the character of which one would never have
+suspected her of knowing more than the average woman." She was an
+incessant worker and had little time for social life; in the evening,
+after having worked all morning, she received visits from the literary
+men of France; and, to her credit may it be added, amid all her
+literary work, she never neglected her domestic and maternal duties.
+
+A woman of an entirely different type from that of Mme. Dacier, one
+who fitly closes the long series of great and brilliant women of the
+age of Louis XIV., who only partly resembles them and yet does not
+quite take on the faded and decadent coloring of the next age, was
+Mme. de Caylus, the niece of Mme. de Maintenon. It was she who, partly
+through compulsion, partly of her own free will, undertook the rearing
+of the young and beautiful Marthe-Marguerite de Villette. Mme. de
+Maintenon was then at the height of her power, and naturally her
+beautiful, clever, and witty niece was soon overwhelmed by proposals
+of marriage from the greatest nobles of France. To one of these, M. de
+Boufflers, Mme. de Maintenon replied: "My niece is not a sufficiently
+good match for you. However, I am not insensible to the honor you pay
+me; I shall not give her to you, but in the future I shall consider
+you my nephew."
+
+She then married the innocent young girl to the Marquis de Caylus, a
+debauched, worthless reprobate--a union whose only merit lay in the
+fact that her niece could thus remain near her at court. At the latter
+place, her beauty, gayety, and caustic wit, her adaptable and somewhat
+superficial character and her freedom of manners and speech, did
+not fail to attract many admirers. Her frankness in expressing her
+opinions was the source of her disgrace; Louis XIV. took her at her
+word when she exclaimed, in speaking of the court: "This place is so
+dull that it is like being in exile to live here," and forbade her to
+appear again in the place she found so tiresome. Those rash words
+cost her an exile of thirteen years, and only through good behavior,
+submission, and piety was she permitted to return.
+
+She appeared at a supper given by the king, and, by the brilliancy
+of her beauty and _esprit_, she attracted everyone present and soon
+regained her former favor and friends. From that time she was the
+constant companion of Mme. de Maintenon, until the king's death, when
+she returned to Paris; at that place her salon became an intellectual
+centre, and there the traditions of the seventeenth century were
+perpetuated.
+
+Sainte-Beuve said that Mme. de Caylus perfectly exemplified what
+was called urbanity--"politeness in speech and accent as well as in
+_esprit_." In her youth she was famous for her extraordinary acting in
+the performance, at Saint-Cyr, of Racine's _Esther_. Mme. de Sevigne
+wrote: "It is Mme. de Caylus who makes Esther." Her brief and witty
+_Souvenirs_ (Memoirs), showing marvellous finesse in the art of
+portraiture, made her name immortal. M. Saint-Amand describes her work
+thus:
+
+"Her friends, enchanted by her lively wit, had long entreated her
+to write--not for the public, but for them--the anecdotes which she
+related so well. Finally, she acquiesced, and committed to paper
+certain incidents, certain portraits. What a treasure are these
+_Souvenirs_--so fluently written, so unpretentious, with neither dates
+nor chronological order, but upon which, for more than a century, all
+historians have drawn! How much is contained in this little book
+which teaches more in a few lines than interminable works do in many
+volumes! How feminine it is, and how French! One readily understands
+Voltaire's liking for these charming _Souvenirs_. Who, than Mme. de
+Caylus, ever better applied the famous precept: 'Go lightly, mortals;
+don't bear too hard.'"
+
+She belonged to that class of spontaneous writers who produce artistic
+works without knowing it, just as M. Jourdain wrote prose, and who do
+not even suspect that they possess that chief attribute of literary
+style--naturalness. What pure, what ready wit! What good humor,
+what unconstraint, what delightful ease! What a series of charming
+portraits, each more lifelike, more animated, still better than all
+the others! "These little miniatures--due to the brush of a woman
+of the world--are better worth studying than is many a picture or
+fresco."
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VII
+
+Woman in Religion
+
+
+The entire religious agitation of the seventeenth century was due to
+women. Port-Royal was the centre from which issued all contention--the
+centre where all subjects were discussed, where the most important
+books were written or inspired, where the genius of that great century
+centred; and it was to Port-Royal that the greatest women of France
+went, either to find repose for their souls or to visit the noble
+members of their sex who had consecrated their lives to God--Mere
+Angelique, Jacqueline Pascal. Never in the history of the world had
+a religious sect or party gathered within its fold such an array of
+great minds, such a number of fearless and determined heroines and
+_esprits d'elite_. A short account of this famous convent must precede
+any story of its members.
+
+The original convent, Port-Royal des Champs, near Versailles, was
+founded as early as 1204, by Mathieu of Montmorency and his wife, for
+the Cistercian nuns who had the privileges of electing their abbess
+and of receiving into their community ladies who, tired of the social
+world, wished to retire to a religious asylum, without, however, being
+bound by any religious vows. Later on, the sisters were permitted to
+receive, also, young ladies of the nobility.
+
+These privileges were used to such advantage that the institution
+acquired great wealth; and through its boarders, some of whom belonged
+to the most important families of France, it became influential to an
+almost incalculable degree. For four centuries this convent had been
+developing liberal tendencies and gradually falling away from its
+primitive austerity, when, in 1605, Sister Angelique Arnauld became
+abbess and undertook a thorough reform. So great was her success in
+this direction that, after having effected similar changes at the
+Convent of Maubuisson and then returned to Port-Royal des Champs, the
+latter became so crowded that new and more commodious quarters had to
+be obtained.
+
+The immense and beautiful Hotel de Cluny, at Paris, was procured, and
+a portion of the community moved thither, establishing an institution
+which became the best known and most popular of those French convents
+which were patronized by women of distinction. The old abbey buildings
+near Versailles were later occupied by a community of learned and
+pious men who were, for the most part, pupils of the celebrated Abbe
+of Saint-Cyran, who, with Jansenius, was living at Paris at the time
+that Mere Angelique was perfecting her reforms; she, attracted by the
+ascetic life led by the abbe, fell under his influence, and the whole
+Arnauld family, numbering about thirty, followed her example.
+
+Soon "the nuns at Paris, with their numerous and powerful connections,
+and the recluses at Port-Royal des Champs, together with their pupils
+and the noble or wealthy families to which the latter belonged, were
+imbued with the new doctrines of which they became apostles." The
+primary aim was to live up to a common ideal of Christian perfection,
+and to react against the general corruption by establishing thoroughly
+moral schools and publishing works denouncing, in strong terms, the
+glaring errors of the time, the source of which was considered, by
+both the Abbe of Saint-Cyran and Jansenius, to lie in the Jesuit
+Colleges and their theology. Thus was evolved a system of education in
+every way antagonistic to that of the Jesuits.
+
+At this time the convent at Paris became so crowded that Mere
+Angelique withdrew to the abbey near Versailles, the occupants of
+which retired to a neighboring farm, Les Granges; there was opened
+a seminary for females, which soon attracted the daughters of the
+nobility. An astounding literary and agricultural activity resulted,
+both at the abode of the recluses and at the seminary: by the recluses
+were written the famous Greek and Latin grammars, and by the nuns, the
+famous _Memoirs of the History of Port-Royal_ and the _Image of the
+Perfect and Imperfect Sister_; a model farm was cultivated, and here
+the peasants were taught improved methods of tillage. During the
+time of the civil wars the convent became a resort where charity and
+hospitality were extended to the poor peasants.
+
+"The mode of life at Port-Royal was distinguished for austerity. The
+inmates rose at three o'clock in the morning, and, after the common
+prayer, kissed the ground as a sign of their self-humiliation before
+God. Then, kneeling, they read a chapter from the Gospels and one from
+the Epistles, concluding with another prayer. Two hours in the morning
+and a like number in the afternoon were devoted to manual labor in the
+gardens adjoining the convent; they observed, with great strictness,
+the season of Lent." Their theories and practices, and especially
+their sympathy with Jansenius, whose work _Mars Gallicus_ attacked
+the French government and people, aroused the suspicions of Richelieu.
+When in 1640 the Port-Royalists openly and enthusiastically received
+the famous work, _Augustinus_, of Jansenius, the government became the
+declared opponent of the convent. Saint-Cyran had been imprisoned
+in 1638, and not until after the death of Richelieu, in 1642, was
+he liberated. After the appearance, in 1643, of Arnauld's _De la
+Frequente Communion_, in which he attacked the Jesuits for admitting
+the people to the Lord's Supper without due preparation, two parties
+formed--the Jesuits, supported by the Sorbonne and the government, and
+the Port-Royalists, supported by Parliament and illustrious persons,
+such as Mme. de Longueville.
+
+In 1644, the nuns were dispersed by order of Louis XIV., against whose
+despotic caprices two Jansenist bishops had fought in support of the
+rights of the pope. The Paris convent remained closed until 1669, when
+it and the one at Chevreuse, near Versailles were made independent
+of each other, a proceeding which resulted in the two institutions
+becoming opponents. In 1708 the Convent of Port-Royal des Champs
+was suppressed, and, a year later, the beautiful and once prosperous
+community was destroyed, the buildings being levelled to the ground.
+In 1780 the Paris convent was abolished; five years later the
+structure was converted into a hospital, and in 1814 it became the
+lying-in asylum of _La Maternite_.
+
+In those two convents, which were practically one, was fomented and
+developed the entire religious movement of the seventeenth century,
+to which period belong the general study and development of theology,
+metaphysics, and morality. Such great, good, and brilliant women as
+the Countess of Maure, Mlle. de Vandy, Anne de Rohan, Mme. de Bregy,
+Mme. de Hautefort, Mme. de Longueville, Mme. de Sevigne, Mme. de La
+Fayette, and Mme. de Sable were inmates of Port-Royal, or its friends
+and constant visitors.
+
+Port-Royal may have been the cause of the civil war waged by the
+Frondists against the government. It did bring on the struggle between
+the Jesuits, who were all-powerful in the Church, and the Jansenists.
+The latter denied the doctrine of free will, and taught the absolutism
+of religion, the "terrible God," the powerlessness of kings and
+princes before God--a doctrine which brought down upon them the wrath
+of Louis XIV., for whom their notion of virtue was too severe, their
+use of the Gospel too excessive, and their Christianity impossible.
+
+In its purest form, Port-Royalism was a return to the sanctity of the
+primitive church--an attempt at the use, in French, of the whole body
+of Scriptures and the writings of the Church Fathers; it aimed to
+maintain a vigorous religious reaction in the shape of a reform, and
+that reform was vigorously opposed by the Catholic Church.
+
+One family that is associated with Port-Royal gave to its cause no
+less than six sisters; the latter all belonged to the Convent of
+Port-Royal and were attached to the Jansenist party; of them, the
+Archbishop of Paris said that they were "as pure as angels, but as
+proud as devils." They were related to the one great Arnauld family,
+of which Antoine and his three sons--Robert, Henri, and the younger
+Antoine, called "the great Antoine"--were illustrious champions of
+Port-Royal.
+
+Marie Jacqueline Angelique, the oldest among the three abbesses, was
+born in 1591, and, at the early age of fourteen, was made abbess
+of Port-Royal des Champs; it was she who, after having instituted
+successful reforms at Port-Royal, was sent to reform the system of
+the Abbey of Maubuisson, thus initiating the important movement which
+later involved almost all France. She became convinced that she had
+not been lawfully elected abbess and resigned, securing, however, a
+provision which made the election of abbesses a triennial event. To
+her belongs the honor of having made Port-Royal anew. She was a woman
+capable of every sacrifice,--a wonderful type in which were blended
+candor, pride, and submission,--and she exhibited indomitable strength
+of will and earnest zeal for her cause.
+
+Her sister, Agnes, but three years younger than Marie, also entered
+the convent, and, at the age of fifteen, was made mistress of the
+novices; during the absence of her sister, at Maubuisson, she was
+at the head of the convent; from that time, she governed Port-Royal
+alternately with her sister, for twenty-seven years. Her work, _The
+Secret Chapter of the Sacrament_, was suppressed at Rome, but without
+bringing formal censure upon her.
+
+The last of those great abbesses was Mere Angelique, who lived through
+the most troublous and critical times of Port-Royal (1624 to 1684). At
+the age of twenty she became a nun, having been reared in the convent
+by her aunt, Marie, who was the most perfect disciple of Saint-Cyran.
+Mere Angelique was especially conspicuous for her obstinacy, and when
+the nuns were forced to accept the formulary of Pope Alexander VI.,
+she, alone, was excepted, because of that well known characteristic.
+Upon the reopening of Port-Royal (in 1689), her powerful protectress,
+Mme. de Longueville, died and the persecutions were renewed; Mere
+Angelique endeavored to avert the storm, but all in vain; amidst her
+efforts, she collapsed. She was also a writer, her _Memoirs of
+the History of Port Royal_ being the most valuable history of that
+institution.
+
+Thus, about those three women is formed the religious movement which
+involved both the development of religious liberty, free will, and
+morality, and of the philosophical literature of the century--a
+century which boasts such writers and theologians as Nicole, Pascal,
+Racine, etc.
+
+The mission of Port-Royal seems to have been preparation of souls for
+the struggles of life, teaching how to resist oppression or to bear it
+with courage, and how, for a righteous cause, to brave everything,
+not only the persecutions of power--violence, prison, exile,--but
+the ruses of hypocrisy and the calumny of opposing opinion. The
+Port-Royalist nun combated and taught how to combat; she lacked
+humility, but possessed an abundance of courage which often bordered
+upon passion.
+
+One of the most pathetic and striking illustrations of the fervent
+devotion which was a characteristic product of Port-Royal, is supplied
+by Jacqueline Pascal, sister of the great Blaise Pascal. Young,
+_spirituelle_, very much sought after and the idol of brilliant
+companions, at the age of twenty-six she abandoned the world to devote
+herself to God. At thirty-six years of age she died of sorrow and
+remorse for having signed an equivocal formulary of Pope Alexander
+VI., "through pure deference to the authority of her superiors." The
+papal decision concerning Jansenius's book, already mentioned, was
+drawn up in a formula "turned with some skill, and in such a way
+that subscription did not bind the conscience; however, the nuns of
+Port-Royal refused to sign." Jacqueline Pascal wrote:
+
+"That which hinders us, what hinders all the ecclesiastics who
+recognize the truth from replying when the formulary is presented to
+them to subscribe is: I know the respect I owe the bishops, but my
+conscience does not permit me to subscribe that a thing is in a
+book in which I have not seen it--and after that, wait for what will
+happen. What have we to fear? Banishment and dispersion for the nuns,
+seizure of temporalities, imprisonment, and death if you will; but
+is not that our glory and should it not be our joy? Let us either
+renounce the Gospel or faithfully follow the maxims of that Gospel
+and deem ourselves happy to suffer somewhat for righteousness' sake.
+I know that it is not for daughters to defend the truth, though,
+unfortunately, one might say that since the bishops have the courage
+of daughters, the daughters must have the courage of bishops; but,
+if it is not for us to defend the truth, it is for us to die for the
+truth and to suffer everything rather than abandon it."
+
+She subscribed, "divided between her instinctive repugnance and her
+desire to show herself an humble daughter of the Catholic Church."
+She said: "It is all we can concede; for the rest, come what
+may,--poverty, dispersion, imprisonment, death,--all those seem to
+me nothing in comparison with the anguish in which I should pass the
+remainder of my life, if I had been wretch enough to make a covenant
+with death on the occasion of so excellent an opportunity for proving
+to God the sincerity of the vows of fidelity which our lips have
+pronounced." According to Mme. Perier, the health of the writer of the
+above epistle was so undermined by the shock which all that commotion
+had caused her, that she became dangerously ill, dying soon after.
+Thus was sacrificed the first victim of the formulary.
+
+Cousin says that few women of the seventeenth century were as
+brilliantly endowed as Jacqueline Pascal; possessing the finesse,
+energy, and sobriety of her brother, she was capable of the most
+serious work, and yet knew perfectly how to lead in a social circle.
+Also, she was most happily gifted with a talent for poetry, in
+relation to which her reputation was everywhere recognized; at
+the convent, she consulted her superiors as to the advisability of
+continuing her verse making; and upon being told that such occupation
+was not a means of winning the grace of Jesus Christ, she abandoned
+it.
+
+Cousin maintained that the avowed principle of the Port-Royalists was
+the withdrawal from all worldly pleasure and attachment. "'Marriage is
+a homicide; absolute renunciation is the true regime of a Christian.'
+Jacqueline Pascal is an exaggeration of Port-Royal, and Port-Royal is
+an exaggeration of the religious spirit of the seventeenth century.
+Man is too little considered; all movement of the physical world comes
+from God; all our acts and thoughts, except those of crime and error,
+come from and belong to Him. Nothing is our own; there is no free
+will; will and reason have no power. The theory of grace is the source
+of all truth, virtue, and merit--and for this doctrine Jacqueline
+Pascal gives up her life."
+
+Among the great spirits of Port-Royal, the women especially were
+strong in their convictions and high in their ideals. They naturally
+followed the ideas of man and naturally fell into religious errors;
+but their firmness, constancy, and heroism were striking indeed. Their
+aspiration was the imitation of Christ, and they approached their
+model as near as ever was done by man. In an age of courtesans, when
+convictions were subservient to the pleasure of power, they set a
+worthy example of strength of mind, firmness of will, purity, and
+womanliness. M. du Bled says:
+
+"Port-Royal was the enterprise of the middle-class aristocracy of
+France; you can see here an anticipated attempt of a sort of superior
+third estate to govern for itself in the Church and to establish a
+religion not Roman, not aristocratic and of the court, not devout
+in the manner of the simple people, but freer from vain images and
+ceremonies, and freer, also, as to the temporal in the face of worldly
+authority--a sober, austere, independent religion which would have
+truly founded a Gallican reform. The illusion was in thinking that
+they could continue to exist in Rome--that Richelieu and Louis XIV.
+would tolerate the boldness of this attempt."
+
+A celebrated woman of the seventeenth century, one who really belongs
+to the circle of Mme. de Longueville and Mme. de La Fayette, but who
+early in life, like Mme. de Longueville, devoted herself to religion
+and retired to live at Port-Royal, and is therefore more intimately
+associated with the religious movement, was Mme. de Sable, a type of
+the social-religious woman.
+
+Mme. de Sable is a heroine of Cousin, whom we closely follow in this
+account of her career. According to that writer, she is a type of the
+purely social woman, a woman who did less for herself than for others,
+in aiding whom she took delight, a woman who was the inspiration of
+many writers and many works.
+
+Mlle. de Souvre married the wealthy Marquis of Sable, of the house of
+Montmorency, of whom little is known. He soon abandoned her; and she,
+most unhappy over unworthy rivals, fell very ill, retired from society
+for a time, and then reappeared; her career as a society woman then
+began. At an early age, by force of her decided taste for the high
+form of Spanish gallantry, then so much in vogue, and her inclination
+to all things intellectual, she became one of the leaders of the
+Hotel de Rambouillet. She, Mmes. de Sevigne, de Longueville, and de La
+Fayette formed that circle of women who idealized friendship.
+
+Within a few years she lost her father, husband, two of her brothers,
+and her second son; and after putting her financial affairs into
+order, she and her friend, the Countess of Maure, took up their
+quarters at the famous Place Royale; there they decided to devote
+their lives to letters, and there assembled their friends, men and
+women, regardless of rank or party, personal merit being the only
+means of access. Mmes. de Sable and de Rambouillet were called the
+arbiters of elegance and good taste.
+
+To her friends, Mme. de Sable was always accommodating and showed no
+partiality; well informed, she was constantly approached for counsel
+and favors; discreet and trustworthy, the most important secrets were
+intrusted to her--a confidence which she never betrayed. During the
+Fronde she remained faithful to the queen and Mazarin, but did not
+become estranged from her friends, so many of whom were Frondists, and
+who chose her as their counsellor, arbitrator, and pacifier.
+
+About 1655 she began to realize her unsettled position in the world
+and to long for a place where she might, modestly and becomingly,
+spend her declining years. She was then fifty-five years of age. The
+ideas of Jansenism had so impressed the great people of the day, that
+she decided to retire to Port-Royal, to end her days with sympathizers
+of the spiritual life around her and her former friends whenever she
+desired them. There she gathered about her the most exclusive and
+aristocratic people of the day: La Rochefoucauld, the Prince and
+Princess of Conti, Conde, Monsieur,--brother of Louis XIV.,--Mme. de
+La Fayette, Mme. de Hautefort, and others.
+
+At her apartments, not only were religious and literary affairs
+discussed, but the most delicate and delicious dishes were prepared
+and elixirs and remedies for disease compounded. Famous people were
+led to seek her, through her reputation and influence, and through
+friendship, for she seldom left her house. Mme. de Sable possessed all
+the qualities that attract and hold, nothing extraordinary or rare,
+but abundant politeness and elegance.
+
+It was not long before she began to withdraw from even her friends,
+still continuing, however, her fine cuisine, the remarkable care
+of her health, and her medical experiments. Her dinners became
+celebrated, and invitations to them were much in demand; about them
+there were no signs of opulence, but her gatherings were distinguished
+for refinement and taste. Her friends were constantly asking her for
+her recipes, of the preparation of which no one but herself knew the
+secret.
+
+At the salon of Mme. de Sable originated many famous literary works,
+such as the _Conferences sur le Calvinisme_, works on Cartesian
+philosophy, the _Logique de Port-Royal_, _Questions sur l'Amour_, _Les
+Maximes_, etc. She will be remembered as the initiator of many maxims,
+in the composition of which she excelled. A number of her sayings
+concerning friendship have been preserved. Two treatises, in the
+form of maxims, on the education of children and on friendship,
+respectively, are supposed to have come from her pen; from them La
+Rochefoucauld conceived the ideas he utilized in his famous _Maxims_.
+
+La Rochefoucauld's maxims were composed according to the chance of
+conversation, which gave rise to various subjects and led to his
+serious reflection upon them. Cousin even goes so far as to say that
+the _Pensees_ of Pascal would never have been published in that
+form had not the _Maxims_ enjoyed such favor. Pascal often visited
+Port-Royal and naturally followed the general reflective tendency
+of its society. His _Discours sur les Passions de l'Amour_ possibly
+originated at the salon of Mme. de Sable, because the subject of which
+that work treated was one much discussed there. La Rochefoucauld was
+in the habit of sending his maxims to Mme. de Sable with the message:
+"As you do nothing for nothing, I ask of you a carrot soup or mutton
+stew."
+
+When La Rochefoucauld entered the society of Mme. de Sable, he had
+seen much of life, was familiar with most of the adventures and
+intrigues of the Fronde and the society of the time; he himself had
+acted his part in all, and at the age of fifty was ready to put his
+experience into a permanent form of reflection. His _Maxims_ created
+a stir, through the clearness and elegance of their character, their
+fine analyses of man as he was in the seventeenth century, and through
+their truthfulness and general applicability to men of every country.
+From all the illustrious women of the day, either he or Mme. de
+Sable received letters of criticism or suggestion--eulogies and
+condemnations of which he took notice in his next edition. This
+shows the intense interest felt in the appearance of any new literary
+production.
+
+Cousin says that the whole literature of maxims and reflections issued
+directly from the salon of a kind and good woman who had retired to a
+convent with no other desire than to live over her life, to recall
+her past and what she had seen and felt therein; and upon her society,
+that woman impressed her own tastes, elegance, and seriousness. Her
+great act of benevolence was her protection of Port-Royal. When, after
+the death in 1661 of Mother Angelique Arnauld, that institution became
+the object of persecution and its tenants were either imprisoned or
+compelled to seek refuge in the various families of Paris, Mme. de
+Sable remained faithful to its principles; she lived with her friends,
+Mme. de Longueville and Mme. de Montausier, until 1669, when, with the
+cooeperation of Mme. de Longueville, who exerted all her influence for
+Port-Royal, she finally succeeded in bringing about its reopening. At
+least, Cousin ascribes this result to Mme. de Sable, but he may have
+somewhat exaggerated her influence in this respect. From her retreat
+at Port-Royal, she kept up a constant correspondence with her friends
+all over France; she lived there until 1678, with but one intimate
+friend, Mme. de Longueville.
+
+Mme. de Sable had remarkable gifts; her mission in politics, religion,
+and literature seems to have been to excite to action, to stimulate
+and to bring out to its fullest value, the talents and genius of
+others. In her modest salon, she inspired the great and illustrious
+work which will keep her memory alive as long as the _Maxims_ and
+_Pensees_ are read. Her name will be connected with that of Mme.
+de Longueville, because of their ideal friendship, and with that of
+Port-Royal because of her ardent and self-sacrificing support of it
+in the time of its direst persecution, when any exhibition of sympathy
+was dangerous in the extreme; and finally, her name will always be
+connected with that small circle of French society of the seventeenth
+century, which was noble, moral, and elevating to an unusual degree.
+
+Somewhat later in the century a different movement was started by a
+woman, which involved many of the highest in rank at court. This took
+the form of a kind of mystical enthusiasm, running into a theory of
+pure love, and was instigated by Mme. Guyon, a widow, still young, and
+gifted with a lofty and subtile mind. After losing her husband, whom
+she had converted to her religious views, she went, in 1680, to Paris
+to educate her children. Becoming interested in religion, she went
+to Geneva, where she became very intimate with a priest who was
+her spiritual director, and whom she soon wholly subjected to her
+influence. On account of their views on sanctification, they were
+ordered to leave.
+
+After travelling over Europe for a number of years, and writing
+several works, including _Spiritual Torrents_ and _Short and Easy
+Method of Making Orison with the Heart_, the widow returned to Paris,
+with the intention of living in retirement; but so many persons of all
+ranks sought her out, that she organized, for ladies of rank, meetings
+for purposes of prayer and religious conversation. The Duchess of
+Beauvilliers, the Duchess of Bethune, the Countess of Guiche, the
+Countess of Chevreuse, and many others, with their husbands, became
+her devoted adherents.
+
+According to Mme. Guyon, prayer should lose the character of
+supplication, and become simply the silence of a soul absorbed in God.
+"Why are not simple folks so taught? Shepherds, keeping their flocks,
+would have the spirit of the old anchorites; and laborers, whilst
+driving the plow, would talk happily with God. In a little while, vice
+would be banished and the kingdom of God would be realized on earth."
+Thus, her doctrine was directly opposite to the theories of the
+Jansenists.
+
+At that time, 1687 to 1688, all religious movements, however quiet,
+were condemned at Rome; and the teachings of Mme. Guyon were found to
+differ very little from those of the Spanish priest Molinas. The first
+arrest, that of her friend Lacombe, was soon followed by that of
+Mme. Guyon herself, by royal order; she was released through the
+intercession of Mme. de Maintenon, who was fascinated by her to the
+extent of permitting her to teach her doctrines at Saint-Cyr, Upon the
+appearance of her _Method of Prayer_, an examination was instituted
+by Bossuet and Fenelon, who marked out a few passages as erroneous--a
+procedure to which she submitted. However, Bossuet himself wrote a
+treatise against her _Method of Prayer_, in which he cast reflections
+upon her character and conduct; to that work Fenelon refused to
+subscribe, which antagonistic proceeding brought on the great quarrel
+between those two absolute ecclesiasts. In fact, Fenelon became imbued
+with the doctrines of Mme. Guyon.
+
+She was imprisoned at various times; and when a letter was received
+from Lacombe, who had been imprisoned at Vincennes for a long time,
+exhorting her to repent of their criminal intimacy, Mme. Guyon's cause
+was hopeless. She was sent to the Bastille, her son was dismissed
+from the army, and many of her friends were banished. In 1702 she was
+released from prison and banished to Diziers; she passed the remainder
+of her life in complete retirement at Blois.
+
+Fenelon had written a treatise, _Maxims of the Saints_, which was
+said to favor Mme. Guyon's doctrines, and which was sent to Rome for
+examination. He defined her doctrine of divine love in the following
+maxim, which was condemned at Rome:
+
+"There is an habitual state of love of God, which is pure charity
+without any taint of the motive of self-interest. Neither fear of
+punishment nor desire of reward has, any longer, part in this love;
+God is loved, not for the merit, but for the happiness to be found in
+loving Him."
+
+Such a doctrine made repentance unnecessary, destroyed all effort to
+withstand evil, and did not acknowledge the need of a Redeemer. This
+the great Bossuet foresaw; consequently, he, as the supreme religious
+potentate of his inferior in rank, Fenelon, demanded the condemnation
+by the latter of the works of Mme. Guyon. The refusal cost Fenelon
+exile for life. To Mme. de Maintenon he wrote a letter which shows the
+sincerity of his devotion to a friend in disgrace, even though his own
+reputation was thereby endangered:
+
+"So it is to secure my own reputation that I am wanted to subscribe
+that a lady--my friend--would plainly deserve to be burned, with all
+her writings, for an execrable form of spirituality which is the only
+bond of our friendship. I tell you, madame, I would burn my friend
+with my own hands, and I would burn myself joyfully, rather than
+let the Church be imperilled; but here is a poor, captive woman,
+overwhelmed with sorrows; there is none to defend her, none to excuse
+her; all are afraid to do so. I maintain that this stroke of the pen,
+given from a cowardly policy and against my conscience, would render
+me forever infamous and unworthy of my ministry and my position."
+
+Thus, in the seventeenth century, religious agitations and religious
+reform were the work preeminently of women; but that reform and those
+agitations were productive of good results to a far greater degree
+than was any similar movement in any other century, with the possible
+exception of the nineteenth. The seventeenth century was, as mentioned
+before, a century of stability, one that toned down and crushed all
+violations and abuses of the standard established by authority. Woman,
+in her constant striving for the complete emancipation and gradual
+purification of her sex, rebelled against the power of established
+authority; she did not consciously or intentionally violate law and
+order, but in her intense desire to act for good as she saw it, and
+in her noble efforts to ameliorate all undesirable conditions, she
+created commotion and confusion. The seventeenth-century woman is
+conspicuous as a champion of religion, moral purity, and social
+reform; therefore, her influence was mainly social, religious, moral,
+and literary, while that of the woman of the sixteenth century was
+mainly political. This difference was the result of the greater
+advantages of education and training enjoyed by the females of the
+later period.
+
+In the beginning of the seventeenth century, young girls were granted
+greater privileges and received more attention from men and society
+than did their predecessors; they thus had more opportunities for
+mental development, more occasion to become aware of the temptations
+and injustices of life, without falling prey to them. Such young girls
+as Julie d'Angennes, Mlle. d'Arquenay, and Mlle. de Pisani, took
+part in the balls, fetes, garden parties, and all amusements in which
+society indulged. They met young men of their own age and became
+intimately acquainted with them, morals were purer, marriages of
+affection were much more frequent, and the state of married life was
+much more congenial, than in any other century. Young men paid
+court to the older ladies, to refine their manners and sharpen their
+intellects, but not for any immoral purpose. To a certain extent
+women were more world-wise when they reached the marriageable age, and
+inspired respect and admiration rather than passion and desire as in
+the next century.
+
+Young girls of the seventeenth century were early placed in a convent,
+and when they left it they were ready for marriage; in the meantime,
+they frequently visited home and associated with their parents and
+brothers; at the convents intellectual intercourse with people of high
+rank and men of letters was encouraged. Yet the discipline at those
+institutions was very rigid, the boarders being more carefully watched
+then than later on; two nuns always accompanied them on their walks,
+and when not busy with their studies, to prevent the mind from
+wandering, they were kept busy with their hands; "the transports of
+the soul of the young girl, as every reflection of the intelligence,
+are watched and held in check, every one of her inclinations opposed,
+all originality suppressed."
+
+At first the convents were reproached for stifling all culture and
+development and applying only correction and mortification of the
+flesh. Mme. de Maintenon opposed such a state of affairs, but her
+methods discouraged true independence. The happiness of her charges
+was her one aim, but they had no voice in the matter. When of
+marriageable age, they were given a trousseau and a husband; however,
+they were taught to be reasonable.
+
+In that century, the young girl, mixing more generally in society,
+received greater consideration--hence, she became more active and
+conspicuous. It will be seen that the role played by the eighteenth
+century woman was not so much played by the young woman as it was
+by the woman of mature years, of the mother, the counsellor--the
+indispensable element of society. There were three classes of
+women--young women, mature women who sought consideration, and old
+women who received respect and deference, and who, as arbiters of
+culture, upheld the principles already established.
+
+A young man making his debut had to find favor with one of those
+classes which decided his future reputation and the extent of his
+favor at court, and assigned him his place and grade, upon which
+depended his marriage. All education was directed to the one
+end--social success. The duty of the tutor charged with the
+instruction of a young son was to give a well-rounded, general
+education; by the mother, he was taught politeness, grace,
+amiability--a part of his training to which more importance was
+attached than to the intellectual portion. Whenever a young man was
+guilty of misconduct toward a woman, his mother was notified of
+the occurrence, on the same evening, and he promptly received his
+reprimand. This spirit naturally fostered that rare politeness,
+exquisite taste and tact in conversation, in which the eighteenth
+century excels.
+
+But where did the young girls receive the education which gave them
+such prestige--that consummate art of conversation exemplified in
+Mme. de Boufflers, Mme. de Luxembourg, Mme. de Sabran, the Duchess
+of Choiseul, the Princess of Beauvau, the Countess of Segur? The sons
+were educated in the usages of the _bonne compagnie_ by the mothers,
+but the daughters did not enjoy that attention, for, at the age of
+five or six years, they were sent to the convent; there the mother's
+influence could not have reached them, and they never left the convent
+except to marry. The middle class imitated the higher class, and
+family life became practically impossible. All men of any importance
+had a charge at court or a grade in the army, and lived away from
+their families. A large number of women were attached to the queen,
+spending the greater part of their time at Versailles; the little time
+passed at their homes was entirely occupied in preparation for the
+evening _causeries_ at the salons, in reading new books, acquiring
+information upon current events, and in superintending the making of
+the many necessary and always elaborate gowns; as M. Perey so well
+says, "as the toilettes and hairdressing took up the greater part
+of the morning, they devoted the time used by the _coiffeur_, in
+constructing complicated edifices that crushed down the heads of
+women, to the reading of new books."
+
+Nearly every large establishment kept open house, dining from twenty
+to thirty persons every day. They dined at one, separated at three,
+were at the theatre at five, and returned with as many friends as
+possible--the more, the greater the reputation for hospitality and
+popularity. Under such circumstances, the mother had no time for the
+daughters, nor were the conversations at those dinners food for
+young, innocent girls--and innocence was the first requirement of a
+marriageable young woman.
+
+The great convents were the Abbaye-aux-Bois and Penthemont, where the
+daughters of the wealthiest and highest families were educated. In
+those convents or seminaries, strange to say, the young girls were
+taught the most practical domestic duties, as well as dancing, music,
+painting, etc. Such teachers as Mole and Larrive gave instruction in
+declamation and reading, and Noverre and Dauberval in dancing; the
+teaching nuns were all from the best families. The most complete
+costumes, scenic decorations, and other equipments of a complete
+theatre were supplied, special hours being set aside for the play.
+However, much intriguing went on there, and many friendships and
+lifelong enmities were formed, which later led to serious troubles.
+
+Often, from the midst of a group of young girls of from ten to fifteen
+years of age, one would be notified of her coming marriage with a man
+she had never seen, and whom, in all probability, she could not
+love, having given her heart to another. If it turned out to be an
+uncongenial marriage, a separate life would be the result, and, while
+still absolutely ignorant of the world, those young married women
+would fall prey to the charms of young gallants or men of quality, and
+a liaison would follow.
+
+The difference between a liaison of the seventeenth century and one
+of the eighteenth led to one essential difference in the standards
+of social and moral etiquette; in the former period, a liaison meant
+nothing more censurable than an intimate friendship, a purely platonic
+love; the lover simply paid homage to the lady of his choice; it was
+an attraction of common intellectual interests and usually lasted for
+life; in the eighteenth century, a liaison was essentially immoral,
+rarely a union of interests, but rather one of passions and physical
+propensities. Such relations developed and fostered deceit, intrigues,
+infidelity, and rivalry, one woman endeavoring to allure the lover of
+another; affairs of that nature were the chief topic of conversation
+in social circles, and were soon reflected in every phase of the
+intelligent world. This will be seen in the study of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VIII
+
+Salon Leaders Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, Mme. du Chatelet
+
+
+In studying the vast numbers of salons of the eighteenth century,
+three types are discernible, each of which was prominent and in full
+sway throughout the century up to the Revolution. To the first class
+belong the great literary and philosophical salons which, though not
+political in nature, finally changed politics; such were the
+circles of Mme. de Tencin, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis; with these
+every literary student is familiar. The second class includes the
+smaller and less important literary, philosophical, and social
+salons--those of Mme. de Marchais, Mme. de Persan, Mme. de Villars,
+Mme. de Vaines, and of D'Alembert, D'Holbach, Helvetius. The third
+class is of a social nature exclusively, good breeding and good tone
+being the essentials; its conspicuous features were the dinners
+and suppers of Suard, Saurin, the Abbes Raynal and Morellet, of the
+Palais-Royal of Mme. de Blot, of the Temple of the Prince of Conti,
+those of Mme. de Beauvau, Mme. de Gramont, M. de La Popeliniere, and
+others.
+
+The distinctions thus made will not hold throughout, but they
+facilitate the presentation of a subject that is exceedingly
+complicated. It may almost be said that each generation of the
+eighteenth century had a salon with a different physiognomy; those
+of 1710, 1730, 1760, and 1780 were all inspired by different motives,
+causes, and events, and were all led by women of different histories
+and aspirations, whose common idol was man, but whose ideas of what
+constituted a hero were as widely different as was the constitution of
+society in the respective periods. Not until the middle of the reign
+of Louis XIV. did social life become detached from Versailles, and,
+spreading out and circulating in a thousand hotels, showed itself in
+all its force, splendor, and elegance. The celebrated women of the
+regency--Mme. de Prie, Mme. de Parabere, Mme. de Sabran--had no salon,
+while those of the Marquis d'Alluys and the Hotels de Sully, de Duras,
+de Villars, and the suppers of Mme. de Chauvelin were of a distinctly
+different type from those of the earlier and the later periods.
+
+In a certain sense, the salons changed the complexion of the age. The
+eighteenth century itself was friendly and generous; it was, also,
+impatient and inexperienced, seeing things not as they were but as it
+wished them to be, compelling science and art to serve its purpose.
