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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/17016-8.txt b/17016-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ff07e84 --- /dev/null +++ b/17016-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2719 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Division of Words, by Frederick W. Hamilton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Division of Words + Rules for the Division of Words at the Ends of Lines, with + Remarks on Spelling, Syllabication and Pronunciation + +Author: Frederick W. Hamilton + +Release Date: November 6, 2005 [EBook #17016] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIVISION OF WORDS *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +1. Some examples which appear not to follow the preceding guideline are +printed thus in the original book. It looks as if sometimes the guideline +is mistaken. + +2. Italicized text is rendered as _text_, bold text is rendered as =text=. + +3. Accented syllables are marked with a single quote ('). + +4. This book uses several diacritical marks for phonetics, the table below +lists the codings used: (the "x" represents a character with a diacritical +mark) + +Diacritical mark Above Below + +Macron (straight line) [=x] [x=] +2 dots (diaeresis, umlaut) [:x] [x:] +Breve (u-shaped symbol) [)x] [x)] +Tilde [~x] [x~] +Small capital I [Ix] + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI. NO. 35 + + +DIVISION OF +WORDS + + +RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS AT +THE ENDS OF LINES, WITH REMARKS +ON SPELLING, SYLLABICATION +AND PRONUNCIATION + + +BY + +FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. + +EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR +UNITED TYPOTHETĘ OF AMERICA + + + + +PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA +1918 + + + + +COPYRIGHT, 1918 +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA +CHICAGO, ILL. + + + + +PREFACE + + +The principal purpose of this book is to give in brief form the rules and +usages governing the division of words when the measure will not permit +ending the word and the line together. This matter is considered in its +relation to good spacing and to the legibility of the printed page. + +Leading up to the discussion will be found some consideration of spelling, +the formation of syllables, pronunciation, and accent. This consideration +is necessarily brief, and no attempt has been made to give the rules for +spelling which are so frequently found in spelling books, or any of them. +In the writer's opinion such rules are of very little practical value. Good +spelling is not so much the result of remembering and applying rules as it +is of observation, practice, and memory. The lists of certain types of +troublesome words may be found useful for ready reference. + +Syllable formation, pronunciation, and accent are considered because it is +hoped that the volumes of this series, particularly those in Part VI +(Correct Literary Composition) and Part VIII (History of Printing), will +contribute something to the general education of the apprentice as well as +to his skill in the trade. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +SPELLING + +PRONUNCIATION + +ACCENT + +DIVISION OF WORDS + +RULES FOR DIVISION OF WORDS + +IMPORTANCE OF SPACING + +DIVISION IN LINES OF DISPLAY + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + + + +DIVISION OF WORDS + + +The division of words when the words do not exactly fit the register of the +line has always been a source of trouble. In the days of the manuscript +makers devices such as crowding letters, reducing their size, or omitting +them altogether were freely used and words were arbitrarily divided when +the scribes so desired. During the greater part of the time every scribe +divided as he pleased, often in ways which seem very strange to us, like +the Greek custom of dividing always after a vowel and even dividing words +of one syllable. With the invention of printing, however, the number of +these devices was greatly diminished. It became a matter of spacing out the +line or dividing the word. Of course that meant frequent word division and +called for a systematization of rules with regard to this division. These +rules for division are necessarily based on spelling and syllabication. + + + + +SPELLING + + +The idea that there is one right way to combine the letters representing a +certain sound or group of sounds, that is a word, and that all other ways +are wrong and little short of shameful is a comparatively new idea among +us. The English speaking folk held down to a comparatively recent time that +any group of letters which approximately represented the sound was amply +sufficient as a symbol of the word. This sort of phonetic spelling was +commonly followed, and followed with great freedom. No obligation was +recognized to be consistent. In ordinary writing, such as letters and the +like, it is not unusual to find the same word spelled in a variety of ways +in the same document. + +The last century has brought about an attempt to standardize spelling into +conventional forms any departure from which is regarded as highly +derogatory to the writer. In many cases these forms are fixed arbitrarily, +and in some there is even now disagreement among the highest authorities. +These difficulties and disagreements have two reasons: First, English is a +composite language, drawn from many sources and at many periods; hence +purely philological and etymological influences intervene, sometimes with +marked results, while there is a difference of opinion as to how far these +influences ought to prevail. Second, the English language uses an alphabet +which fits it very badly. Many letters have to do duty for the expression +of several sounds, and sometimes several of them have nearly or quite the +same sound. For example, there are a number of distinct sounds of _a_, _i_, +and _o_ while _g_ is sometimes indistinguishable from _j_ and _c_ from _k_. +This is not always a matter of modification of sounds by the sounds of +other letters combined with them. One has to learn how to pronounce +_cough_, _dough_, _enough_, and _plough_, the _ough_ having four distinct +sounds in these four words. Each one of these sounds, by the way, could be +exactly as well represented by another combination of letters which would +be unmistakable, viz., _coff_, _doe_, _enuff_, and _plow_. It is impossible +to tell except by the context either the pronunciation or the meaning of +_bow_. If the _ow_ is pronounced as in _low_, it means a weapon. If the +_ow_ is pronounced as in _cow_ it may mean either an obeisance or the front +end of a boat. + +This standardization of spelling is unfortunately not quite complete, +although nearly so. Concerning the vast majority of the words in the +English language there is no difference of opinion. A few words are +differently spelled by different authorities. There are seven of these +authorities of the first rank, three English, Stormonth, the Imperial +Dictionary, and the Oxford Dictionary; and four American, Webster's +International, Worcester, the Century Dictionary, and the Standard +Dictionary. American printers may ordinarily disregard the English +authorities. + +Any one of the four American authorities may be safely followed. In cases +where two spellings are given in the dictionary consulted, take the first +one. Ordinarily a printing office adopts one of the great authorities as a +standard and conforms the office style to it. All office copy will follow +it and all errors in copy from outside will be corrected by it. Spellings +differing from it will be regarded as errors, even though supported by +other authorities. + +This rule, however, is subject to one very important exception. The author +has an unquestionable right to choose his own dictionary or to use any +spelling for which there is any authority, English or American. If he has +his own ideas on the subject of spelling he should be very careful that his +manuscript is correctly spelled according to his ideas, and clearly written +or typed. He should also indicate on the manuscript the authority he wishes +used in correcting the spelling in case of mistakes or illegible passages. +Every care should be taken to make the manuscript copy as correct as +possible and as legible as possible. Such care may be very troublesome at +first, but it will result in great saving of expense. + +In addition to the authorities named there are the rules and "reformed" +spellings adopted by the American Philological Association and published by +the United States Government. These are followed fully in some offices, +partly in others, and in many not at all. This is a question of the office +style and the author's wish. If copy is clear and spelled according to any +authority, it is the compositor's duty to follow it. If it is misspelled or +illegible he is to correct it according to the office style unless +otherwise directed by the author in writing. If furnished with such a +direction he is to follow it. This procedure will clear the compositor of +all blame. Any questions which then arise lie between the author and the +proofreader. + +In the case of the reformed spellings, however, the departure from the +ordinary appearance of the words is so great that the author cannot be +allowed full freedom to set aside the office style. If he is paying for the +printing he may insist on his spelling. If he is contributing to a +periodical and the printing is done at the publisher's expense it is for +the publisher to determine the style of printing to be used. + +Any full consideration of the question of reformed spelling is hardly in +place in this book. The author may perhaps be permitted one observation. +Innovation in the use of the English language would appear to be primarily +the work of scholars, and the adoption of such innovations would seem to +belong to the book printer rather than to the commercial printer. The +public mind as a whole is conservative. It is not hospitable to changes and +does not soon become aware of them, much less familiar with them. The +commercial printer makes his appeal to the mind of the general public. He +will do well to use a vehicle familiar, intelligible, and acceptable to it. + +Correct spelling is mainly a matter of habit and observation. To a certain +extent it is a matter of careful pronunciation, but this is not always a +safe or even a possible guide. The vowels preceding or following the one on +which the primary accent falls, sometimes called obscure vowels, are so +slurringly pronounced that even a pedantic precision will hardly make it +possible to indicate clearly which vowel is used. The writer remembers +seeing an examination paper written by a fourth year medical student in +which the word _fever_ was spelled _fevor_. A moment's thought will show +that so far as pronunciation is concerned the word might be spelled +_fevar_, _fevir_, _fevor_, _fever_, or _fevur_ without any appreciable +difference. The correct spelling is merely a matter of observation. + +The author has on his desk at the moment of writing these lines half a +dozen good books, each containing a set of rules for spelling. From these +it would be easy to compile a set of fairly good rules. Each of these +rules, however, has exceptions, in some cases quite numerous. To remember +these rules with their exceptions would be a considerable mental task and +to apply them would be cumbrous and time consuming. The effort would +probably resolve itself into an actual learning of the words which present +difficulties. The best way to become a good speller is to form the habit +of careful reading, observing the form of every word as it passes before +the eye and so unconsciously fixing it in the memory. The dictionary should +be consulted whenever there is any doubt. + +If you are to write a word, call up a mental picture of it, and if the +picture is not perfectly clear go to the dictionary and fix a correct image +of it in your mind. Be careful to pronounce every word you use as correctly +as possible and you will get all the aid pronunciation can give you. +Careless speaking and careless reading are the two great sources of +incorrect spelling. + +The following tables will be found useful in settling practice with regard +to certain troublesome classes of words. + + +I + +American usage tends to the termination _-ize_ where English usage often +sanctions _-ise_. Use the termination _-ise_ in + +advertise +advise +appraise +apprise (_to inform_) +arise +chastise +circumcise +comprise +compromise +demise +devise +disfranchise +disguise +emprise +enfranchise +enterprise +exercise +exorcise +franchise +improvise +incise +merchandise +premise +reprise +revise +rise +supervise +surmise +surprise + +Use the termination _-ize_ or _-yze_ in + +aggrandize +agonize +analyze +anatomize +anglicize +apologize +apostrophize +apprize (_to value_) +authorize +baptize +brutalize +canonize +catechize +catholicize +cauterize +centralize +characterize +christianize +civilize +colonize +criticize +crystallize +demoralize +dogmatize +economize +emphasize +epitomize +equalize +eulogize +evangelize +extemporize +familiarize +fertilize +fossilize +fraternize +galvanize +generalize +gormandize +harmonize +immortalize +italicize +jeopardize +legalize +liberalize +localize +magnetize +memorialize +mesmerize +metamorphize +methodize +minimize +modernize +monopolize +moralize +nationalize +naturalize +neutralize +organize +ostracize +paralyze +particularize +pasteurize +patronize +philosophize +plagiarize +pulverize +realize +recognize +reorganize +revolutionize +satirize +scandalize +scrutinize +signalize +solemnize +soliloquize +specialize +spiritualize +standardize +stigmatize +subsidize +summarize +syllogize +symbolize +sympathize +tantalize +temporize +tranquilize +tyrannize +universalize +utilize +vaporize +vitalize +vocalize +vulcanize +vulgarize + +II + +Use the termination _-ible_ in the following words: + +accessible +admissible +appetible +apprehensible +audible +cessible +coercible +compatible +competible +comprehensible +compressible +conceptible +contemptible +contractible +controvertible +convertible +convincible +corrigible +corrosible +corruptible +credible +decoctible +deducible +defeasible +defensible +descendible +destructible +digestible +discernible +distensible +divisible +docible +edible +effectible +eligible +eludible +enforcible +evincible +expansible +expressible +extendible +extensible +fallible +feasible +fencible +flexible +forcible +frangible +fusible +gullible +horrible +illegible +immiscible +impassible +intelligible +irascible +legible +miscible +negligible +partible +passible (_susceptible_) +perceptible +permissible +persuasible +pervertible +plausible +possible +producible +reducible +reflexible +refrangible +remissible +reprehensible +resistible +responsible +reversible +revertible +risible +seducible +sensible +tangible +terrible +transmissible +visible + +In all other cases use _-able_. + + +III + +The following nouns end in _-er_. + +abetter +abstracter +accepter +adapter +adviser +affirmer +aider +almoner +annoyer +arbiter +assenter +asserter +bailer +caster +censer (vessel) +concocter +condenser +conferrer +conjurer +consulter +continuer +contradicter +contriver +convener +conveyer +corrupter +covenanter +debater +defender +deliberater +deserter +desolater +deviser +discontinuer +disturber +entreater +exalter +exasperater +exciter +executer (_except in law_) +expecter +frequenter +granter +idolater +imposer +impugner +incenser +inflicter +insulter +interceder +interpreter +interrupter +inviter +jailer +lamenter +mortgager (_except in law_) +obliger +obstructer +obtruder +perfecter +perjurer +preventer +probationer +propeller +protester +recognizer +regrater +relater +respecter +sailer (_ship_) +sorcerer +suggester +supplanter +upholder +vender + +The following nouns end in _-or_. + +abbreviator +abductor +abettor (_law_) +abominator +abrogator +accelerator +acceptor +accommodator +accumulator +actor +adjudicator +adjutor +administrator +admonitor +adulator +adulterator +aggregator +aggressor +agitator +amalgamator +animator +annotator +antecessor +apparitor +appreciator +arbitrator +assassinator +assessor +benefactor +bettor +calculator +calumniator +captor +castor (_oil_) +censor +coadjutor +collector +competitor +compositor +conductor +confessor +conqueror +conservator +consignor +conspirator +constrictor +constructor +contaminator +contemplator +continuator +contractor +contributor +corrector +councillor +counsellor +covenantor (_law_) +creator +creditor +cultivator +cunctator +debtor +decorator +delator (_law_) +denominator +denunciator +depredator +depressor +deteriorator +detractor +dictator +dilator +director +dissector +disseizor +disseminator +distributor +divisor +dominator +donor +effector +elector +elevator +elucidator +emulator +enactor +equivocator +escheator +estimator +exactor +excavator +exceptor +executor (_law_) +exhibitor +explorator +expositor +expostulator +extensor +extirpator +extractor +fabricator +factor +flexor +fornicator +fumigator +generator +gladiator +governor +grantor (_law_) +habitator +imitator +impostor +impropriator +inaugurator +inceptor +incisor +inheritor +initiator +innovator +insinuator +institutor +instructor +interlocutor +interpolator +interrogator +inventor +investor +juror +lector +legator +legislator +lessor +mediator +modulator +monitor +mortgagor (_law_) +multiplicator +narrator +navigator +negotiator +nonjuror +numerator +objector +obligor (_law_) +observator +operator +originator +pacificator +participator +peculator +percolator +perforator +perpetrator +persecutor +perturbator +possessor +preceptor +precursor +predecessor +predictor +prevaricator +procrastinator +procreator +procurator +professor +progenitor +projector +prolocutor +promulgator +propagator +propitiator +proprietor +prosecutor +protector +protractor +purveyor +recognizor (_law_) +recriminator +reflector +regenerator +regulator +relator (_law_) +rotator +sacrificator +sailor (_seaman_) +scrutator +sculptor +sectator +selector +senator +separator +sequestrator +servitor +solicitor +spectator +spoliator +sponsor +successor +suitor +supervisor +suppressor +surveyor +survivor +testator +tormentor +traitor +transgressor +translator +valuator +vendor (_law_) +venerator +ventilator +vindicator +violator +visitor + + +IV + +Words which in their shortest form end in _-d_, _-de_, _-ge_, _-unit_, +_-rt_, _-se_, _-sr_, take the ending _-sion_; e.g., _abscind_, +_abscission_; _include_, _inclusion_; _emerge_, _emersion_; _remit_, +_remission_; _infuse_, _infusion_; _repress_, _repression_. + +All others take the ending _-tion_. + +The following are irregularities: + +adhesion +assertion +attention +coercion +cohesion +crucifixion +declension +dimension +dissension +distortion +divulsion +expulsion +impulsion +insertion +intention +occasion +propulsion +recursion +repulsion +revulsion +scansion +suspicion +tension +version + +Words ending in _-ance_, _-ence_; _-ancy_, _-ency_; _-ant_, and _-ent_, +often cause confusion when carelessly written. + +The following is a list of the more common words with the _e_ form. + +abducent +abhorrence, -ent +abluent +absent, -ence +absorbent +abstergent +abstinence, -ent +adherence, -ent +advertency, -ent +affluence, -ent +antecedence, -ent +apparent +appertinent +appetence, -ency +ardent +benevolence, -ent +circumference +coexistence +coherence, -ent +coincidence, -ent +competence, -ent +concurrence, -ent +condolence +conference +confidence, -ent +confluence, -ent +consentient +consequence +consequent +consistence, -ent +consistency +constituent +continence, -ent +convenience, -ent +corpulence, -ent +correspondence, -ent +currency, -ent +deference +delinquency, -ent +dependence, -ent +deponent +descendent (_adj._) +despondency, -ent +difference +diffidence, -ent +diffluent +efficiency, -ent +eminence, -ency +eminent +excellence, -ency +excellent +existence, -ent +expediency +feculence, -ent +flocculence, -ent +fluency, -ent +fraudulence, -ent +imminence, -ent +impatience, -ent +impellent +imprudence, -ent +impudence, -ent +incipience, -ent +incumbency, -ent +independence, -ent +indolence, -ent +inference +inherence, -ent +intermittent +iridescence, -ent +lambent +latency, -ent +leniency, -ent +magniloquence, -ent +malevolence, -ent +mellifluence, -ent +mollient +obedience, -ent +occurrence, -ent +omniscience, -ent +opulence, -ency +opulent +patience, -ent +pendent (_adj._) +pendency +penitence, -ent +permanence, -ent +permanency +pertinence, -ent +pestilence, -ent +poculent +portent +potency, -ent +precedence, -ent +preference +prescience, -ent +presence, -ent +presidency, -ent +proficiency, -ent +prominence, -ent +proponent +providence, -ent +prudence, -ent +purulence, -ent +quintessence +recurrence, -ent +reference +refluence, -ent +repellent +residence, -ency +resident +resolvent +resplendence, -ent +respondent +reverence, -ent +sentient +solvency, -ent +somnolency, -ent +subserviency, -ent +subsidence, -ency +subsistence, -ent +succulent +superintendence +superintendency +superintendent +tendence, -ency +transcendence, -ent +transcendency +transference +transient +transparency, -ent +transplendency, -ent +turbulence, -ent +vicegerency, -ent +virulence, -ent + +Nearly all other words of this type take the _a_ form. + + * * * * * + +The instructor should drill the pupils in spelling not only these "catch" +words, but a wide range of English words. These lessons may be taken to +advantage from some of the books mentioned in the list for supplementary +reading, from any other good spelling book, or even from the pages of any +well printed book or magazine. The words should be given out orally and +written down by the pupil. A good exercise is the reading of a paragraph +from any good book, or some stanza of poetry, the passage read to be taken +down by the pupil with care to spell, punctuate, and capitalize properly. + +A number of topics sometimes treated under the head of spelling will be +found discussed in the "Printer's Manual of Style" (No. 41). + + + + +PRONUNCIATION + + +The English language is a difficult one to pronounce as well as to spell. +This arises from two causes. The English language has some sounds not +generally found in other languages, such as _w_ and _th_. As has already +been pointed out, the alphabet fits the language very badly. Careful +lexicographers indicate no less than seven sounds of _a_, five of _e_, +three of _i_, four of _o_ and six of _u_, as shown in the following table: + +[=a] as in [=a]le +[Ia] as in sen[Ia]te +[)a] as in [)a]m +į as in įsk +[a:] as in [a:]ll +ä as in fäther +(a) as in fin(a)l + +[=e] as in [=e]ve +[)e] as in [)e]nd +[Ie] as in ev[Ie]nt +[~e] as in f[~e]rn +(e) as in prud(e)nce + +[=i] as in [=i]ce +[Ii] as in [Ii]dea +[)i] as in p[)i]n + +[=o] as in [=o]ld +[Io] as in [Io]pen +[)o] as in [)o]dd +ō as in ōrb + +[=u] as in [=u]se +[Iu] as in [Iu]nite +[)u] as in [)u]p +[u:] as in r[u:]de +[u=] as in f[u=]ll +ū as in ūrn + +In addition to these there are diphthongs, combinations of vowel sounds +pronounced as one syllable, such as + +_ou_ as in _out_ +_oi_ as in _oil_ + +There are also a number of digraphs or combinations of vowels or consonants +which have but one sound, such as + +_ai_ as in _rain_ +_eo_ as in _people_ +_ou_ as in _soup_ +_ou_ as in _soul_ +_ph_ as in _phalanx_ +_ch_ as in _chorus_ or _chair_ + +_C_ has two sounds, hard before _a_, _o_, and _u_, as in _cat_, _cot_, and +_cut_, and soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_, as in _cell_, _city_, and +_cycle_. + +_G_ has two sounds, hard before _a_, _o_, and _u_, as in _gate_, _gone_, +and _gun_, soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_, as in _gem_, _gin_, and _gyve_, +although it is sometimes hard before _i_ as in _girl_. + +_Ch_ is sometimes soft as in _chair_ and _arch_, and sometimes hard as in +_choir_. + +_Th_ has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in _thin_ and _death_, and hard, or +sonant, as in _then_ and _smooth_. + +_S_ has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in _soft_ and _this_, and hard, or +sonant, as in _has_ and _wise_. + +We have, therefore, twenty-six letters with which to express fifty or more +sounds, not counting the digraphs and diphthongs. + +Correct pronunciation depends upon three things, correct sounding of the +letters, correct division into syllables, and correct placing of the +accent. + +A syllable is the smallest separately articulated, or pronounced, element +in speech, or one of the parts into which speech is broken. It consists of +a vowel alone or accompanied by one or more consonants and separated by +them, or by a pause, from a preceding or following vowel. This division of +words into syllables is indicated in dictionaries by the use of the hyphen +thus: _sub-trac-tion_, _co-or-din-ate_. It will be observed that in the +first of these examples the vowels are all separated by consonants, while +in the second two of them are separated by a pause only. + +The English language has the further peculiarity of using _l_ and _n_ as +vowels in syllabication, as in _middle_ (_mid-dl_) and _reck-on_ +(_reck-n_). + +The division of words into syllables for pronunciation is generally, but +not always, the same as that which should be followed in case the word has +to be divided typographically. As these text-books are intended to help the +apprentice as a speaker and writer of English as well as a printer, it is +worth while to give some attention to syllabication for pronunciation +before proceeding to discuss typographical division.[The illustrations from +this point to the end of this section on page 16 are not typographic +divisions. They concern pronunciation only.] + +Two letters forming a diphthong or digraph are not to be separated. +_Coin-age_ (_oi_ diphthong) but _co-in-ci-dence_ (_oi_ not a diphthong). +_Excess_ (_ss_ digraph, pronounced practically like a single s) gives +_ex-cess-es_, _ex-cess-ive_, etc. Whether or not the letters thus occurring +together form a diphthong or digraph will depend on the derivation of the +word, thus in _cat-head_ (verb), a nautical term, _th_ is not a digraph but +in _ca-the-dral_ _th_ is a digraph, as is usually the case with these two +letters. You would not say _cat-hed-ral_. + +Two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, coming together but sounded +separately belong to separate syllables. + +_A-or-ta_, _co-op-er-ate_, but _coop-er-age_, _moi-e-ty_. + +Do not end a syllable with + + (_a_) _c_ or _g_ when soft, _en-ti-cing_, but _dic-tion_, _wa-ges_ + but _wag-on_. + + (_b_) _t_, _s_, _z_, _c_, _sc_, _g_, and _d_, when followed by _i_ + or _e_ giving the sound of _sh_; _ra-tion-al_, _o-cean_, _re-gion_, + _as-cen-sion_. + + (_c_) _d_, _s_, _t_, and _z_ when followed by _u_ giving the sound + of _ch_, _sh_, _zh_, or _j_, _cen-sure_, _sei-zure_, _na-ture_, + _ver-dure_. + +Do not begin a syllable with + + (_a_) _x_ with the sound of _ks_ or _gs_, _anx-ious_, _ex-act-ly_. + + (_b_) _r_ preceded by _a_ or _e_; _par-ent_, _av-er-age_, but by + exception, _pa-rent-al_. + + (_c_) Single _l_, _n_, or _v_, followed by _i_ with the sound of + _y_ consonant; _fol-io_ (_fol-yo_), _gen-ius_ (_gen-yus_), + _sav-ior_ (_sav-yor_). + +Prefixes and suffixes are generally separated, _yel-low-ish_, _eat-able_, +_pre-lude_. This last word is sometimes pronounced _prel-ude_ and this +pronunciation has some dictionary support, but it is objectionable. + +A consonant or digraph between two sounded vowels usually joins the +following vowel, _rea-son_, _no-ti-fy_, _mo-ther_. + +When two or three consonants capable of beginning a syllable come between +two sounded vowels they may all be joined to the following vowel. + + (_a_) When the preceding vowel is long and accented; _en-a-bling_, + _He-brew_, _i-dler_. + + (_b_) When the following vowel is an accented syllable; _o-blige_, + _re-dress_. + +When two or three consonants capable of beginning a syllable come between +two sounded vowels one may be joined to the preceding vowel. + + (_a_) When the vowel is short; _tab-let_, _res-cue_, _mus-ket_. + + (_b_) When the consonants are _st_, _str_, or _sp_, if either the + preceding or following vowel is accented; _mis-tress_, _aus-tere_, + _oys-ter_, _sus-pect_. + +When a consonant is doubled (not forming a digraph) the two are generally +separated; _beg-gar_, _bril-liant_, _cun-ning_. + +The old-fashioned method of oral spelling by syllables +_m-a-s-mas-t-e-r-ter-master_ will be found extremely useful in teaching +correct syllabication. It is recommended that constant use be made of it in +spelling drill. + + + + +ACCENT + + +When a word consists of two syllables one of them receives more stress of +voice than the