+It was frank, often brutally frank, a characteristic due partly to the
+conversational license of the salons. With its Fontenelle, Voltaire,
+Piron, etc., it was indeed a happy century. A _bon mot_ was the event
+of the day and travelled over all the civilized world.
+
+Feeling keenly the need of a guiding principle, the need of a more
+substantial foundation in education, the women of the century thought
+and wrote much on that subject; such was, for the most part, the work
+of the great salons, but in them the philosophical tenets of the
+age were also discussed. The spirit of criticism thus created and
+cultivated, which finally spread through all classes of society,
+gradually conquered the new power in the state--public opinion which,
+at the end of the century, ruled supreme in all its strength and
+vehemence, defying every effort of the government to stifle it. The
+highest form of agreeable and intellectual society which the world has
+ever seen attained to its most complete development in these salons.
+
+Every century has had its specialty: the twelfth had its crusades, the
+sixteenth its religious struggles, the seventeenth its grand _gout_,
+the eighteenth its conversation and love of reason, the nineteenth
+its political struggles; and each one displayed the French passion for
+_esprit_; the eighteenth, however, was, _par excellence_, the century
+of _esprit_, and it was most remarkably developed in woman.
+
+"Such astonishingly loquacious people as lived in Paris in the
+eighteenth century! ineffective, sardonic, verbose, sociable,
+intellectual, elegant, immoral--grand gentlemen and ladies, with tears
+for mimic woes and none for actual ones, praise for wit, rewards
+for cleverness, and absolute ignorance of the destinies they were
+preparing for themselves;" such is the story of women and society of
+the eighteenth century. Among these women the salon leaders will be
+found the most attractive, and the most influential in literature,
+theory of government, and social and moral development; to the
+mistresses belongs the title of "politicians."
+
+_La Menagerie de Mme. de Tencin_ was one of the earliest of the
+eighteenth-century salons, although, in the strict sense of the word,
+Mme. de Tencin's salon was of a political rather than a literary
+nature. Successively nun, mistress, mother, she was one of the
+shrewdest women of the century. Born in 1681, she early became a nun;
+but such was the character of her life at the convent that it was not
+long before she became a mother. In 1714 she abandoned her conventual
+life and went to Paris, where she rose to influence as the mistress of
+Cardinal Dubois and of the regent, the Duke of Orleans. At Paris her
+real activity began; she arrived at that gay capital with no other
+collateral than a pretty face and an extraordinary cunning, which
+soon brought her a fortune. Fertile in resources of all kinds, she
+succeeded immediately, and gained for her nephew the cardinal's hat.
+In 1717 was born to her the afterward famous d'Alembert, whom she left
+upon the steps of the church Saint-Jean-le-Rond; afterward, when he
+had become eminent and her power was waning, she unsuccessfully used
+every means at her command to gain his favor and recognition; the
+father of that child was the Chevalier Destouches.
+
+About 1726, when lovers were numerous and friends plentiful, the death
+of Lafresnaye occurred at her salon. In his testament he stated that
+his death was caused by Mme. de Tencin; however, she was too shrewd,
+cunning, and careful to be guilty of permitting any weak points to
+appear in her plots, and it was not difficult for her to clear herself
+of that charge by the verdict of the judges, who considered the
+accusation a posthumous vengeance.
+
+The great literary men whom Mme. de Tencin gathered about her,
+Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Mairan, Marivaux, Helvetius, Marmontel, were
+called her menagerie, or her _betes_. Among them, Marivaux received
+a pension of one thousand ecus from her, besides drawing at will upon
+the exchequer of an old maid by the name of Saint-Jean. Marmontel,
+desirous of writing tragedies, took lessons from the famous Mlle.
+Clairon--at his friend's expense. To give a correct idea of the
+character of woman's influence upon the literary style of that
+century, the words of Marmontel may be quoted: "He who wishes to write
+with precision, energy, and vigor, may live with man only; but he who
+in his style wishes to have subtleness, amenity, charm, flexibility,
+will do well, I think, to live with woman."
+
+Mme. de Tencin exerted an immense influence upon the men of her
+circle, especially socially; for example, she married the wealthy M.
+de La Popeliniere to Mlle. Dancourt. She was one of the few really
+consummate diplomats; later on, she became less associated with
+intrigues, and gave lessons in current diplomacy, with which she was
+perfectly familiar. Her counsel to her pupils was to gain friends
+among women rather than among men. "For," she would say, "we do
+whatever we wish with men; they are so dissipated, or so preoccupied
+with their personal interests, that to give attention to them would be
+to neglect your own interests."
+
+Every New Year's Day the _betes_ of her menagerie received two yards
+of velvet, to make knickerbockers to be worn at her receptions; this
+custom was observed up to the last year of the existence of her salon.
+Her receptions were among the first of the kind in France. Like the
+majority of salon leaders, she was an authoress of no mean ability.
+Her novels were widely read at the time--_Le Siege de Calais_ and _Les
+Malheurs de l'Amour_. Her memoirs, throwing light upon the intrigues
+and plots, social animosities, and general state of the society of the
+time, are historically valuable. She died in Paris, in 1749.
+
+Among all the great salons, that of Mme. de Tencin was the only one in
+which gambling was indulged in on a wholesale scale; fortunes changed
+hands every evening, a large part of the gains always falling to
+the lot of the hostess, as a sort of "rake off." She herself was a
+professional at the business, and by receiving private
+information from headquarters, through her famous friend Law, the
+_controleur-general_, and her lover Dubois, she was able to acquire
+an immense fortune which she distributed freely among her friends and
+favorites. Her place among the literary salon leaders depends mainly
+upon her endeavors to advance the interests of the aspiring young
+authors who were willing to place themselves under her protection.
+
+After the death of Mme. de Tencin and that of Mme. de Chatelet, who
+had received many of the celebrities of the time, there remained but
+two distinguished, purely literary and philosophical salons open in
+Paris. By right of precedence, the _betes_ should have gone over to
+the salon of Mme. du Deffand, as she had been established some years
+when Mme. Geoffrin began to receive at her residence, which gained
+its first renown through the exquisite dinners served there. But the
+_betes_ all flocked to the _salon bourgeois_, and consequently a more
+brilliant gathering never assembled in a salon; here sat, enjoying
+the liberal hospitalities, Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Mairan, Marmontel,
+Helvetius, Diderot, D'Alembert, Thomas, D'Holbach, Hume, Morellet,
+Mlle. de Lespinasse, the Marquis de Duras, Comtesses d'Egmont and de
+Brionne. Here, conversation--which, in the eighteenth century, was not
+only a discussion or a dissertation, but an art--reached its highest
+development; the members did not need to be eloquent, to expatiate
+upon some theory or science; the conversation moved about the members,
+and they had to be a part of it.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was born in Paris in 1699, and was the daughter of M.
+Rodet, _valet de chambre_ of the dauphiness, Duchesse de Bourgogne,
+mother of Louis XV. When barely fifteen she was married to the wealthy
+M. Geoffrin, the so-called founder of the celebrated _Manufacture
+des Glaces de Gobelins_. Through his wealth and his associations with
+people of nobility who bought his ware, she was soon encouraged in
+her desire to entertain the nobility; and her _esprit_, tact,
+intelligence, and admirable taste in dress were all effective in
+bringing about the desired results.
+
+Her career was one of continual successes. When she opened her salon,
+in 1741, she instituted the custom of receiving her friends at table,
+not only men of letters, but artists, architects, builders, painters,
+sculptors, all men of genius and prominence. Monday was the day
+reserved for artists exclusively; Marmontel, who lived with Mme.
+Geoffrin for ten years "as her tenant," and the indispensable Abbe
+Morellet were the exceptions who might be present upon that day. From
+the very beginning she formed the habit of permitting conversation
+to go just so far, then cutting it off with her famous: _Voil qui est
+bien!_
+
+Her husband was the _maitre d'hotel_, of whom many interesting
+anecdotes are told; the best and one that illustrates well the
+appreciation of individuals in those days is the following, which is
+so admirably told by Lady Jackson that we quote from her: "For some
+years, there sat at the bottom of Mme. Geoffrin's dinner and supper
+table a dignified-looking, white-haired old gentleman, bland in
+manner, but very modest and retiring, speaking only when spoken to,
+but looking very happy when the guests seemed to enjoy the good cheer
+set before them. When, at last, his customary place became vacant, and
+some brilliant butterfly of madame's circle of _visiteurs flottants_,
+who, perhaps, had smiled patronizingly upon the silent old gentleman,
+becoming aware of his absence, would, perchance, carelessly inquire
+what had become of her constant dinner guest, madame would reply:
+_Mais, c'etait mon mari. Helas! il est mort, le bon homme._ [Why, that
+was my husband! alas, he is dead, poor man!] Just so little was the
+consideration shown this worthy creature in his own house! Yet it both
+pleased and amused him to sit there silently and gaze at the throng
+of rank, fashion, and learning, assembled in his wife's salon, and to
+witness her social success."
+
+After the death of Mme. Geoffrin's husband, the immense fortune passed
+under her own management, whereupon began her real career as a social
+arbitress, during which she is said to have tempered both opinions
+and characters. Thomas said of her that "she was, in morals, like that
+divinity of the ancients which maintained or reestablished limits."
+She was a great patroness of arts and her rooms were decorated with
+pictures by Vanloo, Greuze, Vernet, Robert, etc. She and her salon
+became, in time, the acknowledged judge and dictator of matters
+literary and artistic. Whenever a financier wished to purchase a
+certain work of art, it was taken to her Monday dinner, where the
+artists determined its artistic value and fixed the price. Her house
+was a real museum; there the precious Mariette collection was on
+permanent exhibition.
+
+Besides her Monday dinners to artists and her Wednesday dinners to the
+literary world, she gave private luncheons to a select few who were
+especially congenial. At those functions, such celebrities as the
+Comtesses d'Egmont and de Brionne, the Marquise de Duras, and the
+Prince de Rohan were frequent guests.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was shrewd and tactful enough to avoid politics and not
+to permit discussions of a political nature at her salon--precautions
+which she observed to keep the government from interfering with her
+fortune and mode of living. Her salon and dinners became so famous
+that every foreigner going to Paris had the ambition to be received at
+Mme. Geoffrin's; when any aspirant was successful in this, she would
+say to her friends: _Soyons aimables_ [Let us be kind]. She spent
+freely of her immense fortune constantly seeking and aiding the poor.
+Persons who refused to accept her charity found little favor with her;
+Rousseau was one of these. It was her habit to go frequently to see
+friends, merely to ascertain their wants and to satisfy them. The Abbe
+Morellet, Thomas, D'Alembert, and Mlle. de Lespinasse (the only lady
+admitted to her Wednesdays) were given liberal pensions. Upon each
+New Year's Day, in commemoration of Mme. de Tencin, she sent each
+Wednesday guest a velvet cap. Her motto was: _Donner et pardonner_
+[Give and forgive].
+
+Stanislas, King of Poland, her _protege_, whom she had rescued from
+the debtor's prison in Paris, and to whom she had shown many favors,
+upon being elected King of Poland in 1764, said to her: _Maman, votre
+fils est roi_ [Mamma, your son is king]. Two years later, when she
+paid him a visit, the leading members of the Polish nobility met her
+on the road, and the king had a special residence prepared for her.
+As she passed through Vienna, Joseph II. received her, and the Empress
+Maria entertained her at dinner. Upon her return to Paris, after this
+triumphal tour through Europe, the members of the world of literature
+and art, and even the ministers and the nobility, flocked to see her;
+this demonstration was the more remarkable from the fact that she
+wielded no political influence, her only desire and pleasure seeming
+to lie in aiding her friends.
+
+Mme. Geoffrin was too practical and had too much good common sense to
+be vain. The majority of men were influenced by and favored her, and,
+which seemed strange, she had few enemies among her own sex. Mme.
+Necker said: "The old age of Mme. Geoffrin is like that of old trees,
+whose age we know by the space they cover and the quantity of roots
+they spread. She has seen all the illustrious men of the century; she
+has discovered, with sagacity, their peculiarities and their defects.
+She judges them by their conduct, never by their talents."
+
+In her best years, she was intimately associated with the
+Encyclopaedists, to whom she paid over one hundred thousand francs for
+the publication of their work. Of all the great women of that century,
+she was the closest friend of the philosophers and free-thinkers,
+being called _La Fontenelle des Femmes_. She was always ready with
+an answer; one day a friend pointed out to her the house of the
+farmer-general Bouvet, and asked her: "Have you ever seen anything as
+magnificent and in better taste?" She replied: "I would have nothing
+to say if Bouvet were the _frotteur_ [floor polisher] of it."
+
+Mme. Geoffrin, more than any other woman of the salons, possessed the
+three essential qualifications of a salon leader,--good sense,
+tact, and intelligence. She had also _esprit_, perfect simplicity,
+precision, and faultless taste; though a sceptic, she was a diplomat
+who perfectly understood the art of manoeuvring. In short, Mme.
+Geoffrin was an intellectual authority, a sort of minister to society,
+and her salon was the great centre and rendezvous, a veritable
+institution of the eighteenth century. This seems the more remarkable
+when we consider that she belonged to the bourgeoisie, and that
+by dint of her exquisite tact, her almost infallible judgment, her
+admirable taste in dress, and her keen intelligence, she created for
+herself a position which was the envy of all Europe. Such women are
+rare. During the last eighteen months of her life, though suffering
+from paralysis and rheumatism, which she contracted at a religious
+fete at Notre-Dame, she was unremitting in her attention to her
+friends and the poor; and up to her death, in 1777, her friends were
+faithful to her.
+
+That spirit, or malady, which penetrated and ruled almost every
+creature in the eighteenth century found its most notable victim in
+Marie de Vichy-Chamrond--Mme. du Deffand. She, so to speak, yawned
+out her life in a blase society without faith or ideal. That horrible
+affliction, with all its painful symptoms, ennui, whose origin was
+seen to lie in an excess and abuse of _esprit_ in a society that
+based all its pleasures and happiness upon the mind without any higher
+interest than the self, infected a whole century with an "irremediable
+disenchantment of others and one's self." This self-cult, or life
+in and for the mind, developed sagacity, justness of views, and an
+incomparable penetration, but it neglected all the elements necessary
+to contentment and those other pleasures, of which the first is love
+for one's fellow beings. Mme. du Deffand exemplified this stage
+of mental unbalance; and when she wrote of her former friend and
+companion: "Mlle. de Lespinasse died to-day at two o'clock; formerly,
+that would have been an event for me; to-day, it is nothing at all,"
+she gave an idea of the indifference which was characteristic of the
+society of the time--an indifference which developed into an incurable
+malady and an all-consuming egoism, stifling the heart-beat of that
+world which was weary of everything and yet was unwilling to close its
+eyes.
+
+Marie de Vichy-Chamrond was born in 1697, of a noble family. She began
+the same manner of life as that followed by most French women, being
+reared in the Convent of Madeleine de Frenel, where, when quite young,
+she evinced a strong spirit of impiety, giving expression to the most
+sceptical opinions upon religious subjects, to the great dismay of
+her superiors and parents. At the age of twenty she was married to the
+Marquis du Deffand, who had but his brevet of colonel of a regiment of
+dragoons, and whose intelligence and fortune were of a _nullite rare_.
+However, her marriage was a sort of emancipation which enabled her to
+enter society; and it is asserted that she soon became the mistress of
+Philippe of Orleans, the regent, from whom she received six thousand
+francs life income.
+
+As the result of a disagreement, she separated from her husband, and
+then began a life of pleasure among the gayest of the most fashionable
+world, where, through the power of her brilliancy, wit, charm, and
+fascinating beauty, she immediately became a leader. After passing
+through all the phases of social life and its varied experiences--from
+the society of Mme. de Prie, the type of the dissolute woman of
+the Regency, from the famous suppers of the regent, whose ingenious
+inventions of lewd and wanton pleasures made him notorious, from an
+association with the intriguing Duchesse de Maine, to all the great
+and influential social centres of Paris--in short, after pursuing
+a career of fashionable dissipation, she became reconciled to her
+husband, and lived with him in peace and happiness for a short time;
+but six months of regular life affected her behavior toward the poor
+marquis to such a degree that he thought it best to leave her. After
+that episode, she returned to her lover; and, rejected by him and her
+friends, and becoming the subject of the gossip of the entire city,
+she sought consolation from one acquaintance after another, and was
+miserable all the time.
+
+At the age of about thirty-four, Mme. du Deffand returned to a kind
+of regular life, and, in time, won a reputation for _esprit_, regained
+her honorable friends and established for herself a kind of accepted
+authority. Thus, when she opened a salon in 1742, she was able to
+attract a brilliant company, which became famous after 1749, when she
+took apartments in the Convent Saint-Joseph. Here wit and polished
+manners, taste, vivacity, and good sense were the requisites;
+literature, politics, and philosophy were not tolerated, but
+"sparkling _bons mots_, glancing epigrams, witty verses, were the
+avenues to social success."
+
+Until her dotage this woman, who, from a natural selfishness and lack
+of sympathy, was incapable of loving with the characteristic ardor
+of the women of her time, by knowing how to inspire love in others,
+controlled and held near her the famous men and women of her age.
+When she began to realize the calamity of her failing sight, which was
+probably due to her general state of restlessness and the resultant
+physical decay, she received, as companion, a relative, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse, who undertook the most difficult, disagreeable, and
+ungrateful task of waiting on the marquise. As Mme. du Deffand arose
+in time to receive at six, mademoiselle soon announced to the friends
+that she herself would be visible at an earlier hour. Thus, it
+happened that Marmontel, Turgot, Condorcet, and d'Alembert regularly
+assembled in mademoiselle's room--a proceeding which soon led to a
+rupture between the two women and a breach between Mme. du Deffand
+and d'Alembert. The marquise was therefore left alone, blind, but too
+proud to tolerate pity, yet by her conversation retaining her power
+of fascination. It was about this time that Horace Walpole became
+connected with her life. Upon the death of Mme. Geoffrin, she, hearing
+of the imposing ceremonies and funeral orations, exclaimed: _Voila
+bien du bruit pour une omelette au lard_. [A great ado about a lard
+omelet!] Her latter years were dragged out most miserably, being
+marked by a singular feverishness and unavailing efforts toward the
+acceptance of some faith. Her death, in 1780, finally brought her
+relief.
+
+The career of Mme. du Deffand actually began as early as 1730, when
+she opened her establishment on the Rue de Beaune, at the time that
+she became attached to the president Henault, who presided over her
+salon for more than thirty years. The famous salon Du Deffand at the
+Convent Saint-Joseph was not opened until 1749; there she was very
+particular as to those whom she received, and access to her salon
+was a matter of difficulty. Grimm was never received, and Diderot
+was present but once. The conversation was always intellectual, and
+whenever she tired of French vivacity, she would spend an evening with
+Mme. Necker.
+
+A letter of Walpole to Montagu leaves, on the whole, a splendid
+picture of her: "I have heard her dispute with all sorts of people,
+upon all sorts of subjects, and never knew her to be in the wrong.
+She humbles the learned, sets right their disciples, and finds
+conversation for everybody. As affectionate as Mme. de Sevigne, she
+has none of her prejudices, but a more universal taste; and with the
+most delicate frame, her spirits hurry her through a life of fatigue
+that would kill me were I to remain here."
+
+The simple furnishings of her apartments, which were very spacious
+and had been occupied by the famous Mme. de Montespan, stood out in
+striking contrast to the elegance of her visitors. Here she gathered
+about her her two lovers, _le President_ Henault and Pont de Veyle,
+besides D'Alembert, Turgot, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Necker, Walpole,
+the Abbes Barthelemy and Pernetty, the Chevalier de Lisle, de Formant,
+_le Docteur_ Gatti, Hume, Gibbon, Baron de Gleichen, and many other
+celebrities, including the Princesses de Beauvau, de Poix, de Talmont,
+the Duchesses de Choiseul, d'Aiguillon, de Gramont, the Marechale de
+Luxembourg, the Marquises de Boufflers and du Chatelet, the Comtesses
+de Rochefort, de Broglie, de Forcalquier, Mme. Necker, Lady Pembroke,
+De Lauzun, and many others, all of whom were society leaders. Whenever
+Mme. du Deffand had a special supper, it was said that Paris was at
+Mme. du Deffand's.
+
+Her salon, above all others, was the centre of cosmopolitanism,
+where all great men, foreigners and natives, found means of social
+intercourse, and where, more than in any other salon, were assembled
+the great beauties of the day, represented especially by the
+Countesses de Forcalquier and Choiseul-Beaupre, Duchesse de La
+Valliere. Gallantry and beauty were found in the Marechale de
+Luxembourg and the Comtesse de Boufflers. The philosophical movement
+of the Encyclopaedists and Economists was not encouraged at all.
+Thus, in Mme. du Deffand's salon, we find neither pure philosophy nor
+religion, nor the air of pedants and _declamateurs_; it was a royalist
+salon without illusion, hence indifferent to all questions. It
+represented the perfect type of the French model of _esprit de
+finesse_,--that is, precision,--and its leader possessed a keen
+insight into human character.
+
+This wonderful woman, who, during a period of over forty years, had
+held at her feet the elite of the French world, at the age of
+about threescore and ten, fell desperately in love with a man of
+fifty--Horace Walpole. She who had never loved with her heart, but
+only with her mind, then declared it better to be dead than not to
+love someone. Although her actions and letters were pitiful in
+the extreme, her epistles are invaluable for their incomparable
+portraitures and keen reflections upon persons and events of the time.
+She attracted Walpole by the possibilities that were opened up to
+him by her position in society, and by her brilliant conversation,
+in which she scoffed at the clergy and the philosophers, showing a
+profound insight into human nature and the society of the time as well
+as into politics. Their correspondence shows one of the most pitiful,
+pathetic, and lamentable love tales in the history of society. He
+looked upon her friendship as a most valuable acquisition by which
+he was kept in touch with all the scandals and stories of society,
+of which he was so fond, and she mistook that friendship for love.
+He felt himself flattered in being the one preferred by such a
+distinguished old lady of high society.
+
+All critics are at a loss for the explanation of such a love in a
+woman of seventy. Was it the result of the lifetime of disappointment
+of a woman who had constantly sought love but had never found it? Was
+it, thus, the hallucination of the childish old age of the woman who
+was physically consumed by incessant social functions and all-night
+reading? Mme. du Deffand sees in Walpole her ideal, and she gives
+expression to her feelings, regardless of propriety; for she is
+childish and irresponsible. To a certain extent, the same was true of
+Mme. de Stael, but she was still physically healthy and young enough
+to enjoy life and the realization of that which she had so long
+desired--an ideal affection. In the case of Mme. du Deffand, the soul
+was willing, but the body failed. Her emotion can scarcely be termed
+love, but is rather to be designated as a mental hallucination, an
+exaggerated intellectual affection bordering upon sentimentality--the
+outgrowth of that morbid imagination developed from her long suffering
+from ennui.
+
+She was a woman destined to pass by the side of happiness without ever
+reaching it. She hardly had enjoyed what may be called friendship; she
+was always either suspicious of it and of her friends' sentiments, or
+she herself broke off relations for some trivial reason. This woman,
+however, always longed to believe her friends sincere, but never
+succeeded. "Her friends either leave her, they die, or they are far
+away; or, if present, faithful and attached to her, she cannot believe
+in their affection; her cursed scepticism deceived her heart."
+
+Mme. du Deffand was one of the few women of the eighteenth century who
+saw reality and nothing but reality, and admitted what she saw; she
+was gifted with such quick penetration and such mental facility
+that she stands out prominently as one of the brightest and most
+intellectual of the spiritual women of her time. This quickness of
+perception and tendency to follow a mere impression made it difficult
+for her to examine closely, to be patient of details; too sure of
+herself, too emotional, too passionate, she displayed injustice,
+vehemence, over-enthusiasm; easily bored and disgusted, she was, at
+the same time, susceptible to infatuation. Scherer said: "She is a
+superior man in a body of a nervous and weak woman."
+
+She was a woman dominated by her reason--a characteristic which led to
+an incurable ennui, thus causing her terrible suffering, but equipping
+her with a penetration which saw through the world and knew man, whom
+she divided into three classes: _les trompeurs_, _les trompes_, _les
+trompettes_. According to her judgment, man is either fatiguing or, if
+brilliantly endowed, usually false or jealous; but she realized, also,
+her own shortcomings, the incompleteness of her faculties. "The force
+of her thought does not reach talent; her intelligence is active and
+responsive, but fails to respond. She often shows a sovereign disdain
+for herself, everybody, and everything. She arrives at a point in life
+when she no longer has passion, desire, or even curiosity; she detests
+life, and dreads death because she does not know that there is another
+world. She is not happy enough to do without those whom she scorns,
+and must therefore seek diversion in the conversation of stupid
+people, preferring anything to solitude; this refers to the time when
+her best friends are no more and when she herself is out of her former
+_milieu_); she was too old, or lived too long; she belongs to another
+age."
+
+By her friends she was called the feminine Voltaire, and the
+celebrated philosopher and she were drawn together by a very similar
+habit of mind, although, to her intimates, she scorched Voltaire; but
+in writing to him she would overwhelm him with compliments, calling
+him the only orthodox representative of good taste. In general, she
+detested philosophers, because their hearts were cold and their minds
+preoccupied with themselves.
+
+Mme. du Deffand had an inherent passion for simplicity, frankness,
+justice, and a hatred for deceit and affectation; but, strange as it
+may seem, her nature required variety in her pleasure--new people, new
+pursuits, new amusements, new agitations for her hungry mind; she was
+too critical to be contented and to put implicit trust in her friends.
+An agnostic, always endeavoring to probe into the nature of things,
+the possession of a personal, living faith was yet the strongest
+desire of her heart; all her life she longed for the peace that
+religion affords, but this was denied her, although she had the
+spiritual assistance of the most famous of the clergy, attended
+church, had her oratory, her confessor, and faithfully studied the
+Bible; all was vain--belief would not come to her. The marriage tie
+was not sacred to her, which was the case with many of the French
+women of the day, but she went further in lacking all reverence for
+religious ceremony, though she respected the beliefs of others.
+
+She was all wit and intellectuality. In order to keep her friends from
+falling under the spell of ennui, she devoted herself to the culinary
+art, and her suppers became famous for their rare dishes. "She is an
+example of the type that was predominant in the time--one that had
+lived too much and was dying from excess of knowledge and pleasure;
+but she sought that which did not exist in that age,--serenity, peace,
+faith. She was passionate, sensitive, and sympathetic, in a cold,
+heartless, and unfeeling world. She needed variety; being bored with
+society, solitude, husband, lovers, herself, nothing remained for her
+but to await deliverance by death." This came to her in 1780.
+
+In matters literary, Mme. du Deffand preserved an absolute liberty
+and independence of opinion. She refused to accept the verdicts of the
+most competent judges; with instinctive attractions and repulsions,
+she found but few writers that pleased her. Boileau, Lesage, Chamfort,
+were her favorites. She said that Buffon was of an unendurable
+monotony. "He knows well what he knows, but he is occupied with beasts
+only; one must be something of a beast one's self in order to devote
+one's self to such an occupation."
+
+As a writer, she showed remarkable good sense, admirable sincerity,
+rare judgment, justness, and precision; depth and charm were present
+in a less degree than were other desirable qualities, but she
+exhibited excellent _esprit_. She was probably the most subtile, and
+at the same time the most fastidious person of the century. The best
+portraits of her were written by her own pen; two of them we give, one
+written at the beginning of her career in 1728, the other at its end
+in 1774.
+
+"Mme. la Marquise du Deffand is an enemy of all falseness and
+affectation. Her talk and countenance are always the faithful
+interpreters of the sentiment of her soul. Her form is not fine nor
+bad. She has _esprit_, is reasonable and has a correct taste. If
+vivacity at times leads her off, truth soon brings her back. After she
+falls into an ennui which extinguishes all the light of her mind, she
+finds that state insupportable and the cause of such unhappiness, that
+she blindly embraces all that presents itself, without deliberation."
+
+(1774.) "They believe Mme. du Deffand to possess more _esprit_ than
+she really has; they praise and fear her, but she merits neither the
+one nor the other. As far as her _esprit_ is concerned, she is what
+she is; in regard to her form, to her birth and fortune--nothing
+extraordinary, nothing distinguished. Born without great talent,
+incapable of great application, she is very susceptible to ennui, and,
+not finding any resource within herself, she resorts to those that
+surround her and this search is often without success."
+
+Mme. du Deffand arouses our curiosity because she was such an
+exceptional character, led such a strange life, made and retained
+friends in ways so different from those of the noted heroines of the
+salons. In her youth, she was beautiful and fascinating, with numerous
+lovers and numberless suitors, but she grew even more famous as her
+age increased; when infirm and blind, and living in a convent, she
+ruled by virtue of her acknowledged authority and was still able
+to cope with the greatest philosophers, the chief and dean of whom,
+Voltaire, wrote the following four lines:
+
+  "Qui vous voit et qui vous entend
+  Perd bientot sa philosophie;
+  Et tout sage avec Du Deffand
+  Voudrait en fou passer sa vie."
+
+  [He who sees and hears you,
+  Soon loses his philosophy.
+  Wise he who with Du Deffand
+  Insane would pass his life.]
+
+Living long enough to witness the reigns of three kings and one
+regent, she was brilliant enough to reign over the intellectual and
+social world for over fifty years, by virtue of her intellectuality,
+keenness, and wit; yet, among all the great women of France, she is
+truly the one who deserves genuine pity and sympathy.
+
+The salon of Mlle. de Lespinasse, her rival, was of a different type,
+being exclusively intellectual, but permitting absolute liberty of
+expression of opinions. Born in 1732, at the house of a surgeon of
+Lyons, she was the illegitimate daughter of the Comtesse d'Albon
+and was baptized as the child of a man supposed to be named Claude
+Lespinasse. From 1753 she was the constant attendant to Mme. du
+Deffand, her mother's sister-in-law, for a period of ten years, until
+she became completely worn out physically, morally, and mentally by
+incessant care and endless all-night readings. An attempt to end her
+existence with sixty grains of opium failed. Owing to the jealousy of
+Mme. du Deffand, a separation ensued in 1764, when she retired some
+distance from the Convent Saint-Joseph to very modest apartments,
+where, by means of her friends, she was able to receive in a dignified
+way. The Marechale de Luxembourg completely fitted up her apartment,
+the Duc de Choiseul succeeded in getting her an annual pension from
+the king, and Mme. Geoffrin allowed her three thousand francs.
+
+The majority of the members of her salon were from that of Mme. du
+Deffand, having followed Mlle. de Lespinasse after the rupture of
+the two women; besides these, there were Condorcet, Helvetius, Grimm,
+Marmontel, Condillac, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, and many others. As
+her hours for receiving were after five o'clock, her friends were made
+to understand that her means were not such as to warrant suppers or
+dinners, four o'clock being the dinner hour in those days.
+
+Her salon immediately became known as the official encyclopaedia
+resort, Mme. du Deffand dubbing it _La Muse de l'Encyclopedie_.
+D'Alembert was the high priest, and it was not long before he
+was comfortably lodged in the third story of her house, Mlle. de
+Lespinasse having nursed him through a malignant fever which the poor
+man had contracted in the wretched place where he lodged. A strange
+gathering, those salons! Mlle. de Lespinasse, one of the leaders
+in the social world, with a prominent salon, was the illegitimate
+daughter of a Comtesse d'Albon, and her presiding genius was the
+illegitimate son of Mme. de Tencin; here we find the wealthiest and
+most elegant of the aristocracy coming from their palaces to meet, in
+friendly social and intellectual intercourse, men who lived on a mere
+pittance, dressed on almost nothing, lodged in the most wretched of
+dens, boarding wherever a salon or palace was opened to them. Surely,
+intellect was highly valued in those days, and moral etiquette was at
+a low ebb!
+
+Mlle. de Lespinasse possessed two characteristics which were prominent
+in a remarkable degree--love and friendship. She appeared to interest
+herself in everybody in such a way as to make him believe that he
+was the preferred of her heart; loving everybody sincerely and
+affectionately, she "lacked altogether the sentimental equilibrium."
+Especially pathetic was her love for two men--the Count de Mora, a
+Spanish nobleman, and a Colonel Guibert, who was celebrated for his
+relations with Frederick the Great; although this wore terribly on
+her, consuming her physical force, she always received her friends
+with the same good grace, but often, after their departure, she would
+fall into a frightful nervous fit from which she could find relief
+only by the use of opium.
+
+Her love for Guibert was known to her friends, but was a secret from
+her platonic lover, D'Alembert. When, after a number of years of
+untold sufferings which even opium could not relieve, she died in
+1776, having been cared for to the last by D'Alembert, the Duke de La
+Rochefoucauld, and her cousin, the Marquis d'Enlezy, it was with these
+words on her dying lips, addressed to Guibert: "Adieu, my friend!
+If ever I return to life, I should like to use it in loving you;
+but there is no longer any time." When D'Alembert read in her
+correspondence that she had been the mistress of Guibert for sixteen
+years, he was disconsolate, and retired to the Louvre, which was
+his privilege as Secretary of the Academy. He left there only to go
+walking in the evening with Marmontel, who tried to console him by
+recalling the changeableness of humor of Mlle. de Lespinasse. "Yes,"
+he would reply, "she has changed, but not I; she no longer lived for
+me, but I always lived for her. Since she is no longer, I don't
+know why I am living. Ah, that I must still suffer these moments of
+bitterness which she knew so well how to soothe and make me forget!
+Do you remember the happy evenings we used to pass? What is there now?
+Instead of her, when coming home, I find only her shadow! This Louvre
+lodging is itself a tomb, which I enter only with fright."
+
+Mlle. de Lespinasse died of grief for a lover's death, but she left
+a group of lovers to lament her loss. In many respects she was not
+unlike Mlle. de Scudery; exceptionally plain, her face was much
+marked with smallpox, a disfigurement not uncommon in those days; her
+exceedingly piercing and fine eyes, beautiful hair, tall and elegant
+figure, excellent taste in dress, pleasing voice and a most brilliant
+talent for conversation, combined to make her one of the most
+attractive and popular women of her time. As previously stated, she
+was the only female admitted to the dinners given by Mme. Geoffrin to
+her men of letters.
+
+Mme. du Deffand's friend, _le President_ Henault, left the following
+portrait of Mlle. de Lespinasse: "You are cosmopolitan--you are
+suitable to all occasions. You like company--you like solitude.
+Pleasures amuse, but do not seduce you. You have very strong passions,
+and of the best kind, for they do not return often. Nature, in
+endowing you with an ordinary state, gave you something with which to
+rise above it. You are distinguished, and, without being beautiful,
+you attract attention. There is something piquant in you; one might
+obstinately endeavor to turn your head, but it would be at one's own
+expense. Your will must be awaited, because you cannot be made to
+come. Your cheerfulness embellishes you, and relaxes your nerves,
+which are too highly strung. You have your own opinion, and you leave
+others their own. You are extremely polite. You have divined _le
+monde_. In vain one would transplant you--you would take root
+anywhere. In short, you are not an ordinary person."
+
+The salon of Mlle. de Lespinasse was unique. Everyone was at perfect
+liberty to express and sustain his own opinions upon any subject,
+without danger of offending the hostess, which, as has been seen,
+was not the case in the salon of Mme. Geoffrin. Her high and sane
+intellectual culture permitted her to listen to all discussions and to
+take part in all. She had no strong prejudices, having read--for Mme.
+du Deffand--nearly everything that was read at that time; also, she
+had the talent of preserving harmony among her members by drawing from
+each one his best qualities.
+
+A woman who played a prominent part in society during the Regency,
+but who had no salon in the proper sense of that word, was Mme.
+du Chatelet, commonly called Voltaire's Emilie. She was especially
+interested in sciences, mathematics, geometry, and astronomy, and did
+more than any other woman of that time to encourage nature study.
+It was at her Chateau de Cirey that Voltaire found protection when
+threatened with a second visit to the Bastille; and there, from time
+to time for sixteen years, he did some of the best work of his life.
+It was Mme. du Chatelet who encouraged him, sympathized with him,
+and appreciated his mobile humor as well as his talent. During these
+years, while he was under the influence of madame, appeared _Merope_,
+_Alzire_, the _Siecle de Louis XIV_, etc.
+
+Mme. du Chatelet was the one great _femme savante_ of that century. In
+the preface to her _Traduction des Principes Mathematiques de Newton_,
+Voltaire wrote: "Never was a woman so _savante_ as she, and never did
+a woman merit less the saying, _she is a femme savante_. She did
+not select her friends from those circles where there was a war of
+_esprit_, where a sort of tribunal was established, where they judged
+their century, by which, in recompense, they were severely judged.
+She lived for a long time in societies which were ignorant of what she
+was, and she took no notice of this ignorance. The words precision,
+justness, and force are those which correctly describe her elegance.
+She would have written as Pascal and Nicole did rather than like Mme.
+de Sevigne; but this severe firmness and this tendency of her _esprit_
+did not make her inaccessible to the beauties of sentiment."
+
+Maupertuis, the astronomer, wrote: "What a marvel, moreover, to have
+been able to combine the fine qualities of her sex with the sublime
+knowledge which we believe uniquely made for us! This enterprising
+phenomenon will make her memory eternally respected."
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IX
+
+Salon Leaders--(Continued)
+
+Mme. Necker, Mme. d'Epinay, Mme. de Genlis: Minor Salons
+
+
+It seems strange indeed that in a century in which the universal
+impulse was toward pleasure, and sameness of personality was
+visible everywhere, the types of great women showed such an absolute
+dissimilarity. The contrast between the natural inclinations of Mme.
+Necker, the wife of the great minister of finance, and the atmosphere
+in which she lived, makes the study of her a most interesting one.
+Born in Switzerland, the daughter of Curchod, a poor Protestant
+minister, "with patriarchal morals, solid education, and strong
+good sense," this moral and stern woman was thrown into the midst of
+depraved elegance, refined licentiousness, and physical debauchery.
+Sincere, chaste, enthusiastic, and essentially religious, she remained
+so amidst all the corruption and physical and mental degeneracy of the
+age.
+
+Critics have made much ado over her marriage, a union of pure love and
+mutual inclinations, amidst the marriages of mere convenience and the
+gallant liaisons, such as those of Mme. du Deffand and _le President_
+Henault, and Mme. d'Epinay and Grimm. The matrimonial selection of
+Susanne Curchod was natural in a girl of her serious make-up, her
+moral education and her pure ancestry of the strict Protestant type.