other. This stress of voice is called accent. If the word +consists of three or more syllables there is usually another syllable +stressed in somewhat less degree. This is called a secondary accent. In +some cases there may even be a third accent if the word is very long; +_In'-come_, _val-e-tu'-di-na'-ri-an_. This fact arises from the tendency +natural to all human speech to take more or less musical forms. The +monotony of a series of stressed or of unstressed sounds would be +unbearable. The pronunciation of such a series would be a highly artificial +and very difficult performance. Correct pronunciation is very greatly +concerned with the proper placing of the accent. Indeed the meaning of a +familiar word may be quite obscured by a misplaced accent. For example, +_he-red'-it-ary_ is a very familiar word, but when pronounced +_he-red-it'-ary_, as it was habitually by a friend of the author, we have +to stop and think before catching the meaning. + +The placing of the accent in English is subject to two general rules. + + I The accent clings to the syllable which gives the meaning to the + word, or in technical terms, the root syllable, _re-call'_, + _in-stall'_, _in-stal-la'-tion_ (accent falling on the syllable + which defines the word as a noun), _in-her'-it_. + + II Where the root syllable is not known the accent falls on the + first syllable, with secondary accents following at intervals to + relieve the voice. + +This last tendency not infrequently supersedes the other, partly from the +natural habit of the language, and partly because the average man is not an +etymologist and knows very little about the derivation of the words he +uses. For example, in Shakespeare's time English people followed the first +rule and said _re-ven'-ue_, but now we say _rev'-e-nue_. + +These two rules will serve as a good general guide to accent. Attention +should be paid to the pronunciation of good speakers, and care taken to +follow it. In case of doubt the dictionary should be consulted and the +proper accent carefully fixed in the mind. + + + + +DIVISION OF WORDS + + +When the words do not fit the line what shall we do? The early printers +used only one kind of spaces. In setting a line of type they proceeded +until there was no room in the line for the next complete word of the copy. +Then they filled out the line with spaces and began the next word on the +next line. The length of the register being known in advance and nothing +but spaces being used in setting the line, the compositor was spared much +that makes composition at once a hard labor and a fine art. The result was +an irregular margin at the right such as we now see in typewritten letters. + +With improvements in types and typography the squaring out of the page soon +came into fashion. In many cases this can be done by the careful use of +spaces so as to bring a certain number of words squarely out to the end of +the line. There have been printers who have insisted that this should +always be done. Their efforts have not, however, been successful. They +result in a freakish looking page with white spots in the lines where +letters or words have been spaced out to fill the register. It would be +better, on the whole, to resort to the practice of the old masters and +leave the right-hand margin irregular. + +Ordinarily the difficulty has been met by dividing words and putting a part +of a word on one line and the rest of it on another, indicating the break +by a hyphen. The hyphen in such a case is always the closing character in +the first line. Clearly this division must be so made as to assist the +reader in his task. The primary purpose of all printing is to be read. +Anything that adds to the legibility of the printing improves it; anything +that detracts from its legibility harms it. How can we so divide words that +the legibility and intelligibility of the text will be maintained, the line +justified to register, and the beauty of the page enhanced? These +ends--legibility, intelligibility, and beauty--are the aims of all the +rules which have been devised for the division of words. These are the +things the reader will see and by them he will judge the results. He will +probably know nothing about the rules by which the compositor gains his +results. The compositor needs to know the rules, but to remember always +that they are only means by which to secure results. + +There have been several attempts to devise systems of division, but no one +of them is thoroughly consistent or universally adopted. + +One system requires the division of a word when the pronunciation will +permit on the vowel at the end of the syllable. It has the defect of making +no provision for syllables that end in consonants. Moreover, if rigorously +applied it would give us such divisions as _ca-pa-ci-ty_, _cata-stro-phe_, +_lexi-co-gra-pher_, _pre-fe-rence_, _pro-gno-sti-cate_, and _re-co-gnize_. + +Another system requires the division of consolidated words at the junction +of their elements, for example: + +_magn-animous_ +_cata-clysm_ +_found-ation_ +_oceano-graphy_ +_theo-logy_ +_know-ledge_ +_lexi-co-grapher_ +_in-fer-ence_ +_pre-judice_ +_pro-gnos-ticate_ +_pro-position_ +_typo-graphy_ + +In some cases this rule would lead to queer looking divisions. More serious +objections are that the system does not provide for words that are long +enough to be divided but are yet not consolidated words, and, most of all, +that the average compositor is not an accomplished etymologist and knows +very little about the derivation, make up, and compounding of the words he +has to set up. He may be familiar, for example with the word _rheostat_, +but it would puzzle him to tell from what language it is derived, while the +word _enclave_ would probably send him to the dictionary for meaning as +well as derivation, unless he happened to be used to one particular kind of +writing. + +Another system, and probably on the whole the best one, requires the +division of the word on the accented syllable. + +_theol-ogy_ +_catas-trophe_ +_geog-raphy_ +_lexi-cog-rapher_ +_pref-erence_ +_prog-nos-ticate_ + +It will be noted that some of these examples show division in more than one +place, that is on the syllables which bear either the primary or the +secondary accent. This rule does not provide for the cases when the +division must come on an unaccented syllable. The cases, however, when the +division cannot be made to come on either the syllable bearing the primary +accent or one bearing a secondary accent will be comparatively few. + + + + +RULES FOR DIVISION OF WORDS + + +I The general rule, then, is to divide according to pronunciation, not +according to etymology or any hard and fast rule. + + As far as possible, consistently with pronunciation and good + spacing, divide according to meaning and derivation, where known. + + _un-even_, not _une-ven_, _auto-mobile_, not _automo-bile_, + _en-abled_, not _ena-bled_. + +II Divide on a vowel wherever practicable. In case a vowel alone forms a +syllable in the middle of a word it should be run into the first line. + +_busi-ness_ +_sepa-rate_ +_criti-cism_ +_particu-lar_ +_colo-nies_ +_dou-ble_ +_pro-gress_ +_pro-duct_ +_noi-sy_ +_wo-man_ +_pa-tron_ +_me-moir_ + +III When two consonants meet between vowels, and the syllable ends on one +consonant, the division may properly be made between the consonants, the +pronunciation determining the place of division. + +_advan-tage_ +_plain-tiff_ +_Wil-liam_ +_exces-sive_ +_scur-rilous_ +_mas-ter_ +_gram-mar_ +_profes-sor_ +_moun-tain_ + +IV When three consonants come together between two vowels the first of +which is short, the division comes after the first consonant. + +_han-dle_ +_chil-dren_ +_frus-trate_ + +V A single consonant between two vowels should be joined to the first +vowel, if it is short; if the first vowel is long the consonant goes with +the second. + +_riv-er_ +_ri-val_ + +VI Diphthongs should not be divided. + +_peo-ple_ +_Cae-sar_ + +VII Words compounded with a prefix should preferably be divided on the +prefix. + +_dis-avow_ +_in-herit_ +_un-concern_ + +VIII The terminations _-able_, _-ible_, _-tion_, _-cial_, _-tive_, and +_-ive_ should go over to the next line. + +_read-able_ +_convert-ible_ +_inten-tion_ +_discuss-ion_ + + The termination _-sion_ ordinarily goes over as in + +_occa-sion_ +_apprehen-sion_ +_cis-sion_ +_declen-sion_ + + Occasionally, however, the strong emphasis needed for the _s_ will + call for a different arrangement, as in _divis-ion_. + +IX The terminations _-ing_, _-en_, _-ed_, _-er_, _-est_, and the plural +_-es_ go over to the next line except when the preceding consonant is +doubled, or when they follow _c_ or _g_ soft. + +_lead-ing_ +_beat-en_ +_larg-er_, but +_lat-ter_ +_for-cing_ +_ran-ging_ + +X Do not end a line with _j_ or with _c_ or _g_ soft. + +_pro-cess_ +_ne-cessary_ +_pre-judice_ +_prog-eny_ + +XI Adjectives in _ical_ divide on the _i_. + +_physi-cal_ +_inimi-cal_ + +XII In derivatives of words ending in _-t_, the division follows the +accent. + +_objec-tion_, not _object-ion_, _defec-tion_, not _defect-ion_, but +_respec-tively_, not _respect-ively_ and _distinc-tion_, not +_distinct-ion_. + +XIII Never separate _c_ and _g_ from the vowels _e_, _i_, and _y_ upon +which their soft sound depends. + +_re-li-gion_ +_ca-pa-ci-ty_ + +XIV Never separate _q_ from _u_, _qu_ is a single sound. + +XV Do not divide _nothing_. + +XVI Do not divide words of four letters. + +XVII Do not divide words of five or six letters if it can be avoided. Good +spacing, however, must be considered of first importance. + +XVIII In wide measures (20 ems or more) do not divide so as to end or begin +a line with a syllable of two letters. Here again, however, good spacing is +the first consideration. + +XIX Do not divide words of two syllables pronounced as one, including past +participles of short words. + +_heaven_ +_power_ +_prayer_ +_beamed_ +_often_ + +XX Avoid additional hyphens in hyphenated words if possible. + +_object-lesson_ +_fellow-being_ +_poverty-stricken_ + +XXI Do not separate a divisional mark (_a_), (_1_) from the matter to which +it pertains. + +XXII Do not divide an amount stated in figures. + +XXIII Do not divide proper names, especially those of persons, if it can be +avoided. + +XXIV Do not divide initials or such combinations as _a.m._, _B.C._ + +XXV Do not divide the last word on a page so as to carry a part of it to +the next page. + +XXVI Do not divide the last word of the last full line of a paragraph. + +XXVII More than two divisions in successive lines should be avoided. + +XXVIII Never divide at all if you can help it. + + + + +IMPORTANCE OF SPACING + + +It must always be remembered that good spacing is the first consideration. +Nothing is more offensive to the eye of a good judge of printing than bad +spacing. "Rivers" of white, dark spots, crowded black text, are very +serious blemishes to a page. An ordinary book page is a study in color, the +colors employed being black and white. Proper combination, balance, and +proportion are as important here as in places where a variety of colors is +employed. Many of the foregoing rules must be held subject to the +exigencies of proper spacing. A rigid adherence, for example, to the rule +that not more than two consecutive lines should end with divided words will +not justify a badly spaced, unsightly line. There are many things that look +worse than a hyphen at the end of the last full line in a paragraph. +Avoidance of dividing the last word on a page, however, would justify even +bad spacing, because of the gain to the reader. In the last resort, the +interests of the reader must always have first consideration. + +Division is greatly affected by the length of the measure. A long measure, +18 or 20 ems or more, gives greater opportunity for arranging the spacing, +but, on the other hand, makes division on short syllables conspicuous and +out of proportion. Very short register, as in two-column Bibles or in cases +where illustrations are inserted in the text, presents very great +difficulties and often calls for division which would not be allowable +elsewhere. Such cases often call for the exercise of the greatest care and +ingenuity. + +It often happens that the author can be of great assistance to the printer +in making a handsome page. A change of a phrase, or even of a word will +avoid a difficulty which cannot be avoided by a printer except at the cost +of bad division or bad spacing. If the author is a sensible person he will +gladly cooperate with the printer in giving his thoughts clothing +appropriate to their intrinsic beauty and value. After the printer has +exhausted his resources he should not hesitate to carry his troubles to the +author. + + + + +DIVISION IN LINES OF DISPLAY + + +As a rule division is never used in lines of display. In these cases the +display is the important thing. Every word long enough to be divided is +important enough to be displayed and emphasized. Divided words are weakened +words. Lines of irregular lengths are used of set purpose. + +In title pages words of bold display must never be divided. In minor lines +of display, such as subtitles and summaries, words are often divided. A +subheading of two lines should never be divided in the first line when it +is possible to turn the full word over on to the next line. The shortening +of the first line is never a blemish, but a too short second line following +a hyphened first line is always a fault. + +There is a school of ultra-artistic composition in book titles which +affects a solid squaring up and hesitates at no means to secure its +effects. It sets a definite measure and forces the lines into it, dividing +words arbitrarily and using no hyphen. This is a passing fancy and will +pass as eccentricities always pass. It should not be used unless the author +insists upon it. The man who pays the bills has a right to have his work +done as he pleases. The intelligent printer, however, will not allow the +peculiarities of the individual customer to affect his general practice. + + +_Note_ + +The pupil is referred to the appendix to DeVinne's "Correct Composition" +for rules for the division of French, German, and Spanish words. The same +appendix contains also a very excellent list of words which are spelled +differently by different authorities, together with divisions for them. + + + + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING + + +Correct Composition. By Theodore L. DeVinne. Oswald Publishing Co., New +York. + +The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. Stokes Co., +New York. + +A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur Powell. The +University of Chicago Press, Chicago. + +Worcester's New Pronouncing Spelling Book. The American Book Company, New +York. + +The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language: Dictionary of Errors. +By Sherwin Cody. The Old Greek Press, Chicago. + + (This is one of a series of six very excellent but inexpensive + little books bearing the same general title and by the same author. + They will be found very useful in connection with Part VI of the + Typographic Technical Series generally.) + + + + +QUESTIONS + + +1. Is the spelling of English standardized? + +2. How long have we considered correct spelling important? + +3. What two causes exist for difficulties in spelling? + +4. What are the principal English authorities? + +5. What are the principal American authorities? + +6. How are these authorities used in printing offices? + +7. What are the rights and duties of the author in the matter of spelling? + +8. What may be done in matter of "reformed" spelling? + +9. What is a safe attitude for the commercial printer toward "reformed" +spelling, and why? + +10. On what does correct spelling mainly depend? + +11. What is the best way to become a good speller? + +12. Why is English difficult to pronounce? + +13. What is a diphthong? + +14. What is a digraph? + +15. What are the two sounds each of _c_, _g_, _de_, _th_, and _s_? Give +examples of each. + +16. How many letters are there in the English alphabet and how many sounds +do they express? + +17. Upon what does correct pronunciation depend? + +18. What is a syllable, and of what does it consist? + +19. What peculiar use is made of _l_ and _n_ in English? + +20. How do we treat the parts of a diphthong or digraph? + +21. How do we know whether or not these compounds are diphthongs or +digraphs? + +22. What about vowel combinations? + +23. With what should a syllable not end? + +24. With what should a syllable not begin? + +25. What is the rule regarding prefixes and suffixes? + +26. How do we treat two or three consonants capable of beginning a +syllable? + +27. How do we treat two or three consonants capable of ending a syllable? + +28. How do we treat doubled consonants? + +29. What is accent? + +30. Do words ever have more than one accent, and why? + +31. What are the two general rules for the placing of accent? + +32. What did the early printers do when the words did not fit the line, and +why? + +33. What practice came into use later? + +34. What methods of doing this have been devised? + +35. What considerations govern practice in this regard? + +36. Give two systems of division which have been proposed. + +37. What is the general rule for division? + +38. What is the rule about vowels? + +39. What is the rule about two consonants? + +40. What is the rule about three consonants? + +41. What should you do with a single consonant between two vowels? + +42. How should you treat diphthongs? + +43. What is the rule for words compounded with a prefix? + +44. What should be done with the terminations _-able_, _-ible_, _-tion_, +_-cial_, _-tive_, _-ive_, and _-sion_? + +45. What should be done with the terminations _-ing_, _-en_, _-ed_, _-er_, +and _-est_, and the plural _-es_? + +46. What letters should not end a line? + +47. How are adjectives in _ical_ treated? + +48. How are derivatives of words ending in _-t_ treated? + +49. What is the special rule about _c_ and _g_? + +50. What is the rule about _qu_, and why? + +51. What is the rule about _nothing_? + +52. What is the rule about words of four letters? + +53. How should you treat words of five or six letters? + +54. What should be avoided in wide measures? + +55. How should you treat words of two syllables pronounced as one? + +56. How should hyphenated compounds be treated? + +57. What should you do with divisional marks? + +58. How should you treat amounts stated in figures? + +59. How should you treat proper names? + +60. How are initials and similar combinations treated? + +61. What is the rule about the last word on a page? + +62. What is the rule about the last word of the last full line of a +paragraph? + +63. What is the rule about divisions in successive lines? + +64. What is the rule about division generally? + +65. What effect has spacing on deciding about division? + +66. What effect has length of measure on division? + +67. What can you do when the text presents unusual difficulty as to spacing +and division? + +68. What is the rule about division in lines of display, and what is the +reason for it? + +69. What is the usage with regard to division on title pages? + +70. What can you say about eccentricities in the author's or customer's +ideas about division and lay-out? + + * * * * * + +As in the other volumes of this Part, the instructor should not content +himself with having the student learn the rules. He should give drills in +spelling and pronunciation and should give problems in composition +involving the application of rules. Constant and prolonged practice is +indispensable to proficiency in all these matters. + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES + + +The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL +SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the +Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade +classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. + +Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of +authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of +the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a +comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, +up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the +printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. + +The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5×8 inches. Their +general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as +practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular +contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each +title in the following list. + +Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each +publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and +essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been +taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of +bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the +different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined +drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional +clearness to the text. + +In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in +trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by +a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. +A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department +treated is also added to many of the books. + +These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. + +Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED +TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U.S.A. + + +PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ + +=1.= =Type: a Primer of Information= By A.A. Stewart + + Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, + font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. + 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. + +=2.= =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, + brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; + illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. + +=3.= =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, + case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; + illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. + +=4.= =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A.A. Stewart + + Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the + press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 + pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. + +=5.= =Proof Presses= By A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the customary methods and machines + for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review + questions; glossary. + +=6.= =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker + + A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical + construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand + press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on + automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review + questions; glossary. + +=7.= =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker + + Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types + of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review + questions; glossary. + +=8.= =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier + + The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; + with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + +=9.= =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott + + A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and + allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 + pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. + +=10.= =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. + + A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever + cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting + paper, 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. + +=11.= =Printers' Rollers= By A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and + care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; + glossary. + +=12.= =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton + + Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by + permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of + Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the + everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review + questions; glossary. + +=13.= =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright + + A primer of information about the materials and processes of + manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; + 62 review questions; glossary. + +=14.= =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan + + Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of + engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for + reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=15.= =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= + By Harris B. Hatch and A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and + stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; + glossaries. + + +PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ + +=16.= =Typesetting= By A.A. Stewart + + A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, + spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=17.= =Printers' Proofs= By A.A. Stewart + + The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with + observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=18.= =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVéze + + Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in getting his first + jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make + good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; + glossary. + +=19.= =General Job Composition= + + How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and + miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=20.= =Book Composition= By J.W. Bothwell + + Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition," + revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J.W. Bothwell + of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part + II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review + questions; glossary. + +=21.= =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver + + A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples + of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review + questions. + +=22.= =Applied Arithmetic= By E.E. Sheldon + + Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, + calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard + tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with + examples and exercises. 159 pp. + +=23.= =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A.W. Finlay, Editor + + Section I--The Linotype By L.A. Hornstein + Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays + Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens + Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines + By Frank H. Smith + + A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their + mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ + +=24.= =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and + about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=25.= =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods + of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART IV--_Presswork_ + +=26.= =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T.G. McGrew + + The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive + features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, + regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting + gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=27.= =Cylinder Presswork= By T.G. McGrew + + Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, + ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and + overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=28.= =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton + + Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with + directions and useful information relating to a variety of + printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. + +=29.= =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A.W. Elson + + A primer of information about the distinctive features of the + relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. + 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. + + +PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ + +=30.= =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin + + A primer of information about the various operations employed in + binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; + review questions; glossary. + +=31.