+As a girl of sixteen, she had given evidence of remarkable mental
+ability and had acquired a wide knowledge--physics, Latin, philosophy,
+metaphysics--when she was sent to Lausanne, possibly with the idea
+of meeting a future husband with whom she could become thoroughly
+acquainted before giving up her independence. There she became
+the centre of a group or academy of young people, who, under her
+leadership, discussed subjects of every nature. At first she showed
+a tendency toward _preciosite_ and the spirit of the blue-stocking
+rather than toward the seriousness and dignity which marked her later
+career.
+
+It was at Lausanne that she met and fell in love with Gibbon, the
+English historian; this love affair met with opposition from Gibbon's
+father, and, after the death of the father of his fiancee, a calamity
+which left her poor and necessitated her teaching for a living,
+the Englishman, by his actions and manner toward her, compelled the
+breaking of their engagement. When, later in life, he went to her
+salon, they became intimate friends, enjoying "the intellectual union
+which had been impossible for them in their earlier days."
+
+Thus, at the age of twenty-four, Mlle. Curchod, beautiful, virtuous,
+and accomplished, and at the height of her reputation in a small town
+in Switzerland, was left an orphan. She was taken to Paris by Mme. de
+Vermenoux, a wealthy widow, who was sought in marriage by M. Necker,
+banker and capitalist; but, as she was unable to make up her mind to
+a definite answer, his attention was attracted to her young companion.
+The result was that, after a few months' sojourn in Paris, Mlle.
+Curchod became the wife of M. Necker, an event which caused rejoicing
+from Lausanne to Geneva. Their characters are well portrayed in two
+letters, written by them to their friends after their marriage. M.
+Necker wrote, in reply to a letter of congratulation:
+
+"Yes, sir; your friend (Mlle. Curchod) was indeed willing to have me,
+and I believe myself as happy as one can be. I cannot understand how
+it can be you whom they congratulate, unless it is as my friend. Will
+money always be the measure of opinion? That is pitiable! He who
+wins a virtuous, kind, and sensible woman--has he not made a good
+transaction, whether or not she be seated on sacks of money? Humanity,
+what a poor judge you are!"
+
+Shortly after her marriage, Mme. Necker wrote to one of her friends:
+"My dear, I have married a man who, according to my ideas, is the
+kindest of mortals, and I am not the only one to judge thus. I had had
+a liking for him ever since I learned to know him. At present, I see,
+in all nature, only my husband. I take notice of other men only in so
+far as they come more or less up to the standard of my husband, and
+I compare them only for the pleasure of seeing the difference." The
+marital relations of this loving pair lasted throughout life; and
+among great women of the eighteenth century, Mme. Necker is one of the
+few examples of ideal marriage relations.
+
+Soon after their marriage, the Neckers took up their quarters at the
+Rue Michel-le-Comte, where they began to receive friends. As at that
+time every day in the week was reserved by other salons,--Monday and
+Wednesday at Mme. Geoffrin's, Tuesday at Helvetius's, Thursday and
+Sunday at the Baron d'Holbach's,--Mme. Necker was compelled to appoint
+Friday as her reception day. She soon succeeded in attracting to her
+hotel the best _esprit_ of Paris: Diderot, Suard, Grimm, Comte de
+Schomberg, Marmontel, D'Alembert, Thomas, Saint-Lambert, Helvetius,
+Ducis, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, the Abbes Raynal, Armand, and
+Morellet, Mme. Geoffrin, Mme. du Deffand, Mme. de Marchais, Mme.
+Suard, the Marechale de Luxembourg, the Duchesse de Lauzun, the
+Marquise de La Ferte-Imbault, Mme. de Boufflers.
+
+Among these visitors, most of whom were atheists, Mme. Necker
+preserved her own religious opinions and piety, although her friends
+at Geneva never ceased to be concerned about her. Her admirers were
+many, but they were kept within the bounds of propriety and never
+attempted any gallant liberties with the hostess--except her ardent
+admirer Thomas, the intensity of whose eulogies upon her she was
+forced to check occasionally. It was not long before she became very
+influential in filling the vacant seats of the Academy. In this and
+many other respects, her salon may be compared with that of Mme. de
+Lambert.
+
+Mme. Necker's idea of conducting a salon and its conversation was much
+the same as the management of a state; she believed that the hostess
+must never join in the conversation as long as it goes on by itself,
+but, ever watchful, must never permit disturbances, disagreements,
+improprieties, or obstacles; she must animate it if it languish; she
+must see that conversation never takes a dangerous, disagreeable, or
+tiresome turn, and that it never brings into undue prominence one man
+especially, as this makes others jealous and displeases the entire
+society; it must always interest and include all members. The
+discussions at Mme. Necker's were literary and philosophical; and to
+prevent even the possibility of tedium, frequent readings were given
+in their place.
+
+It was at the salon of Mme. Necker that Bernardin de Saint-Pierre
+first read his _Paul et Virginie_, which received such a cold and
+indifferent welcome that the author, utterly discouraged, was on the
+point of burning his manuscript, when he was prevailed upon by his
+friend Vernet, the great artist, to preserve all his works. Mme.
+Necker was always quite frank and outspoken, often showing a cutting
+harshness and a rigor which, as was said, was little in harmony with
+her bare neck and arms--a style then in vogue at court. She never
+judged persons by their reputations, but by their _esprit_; thus, it
+was possible for her to receive people of the most diverse tendencies.
+When the Marquise de La Ferte-Imbault, one of the few virtuous women
+of the time, and of the highest aristocracy, was invited to attend the
+salon of Mme. Necker and was told that the Marechale de Luxembourg,
+Mme. du Deffand, Mme. de Boufflers, and Mme. Marchais were
+frequenters, she said: "These four women are so discredited by
+manners, and the first two are so dangerous, that for thirty years
+they have been the horror of society."
+
+The two portraits by Marmontel and Galiani are interesting, as
+throwing light upon the doings of her salon. Marmontel wrote: "Mme.
+Necker is very virtuous and instructed, but emphatic and stiff. She
+does not know Mme. de Sevigne, whom she praises, and only esteems
+Buffon and Thomas. She calculates all things; she sought men of
+letters only as trumpets to blow in honor of her husband. He never
+said a word; that was not very recreating."
+
+Galiani leaves a different impression: "There is not a Friday that
+I do not go to your house _en esprit_. I arrive, I find you now busy
+with your headdress, now busy with this duchess. I seat myself at your
+feet. Thomas quietly suffers, Morellet shows his anger aloud. Grimm
+and Suard laugh heartily about it, and my dear Comte de Greuze does
+not notice it. Marmontel finds the example worthy to be imitated,
+and you, madame, make two of your most beautiful virtues do battle,
+bashfulness and politeness, and in this suffering you find me a little
+monster more embarrassing than odious. Dinner is announced. They leave
+the table and in the cafe all speak at the same time. M. Necker thinks
+everything well, bows his head and goes away."
+
+In summer her receptions were first held at the Chateau de Madrid,
+and, later on, in a chateau at Saint-Ouen; the guests were always
+called for and returned in carriages supplied by the hostess. It was
+in her salon, in 1770, that the plan originated to erect the statue
+of Voltaire, which is to-day the famous statue of the _Palais de
+l'Institute_.
+
+When, during the stirring times before the Revolution, her salon took
+on a purely political nature, Mme. Necker played a very secondary
+role. In 1788 she and her husband were compelled to leave Paris; but
+being recalled by Louis XVI., Necker managed affairs for thirteen
+months, after which he retired with Mme. Necker to Coppet, where, in
+1794, the latter died.
+
+Mme. Necker never became a thorough Frenchwoman; she always lacked
+the grace and charm which are the necessary qualifications of a salon
+leader; intelligence was her most meritorious quality. Her dinners
+were apt to become tiresome and to drag. A very interesting story is
+told of her by the Marquis de Chastellux, which was reported by Mme.
+Genlis, one of her intimate friends:
+
+"Dining at Mme. Necker's, the marquis was first to arrive, and so
+early that the hostess was not yet in the salon. In walking up and
+down the room, he noticed a small book under Mme. Necker's chair. He
+picked it up and opened it. It was a blank book, a few of the pages
+of which had been written upon by Mme. Necker. Certainly, he would
+not have read a letter, but, believing to find only a few spiritual
+thoughts, he read without any scruples. It contained the plan for the
+dinner of that day, to which he had been invited, and had been written
+by Mme. Necker on the previous evening. It told what she would say to
+the most prominent of the invited guests. She wrote: 'I shall speak
+to the Chevalier de Chastellux about public felicity and Agatha; to M.
+d'Angeviller, I shall speak of love; between Marmontel and Guibert
+I shall raise some literary discussion.' After reading the note, he
+hurriedly replaced the book under the chair. A moment later, a valet
+entered, saying that madame had left her notebook in the salon. The
+dinner was charming for M. de Chastellux, because he had the pleasure
+of hearing Mme. Necker say, word for word, what she had written in her
+notebook."
+
+This woman was ever preoccupied with style, and, throughout her life,
+retained the solemn, studied, and academic air, as well as the simple,
+rural, innocent manner and spirit of her early surroundings. A mere
+bourgeoise, unaccustomed to elegance or to the manners of French
+social life, upon entering Parisian society she set her mind to
+observing, and immediately began to change her provincial ways and to
+make over her _esprit_ for conversation, for circumstances, and for
+characters; she adjusted her provincial spirit to that of Paris, thus
+making of it an entirely new product. Later on, her salon became the
+first of the modern political salons, but it was far from reaching the
+prominence of that of Mme. Geoffrin, whose characteristics were social
+prudence and strict propriety, while those of Mme. Necker were virtue
+and goodness.
+
+Mme. Necker was never in perfect sympathy with her visitors, the
+philosophers, the common basis of ideas and sentiments never existing
+between her and her friends as it did between Mme. Geoffrin and her
+frequenters; her tie was always artificial. "She represented the Swiss
+spirit in Parisian society; those serious and educated souls, virtuous
+and sentimental, somewhat sad and strictly moral, were rather tiresome
+to the Parisian world." Marmontel well describes her in another of his
+famous portraits:
+
+"A stranger to the customs of Paris, Mme. Necker had none of the
+charms and accomplishments of the young French woman. In her manner
+and language she had neither the air nor the tone of a woman reared
+in the school of arts, formed at the school of high society.
+Without taste in her headdress, without ease in her bearing, without
+fascination in her politeness, her mind--as was her countenance--was
+too properly adjusted to show grace. But a charm more worthy of her
+was that of propriety, of candor, of goodness. A virtuous education
+and solitary studies had given to her all that culture can add to an
+excellent nature. In her, sentiment was perfect, but her thought was
+often confused and vague; instead of clearing her ideas, meditation
+disturbed them; in exaggerating them, she believed to enlarge them;
+in order to extend them, she wandered off into abstractions and
+hyperboles. She seemed to see certain objects only through a fog,
+which augmented their importance in her eyes; and then her expression
+became so inflated that the pomposity of it would have been laughable
+if one had not known her to be entirely ingenuous."
+
+"In summing up the character of Mme. Necker, we find," says
+Sainte-Beuve, "first of all, a genuine individuality and a personality
+with defects which at first impression are shocking, but which only
+helped to render the woman and all her aspirations the more admirable.
+Entering a Parisian society with the firm decision of becoming a woman
+of _esprit_ and of being in relation with the _beaux esprits_, she was
+able to preserve the moral conscience of her Protestant training, to
+protest against the false doctrines about her, to give herself up to
+duties in the midst of society, to found institutions for the sick and
+needy,--and to leave a memory without a stain."
+
+While, among the famous salon leaders of the eighteenth century, Mme.
+Necker stands out preeminently for her strict moral integrity and
+fidelity to her marriage relations, Mme. d'Epinay is unique for
+the constancy of her affections for the men to whom she owes her
+celebrity, Rousseau and Grimm. Born in 1725, the record of her life
+runs like that of most French women. At the age of twenty she was
+married to her cousin, La Live, who later took the name of d'Epinay,
+from an estate his father, the wealthy M. de Bellegarde, had bought--a
+man who was really in love with her for a whole month after their
+marriage, but who, tiring of the pure affections of a loving wife,
+soon began to lavish his time and fortune upon a _danseuse_. The
+poor young wife was between two fires, the extravagance and wild
+dissipations of her husband and the rigid discipline and orthodoxy of
+her mother. Never was a woman treated so outrageously and insultingly
+as was this woman by a man who contrived in every manner to corrupt
+her morals by throwing her among his dissolute companions, Mme.
+d'Artz, the mistress of the Prince de Conti, and Mlle. d'Ette, an
+intriguing woman of the time; to the latter, Mme. d'Epinay confided
+her troubles, and, as the result of her counsels, fell into the hands
+of a M. de Francueil, handsome, clever, accomplished, but as morally
+depraved as was her husband.
+
+When Mme. d'Epinay was finally convinced that her husband was untrue
+to her, she felt nothing but disdain and contempt for him, and
+decided to live a virtuous life; after holding for a short time to
+her resolution "that a woman may have the most profound and tender
+sentiment for a man and yet remain faithful to her duties," she lost
+herself under the influence of the professional seducer Francueil,
+and, completely carried away by that passion, she cries out, in her
+memoirs: _Francueil, Francueil, tu m'as perdue, et tu disais que tu
+m'aimais_ [You have undone me--and you said you loved me]! Such was
+the lot, as was seen, of most women of those days, who had noble
+intentions, but a woman's weakness. The century did not demand
+faithfulness to the marital vows; but when a woman had once abandoned
+herself to love, it required that the attachment be to a man of honor
+and standing. Marriage was simply a preliminary step to freedom;
+after that ceremony came the natural election of the heart and mutual
+tenderness of the beings who could be mated only through the freedom
+which married life afforded. A superior illegitimate liaison was
+nothing unnatural--on the contrary, it was but a natural human
+selection; such was the nature of the affection of Mme. d'Epinay for
+this debauche Francueil.
+
+As she enjoyed absolute liberty, her lover paid his respects to her at
+Epinay; there he inaugurated amusements and took his friends. It
+was he who suggested the erection of a theatre at which her friends'
+productions might be offered to the world of critics. Through his
+efforts, the great men who made her salon famous were gathered at "La
+Chevrette," where the actors and players soon drew the attention of
+literary Paris. After a year or two of attachment, Francueil became
+indifferent to Mme. d'Epinay and transferred his affections to an
+actress--the sister of M. d'Epinay's mistress. Thus runs the story of
+the life of the average married woman. If she remained virtuous,
+she usually became resigned to her fate and lived happily; if she
+undertook to imitate her husband's tactics, she fell from the good
+graces of one lover to those of another, ending her life in absolute
+wretchedness.
+
+These two men--the lover and the husband--carried on with two sisters
+their licentious living and extravagances to such an extent that the
+injured wife demanded a separation of her fortune from that of her
+husband, in which project her father-in-law aided her and gave her
+thirteen thousand francs income. Mme. d'Epinay, in the midst of
+success, became acquainted with Mlle. Quinault, the daughter of the
+famous actor of the time, and herself a great actress. This woman
+invited Mme. d'Epinay to her so-called salon, which was, possibly, the
+most licentious and irreligious of the salons then in vogue, where she
+met Duclos, with whom she immediately formed a strong friendship.
+
+After the death of M. de Bellegarde, her wealth was considerably
+increased, a piece of good fortune which enabled her to carry out all
+her plans. It was at this time, 1755, that she induced Rousseau
+to live in her cottage, "l'Hermitage;" and for about two years she
+enjoyed perfect happiness with him. By a peculiar freak of fate she
+fell in with Grimm, who was introduced to her by Rousseau and who had,
+for some time, been on the hunt for a "faithful mistress." This German
+by birth, but Frenchman in spirit, had championed her at a dinner,
+where she was the object of the severest reproach. She had burned
+the papers of her sister, Mme. de Jully, who had betrayed an honest
+husband. Stricken with smallpox, just before dying, she confessed all
+to Mme. d'Epinay. The latter owed Mme. de Jully fifty ecus and the
+note was among the papers of Mme. de Jully. Mme. d'Epinay was accused
+of having burned the note to which it was asserted she had access; and
+Grimm undertook to plead her cause, an act which so elated madame that
+she turned all her affection upon her defender, whereupon Rousseau
+departed. Later on, the note having been found, Mme. d'Epinay was
+completely vindicated. Grimm then became her third lover.
+
+This third marriage, so to speak, was one of reason; the first was one
+of mere emancipation; the second, one of passion and genuine love.
+In 1755, worn out physically, she took a trip to Switzerland, to be
+treated by the famous Dr. Tronchin; there she became so ill that Grimm
+was summoned. They remained together for about two years, and after
+her return to Paris she reopened her salon of "La Chevrette." Her
+reunions partook more of the nature of our house parties; the salon
+was an immense room, in which the members would pair off and divert
+themselves as they pleased; in that respect "La Chevrette" was
+unique. After her fortune, which at one time was quite large, became
+diminished, partly through her own extravagance and partly through
+that of her son, who was the very counterpart of his father, she was
+forced to rent "La Chevrette" and, later on, "La Briche," where she
+had opened her second salon.
+
+The last years of her life she spent in Paris with Grimm. She had
+reached such a physical condition that her sufferings could be
+relieved only by the use of opium. Financial relief came to her in
+1783, when the Academy awarded her the Montyon prize, then given for
+the first time, for her _Conversations d'Emilie_. She died in the same
+year, surrounded by her dearest friends--Grimm, M. and Mme. Belgunce,
+and Mme. d'Houdetot.
+
+Mme. d'Epinay, in many respects, was a remarkable woman. Amid all her
+social duties, with all her physical and mental troubles, she found
+time to help others and to manage her own business affairs and
+those of her children, took an active interest in art, music, and
+literature, raised, with the utmost care, her granddaughter, produced
+one of the best works of the time for children, made tapestry, and
+wrote innumerable letters. Her fortune was lost through the reforms of
+Necker.
+
+She was not a beautiful woman; but she was distinguished by a small,
+thin figure, an abundance of rich dark hair, which brought out in
+striking relief the peculiar whiteness of her skin, and large brown
+eyes. Her five lovers she called her five bears: Rousseau, Grimm,
+Desmoulin, Saint-Lambert, Gauffecourt. An epistle to Grimm begins
+thus;
+
+  "Moi, de cinq ours la souveraine,
+  Qui leur donne et present des lois,
+  Faut-il que je sois a la fois
+  Et votre esclave et votre reine,
+  O des tyrans le plus tyran?"
+
+  [I, sovereign over five bears,
+  Who give and prescribe laws for them--
+  Must I be your slave and queen at the same time,
+  O among tyrants, the greatest?]
+
+As far as the care of the education of her children is concerned,
+with its sacrifice and real application to duty, she was sometimes
+called--and not unadvisedly--the type of the ideal mother. From 1757
+on her ideas and thoughts ran to education. Her friends were all
+of the philosophical trend, and intellectual labor was their chief
+pleasure. After having passed through a career of excitement and
+love's caprices, she longed for a peaceful, quiet existence; at
+that point, however, her health gave way, and she entered upon a new
+territory at Geneva. There she conquered Voltaire, who was profuse
+with his compliments and kindnesses. Upon her return she became the
+recognized leader or champion of the philosophic and foreign group
+and the Encyclopaedists, and was regarded as the central figure of the
+philosophical movement in general.
+
+The ideas of the philosophers had been gaining ground, and were
+disseminated through all classes. The mere love of pleasure and luxury
+at first found under Louis XV. gave way to more serious reflections
+when society was confronted with those all-important questions which
+finally culminated in the Revolution. The salon of Mme. d'Epinay grew
+to be the most important and, intellectually, the most brilliant
+of the time. Rousseau, Diderot, Helvetius, Duclos, Suard, the Abbes
+Galiani, Raynal, the Florentine physician Gatti, Comte de Schomberg,
+Chevalier de Chastellux, Saint-Lambert, Marquis de Croixmare, the
+different ambassadors, counts and princes, were frequent visitors
+In this brilliant circle her letters from Voltaire, read aloud, were
+always eagerly awaited. Such dramas as Voltaire's _Tancred_, Diderot's
+_Le Pere de Famille_, were given under her patronage and discussed in
+her salon; after the performance she entertained all the friends at
+supper.
+
+Upon the departure of Abbe Galiani from Paris, Mme. d'Epinay and
+Diderot were intrusted with the revision and printing of his famous
+_Dialogues sur les Bles_; Grimm left to them the continuance of
+his _Correspondance Litteraire_. She was known for her wonderful
+analytical ability and her keen power of observation--faculties which
+won the esteem and respect of such men and caused her collaboration
+to be anxiously sought by them; however, she never attempted to rival
+them in their particular sphere. In her writings she displayed a
+reactionary tendency against the educational methods of the day, her
+chief work of real literary worth being mostly in the form of
+sound advice to a child. Being a reasonable, careful, and sensible
+woman,--in spite of the defects in her moral life,--she desired to
+show the possibilities of a moral revolution against the habits and
+customs of the time, of which she herself had been a most unfortunate
+victim. She was relieved of actual want by means of this work, which
+gained for her a pension from Catherine II. of Russia, who adopted
+her methods for her own children, and the award of the Montyon prize,
+which was given her in a competition with a large number of aspirants,
+the most famous of whom was Mme. de Genlis. It was her ability to gain
+and retain the respect of great men which won that honor for her.
+
+The memoirs of Mme. d'Epinay leave one of the most accurate and
+faithful pictures of the polished society of the France of about 1750.
+"Her salon was the centre about which circled the greatest activity;
+it was filled with men who ordered events, thinkers whose minds were
+bent upon untangling the knotty problems of the age; it was her salon,
+more than any other, that quickened the philosophical movement of
+the day. Mme. d'Epinay made her reputation not so much through her
+_esprit_, intelligence, or beauty, possibly, as through the strength
+of her affection. Timid, irresolute, and highly impressionable,
+and amiable in disposition, she was constantly influenced by
+circumstances--a quality which led her on to the two principal
+occupations of her later life, education and philosophy. To-day,
+her name is recalled principally for its association with that of
+Rousseau, whose mistress and benefactress she was; it is to her that
+the world owes his famous _Nouvelle Heloise_.
+
+The last of the great literary and social leaders of the eighteenth
+century was Mme. de Genlis, a prodigy in every respect, an amateur
+performer upon nearly every instrument, an authority on intellectual
+matters as well, a fine story teller, a consummate artist,
+entertainer, and general charmer. Authoress, governess of
+Louis-Philippe, councillor of Bonaparte, her success as a social
+leader established her reputation and places her in the file of great
+women, although she was not a salon leader such as Mme. Geoffrin or
+Mme. du Deffand.
+
+She was born in 1746, and at a very early age showed a remarkable
+talent for music, but her general education was much neglected. At the
+age of about seventeen she was married to a Comte de Genlis, who
+had fallen in love with her on seeing her portrait. As his relatives
+refused to welcome the young girl, she was placed in the convent of
+Origny, where she remained until 1764, after which her husband took
+her to his brother's estate, where they lived happily for a short
+time. When, in 1765, she became a mother, her husband's family became
+reconciled to his union, and, later on, took her to court.
+
+Before her marriage, upon the departure of her father to San Domingo
+to retrieve his fortunes, her mother had found an asylum for her at
+the elegant home of the farmer-general M. de La Popeliniere. This
+occurred at the time that Paris was theatre mad, and when great actors
+and actresses were the heroes and heroines of society. At this house
+the young girl became the central figure in the theatrical and musical
+entertainments. After passing through this schooling, she stood the
+test of the court without any difficulty, and completely won the favor
+of her husband's family, as well as that of the court ladies and
+the members of the other distinguished households where she was
+introduced. With an insatiable appetite for frolics, quite in keeping
+with the customs of the time, she plunged into social life with a
+vigor and an aptitude which soon attracted attention. She played all
+sorts of roles at the most fashionable houses, "through her consummate
+acting and _bons mots_ drawing tears of vexation from her less gifted
+sisters. She plays nine instruments, writes dramas, recasts others,
+organizes and drills amateurs, besides attending to a thousand and one
+other things."
+
+Through the influence of her aunt, Mme. de Montesson, who was
+secretly married to the Duke of Orleans, Mme. de Genlis was appointed
+lady-in-waiting in the household of the Duchesse de Chartres, the
+duke's daughter-in-law, whose salon was celebrated in Paris. She
+soon won the confidence of the duchess, and became her confessor,
+secretary, guide, and oracle, but did not abandon in the least her
+pursuit of pleasure. She even took possession of the heart of the duke
+himself, and in 1782 was made "_gouverneur_" to his children, the Duc
+de Valois, later Louis-Philippe, the Duc de Montpensier, the Comte de
+Beaujolais, and Mlle. Adelaide; for the education of her pupils she
+had the use of several chateaux. Many a piquant epigram and chanson
+were composed for the edification of the "_gouverneur_." It is said
+that she acted as panderer for the princes, especially Louis-Philippe,
+of a "legitimate means of satisfying these ardent desires of which
+I am being devoured," by leading them to the nuns in the convents
+by means of a subterranean passage. The following passages from the
+journal of Louis-Philippe show the nature of his relations with her:
+
+(December, 1790.) "I went to dine with my mother and grandfather.
+Although I am delighted to dine often with my mother, I am deeply
+sorry to give only three days out of the seven to my dear Bellechasse
+[that is, to Mme. de Genlis]."
+
+(January, 1791.) "Last evening, returned to my friend [Mme. de
+Genlis]; remained there until after midnight; I was the first one to
+have the good fortune of wishing her a 'Happy New Year.' Nothing can
+make me happier; I don't know what will become of me when I am no
+longer with her."
+
+(January, 1791.) "Yesterday, I was at the Tuileries. The queen spoke
+to my father, to my brother, and said nothing to me--neither did the
+king nor Monsieur, in fact, no one. I remained at my friend's until
+half-past twelve. No one in the world is so agreeable to me as is
+she." (February, 1791.) "I was at the assembly at Bellechasse, dined
+at the Palais-Royal, I was at the Jacobins, returned to Bellechasse,
+after supper went to my friend's. I remained with her alone; she
+treated me with an infinite kindness; I left, the happiest man in the
+world." Such language speaks for itself.
+
+No sons of a nobleman ever received a finer, more typically modern
+education than did her pupils. She was, possibly, the first teacher to
+use the natural method system, teaching German, English, and Italian
+by conversation. The boys were compelled to act, in the park, the
+voyages of Vasco da Gama; in the dining room the great historical
+tableaux were presented; in the theatre, built especially for them,
+they acted all the dramas of the _Theatre d'Education_. She taught
+them how to make portfolios, ribbons, wigs, pasteboard work, to
+gild, to turn, and to do carpentering. They visited museums and
+manufactories, during which expeditions they were taught to observe,
+criticise, and find defects. This was the first step taken in France
+in the eighteenth century toward a modern education. Although it was
+superficial, in consequence of its great breadth, yet this education
+inculcated manliness and courage.
+
+In 1778 Mme. de Genlis published her moral teachings in _Adele et
+Theodore_, a work which created quite a little talk at the time, but
+which eventually brought upon her the condemnation of the philosophers
+and Encyclopaedists, because in it she opposed liberty of conscience.
+When, on the occasion of the first communion of the Duc de Valois,
+she wrote her _Religion Considered as the Only True Foundation of
+Happiness and of True Philosophy_, all the Palais-Royal place hunters,
+philosophers, and her political enemies, in a mass, opposed and
+ridiculed her. Rivarol declared that she had no sex, that heaven had
+refused the magic of talent to her productions, as it had refused the
+charm of innocence to her childhood.
+
+One of the best portraits of her is in the memoirs of the Baroness
+d'Oberkirch (it was she who disturbed Mme. de Genlis and the Duc
+d'Orleans while they were walking in the gardens one night):
+
+"I did not like her, in spite of her accomplishments and the charm of
+her conversation; she was too systematic. She is a woman who has laid
+aside the flowing robes of her sex for the costume of a pedagogue.
+Besides, nothing about her is natural; she is constantly in an
+attitude, as it were, thinking that her portrait--physical or
+moral--is being taken by someone. One of the great follies of this
+masculine woman is her harp, which she carries about with her; she
+speaks about it when she hasn't it--she plays on a crust of bread and
+practises with a thread. When she perceives that someone is looking
+at her, she rounds her arm, purses up her mouth, assumes a sentimental
+expression and air, and begins to move her fingers. Gracious! what
+a fine thing naturalness is!... I spent a delightful evening at the
+Comtesse de La Massais's; she had hired musicians whom she paid dear;
+but Mme. de Genlis sat in the centre of the assembly, commanded,
+talked, commented, sang, and would have put the entire concert in
+confusion, had not the Marquise de Livry very drolly picked a quarrel
+with her about her harp, which she had brought to her. Decidedly, this
+young D'Orleans has a singular governor. She holds too closely to her
+role, and never forgets her _jupons_ [skirts] except when she ought
+most to remember them."
+
+During her visit to England she was petted by everyone; but even in
+England there was a widespread prejudice against her--a feeling which
+the mere sight of her immediately dissipated. An English lady wrote
+about her:
+
+"I saw her at first with a prejudice in her disfavor, from the cruel
+reports I had heard; but the moment I looked at her it was removed.
+There was a dignity with her sweetness and a frankness with her
+modesty, that convinced me, beyond all power of contrary report, of
+her real worth and innocence."
+
+During the Revolution Mme. de Genlis travelled about Switzerland,
+Germany, and England. At Berlin, owing to her poverty, she supported
+herself by writing, making trinkets, and teaching, until she was
+recalled to France, under the Consulate. In Paris she produced some of
+her best works--although they were written to order. Napoleon gave
+her a pension of six thousand francs and handsome apartments at the
+Arsenal. To this liberal pension, the wife of his brother, Joseph
+Bonaparte, added three thousand francs.
+
+From Mme. de Genlis, Napoleon received a letter fortnightly, in which
+epistle she communicated to him her opinions and observations upon
+politics and current events. Upon the return to power of the Orleans
+family, she was put off with a meagre pension. Like many other French
+women, she became more and more melancholy and misanthropic. She was
+unable to control her wrath against the philosophers and some of the
+contemporary writers, such as Lamartine, Mme. de Stael, Scott, and
+Byron. Her death, in 1830, was announced in these words: "Mme. de
+Genlis has ceased to write--which is to announce her death."
+
+Throughout life she was so generous that as soon as she received
+her pensions, presents, or earnings from her work, the money was
+distributed among the poor. When she died, she left nothing but a few
+worn and homely dresses and articles of furniture. The diversity of
+her works and her conduct, the politics in which she was steeped,
+the satires, the perfidious accusations that have pursued her, have
+contributed to leave of her a rather doubtful portrait; however,
+those who have written bitterly against her have done so mostly from
+personal or political animosity. She was so many-sided--a reformer,
+teacher, pietist, politician, actress--that a true estimate of her
+character is difficult. A woman of all tastes and of various talents,
+she was a living encyclopaedia and mistress of all arts of pleasing.
+She had studied medicine, and took special delight in the art of
+bleeding, which she practised upon the peasants, each one of whom she
+would present with thirty sous (thirty cents), after the bleeding--and
+she never lacked patients. Mme. de Genlis was an expert rider and
+huntress; also, she was graceful, with an elegant figure, great
+affability, and a talent for quickly and accurately reading character;
+and these gifts were stepping-stones to popularity.
+
+She wrote incessantly, on all things, essaying every style, every
+subject. "She has discoursed for the education of princes and of
+lackeys; prepared maxims for the throne and precepts for the pantry;
+you might say she possessed the gift of universality. She was gifted
+with a singular confidence in her own abilities, infinite curiosity,
+untiring industry, and never-ending and inexhaustible energy. She
+wrote nearly as much as Voltaire, and barely excelled him in the
+amount of unreadable work, which, if printed, would fill over one
+hundred volumes."
+
+"Let us remember," says Mr. Dobson, "her indefatigable industry and
+untiring energy, her kindness to her relatives and admirers, her
+courage and patience when in exile and poverty, her great talent,
+perseverance, and rare facility." In protesting vigorously against the
+universal neglect of physical development, against the absence of the
+gymnasium and the lack of practical knowledge in the education of
+her time, in advocating the study of modern languages as a means of
+culture and discipline, in applying to her pupils the principles of
+the modern experimental and observational education, Mme. de Genlis
+will retain a place as one of the great female educators--as a woman
+pedagogue, _par excellence_, of the eighteenth century.
+
+A great number of minor salons existed, which were partly literary,
+partly social. From about 1750 to 1780 the amusements varied
+constantly, from all-day parties in the country to cafes served by
+the great women themselves, from playing proverbs to playing synonyms,
+from impromptu compositions to questionable stories, from laughter to
+tears, from Blind-man's-buff to Lotto. Some of the proverbs were quite
+ingenious and required elaborate preparations; for example, at one
+place Mme. de Lauzun dances with M. de Belgunce, in the simplest kind
+of a costume, which represented the proverb: _Bonne renommee vaut
+mieux que ceinture doree_ [A good name is rather to be chosen than
+great riches]. Mme. de Marigny danced with M. de Saint-Julien as a
+negro, passing her handkerchief over her face in the various figures
+of the dance, meaning _A laver la tete d'un More on perd sa lessive_
+[To wash a blackamoor white].
+
+Among the social salons, the finest was the Temple of the Prince de
+Conti and his mistress, the Countess de Boufflers. It was a salon of
+pleasure, liberty, and unceremonious intimacy; his _thes a l'anglaise_
+were served by the great ladies themselves, attired in white aprons.
+The exclusive and elite of the social world made up his company. The
+most elegant assembly was that of the Marechale de Luxembourg; it will
+be considered later on. The salon of Mme. de Beauvau rivalled that
+of the Marechale de Luxembourg; she was mistress of elegance and
+propriety, an authority on and model of the usages of society. A
+manner perhaps superior to that of any other woman, gave Mme. de
+Beauvau a particular _politesse_ and constituted her one of the women
+who contributed most to the acceptance of Paris as the capital of
+Europe, by well-bred people of all countries. Her _politesse_ was kind
+and without sarcasm, and, by her own naturalness, she communicated
+ease. She was not beautiful, but had a frank and open expression and
+a marvellous gift of conversation, which was her delight and in which
+she gloried. Her salon was conspicuous for its untarnished honor and
+for the example it set of a pure conjugal love.
+
+The salon of Mme. de Grammont, at Versailles, was visited at all hours
+of the day and night by the highest officials, princes, lords, and
+ladies. It had activity, authority, the secret doors, veiled and
+redoubtable depths of a salon of the mistress of a king. Everybody
+went there for counsel, submitted plans, and confided projects to this
+lady who had willingly exiled herself from Paris.
+
+The house of M. de La Popeliniere, at Passy, was noted for its unique
+entertainment; there the celebrated Gossec and Gaiffre conducted the
+concerts, Deshayes, master of the ballet at the Comedie-Italienne,
+managed the amusements. It was a house like a theatre and with all the
+requisites of the latter; there artists and men of letters, virtuosos
+and _danseuses_, ate, slept, and lodged as in a hotel. With Mme. de
+Blot, mistress of the Duke of Orleans, as hostess, the Palais-Royal
+ranked next to the Temple of the Prince de Conti; it was open only to
+those who were presented; after that ceremony, all those who were thus
+introduced could, without invitation, dine there on all days of the
+Grand Opera. On the _petits jours_ a select twenty gathered, who, when
+once invited, were so for all time. The "Salon de Pomone," of Mme.
+de Marchais, received its name from Mme. du Deffand on account of the
+exquisite fruits and magnificent flowers which the hostess cultivated
+and distributed among her friends.
+
+"La Paroisse," of Mme. Doublet de Persan, was the salon of the
+sceptics and was under the constant surveillance of the police. All
+the members arrived at the same time and each took possession of the
+armchair reserved for him, above which hung his portrait. On a
+large stand were two registers, in which the rumors of the day were
+noted--in one the doubtful, in the other the accredited. On Saturday,
+a selection was made, which went to the _Grand Livre_, which became a
+journal entitled _Nouvelles a la Main_, kept by the _valet-de-chambre_
+of Mme. Doublet. This book furnished the substance of the six volumes
+of the _Memoires Secrets_, which began to appear in 1770.
+
+Besides these salons of the nobility, there were those of the
+financiers, a profession which had risen into prominence within the
+last half century, after the death of Louis XIV. According to the
+Goncourt brothers, the greatest of these salons was that of Mme.
+de Grimrod de La Reyniere, who, by dint of shrewd manoeuvring, by
+unheard-of extravagances, excessive opulence in the furnishings of
+her salon, and by the most gorgeous and rare fetes and suppers, had
+succeeded in attracting to her establishment a number of the court and
+nobility.
+
+The salon of M. de La Popeliniere belonged to this class, although he
+was ranked, more or less, among the nobility. There were the weekly
+suppers of Mme. Suard, Mme. Saurin, the Abbe Raynal, and the luncheons
+of the Abbe Morellet on the first Sunday of the month; to the latter
+functions were invited all the celebrities of the other salons, as
+well as artists and musicians--it was there that the famous quarrel
+of the Gluck and Piccini parties originated. The Tuesday dinners of
+Helvetius became famous; it was at them that Franklin was one of the
+favorites; after the death of Helvetius, he attempted in vain to
+put an end to the widowhood of madame. No man at that time was more
+popular than Franklin or had as much public attention shown him.
+
+There were a number of celebrated women whose reputations rest mainly
+on their wit and conversational abilities; they may be classed as
+society leaders, to distinguish them from salon leaders.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter X
+
+Social Classes
+
+
+The belief generally prevails that devotion and constancy did not
+exist among French women of the eighteenth century; but, in spite of
+the very numerous instances of infidelity which dot the pages of
+the history of the French matrimonial relations of those days, many
+examples of rare devotion are found, even among the nobility. Love of
+the king and self-eliminating devotion to him were feelings to which
+women aspired; yet we have one countess, the Countess of Perigord,
+who, true to her wifehood, repels the advances of the king, preferring
+a voluntary exile to the dishonor of a life of royal favors and
+attentions. There is also the example of Mme. de Tremoille; having
+been stricken with smallpox, she was ministered to by her husband, who
+voluntarily shared her fate and died with her.
+
+It would seem that the highest types of devotion are to be found in
+the families of the ministers and men of state, where the wife was
+intimately associated with the fortune and the success of her husband.
+The Marquis de Croisy and his wife were married forty years; M.
+and Mme. de Maurepas lived together for fifty years, without being
+separated one day. Instances are many in which reconciliations
+were effected after years of unfaithfulness; these seldom occurred,
+however, until the end of life was near. The normal type of married
+life among the higher classes still remained one of most ideal and
+beautiful devotion, in spite of the great number of exceptions.
+
+It must be observed that in the middle class the young girl grew up
+with the mother and was given her most tender care; surrounded with
+wholesome influences, she saw little or nothing of the world, and,
+the constant companion of her mother, developed much like the average
+young girl of to-day. At the age of about eleven she was sent to a
+convent, where--after having spent some time in the _pension_, where
+instruction in religion was given her--she was instructed by the
+sisters for one year.
+
+After her confirmation and her first communion, and the home visits to
+all the relatives, she was placed in a _maison religieuse_, where the
+sisters taught the daughters of the common people free of charge. The
+young girl was also taught dancing, music, and other accomplishments
+of a like nature, but there was nothing of the feverish atmosphere of
+the convent in which the daughters of the nobility were reared; these
+institutions for the middle classes were peaceful, silent, and calm,
+fostering a serenity and quietude. The days passed quickly, the
+Sundays being eagerly looked forward to because of the visits of the
+parents, who took their daughters for drives and walks and indulged
+them in other innocent diversions. Such a life had its after effects:
+the young girls grew up with a taste for system, discipline, piety,
+and for a rigid devotion, which often led them to an instinctive need
+of doctrine and sacrifice; consequently, in later life many turned to
+Jansenism.
+
+However, the young girls of this class who were not thus educated,
+because their assistance was required at home, received an early
+training in social as well as in domestic affairs; they had a solid
+and practical, if uncouth, foundation, combined with a worldly and,
+often, a frivolous temperament. To them many privileges were opened:
+they were taken to the opera, to concerts and to balls, to the salons
+of painting, and it often happened that they developed a craving for
+the society to which only the nobly born demoiselle was admitted. When
+this craving went too far, it frequently led to seduction by some of
+the chevaliers who make seduction a profession.
+
+The marriage customs in these circles differed little from those
+of to-day. The suitor asked permission to call and to continue his
+visits; then followed the period of present giving. The young girl
+was almost always absolute mistress of the decision; if the father
+presented a name, the daughter insisted upon seeing, receiving,
+and becoming intimately acquainted with the suitor, a custom quite
+different from that practised among the nobility. Instead of giving
+her rights as it did the girl of the nobility, marriage imposed duties
+upon the girl of the middle class; it closed the world instead of
+opening it to her; it ended her brilliant, gay, and easy life, instead
+of beginning it, as was the case in the higher classes. This she
+realized, therefore hesitated long before taking the final step which
+was to bind her until death.
+
+With her, becoming a wife meant infinitely more than it did to the
+girl of the nobility; her husband had the management of her money, and
+his vices were visited upon her and her children--in short, he became
+her master in all things. These disadvantages she was taught to
+consider deeply before entering the marriage state.
+
+This state of affairs developed distinctive physiognomies in the
+different classes of the middle-class society: thus, "the wives of the
+financiers are dignified, stern, severe; those of the merchants are
+seductive, active, gossiping, and alert; those of the artists are
+free, easy, and independent, with a strong taste for pleasure and
+gayety--and they give the tone." As we approach the end of the
+century, the _bourgeoisie_ begins to assume the airs, habits,
+extravagances, and even the immoralities, of the higher classes.
+
+Below the _bourgeoise_ was the workingwoman, whose ideas were limited
+to those of a savage and who was a woman only in sex. Her ideas of
+morality, decency, conjugal happiness, children, education, were
+limited by quarrels, profanity, blows, fights. At that time brandy was
+the sole consolation for those women; it supplied their moral force
+and their moral resistance, making them forget cold, hunger, fatigue,
+evil, and giving them courage and patience; it was the fire that
+sustained, comforted, and incited them.
+
+These women were not much above the level of animals, but from them,
+we find, often sprang the entertainers of the time, the queens of
+beauty and gallantry--Laguerre, D'Hervieux, Sophie Arnould. Having
+lost their virtue with maturity, these women had no sense of morality;
+in them, nothing preserved the sense of honor--their religion
+consisted of a few superstitious practices. The constituents of duty
+and the virtue of women they could only vaguely guess; marriage itself
+was presented to them under the most repugnant image of constant
+contention.
+
+It was in such an atmosphere as this that the daughters of these women
+grew up. Their talents found opportunity for display at the public
+dances where some of them would in time attract especial attention.
+Some became opera singers, dancers, or actresses, and were very
+popular; others became influential, and, through the efforts of
+some lover, allured about them a circle of ambitious _debauches_ or
+aspirants for social favors. Through their adventures they made their
+way up in the world to high society.
+
+From this element of prostitution was disentangled, to a large extent,
+the great gallantry of the eighteenth century. This was accomplished
+by adding an elegance to debauch, by clothing vice with a sort of
+grandeur, and by adorning scandal with a semblance of the glory and
+grace of the courtier of old. Possessing the fascination of all gifts,
+prodigalities, follies, with all the appetites and tendencies of the
+time, these women attracted the society of the period--the poets,
+the artists, even the scientists, the philosophers, and the nobility.
+Their reputation increased with the number and standing of their
+lovers. The genius of the eighteenth century circled about these
+street belles--they represented the fortune of pleasure.
+
+As the church would not countenance the marriage of an actress, she
+was forced to renounce the theatre when she would marry, but once
+married a permit to return to the stage was easily obtained. Society
+was not so severe as the laws; it received actresses, sought out, and
+even adored them; it received the women of the stage as equals, and
+many of them were married by counts and dukes, given a title, and
+presented at court. The regular type of the prostitute was tolerated
+and even received by society; "a word of anger, malediction, or
+outrage, was seldom raised against these women: on the contrary, pity
+and the commiseration of charity and tenderness were felt for them
+and manifested." This was natural, for many of them--through
+notoriety--reached society and, as mistresses of the king, even the
+throne itself. "If such women as Mme. de Pompadour were esteemed, what
+principles remained in the name of which to judge without pity and to
+condemn the _debauches_ of the street," says Mme. de Choiseul, one of
+the purest of women.
+
+This class usually created and established the styles. There is a
+striking contrast between the standards of beauty and fashions of the
+respective periods of Louis XIV. and Louis XV.: "The stately figure,
+rich costume, awe-inspiring peruke of the magnificent Louis XIV.--the
+satins, velvets, embroideries, perfumes, and powder of the indolent
+and handsome Louis XV., well illustrate the two epochs." The beauty of
+the Louis XIV. age was more serious, more imposing, imperial, classic;
+later in the eighteenth century, under Louis XV., she developed into
+a charming figure of _finesse, sveltesse et gracilite_, with an
+extremely delicate complexion, a small mouth and thin nose, as opposed
+to the strong, plump mouth and _nez leonin_ (leonine nose). More
+animated, the face was all movement, the eyes talked; the _esprit_
+passed to the face. It was the type of Marivaux' comedies, with an
+_esprit mobile_, animated and colored by all the coquetries of grace.
+
+Later in the century, the very opposite type prevailed; the aspiration
+then became to leave an emotion ungratified rather than to seduce;
+a languishing expression was cultivated; women sought to sweeten the
+physiognomy, to make it tender and mild. The style of beauty changed
+from the brunette with brown eyes--so much in vogue under Louis XV.,
+to the blonde with blue eyes under Louis XVI. Even the red which
+formerly "dishonored France," became a favorite. To obtain the much
+admired pale complexion, women had themselves bled; their dress
+corresponded to their complexion, light materials and pure white being
+much affected.
+
+In these three stages of the development of beauty, fashion changed
+to harmonize with the popular style in beauty. In general, styles
+were influenced by an important event of the day: thus, when Marie
+Leczinska, introduced the fad of quadrilles, there were invented
+ribbons called "quadrille of the queen"; and many other fads
+originated in the same way. French taste and fashions travelled over
+entire Europe; all Europe was _a la francaise_, yoked and laced in
+French styles, French in art, taste, industry. The domination of the
+French _Galerie des Modes_ was due to the inventive minds of French
+women in relation to everything pertaining to headdress, to detailed
+and delicate arrangements of every phase of ornamentation.
+
+Every country had, in Paris, its agents who eagerly waited for the
+appearance of the famous doll of the Rue Saint-Honore; this figure
+was an exponent of the latest fashions and inventions, and, changing
+continually, was watched and copied by all Europe. Alterations in
+style frequently originated at the supper of a mistress, in the box
+of a dancer or in the atelier of a fine modiste; therefore, in that
+respect, that century differed little from the present one. Trade
+depended largely upon foreign patronage. Fortunes were made by the
+modistes, who were the great artists of the day and who set the
+fashion; but the hairdresser and shoemaker, also, were artists, as was
+seen, at least in name, and were as impertinent as prosperous.
+
+An interesting illustration of the change of fashion is the following
+anecdote: In 1714, at a supper of the king, at Versailles, two English
+women wore low headdress, causing a scandal which came near costing
+them their dismissal. The king happened to mention that if French
+women were reasonable, they would not dress otherwise. The word was
+spread, and the next day, at the king's mass the ladies all wore their
+hair like the English women, regardless of the laughter of the women
+who, being absent the previous evening, had their hair dressed high.
+The compliment of the king as he was leaving mass, to the ladies with
+the low headdress, caused a complete change in the mode.
+
+It now remains but to illustrate these various classes by types--by
+women who have become famous. The Duchesse de Boufflers, Marechale de
+Luxembourg, was the woman who most completely typified the spirit and
+tone of the eighteenth-century _classique_ in everything that belonged
+to the ancient regime which passed away with the society of 1789.
+She was the daughter of the Duc de Villeroy, and married the Duc de
+Boufflers in 1721; after the death of the latter in 1747, and after
+having been the mistress of M. de Luxembourg for several years, she
+married him in 1750. Her youth was like that of most women of the
+social world. A _savante_ in intrigues at court, present at all
+suppers, bouts, and pleasure trips as lady-of-the-palace to the queen,
+intriguing constantly, holding her own by her sharp wit, in a society
+of _roues et elegants enerves_ she soon became a leader. Mme. du
+Deffand left a striking portrait of her:
+
+"Mme. la Duchesse de Boufflers is beautiful without having the air
+of suspecting it. Her physiognomy is keen and piquant, her expression
+reveals all the emotions of her soul--she does not have to say
+what she thinks, one guesses it. Her gestures are so natural and so
+perfectly in accord with what she says, that it is difficult not to be
+led to think and feel as she does. She dominates wherever she is, and
+she always makes the impression she desires to make. She makes use of
+her advantages almost like a god--she permits us to believe that we
+have a free will while she determines us. In general, she is more
+feared than loved. She has much _esprit_ and gayety. She is constant
+in her engagements, faithful to her friends, truthful, discreet,
+generous. If she were more clairvoyant or if men were less ridiculous,
+they would find her perfect."
+
+On one occasion M. de Tressan composed this famous couplet:
+
+  "Quand Boufflers parut a la cour,
+  On crut voir la mere d'Amour,
+  Chacun s'empressait a lui plaire,
+  Et chacun l'avait a son tour."
+
+  [When Boufflers appeared at court,
+  The mother of love was thought to be seen,
+  Everyone became so eager to please her,
+  And each one had her in his turn.]
+
+One day Mme. de Boufflers mumbled this before M. de Tressan, saying to
+him: "Do you know the author? It is so beautiful that I would not
+only pardon her, but I believe I would embrace her." Whereupon he
+stammered: _Eh bien! c'est moi._ She quickly dealt him two vigorous
+slaps in the face. All feared her; no one equalled her in skill and
+shrewdness, or in knowing and handling men.
+
+After her marriage to the Marechal de Luxembourg, she decided, about
+1750, to open a salon in Paris; it became one of the real forces of
+the eighteenth century, socially and politically. While her husband
+lived, she did not enjoy the freedom she desired; after his death in
+1764 she was at liberty to do as she pleased, and she then began
+her career as a judge and counsellor in all social matters. She was
+regarded as the oracle of taste and urbanity, exercised a supervision
+over the tone and usage of society, was the censor of _la bonne
+compagnie_ during the happy years of Louis XVI. This power in her was
+universally recognized. She tempered the Anglomania of the time,
+all excesses of familiarity and rudeness; she never uttered a bad
+expression, a coarse laugh or a _tutoiement_ (thee and thou). The
+slightest affectation in tone or gesture was detected and judged
+by her. She preserved the good tone of society and permitted no
+contamination. She retarded the reign of clubs, retained the urbanity
+of French society, and preserved a proper and unique character in the
+_ancien salon francais_, in the way of excellence of tone.
+
+The Marquise de Rambouillet, Mme. de La Fayette, Mme. de Maintenon,
+Mme. de Caylus, and Mme. de Luxembourg are of the same type--the same
+world, with little variance and no decadence; in some respects, the
+last may be said to have approached nearest to perfection. "In her,
+the turn of critical and caustic severity was exempt from rigidity
+and was accompanied by every charm and pleasingness in her person. She
+often judged [a person] by [his] ability at repartee, which she tested
+by embarrassing questions across the table, judging [the person] by
+the reply. She herself was never at a loss for an answer: when shown
+two portraits--one of Moliere and one of La Fontaine--and asked which
+was the greater, she answered: 'That one,' pointing to La Fontaine,
+'is more perfect in a _genre_ less perfect.'"
+
+By the Goncourt brothers, her salon has been given its merited credit:
+"The most elegant salon was that of the Marechale de Luxembourg, one
+of the most original women of the time. She showed an originality in
+her judgments, she was authority in usage, a genius in taste. About
+her were pleasure, interest, novelty, letters; here was formed the
+true elegance of the eighteenth century--a society that held sway over
+Europe until 1789. Here was formed the greatest institution of
+the time, the only one that survived till the Revolution, that
+preserved--in the discredit of all moral laws--the authority of one
+law, _la parfaite bonne compagnie_, whose aim was a social one--to
+distinguish itself from bad company, vulgar and provincial society,
+by the perfection of the means of pleasing, by the delicacy of
+friendship, by the art of considerations, complaisances, of _savoir
+vivre_, by all possible researches and refinements of _esprit_. It
+fixed everything--usages, etiquette, tone of conversation; it
+taught how to praise without bombast and insipidness, to reply to
+a compliment without disdaining or accepting it, to bring others to
+value without appearing to protect them; it prevented all slander.
+If it did not impart modesty, goodness, indulgence, nobleness of
+sentiment, it at least imposed the forms, exacting the appearances
+and showing the images of them. It was the guardian of urbanity and
+maintained all the laws that are derived from taste. It represented
+the religion of honor; it judged, and when it condemned a man he was
+socially-ruined."
+
+A type of what may be called the social mistress of the nobility--the
+personification of good taste, elegance and propriety such as it
+should be--was the Comtesse de Boufflers, mistress of the Prince de
+Conti, intimate friend of Hume, Rousseau, and Gustave III., King of
+Sweden. The countess was one of the most influential and spirituelle
+members of French society, her special mission and delight being the
+introduction of foreign celebrities into French society. She piloted
+them, was their patroness, spoke almost all modern languages, and
+visited her friends in their respective countries. She was the most
+travelled and most hospitable of great French women, hence the woman
+best informed upon the world in general.
+
+She was born in Paris in 1725, and in 1746 was married to the Comte
+de Boufflers-Rouvrel; soon after, becoming enamored of the Prince de
+Conti, she became his acknowledged mistress. To give an idea of
+the light in which the women of that time considered those who were
+mistresses of great men, the following episodes may be cited: One day,
+Mme. de Boufflers, momentarily forgetting her relations to the Prince
+de Conti, remarked that she scorned a woman who _avait un prince du
+sang_ (was mistress of a prince of the blood). When reminded of her
+apparent inconsistency, she said: "I wish to give by my words
+to virtue what I take away from it by my actions...." On another
+occasion, she reproached the Marechale de Mirepoix for going to see
+Mme. de Pompadour, and in the heat of argument said: "Why, she
+is nothing but the first _fille_ (mistress) of the kingdom!" The
+marechale replied: "Do not force me to count even unto three" (Mme.
+de Pompadour, Mlle. Marquise, Mme. de Boufflers). In those days,
+the position of mistress of an important man attracted little more
+attention than might a petty, trivial, light-hearted flirtation
+nowadays.
+
+After the death of M. de Boufflers, in 1764, the all-absorbing
+question of society, and one of vital importance to madame, was, Will
+the prince marry her? If not, will she continue to be his mistress? In
+this critical period, Hume showed his friendship and true sympathy
+by giving Mme. de Boufflers most persuasive and practical advice in
+reference to morals--which she did not follow. Her relations
+with Rousseau showed her capable of the deepest and most profound
+friendship and sympathy. According to Sainte-Beuve, it was she who,
+by aid of her friends in England, procured asylum for him with Hume at
+Wootton. When Rousseau's rashness brought on the quarrel which set in
+commotion and agitated the intellectual circles of both continents,
+Mme. de Boufflers took his part and remained faithful to him, securing
+a place for him in the Chateau de Trie, which belonged to the Prince
+de Conti.
+
+All who came in contact with her recognized the distinction, elevation
+of _esprit_, and sentiment of Mme. de Boufflers. With her are
+associated the greatest names of the time; being perfectly at home
+on all the political questions of the day, she was better able to
+converse upon these subjects than was any other woman of the time.
+When in 1762 she visited England, she was lionized everywhere. She was
+feted at court and in the city, and all conversation was upon the one
+subject, that of her presence, which was one of the important events
+of London life. Everyone was anxious to see the famous woman, the
+first of rank to visit England in two hundred years. She even received
+some special attention from the eccentric Samuel Johnson, in this
+manner: "Horace Walpole had taken the countess to call on Johnson.
+After the conventional time of a formal call had expired, they left,
+and were halfway down stairs, when it dawned upon Johnson that it was
+his duty, as host, to pay the honors of his literary residence to a
+foreign lady of quality; to show himself gallant, he jumped down from
+the top of the stairway, and, all agitation, seized the hand of the
+countess and conducted her to her carriage."
+
+No woman at court had more friends and fewer enemies than did Mme. de
+Boufflers, because "she united to the gifts of nature and the culture
+of _esprit_ an amiable simplicity, charming graces, a goodness,
+kindness, and sensibility, which made her forget herself always and
+constantly seek to aid those about her." She made use of her influence
+over the prince in such ways as would, in a measure, recompense for
+her fault, and thus recommended herself by her good actions. She was
+the soul of his salon, "Le Temple." The love of these two people,
+through its intimacy and public display, through its constancy,
+happiness, and decency, dissipated all scandal. Always cheerful
+and pleased to amuse, knowing how to pay attention to all, always
+rewarding the bright remarks of others with a smile, which all sought
+as a mark of approbation, no one ever wished her any ill fortune.
+
+The last days of the Prince de Conti were cheered by the presence of
+Mme. de Boufflers and the friends whom she gathered about him to help
+bear his illness. The letter to her from Hume, on his deathbed, is
+most pathetic, showing the influence of this woman and the nature of
+the impression she left upon her friends:
+
+"Edinburgh, 20th of August, 1776.
+
+"Although I am certainly within a few weeks, dear Madame, and perhaps
+within a few days, of my own death, I could not forbear being struck
+with the death of the Prince of Conti--so great a loss in every
+particular. My reflection carried me immediately to your situation in
+this melancholy incident. What a difference to you in your whole plan
+of life! Pray write me some particulars, but in such terms that you
+need not care, in case of my decease, into whose hands your letter may
+fall.... My distemper is a diarrhoea or disorder in my bowels, which
+has been gradually undermining me for these two years, but within
+these six months has been visibly hastening me to my end. I see death
+approach gradually, without any anxiety or regret. I salute you with
+great affection and regard, for the last time.
+
+"David Hume."
+
+Hume died five days after this letter was written.
+
+The last years of her life she spent with her daughter-in-law, at
+Auteuil, where she lived a happy life and received the best society of
+Paris. When she died or under what circumstances is not known. During
+the Revolution she lived in obscurity, busying herself with charitable
+work; she was one of the few women of the nobility to escape the
+guillotine, "This woman, who had kept the intellectual world alive
+with her _esprit_ and goodness, of a sudden vanishes like a star from
+the horizon; she lives on, unnoticed by everyone, and, in that new
+society, no one misses her or regrets her death."
+
+In order to fully appreciate the mistress of the eighteenth century,
+her power and influence, her rise to popularity and social standing,
+the general and accepted idea and nature of the sentiment called love
+must be explained; for it was to the peculiar development of that
+emotion that the mistress owed her fortune.
+
+In the eighteenth century love became a theory, a cult; it developed a
+language of its own. In the preceding age love was declared, it spoke,
+it was a virtue of grandeur and generosity, of courage and delicacy,
+exacting all proofs of decency and gallantry, patient efforts,
+respect, vows, discretion, and reciprocal affection. The ideal was
+one of heroism, nobleness, and bravery. In the eighteenth century this
+ideal became mere desire; love became voluptuousness, which was to be
+found in art, music, styles, fashions--in everything. Woman herself
+was nothing more than the embodiment of voluptuousness; it made her
+what she was, directing and fashioning her. Every movement she
+made, every garment she wore, all the care she applied to her
+appearance--all breathed this _volupte_.
+
+In paintings it was found in impure images, coquettish immodesties, in
+couples embraced in the midst of flowers, in scenes of tenderness:
+all these representations were hung in the rooms of young girls, above
+their beds. They grew up to know _volupte_, and, when old enough, they
+longed for it. It was useless for women to try to escape its power,
+and chastity naturally disappeared under these temptations. The young
+girl inherited the impure instincts of the mother, and, when matured,
+was ready and eager for all that could enchant and gratify the senses.
+
+True domestic friendship and intimacy were rare, because the husband
+given to a young girl had passed through a long list of mistresses,
+and talked--from experience--gallant confidences which took away the
+veil of illusion. She was immediately taken into society, where she
+became familiar with the spicy proverbs and the salty prologues of
+the theatre, where supposedly decent women were present, in curtained
+boxes. At the suppers and dinners, by songs and plays, at the
+gatherings where held forth Duclos and others like him, in the midst
+of champagne, _ivresse d'esprit_, and eloquence, she was taught and
+saw the corruption of society and marriage, the disrespect to modesty;
+in such an atmosphere all trace of innocence was destroyed. She was
+taught that faithfulness to a husband belonged only to the people,
+that it was an evidence of stupidity. Manners, customs, and even
+religion were against the preservation of innocence and purity; and in
+this depravity the abbes were the leaders.
+
+Such conditions were dangerous and disastrous not to young girls
+only, they affected the young men also; the latter, amidst this
+social demoralization, developed their evil tendencies, and, in a few
+generations, there was formed a Paris completely debauched. Love meant
+nothing more elevated than desire; for man, the paramount idea was
+to have or possess; for woman, to capture. There was no longer any
+mystery, any secret; the lover left his carriage at the door of
+his love, as if to publish his good fortune; he regularly made his
+appearance at her house, at the hour of the toilette, at dinner and at
+all the fetes; the public announcement of the liaison was made at the
+theatre when he sat in her box.
+
+There came a period when so-called love fell so low that woman no
+longer questioned a man's birth, rank, or condition, and vice versa,
+as long as he or she was in demand; a successful man had nearly every
+woman of prominence at his feet. The men planned their attacks upon
+the women whom they desired, and the women connived, posed, and set
+most ingenious traps and devised most extraordinary means to captivate
+their hero. As the century wore on and the vices and appetites
+gradually consumed the healthy tissues, there sprang up a class of
+monsters, most accomplished _roues_, consummate leaders of theoretical
+and practical immorality, who were without conscience. To gain their
+ends, they manipulated every medium--valets, chambermaids, scandal,
+charity; their one object was to dishonor woman.
+
+Women were no better; "a natural falseness, an acquired dissimulation,
+a profound observation, a lie without flinching, a penetrating eye,
+a domination of the senses--to these they owed their faculties and
+qualities so much feared at the time, and which made them professional
+and consummate politicians and ministers. Along with their gallantry,
+they possessed a calmness, a tone of liberty, a cynicism; these were
+their weapons and deadly ones they were to the man at whom they were
+aimed."
+
+There were, in this century, superior women in whom was exhibited a
+high form of love, but who realized that perfect love was impossible
+in their age; yet they desired to be loved in an intense and
+legitimate manner. This phase of womanhood is well represented by
+Mlle. Aisse and Mlle. de Lespinasse, both of whom felt an irresistible
+need of loving; they proclaimed their love and not only showed
+themselves to be capable of loving and of intense suffering, but
+proved themselves worthy of love which, in its highest form, they felt
+to be an unknown quantity at that time. Their love became a constant
+inspiration, a model of devotion, almost a transfiguration of passion.
+These women were products of the time; they had to be, to
+compensate for the general sterility and barrenness, to equalize the
+inequalities, and to pay the tribute of vice and debauch.
+
+All the customs of the age were arrayed against pure womanhood and
+offered it nothing but temptation. Inasmuch as the husband belonged
+to court and to war more than to domestic felicity, he left his wife
+alone for long periods. The husbands themselves seemed actually to
+enjoy the infidelity of their wives and were often intimate friends of
+their wives' lovers; and it was no rare thing that when the wife found
+no pleasure in lovers, she did not concern herself about her husband's
+mistresses (unless they were intolerably disagreeable to her), often
+advising the mistress as to the best method of winning her husband.
+
+It must be admitted that this separation in marriage, this reciprocity
+of liberty, this absolute tolerance, was not a phase of the eighteenth
+century marriage, but was the very character of it. In earlier times,
+in the sixteenth century, infidelity was counted as such and caused
+trouble in the household. If the husband abused his privileges, the
+wife was obliged to bear the insult in silence, being helpless to
+avenge it. If she imitated his actions, it was under the gravest
+dangers to her own life and that of her lover. The honor of the
+husband was closely attached to the virtue of the wife; thus, if
+he sought diversion elsewhere, and his wife fell victim to the
+fascinations of another, he was ridiculed. Marriage was but an
+external bond; in the eighteenth century, it was a bond only as long
+as husband and wife had affection for one another; when that no
+longer existed, they frankly told each other and sought that emotion
+elsewhere; they ceased to be lovers and became friends.
+
+A very fertile source of so much unfaithfulness was the frequent
+marriage of a ruined nobleman to a girl of fortune, but without rank.
+Giving her his name was the only moral obligation; the marriage over
+and the dowry portion settled, he pursued his way, considering that
+he owed her no further duty. Very frequently, the husband, overcome by
+jealousy or humiliated by the low standard of his wife who injured or
+brought ridicule upon his name, would have her kidnapped and taken
+to a convent. This right was enjoyed by the husband in spite of the
+general liberty of woman. A letters-patent was obtained through proof
+of adultery, and the wife was imprisoned in some convent for the rest
+of her life, being deprived of her dowry which fell to her husband.
+
+At one time, the great ambition of woman was to procure a legal
+separation--an ambition which seems to have developed into a fad,
+for at one period there were over three hundred applicants for legal
+separation, a state of affairs which so frightened Parliament that
+it passed rigid laws. A striking contrast to this was the custom
+connected with mourning. At the death of the husband, the wife wore
+mourning, her entire establishment, with every article of interior
+furnishing, was draped in the sombre hue; she no longer went out and
+her house was open only to relatives and those who came to pay visits
+of condolence. Unless she married again, she remained in mourning all
+her life; but it should not be understood that the veil concealed her
+coquetry or prevented her from enjoying her liberty and planning her
+future. Then, as to-day, there were many examples of fanaticism and
+folly; one widow would endeavor to commit suicide; another lived with
+the figure of her husband in wax; another conversed, for several
+hours of the day, with the shade of her husband; others consecrated
+themselves to the church.
+
+This all-supreme sway of love and its attributes, left its impression
+and lasting effect upon the physiognomy of the mistress; in the early
+part of the century, the mistress was chosen from the respectable
+aristocracy and the nobility; gradually, however, the limits of
+selection were extended until they included the _bourgeoisie_ and,
+finally, the offspring of the common _femme du peuple_. A woman
+from any profession, from any stratum of society, by her charm and
+intelligence, her original discoveries and inventions of debauch
+and licentiousness, could easily become the heroine of the day, the
+goddess of society, the goal and aspiration of the used-up _roues_
+of the aristocracy. Under Louis XIV., such popularity was an
+impossibility to a woman of that sort, but society under the Regency
+seemed to have awakened from the torpor and gloom of the later years
+of the monarchy to a reign of unrestrained gayety and vice.
+
+The first woman to infect the social atmosphere of the nobility with a
+new form of extravagance and licentiousness was Adrienne Le Couvreur,
+who was the heroine of the day during the first years of the Regency.
+She was the daughter of a hatter, who had gone to Paris about 1702;
+while employed as a laundress, she often gave proof of the possession
+of remarkable dramatic genius by her performances at private
+theatricals. In 1717, through the influence of the great actor Baron,
+she made her appearance at the Comedie Francaise; the reappearance of
+that favorite with Adrienne Le Couvreur as companion, in the plays of
+Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire, reestablished the popularity of the
+French theatre. Adrienne immediately became a favorite with the titled
+class, was frequently present at Mme. de Lambert's, gave the most
+sumptuous suppers herself, and was compelled to repulse lovers of the
+highest nobility.
+
+Her principal lovers were Voltaire, whom she nursed through smallpox,
+spending many hours in reading to him, and Maurice of Saxony; she had
+children of whom the latter was the father, and it was she who, by
+selling her plate and jewelry, supplied him with forty thousand francs
+in order to enable him to equip his soldiers when he proposed to
+recover the principality of Courland. She was generous to prodigality;
+but when she died, the Church refused to grant consecrated ground for
+the reception of her remains, although it condescended to accept her
+munificent gift of a hundred thousand francs to charity. Her death was
+said to have been caused by her rival, the Duchesse de Bouillon,
+by means of poisoned pastilles administered by a young abbe. In
+the night, her body was carried by two street porters to the Rue de
+Bourgogne, where it was buried. Voltaire, in great indignation at
+such injustice, wrote his stinging poem _La Mort de Mademoiselle Le
+Couvreur_, which was the cause of his being again obliged to leave
+Paris.
+
+The popularity of the Comedie Francaise declined after the deaths of
+Baron and Adrienne Le Couvreur, until the appearance of Mlle. Clairon,
+who was one of the greatest actresses of France. Born in Flanders in
+1723, at a very early age she had wandered about the provinces, from
+theatre to theatre, with itinerant troupes, winning a great reputation
+at Rouen. In 1738 the leading actresses were Mlle. Quinault, who
+had retired to enjoy her immense fortune in private life, and Mlle.
+Dumesnil, the great _tragedienne_. When Mlle. Clairon received an
+offer to play alternately with the favorite, Mlle. Dumesnil, she
+selected as her opening part _Phedre_, the _role de triomphe_ of her
+rival.
+
+The appearance of a debutante was an event, and its announcement
+brought out a large crowd; the presumption of a provincial artist
+in selecting a role in which to rival a great favorite had excited
+general ridicule, and an unusually large audience had assembled,
+expecting to witness an ignominious failure. Mlle. Clairon's stately
+figure, the dignity and grace of her carriage, "her finely chiselled
+features, her noble brow, her air of command, her clear, deep,
+impassioned voice," made an immediate impression upon the audience.
+She was unanimously acknowledged as superior to Mlle. Dumesnil, and
+the entire social and literary world hastened to do her homage.
+
+Mlle. Clairon did as much for the theatre as did Adrienne Le Couvreur,
+especially in discarding, in her _Phedre_, the plumes, spangles, the
+panier, the frippery, which had been the customary equipments of that
+role. She and Lecain, the prominent actor of the day, introduced the
+custom of wearing the proper costume of the characters represented.
+The grace and dignity of her stage presence caused her to be sought
+by the great ladies, who took lessons in her famous courtesy _grande
+reverence_, which was later supplanted by the courtesy of Mme. de
+Pompadour.
+
+Mlle. Clairon became the recipient of great favors and honors, her
+most prominent slave being Marmontel, to whom she had given a room in
+her hotel after Mme. Geoffrin had withdrawn from him the privilege of
+occupying an apartment in her spacious establishment. She contributed
+largely to the success of his plays, as well as to those of Voltaire,
+whom she visited at Ferney, performing in his private theatre. Her
+success was uninterrupted until she declined to play, in the _Siege de
+Calais_, with an actor who had been guilty of dishonesty; she was then
+thrown into prison, and refused to reappear. When about fifty years of
+age she became the mistress of the Margrave of Ansbach, at whose court
+she resided for eighteen years. In 1791 she returned to Paris, where,
+poor and forgotten, she died in 1803.
+
+An actress or a singer who left a greater reputation through her wit,
+the promptness and malignity of her repartee, and her extravagance,
+than through her voice was Sophie Arnould, the pupil of Mlle. Clairon.
+She was the daughter of an innkeeper; her first success was won
+through her charming figure and her flexible voice. Some of the ladies
+attached to the court of Louis XV., having heard her sing at evening
+service during Passion week, had induced the royal chapel master to
+employ her in the choir. There, and by the warm eulogies of Marmontel
+during one of his toilette visits to Mme. de Pompadour, the attention
+of the _maitresse-en-titre_ was called to her beauty and vocal charm.
+
+Her debut was made with unusual success, but she afterward eloped with
+the Comte de Lauraguais, who had made a wager that he could win the
+beautiful artist. After her reappearance at Paris her career became a
+long series of dissipations and unprecedented extravagances. She was
+as witty as she was licentious, and many of her _bons mots_ have been
+collected. It was she who characterized the great Necker and Choiseul,
+on being shown a box containing their portraits: "That is receipt and
+expenditure"--the credit and debit. She was one of the few prominent
+women who died in favor and in comfortable circumstances.
+
+The lowest and most depraved of this licentious class of women was
+Mlle. La Guimard, the legitimate daughter of a factory inspector of
+cloth. In 1758 she entered the opera as a ballet girl, but very
+little is known of her during the first years of her career except in
+connection with her numerous lovers. In about 1768 she was living in
+most sumptuous style, her extravagances being paid for by two lovers,
+the Prince de Soubise, her _amant utile_, and the farmer-general, M.
+de La Borde, her _amant honoraire_.
+
+At this period she gave three suppers weekly: one for all the great
+lords at court and of distinction; the second for authors, scholars,
+and artists; the third being a supper of _debauchees_, the most
+seductive and lascivious girls of the opera; at the last function,
+luxury and debauch were carried to unknown extremes. At her
+superb country home, "Pantin," she gave private performances, the
+magnificence of which was unprecedented and admission to which was an
+honor as eagerly sought as was that of attendance at Versailles.
+
+There was another side to the nature of Mlle. La Guimard: during the
+terrible cold of the winter of 1768, she went about alone visiting the
+poor and needy, distributing food and clothing purchased with the six
+thousand livres given her by her lover, the Prince de Soubise, as
+a New Year's gift. Her charity became so general that people of all
+professions and classes went to her for assistance--actors and artists
+to borrow the money with which to pay their debts, officers with the
+same object in view. To one of the latter to whom she had just lent a
+hundred louis and who was about to sign a note, she said: "Sir, your
+word is sufficient. I imagine that an officer will have as much honor
+as _fille d'opera_."
+
+Her performances at "Pantin" and her luxurious mode of life required
+more money than the two lovers were able to supply; therefore, another
+was accepted in the person of the Bishop of Orleans, Monseigneur de
+Jarente, who supplied her with money and other necessaries. In 1771
+she decided to build a hotel with an elegant theatre which would
+comfortably seat five hundred people. The opening of this Temple de
+Terpsichore was the great event of the year (1772). All the nobility
+was there, even the princes of the blood, and the "delicious licenses
+of the presentation were fully enjoyed by those who were fortunate
+enough to obtain admission."
+
+Her costumes were of such taste and became so renowned that Marie
+Antoinette consulted her in reference to her own wonderful inventions;
+the dresses became known as the _Robe a la La Guimard_. Inasmuch as
+the management of the Opera supplied all gowns, the expense for this
+one artist was enormous, in 1779 amounting to thirty thousand livres
+for dresses alone. In 1785, being in financial straits, she sold
+her hotel on the Rue Chaussee-d'Antin by lottery, two thousand five
+hundred tickets at one hundred and twenty livres each. None of the
+salons of Paris could compare with hers in the "costliness of the
+crystal and the plate of her table service, in the taste and elegance
+of her floral decorations--choice exotics obtained from a distance,
+regardless of expense."
+
+After appearing at the Haymarket Opera House in London in 1789,
+Mlle. La Guimard decided to retire to private life, and married M.
+Despreaux, the ballet master, fifteen years her junior. During the
+Revolution the government ceased to pay pensions, and as she had
+saved very little of her wealth the two lived in the most straitened
+circumstances. Her fate was similar to that of the average woman of
+pleasure--forgotten, half-witted, stooping to any act of indecency to
+gain a few sous.
+
+Such were the principal heroines of the stage, opera, and ballet; they
+were in harmony with the general state of that depraved society of
+which they were natural products; transitory lights that shone for but
+a short space of time, consumed by their own sensuous instinct, they
+were forgotten with death. The royal mistresses lived the same life
+and followed the same ideals, but exerted a greater and more lasting
+influence in the state.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XI
+
+Royal Mistresses
+
+
+In the study of the royal mistresses of the eighteenth century,
+we encounter two in particular,--Mme. de Pompadour and Mme. du
+Barry,--who, though totally different types of women, both reflect the
+gradual decline of ideals and morals in the first and last years of
+the reign of Louis XV. The former dominated the king by means of her
+intelligence, but the latter swayed the sovereign, already consumed by
+his sensual excesses, through her peculiarly seductive sensuality.
+
+During the first years of the reign of Louis XV., one of the most
+influential women was Mme. de Prie, who brought about the marriage of
+the king to Marie Leczinska, the daughter of the King of Poland, by
+which manoeuvre she made herself _Dame de Palais de la Reine_. The
+queen naturally took her and her husband into favor, regarding them
+as her and her father's benefactors and as entitled to her warmest
+gratitude. Mme. de Prie succeeded in winning the queen's affection
+and confidence; however, these were of little value, inasmuch as the
+queen's influence upon society and morals was not felt, for she led
+a life of seclusion, shut up in her oratory and constantly on her
+_prie-dieu_, and was an object of pity and ridicule.