= =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger + + Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; + folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case + making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and + blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ + +=32.= =Word Study and English Grammar= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about words, their relations, and their + uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. + +=33.= =Punctuation= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their + use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review + questions; glossary. + +=34.= =Capitals= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical + typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review + questions; glossary. + +=35.= =Division of Words= By F.W. Hamilton + + Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks + on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review + questions. + +=36.= =Compound Words= By F.W. Hamilton + + A study of the principles of compounding, the components of + compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. + +=37.= =Abbreviations and Signs= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with + classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review + questions. + +=38.= =The Uses of Italic= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the history and uses of italic + letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. + +=39.= =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas + + The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, + revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by + examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. + +=40.= =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F.W. Hamilton + + Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in + preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. + +=41.= =Printers' Manual of Style= + + A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions + relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, + abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. + +=42.= =The Printer's Dictionary= By A.A. Stewart + + A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about + various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical + terms explained. Illustrated. + + +PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ + +=43.= =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage + + A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on + the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats + of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and + variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 + review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +=44.= =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage + + Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building + material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and + illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, + treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. + Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. + +=45.= =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage + + Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster + effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with + process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and + chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, + intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory + of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full + color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +=46.= =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage + + Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. + Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on + type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. + Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully + illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +=47.= =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage + + The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which + advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, + legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising + typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +=48.= =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage + + A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a + proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. + Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy + envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + + +PART VIII--_History of Printing_ + +=49.= =Books Before Typography= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the + history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; + illustrated; 64 review questions. + +=50.= =The Invention of Typography= By F.W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. + 64 pp.; 62 review questions. + +=51.= =History of Printing--Part I= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the + development of the book, the development of printers' materials, + and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. + +=52.= =History of Printing--Part II= By F.W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry + from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, + internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review + questions. + +=53.= =Printing in England= By F.W. Hamilton + + A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present + time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. + +=54.= =Printing in America= By F.W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes + on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; + 84 review questions. + +=55.= =Type and Presses in America= By F.W. Hamilton + + A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and + press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. + + +PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ + +=56.= =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +=57.= =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +=58.= =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter + + The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. + The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of + the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. + +=59.= =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter + + The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for + estimating. Review questions. Glossary. + +=60.= =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter + + An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their + relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. + +=61.= =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter + + A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary + books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. + + +PART X--_Miscellaneous_ + +=62.= =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter + + Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; + practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and + rules for safety. + +=63.= =Topical Index= By F.W. Hamilton + + A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic + Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. + +=64.= =Courses of Study= By F.W. Hamilton + + A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for + classroom and shop work. + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENT + + +This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid +co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the +printing business and its allied industries in the United States of +America. + +The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whose +auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges its +indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors, +printers, and others identified with this work. + +While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those +contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a group +list of co-operating firms would be of interest. + +The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have +co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting the +first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the +Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee hopes +will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume. + +The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many +subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. + +COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. + + HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, + E. LAWRENCE FELL, + A.M. GLOSSBRENNER, + J. CLYDE OSWALD, + TOBY RUBOVITS. + +FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. + + + + +CONTRIBUTORS + + +=For Composition and Electrotypes= + +ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N.Y. +S.H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +J.S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. +THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N.Y. +R.R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. +GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. +EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. +FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. +F.H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. +STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +W.F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. +J.B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York +THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. +POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. +EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. +C.D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. +THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. + +=For Composition= + +BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. +WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N.Y. +OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. +TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. + +=For Electrotypes= + +BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. +FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N.Y. +C.J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. +ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +H.C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. + +=For Engravings= + +AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. +C.B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R.I. +GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. +HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. +INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. +LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. +MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N.Y. +GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. +OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N.Y. +THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. +B.D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. +THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. + +=For Book Paper= + +AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. +WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N.Y. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Division of Words, by Frederick W. 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Hamilton, LL.D.. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + color: gray; background-color: inherit; + } + ul.TOC { /* TOC as a whole, or any sub-list of sub-topics in it */ + list-style-type: none; /*list with no symbol */ + position: relative; /*makes a "container" for span.ralign */ + width: 60%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + } + span.ralign { /* use absolute positioning to move page# right */ + position: absolute; right: 0; top: auto; + } + + .words { + margin-left: 5%; + text-align: left;} + .parth { + width: 90%; + text-align: center; + margin-top: 2em; + } + .books { + list-style-type: none; /*list with no symbol */ + position: relative; /*makes a "container" for span.author */ + width: 90%; + } + + span.author { /* use absolute positioning to right align author name */ + position: absolute; + right: 0; + top: auto; + text-align: right; + width: 90%; + } + .brief {margin-left: 2em;} + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smfont {font-size: smaller;} + + .sidenote {width: 20%; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Division of Words, by Frederick W. Hamilton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Division of Words + Rules for the Division of Words at the Ends of Lines, with + Remarks on Spelling, Syllabication and Pronunciation + +Author: Frederick W. Hamilton + +Release Date: November 6, 2005 [EBook #17016] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIVISION OF WORDS *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div style="width: 80%; margin: auto; clear: both; font-family: monospace;"> +<table cellpadding="6" summary="Transcriber's Note" width="80%"> + <tr> + <td> + <b>Transcriber's Note:</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr><td> +1. Some examples which appear not to follow the preceding guideline are +printed thus in the original book. It looks as if sometimes the guideline is +mistaken. + </td></tr> + <tr><td> +2. Accented syllables are marked with a single quote ('). + </td></tr> + <tr><td> +3. This book uses several diacritical marks for phonetics, the table below +lists the codings used: (the “x” represents a character with a diacritical +mark) + +<pre> +Macron (straight line) below [x=] +2 dots (diaeresis) below [x:] +Small capital I above [Ix] +</pre> + </td></tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h5>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART VI. NO. 35</h5> + + +<h1>DIVISION OF <br /> +WORDS</h1> + + +<h3>RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS AT <br /> +THE ENDS OF LINES, WITH REMARKS <br /> +ON SPELLING, SYLLABICATION <br /> +AND PRONUNCIATION</h3> + + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.</h2> + +<h6>EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR <br /> +UNITED TYPOTHETÆ OF AMERICA</h6> + + + + +<h5>PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION <br /> +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA <br /> +1918</h5> + + + + +<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1918<br /> +United Typothetae of America<br /> +Chicago, Ill.