+
+Mme. de Prie and M. le Duc, having planned to deprive M. Fleury, the
+minister, of his power,--he had been the king's preceptor,--suddenly
+had the tables turned against them. Both were exiled, and a new
+coterie of ladies came into power; the Duchesse d'Alincourt replaced
+Mme. de Prie, and the king and M. Fleury themselves took up the
+affairs of state.
+
+M. Fleury, now cardinal, perceiving that a mistress was inevitable,
+consented to the choice by the dissolute men and women of court
+of Mme. de Mailly,--or Mlle. de Nesle,--who was supposed to be a
+disinterested person. The king, who had no love for her, accepted her
+as he would have accepted anything put before him by the court. The
+queen was incapable of exerting any beneficial influence upon him; in
+fact, the more he became alienated from her, the more humble and timid
+did she appear when in his presence. The reign of Mlle. de Nesle had
+lasted less than a year, when the beautiful Mme. de La Tournelle,
+created Duchesse de Chateauroux, replaced her; the latter lived but
+a short time, being the second mistress of Louis XV. to die within a
+year. After her death the king raised the beautiful Mme. d'Etioles
+to the honor of _maitresse-en-titre_; she, as Mme. de Pompadour, was,
+without doubt, the most prominent, possibly the most intelligent and
+intellectual, certainly the most powerful, of all French mistresses.
+It was the first time that a _bourgeoise_ of the financier class
+had usurped the position of mistress--that honor having belonged
+exclusively to the nobility.
+
+After the first infidelities of the king, Marie Leczinska's life
+became more and more austere and secluded; she remained indoors, far
+from the noise and activity of Versailles, leaving only for charitable
+purposes or for the theatre. Her mornings were entirely occupied in
+prayers and moral readings, after which followed a visit to the king,
+a little painting, the toilette, mass, and dinner. After dinner,
+she retired to her apartments and passed the time making tapestry,
+embroidering, and in charity work--no longer the recreation of
+leisure, but the duty of charity which the poor expected. Her taste
+for music, the guitar, the clavecin, all amusements in which
+she delighted before her marriage, were abandoned. Under such
+circumstances the mistress had full control of everything.
+
+It was prophesied of Mlle. Jeanne Poisson, at the age of nine, that
+she would become the mistress of Louis XV. (Mme. Lebon, who made this
+pleasing prediction, was later rewarded with a pension of six hundred
+livres.) Mlle. Jeanne was the natural daughter of a butcher, but
+received a good education and, at the age of twenty, was married to Le
+Normand d'Etioles, farmer of taxes. It was shortly after this that
+she managed to attract the king's attention, at a hunting party in
+the forest of Senart. With the assistance of her friends, she was
+successful in winning the king, and, in April, 1754, at a supper which
+lasted far into the early morning, reposing in his arms, she virtually
+became the mistress of Louis XV. The actual accomplishment of this,
+however, depended upon the disposal of her husband, which was easily
+arranged by Louis, who ordered Le Normand d'Etioles from Paris, thus
+securing her from any harm from him. The brothers De Goncourt write
+thus of her talents:
+
+"Marvellous aptitudes, a scholarly and rare education, had given to
+this young woman all the gifts and virtues that made of a woman what
+the eighteenth century called a virtuoso, an accomplished model of
+the seductions of her time. Jeliotte had taught her singing and the
+clavecin; Guibaudet, dancing; Crebillon had taught her declamation and
+the art of diction; the friends of Crebillon had formed her young mind
+to _finesse_, to delicacies, to lightness of sentiment, and to irony
+of the _esprit_ of the time. All the talents of grace seemed to be
+united in her. No woman mounted a horse better; none captured applause
+more quickly than did she with her voice and instrument; none recalled
+in a better way the tone of Gaussin or the accent of Clairon; none
+could tell a story better. And there where others could vie with her
+in coquetry, she carried off the honors by her genius of toilette, by
+the graceful turn she gave to a mere rag, by the air she imparted to
+a mere nothing which ornamented her, by the characteristic signature
+which her taste gave to everything she wore."
+
+To please and charm, Mme. d'Etioles had a complexion of the most
+striking whiteness, lips somewhat pale, and eyes of an indescribable
+color in which were blended and compounded the seduction of black
+eyes, the seduction of blue eyes. She had magnificent chestnut hair,
+ravishing teeth, and the most delicious smile which "hollowed her
+cheeks into two dimples which the engraving of _La Jardiniere_ shows;
+she had a medium-sized and round waist, perfect hands, a play
+of gestures lively and passionate throughout, and, above all, a
+physiognomy of a mobility, of a changeableness, of a marvellous
+animation, wherein the soul of the woman passed ceaselessly, and
+which, constantly in process of change, showed in turn an impassioned
+and imperious tenderness, a noble seriousness, or roguish graces."
+
+In September, 1745, she was formally presented to the queen and
+court as the Marquise de Pompadour, and, in October, was installed
+at Fontainebleau in the apartments formerly occupied by Mme. de
+Chateauroux, who had just died. Her position was not an easy one,
+for all the superb jealousy and hateful scorn which the aristocracy
+cherished against the power and wealth of the _bourgeoisie_ were
+turned against her; but the court scandal-mongers and intriguers found
+their match in Mme. de Pompadour, who showed herself so superior
+in every respect to the court ladies that the hostilities gradually
+ceased, but not until the public itself had expended all its efforts
+against this upstart.
+
+Her first move was to surround herself with friends, the first of whom
+she wisely sought in the queen. Paying her every possible attention,
+she persuaded the king to show her more consideration. The Prince
+de Conti, the Paris brothers, and others of the great financiers of
+France were added to her circle. After this she began her rule as
+first minister, in place of the dead Fleury, by giving places and
+pensions to her favorites. The reign of economy and domestic morality
+came to an end with the accession of Mme. de Pompadour; in fact, it
+was soon generally considered that those upon whom she did not shower
+favors were her enemies. At this time the nobility of France was too
+corrupt to raise any serious objections to the dispensing of favors by
+the _maitresse-en-titre_, whether she were of noble birth or not.
+
+As mistress, her duties were many: to manipulate and manage
+Versailles, please and captivate the king, make allies, win over the
+highest officials and keep control of them, put her own friends in
+office, attach to her favor every man of prominence,--princes and
+ministers,--keep in touch with the court, appease, humor, and win the
+honor of the courtiers, "attach consciences, recompense capitulations,
+organize about the mistress an emulation of devotion and servility by
+means of prodigality of the favors of the king and the money of the
+state; but what was a more burdensome task,--she must occupy the king,
+aid and agitate him, fight off constantly, from day to day and hour to
+hour, ennui."
+
+This terrible ennui, indifference, enervation, this lazy and splenetic
+humor of the king, she succeeded in distracting, in soothing, and
+amusing. She understood him perfectly--therein lie the great secret
+of the favor of Mme. de Pompadour and the great reason of her long
+domination which only death could end. She had the patience and
+genius to soothe the many ills of the monarch, possessing an intuitive
+understanding of his moral temperament, and a complete comprehension
+of his nervous sensibility; these gifts were a science with her and
+enabled her to keep alive his taste for and enjoyment of life. Mme.
+de Pompadour is said to have taken possession of the very existence of
+Louis XV.
+
+"She appropriates and kills his time, robs him of the monotony of
+hours, draws him through a thousand pastimes in this eternity of ennui
+between morning and night, never abandoning him for a minute, not
+permitting him to fall back upon himself. She takes him away from
+work, disputes him to the ministers, hides him from the ambassadors.
+In his face must not be seen a cloud or the slightest trace of care of
+affairs; to Maurepas, in the act of reading some reports to the king,
+she says: 'Come now, M. de Maurepas, you turn the king yellow....
+Adieu, M. de Maurepas'; and Maurepas gone, she takes the king, she
+smiles upon the lover, she cheers the man."
+
+In 1747, two years after her installation, she interested the king in
+a theatre, and inaugurated the famous representations at the Theatre
+des Petits Appartements; she herself was one of its best actresses,
+singers, and musicians. All the members of the nobility vied with one
+another in procuring admission to these performances, as auditors or
+actors. Her contemporaries say that she was without a rival in acting,
+for in that art she found opportunity to show her vivacity, her
+_esprit_ of tone, and her malice of expression, the effect of which
+was heightened by her voice, graceful figure, and tasteful attire,
+which became the envy of every court lady.
+
+Almost all rising young artists and men of letters were encouraged or
+pensioned by Mme. de Pompadour. Her salon would have become one of
+the most distinguished of the period, as she was, herself, the most
+remarkably talented and beautiful woman of her time, had not lack
+of moral principles and an intense love of power led her to seek the
+gratification of her ambitions in the much envied position of mistress
+of the king. To assist at her toilette became a favor more eagerly
+desired than presence at the _petit lever_ of the king. The court
+became more brilliant, the middle class rose, the prestige of the
+nobility declined; the last became, in general, but a crowd of
+_cordons bleus_, eager to claim the favor of any of her proteges.
+Every noble house offered a daughter in marriage to her brother, whom
+she made _intendant_ of public buildings, and who looked with much
+displeasure upon the actions of his sister.
+
+Mme. de Pompadour made a thorough study of the politics of Europe in
+relation to the affairs of the nation--a proceeding in which she
+was aided by her extraordinary intelligence, acute perception of
+difficulties and conditions, domestic and foreign; by the exercise of
+these qualities, she put herself in touch with the politics of France,
+always consulting the best of minds and winning many friends among
+them. In 1749 she succeeded in ridding herself of her pronounced
+enemy, Maurepas, minister and confidential adviser of the king, and
+subsequently began her reign as absolute mistress and governor of
+France.
+
+Her life then became one of constant labor, which gradually undermined
+her health. Appreciating the mental indolence of Louis, she would
+place before him a clear and succinct resume of all important
+questions of state affairs, which she, better than any other, knew
+how to present without wearying him. Realizing that her power depended
+upon her influence over the king, and that she was surrounded by men
+and women who were simply waiting for a favorable opportunity to cause
+her downfall, she was constantly on the defensive. She considered it
+"the business of her life to make her yoke so easy and pleasant, and
+from habit so necessary to him, that an effort to shake it off would
+be an effort that would cause him real pain." Her happiest hours--for
+she did not love the king--were those spent with her brother, the
+Marquis de Marigny, in the midst of artists, musicians, and men of
+letters.
+
+As for the queen, she was in the background, absolutely. "All the
+prerogatives of a princess of a sovereign house were, at this time,
+about 1750, conferred by the king upon Mme. de Pompadour, and all
+the pomp and parade then deemed indispensable to rank so exalted were
+fully assumed by her." At the opera, she had her _loge_ with the king,
+her tribune at the chapel of Versailles where she heard mass, her
+servants were of the nobility, her carriage had the ducal arms, her
+etiquette was that of Mme. de Montespan, Her father was ennobled to De
+Marigny, her brother to be Marquis de Vandieres. The marriage of her
+daughter to a son of the king and his former mistress was planned,
+then with a son of Richelieu, then with others of the nobility;
+fortunately, the girl died.
+
+Mme. de Pompadour gradually amassed a royal fortune, buying the
+magnificent estate of Crecy for six hundred and fifty thousand livres;
+"La Celle," near Versailles, for twenty-six thousand livres; the Hotel
+d'Evreaux, at Paris, for seventy-five thousand livres--and these were
+her minor expenses; her paintings, sculpture, china, pottery, etc.,
+cost France over thirty-six million livres. Her imagination in art and
+inventions was wonderful; she retouched and decorated the chateau
+in which she was received by the king; she made "Choisy"--the king's
+property--her own, as it were, by all the embellishments she ordered
+and the expenditures which her lover lavished upon it at her request.
+All the luxuries of the life at "Choisy," all the refinements even to
+the smallest detail, had their origin in her inventions. It was she
+who planned the fairy chateau with its wonderful furniture, her own
+invention.
+
+At that time, her whole life was spent in adding variety to the life
+of the king and in distracting the ennui which pursued him. In her
+retreats she affected the simplicity of country life; the gardens
+contained sheepfolds and were free from the pomp of the conventional
+French gardens; there were cradles of myrtle and jasmine, rosebushes,
+rustic hiding places, statues of Cupid, and fields of jonquils filled
+the air with the most intoxicating perfume. There she amused her
+sovereign by appearing in various characters and acting the parts--now
+a royal personage, now a gardener's maid.
+
+However, in spite of all cunning study of the sensuous nature of
+the king, in spite of this perpetual enchantment of his senses,
+this favorite was obliged to fight for her power every minute of her
+existence. If hers were a conquest, it was a laborious one, held only
+through ceaseless activity; continual brainwork, all the countermoves
+and manoeuvres of the courtesan, were required to keep Mme. de
+Pompadour seated in this position, which was surrounded by snares and
+dangers.
+
+To possess the time of the king, occupy his enemies, soothe his
+fatigue, arouse his wearied body condemned to a milk diet, to preserve
+her beauty--all these were the least of her tasks. She must be ever
+watchful, see evil in every smile, danger in every success, divine
+secret plots, be on guard to resist the court, the royal family,
+the ministry. For her there was no moment of repose: even during
+the effusions of love she must act the spy upon the king, and, with
+presence of mind and calmness, must seek in the deceitful face of the
+man the secrets of the master.
+
+Every morning witnessed the opening of a new comedy: a gay smile,
+a tranquil brow, a light song, must ever disguise the mind's
+preoccupation and all the machinations of her fertile brain. At one
+time the Comte d'Argenson, desiring to succeed Fleury as minister,
+almost arrived at supplanting Mme. de Pompadour by young Mme. de
+Choiseul, who, having charmed the king on one occasion, obtained
+from him a promise that he would make her his mistress--which would
+necessitate desertion of Mme. de Pompadour; but, by the natural
+charms of which age had not robbed her and by bringing all her past
+experience into play, Mme. de Pompadour once more scored a triumph and
+remained the actual minister to the king. All this nervous strain was
+gradually killing her, and, to overcome her physical weakness, her
+weary senses, her frigid disposition, she resorted to artificial
+stimulants to keep her blood at the boiling point and enable her to
+satisfy the phlegmatic king.
+
+Undoubtedly the most disgraceful act of this all-powerful woman
+was the maintaining of a house of pleasure for the king, to which
+establishment she allured some of the most beautiful girls of the
+nobility, as well as of the _bourgeoisie_. These young women supposed
+that they were being supported by a wealthy nobleman; their children
+were given a pension of from three thousand to twelve thousand livres,
+and the mother received one hundred thousand francs and was sent to
+the provinces to marry; a father and mother were easily bought for the
+child. Thus was this clandestine trade carried on by those two--the
+king satisfying his utter depravity, and Mme. de Pompadour making
+herself all the more secure against a possible rival.
+
+All this time her active brain was ever planning for higher honors
+and greater power. She aspired to becoming _dame de palais_, but as an
+excommunicated soul, a woman living in flagrant violation of the laws
+of morality and separated from her husband, she could not receive
+absolution from the Church, in spite of her intriguing to that effect.
+She did succeed, however, in influencing the king to make her lady
+of honor to the queen; therefore, in gorgeous robes, she was ever
+afterward present at all court functions.
+
+She began to patronize the great men of the day, to make of them her
+debtors, pension them, lodge them in the Palais d'Etat, secure them
+from prison, and to place them in the Academy. Voltaire became her
+favorite, and she made of him an Academician, historiographer of
+France, ordinary gentleman of the chamber, with permission to sell
+his charge and to retain the title and privileges. For these favors he
+thanked her in the following poem:
+
+          "Ainsi donc vous reunissez
+  Tous les arts, tous les gouts, tous les talents de plaire;
+          Pompadour vous embellissez
+          La Cour, le Parnasse et Cythere,
+  Charme de tous les coeurs, tresor d'un seul mortel,
+          Qu'un sort si beau soit eternel!"
+
+[Thus you unite all the arts, all the tastes, all the talents, of
+pleasing; Pompadour, you embellish the court, Parnassus, and Cythera.
+Charm of all hearts, treasure of one mortal, may a lot so beautiful be
+eternal!]
+
+Voltaire dedicated his _Tancrede_ to her; in fact, his influence and
+favor were so great that he was about to receive an invitation to
+the _petits soupers_ of the king, when the nobility rose up in arms
+against him, and, as Louis XV. disliked him, the coveted honor was
+never attained. To Crebillon, who had given her elocution lessons
+in her early days and who was now in want, she gave a pension of
+a hundred louis and quarters at the Louvre. Buffon, Montesquieu,
+Marmontel, and many other men of note were taken under her protection.
+
+It was Mme. de Pompadour who founded, supported, and encouraged a
+national china factory; the French owe Sevres to her, for its
+artists were complimented and inspired by her inveterate zeal, her
+persistency, her courage, and were assisted by her money. She brought
+it into favor, established exhibits, sold and eulogized the ware
+herself, until it became a favorite. Also, through her management and
+zeal the Military School was founded.
+
+The disasters of the Seven Years' War are all charged to Mme. de
+Pompadour. The motive which caused her to decide in favor of an
+alliance with Austria against Frederick the Great was a personal
+desire for revenge; the latter monarch had dubbed her "Cotillon IV,"
+and had rather scorned her, refusing to have anything to do with a
+Mlle. de Poisson, "especially as she is arrogant and lacks the respect
+due to crowned heads." The flattering propositions of the Austrian
+ambassador, Kaunitz, who treated with her in person and won her over,
+did much to set her against Germany, and induced her to influence
+Louis XV. to accept her view of the situation--a scheme in which she
+was victorious over all the ministers; the result was the Austrian
+alliance. The letter of Kaunitz to her, in 1756, will illustrate her
+position:
+
+"Everything done, Madame, between the two courts, is absolutely due
+to your zeal and wisdom. I feel it and cannot refuse myself the
+satisfaction of telling you and of thanking you for having been my
+guide up to the present time. I must not even keep you ignorant of the
+fact that their Imperial Majesties give you the full justice due you
+and have for you all the sentiments you can desire. What has been done
+must merit, it seems to me, the approbation of the impartial public
+and of posterity. But what remains to be done is too great and too
+worthy of you for you to give up the task of contributing and to leave
+imperfect a work which cannot fail to make you forever dear to your
+country. I am, therefore, persuaded that you will continue your
+attention to an object so important. In this case, I look upon success
+as certain and I already share, in advance, the glory and satisfaction
+which must come to you, no one being able to be more sincerely and
+respectfully attached to you than is your very humble and obedient
+servant, the Count de Kaunitz-Rietberg."
+
+She received her first check when, Damiens having attempted to
+assassinate the king, the dauphin was regent for eleven days. She was
+confined to her room and heard nothing from the king, who was in
+the hands of the clergy. Among the friends who abandoned her was
+her protege Machault, the guard of the seals, who conspired with
+D'Argenson to deprive her of her power and went so far as to order
+her departure. After the king's recovery, both D'Argenson and Machault
+were dismissed and Mme. de Pompadour became more powerful than before.
+
+Her influence and usurpation of power bore heavily upon every
+department of state; she appointed all the ministers, made all
+nominations, managed the foreign policy and politics, directed the
+army and even arranged the plans of battle. Absolute mistress of the
+ministry, she satisfied all demands of the Austrian court, a move
+which brought her the most flattering letter from Kaunitz, in which he
+gives her the credit for all the transactions between the two courts.
+
+Despite all her political duties and intrigues, she found time for art
+and literature. Not one minute of the day was lost in idleness, every
+moment being occupied with interviews with artists and men of letters,
+with the furnishers of her numerous chateaux, architects, designers,
+engineers, to whom she confided her plans for embellishing Paris.
+Being herself an accomplished artist, she was able to win the respect
+and attention of these men. Her correspondence was immense and of
+every nature, political and personal. She was an incessant reader,
+or rather student, of books on the most serious questions, which
+furnished her knowledge of terms of state, precedents of history,
+ancient and modern law; she was familiar with the contents of works
+on philosophy, the drama, singing, and music, and with novels of all
+nations; her library was large and well selected.
+
+During the latter years of her life she was considered as the first
+minister of state or even as regent of the kingdom, rather than as
+mere mistress. Louis XV. looked to her for the enforcement of the laws
+and his own orders. She was forced to receive, at any time, foreign
+ambassadors and ministers; she had to meet in the Cabinet de Travail
+and give counsel to the generals who were her proteges; the clergy
+went to her and laid before her their plaints, and through her the
+financiers arranged their transactions with the state.
+
+Notwithstanding all this influence and power, the record of her last
+years is a sorrowful one. More than ever queen, she was no longer
+loved by the king, who went to Passy to continue his liaison with
+a young girl, the daughter of a lawyer. When Louis XV. as much as
+recognized a son by this woman, Mme. de Pompadour became deeply
+concerned; but the king was too much a slave to her domination to
+replace her, so she retained favor and confidence; the following
+letter shows that she enjoyed little else:
+
+"The more I advance in years, my dear brother, the more philosophical
+are my reflections. I am quite sure that you will think the same.
+Except the happiness of being with the king, who assuredly consoles me
+in everything, the rest is only a tissue of wickedness, of platitudes,
+of all the miseries to which poor human beings are liable. A fine
+matter for reflection (especially for anyone born as meditative as
+I)!..." Later on, she wrote: "Everywhere where there are human beings,
+my dear brother, you will find falseness and all the vices of which
+they are capable. To live alone would be too tiresome, thus we must
+endure them with their defects and appear not to see them."
+
+She realized that the king kept her only out of charity and for fear
+of taking up any energetic resolution. Her greatest disappointment was
+the utter failure of her political plans and aspirations, which came
+to naught by the Treaty of Paris. There was absolutely no glory left
+for her, and chagrin gradually consumed her. Her health had been
+delicate from youth; consumption was fast making inroads and
+undermining her constitution, and the numerous miscarriages of her
+early years as mistress contributed to her physical ruin. For years
+she had kept herself up by artificial means, and had hidden her loss
+of flesh and fading beauty by all sorts of dress contrivances, rouges,
+and powders. She died in 1764, at the age of forty-two.
+
+Writers differ as to the true nature of Mme. de Pompadour, some saying
+that she was bereft of all feeling, a callous, hard-hearted monster;
+others maintain that she was tender-hearted and sympathetic. However,
+the majority agree as to her possession of many of the essential
+qualifications of an able minister of state, as well as great aptitude
+for carrying on diplomatic negotiations.
+
+She was the greatest patroness of art that France ever possessed,
+giving to it the best hours of her leisure; it was her pastime, her
+consolation, her extravagance, and her ruin. All eminent artists of
+the eighteenth century were her clients. Artists were nourished, so
+to speak, by her favors. It may truthfully be said that the
+eighteenth-century art is a Pompadour product, if not a creation. The
+whole century was a sort of great relic of the favorite. Fashions and
+modes were slaves to her caprice, every new creation being dependent
+upon her approbation for its survival--the carriage, the _cheminee_,
+sofa, bed, chair, fan, and even the _etui_ and toothpick, were
+fashioned after her ideas. "She is the godmother and queen of the
+rococo." Such a eulogy, given by the De Goncourt brothers, is not
+shared by all critics. Guizot wrote: "As frivolous as she was deeply
+depraved and base-minded in her calculating easiness of virtue, she
+had more ambition than comported with her mental calibre or her force
+of character; she had taken it into her head to govern, by turns
+promoting and overthrowing the ministers, herself proffering advice
+to the king, sometimes to good purpose, but still more often with a
+levity as fatal as her obstinacy."
+
+In _The Old Regime_, Lady Jackson has given an unprejudiced estimate
+of her: "She was the most accomplished and talented woman of her time;
+distinguished, above all others, for her enlightened patronage of
+science and of the arts, also for the encouragement she gave to the
+development of improvements in various manufactures which had stood
+still or were on the decline until favored by her; a fresh impulse
+was given to progress, and a perfection attained which has never been
+surpassed and, in fact, rarely equalled. _Les Gobelins_, the carpets
+of the Savonnerie, the _porcelaine de Sevres_, were all, at her
+request, declared _Manufactures Royales_. Some of the finest specimens
+of the products of Sevres, in ornamental groups of figures, were
+modelled and painted by Mme. de Pompadour, as presents to the
+queen.... The name of Pompadour is, indeed, intimately associated with
+a whole school of art of the Louis Quinze period--art so inimitable in
+its grace and elegance that it has stood the test of time and remains
+unsurpassed. Artists and poets and men of science vied with each other
+in admiration of her talents and taste. And it was not mere
+flattery, but simply the praise due to an enlightened patroness and a
+distinguished artist."
+
+If we consider the morals of high society, we shall scarcely find one
+woman of rank who could cast a stone at Madame de Pompadour. While
+admitting her moral shortcomings, it must nevertheless be acknowledged
+that she showed an exceptional ability in maintaining, for twenty
+years, her influence over such a man as Louis XV. Such was the power
+of this woman, the daughter of a tradesman, mistress, king in all
+save title. She was, however, less powerful than her successor,--that
+successor who was less clever and less ambitious, who "never made
+the least scrupulous blush at the lowness of her origin and the
+irregularity of her life,"--Mme. du Barry.
+
+Mme. du Barry was the natural daughter of Anne Bequs, who was
+supported by M. Dumonceau, a rich banker at Paris. The child was put
+into a convent, and, after passing through different phases of life,
+she was finally placed in a house of pleasure, where she captivated
+the Comte du Barry, at whose harem she became the favorite. The count,
+who had once before tried to supply the king with a mistress, now
+planned for his favorite. The king ordered the brother of Du Barry,
+Guillaume, to hasten to Paris to marry a lady of the king's choice.
+The girl's name had been changed officially and by the clergy, and a
+dowry had been given her. Thus was it possible for the king, after
+she had become the Comtesse du Barry, to take her as a mistress. Her
+husband was sent back to Toulouse, where he was stationed, while his
+wife was lodged at Versailles, within easy access of the king's own
+chamber.
+
+
+After much intriguing and diplomacy on the part of her friends,
+especially Richelieu, she was to be presented at court. The scene is
+well described by the De Goncourt brothers, and affords a truthful
+picture of court manners and customs of the latter part of the reign
+of Louis XV.:
+
+"The great day had arrived--Paris was rushing to Versailles. The
+presentation was to take place in the evening, after worship. The hour
+was approaching. Richelieu, filling his charge as first gentleman,
+was with the king, Choiseul was on the other side. Both were waiting,
+counting the moments and watching the king. The latter, ill at ease,
+restless, agitated, looked every minute at his watch. He paced up and
+down, uttered indistinct words, was vexed at the noise at the gates
+and the avenues, the reason of which he inquired of Choiseul. 'Sire,
+the people--informed that to-day Mme. du Barry is to have the honor of
+being presented to Your Majesty--have come from all parts to witness
+her _entree_, not being able to witness the reception Your Majesty
+will give her.' The time has long since passed--Mme. du Barry does not
+appear. Choiseul (her enemy) and his friends radiate joy; Richelieu,
+in a corner of the room, feels assurance failing him. The king goes
+to the window, looks into the night--nothing. Finally, he decides,
+he opens his mouth to countermand the presentation. 'Sire, Mme. du
+Barry!' cries Richelieu, who had just recognized the carriage and the
+livery of the favorite; 'she will enter if you give the order.' Just
+then, Mme. du Barry enters behind the Comtesse de Bearn, bedecked with
+the hundred thousand francs' worth of diamonds the king had sent her,
+coifed in that superb headdress whose long scaffolding had almost made
+her miss the hour of presentation, dressed in one of those triumphant
+robes which the women of the eighteenth century called 'robes of
+combat,' armed in that toilette in which the eyes of a blind woman
+(Mme. du Deffand) see the destiny of Europe and the fate of ministers;
+and it is an apparition so beaming, so dazzling, that, in the first
+moments of surprise, the greatest enemies of the favorite cannot
+escape the charm of the woman, and renounce calumniating her beauty."
+
+According to reports, her beauty must have been of the ideal type of
+the time. All the portraits and images that Mme. du Barry has left
+of herself, in marble, engraving, or on canvas, show a _mignonne_
+perfection of body and face. Her hair was long, silky, of an ashen
+blonde, and was dressed like the hair of a child; her brows and lashes
+were brown, her nose small and finely cut. "It was a complexion which
+the century compared to a roseleaf fallen into milk. It was a
+neck which was like the neck of an antique statue...." In her were
+victorious youth, life, and a sort of the divinity of a Hebe; about
+her hovered that charm of intoxication, which made Voltaire cry out
+before one of her portraits: _L'original etait fait pour les dieux!_
+[The original was made for the gods!]
+
+In her lofty position, Mme. du Barry sought to overcome the objections
+of the titled class, to quell jealousies and petty quarrels; she did
+not usurp any power and always endeavored not to trouble or embarrass
+anyone. After some time, she succeeded in winning the favor of some of
+the ladies, and, when her influence was fairly well established, she
+began to plan the overthrow of her enemy, De Choiseul, minister of
+Louis XV. She became the favorite of artists and musicians, and
+all Europe began to talk and write about this woman whom art had
+immortalized on canvas and who was then controlling the destinies of
+France. She succeeded, under the apprenticeship of her lover, the
+Duc d'Aiguillon, who was the outspoken enemy of De Choiseul, in
+accomplishing the fall of the minister and the fortune of her friend.
+This success required but a short time for its culmination, for in
+1770 he was deprived of his office and was exiled to Chantilly.
+
+Mme. du Barry was never an implacable enemy; she was too kind-hearted
+for that; thus, when her friend D'Aiguillon insisted on depriving
+De Choiseul of his fortune, she managed to procure for the latter
+a pension of sixty-thousand livres and one million ecus in cash,
+in spite of the opposition of D'Aiguillon. After the fall of that
+minister all the princes of the blood were glad to pay her homage. She
+became almost as powerful as Mme. de Pompadour, but her influence was
+not directed in the same channels.
+
+Her life was a mere senseless dream of _femme galante_, a luxurious
+revel, a constant whirl of pleasures, and extravagance in jewelry,
+silks, gems, etc. A service in silver was no longer rich enough--she
+had one in solid gold. To house all her gems of art, rare objects,
+furniture, she caused to be constructed a temple of art, "Luciennes,"
+one of the most sumptuous, exquisite structures ever fitted out. The
+money for this was supplied by the _controleur general_, the Abbe
+Ferray, whose politics, science, duty, and aim in life consisted in
+never allowing Mme. du Barry to lack money. All discipline, morality,
+in fact everything, degenerated.
+
+She had no rancor or desire for vengeance; she never humiliated those
+whom she could destroy; she always punished by silence, yet never won
+eternal silence by letters patent; generous to a fault, giving and
+permitting everything about her to be taken, she opened her purse to
+all who were kind to her and to all who happened in some way to please
+her. Keeping the heart of Louis XV. was no easy matter, as the case of
+Mme. de Pompadour clearly showed. The majority of his friends and her
+enemies endeavored to force a new mistress upon the king; surrounded
+on all sides by candidates for her coveted position, Mme. du Barry
+managed to hold her own. When the king was prostrated by smallpox, he
+sent her away on the last day.
+
+The reign of Mme. du Barry was not one of tyranny, nor was it a
+domination in the strict sense of that word; for she was a nonentity
+politically, without ideas or plans. "Study the favor of Mme. du
+Barry: nothing that emanates from her belongs to her; she possesses
+neither an idea nor an enemy; she controls all the historical events
+of her time, without desiring them, without comprehending them....
+She serves friendships and individuals, without knowing how to serve a
+cause or a system or a party, and she is protected by the providential
+course of things, without having to worry about an effort, intrigues,
+or gratitude."
+
+Her power and influence cannot be compared with those of her
+predecessor, Mme. de Pompadour. Modes were followed, but never
+invented by her. "With her taste for the pleasures of a grisette,
+her patronage falls from the opera to the couplet, from paintings and
+statuaries to bronzes and sculptures in wood; her _clientele_ are
+no longer artists, philosophers, poets--they are the gods of lower
+domains, mimics, buffoons, dancers, comedians." She was the lowest and
+most common type of woman ever influential in France.
+
+After the death of the king, she was ordered to leave Versailles and
+live with her aunt. Later on, she was permitted to reside within ten
+leagues of Paris; all her former friends and admirers then returned,
+and she continued to live the life of old, buying everything for which
+she had a fancy and living in the most sumptuous style, never worrying
+about the payment of her debts. After a few years she was entirely
+forgotten, living at Luciennes with but a few intimate friends and her
+lover, the Duc de Brissac.
+
+At the outbreak of the Revolution, she was living at Luciennes in
+great luxury on the fortune left her by the duke. Probably she would
+have escaped the guillotine had she not been so possessed with the
+idea of retaining her wealth. Four trips to England were undertaken
+by her, and on her return she found her estates usurped by a man
+named Grieve, who, anxious to obtain possession of her riches, finally
+succeeded in procuring her arrest while her enemies were in power.
+From Sainte-Pelagie they took her to the Conciergerie, to the room
+which Marie Antoinette had occupied.
+
+Accused of being the instrument of Pitt, of being an accomplice in the
+foreign war, of the insurrection in La Vendee, of the disorders in the
+south, the jury, out one hour, brought in a verdict of guilty, fixing
+the punishment at death within twenty-four hours, on the Place de la
+Republique. Upon hearing her sentence, she broke down completely and
+confessed everything she had hidden in the garden at Luciennes. On her
+way to the scaffold, she was a most pitiable sight to behold--the only
+prominent French woman, victim of the Revolution, to die a coward. The
+last words of this once famous and popular mistress were: "Life, life,
+leave me my life! I will give all my wealth to the nation. Another
+minute, hangman! _A moi! A moi!_" and the heavy iron cut short her
+pitiful screams, thus ending the life of the last royal mistress.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XII
+
+Marie Antoinette and the Revolution
+
+
+The condition of France at the end of the reign of Louis XV. was most
+deplorable--injustice, misery, bankruptcy, and instability everywhere.
+The action of the law could be overridden by the use of arbitrary
+warrants of arrest--_lettres de cachet_. The artisans of the towns
+were hampered by the system of taxation, but the peasant had the
+greatest cause for complaint; he was oppressed by the feudal dues and
+many taxes, which often amounted to sixty per cent of his earnings.
+The government was absolute, but rotten and tottering; the people,
+oppressively and unjustly governed, were just beginning to be
+conscious of their condition and to seek the cause of it, while the
+educated classes were saturated with revolutionary doctrines which
+not only destroyed their loyalty to the old institutions, but created
+constant aspirations toward new ones.
+
+Thus, when Louis XVI., a mere boy, began to reign, the whole French
+administrative body was corrupt, self-seeking, and in the hands of
+lawyers, a class that dominated almost every phase of government. In
+general, inefficiency, idleness, and dishonesty had obtained a ruling
+place in the governing body; the few honest men who had a minor
+share in the administration either fell into a sort of disheartened
+acquiescence or lost their fortunes and reputations in hopeless
+revolt.
+
+Under these conditions Louis XVI. began his reign; and although peace
+seemed to exist externally, the country was in revolution. France
+was as much under the modern "ring rule" as any country ever was--a
+condition of affairs largely due to the nature of the young
+king, whose predominant characteristics might be called a supreme
+awkwardness and an unpardonable lack of will power. He was a man who,
+during the first part of his reign, led a pure life; he possessed good
+and philanthropic intentions, but was hampered by a weak intellect and
+a stubbornness which bore little resemblance to real strength of
+will. Also, he entertained strong religious convictions, which were
+extremely detrimental to his policy and caused disagreements with his
+ministers--Turgot, on account of his philosophical principles, Necker,
+on account of his Protestantism.
+
+His wife had those qualities which he lacked, decision and strength
+of character; unfortunately, she wielded no influence over him in the
+beginning, and when she did gain it, she used it in a fatal manner,
+because she was ignorant of the needs of France. Throughout her
+career of power, she evinced headstrong wilfulness in pursuing her own
+course. Thus, totally incapable of acting for himself, Louis XVI. was
+practically at the mercy of his aunts, wife, courtiers, and ministers,
+who fitted his policy to their own desires and notions; therefore, the
+vast stream of emoluments and honors was diverted by the ministers
+and courtiers into channels of their own selection. There were formed
+parties and combinations which were constantly intriguing for or
+against each other.
+
+At the time of the accession of Louis XVI., when poverty was general
+over the kingdom, the household of the king consisted of nearly four
+thousand civilians, nine thousand military men, and relatives to the
+enormous number of two thousand, the supporting of which dependents
+cost France some forty-five million francs annually. Luckily there
+was no mistress to govern, as under Louis XV., but, in place of
+one mistress who was the dispenser of favors, there were numerous
+intriguing court women who were as corrupt and frivolous as the men.
+These split the court into factions. As the finances of the country
+sank to the lowest ebb, odium was naturally cast upon the whole court,
+without exception, by the people; hence, the wholesale slaughter of
+the nobility during the Revolution.
+
+In this period, the most critical in the history of France, the queen,
+Marie Antoinette, as the central figure, the leader of society,
+the model and example to whom all looked for advice upon morals and
+fashions, played an important role. Although not of French birth, she
+deserves to be ranked among the women influential in France, since
+she became so thoroughly imbued with French traits and characteristics
+that she forgot her native tongue. French life and spirit moulded her
+in such fashion that even the French look upon her as a French woman.
+
+Before judging this unfortunate princess who has been condemned by so
+many critics, we must take into consideration the demands that were
+made upon her. Parade was the primary requisite: she was obliged to
+keep up the splendor and attractiveness of the French monarchy;
+in this she excelled, for her manner was dignified, gracious, and
+"appropriately discriminating. It is said that she could bow to
+ten persons with one movement, giving, with her head and eyes, the
+recognition due to each one." It is said, also, that as she passed
+among the ladies of her court, she surpassed them all in the nobility
+of her countenance and the dignified grace of her carriage. All
+foreigners were enchanted with her, and to them she owes no small part
+of her posthumous popularity.
+
+She was reproached by French women for being exclusively devoted
+to the society of a select, intimate circle. Moreover, her conduct
+brought slander upon her; as her companions she chose men and women
+of bad reputation, and was constantly surrounded by dissipated young
+noblemen whom she permitted to come into her presence in costumes
+which shocked conservative people; she encouraged gambling, frequented
+the worst gambling house of the time, that of the Princesse de
+Guemenee, and visited masked balls where the worst women of the
+capital jostled the great nobles of the court; her husband seldom
+accompanied her to these pleasure resorts.
+
+During part of the reign of Marie Antoinette the country was waging
+an expensive war and was deeply in debt, but the queen did not set an
+example of economy by retrenching her expenses; although her personal
+allowance was much larger than that of the preceding queen, she was
+always in debt and lost heavily at gambling. Generally, she avoided
+interference with the government of the state, but as the wife of so
+incapable a king she was forced into an attempt at directing public
+matters. Whenever she did mingle in state affairs, it was generally
+fatal to her interests and popularity. She usually carried out her
+wishes, for the king shrank from disappointing his wife and dreaded
+domestic contentions.
+
+He permitted her to go out as she did with the Comte d'Artois, her
+brother-in-law, to masked balls, races, rides in the Bois de Boulogne,
+and on expeditions to the salon of the Princesse de Guemenee, where
+she contracted the ills of a chronically empty purse and late hours.
+When attacked by measles, to relieve her ennui--which her ladies were
+not successful in doing--she procured the consent of the king to the
+presence of four gentlemen, who waited upon her, coming at seven in
+the morning and not departing until eleven at night; and these were
+some of the most depraved and debauched among the nobility--such as De
+Besenval, the Duc de Coigny, and the Duc de Guines.
+
+While in power, she always sided with extravagance and the court,
+against economy and the nation. If we add to all these defects a vain
+and frivolous disposition, a nature fond of admiration, pleasure, and
+popularity, and lending a willing ear to all flattery, compliments,
+and counsels of her favorites, her Austrian birth, and as "little
+dignity as a Paris grisette in her escapades with the dissipated and
+arrogant Comte d'Artois," we have, in general, the causes of her wide
+unpopularity.
+
+It will be seen that as long as she was frivolous and imprudent,
+she was flattered and admired; as soon as she became absolutely
+irreproachable, she was overwhelmed with harsh judgments and
+expressions of ill will. The first period was during the first years
+of the reign of Louis XVI., while he was still all-powerful and
+popular; the second phase of her character developed during the
+trying days of the king's first fall into disfavor and his ultimate
+imprisonment and death. From this account of her career, it will be
+seen that Marie Antoinette, as dauphiness and queen, was rather the
+victim of fate and the invidious intrigues of a depraved court
+than herself an instigator and promulgator of the extravagance and
+dissipation of which she was accused.
+
+We must remember the atmosphere into which Marie Antoinette was thrust
+upon her arrival in France. One of the first to sup with her was that
+most licentious of all royal mistresses, Mme. du Barry, who asked
+for the privilege of dining with the new princess--a favor which the
+dissipated and weak king granted. Louis XV. was nothing more than
+a slave to vice and his mistresses. The king's daughters--Mmes.
+Adelaide, Victoire, and Sophie--were pious but narrow-minded women,
+resolutely hostile to Mme. du Barry and intriguing against her. The
+Comtes de Provence and d'Artois were both pleasure-loving princes of
+doubtful character; their sisters--Mmes. Clotilde and Elisabeth--had
+no importance. The family was divided against itself, each member
+being jealous of the others. The dauphin, being of a retiring
+disposition and of a close and self-contained nature, did little to
+add to the happiness of the young princess. Thus, she was literally
+forced to depend upon her own resources for pleasure and amusement and
+was at the mercy of the court, which was never more divided than in
+about 1770--the time of her appearance.
+
+At that time there were two parties--the Choiseul, or Austrian,
+party, and those who opposed the policy of Choiseul, especially in
+the expulsion of the Jesuits; the latter were called the party of the
+_devots_ and were led by Chancellor Maupeau and the Duc d'Aiguillon.
+This faction, with the mistress--Mme. du Barry--as the motive power,
+soon broke up the power of Choiseul. The young and innocent foreign
+princess, unschooled in intrigue and politics, could not escape both
+political parties; upon her entrance into the French court, she was
+immediately classed with one or the other of these rival factions
+and thus made enemies by whatever turn she took, and was caught in a
+network of intrigues from which extrication was almost impossible.
+
+Here, in this whirl of social excesses, her habits were formed; hers
+being a lively, alert, active nature, fond of pleasure and somewhat
+inclined toward raillery, she soon became so absorbed in the
+many distractions of court life that little time was left her for
+indulgence in reflection of a serious nature. Her manner of life at
+this time in part explains her subsequent career of heedlessness,
+excessive extravagance, and gayety.
+
+At first her aunts--Mmes. Adelaide and Sophie--succeeded in partially
+estranging her from Louis XV., who had taken a strong fancy to his
+granddaughter; but this influence was soon overcome--then these aunts
+turned against her. Her popularity, however, increased. Innumerable
+instances might be cited to show her kindness to the poor, to her
+servants, to anyone in need--a quality which made her popular with the
+masses. In time almost everyone at court was apparently enslaved by
+her attractions and endeavored to please the dauphiness--this was
+about 1774, when she was at the height of her popularity.
+
+However, there developed a striking contrast between the dauphiness
+and the queen; Burke called the former "the morning star, full of
+life and splendor and joy." In fact, she was a mere girl, childlike,
+passing a gay and innocent life over a road mined with ambushes and
+intrigues which were intended to bring ruin upon her and destined
+eventually to accomplish their purpose. By being always prompt in her
+charities, having inherited her mother's devotion to the poor, she
+won golden opinions on all sides; and the reputation thus gained was
+augmented by her animated, graceful manner and her youthful beauty.
+
+Little accustomed to the magnificence that surrounded her, she soon
+wearied of it, craving simpler manners and the greater freedom of
+private intercourse. When, as queen, she indulged these desires, she
+brought upon herself the abuse and vilification of her enemies. While
+dauphiness, her actions could not cause the nation's reproach or
+arouse public resentment; as queen, however, her behavior was subject
+to the strictest rules of etiquette, and she was responsible for
+the morals and general tone of her court. This responsibility Marie
+Antoinette failed to realize until it was too late.
+
+Upon the accession of Louis XVI., a clean sweep was made of the
+licentious and discredited agents of Mme. du Barry, and a new ministry
+was created. The former mistress, with her lover, the Duc d'Aiguillon,
+was banished, although Mme. Adelaide succeeded in having Maurepas,
+uncle of the Duc d'Aiguillon, made minister. Marie Antoinette had
+little interest in the appointment after she failed to gain the honor
+for her favorite, De Choiseul, who had negotiated her marriage.
+
+The queen then proceeded to carry out her long-cherished wishes for
+society dinners at which she could preside. Her every act, however,
+was governed by inflexible laws of etiquette, some of which she most
+impatiently suffered, but many of which she impatiently put aside.
+With this manner of entertaining begins her reign as queen of taste
+and fashion, for Louis XVI. left to his wife the responsibility of
+organizing all entertainments, and her aspiration was to make the
+court of France the most splendid in the world. From that time on, all
+her movements, her apparel, her manners, to the minutest detail, were
+imitated by the court ladies. This custom, of course, led to reckless
+extravagance among the nobility, for whenever Marie Antoinette
+appeared in a new gown, which was almost daily, the ladies of the
+nobility must perforce copy it.
+
+Tidings of these extravagances of the queen and her court in
+time reached the empress-mother in Vienna. Marie Therese severely
+reproached her daughter, writing: "My daughter, my dear daughter, the
+first queen--is she to grow like this? The idea is insupportable to
+me." Yet, "to speak the exact truth," said her counsellor, Mercy, when
+writing to the empress-mother, "there is less to complain of in the
+evil which exists than in the lack of all the good which might exist."
+It is chronicled to her credit that all her expenditure was not upon
+herself alone, but that she was equally lavish when she attempted
+charity.
+
+Her first political act, the removal of Turgot, was disastrous. She
+thought she was humoring public opinion, which was strongly against
+the minister on account of his many reforms, but her primary reason
+was rather one of personal vengeance. Turgot had been openly hostile
+to her friend and favorite, the Duc de Guines. She was then in the
+midst of her period of dissipation; "dazzled by the glory of the
+throne, intoxicated by public approval," she overstepped the bounds
+of royal propriety, neglecting etiquette and forgetting that she was
+secretly hated by the people because of her origin; her greatest error
+was in forgetting that she was Queen of France and no longer the mere
+dauphiness.
+
+Under the escort of her brother-in-law, the Comte d'Artois, she was
+constantly occupied with pleasures and had time for little else. The
+king, retiring every night at eleven and rising at five, had all the
+doors locked; so the queen, who returned early in the morning, was
+compelled to enter by the back door and pass through the servants'
+apartments. Such behavior gave plentiful material to M. de Provence,
+the king's brother, who remained at home and composed, for the
+_Mercure de France_, all sorts of stories, from so-called trustworthy
+information, on the king, on society, and especially on the doings of
+the queen.
+
+Marie Antoinette's fondness for the chase and the English racing fad,
+for gambling, billiards, and her _petits soupers_ after the riding and
+racing, gave ample opportunity to the gossipmongers and enemies. In
+spite of the vigorous remonstrances of her mother, the empress, she
+persisted in her wild career of dissipation and extravagance, and drew
+upon herself more and more the disrespect of the people, especially in
+appearing at places frequented by the disreputable of both sexes, by
+entering into all noisy and vulgar amusements, by her disregard and
+disdain of all the conventionalities of the court. She increased her
+unpopularity by reviving the sport of sleighing; for this purpose
+she had gorgeous sleighs constructed at a time when the population of
+France was in misery. Such proceedings caused libels, epigrams, and
+satirical chansonnettes to flow thick and fast from her enemies. Her
+one idea was to seek congenial pleasures: she appeared to be wholly
+oblivious to the disapproval of public opinion.
+
+The slanderous tongues of her husband's aunts, the "jealousies and
+bitter backbiting of her own intimate circle of friends," the infamous
+accusations brought against her by her sisters-in-law, the attacks of
+the Comte de Provence, and the indifference of the king himself, all
+helped to increase her unpopularity.
+
+Among her personal friends was the Princesse de Lamballe, whose
+influence was preponderant for several years; she was not a
+conspicuously wise woman, but one of spotless character. Her
+ambitions, personal and for her relatives, often caused much trouble,
+for she became the mouthpiece of her allies and her clients, for whom
+she "solicited recommendations with as much pertinacity as if she had
+been the most inveterate place hunter on her own account." Her favors
+were too much in one direction to suit the queen, for, much attached
+to the memory of her husband, the princess naturally sympathized with
+the Orleans faction. As superintendent of the household of the queen,
+replacing the Comtesse de Noailles, she gave rise to much scandal.
+Her salary, through intrigues, had been raised to fifty thousand ecus,
+while her privileges were enormous; for instance, no lady of the queen
+could execute an order given her without first obtaining the consent
+of the superintendent. The displeasure and vexation which this
+restriction caused among the court ladies may be imagined; complaints
+became so frequent that the queen tired of them, and her affection for
+her friend was thus cooled.
+
+She sought other friends, among whom Mme. de Polignac was the favorite
+and almost supplanted the Princesse de Lamballe in the regard of the
+queen. To her she presented a large grant of money, the tabouret of
+a duchess, the post of governess to the children of France; and her
+friends received the appointments of ambassadors, and nominations to
+inferior offices. She was not by nature an intriguing woman, but was
+soon surrounded by a set of young men and women who made use of
+her favor and took advantage of her influence; the result was the
+formation of a regular Polignac set, almost all questionable persons,
+but an exclusive circle, permitting no division of favor, and undoing
+all who endeavored to rival them. This coterie of favorites may
+be said to have caused Marie Antoinette as much unpopularity and
+contributed as much to her ruin, and even to that of royalty, as did
+any other cause originating at court. Mme. de Lamballe was no match
+for her rival, so she retired, a move which increased the influence
+of Mme. de Polignac, to whose house the whole court flocked. The queen
+followed her wherever she went, made her husband duke, and permitted
+her to sit in her presence.
+
+By spending so much of her time at the salons of Mme. de Polignac
+and the Princesse de Guemenee, the queen excited the displeasure
+and enmity of many of the court and the people; at those places, De
+Besenval, De Ligny, De Lauzun,--men of the most licentious habits and
+expert spendthrifts,--seemed to enjoy her intimate friendship, a state
+of affairs which caused many scandalous stories and helped to alienate
+some of the greatest houses of France. This injudicious display of
+preference for her own circle of friends also fostered a general
+distrust and dislike among the people. The first families of France
+preferred to absent themselves from her weekly balls at Versailles,
+since attendance would probably result in their being ignored by the
+queen, who permitted herself to be so engrossed by a bevy of favorites
+and her own amusements as scarcely to notice other guests.
+
+Her eulogists find excuse for all this in her lightness of heart and
+gay spirits, as well as in the manner of her rearing, having been
+brought up in the court of Louis XV., where she saw shameless vice
+tolerated and even condoned. Although she preserved her virtue in the
+midst of all this dissipation, she became callous to the shortcomings
+of her friends and her own finer perceptions became blunted. Thus,
+in the most critical years of her reign, her nobler nature suffered
+deterioration, which resulted fatally.
+
+Despite many warnings, she could not or would not do without those
+friends. She excused anything in those who could make themselves
+useful to her amusement: everyone who catered to her taste received
+her favor. M. Rocheterie, in his admirable work, _The Life of Marie
+Antoinette_, gives as the source of her great love of pleasure her
+very strongly affectionate disposition,--the need of showering upon
+someone the overflowing of an ardent nature,--together with the desire
+for activity so natural in a princess of nineteen. As a place in
+which to vent all these emotions, these ebullitions of affections and
+amusements, the king presented her with the chateau "Little Trianon,"
+where she might enjoy herself as she liked, away from the intrigues of
+court.
+
+Marie Antoinette has become better known as the queen of "Little
+Trianon" than as a queen of Versailles. At the former place she
+gave full license to her creative bent. Her palace, as well as her
+environments, she fashioned according to her own ideas, which were
+not French and only made her stand out the more conspicuously as a
+foreigner. From this sort of fairy creation arose the distinctively
+Marie Antoinette art and style; she caused artists to exhaust their
+fertile brains in devising the most curious and magnificent, the
+newest and most fanciful creations, quite regardless of cost--and
+this while her people were starving and crying for bread! The angry
+murmurings of the populace did not reach the ears of the gay queen,
+who, had she been conscious of them, might have allowed her bright
+eyes to become dim for a time, but would have soon forgotten the
+passing cloud.
+
+There was constant festivity about the queen and her companions, but
+no etiquette; there was no household, only friends--the Polignacs,
+Mme. Elisabeth, Monsieur, the Comte d'Artois, and, occasionally, the
+king. To be sure, the amusements were innocent--open-air balls, rides,
+lawn fetes, all made particularly attractive by the affability of
+the young queen, who showed each guest some particular attention; all
+departed enchanted with the place and its delights and, especially,
+with the graciousness of the royal hostess. There all artists and
+authors of France were encouraged and patronized--with the exception
+of Voltaire; the queen refused to patronize a man whose view upon
+morality had caused so much trouble.
+
+Music and the drama received especial protection from her. The triumph
+of Gluck's _Iphigenie en Aulide_, in 1774, was the first victory of
+Marie Antoinette over the former mistress and the Piccini party. This
+was the second musical quarrel in France, the first having occurred
+in 1754, between the lovers of French and Italian music, with Mme. de
+Pompadour as protectress. After Gluck had monopolized the French opera
+for eight years, the Italian, Piccini, was brought from Italy in
+1776. Quinault's _Roland_ was arranged for him by Marmontel and was
+presented in 1778, unsuccessfully; Gluck presented his _Iphigenie en
+Aulide_, and no opera ever received such general approbation. "The
+scene was all uproar and confusion, demoniacal enthusiasm; women threw
+their gloves, fans, lace kerchiefs, at the actors; men stamped and
+yelled; the enthusiasm of the public reached actual frenzy. All did
+honor to the composer and to the queen."
+
+Marie Antoinette, however, also gave Piccini her protection. Gluck,
+armed with German theories and supporting French music, maintained for
+dramatic interest, the subordination of music to poetry, the union
+or close relation of song and recitative; whereas, the Italian opera
+represented by Piccini had no dramatic unity, no great ensembles,
+nothing but short airs, detached, without connection--no substance,
+but mere ornamentation. Gluck proved, also, that tragedy could be
+introduced in opera, while Piccini maintained that opera could embrace
+only the fable--the marvellous and fairylike. This musical quarrel
+became a veritable national issue, every salon, the Academy, and all
+clubs being partisans of one or the other theory; it did much to mould
+the later French and German music, and much credit is due the queen
+for the support given and the intelligence displayed in so important
+an issue.
+
+All singers, actors, writers, geniuses in all things, were sure of
+welcome and protection from Marie Antoinette; but she permitted
+her passion for the theatre to carry her to extremes unbecoming her
+position, for she consorted with comedians, played their parts, and
+associated with them as though they were her equals. Such conduct
+as this, and her exclusiveness in court circles, encouraged calumny.
+Versailles was deserted by the best families, and all the pomp
+and traditions of the French monarchs were abandoned. The king, in
+sanctioning these amusements at the "Little Trianon," lost the respect
+and esteem of the nobility, but the queen was held responsible for all
+evil,--for the deficit in the treasury, and the increase in taxes;
+to such an extent was she blamed, that the tide of public popularity
+turned and she was regarded with suspicion, envy, and even hatred.
+
+In the spring of 1777 the queen's brother, the Emperor Joseph II. of
+Austria, arrived in Paris for a visit to his sister and the court of
+France. The relations between him and Marie Antoinette became quite
+intimate; the emperor, always disposed to be critical, did not
+hesitate to warn his sister of the dangers of her situation, pointing
+out to her her weakness in thus being led on by her love of pleasure,
+and the deplorable consequences which this weakness would infallibly
+entail in the future. The queen acknowledged the justness of the
+emperor's reasoning, and, though often deeply offended by his
+frankness and severity, she determined upon reform. This resolution
+was, to some extent, influenced by the hope of pregnancy; so, when
+her expectations in that direction proved to be without foundation, so
+keen was the disappointment thus occasioned, that, in order to forget
+it, she plunged into dissipation to such an extent that it soon
+developed into a veritable passion. Bitterly disappointed, vexed
+with a husband whose coldness constantly irritated her ardent nature,
+fretful and nervous, there naturally developed a morbid state of mind
+which explains the impetuosity with which she attempted to escape from
+herself.
+
+In December, 1778, a daughter was born to the queen, and she welcomed
+her with these words: "Poor little one, you are not desired, but you
+will be none the less dear to me! A son would have belonged to the
+state--you will belong to me." After this event the queen gave herself
+up to thoughts and pursuits of a more serious nature. In 1779 the
+dauphin was born, and from that period Marie Antoinette considered
+herself no longer a foreigner.
+
+After the death of Maurepas, minister and counsellor to the king,
+the queen became more influential in court matters. She relieved the
+indolent monarch of much responsibility, but only to hand it over to
+her favorites. The period from 1781 to 1785 was the most brilliant of
+the court of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, one of dissipation and
+extravagance, the rich _bourgeoisie_ vying with the nobility in their
+luxurious style of living and in lavish expenditure. "The finest silks
+that Lyons could weave, the most beautiful laces that Alencon could
+produce, the most gorgeous equipages, the most expensive furniture,
+inlaid and carved, the tapestry of Beauvais and the porcelain of
+Sevres--all were in the greatest demand." Necker was replaced by
+incompetent ministers, the treasury was depleted, and the poor became
+more and more restless and threatening. Once more, and with increased
+vehemence, was heard the cry: _A bas l'Autrichienne!_
+
+During the American war of the Revolution, Marie Antoinette was always
+favorable to the Colonial cause, protecting La Fayette and encouraging
+all volunteers of the nobility, who embarked for America in great
+numbers. She presented Washington with a full-length portrait of
+herself, loudly and publicly proclaiming her sympathy for things
+American. She assured Rochambeau of her good will, and procured for La
+Fayette a high command in the _corps d'armee_ which was to be sent to
+America. When Necker and other ministers were negotiating for
+peace, from 1781 to 1785, she persisted in asserting that American
+independence should be acknowledged; and when it was declared, she
+rejoiced as at no political event in her own country.
+
+Her political adventures were few; in fact, she disliked politics and
+desired to keep aloof from the intrigues of the ministers. She may
+have been instrumental in the downfall of Necker--at least, she
+secured the appointment, as minister of finance, of the worthless
+Calonne, who, it will be remembered, brought about the ruin of
+France in a short period. In time, however, the queen recognized his
+worthlessness and would have nothing to do with him, thus making in
+him another implacable enemy.
+
+Events were fast diminishing the popularity of the queen. When, after
+the long-disputed question of presenting the _Marriage of Figaro_, she
+herself undertook to play in _The Barber of Seville_ in her theatre
+at the Trianon, she overstepped the bounds of propriety. Then followed
+the affair of the diamond necklace, in which the worst, most cunning,
+and most notorious rogues abused the name of the queen. That was the
+great adventure of the eighteenth century. Boehmer, the court jeweler,
+had, in a number of years, procured a collection of stones for an
+incomparable necklace. This was intended for Mme. du Barry, but
+Boehmer offered it to the queen, who refused to purchase it, and he
+considered himself ruined. It may be well to add that the queen had
+previously purchased a pair of diamond earrings which had been ordered
+by Louis XV. for his mistress; for those ornaments she paid almost
+half her annual pin money, amounting to nine hundred thousand francs.
+The jeweler, therefore, had good reason to hope that she would relieve
+him of the necklace.
+
+An adventuress, a Mme. de La Motte, acquainted at court and also with
+the Prince Louis de Rohan, who had incurred the displeasure of the
+queen, informed the cardinal that Marie Antoinette was willing to
+again extend to him her favor. She counterfeited notes, and even went
+so far as to appoint a meeting at midnight in the park at Versailles.
+The supposed queen who appeared was no other than an English girl,
+who dropped a rose with the words: "You know what that means." The
+cardinal was informed that the queen desired to buy the necklace, but
+that it was to be kept secret--it was to be purchased for her by a
+great noble, who was to remain unknown. All necessary papers were
+signed, and the necklace turned over to the Prince de Rohan, who, in
+turn, intrusted it to Mme. de La Motte to be given to the queen; but
+the agent was not long in having it taken apart, and soon her husband
+was selling diamonds in great quantities to English jewelers.
+
+In time, as no payments were received and no favors were shown by the
+queen, an investigation followed. The result was a trial which lasted
+nine months; the cardinal was declared not guilty, the signature
+of the queen false, Mme. de La Motte was sentenced to be whipped,
+branded, and imprisoned for life, and her husband was condemned to the
+galleys. Nevertheless, much censure fell to the share of the queen. It
+was the beginning of the end of her reign as a favorite whose faults
+could be condoned. She was beginning to reap the fruits of her former
+dissipations. In about 1787, when she least deserved it, she became
+the butt of calumny, intrigues, and pamphlets.
+
+During these years she was the most devoted of mothers; she personally
+looked after her four children, watched by their bedsides when they
+were ill, shutting herself up with them in the chateau so that they
+would not communicate their disease to the children who played in the
+park. In 1785 the king purchased Saint-Cloud and presented it to
+the queen, together with six millions in her own right, to enjoy and
+dispose of as she pleased. That act added the last straw to the burden
+of resentment of the overwrought public; from that time she was known
+as "Madame Deficit." Also she was accused of having sent her brother,
+Joseph II., one hundred million livres in three years. She was hissed
+at the opera. In 1788 there were many who refused to dance with the
+queen. In the preceding year a caricature was openly sold, showing
+Louis XVI. and his queen seated at a sumptuous table, while a starving
+crowd surrounded them; it bore the legend: "The king drinks, the queen
+eats, while the people cry!" Calonne, minister of finance, an intimate
+friend of the Polignacs, but in disfavor with the queen, also made
+common cause with the enemies, in songs and perfidious insinuations.
+Upon his fall, in 1787, the queen's position became even worse.
+
+The last period of the life of the queen, La Rocheterie calls the
+militant period--it was one in which the joy of living was no more;
+trouble, sorrows upon sorrows, and anxieties replaced the former
+care-free, happy radiance of her youth. At the reunion of the
+States-General, while the country at large was full of confidence and
+the king was still a hero, the queen was the one dark spot; calumny
+had done its work--the whole country seemed to be saturated with an
+implacable hatred and prejudice against her whom they considered
+the source of all evil. Throughout the ceremonies attending the
+States-General, the queen was received with the same ominous silence;
+no one lifted his voice to cheer her, but the Duc d'Orleans was always
+applauded, to her humiliation.
+
+Whatever may have been the faults and excesses of her youth, their
+period was over and in their place arose all the noble sentiments so
+long dormant. When the king was about to go to Paris as the prisoner
+of the infuriated mob, La Fayette asked the queen: "Madame, what is
+your personal intention?" "I know the fate which awaits me, but
+my duty is to die at the feet of the king and in the arms of my
+children," replied the queen. During the following days of anxiety she
+showed wonderful courage and graciousness, "winning much popularity
+by her serene dignity, the incomparable charm which pervaded her whole
+person, and her affability."
+
+Upon the urgent request of the queen the Polignac set departed,
+and Mme. de Lamballe endeavored to do the honors for the queen, by
+receptions three times a week, given to make friends in the Assembly.
+At those functions all conditions of people assembled, and instead
+of the witty, brilliant conversations of the old salon there were
+politics, conspiracies, plots; instead of the gay and laughing faces
+of the old times there were the worn and anxious faces of weary,
+discouraged men and women. There was, indeed, a sad contrast between
+the gay, frivolous, haughty queen of the early days, and this captive
+queen--submissive, dignified, "majestic in her bearing, heroic, and
+reconciled to her awful fate."
+
+Her period of imprisonment, the cruelty, neglect, inadequate food and
+garments, her torture and indescribable sufferings, the insults of
+the crowd and the newspapers, her heroic death, all belong to history.
+"The first crime of the Revolution was the death of the king, but
+the most frightful was the death of the queen." Napoleon said: "The
+queen's death was a crime worse than regicide." "A crime absolutely
+unjustifiable," adds La Rocheterie, "since it had no pretext whatever
+to offer as an excuse; a crime eminently impolitic, since it struck
+down a foreign princess, the most sacred of hostages; a crime beyond
+measure, since the victim was a woman who possessed honors without
+power."
+
+Because Marie Antoinette played a romantic role in French history, it
+is quite natural to find conflicting and contradictory opinions among
+her biographers. The most conflicting may be summed up in these
+words: the queen's influence upon the Revolution was great--her
+extravagances, her haughty bearing, her scorn of the etiquette of
+royalty, her enemies, her prejudices, the arrests which she caused,
+etc. Then her pernicious influence upon the king, after the breaking
+out of the Revolution--she caused his hesitancy, which led to such
+disastrous results, and his plan of annihilating the States Assembly;
+the gathering of the foreign troops and his many contradictory
+and uncertain commands were all laid at her door, making of her an
+important and guilty party to the Revolution. Another estimate is more
+humane and, probably, is the result of cooler reflection, yet is not
+always accepted by Frenchmen or the world at large. It represents her
+as neither saint nor sinner, but as a pure, fascinating woman, always
+chaste, though somewhat rash and frivolous. Proud and energetic, if
+inconsiderate in her political actions and somewhat too impulsive in
+the selection of friends upon whom to bestow her favors, she is yet
+worthy of the title of queen by the very dignity of her bearing;
+always a true woman, seductive and tender of heart, she became a
+martyr "through the extremity of her trials and her triumphant death."
+
+Although history makes Marie Antoinette a central figure during the
+reign of Louis XVI. and the period of the Revolution, yet her personal
+influence was practically limited to the domain of the social world of
+customs and manners; her political influence issued mainly from or was
+due to the concatenation of conditions and circumstances, the results
+of her friends' doings, while her social triumphs were products of
+her own activity. The two women--her intimate friends--who during
+this period were of greatest prominence, who owed their elevation
+and standing entirely to the queen, were women of whom little has
+survived. In her time, Mme. de Polignac was an influential woman,
+wielding tremendous power, contributing largely to the shaping and
+climaxing of France's fate; yet this influence was centred in reality
+in the Polignac set, which was composed of the most important, daring,
+and consummate intriguers that the court of France had ever seen.
+She escaped the guillotine, and by doing so escaped the attention of
+posterity.
+
+Mme. de Lamballe, who wrote nothing, did nothing, effected nothing,
+is better known to the world at large, is more respected and honored,
+than is Mme. de Polignac or even the great salon leaders such as Mme.
+de Genlis or Mlle. de Lespinasse. She owes this prominence to her
+undying devotion to her queen, to her marvellous beauty, and to her
+tragic death on the guillotine. She was not even bright or witty,
+the essentials of greatness among French women--not one _bon mot_ has
+survived her; but she may well be placed by the side of her queen
+for one sublime virtue, too rare in those days,--chastity. She was
+Princess of Sardinia; upon the request of the Duke of Penthievre to
+Louis XV. to select a wife for his son, the Prince of Lamballe, she
+was chosen. A year after the marriage the prince died; and although
+the marriage had not been a happy one, because of the dissolute life
+of the prince, his wife forgave him, and "sorrowed for him as though
+he deserved it."
+
+When in 1768 the queen died, two parties immediately formed, the
+object of both of them being to provide Louis XV. with a wife: one may
+be called the reform party, striving to keep the old king in the paths
+of decency; while the other was composed of the typical eighteenth
+century intriguers, endeavoring to revive the "grand old times." The
+candidate of the former was Mme. de Lamballe, that of the latter, the
+dissolute Duchesse du Barry. This state of affairs was made possible
+by the disagreement of the political and social schemes of the court
+and ministry. Soon after, in 1770, the king negotiated the marriage
+of Marie Antoinette and the dauphin, and from that time began the
+friendship of the future queen and the Princesse de Lamballe. Entering
+the unfamiliar circle of this highly debauched court, the young
+dauphiness sought a sympathetic friend, and found her in the princess.
+No figure in that society was more disinterested and unselfishly
+devoted. In all the queen's undertakings, fetes, and other amusements,
+she was inseparable from the princess, who was indeed a rare exception
+to the majority of the women of that time.
+
+The friendship of these two women was uninterrupted, save for a period
+extending from 1778 to 1785, when Mme. de Polignac and her set of
+intriguers succeeded in estranging them and usurping all the favors of
+the queen. When the outside world was accrediting to Marie Antoinette
+every popular misfortune, when she lost by death both the dauphin
+and the Princess Beatrice, when fate was against her, when the future
+promised nothing but evil, she found no stauncher friend, better
+consoler, more ardent admirer, than her old companion. Learning of the
+removal of the royal family to the Tuileries, she rejoined the queen.
+In 1791, with the escape of the royal fugitives, the princess left
+for England, to seek the protection of the English government for her
+royal friends.
+
+Mr. Dobson says she was scarcely the _discrete et insinuante et
+touchante Lamballe_, with a marvellous sang-froid, hardly the astute
+diplomatist, that De Lescure makes her. "She was rather the quiet,
+imposing Lamballe of old, interested in her friends and what she
+could do for them, but never shrewd and diplomatic." In November she
+returned to France, to meet her queen and to suffer death for her
+sake,--and for this unswerving devotion she has a place in history.
+She stands out also as the one normal woman in the crowds of
+impetuous, shallow, petty, and, in many cases, pitifully debauched
+women of the time. Not majestic greatness, but a direct, unaffected
+sweetness and consistent goodness entitle her to rank among the great
+women of France.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIII
+
+Women of the Revolution and the Empire
+
+
+Many women of the revolutionary period have no claim for mention other
+than a last glorious moment on the guillotine--"ennobled and endeared
+by the self-possession and dignity with which they faced death, their
+whole life seems to have been lived for that one moment." The society
+which had brought on and stirred up the Revolution was enervated and
+febrile. Paris was one large kennel of libellers and pamphleteers and
+intriguers. The salon frequenters were trained conversationalists and
+brilliant beauties who danced and drank, discoursed and intrigued.
+It was a superficial elegance, with virtue only assumed. The art of
+pleasing had been developed to perfection, but, instead of the actual
+accomplishments of the old regime, there was merely the outward
+appearance--luxury, dress, and magnificence; the bearing and language
+were of the ambitious common people. "The great women are those who,
+the day before, were taken from the cellar or garret of the salon."
+
+During the Directorate, luxury and libertinism reigned almost as
+absolutely as during the monarchy. Barras was supreme. He had his
+mistress, or _maitresse-en-titre_, in the beautiful Mme. Tallien,
+the queen of beauty of the salon of _la mode_. Ease and dissolute
+enjoyment were the aims of Barras, and in these his mistress was his
+equal. They gave the most sumptuous dinners, prepared by the famous
+chefs of the late aristocratic kitchens, while the people were
+starving or living on black bread. She impudently arrayed herself in
+the crown diamonds and appeared at the reception given to Napoleon.
+
+The salons under the Empire are said to have preserved French
+politeness, courtesy, and the usages of _la bonne compagnie_, but
+intolerance and tyranny reigned there; the spirit of intrigue only was
+obeyed. From the beginning of the Revolution to the Empire, it may be
+said that the streets of Paris from one end to the other were a wild
+turmoil of people in fever heat--ready for any crime or cruelty,
+anxious for anything promising excitement. Where formerly the elegant
+lovers of the nobility were wont to promenade, the rabid populace held
+undisputed possession.
+
+These were years, about 1780 to 1800, during which women shared the
+same fate with men; and, consigned to the same prisons, ever resigned
+and ready to die for principle, they knew how to die nobly. It was
+truly an age of the martyrdom of woman--an age in which she lived,
+through almost superhuman conditions, at the side of man. She was
+all-powerful, triumphant as never before; not, however, through her
+intellectual superiority as in the previous age, but through her
+courage. There was not one powerful woman standing out alone,
+but groups of them, hosts of them. It was during the Directorate
+especially that woman controlled almost every phase of activity.
+
+The woman who embodied all the heterogeneous vices of the past
+nobility and the rising plebs was Mme. Tallien, the goddess of vice
+and of the vulgar display of wealth. Her caprices were scrupulously
+followed, while about her jealousy and slanders were thick. Then
+immorality had no veil, but was low, brutish, and open to everyone.
+With the accession of Napoleon to absolute power, there was a fusion
+of the element just described with the remnant of the old regime.
+Josephine soon formed a select and congenial social circle, excluding
+Mme. Tallien and the Directorate adherents. Evidences of saddening
+memories of the past and a general gloom were visible everywhere in
+this circle. The disappointment of the nobility on returning from
+their exile was somewhat lessened by the very select bi-weekly
+reunions in the salon of Talleyrand, and by the brilliant suppers of
+the old regime, which were revived at the Hotel d'Anjou.
+
+The salon of Mme. de Stael was a political debating club rather than
+a purely social reunion. She being an ardent Republican, it was in
+her salon that the Royalist plot to bring back the Bourbons was
+overthrown. In a short time there were a number of brilliant salons,
+each one showing a nature as distinct as those of the eighteenth
+century. Thus, Joseph Bonaparte received the distinguished
+governmentals and the intriguing women of society at the Chateau de
+Mortfoulaine; at Lucien Bonaparte's hotel youth and beauty assembled;
+at Mme. de Permon's salon there were music and conversation, tea,
+lemonade, and biscuits, twice a week. It remains but to characterize
+these different ages of French social and political evolution by the
+great women who, each one of her age, are the representative types.
+
+The woman who, during the Revolution, not only added her name to the
+long list of martyrs, but who also made history and contributed to the
+very nature of those days of terror and uncertainty, was Mme. Roland,
+whom critics both extol and condemn--the fate of all historical
+characters. It would be difficult to estimate this remarkable person
+and her work without some details of her life.
+
+When a mere girl she showed signs of a tempestuous future; she
+was seductive, but impulsive, with an inborn love for the common
+people--which is not always credited to her--and for democracy. These
+qualities were quickened during her experience at Versailles, for
+while there for a few days' visit she saw the pitiless social world in
+all its orgies, revelries of luxury, and wanton extravagances.
+There, also, she contracted that deep-seated hatred for the queen and
+royalty.
+
+There was, indeed, a long list of suitors for the hand of the
+impulsive maiden; but owing to her views as to a husband and her
+restless, unsettled state of mind, she could not decide upon any one
+of them. To her mother, when urged to accept one, she said: "I should
+not like a husband to order me about, for he would teach me only to
+resist him; but neither do I wish to rule my husband. Either I am
+much mistaken, or those creatures, six feet high, with beard on their
+chins, seldom fail to make us feel that they are stronger; now, if the
+good man should suddenly bethink himself to remind me of his strength
+he would provoke me, and if he submitted to me he would make me
+feel ashamed of my power." For such a woman marriage was certainly
+a difficult problem. Finally, Roland de la Platieres came within her
+circle; and although somewhat adverse to him at first, after a number
+of his visits she wrote: "I have been much charmed by the solidity of
+his judgment and his cultured and interesting conversation." Just such
+a man appealed to her nature and was in harmony with her views. After
+months of monotonous life in the convent to which she had retired, she
+at last consented to become the wife of Roland, not from expectations
+of any fortune, but purely from a sense of devoting herself to the
+happiness of an honorable man, to making his life sweeter.
+
+Roland, scrupulously conscientious, painstaking, and observing, had
+won the position of inspector of manufactures, which took him away on
+foreign travels part of the time. He had acquired a thorough knowledge
+of manufacturing and the principles of political economy. The first
+years of their life were spent in each other's society exclusively,
+as he was insanely jealous of her; she rarely left his side, and
+they studied the same works, copied and revised his manuscripts, and
+corrected his proofs. In this she was indispensable to him. But her
+activity did not stop with literary work; she managed her husband's
+household, and for miles around her home the peasants soon learned
+to know her through her charitable deeds. She was the village doctor,
+often going for miles to attend the poor in distress. With her own
+hands she prepared dainty dishes with which to tempt her husband's
+appetite. Thus, her best years were spent upon things for which much
+less ability would have sufficed. She watched with breathless
+interest the installation of Necker and the dismissal of Turgot, the
+convocation of the notables, the struggles for financial recovery,
+and, finally, the calling of a States-General, which had not been
+in session since 1614. During the first stormy years, 1789-1790, she
+wrote burning missives to her friend Bosc, at Paris, which appeared
+anonymously in the _Patriote Francais_, edited by Brissot, the future
+Girondist leader. Soon came the commission of Roland as the first
+citizen of the city of Lyons, which had a debt of forty million
+francs, to acquaint the National Assembly with its affairs.