</span> +</h5> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>The principal purpose of this book is to give in brief +form the rules and usages governing the division of +words when the measure will not permit ending the word +and the line together. This matter is considered in its +relation to good spacing and to the legibility of the printed +page.</p> + +<p>Leading up to the discussion will be found some consideration +of spelling, the formation of syllables, pronunciation, +and accent. This consideration is necessarily +brief, and no attempt has been made to give the rules for +spelling which are so frequently found in spelling books, +or any of them. In the writer's opinion such rules are of +very little practical value. Good spelling is not so much +the result of remembering and applying rules as it is of +observation, practice, and memory. The lists of certain +types of troublesome words may be found useful for ready +reference.</p> + +<p>Syllable formation, pronunciation, and accent are considered +because it is hoped that the volumes of this series, +particularly those in Part VI (Correct Literary Composition) +and Part VIII (History of Printing), will contribute +something to the general education of the apprentice as +well as to his skill in the trade.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<ul class="TOC"> +<li> <span class="ralign">PAGE</span><br /></li> +<li><a href="#SPELLING"><span class="smcap">Spelling</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></span></li> +<li><a href="#PRONUNCIATION"><span class="smcap">Pronunciation</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></span></li> +<li><a href="#ACCENT"><span class="smcap">Accent</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></span></li> +<li><a href="#DIVISION_OF_WORDS"><span class="smcap">Division of Words</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></span></li> +<li><a href="#RULES_FOR_DIVISION_OF_WORDS"><span class="smcap">Rules for Division of Words</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></span></li> +<li><a href="#IMPORTANCE_OF_SPACING"><span class="smcap">Importance of Spacing</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></span></li> +<li><a href="#DIVISION_IN_LINES_OF_DISPLAY"><span class="smcap">Division in Lines of Display</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></span></li> +<li><a href="#SUPPLEMENTARY_READING"><span class="smcap">Supplementary Reading</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></span></li> +<li><a href="#QUESTIONS"><span class="smcap">Review Questions</span></a> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></span></li> +</ul> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2>DIVISION OF WORDS</h2> + + +<p>The division of words when the words do not exactly +fit the register of the line has always been a source +of trouble. In the days of the manuscript makers devices +such as crowding letters, reducing their size, or omitting +them altogether were freely used and words were arbitrarily +divided when the scribes so desired. During the greater +part of the time every scribe divided as he pleased, often in +ways which seem very strange to us, like the Greek custom +of dividing always after a vowel and even dividing words +of one syllable. With the invention of printing, however, +the number of these devices was greatly diminished. It +became a matter of spacing out the line or dividing the +word. Of course that meant frequent word division and +called for a systematization of rules with regard to this +division. These rules for division are necessarily based on +spelling and syllabication.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="SPELLING" id="SPELLING"></a>SPELLING</h2> + + +<p>The idea that there is one right way to combine the +letters representing a certain sound or group of sounds, +that is a word, and that all other ways are wrong and little +short of shameful is a comparatively new idea among us. +The English speaking folk held down to a comparatively +recent time that any group of letters which approximately +represented the sound was amply sufficient as a symbol of +the word. This sort of phonetic spelling was commonly +followed, and followed with great freedom. No obligation +was recognized to be consistent. In ordinary writing, such +as letters and the like, it is not unusual to find the same +word spelled in a variety of ways in the same document.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>The last century has brought about an attempt to standardize +spelling into conventional forms any departure from +which is regarded as highly derogatory to the writer. In +many cases these forms are fixed arbitrarily, and in +some there is even now disagreement among the highest +authorities. These difficulties and disagreements have +two reasons: First, English is a composite language, +drawn from many sources and at many periods; hence +purely philological and etymological influences intervene, +sometimes with marked results, while there is a difference +of opinion as to how far these influences ought to prevail. +Second, the English language uses an alphabet which fits +it very badly. Many letters have to do duty for the expression +of several sounds, and sometimes several of them have +nearly or quite the same sound. For example, there are a +number of distinct sounds of <i>a</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>o</i> while <i>g</i> is sometimes +indistinguishable from <i>j</i> and <i>c</i> from <i>k</i>. This is not +always a matter of modification of sounds by the sounds of +other letters combined with them. One has to learn how +to pronounce <i>cough</i>, <i>dough</i>, <i>enough</i>, and <i>plough</i>, the <i>ough</i> +having four distinct sounds in these four words. Each one +of these sounds, by the way, could be exactly as well represented +by another combination of letters which would +be unmistakable, viz., <i>coff</i>, <i>doe</i>, <i>enuff</i>, and <i>plow</i>. It is +impossible to tell except by the context either the pronunciation +or the meaning of <i>bow</i>. If the <i>ow</i> is pronounced +as in <i>low</i>, it means a weapon. If the <i>ow</i> is pronounced as +in <i>cow</i> it may mean either an obeisance or the front end of +a boat.</p> + +<p>This standardization of spelling is unfortunately not +quite complete, although nearly so. Concerning the vast +majority of the words in the English language there is no +difference of opinion. A few words are differently spelled +by different authorities. There are seven of these authorities +of the first rank, three English, Stormonth, the +Imperial Dictionary, and the Oxford Dictionary; and four +American, Webster's International, Worcester, the Century +Dictionary, and the Standard Dictionary. American +printers may ordinarily disregard the English authorities.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>Any one of the four American authorities may be safely +followed. In cases where two spellings are given in the +dictionary consulted, take the first one. Ordinarily a printing +office adopts one of the great authorities as a standard +and conforms the office style to it. All office copy will +follow it and all errors in copy from outside will be corrected +by it. Spellings differing from it will be regarded +as errors, even though supported by other authorities.</p> + +<p>This rule, however, is subject to one very important +exception. The author has an unquestionable right to +choose his own dictionary or to use any spelling for which +there is any authority, English or American. If he has his +own ideas on the subject of spelling he should be very +careful that his manuscript is correctly spelled according to +his ideas, and clearly written or typed. He should also +indicate on the manuscript the authority he wishes used in +correcting the spelling in case of mistakes or illegible passages. +Every care should be taken to make the manuscript +copy as correct as possible and as legible as possible. +Such care may be very troublesome at first, but it will +result in great saving of expense.</p> + +<p>In addition to the authorities named there are the rules +and “reformed” spellings adopted by the American Philological +Association and published by the United States +Government. These are followed fully in some offices, +partly in others, and in many not at all. This is a question +of the office style and the author's wish. If copy is clear +and spelled according to any authority, it is the compositor's +duty to follow it. If it is misspelled or illegible he is +to correct it according to the office style unless otherwise +directed by the author in writing. If furnished with such +a direction he is to follow it. This procedure will clear +the compositor of all blame. Any questions which then +arise lie between the author and the proofreader.</p> + +<p>In the case of the reformed spellings, however, the +departure from the ordinary appearance of the words is +so great that the author cannot be allowed full freedom to +set aside the office style. If he is paying for the printing +he may insist on his spelling. If he is contributing to a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>periodical and the printing is done at the publisher's expense +it is for the publisher to determine the style of printing +to be used.</p> + +<p>Any full consideration of the question of reformed spelling +is hardly in place in this book. The author may perhaps +be permitted one observation. Innovation in the use +of the English language would appear to be primarily the +work of scholars, and the adoption of such innovations +would seem to belong to the book printer rather than to +the commercial printer. The public mind as a whole is +conservative. It is not hospitable to changes and does +not soon become aware of them, much less familiar +with them. The commercial printer makes his appeal to +the mind of the general public. He will do well to use a +vehicle familiar, intelligible, and acceptable to it.</p> + +<p>Correct spelling is mainly a matter of habit and observation. +To a certain extent it is a matter of careful pronunciation, +but this is not always a safe or even a possible guide. +The vowels preceding or following the one on which the +primary accent falls, sometimes called obscure vowels, are +so slurringly pronounced that even a pedantic precision will +hardly make it possible to indicate clearly which vowel is +used. The writer remembers seeing an examination paper +written by a fourth year medical student in which the word +<i>fever</i> was spelled <i>fevor</i>. A moment's thought will show +that so far as pronunciation is concerned the word might +be spelled <i>fevar</i>, <i>fevir</i>, <i>fevor</i>, <i>fever</i>, or <i>fevur</i> without any +appreciable difference. The correct spelling is merely a +matter of observation.</p> + +<p>The author has on his desk at the moment of writing +these lines half a dozen good books, each containing a set +of rules for spelling. From these it would be easy to compile +a set of fairly good rules. Each of these rules, however, +has exceptions, in some cases quite numerous. To +remember these rules with their exceptions would be a +considerable mental task and to apply them would be cumbrous +and time consuming. The effort would probably +resolve itself into an actual learning of the words which +present difficulties. The best way to become a good +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>speller is to form the habit of careful reading, observing +the form of every word as it passes before the eye and so +unconsciously fixing it in the memory. The dictionary +should be consulted whenever there is any doubt.</p> + +<p>If you are to write a word, call up a mental picture of +it, and if the picture is not perfectly clear go to the dictionary +and fix a correct image of it in your mind. Be careful +to pronounce every word you use as correctly as possible +and you will get all the aid pronunciation can give you. +Careless speaking and careless reading are the two great +sources of incorrect spelling.</p> + +<p>The following tables will be found useful in settling +practice with regard to certain troublesome classes of words.</p> + + +<h3>I</h3> + +<p>American usage tends to the termination <i>-ize</i> where +English usage often sanctions <i>-ise</i>. Use the termination +<i>-ise</i> in</p> + +<p class="words"> +advertise<br /> +advise<br /> +appraise<br /> +apprise (<i>to inform</i>)<br /> +arise<br /> +chastise<br /> +circumcise<br /> +comprise<br /> +compromise<br /> +demise<br /> +devise<br /> +disfranchise<br /> +disguise<br /> +emprise<br /> +enfranchise<br /> +enterprise<br /> +exercise<br /> +exorcise<br /> +franchise<br /> +improvise<br /> +incise<br /> +merchandise<br /> +premise<br /> +reprise<br /> +revise<br /> +rise<br /> +supervise<br /> +surmise<br /> +surprise<br /> +</p> + +<p>Use the termination <i>-ize</i> or <i>-yze</i> in</p> + +<p class="words"> +aggrandize<br /> +agonize<br /> +analyze<br /> +anatomize<br /> +anglicize<br /> +apologize<br /> +apostrophize<br /> +apprize (<i>to value</i>)<br /> +authorize<br /> +baptize<br /> +brutalize<br /> +canonize<br /> +catechize<br /> +catholicize<br /> +cauterize<br /> +centralize<br /> +characterize<br /> +christianize<br /> +civilize<br /> +colonize<br /> +criticize<br /> +crystallize<br /> +demoralize<br /> +dogmatize<br /> +economize<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +emphasize<br /> +epitomize<br /> +equalize<br /> +eulogize<br /> +evangelize<br /> +extemporize<br /> +familiarize<br /> +fertilize<br /> +fossilize<br /> +fraternize<br /> +galvanize<br /> +generalize<br /> +gormandize<br /> +harmonize<br /> +immortalize<br /> +italicize<br /> +jeopardize<br /> +legalize<br /> +liberalize<br /> +localize<br /> +magnetize<br /> +memorialize<br /> +mesmerize<br /> +metamorphize<br /> +methodize<br /> +minimize<br /> +modernize<br /> +monopolize<br /> +moralize<br /> +nationalize<br /> +naturalize<br /> +neutralize<br /> +organize<br /> +ostracize<br /> +paralyze<br /> +particularize<br /> +pasteurize<br /> +patronize<br /> +philosophize<br /> +plagiarize<br /> +pulverize<br /> +realize<br /> +recognize<br /> +reorganize<br /> +revolutionize<br /> +satirize<br /> +scandalize<br /> +scrutinize<br /> +signalize<br /> +solemnize<br /> +soliloquize<br /> +specialize<br /> +spiritualize<br /> +standardize<br /> +stigmatize<br /> +subsidize<br /> +summarize<br /> +syllogize<br /> +symbolize<br /> +sympathize<br /> +tantalize<br /> +temporize<br /> +tranquilize<br /> +tyrannize<br /> +universalize<br /> +utilize<br /> +vaporize<br /> +vitalize<br /> +vocalize<br /> +vulcanize<br /> +vulgarize<br /> +</p> + +<h3>II</h3> + +<p>Use the termination <i>-ible</i> in the following words:</p> + +<p class="words"> +accessible<br /> +admissible<br /> +appetible<br /> +apprehensible<br /> +audible<br /> +cessible<br /> +coercible<br /> +compatible<br /> +competible<br /> +comprehensible<br /> +compressible<br /> +conceptible<br /> +contemptible<br /> +contractible<br /> +controvertible<br /> +convertible<br /> +convincible<br /> +corrigible<br /> +corrosible<br /> +corruptible<br /> +credible<br /> +decoctible<br /> +deducible<br /> +defeasible<br /> +defensible<br /> +descendible<br /> +destructible<br /> +digestible<br /> +discernible<br /> +distensible<br /> +divisible<br /> +docible<br /> +edible<br /> +effectible<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +eligible<br /> +eludible<br /> +enforcible<br /> +evincible<br /> +expansible<br /> +expressible<br /> +extendible<br /> +extensible<br /> +fallible<br /> +feasible<br /> +fencible<br /> +flexible<br /> +forcible<br /> +frangible<br /> +fusible<br /> +gullible<br /> +horrible<br /> +illegible<br /> +immiscible<br /> +impassible<br /> +intelligible<br /> +irascible<br /> +legible<br /> +miscible<br /> +negligible<br /> +partible<br /> +passible (<i>susceptible</i>)<br /> +perceptible<br /> +permissible<br /> +persuasible<br /> +pervertible<br /> +plausible<br /> +possible<br /> +producible<br /> +reducible<br /> +reflexible<br /> +refrangible<br /> +remissible<br /> +reprehensible<br /> +resistible<br /> +responsible<br /> +reversible<br /> +revertible<br /> +risible<br /> +seducible<br /> +sensible<br /> +tangible<br /> +terrible<br /> +transmissible<br /> +visible<br /> +</p> + +<p>In all other cases use <i>-able</i>.