+
+When, in 1791, Mme. Roland arrived at Paris--for she accompanied her
+husband--she had already become an ardent Republican. She immediately
+threw herself into the whirlwind of popular enthusiasm. Her house
+became the centre of an advanced political group, which met there four
+times a week to discuss state questions. There Danton, Robespierre,
+Petion, Condorcet, Buzot, and others were seen. She ably aided her
+husband in all his work as commissioner to the National Assembly. She
+was indefatigable in penning stirring letters and petitions to the
+Jacobin societies in the different departments. A staunch friend
+of Robespierre, she did much to protect him in his first efforts
+in public. On returning home, after her husband had completed his
+mission, she was no longer the same quiet, contented, submissive
+woman; she longed for activity in the midst of excitement.
+
+With the meeting of the Legislative Assembly, in 1791, the group of
+men sent up from the Gironde immediately became the leaders, and when
+Mme. Roland returned to Paris she became the centre of this circle,
+exhorting and stimulating, advising and ordering. Through her friend
+Brissot, who was all-powerful in the Assembly, about February,
+1792, as leader of the Girondists, who were looking for men not yet
+practically involved in politics, but qualified by experience for
+political life, her husband was made minister of the interior, and in
+March, 1792, he and his wife entered upon their duties. She was a
+keen reader of human nature, at first glance giving her husband a
+penetrating and generally truthful judgment of men. Being able to
+comprehend the temperaments of the ministers, she managed them with
+inimitable tact. Although all the Girondist ministers were supposed
+friends, she readily saw how difficult it would be for a small
+group of men with the same principles to act in concert. Seeing the
+political machine in motion at close range, she lost some of her
+enthusiasm for revolutionary leaders; above all, she recognized the
+need of a great leader. As wife of the minister, installed in the
+ministerial residence with no other woman present, she gave two
+dinners weekly to her husband's colleagues, to the members of the
+Assembly, and to political friends.
+
+Her husband, the French Quaker of the Revolution, in all his
+simplicity of dress and honesty, was being constantly duped by the
+apparent good nature and sincerity of the king, against whom his wife
+was constantly warning him. It was she who, convinced of the king's
+duplicity and the need of a safeguard for the country, originated the
+plan of a federate camp of twenty thousand men to protect Paris when
+war had been declared against Austria. It was she who wrote a letter
+to the king in the name of the council, but sent in Roland's own name,
+imploring him not to arouse the mistrust of the nation by constantly
+betraying his suspicion of it, but to show his love by adopting
+measures for the welfare and safety of the country. The effect of this
+letter, which became historical, was the fall of the ministers. After
+their recall, her husband became more and more powerful. The political
+circulars which were published by his paper, _The Sentinel_, were
+composed by her. Then came the horrible massacres and executions by
+the hundreds, which inspired Mme. Roland with hatred for Danton, a
+feeling she communicated to the whole Girondist party. She desired
+above everything to see punished the perpetrators of the September
+massacres. In this plan the Girondists failed. Robespierre, Danton,
+and Marat were victorious, and Mme. Roland and her party fell.
+
+When all parties and the whole populace vied with each other in
+welcoming back the victorious General Dumouriez, there seemed to be
+a possibility of a reconciliation between Danton and Mme. Roland, for
+when the general went to dine with her he presented her with a bouquet
+of magnificent oleanders. This dinner, on October 14th, auguring good
+fortune to all, was the last success of Mme. Roland. She had been
+pushed to the very front of the Revolution. She cooeperated in
+composing and promulgating the numerous writings of her husband
+by which public opinion was to be instructed. But she retained her
+implacable hatred for Danton, who, when her husband, ready to resign,
+was pressed to remain in office, cried out in the convention: "Why not
+invite Mme. Roland to the ministry, too! everyone knows that Roland
+is not alone in the office!" At this period her husband made the
+fatal mistake of appropriating a chest of important state papers and
+examining them himself instead of calling together a commission. As
+is known, the papers turned out to be fatal to Louis XVI. Libels and
+denunciations were pronounced against Roland, but his wife, called
+before the convention, not only succeeded in turning aside all
+accusations, but was voted the honors of the sitting.
+
+At the time of the trial of the king, the power and influence of
+the Girondists were waning; then the Rolands became the butt of many
+violent and unreasonable outbursts. With the resignation of Roland on
+January 22, 1792, the day of the execution of the king, the fate of
+the Girondists was sealed. This time the minister was not asked to
+reconsider; in fact, his exposure of the pilfering then going on among
+the officials made him one of the most unpopular men in Paris. Upon
+their return to private life, Mme. Roland was accused of forming the
+plot to destroy the republic. When an armed force arrived one morning
+at half-past five o'clock to arrest her husband, she resisted them,
+herself going to the convention to expose the iniquity of such a
+proceeding. Failing in this, she returned to her husband, to find him
+safe with a friend. Being again arrested, she met the ordeal with her
+accustomed courage; and when the officers offered to pull down the
+blinds of the carriage, to shield her from the gaze of the unfriendly
+public, she said: "No, gentlemen! innocence, however oppressed, should
+not assume the attitude of guilt. I fear the eyes of no one, and do
+not wish to escape even those of my enemies." "You have much more
+character than many men," they replied; "you can calmly await
+justice," "Justice!" she cried; "if it existed, I should not be
+in your power! I would go to the scaffold as calmly as if sent by
+iniquitous men. I fear only guilt, and despise injustice and death!"
+
+She has been deeply criticised for her letters written to her friend
+Buzot while she was in prison; yet it should be remembered that there
+was not the slightest chance of their meeting again, and, besides,
+the letters reveal the terrible struggle through which she had passed.
+While in prison, her beauty, grace, and fearlessness won and humanized
+nearly all who came under her spell. She was once unexpectedly
+set at liberty, but only to be sentenced to the lowest of
+prisons--Sainte-Pelagie. There, in the space of about one month,
+her memoirs, now among the French classics, were written. At the
+Conciergerie, where the lowest criminals and the filthiest paupers
+were crowded into cells with the highest of the nobility, and where
+the cowardly Mme. du Barry spent her last hours, Mme. Roland, by her
+quiet dignity and patient serenity, commanded silence and respect, and
+calmness and peace replaced angry and pitiful wrangling. The prisoners
+clung to her, crying and kissing her hand, while she spoke words of
+advice and consolation to the doomed women, who "looked upon her as a
+beneficent divinity." Her conduct under these circumstances alone is
+sufficient to keep alive her memory. In the last days, she clung to
+and upheld most passionately her principles of liberty and moderation,
+and in her conversation with Beugnot it was evident that she had been
+the real inspiration in the Girondist party for all that was best and
+most uplifting.
+
+The charge against her when before the bar of judgment of
+Fouquier-Tinville, the terrible prosecutor, consisted in her relation
+to the Girondists who had been condemned to death as traitors to the
+republic. She met her death heroically, as became a woman who had
+lived bravely. At the very last moment of her life, she offered
+consolation to fellow victims. Her death was that of the greatest
+heroine of the Revolution, the climax of a life the one ambition of
+which had been to save her country and to shed her blood for it. As
+she rode through the city in her pure white raiment, serenely radiant
+in her own innocence, she was the embodiment of all that was highest
+and purest in the Revolution--one of the best and greatest women known
+to French history. She stands out as a representative of the French
+Republic.
+
+There are a number of traits of Mme. Roland which should be considered
+before giving a final estimate of her character, of her role in French
+history, and of her right to be ranked among the most illustrious
+women of France. Critics in general seem to show her a marked
+hostility; such men as Caro assert that she had no modesty, that she
+lacked sentiment, delicacy, and reserve. M. Saint-Amand said that she
+reflected the vices and virtues of her age, summing up the passions
+and illusions, being intellectually and morally the disciple of
+Rousseau, but socially personifying the third estate, which in the
+beginning asked for nothing, but later demanded all. Politics made
+her cruel at times, although by nature she was good and sensible. He
+declared that with her acquaintance with Buzot began her career of
+love and ambition. In love, she believed herself a patriot, but all
+the various phases of her public career were simply the results of her
+emotions. Thus, for example, in order to see Buzot, she persuaded
+her husband to return to Paris to seek his fortune and make the
+realization of her dreams possible. She desired to play a role for
+which her origin had not destined her, which made her actions appear
+theatrical and affected. It is evident that she hated both the king
+and the queen, and at the council for the Girondist ministry demanded
+the death of the royal couple. And yet, Saint-Amand cites her as the
+most beautiful of that group of martyrs who lost their lives in the
+first heat of the Revolution--as the genius among them by her
+force, purity, and grace--the brilliant and austere muse in all the
+saintliness of martyrdom.
+
+The two maxims which Mme. Roland followed throughout her career had
+much to do with her fall: security is the tomb of liberty; indulgence
+toward men in authority is the means of pushing them to despotism.
+These maxims as her motto or impulse, united with the spirit of push,
+energy, and at times rashness and impropriety, naturally led her to
+her ruin in those days of revolutionary ideas. She was a woman of
+powerful passion controlled by reason, and with frankness, devotion,
+courage, and fidelity as forces impelling her to activity. But there
+was one great defect which was at the bottom of her misfortunes,--a
+too great ambition, which often led her into perilous paths, even to
+the scaffold, which, in its turn, covered her errors.
+
+She is said to have married M. Roland more as a theory than as
+a husband, for her ideas of marriage were such as to make pure,
+disinterested love impossible. Her husband was in many respects her
+intellectual superior, but she excelled him in versatility. Being her
+senior by twenty years, when he grew old and infirm he depended upon
+her for a great deal, all of which contributed to her restlessness
+and unhappiness. Then there developed in her that terrible struggle
+between loyalty to her husband and passion for Buzot, in which reason
+conquered. This devotion to duty was indeed rare in those days, when
+passion was supreme and pure love was almost unknown. Mr. Dobson says
+that this one trait by which she gave real expression of virtue is
+profoundly a product of her mental self. Her instinct would have led
+her to self-abandonment, so common in that day, but her "man by the
+head" self was stronger than her "woman by the heart" self. These two
+sides of her character, fostered by incessant reading, incited her
+fearful and unrelenting hatreds as well as her passion, "masculine
+enough to be mistrusted and feminine enough to be admired." These two
+qualities made her a power and an attraction. Her better side will
+continue to shine clearer as the horror of those days is revealed.
+Whatever may be the effects of her ambitious nature and of her
+unfortunate passion for Buzot, by the very virtue of her intellect and
+reasoning she will remain the one great woman of the Revolution who
+willingly and conscientiously sacrificed her life for her country.
+
+A type perhaps more universally known in her relation to the
+Revolution than is Mme. Roland, though no better understood, was
+Charlotte Corday. Possessed of a most intense patriotism and an
+unusual emotional nature, she represented better than any other woman
+of her age the peculiar French trait--namely, the emotional perfectly
+combined with the mathematical. She was unique; her compatriots
+practised the art of studying themselves, in order to be attractive,
+and thus accomplished their ends, while her ambition was not to
+please merely, but to be of some real, practical value to her troubled
+country. She stands out, however, as the product of the end of the
+eighteenth century, a natural result of the reading of philosophy
+and political pamphlets. Quite naturally, she entertained such
+philosophical sentiments as this: "No one will lose in losing me,
+and the country may be better off for the sacrifice. Death comes only
+once, and let us use it to the good of the country or the greatest
+number of people." Thus, her philosophy led her to a complete
+detachment from her individual self, and fostered the idea of dying
+for her country.
+
+Her decision to rid France of Marat was arrived at by degrees of
+silent brooding over the evils which beset her native land; at last
+she felt herself called to some great act which would necessitate the
+loss of her life. "The time brought forth desperation, intense warmth
+of feeling, concentrated upon some purpose or object;" the reasoning
+self seemed to be stifled by the intensity of the emotion. Yet,
+reason was to conquer in her. When the Girondists returned to Caen
+and described Robespierre and Marat in the darkest colors, she at once
+felt moved to put forth all her efforts to rid France of that evil
+blot--Marat. She was beautiful, strong, and graceful, presenting a
+most striking appearance. Loved by all, she felt love and devotion
+only for her country. Desperate and determined, she set out to fulfil
+her mission. She was a mere expression of the conservative element
+which acts only when driven by sheer necessity. Her reason impressed
+her with her duty and circumstances; the time acted upon her mind.
+"Easy, calm, resigned, she looked upon the angry masses of people who
+cursed her," confident that she had done her country a service, and
+proud that she had been the fortunate one to render it. This was her
+glory, and for this she will be remembered in history.
+
+Possibly the rarest phenomenon in the history of the illustrious women
+of France is Mme. Recamier, who, by force of her beauty and social
+fascination, and without intellectual gifts or even wit, won for
+herself the position of queen of French society, which she held for
+nearly half a century. The very name of Recamier has come to evoke a
+vision of beauty, a beauty so well known to every lover of art who
+has visited the Luxembourg and gazed upon the figure "so flexible
+and elegant, with head well poised, brilliant complexion, little rosy
+mouth with pearly teeth, black curling hair, soft expressive eyes, and
+a bearing indicative of indolence and pride, yet with a face beaming
+with good nature and sympathy." Her beauty has been considered
+perfect, but a recent writer has proved this to be an error.
+M.J. Turquan, in a new volume on Mme. Recamier, is everything but
+sympathetic to the woman at whom criticism has rarely been pointed.
+"Quite a contrast to her extraordinary beauty of face," he declares,
+"were her hands, with big fingers square at the end and having flat
+nails. The same may be said of her feet, which were not only big, but
+were without the slightest trace of _finesse_ in their lines." But
+though Turquan has raised numerous points in her disfavor, they
+are not at all likely to detract from her unrivalled reputation for
+beauty.
+
+Critics have made of her a sort of enigmatic figure, supernatural
+and having only the form of the human. Thus, in Lamartine we find the
+following description: "The young girl was, they say, a _sous-entendu_
+of nature: she could be a wife, she could not be a mother. These are
+the two mysteries we must respect, but which we must know to have been
+the secret of the entire life of Mme. Recamier--a mournful and eternal
+enigma which will never have its words divined,... All her looks
+produced an intoxication, but brought hope to no heart. The divine
+statue had not descended from its pedestal for anyone, as though such
+a performance would have been too divine for a mortal." Her beauty was
+so marked, so singular, that wherever she appeared--at the ball, the
+theatre--it caused a sensation; all turned to look at her and admire
+in subdued astonishment. Her form was said to be marvellously
+elegant and supple, her neck of an exquisite perfection, her mouth
+"deliciously small and pink, her teeth veritable pearls set in
+coral, her arms splendidly moulded, her eyes full of sweetness
+and admiration, her nose most attractive in its regularity, her
+physiognomy candid and spiritual, her air indolent and haughty, and
+her attitude reserved. Before this ensemble, you remained in ecstasy."
+All this beauty was particularly well set off by an exquisite white
+dress adorned with pearls--a style she affected the year around.
+
+But her beauty alone could hardly have contributed to the marvellous
+success of Mme. Recamier, as some critics assert. Guizot, for
+instance, suspects her nature to have been less superficial than
+other writers might lead one to suppose. He said: "This passionate
+admiration, this constant affection, this insatiable taste for society
+and conversation, won her a wide friendship. All who approached and
+knew her--foreigners and Frenchmen, princes and the middle classes,
+saints and worldlings, philosophers and artists, adversaries as
+well as partisans--all she inspired with the ideas and causes she
+espoused." Her qualities outside of her beauty were tact, generosity,
+and elevation of soul, combined with an amiable grace which was
+unlimited, however superficial it may have been. Knowing how to
+maintain, in her salon, harmony and even cordial relations between men
+of the most varied temperaments and political ideas, it was possible
+for her to remain all her life an intelligent and warm-hearted bond
+between the elite minds and their diverse sentiments, which she
+tactfully tempered. Though ever faithful to one cause, she admitted
+men and women of all parties to her salon. She was moderate and
+just in the midst of the most arduous struggles, tolerant toward her
+adversaries, generous toward the conquered, sympathetic to all, and
+remarkably successful in conciliating all political, literary, and
+philosophical opinions as well as the passions which she aroused in
+her worshippers. To these qualities, as much as to her beauty, were
+due the harmony of her life, the unity of her character--which were
+never troubled by the turmoils of politics or the emotions of love.
+She was not wife, mother, or lover; "she never belonged to anyone in
+soul or sense." Always mistress of her imagination as well as of
+her heart, she permitted herself to be charmed but never carried
+away--receiving from all, but giving nothing in return. Her life
+was brilliant, but there was lurking in the background the demon
+of sadness and lassitude and the terrible disease of the eighteenth
+century,--ennui.
+
+Two splendid portraits of Mme. Recamier are left to us: one by her
+passionate but unsuccessful lover, Benjamin Constant, picturing her
+as the personification of attractiveness; the other by M. Lenormant,
+showing that she desired constant admiration: "She lacked the
+affections which bring veritable happiness and the true dignity of
+woman. Her barren heart, desirous of tenderness and devotion, sought
+recompense for this need of living, in the homage of passionate
+admiration, the language of which pleases the ears." Mme. Recamier,
+while still a child, seemed to realize the power of her beauty, and
+even before her marriage in 1793 she would often say, when demanded
+in marriage: "Mon Dieu! how beautiful I must be already!" A mere girl
+when married, being only sixteen years of age, she felt no love for
+her husband, who was her senior by twenty-five years. Soon after the
+terrible times of "the Reign of Terror" she found herself one of the
+most beautiful women in Paris, and her husband one of the wealthiest
+of bankers. The three rival women of the times were Mme. Recamier,
+Mme. Tallien, and Josephine. The terrible days of the guillotine were
+succeeded by an uninterrupted reign of pleasure, "when a fever of
+amusement possessed everyone, and the desire for distraction of all
+kinds seemed to have been pushed to its limits." M. Turquan states
+that in the reign of dissolute extravagance, immorality, and gorgeous
+splendor, Mme. Recamier formed a striking contrast by her simplicity.
+Her first triumph was at the church Saint-Roche, the most fashionable
+of Paris, where she was selected to raise a purse for charity. On one
+occasion the collection amounted to twenty thousand francs, all due to
+the beauty of the woman passing the plate. She was soon invited by her
+friend Barras to all the balls and fetes under the Directorate.
+
+In 1798 M. Recamier bought the house formerly tenanted by Necker, and
+later established himself in a chateau at Clichy, where he received
+his friends, among whom was Lucien Bonaparte, who attempted the
+ruin of the beautiful hostess, but without success. Napoleon himself
+attempted in vain to win her to his court as maid of honor and as an
+ornament, her refusal incurring his anger, especially as she was the
+height of fashion and courted by all the great men of the age. Through
+her preference for the Royalists--persisting in her line of conduct
+in spite of her friend Fouche--she finally incurred the enmity of
+the emperor. Even the Princess Caroline endeavored to obtain Mme.
+Recamier's friendship for Napoleon, "but, although the princess gave
+her _loge_ twice to the favorite, and upon each occasion the emperor
+went to the theatre expressly to gaze upon her, she remained firm in
+her refusal, which was one of the causes of the downfall of her
+banker husband, whom Napoleon might have saved had his wife been the
+emperor's friend." Napoleon certainly resented her refusal, for when
+requested to save Recamier's bank he replied: "I am not in love with
+Mme. Recamier!" Thus, because his wife preferred the aristocracy to
+the favors of Napoleon, the banker lost his fortune.
+
+She, however, bore her misfortunes with great reserve, immediately
+selling her jewels and her hotel; after which they both retired to
+small apartments, where they were even more honored and had greater
+social prestige than ever. She at once made her salon the centre of
+hostility against the emperor, who, according to Turquan, did not
+banish her, but her friend Mme. de Stael, with whom she passed
+over into Switzerland. Here began her romance with Prince August
+of Prussia, who became so enamored of her that he asked her hand in
+marriage. Encouraged by Mme. de Stael, she even went so far as to ask
+her husband for a divorce, that she might wed the royal aspirant. Her
+husband generously consented to this, but at the same time set forth
+to her the peculiar position which she would occupy, an argument that
+opened her eyes to her ingratitude, and she refused the prince.
+
+Upon the fall of Napoleon, Mme. Recamier returned to Paris and, her
+husband's fortune being restored, gathered about her all the great
+nobles of the ancient regime. But fortune was unkind to her husband
+for the second time, and she withdrew to the Abbaye-au-Bois, where she
+occupied a small apartment on the third floor. Here her distinguished
+friends followed her--such as Chateaubriand and the Duc de
+Montmorency. Between her and the famous author of _Le Genie du
+Christianisme_ there sprang up a friendship which lasted thirty years.
+During this time it is said that he visited her at a certain hour
+each day, the people in the neighborhood setting their clocks by his
+appearance. When he was absent on missions, he wrote her of every
+act of his life. Both, weary of the dissipations of society and
+its flatteries, sought a pure and lofty friendship, spiritual and
+affectionate, with no improper intimacy. There was mutual admiration
+and mutual respect. Even Chateaubriand's wife, who was an invalid and
+with whom he spent every evening, encouraged his friendship with Mme.
+Recamier. When, through the fall of Charles X., Chateaubriand lost his
+power, the friendship did not cease. M. Turquan insists that he did
+not really care seriously for Mme. Recamier, that his visits were the
+outgrowth of mere habit. But it is to be seen that throughout his book
+Turquan has little sympathy for his subject, whom he pictures as
+a beautiful, heartless, intriguing woman with immense hands, flat,
+square fingers, and large feet.
+
+The influence possessed by Mme. Recamier was most remarkable; for
+with the new statesmen, Thiers, Guizot, Mignet, De Tocqueville,
+Sainte-Beuve, as well as the nobles and princes, she was on most
+cordial terms, and was received in any salon which she chose to visit.
+Her unbounded sympathy, tact, and common sense made her friendship
+and counsel much in demand by great men. One trait, however, her
+exclusiveness, caused much discomfort in her life, such as bringing
+upon her the ill will of Napoleon.
+
+In her later years her physical beauty gradually developed into a
+moral beauty. She was never a passionate woman, but rather passively
+affectionate; purely unselfish, her one desire always was to make
+people love her and to be happy. Her friendship with Chateaubriand in
+the later days was possibly the most ideal and noble in the history of
+French women. He never failed to make his appearance in the afternoon
+at the _abbaye_, driven in a carriage to her threshold, where he was
+placed in an armchair and wheeled to a corner by her fireplace. On one
+of those visits, he asked her to marry him--he being seventy-nine, she
+seventy-one--and bear his illustrious name. "Why should we marry at
+our age?" Mme. Recamier replied. "There is no impropriety in my taking
+care of you. If solitude is painful to you, I am ready to live in the
+same house with you. The world will do justice to the purity of our
+friendship. Years and blindness give me this right. Let us change
+nothing in so perfect an affection." Her charm never deserted her, and
+she continued to the very last to receive the greatest men and women
+of the day. Still the reigning beauty and the queen of French society,
+she died at the age of seventy-two, of cholera.
+
+There is a wide difference between Mme. Recamier and Josephine, the
+two women of the Napoleonic era who exerted so powerful an influence
+upon the social and political fortunes of France. At the time of
+Napoleon's first success, the former was only twenty-one, with
+Madonna-like charms and attractiveness; the latter, thirty-five, but
+with exquisite taste in dress and skill in beautifying. Possessed of
+unstudied natural grace and elegance, and always attired in perfect
+harmony with her beauty of face and form, she could easily stand a
+comparison with the other beauties of the day, all of whom studied her
+air and manner and marked the aristocratic ease and poise of her real
+_noblesse_ of the old regime.
+
+"Josephine had a faded and brown complexion, which she remedied with
+rouge and powder; her small mouth concealed her bad teeth; her elegant
+figure and graceful movements, refined expression, gentle voice and
+dignity, all dexterously expressed with an air of coquetry, made her
+delightful." The happiest part of the life of Napoleon and Josephine
+was during their stay in Italy, when he was absolutely faithful
+to her. As soon as Napoleon left for Egypt, Talleyrand secured the
+erasure of many noble names from the list of the proscribed exiles and
+soon gathered about him a large number of Royalists, who immediately
+began to pay court to Josephine. Napoleon had enjoined her to keep
+her salon according to the means he provided and to entertain all
+influential people. To this she was equal; and all men of elevated
+rank, the most distinguished artists, men of letters, orators, and
+musicians, found her salon an enjoyable retreat. No greater galaxy of
+talent and genius ever assembled under the old regime than was found
+there,--David, Lebrun, Lesueur, Gretry, Cherubini, Mehul, J. Chenier,
+Hoffman, Ducis, Desaugiers, Legouve, and others.
+
+But her life was not without its difficulties. She was always annoyed
+by the Bonaparte family, who were jealous of her influence over
+Bonaparte. Exceedingly extravagant, in fact a spendthrift, she was
+always in need of money. Her virtues, however, easily offset these
+defects. Josephine never offended anyone, never argued politics;
+she made friends in all classes, thus conciliating Republicans and
+aristocrats; therefore, her greatest influence was as a mediator
+between two classes of society, by which she, more than any other
+woman, unconsciously contributed to the forming of a new social
+France. Napoleon was wise enough to recognize such diplomacy, and
+encouraged her to intrigue like an experienced diplomat. She was the
+most efficient aid and means to his future plans, and M. Saint-Amand
+says that without her he would possibly never have become emperor.
+When he returned from Egypt and found her away,--she had gone to meet
+him, but missed him,--his suspicions were aroused as to her fidelity,
+as she had been accused of many misdeeds. When the reconciliation
+finally took place, after a day of sobbing and pleading, she put
+to work all her tact and knowledge of Parisian society to help her
+husband to the _coup d'etat_.
+
+She was always of great service to Napoleon in his relations with the
+men of whom he wished to make use; fascinating them and drawing them
+over to him, she charmed such persons as Barras, Gohier, Fouche,
+Moreau, Talleyrand, Sieyes, and others. By her skill she kept hidden
+Napoleon's plans until all was ripe for them. She was in the secret
+of the 18th Brumaire; "nothing was concealed from her. In every
+conference at which she was present, her discretion, gentleness,
+grace, and the ready ingenuity of her delicate and cool intelligence
+were of great service." During the Directorate she allayed jealousies
+and appeased the differences between Republicans and Royalists. As
+wife of the First Consul, she conciliated the _emigres_. At that time
+she was probably the most important figure in France. The _emigres_
+would call at her salon in the morning so as to avoid meeting her
+husband, with whom they refused to associate. Her task was not easy,
+but she knew so well how to say a kind word to all, and her tact was
+so great that when she became empress the duties and requirements
+of that office were natural to her. She won the Republicans by her
+friendship with Fouche, the representative of the revolutionary
+element--the aristocracy, by her dignity and refinement. Her whole
+appearance had a peculiar charm.
+
+In 1803 the conditions began to be reversed. In 1796 Josephine had
+worried Napoleon on account of her inconstancy; she was then young
+and beautiful, while he was penniless and ailing. In 1803 he was
+thirty-four and she forty--he in his prime, wealthy and popular,
+she faded and powerless, no longer able to give cause for suspicion.
+However, nothing could make Napoleon reject her, because she was
+useful to him. "Her kindness was a weapon against her enemies, a charm
+for her friends, and the source of her power over her husband." "I
+gained battles, Josephine gained me hearts," are the well-known words
+of Napoleon. As empress she had every wish gratified, but she
+realized that a woman of her age could not continue indefinitely her
+fascination over a man as capricious as Napoleon. In the brilliant
+court of Fontainebleau she held the highest place, and no one could
+suspect the anxieties that tormented her, so cool and happy did she
+appear.
+
+Josephine did many things that later on gradually helped reconcile
+Napoleon to a divorce: her pride, her aristocratic tendencies,
+extravagance and lavishness; her objection to the marriage of Hortense
+to General Duroc on the grounds of humble birth; her religious
+tendencies; her difficulty in keeping secrets, which led to highly
+tragic scenes between her and Bonaparte; the encouragement she gave
+to the jealousies and hatred of her brothers and sisters-in-law,
+who maliciously slandered her at every opportunity; and finally, her
+barrenness.
+
+Her career after her divorce was honorable, and to-day Josephine is
+still held in the highest esteem in France and in the world at large.
+Her greatness is not in having been the wife of a great emperor, but
+in knowing how to adapt herself to the conditions in France into which
+she was suddenly thrust. As a conciliator and a mediator between two
+almost hopelessly irreconcilable classes of society, she deserves a
+prominent place among great French women.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIV
+
+Women of the Nineteenth Century
+
+
+Among the unusually large number of prominent French women which the
+nineteenth century produced, possibly not more than a half-dozen
+names will survive,--Mme. de Stael, George Sand, Rosa Bonheur, Sarah
+Bernhardt, Mme. Lebrun, and Rachel. This circumstance is, possibly,
+largely due to the character of the century: its activity, its varied
+accomplishments, its wide progress along so many lines, its social
+development, its absolute freedom and tolerance--all of which tended
+to open a field for women more extensive than in any preceding
+century.
+
+The salon, in its old-time glory, became a thing of the past; and
+the passing of this institution lessened, to a large extent, the
+possibility of great influence on the part of women. In short, the
+mode of life became, in the nineteenth century, unfavorable to the
+absolute power exercised by woman in former times. She was now on a
+level with man, enjoying more privileges and being looked upon more as
+the equal and possible rival of man. It became necessary for woman to
+make and establish her own position, whereas, under the old regime,
+her power and position were established by custom, which regarded her
+vocation as entirely distinct from that of man. The result was a host
+of prominent and active women, but few really great ones. Undoubtedly
+by far the most important and influential was Madame de Stael, but her
+influence and work are so intimately associated with her life that
+any account of her which aims at giving a true estimate of her
+significance must necessarily involve much biography.
+
+Her mother, the Mme. Necker of salon fame, endeavored to bring up her
+daughter as the _chef d'oeuvre_ of natural art,--pious, modest in her
+conversation, dignified in her behavior, without pride or frivolity,
+but with wide knowledge. In this ambition she partly succeeded. At
+the age of eleven the young girl was present at receptions, where
+she listened to discussions by such men as Grimm, Buffon, Suard,
+and others. Her parents took her to the theatre, and she would
+subsequently compose short stories on what she had heard and seen.
+Rousseau became her ideal, but she enjoyed all literature, showing an
+insatiable desire for knowledge. From her early youth to her death,
+her conversation was ever the result of her own impulse; consequently,
+it was uncontrolled and lacked the seriousness imparted by deep
+reflection.
+
+Interested in all things except Nature, which seemed mournful to her,
+while solitude horrified her, society was her delight. At the age of
+twenty she wrote: "A woman must have nothing to herself and must find
+all power in that which she loves." Her masculine ideal was a man
+of society, of success, a hero of the Academy, a superior genius,
+animated more by the desire to please than to be useful. During these
+early years she wrote a great deal, her work being mostly in the form
+of sentimental utterances, but very little has survived her.
+
+When she reached marriageable age, many ambitions of her parents were
+frustrated by her independent will. Pitt, Mirabeau, Bonaparte, were
+considered, but destiny had in store for her a Swedish ambassador,
+Stael-Holstein, a man of good family, but with little money and plenty
+of debts, who had been looking out for a comfortable dowry. In 1786,
+at the time when Marie Antoinette was at the height of her popularity,
+this girl of twenty years was married to a man seventeen years her
+senior, who had no affection for her and whom she could not love.
+
+At Paris she immediately opened a salon, which soon eclipsed, both in
+beauty and wit, that of her mother; there her eloquence, enthusiasm,
+and conversational gifts captivated all, but her imprudent language,
+the recklessness of her conduct, her scorn of all etiquette, her
+outspoken preferences, frightened away women and stunned men. Her
+sympathy for her friends, Talleyrand, Narbonne, De Montmorency,
+together with the approaching Revolution, drew her into politics. When
+her father was called by the nation to the control of its finances,
+his daughter shared his glories.
+
+Her salon was the centre of the elite and of all literary and
+political discussions; but as the majority of its frequenters were
+partisans of the English constitution and expressed their views
+openly and freely, her enemies became numerous. When Narbonne was made
+minister of war, a great triumph for her and her party, the eloquence
+of his reports was attributed to her, and when he fell into disgrace
+she rescued him. However, the atmosphere of Paris was too unfriendly,
+so she left in 1792 for her home at Coppet, which became an asylum
+for all the proscribed. When she visited England, she began a
+thorough study of its mode of life, its customs, and its parliamentary
+institutions. Upon her return to Coppet she wrote _Reflexions sur le
+Proces de la Reine_, to excite the commiseration of the judges. After
+the death of her mother in 1794, she devoted her energies to the
+education of her two boys.
+
+After the violence of her love for Benjamin Constant, who drew
+her back to politics, was somewhat cooled, she became an ardent
+Republican, writing her treatise _Reflexions sur la Paix adressees
+a M. Pitt et aux Anglais_, which facilitated her return in 1795 to
+Paris, where she found her husband reinstalled as ambassador. Her
+hotel in the Rue de Bac was reopened, and she proceeded to form a
+salon from the debris of society floating about in Paris. It was an
+assembly of queer characters--elements of the old and new regime, but
+not at all reconciled, converts of the Jacobin party returning for the
+first time into society, surrounded by the women of the old regime,
+using all imaginable efforts and flattery to obtain the _rentree_ of
+a brother, a son, or a lover; it was composed of the most moderate
+Revolutionists, of former Constitutionalists, of exiles of the
+Monarchy, whom she endeavored to bring over to the Republican cause.
+
+Through the influence of Mme. de Stael, the decree of banishment was
+repealed by the convention, thus opening Paris to Talleyrand. In 1795
+appeared her _Reflexions sur la Paix Interieure_; the aim of that
+work being to organize the French Republic on the plan of the United
+States; it strongly opposed the restoration of the Monarchy. The
+Comite du Salut Publique accused her of double play, of favoring
+intrigues, and, seeing the plots of the Royalists, she adopted a new
+plan in her salon; politics being too dangerous, she decided to devote
+herself more to literature. In her book _Les Passions_ she endeavored
+to crush her calumniators; she wrote: "Condemned to celebrity, without
+being able to be known I find need of making myself known by my
+writings."
+
+It was not safe for her to return to Paris until 1797, when her friend
+Talleyrand was made minister of foreign affairs. Her efforts to charm
+Napoleon led only to estrangement, although he appointed her friend
+Benjamin Constant to the tribunate; but when he publicly announced the
+advent of the tyrant Napoleon, she was accused of inciting her friends
+against the government, and was again banished to Coppet, where she
+wrote the celebrated work _De la Litterature Consideree sous ses
+Rapports avec les Institutions Sociales_, a singular mixture of
+satirical allusions to Napoleon's government and cabals against
+his power; in that work she announced, also, her belief in the
+regeneration of French literature by the influence of foreign
+literature, and endeavored to show the relations which exist between
+political institutions and literature. Thus, she was the first
+to bring the message of a general cosmopolitan relationship of
+literatures and literary ideas.
+
+In 1802 she returned to Paris and began to show, on every possible
+occasion, a morbid hatred for Napoleon. When her father published his
+work _Dernieres Vues de Politique et de Finance_, expressing a desire
+to write against the tyranny of one, after having fought so long that
+of the multitude, the emperor immediately accused Mme. de Stael of
+instilling these ideas into her father. Her salon and forty of her
+friends were put into the interdict.
+
+After the death of her husband in 1802, she was free to marry Benjamin
+Constant; and after refusing him, she wrote her novel _Delphine_ to
+give vent to her feelings. The two famous lines found in almost every
+work on Mme. de Stael may be quoted here, as they well express her
+ideas on marriage: "A man must know how to brave an opinion, and a
+woman must submit to it." This qualification Benjamin Constant lacked,
+and at that time she was unable to give the submission.
+
+Her travels in Germany, Russia, and Italy were one great succession of
+triumphs; by her brilliancy, her wonderful gift of conversation, and
+her quickness of comprehension, she everywhere baffled and astounded
+those with whom she conversed. Schiller declared that when she left
+he felt as though he were just convalescing after a long spell of
+illness. One day she abruptly asked the staid old philosopher Fichte:
+"M. Fichte, can you give me, in a short time, an _apercu_ of your
+system of philosophy, and tell me what you mean by your ego? I find it
+very obscure." He began by translating his thoughts into French, very
+deliberately. After talking for some ten minutes, in the midst of a
+deep argument she interrupted him, crying out: "Enough, M. Fichte,
+quite enough! I understand you perfectly; I have seen your system
+in illustration--it is an adventure of Baron Muenchhausen." The
+philosopher assumed a tragic attitude, and a spell of silence fell
+upon the audience.
+
+The result of her visit to Italy was her novel _Corinne_, in which the
+problems of the destiny of women of genius--the relative joys of love
+and glory--are discussed. This work remained for a whole generation
+the standard of love and ideals, and at the same time revealed Italy
+to the French, After a second visit to Germany, she began to labor
+seriously on her work on that country, in 1810 going _incognito_ to
+Paris to have it printed. Ten thousand copies, ready for sale, were
+destroyed before reaching the public. This work opened the German
+world to the French; it applied, to a great nation, the doctrine of
+progress, defending the independence and originality of nations, while
+endeavoring to show that the future lay in the reciprocal respect
+of the rights of people, declaring that nations are not at all the
+arbitrary work of men or the fatal work of circumstances, and that the
+submission of one people to another is contrary to nature. She wished
+to make "poor and noble Germany" conscious of its intellectual
+riches, and to prove that Europe could obtain peace only through
+the liberation of that country. The censors accused her of lack
+of patriotism in provoking the Germans to independence, and of
+questionable taste in praising their literature; consequently, the
+book was denounced, all the copies obtainable were destroyed, and a
+vigorous search for the manuscript was undertaken. After this episode,
+her friends were not permitted to visit her at Coppet.
+
+In 1811 she was secretly married to a young Italian officer, Albert de
+Rocca, a handsome man of twenty-three--she was then forty-five. In him
+she realized the conditions which she described in _Delphine_, namely,
+a man who braved an opinion and prejudices; and she was ready to
+submit herself to him, Coppet became the centre for endless pleasures
+and fetes; Mme. de Stael began to write comedies and to forget Paris
+entirely. This blissful happiness was suddenly checked by the emperor,
+who determined to show his displeasure and also to give evidence
+of his power by banishing Schlegel and exiling Mme. Recamier and De
+Montmorency, who continued to visit Mme. de Stael. Fear for the safety
+of her husband and children influenced her to leave for Russia, where
+the czar ordered all Russians to honor her as the enemy of Napoleon.
+Indeed, she was everywhere received like a visiting queen.
+
+In the autumn of 1816 she returned to Paris, and spent a number of
+months very happily in her old style--in the society of the salon.
+Though devoured by insomnia, enervated by the use of opium, and
+besieged by fear of death, she accepted all invitations, and kept
+open house herself, receiving in the morning, at dinner, and in the
+evening; and though at night she paced the floor for hours or
+tossed about on her bed until morning, she was yet fresh for all the
+pleasures of the next day. But this mode of existence was undermining
+her health.
+
+She endured this constant strain until one evening in February,
+1817, when, at a ball at the Duke of Decazes's, in the midst of her
+pleasure, she was stricken with paralysis. At the Rue des Mathurins,
+she had all her friends come and dine with her. Chateaubriand, who
+was one of the party, entered her room upon one occasion and found her
+suffering intensely, but able to raise herself and say: "Bonjour, my
+dear Francis! I am suffering, but that does not hinder me from loving
+you." She lingered until July, when there ended a life which not only
+influenced but even modified politics and the institutions of nations,
+which exercised, by writings, an incalculable influence upon French
+literature, opening paths which previously had not been trod.
+
+The most important of her works is _De l'Allemagne_, in writing which
+her only desire was to make Germany known to the French, to explain
+it by comparison with France and to make her people admire it, and
+to open new paths to poetry. According to her, Germany possessed no
+classic prose, because the Germans attributed less importance to style
+than did the French. German poetry, however, had a distinct charm,
+being all sentiment and poetry of the soul, touching and penetrating;
+whereas French poetry was all _esprit_, eloquence, reason, raillery.
+
+In her treatise on the drama, she was the first in French literature
+to use the term "romantic" and to define it; but she had not invented
+the word, Wieland having used it to designate the country in which the
+ancient Roman literature flourished. Her definition was: "The classic
+word is sometimes taken as a synonym of perfection. I use it in
+another acceptance by considering classic poetry that of the ancients
+and romantic poetry that which holds in some way to the chivalresque
+traditions. The literature of the ancients is a transplanted
+literature with us; but romantic or chivalresque literature is
+indigenous. An imitation of works coming from a political, social,
+and religious midst different from ours means a literature which is
+no longer in relation with us, which has never been popular, and
+which will become less so every day. On the contrary, the romantic
+literature is the only one which is susceptible of being perfected,
+because it bears its roots from our soil and is, consequently, the
+only one which can be revived and increased. It expresses our religion
+and recalls our history." This opinion alone was enough to create a
+revolt among her contemporaries. Almost all other interpretations of
+_Faust_ were based on her conception.
+
+At the time of its publication, her book was considered to have been
+written in a political spirit, but her motive was far from that; it
+was the action of a generous heart, a book as true and loyal to
+the French as was ever a book written by a Frenchman. In her work
+_Considerations sur la Revolution Francaise_ she expressed the most
+advanced ideas on politics and government. The Revolution freed France
+and made it prosper; "every absolute monarch enslaves his country, and
+freedom reigns not in politics nor in the arts and sciences. Local and
+provincial liberties have formed nations, but royalty has deformed the
+nation by turning it to profit." Mme. de Stael found nothing to admire
+in Louis XIV., and to Richelieu she attributed the destruction of
+the originality of the French character, of its loyalty, candor,
+and independence. In that work she advocated education, which she
+considered a duty of the government to the people. "Schools must be
+established for the education of the poor, universities for the study
+of all languages, literatures, and sciences;" these ideas took root
+after her death.
+
+Mme. de Stael was a finished writer; because of its force, openness,
+and seriousness, her style might be termed a masculine one; she wrote
+to persuade and, as a rule, succeeded. Her grave defect seemed to be
+in her inspirations, which were always superior to her ideas, and in
+her sentiments, which she invariably turned to passions.
+
+Few French writers have exercised such a great influence in so many
+directions, and it became specially marked after her death; while
+living, the gossip against her salon prevented her opinions from being
+accepted or taking root. Her political influence was great at her
+time and lasted some twenty years. Directly influenced by her were
+Narbonne, De Montmorency, Benjamin Constant, and the Duc Victor de
+Broglie, her son-in-law. By her and her father, the Globe, the orators
+of the Academy and the tribune, and the politicians of the day, were
+inspired. The greatest was Guizot, who interpreted and preached in the
+spirit of Mme. de Stael. In history her influence was equally felt,
+especially in Guizot's _Essays on the History of France_, and in his
+_History of Civilization_, wherein civilization was considered as the
+constant progress in justice, in society, and in the state. To her
+Guizot owed his idea of _Amour dans le Mariage_. _The Historical
+Essays on England_, by Remusat, an ardent admirer of hers, was largely
+influenced by her _Considerations_, while Tocqueville's _Ancien
+Regime_ contains many of her ideas.
+
+Literature owes even more to her works, which encouraged the study of
+foreign literatures; almost all translations were due to her works.
+Michelet, Quinet, Nodier, Victor Hugo, so much influenced by German
+literature, owe their knowledge of it mainly to her. Too much credit
+may be given her when it is stated that all Mignons, Marguerites,
+Mephistopheles, etc., proceeded indirectly from her work, as well as
+nearly all descriptions of travels. Lamartine undoubtedly used her _De
+l'Allemagne_ and her _Des Passions_ freely. The heroine of _Jocelyn_
+is called but a daughter of _Delphine_, and the same author's terrible
+invective against Napoleon was inspired by her.
+
+Mme. de Stael had an indestructible faith in human reason, liberty,
+and justice; she believed in human perfection and in the hope of
+progress. "From Rousseau, she received that passionate tenderness,
+that confidence in the inherent goodness of man. Believing in an
+intimate communion of man with God, her religion was spirit and
+sentiment which had no need of pomp or symbols, of an intermediary
+between God and man." She was not so much a great writer as she was a
+great thinker, or rather a discoverer of new thoughts. By instituting
+a new criticism and by opening new literatures to the French, she
+succeeded in emancipating art from fixed rules and in facilitating the
+sudden growth of romanticism in France.
+
+In her life, her great desire was to spread happiness and to obtain
+it, to love and to be loved in return. In politics it was always the
+sentiment of justice which appealed to her, in literature it was the
+ideal. Sincerity was manifested in everything she said and did. Pity
+for the misery of her fellow beings, the sentiment of the dignity of
+man and his right to independence, of his future grandeur founded
+on his moral elevation, the cult of justice, and the love of
+liberty--such were the prevailing thoughts of her life and works.
+
+Mme. de Stael's chief influence will always remain in the domain of
+literature; she was the first French writer to introduce and exercise
+a European or cosmopolitan influence by uniting the literatures of the
+north and the south and clearly defining the distinction between them.
+By the expression of her idea that French literature had decayed on
+account of the exclusive social spirit, and that its only means of
+regeneration lay in the study and absorption of new models, she
+cut French taste loose from traditions and freed literature from
+superannuated conventionalities. Also, by her idea that a common
+civilization must be fostered, a union of the eastern and western
+ideals, and that literature must be the common expression thereof,
+whose object must be the amelioration of humanity, morally and
+religiously, she gave to the world at large ideas which are only now
+being fully appreciated and nearing realization. In her novels she
+vigorously protested against the lot of woman in modern society,
+against her obligation to submit everything to opinion, against the
+innumerable obstacles in the way of her development--thus heralding
+George Sand and the general movement toward woman's emancipation.
+France has never had a more forceful, energetic, influential,
+cosmopolitan, and at the same time moral, writer than Mme. de Stael.
+
+The events in the life of George Sand had comparatively little
+influence upon her works, which were mainly the expression of her
+nature. As a young girl, she was strongly influenced by her mother, an
+amiable but rather frivolous woman, and by her grandmother, a serious,
+cold, ceremonious old lady. Calm and well balanced, and possessing an
+ardent imagination, she followed her own inclinations when, as a girl
+of sixteen, she was married to a man for whom she had no love. After
+living an indifferent sort of life with her husband for ten years,
+they separated; and she, with her children, went to Paris to find
+work.
+
+After a number of unsuccessful efforts of a literary nature, she
+wrote _Indiana_, which immediately made her success. Her articles were
+sought by the journals, and from about 1830 her life was that of the
+average artist and writer of the time. Her relations with Chopin and
+Alfred de Musset are too well known to require repetition. After 1850
+she retired to her home, the Chateau de Nohant, where she enjoyed the
+companionship of her son, her daughter-in-law, and her grandchildren;
+she died there in 1876.
+
+To appreciate her works, it is more important to study her nature than
+her career. This has been admirably done by the Comte d'Haussonville.
+George Sand is said to have possessed a dual nature, which seemed
+to contradict itself, but which explains her works--a dreamy and
+meditative, and a lively, frolicsome nature; the first might throw
+light upon her religious crisis, the second, upon her social side.
+The combination of these two phases caused the numerous conflicts
+of opinions and doctrines, extending her knowledge and inciting her
+curiosity; the not infrequent result was an intellectual and moral
+bewilderment and the deepest melancholy, from which she with great
+difficulty freed herself. Because of these peculiarities she was
+constantly agitated, her strongly reflective nature keeping her awake
+to all important questions of the day.
+
+Her intellectual development may be traced in her works, which, from
+1830 to 1840, were personal, lyrical, spontaneous--a direct flow from
+inspiration, issuing from a common source of emotions and personal
+sorrows, being the expressions of her habitual reflections, of her
+moral agitations, of her real and imaginary sufferings. These first
+works were a protest against the tyranny of marriage, and expressed
+her conception of a woman in love--a love profound and naive, exalted
+and sincere, passionate and chaste: such is pictured in _Indiana_. In
+_Valentine_ she portrays the impious and unfortunate marriage that the
+sacrilegious conventions of the world have imposed, and the
+results issuing therefrom. In all of these early works are seen an
+inventiveness, a lively _allure_, an exquisite style, a freshness
+and brilliancy, _finesse_ and grace; but they show an undisciplined
+talent, giving vent to feelings that her unbounded enthusiasm would
+not allow to be checked--there is emotion, but no system.
+
+In her second period, from about 1840 to 1848, her reflection and
+emotion combined produced a system and theories. The higher problems
+took stronger hold on her as she matured; philosophy and religious
+science in their deeper phases excited her emotive faculties,
+which threw out a mere echo of what she had heard and studied.
+Her inspiration thus came from without, throwing out those endless
+declamatory outbursts which we meet in _Consuelo_ and in _Comtesse de
+Rudolstadt_. These theory-novels were soon followed by novels dealing
+with social problems, now and then relieved by delightful idyllics
+such as _La Mare au Diable_ and _Francois le Champi_. This third
+tendency M. d'Haussonville considers the least successful.
+
+After 1850 there appeared from her pen a series of historical novels,
+especially fine in the portrayal of characters, variety of situations,
+movement, and intrigues; these are free from all social theories;
+in these, reverting to her first tendencies, she is at her best in
+elegance and clearness, in analysis of characters. Thus does the work
+of George Sand change from a personal lyricism, in which the emotions,
+held in check during a solitary and dreamy youth, burst forth in
+brilliant and passionate fiction, to a theoretical, systematic novel,
+finally reverting to the first efforts, but tempered by experience and
+age.
+
+M. d'Haussonville says that in the strict sense of the word George
+Sand had no doctrines, but possessed a powerful imagination that
+manifested itself at various periods of her life. Whatever the
+principles might have been at first, they were made concrete under
+a sentiment with her, for her heart was her first inspiration,
+her teacher in all things. The ideas are thus analyzed through her
+sentiments under a threefold inspiration,--love, passion for humanity,
+sentiment for Nature.
+
+According to other novels, love is the unique affair of life; without
+love we do not really live, before love enters life we do not live,
+and after we cease to love there is no object in life. This love comes
+directly from God, of whom George Sand had ideas peculiar to herself.
+The majority of her characters have a sort of mystic, exalted love,
+looking upon it as a sacred right, making of themselves great priests
+rather than genuine human lovers. This love, issuing from God, is
+sacred; therefore, the yielding to it is a pious act; he who resists
+commits sacrilege, while he who blames others for it is impious; for
+love legitimizes itself by itself. Such a theory naturally led her
+to a sensual ideality, and her heroes rose to the highest phase of
+fatalism and voluptuousness; this impelled her to protest against the
+social laws. Jacques says:
+
+"I do not doubt at all that marriage will be abolished if humankind
+makes any progress toward justice and reason; a bond more human and
+none the less sacred will replace this one and will take care of
+the children which may issue from a man and woman, without ever
+interfering with the liberty of either. But men are too coarse and
+women are too cowardly to ask for a law more noble than the iron
+law which binds them--beings without conscience--and virtue must be
+burdened with heavy chains."
+
+Yet, in none of her books did George Sand ever submit any theories as
+to how such children would be cared for; apparently, such a difficulty
+never troubled her, since almost all of the children of her books die
+of some disease, while to one--Jacques--she gives the advice to take
+his own life, so that his wife may be free to love elsewhere.
+
+Her social theories are marked by an exaltation of sentiment, a
+weakness, an incoherency in conception, caused by her ardent love for
+theories and ideas, but which, in her passionate sentiment and her
+loyal enthusiasm, she always confounds and confuses. From early youth
+she manifested an immense goodness, a profound tenderness, and a deep
+compassion for human misery. She rarely became angry, even though she
+suffered cruelly. Her own law of life and her message to the world
+was--be good. The only strong element within her, she said, was the
+need of loving, which manifested itself under the form of tenderness
+and emotion, devotion and religious ecstasy; and when this faith was
+shaken, doubt and social disturbances overwhelmed her.
+
+Throughout life her consolation was Nature. "It was half of her genius
+and the surest of her inspirations." No other French novelist has
+been able to "express in words the lights and shades, harmonies and
+contrasts, the magic of sounds, the symphonies of color, the depth
+and distances of the woods, the infinite movement of the sea and the
+sky--the interior soul of Nature, that vibrates in everything and
+everybody." With Lamartine and Michelet, she has best reflected and
+expressed the dreams and hopes and loves of the first half of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+George Sand saw Nature, lived in her, sympathized with her, and loved
+her as did few other French writers; therefore, she showed more memory
+than pure imagination in her work, for she always found Nature more
+beautiful in actuality than she could picture her mentally, while
+other great writers, like Lamartine, saw her less beautiful in reality
+than in their imagination; hence, they were disappointed in Nature,
+while for George Sand she was the truest friend. The world will always
+be interested in her descriptions of Nature, because with Nature she
+always associated something of human life--a thought or a sentiment;
+her landscapes belonged to her characters--there is always a soul
+living in them, for, to George Sand, man and Nature were inseparable.
+
+Thus, every novel of this authoress consists of a situation and a
+landscape, the poetic union of which nothing can mar. "Man associated
+with Nature and Nature with man is a great law of art; no painter has
+practised it with instinct more delicate or sure." Because Nature,
+in her early youth, was her inspiration, guide, even her God, she
+returned to her later in life. M. Jules Lemaitre wrote that her works
+will remain eternally beautiful, because they teach us how to love
+Nature as divine and good, and to find in that love peace and solace.
+There are many parts of her work which show as detailed, accurate, and
+realistic descriptions as those by Balzac. She constantly employed two
+elements--the fanciful and the realistic.
+
+George Sand never studied or knew how to compose a work, how to
+preserve the unity of the subject or the unity in tone in characters;
+hence, there was nothing calculated or premeditated--everything was
+spontaneous. No preparation of plan did she ever think of--a mode of
+procedure which naturally resulted in a negligent style and caused
+the composition to drag. Her inspiration seemed to go so far, then
+she resorted to her imagination, to the chimerical, forcing events
+and characters. "There are many defects in the style--such as
+the sentimental part, the romanesque in the violent expression of
+sentiments or invention of situations, the exaggerated improbabilities
+of events, the excessive declamation; but how many compensating
+qualities are there to offset these defects!"
+
+Her method of writing was very simple. It was the love of writing
+that impelled her, almost without premeditation, to put into words
+her dreams, meditations, and chimeras under concrete and living forms.
+Yet, by the largeness of her sympathy and the ardor of her passions,
+by the abundant inventions of stories, and by the harmonious
+word-flow, she deserves to be ranked among the greatest writers
+of France. Her career, taken as a whole, is one of prodigious
+fecundity--a literary life that has "enchanted by its fictions or
+troubled by its dreams" four or five generations. Never diminishing in
+quality or inspiration, there are surprises in every new work.
+
+No doubt George Sand has, for a generation or more, been somewhat
+forgotten, but what great writer has not shared the same fate? When
+the materialistic age has passed away, many famous writers of the
+past will be resurrected, and with them George Sand; for her novels,
+although written to please and entertain, discuss questions of
+religion, philosophy, morality, problems of the heart, conscience, and
+education,--and this is done in such a dramatic way that one feels all
+to be true. More than that, her characters are all capable of carrying
+out, to the end, a common moral and general theme with eloquence
+seldom found in novels.
+
+An interesting comparison might be made between Mme. de Stael and
+George Sand, the two greatest women writers of France. Both wrote
+from their experience of life, and fought passionately against the
+prejudices and restrictions of social conventions; both were ideal
+natures and were severely tried in the school of life, profiting
+by their experiences; both possessed highly sensitive natures, and
+suffered much; both were keenly enthusiastic and sympathetic, with
+pardonable weaknesses; both lived through tragic wars; both evinced
+a dislike for the commonplace and strove for greater freedom, but for
+different publics, after unhappy marriages, both rose up as accusers
+against the prevalent system of marrying young girls. But Mme. de
+Stael was a virtuoso in conversation, a salon queen, and her happiness
+was to be found in society alone; while George Sand found her
+happiness in communion with Nature. This explains the two natures,
+their sufferings, their joys, their writings.
+
+The greatest punishment ever inflicted upon Mme. de Stael was her
+exile, for it deprived her of her social life, a fact of which the
+emperor was well aware. Her entire literary effort was directed to
+describing her social life and the relation of society to life. "She
+belongs to the moralists and to the writers who wrote of society and
+man--social psychologists." Not poetic or artistic by nature, but
+with an exceptional power of observation, she shows on every side the
+influence of a pedagogical, literary, and social training; she was the
+product of an artificial culture.
+
+George Sand, on the contrary, was a product of Nature, reared in free
+intercourse and unrestrained relation with her genius and Nature. A
+powerful passion and a mighty fantasy made of her a poetess and an
+artist. These two qualities were manifested in her intense and deep
+feeling for the beauty of Nature, in her power of invention, in a
+harmonious equilibrium between idealism and realism. Her fantasy
+overbalanced her reason, impeding its development and thus relegating
+it to a secondary role. "She is possibly the only French writer
+who possessed no _esprit_ (in the sense that it is used in French
+society)--that playful, epigrammatic, querulous wit of conversation."
+
+She never enjoyed communion with others for any length of time, or the
+companionship of anyone for a long period; the companions of which she
+never tired were the fields and woods, birds and dogs; therefore, she
+enjoyed those people most who were nearer her ideals, the peasants and
+workmen, and these she best describes. Thus, her whole creation is
+one of instinct rather than of reason, as it was with Mme. de Stael.
+George Sand was a genius, a master-product of Nature, while Mme. de
+Stael was a talent, a consummate work of the art of modern culture;
+she reflects, while George Sand creates from impulse; the latter was
+a true poetess, communing with Nature, while the banker's daughter was
+an observing thinker, communicating with society--but both were great
+writers.
+
+Intimately associated with George Sand is Rosa Bonheur, in all
+of whose canvases we find the same aim, the same spirit, the same
+message, that are found in so many of the novels of George Sand.
+They were two women who have contributed, through different branches,
+masterworks that will be enjoyed and appreciated at all times.
+"It would be difficult not to speak of _La Mare au Diable_ and the
+_Meunier d'Angibault_ when recalling the fields where Rosa Bonheur
+speeds the plow or places the oxen lowering their patient heads under
+the yoke."
+
+In the evening, at home, while other members of the family were
+at work, one member read aloud to the rest; and George Sand was
+a favorite author with the Bonheur group of artists. It was while
+reading _La Mare au Diable_ that Rosa conceived the idea of the work
+which by some critics is pronounced her masterpiece, _Plowing in
+Nivernais_. The artist's deep sympathy was aroused by her love of
+Nature, which no contemporary novelist expressed or appreciated as
+did George Sand. In all her works, and throughout the long life of the
+artist, there is absolutely nothing unhealthy or immoral to be found.
+The novelist had theories which were inspired by her passion, and
+these became unhealthy at times; she belongs first of all to France,
+while Rosa Bonheur belongs first of all to the world, her message
+reaching the young and old of every clime and every people. The
+novelist is to be associated with the artist by virtue of her
+exquisite, simple, and wholesome peasant stories.
+
+The entire Bonheur family were artists, and all were moral and
+genuinely sympathetic. As a young girl, Rosa manifested an intense
+love for Nature, sunshine, and the woods; always independent in
+manners, she used to caricature her teachers; and while walking
+out into the country, she would draw, with charcoal or in sand, any
+objects that met her eye. Her father was not long in detecting her
+talent. She was wedded to her art from the very beginning, showing no
+taste for or interest in any other subject. As soon as her father gave
+permission to follow art as a profession, she devoted all her energy
+to advancing herself in what she felt to be her life's work. For four
+years the young girl could be seen every day at the Louvre, copying
+the great masters and receiving principally from them her ideas of
+coloring and harmony, while from her father she learned her technique.
+After she had mastered these two principles, she decided to specialize
+in pastoral nature.
+
+From that time her whole life was given up to the study of Nature and
+animals. Not able to study those near by, she procured a fine Beauvais
+sheep, which served as her model for two years. From the very first
+her work showed accuracy, purity, and an intuitive perception of
+Nature, and these qualities soon placed her among the foremost artists
+of the time. Her struggle for reputation and glory was not a long and
+arduous one, for after 1845 her fame was established--she was then but
+twenty-three years old; and after 1849, having exhibited some thirty
+pictures, her reputation had become European.
+
+In order to be able to study her models with greater ease and freedom
+from the annoyance and coarse incivilities of the workmen at the
+slaughter houses, farmyards, and markets that she was in the habit of
+visiting, she adopted the garb of man.
+
+Her honors in life were many, though always unsought. The Empress
+Eugenie, while regent during the absence of Napoleon III., went
+in person to her chateau and put around her neck the ribbon of the
+decoration of the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor, then for the
+first time bestowed upon woman for merit other than bravery and
+charity. The Emperor Maximilian of Mexico conferred upon her the
+decoration of San Carlos; the King of Belgium created her a chevalier
+of his order, the first honor won by a woman; the King of Spain made
+her a Commander of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic; and
+President Carnot created her an Officer of the Legion of Honor.
+
+With qualities such as she possessed, Rosa Bonheur could not fail
+to attain immortality. Her success was due in no small degree to the
+scientific instruction which she received when a mere child; having
+been taught, from the very first, how to paint directly from a model,
+she supplemented this training by a period of four years of copying
+great masters. In the latter period she studied Paul Potter's work
+rather slavishly, but was individual enough to combine only the best
+in him with the best in herself; this gave her an originality such as
+possibly no other animal painter ever possessed---not even Landseer,
+who is said to be "stronger in telling the story than in the manner of
+telling it."
+
+Rosa Bonheur was too independent and original to follow any particular
+school or master, for her only inspiration and guide were her models,
+always living near by and upon intimate terms with her. Thus, in all
+her paintings, we instinctively feel that she painted from conviction,
+from her own observation, nothing being added for mere artistic
+effect. To some extent her pictures impress one as a perfect French
+poem in which there is no superfluous word, in which no word could
+be changed without destroying the effect of the whole; thus, in her
+paintings there is not a superfluous brush stroke; everything is
+necessary to the telling of the story; but she excels the perfect
+poem, for, in French literature, it seldom has a message distinct
+from its technique, while her pictures breathe the very essence
+of sympathy, love, and life. We feel that she thoroughly knew her
+subjects as a connoisseur; but her animals do not impress one as the
+production of an artist who knew them as do horse traders and cattle
+dealers, who know their stock from the purely physical standpoint; the
+animals of this artist are from the brush of one who was familiar with
+their habits, who loved them, had lived with and studied them--who
+knew and appreciated their higher qualities. Rosa Bonheur most
+harmoniously united two essential elements in art--a scientific as
+well as sympathetic conception of her subject. Possibly this is the
+reason that her pictures appeal to animal lovers throughout the world.
+
+As was stated, she was independent, hence kept aloof from the
+corruptions of contemporary French art and its technique lovers,
+always pursuing an even tenor in her art and never permitting one of
+her pictures to leave her studio in a crude or unfinished state. In
+all her long career she kept her original sketches, never parting with
+one, in spite of the most tempting offers; and this explains the fact
+that the work of her later years exhibits the freshness and other
+qualities of that of her youth. Thus, her art has gained by her
+experience, even though her best work was done between about 1848 and
+1860, and is especially marked by its excellence in composition,
+the anatomy, the breadth of touch, the harmony of coloring, and the
+action, although it is said to lack the spontaneity, the originality,
+and the highly imaginative quality which are at their best in _The
+Horse Fair_; the same qualities seem to have been possessed by many of
+her contemporaries, such as Troyon.
+
+Notwithstanding these apparent defects, Rosa Bonheur stands for
+something higher in art than do most of her contemporaries. She was
+not influenced by the skilled and often corrupt technicians; she
+perfected her technique by study of the old masters and learned her
+art from Nature; wisely keeping free from the ornamental, gorgeous,
+and highly imaginative and exaggerated historical Romantic school, in
+French art she stands out almost alone with Millet. Whatever may
+be said of the more virile and masculine art of other great animal
+painters, Rosa Bonheur, by her truthfulness, her science, her close
+association and intimate communion with her animal world, by the glad
+and healthy vigor which her paintings breathe, has taught the world
+the great lesson that there are intelligence, will, love, and even
+soul, in animals.
+
+Her art and life inspired respect and admiration; we have nothing to
+regret, nothing to conceal; we desire to love her for her animals, and
+we must esteem her for her grand devotion to her art and family, for
+her purity and charity, for her kindness to and love for those in the
+lower walks of life, for her goodness and honesty. An illustration of
+the last quality may be taken from her dealings with art collectors.
+After having offered her _Horse Fair_, which she desired should remain
+in France, to her own town for twelve thousand francs, she sold it for
+forty thousand francs to Mr. Gambert, but with the condition which she
+thus expressed: "I am grateful for your giving me such a noble
+price, but I do not like to feel that I have taken advantage of your
+liberality. Let us see how we can combine matters. You will not be
+able to have an engraving made from so large a canvas; suppose I
+paint you a small one of the same subject, of which I will make you a
+present." Naturally, the gift was accepted, and the smaller canvas now
+hangs in the National Gallery of London.
+
+In all her dealings she showed this kindness and uprightness, sympathy
+and honesty. Although numberless orders were constantly coming to
+her, she never let them hurry her in her work. She was, possibly, the
+highest and noblest type--certainly among great French women--of that
+strong and solid virtue which constitutes the backbone and the very
+essence of French national strength. The reputation of Rosa Bonheur
+has never been blemished by the least touch of petty jealousy, hatred,
+envy, vanity, or pride--and, among all great French women, she is one
+of the few of whom this may be said. She won for herself and her noble
+art the genuine and lasting sympathy of the world at large.
+
+The only woman artist in France deserving a place beside Rosa Bonheur
+belongs properly under the reign of Louis XVI., although she lived
+almost to the middle of the nineteenth century. At the age of twenty,
+Mme. Lebrun was already famous as the leading portrait painter; this
+was during the most popular period of Marie Antoinette--1775 to 1785.
+In 1775, but a young girl, admitted to all the sessions of the Academy
+as recognition of her portraits of La Bruyere and Cardinal Fleury, she
+made her life unhappy and gave her art a serious blow by consenting
+to marry the then great art critic and collector of art, Lebrun. His
+passion for gambling and women ruined her fortune and almost ended her
+career as an artist. Her own conduct was not irreproachable.
+
+Mme. Lebrun will be remembered principally as the great painter of
+Marie Antoinette, who posed for her more than twenty times. The most
+prominent people of Europe eagerly sought her work, while socially she
+was welcomed everywhere. Her famous suppers and entertainments in
+her modestly furnished hotel, at which Garat sang, Gretry played
+the piano, and Viotti and Prince Henry of Prussia assisted, were the
+events of the day. Her reputation as a painter of the great ladies and
+gentlemen of nobility, and her entertainments, naturally associated
+her with the nobility; hence, she shared their unpopularity at the
+outbreak of the Revolution and left France.
+
+It is doubtful whether any artist--certainly no French artist--ever
+received more attention and honors, or was made a member of so many
+art academies, than Mme. Lebrun. It would be difficult to make any
+comparison between her and Rosa Bonheur, their respective spheres of
+art being so different. Only the future will speak as to the relative
+positions of each in French art.
+
+In the domain of the dramatic art of the nineteenth century, two
+women have made their names well known throughout Europe and
+America,--Rachel, and Sarah Bernhardt, both tragediennes and both
+daughters of Israel. While Rachel was, without question, the greatest
+tragedienne that France ever produced, excelling Bernhardt in deep
+tragic force, she yet lacked many qualities which our contemporary
+possesses in a high degree. She had constantly to contend with a cruel
+fate and a wicked, grasping nature, which brought her to an early
+grave. The wretched slave of her greedy and rapacious father and
+managers, who cared for her only in so far as she enriched them by her
+genius and popularity, hers was a miserable existence, which detracted
+from her acting, checked her development, and finally undermined her
+health.
+
+After her critical period of apprenticeship was successfully passed
+and she was free to govern herself, she rose to be queen of the French
+stage--a position which she held for eighteen years, during which she
+was worshipped and petted by the whole world. As a social leader,
+she was received and made much of by the great ladies of the Faubourg
+Saint-Germain. Her taste in dress was exquisite in its simplicity,
+being in perfect harmony with the reserved, retiring, and amiable
+actress herself.
+
+Possibly no actress, singer, or other public woman ever received such
+homage and general recognition. With all her great qualities as an
+actress, vigor, grandeur, wild, savage energy, superb articulation,
+irreproachable diction, and a marvellous sense of situations, she
+lacked the one quality which we miss in Sarah Bernhardt also--a true
+tenderness and compassion. As a tragedienne she can be compared to
+Talma only. Her greed for money soon ended her brilliant career;
+unlike her sister in art, she amassed a fortune, leaving over one
+million five hundred thousand francs.
+
+Compared with Bernhardt, Rachel is said to have been the greater in
+pure tragedy, but she did not possess as many arts of fascination.
+There are many points of similarity between the two actresses: Rachel
+was at times artificial, wanting in tenderness and depth, while at
+times she was superhuman in her passion and emotion, and often
+put more into her role than was intended; and the acting of Sarah
+Bernhardt has the same characteristics. Rachel, however, was much more
+subject to moods and fits of inspiration than is Bernhardt--especially
+was she incapable of acting at her best on evenings of her first
+appearance in a new role. Her critical power was very weak in
+comparison with her intellectual power, the reverse being true of her
+modern rival. Rachel's greatest inspiration was _Phedre_, and in
+this role Bernhardt "is weak, unequal. We see all the viciousness
+in _Phedre_ and none of her grandeur. She breaks herself to pieces
+against the huge difficulties of the conception and does not succeed
+in moving us.... Rachel was the mouthpiece of the gods; no longer a
+free agent, she poured forth every epithet of adoration that Aphrodite
+could suggest, clambering up higher and higher in the intensity of her
+emotions, whilst her audience hung breathless, riveted on every word,
+and dared to burst forth in thunders of applause only after she had
+vanished from their sight."
+
+Both of these artists were children of the lower class, and struggled
+with a fate which required grit, tenacity, and determination to
+win success. The artist of to-day is no social leader--"never the
+companion of man, but his slave or his despot." It is entirely her
+physical charms and the outward or artificial requisites of her art
+that make her what she is. According to Mr. Lynch, her tragedy "is but
+one of disorder, fury, and folly--passions not deep, but unbridled and
+hysterical in their intensest display. Her _forte_ lies in the ornate
+and elaborate exhibition of roles," for which she creates the most
+capricious and fantastic garbs. She is a great manager,--omitting the
+financial part,--quite a writer, somewhat of a painter and sculptor,
+throwing her money away, except to her creditors, adored by some
+and execrated by others. Her care of her physical self and her utter
+disregard for money have undoubtedly contributed to her long and
+brilliant career; rest and idleness are her most cruel punishments.
+All nervous energy, never happy, restless, she is a true _fin de
+siecle_ product.
+
+Among the large number of women who wielded influence in the
+nineteenth century, either through their salons or through their
+works, Mme. Guizot was one of the most important as the author of
+treatises on education and as a moralist. As an intimate friend of
+Suard, she was placed, as a contributor, on the _Publiciste_, and for
+ten years wrote articles on morality, society, and literature which
+showed a varied talent, much depth, and justness. Fond of polemics,
+she never failed to attack men like La Harpe, De Bonald, etc., thus
+making herself felt as an influence to be reckoned with in matters
+literary and moral.
+
+As Mme. Guizot, she naturally had a powerful influence upon her
+husband, shaping his thoughts and theories, for she immediately
+espoused his principles and interests. In 1821, at the age of
+forty-eight, she began her literary work again, after a period of
+rest, writing novels in which the maternal love and the ardent and
+pious sentiments of a woman married late in life are reflected. In
+her theories of education she showed a highly practical spirit.
+Sainte-Beuve said that, next to Mme. de Stael, "she was the woman
+endowed with the most sagacity and intelligence; the sentiment that
+she inspires is that of respect and esteem--and these terms can only
+do her justice."
+
+Mme. de Duras, in her salon, represented the Restoration, "by
+a composite of aristocracy and affability, of brilliant wit and
+seriousness, semi-liberal and somewhat progressive." Her credit lies
+in the fact that, by her keen wit, she kept in harmony a heterogeneous
+mixture of social life. She wrote a number of novels, which are,
+for the most part, "a mere delicate and discreet expression of her
+interior life."
+
+Mme. Ackermann, German in her entire makeup, was, among French female
+writers, one of the deepest thinkers of the nineteenth century. A
+true mystic, she was, from early youth, filled with ardent, dreamy
+vagaries, to which she gave expression in verse--poems which reflect
+a pessimism which is rather the expression of her life's experiences,
+and of twenty-four years of solitude after two years of happy wedded
+state, than an actual depression and a discouraging philosophy of
+life. Her poetry shows a vigor, depth, precision of form, and strength
+of expression seldom found in poetry of French women.
+
+One of the most conspicuous figures in the latter half of the
+nineteenth century is Mme. Adam,--Juliette Lamber,--an unusual woman
+in every respect. In 1879 she founded the _Nouvelle Revue_, on the
+plan of the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, for which she wrote political
+and literary articles which showed much talent. In politics she is a
+Republican and something of a socialist, a somewhat sensational--but
+modestly sensational--figure. She has been called "a necessary
+continuator of George Sand." Her salon was the great centre for
+all Republicans and one of the most brilliant and important of this
+century. In literature her name is connected with the movement called
+neo-Hellenism, the aim of which seems to have been to inspire a love
+and sympathy for the art, religion, and literature of ancient and
+modern Greece. In her works she shows a deep insight into Greek
+life and art. Her name will always be connected with the Republican
+movement in France; as a salon leader, _femme de lettres_, journalist,
+and female politician, no woman is better known in France in the
+nineteenth century.
+
+A woman who might be called the rival of Mme. Adam, but whose
+activity occurred much earlier in the century, was Mme. Emile de
+Girardin,--Delphine Gay,--who ruled, at least for a short time, the
+social and literary world of Paris at her hotel in the Rue Chaillot.
+Her very early precocity, combined with her rare beauty, made her
+famous. In 1836, after having written a number of poems which showed
+a weak sentimentality and a quite mannered emotion, she founded the
+_Courrier Francais_, for which she wrote articles on the questions of
+the day--effusions which were written upon the spur of the moment and
+were very unreliable. Her dramas were hardly successful, although they
+were played by the great Rachel. Her present claim to fame is based
+upon the brilliancy of her salon.
+
+The future will possibly remember Mme. Alphonse Daudet more as the
+wife of the great Daudet than as a writer, although, according to
+M. Jules Lemaitre, she possessed the gift of _ecriture artiste_ to
+a remarkable degree. According to him, sureness and exactness and a
+striking truth of impressions are her characteristics as a writer. She
+exercised a most wholesome power over Alphonse Daudet, taking him away
+from bad influences, giving him a home, dignity, and happiness, and
+saving him from brutality and pessimism; she was his guardian and
+censor; she preserved his grace and noble sentiments. The nature of
+her relations to him should ensure the preservation of her name to
+posterity.
+
+We are accustomed to give Gyp--Sybille Gabrielle Marie Antoinette de
+Riquetti de Mirabeau, Comtesse de Martel de Janville--little credit
+for seriousness or morality, associating her with the average
+brilliant, flippant novelists, who write because they possess the
+knack of writing in a brilliant style. Her object is to show that man,
+in a civilized state in society, is vain, coarse, and ridiculous. She
+paints Parisian society to demonstrate that the apparently fortunate
+ones of the world are not to be envied, that they are miserable in
+their so-called joys and ridiculous in their pleasures and their
+elegance. She has described the most _risque_ situations and the most
+delightful women, but she gives us to understand that the latter are
+not to be loved. The vanity of the social world might be called her
+text.
+
+Mme. Blanc--Therese de Solms--is known to us to-day as the first
+woman to reveal English and American authors and habits to her
+contemporaries. By advocating American customs she has done much
+to ameliorate the condition of French girls, by giving them a freer
+intercourse with young men and permitting them to see more of the
+world before entering upon married life.
+
+Mme. Greville, who died recently, deserves a place among the prominent
+women writers of France. No _femme de lettres_ ever received more
+honors, prizes, and decorations than she; a number of her writings
+were crowned by the Academy. A member of the Societe des Gens de
+Lettres, with all her literary work she was a domestic woman, keeping
+aloof from all feminist movements. Her husband, Professor Durand, to
+show his esteem and admiration for her, adopted her name--a wise act,
+for it may preserve his name with that of his talented wife.
+
+Many other names might be cited, but, as the list of prominent women
+is practically without end, owing to the indefiniteness of the term
+"prominent," we shall close with these names, which have become
+familiar in both continents.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Women of Modern France, by Hugo P.  Thieme
+
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