</p> + + +<h3>III</h3> + +<p>The following nouns end in <i>-er</i>.</p> + +<p class="words"> +abetter<br /> +abstracter<br /> +accepter<br /> +adapter<br /> +adviser<br /> +affirmer<br /> +aider<br /> +almoner<br /> +annoyer<br /> +arbiter<br /> +assenter<br /> +asserter<br /> +bailer<br /> +caster<br /> +censer (vessel)<br /> +concocter<br /> +condenser<br /> +conferrer<br /> +conjurer<br /> +consulter<br /> +continuer<br /> +contradicter<br /> +contriver<br /> +convener<br /> +conveyer<br /> +corrupter<br /> +covenanter<br /> +debater<br /> +defender<br /> +deliberater<br /> +deserter<br /> +desolater<br /> +deviser<br /> +discontinuer<br /> +disturber<br /> +entreater<br /> +exalter<br /> +exasperater<br /> +exciter<br /> +executer (<i>except in law</i>)<br /> +expecter<br /> +frequenter<br /> +granter<br /> +idolater<br /> +imposer<br /> +impugner<br /> +incenser<br /> +inflicter<br /> +insulter<br /> +interceder<br /> +interpreter<br /> +interrupter<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +inviter<br /> +jailer<br /> +lamenter<br /> +mortgager (<i>except in law</i>)<br /> +obliger<br /> +obstructer<br /> +obtruder<br /> +perfecter<br /> +perjurer<br /> +preventer<br /> +probationer<br /> +propeller<br /> +protester<br /> +recognizer<br /> +regrater<br /> +relater<br /> +respecter<br /> +sailer (<i>ship</i>)<br /> +sorcerer<br /> +suggester<br /> +supplanter<br /> +upholder<br /> +vender<br /> +</p> + +<p>The following nouns end in <i>-or</i>.</p> + +<p class="words"> +abbreviator<br /> +abductor<br /> +abettor (<i>law</i>)<br /> +abominator<br /> +abrogator<br /> +accelerator<br /> +acceptor<br /> +accommodator<br /> +accumulator<br /> +actor<br /> +adjudicator<br /> +adjutor<br /> +administrator<br /> +admonitor<br /> +adulator<br /> +adulterator<br /> +aggregator<br /> +aggressor<br /> +agitator<br /> +amalgamator<br /> +animator<br /> +annotator<br /> +antecessor<br /> +apparitor<br /> +appreciator<br /> +arbitrator<br /> +assassinator<br /> +assessor<br /> +benefactor<br /> +bettor<br /> +calculator<br /> +calumniator<br /> +captor<br /> +castor (<i>oil</i>)<br /> +censor<br /> +coadjutor<br /> +collector<br /> +competitor<br /> +compositor<br /> +conductor<br /> +confessor<br /> +conqueror<br /> +conservator<br /> +consignor<br /> +conspirator<br /> +constrictor<br /> +constructor<br /> +contaminator<br /> +contemplator<br /> +continuator<br /> +contractor<br /> +contributor<br /> +corrector<br /> +councillor<br /> +counsellor<br /> +covenantor (<i>law</i>)<br /> +creator<br /> +creditor<br /> +cultivator<br /> +cunctator<br /> +debtor<br /> +decorator<br /> +delator (<i>law</i>)<br /> +denominator<br /> +denunciator<br /> +depredator<br /> +depressor<br /> +deteriorator<br /> +detractor<br /> +dictator<br /> +dilator<br /> +director<br /> +dissector<br /> +disseizor<br /> +disseminator<br /> +distributor<br /> +divisor<br /> +dominator<br /> +donor<br /> +effector<br /> +elector<br /> +elevator<br /> +elucidator<br /> +emulator<br /> +enactor<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +equivocator<br /> +escheator<br /> +estimator<br /> +exactor<br /> +excavator<br /> +exceptor<br /> +executor (<i>law</i>)<br /> +exhibitor<br /> +explorator<br /> +expositor<br /> +expostulator<br /> +extensor<br /> +extirpator<br /> +extractor<br /> +fabricator<br /> +factor<br /> +flexor<br /> +fornicator<br /> +fumigator<br /> +generator<br /> +gladiator<br /> +governor<br /> +grantor (<i>law</i>)<br /> +habitator<br /> +imitator<br /> +impostor<br /> +impropriator<br /> +inaugurator<br /> +inceptor<br /> +incisor<br /> +inheritor<br /> +initiator<br /> +innovator<br /> +insinuator<br /> +institutor<br /> +instructor<br /> +interlocutor<br /> +interpolator<br /> +interrogator<br /> +inventor<br /> +investor<br /> +juror<br /> +lector<br /> +legator<br /> +legislator<br /> +lessor<br /> +mediator<br /> +modulator<br /> +monitor<br /> +mortgagor (<i>law</i>)<br /> +multiplicator<br /> +narrator<br /> +navigator<br /> +negotiator<br /> +nonjuror<br /> +numerator<br /> +objector<br /> +obligor (<i>law</i>)<br /> +observator<br /> +operator<br /> +originator<br /> +pacificator<br /> +participator<br /> +peculator<br /> +percolator<br /> +perforator<br /> +perpetrator<br /> +persecutor<br /> +perturbator<br /> +possessor<br /> +preceptor<br /> +precursor<br /> +predecessor<br /> +predictor<br /> +prevaricator<br /> +procrastinator<br /> +procreator<br /> +procurator<br /> +professor<br /> +progenitor<br /> +projector<br /> +prolocutor<br /> +promulgator<br /> +propagator<br /> +propitiator<br /> +proprietor<br /> +prosecutor<br /> +protector<br /> +protractor<br /> +purveyor<br /> +recognizor (<i>law</i>)<br /> +recriminator<br /> +reflector<br /> +regenerator<br /> +regulator<br /> +relator (<i>law</i>)<br /> +rotator<br /> +sacrificator<br /> +sailor (<i>seaman</i>)<br /> +scrutator<br /> +sculptor<br /> +sectator<br /> +selector<br /> +senator<br /> +separator<br /> +sequestrator<br /> +servitor<br /> +solicitor<br /> +spectator<br /> +spoliator<br /> +sponsor<br /> +successor<br /> +suitor<br /> +supervisor<br /> +suppressor<br /> +surveyor<br /> +survivor<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +testator<br /> +tormentor<br /> +traitor<br /> +transgressor<br /> +translator<br /> +valuator<br /> +vendor (<i>law</i>)<br /> +venerator<br /> +ventilator<br /> +vindicator<br /> +violator<br /> +visitor<br /> +</p> + + +<h3>IV</h3> + +<p>Words which in their shortest form end in <i>-d</i>, <i>-de</i>, <i>-ge</i>, +<i>-unit</i>, <i>-rt</i>, <i>-se</i>, <i>-sr</i>, take the ending <i>-sion</i>; e.g., <i>abscind</i>, +<i>abscission</i>; <i>include</i>, <i>inclusion</i>; <i>emerge</i>, <i>emersion</i>; <i>remit</i>, <i>remission</i>; +<i>infuse</i>, <i>infusion</i>; <i>repress</i>, <i>repression</i>.</p> + +<p>All others take the ending <i>-tion</i>.</p> + +<p>The following are irregularities:</p> + +<p class="words"> +adhesion<br /> +assertion<br /> +attention<br /> +coercion<br /> +cohesion<br /> +crucifixion<br /> +declension<br /> +dimension<br /> +dissension<br /> +distortion<br /> +divulsion<br /> +expulsion<br /> +impulsion<br /> +insertion<br /> +intention<br /> +occasion<br /> +propulsion<br /> +recursion<br /> +repulsion<br /> +revulsion<br /> +scansion<br /> +suspicion<br /> +tension<br /> +version<br /> +</p> + +<p>Words ending in <i>-ance</i>, <i>-ence</i>; <i>-ancy</i>, <i>-ency</i>; <i>-ant</i>, and +<i>-ent</i>, often cause confusion when carelessly written.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of the more common words with +the <i>e</i> form.</p> + +<p class="words"> +abducent<br /> +abhorrence, -ent<br /> +abluent<br /> +absent, -ence<br /> +absorbent<br /> +abstergent<br /> +abstinence, -ent<br /> +adherence, -ent<br /> +advertency, -ent<br /> +affluence, -ent<br /> +antecedence, -ent<br /> +apparent<br /> +appertinent<br /> +appetence, -ency<br /> +ardent<br /> +benevolence, -ent<br /> +circumference<br /> +coexistence<br /> +coherence, -ent<br /> +coincidence, -ent<br /> +competence, -ent<br /> +concurrence, -ent<br /> +condolence<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +conference<br /> +confidence, -ent<br /> +confluence, -ent<br /> +consentient<br /> +consequence<br /> +consequent<br /> +consistence, -ent<br /> +consistency<br /> +constituent<br /> +continence, -ent<br /> +convenience, -ent<br /> +corpulence, -ent<br /> +correspondence, -ent<br /> +currency, -ent<br /> +deference<br /> +delinquency, -ent<br /> +dependence, -ent<br /> +deponent<br /> +descendent (<i>adj.</i>)<br /> +despondency, -ent<br /> +difference<br /> +diffidence, -ent<br /> +diffluent<br /> +efficiency, -ent<br /> +eminence, -ency<br /> +eminent<br /> +excellence, -ency<br /> +excellent<br /> +existence, -ent<br /> +expediency<br /> +feculence, -ent<br /> +flocculence, -ent<br /> +fluency, -ent<br /> +fraudulence, -ent<br /> +imminence, -ent<br /> +impatience, -ent<br /> +impellent<br /> +imprudence, -ent<br /> +impudence, -ent<br /> +incipience, -ent<br /> +incumbency, -ent<br /> +independence, -ent<br /> +indolence, -ent<br /> +inference<br /> +inherence, -ent<br /> +intermittent<br /> +iridescence, -ent<br /> +lambent<br /> +latency, -ent<br /> +leniency, -ent<br /> +magniloquence, -ent<br /> +malevolence, -ent<br /> +mellifluence, -ent<br /> +mollient<br /> +obedience, -ent<br /> +occurrence, -ent<br /> +omniscience, -ent<br /> +opulence, -ency<br /> +opulent<br /> +patience, -ent<br /> +pendent (<i>adj.</i>)<br /> +pendency<br /> +penitence, -ent<br /> +permanence, -ent<br /> +permanency<br /> +pertinence, -ent<br /> +pestilence, -ent<br /> +poculent<br /> +portent<br /> +potency, -ent<br /> +precedence, -ent<br /> +preference<br /> +prescience, -ent<br /> +presence, -ent<br /> +presidency, -ent<br /> +proficiency, -ent<br /> +prominence, -ent<br /> +proponent<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +providence, -ent<br /> +prudence, -ent<br /> +purulence, -ent<br /> +quintessence<br /> +recurrence, -ent<br /> +reference<br /> +refluence, -ent<br /> +repellent<br /> +residence, -ency<br /> +resident<br /> +resolvent<br /> +resplendence, -ent<br /> +respondent<br /> +reverence, -ent<br /> +sentient<br /> +solvency, -ent<br /> +somnolency, -ent<br /> +subserviency, -ent<br /> +subsidence, -ency<br /> +subsistence, -ent<br /> +succulent<br /> +superintendence<br /> +superintendency<br /> +superintendent<br /> +tendence, -ency<br /> +transcendence, -ent<br /> +transcendency<br /> +transference<br /> +transient<br /> +transparency, -ent<br /> +transplendency, -ent<br /> +turbulence, -ent<br /> +vicegerency, -ent<br /> +virulence, -ent<br /> +</p> + +<p>Nearly all other words of this type take the <i>a</i> form.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The instructor should drill the pupils in spelling not only +these “catch” words, but a wide range of English words. +These lessons may be taken to advantage from some of the +books mentioned in the list for supplementary reading, +from any other good spelling book, or even from the pages +of any well printed book or magazine. The words should +be given out orally and written down by the pupil. A good +exercise is the reading of a paragraph from any good book, +or some stanza of poetry, the passage read to be taken +down by the pupil with care to spell, punctuate, and +capitalize properly.</p> + +<p>A number of topics sometimes treated under the head +of spelling will be found discussed in the “Printer's Manual +of Style” (No. 41).</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PRONUNCIATION" id="PRONUNCIATION"></a>PRONUNCIATION</h2> + + +<p>The English language is a difficult one to pronounce as +well as to spell. This arises from two causes. The +English language has some sounds not generally found in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>other languages, such as <i>w</i> and <i>th</i>. As has already been +pointed out, the alphabet fits the language very badly. +Careful lexicographers indicate no less than seven sounds +of <i>a</i>, five of <i>e</i>, three of <i>i</i>, four of <i>o</i> and six of <i>u</i>, as shown +in the following table:</p> + +<p class="words"> +ā as in āle<br /> +[Ia] as in sen[Ia]te<br /> +ă as in ăm<br /> +á as in ásk<br /> +[a:] as in [a:]ll<br /> +ä as in fäther<br /> +(a) as in fin(a)l<br /> +<br /> +ē as in ēve<br /> +ĕ as in ĕnd<br /> +[Ie] as in ev[Ie]nt<br /> +ẽ as in fẽrn<br /> +(e) as in prud(e)nce<br /> +<br /> +ī as in īce<br /> +[Ii] as in [Ii]dea<br /> +ĭ as in pĭn<br /> +<br /> +ō as in ōld<br /> +[Io] as in [Io]pen<br /> +ŏ as in ŏdd<br /> +ô as in ôrb<br /> +<br /> +ū as in ūse<br /> +[Iu] as in [Iu]nite<br /> +ŭ as in ŭp<br /> +[u:] as in r[u:]de<br /> +[u=] as in f[u=]ll<br /> +û as in ûrn<br /> +</p> + +<p>In addition to these there are diphthongs, combinations of +vowel sounds pronounced as one syllable, such as</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>ou</i> as in <i>out</i><br /> +<i>oi</i> as in <i>oil</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>There are also a number of digraphs or combinations of +vowels or consonants which have but one sound, such as</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>ai</i> as in <i>rain</i><br /> +<i>eo</i> as in <i>people</i><br /> +<i>ou</i> as in <i>soup</i><br /> +<i>ou</i> as in <i>soul</i><br /> +<i>ph</i> as in <i>phalanx</i><br /> +<i>ch</i> as in <i>chorus</i> or <i>chair</i><br /> +</p> + +<p><i>C</i> has two sounds, hard before <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, and <i>u</i>, as in <i>cat</i>, <i>cot</i>, +and <i>cut</i>, and soft before <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>y</i>, as in <i>cell</i>, <i>city</i>, and <i>cycle</i>.</p> + +<p><i>G</i> has two sounds, hard before <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, and <i>u</i>, as in <i>gate</i>, +<i>gone</i>, and <i>gun</i>, soft before <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>y</i>, as in <i>gem</i>, <i>gin</i>, and +<i>gyve</i>, although it is sometimes hard before <i>i</i> as in <i>girl</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Ch</i> is sometimes soft as in <i>chair</i> and <i>arch</i>, and sometimes +hard as in <i>choir</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span><i>Th</i> has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in <i>thin</i> and <i>death</i>, +and hard, or sonant, as in <i>then</i> and <i>smooth</i>.</p> + +<p><i>S</i> has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in <i>soft</i> and <i>this</i>, and +hard, or sonant, as in <i>has</i> and <i>wise</i>.</p> + +<p>We have, therefore, twenty-six letters with which to +express fifty or more sounds, not counting the digraphs +and diphthongs.</p> + +<p>Correct pronunciation depends upon three things, correct +sounding of the letters, correct division into syllables, +and correct placing of the accent.</p> + +<p>A syllable is the smallest separately articulated, or pronounced, +element in speech, or one of the parts into which +speech is broken. It consists of a vowel alone or accompanied +by one or more consonants and separated by them, +or by a pause, from a preceding or following vowel. This +division of words into syllables is indicated in dictionaries +by the use of the hyphen thus: <i>sub-trac-tion</i>, <i>co-or-din-ate</i>. +It will be observed that in the first of these examples the +vowels are all separated by consonants, while in the second +two of them are separated by a pause only.</p> + +<p>The English language has the further peculiarity of +using <i>l</i> and <i>n</i> as vowels in syllabication, as in <i>middle</i> +(<i>mid-dl</i>) and <i>reck-on</i> (<i>reck-n</i>).</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<p>The illustrations from this point to the end of this section on <a href="#Page_16">page 16</a> are not typographic +divisions. They concern pronunciation only.</p> +</div> + +<p>The division of words into syllables for pronunciation +is generally, but not always, the same as that which +should be followed in case the word has to be divided +typographically. As these text-books are intended to help +the apprentice as a speaker and writer of English as well as +a printer, it is worth while to give some attention to syllabication +for pronunciation before proceeding to discuss +typographical division.</p> + +<p>Two letters forming a diphthong or digraph are not to be +separated. <i>Coin-age</i> (<i>oi</i> diphthong) but <i>co-in-ci-dence</i> (<i>oi</i> +not a diphthong). <i>Excess</i> (<i>ss</i> digraph, pronounced practically +like a single s) gives <i>ex-cess-es</i>, <i>ex-cess-ive</i>, etc. +Whether or not the letters thus occurring together form +a diphthong or digraph will depend on the derivation of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>the word, thus in <i>cat-head</i> (verb), a nautical term, <i>th</i> is not +a digraph but in <i>ca-the-dral</i> <i>th</i> is a digraph, as is usually the +case with these two letters. You would not say <i>cat-hed-ral</i>.</p> + +<p>Two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, coming +together but sounded separately belong to separate syllables.</p> + +<p><i>A-or-ta</i>, <i>co-op-er-ate</i>, but <i>coop-er-age</i>, <i>moi-e-ty</i>.</p> + +<p>Do not end a syllable with</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) <i>c</i> or <i>g</i> when soft, <i>en-ti-cing</i>, but <i>dic-tion</i>, <i>wa-ges</i> +but <i>wag-on</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>t</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>z</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>sc</i>, <i>g</i>, and <i>d</i>, when followed by <i>i</i> or <i>e</i> +giving the sound of <i>sh</i>; <i>ra-tion-al</i>, <i>o-cean</i>, <i>re-gion</i>, +<i>as-cen-sion</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>d</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, and <i>z</i> when followed by <i>u</i> giving the +sound of <i>ch</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>zh</i>, or <i>j</i>, <i>cen-sure</i>, <i>sei-zure</i>, <i>na-ture</i>, +<i>ver-dure</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Do not begin a syllable with</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) <i>x</i> with the sound of <i>ks</i> or <i>gs</i>, <i>anx-ious</i>, <i>ex-act-ly</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>r</i> preceded by <i>a</i> or <i>e</i>; <i>par-ent</i>, <i>av-er-age</i>, but by +exception, <i>pa-rent-al</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Single <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, or <i>v</i>, followed by <i>i</i> with the sound of +<i>y</i> consonant; <i>fol-io</i> (<i>fol-yo</i>), <i>gen-ius</i> (<i>gen-yus</i>), <i>sav-ior</i> +(<i>sav-yor</i>).</p></div> + +<p>Prefixes and suffixes are generally separated, <i>yel-low-ish</i>, +<i>eat-able</i>, <i>pre-lude</i>. This last word is sometimes pronounced +<i>prel-ude</i> and this pronunciation has some dictionary support, +but it is objectionable.</p> + +<p>A consonant or digraph between two sounded vowels +usually joins the following vowel, <i>rea-son</i>, <i>no-ti-fy</i>, <i>mo-ther</i>.</p> + +<p>When two or three consonants capable of beginning a +syllable come between two sounded vowels they may all be +joined to the following vowel.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) When the preceding vowel is long and accented; +<i>en-a-bling</i>, <i>He-brew</i>, <i>i-dler</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) When the following vowel is an accented syllable; +<i>o-blige</i>, <i>re-dress</i>.</p></div> + +<p>When two or three consonants capable of beginning a +syllable come between two sounded vowels one may be +joined to the preceding vowel.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) When the vowel is short; <i>tab-let</i>, <i>res-cue</i>, <i>mus-ket</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>(<i>b</i>) When the consonants are <i>st</i>, <i>str</i>, or <i>sp</i>, if either +the preceding or following vowel is accented; <i>mis-tress</i>, +<i>aus-tere</i>, <i>oys-ter</i>, <i>sus-pect</i>.</p></div> + +<p>When a consonant is doubled (not forming a digraph) +the two are generally separated; <i>beg-gar</i>, <i>bril-liant</i>, <i>cun-ning</i>.</p> + +<p>The old-fashioned method of oral spelling by syllables +<i>m-a-s-mas-t-e-r-ter-master</i> will be found extremely useful in +teaching correct syllabication. It is recommended that +constant use be made of it in spelling drill.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ACCENT" id="ACCENT"></a>ACCENT</h2> + + +<p>When a word consists of two syllables one of them +receives more stress of voice than the other. This stress +of voice is called accent. If the word consists of three or +more syllables there is usually another syllable stressed in +somewhat less degree. This is called a secondary accent. +In some cases there may even be a third accent if the word +is very long; <i>In'-come</i>, <i>val-e-tu'-di-na'-ri-an</i>. This fact arises +from the tendency natural to all human speech to take more +or less musical forms. The monotony of a series of +stressed or of unstressed sounds would be unbearable. +The pronunciation of such a series would be a highly artificial +and very difficult performance. Correct pronunciation +is very greatly concerned with the proper placing of +the accent. Indeed the meaning of a familiar word may +be quite obscured by a misplaced accent. For example, +<i>he-red'-it-ary</i> is a very familiar word, but when pronounced +<i>he-red-it'-ary</i>, as it was habitually by a friend of the author, +we have to stop and think before catching the meaning.</p> + +<p>The placing of the accent in English is subject to two +general rules.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>I The accent clings to the syllable which gives the +meaning to the word, or in technical terms, the root +syllable, <i>re-call'</i>, <i>in-stall'</i>, <i>in-stal-la'-tion</i> (accent falling +on the syllable which defines the word as a noun), +<i>in-her'-it</i>.</p> + +<p>II Where the root syllable is not known the accent +falls on the first syllable, with secondary accents +following at intervals to relieve the voice.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>This last tendency not infrequently supersedes the other, +partly from the natural habit of the language, and partly +because the average man is not an etymologist and knows +very little about the derivation of the words he uses. For +example, in Shakespeare's time English people followed +the first rule and said <i>re-ven'-ue</i>, but now we say <i>rev'-e-nue</i>.</p> + +<p>These two rules will serve as a good general guide to +accent. Attention should be paid to the pronunciation of +good speakers, and care taken to follow it. In case of +doubt the dictionary should be consulted and the proper +accent carefully fixed in the mind.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="DIVISION_OF_WORDS" id="DIVISION_OF_WORDS"></a>DIVISION OF WORDS</h2> + + +<p>When the words do not fit the line what shall we do? +The early printers used only one kind of spaces. In setting +a line of type they proceeded until there was no room in +the line for the next complete word of the copy. Then +they filled out the line with spaces and began the next word +on the next line. The length of the register being known +in advance and nothing but spaces being used in setting the +line, the compositor was spared much that makes composition +at once a hard labor and a fine art. The result was +an irregular margin at the right such as we now see in +typewritten letters.</p> + +<p>With improvements in types and typography the squaring +out of the page soon came into fashion. In many cases +this can be done by the careful use of spaces so as to bring +a certain number of words squarely out to the end of the +line. There have been printers who have insisted that this +should always be done. Their efforts have not, however, +been successful. They result in a freakish looking page +with white spots in the lines where letters or words have +been spaced out to fill the register. It would be better, on +the whole, to resort to the practice of the old masters and +leave the right-hand margin irregular.</p> + +<p>Ordinarily the difficulty has been met by dividing words +and putting a part of a word on one line and the rest of it +on another, indicating the break by a hyphen. The +hyphen in such a case is always the closing character in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>first line. Clearly this division must be so made as to assist +the reader in his task. The primary purpose of all printing +is to be read. Anything that adds to the legibility of the +printing improves it; anything that detracts from its legibility +harms it. How can we so divide words that the +legibility and intelligibility of the text will be maintained, +the line justified to register, and the beauty of the page +enhanced? These ends—legibility, intelligibility, and +beauty—are the aims of all the rules which have been +devised for the division of words. These are the things +the reader will see and by them he will judge the results. +He will probably know nothing about the rules by which +the compositor gains his results. The compositor needs +to know the rules, but to remember always that they are +only means by which to secure results.</p> + +<p>There have been several attempts to devise systems of +division, but no one of them is thoroughly consistent or +universally adopted.</p> + +<p>One system requires the division of a word when the +pronunciation will permit on the vowel at the end of the +syllable. It has the defect of making no provision for +syllables that end in consonants. Moreover, if rigorously +applied it would give us such divisions as <i>ca-pa-ci-ty</i>, <i>cata-stro-phe</i>, +<i>lexi-co-gra-pher</i>, <i>pre-fe-rence</i>, <i>pro-gno-sti-cate</i>, and +<i>re-co-gnize</i>.</p> + +<p>Another system requires the division of consolidated +words at the junction of their elements, for example:</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>magn-animous</i><br /> +<i>cata-clysm</i><br /> +<i>found-ation</i><br /> +<i>oceano-graphy</i><br /> +<i>theo-logy</i><br /> +<i>know-ledge</i><br /> +<i>lexi-co-grapher</i><br /> +<i>in-fer-ence</i><br /> +<i>pre-judice</i><br /> +<i>pro-gnos-ticate</i><br /> +<i>pro-position</i><br /> +<i>typo-graphy</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>In some cases this rule would lead to queer looking divisions. +More serious objections are that the system does +not provide for words that are long enough to be divided +but are yet not consolidated words, and, most of all, that +the average compositor is not an accomplished etymologist +and knows very little about the derivation, make up, and +compounding of the words he has to set up. He may be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>familiar, for example with the word <i>rheostat</i>, but it would +puzzle him to tell from what language it is derived, while +the word <i>enclave</i> would probably send him to the dictionary +for meaning as well as derivation, unless he happened to +be used to one particular kind of writing.</p> + +<p>Another system, and probably on the whole the best +one, requires the division of the word on the accented +syllable.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>theol-ogy</i><br /> +<i>catas-trophe</i><br /> +<i>geog-raphy</i><br /> +<i>lexi-cog-rapher</i><br /> +<i>pref-erence</i><br /> +<i>prog-nos-ticate</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>It will be noted that some of these examples show division +in more than one place, that is on the syllables which +bear either the primary or the secondary accent. This rule +does not provide for the cases when the division must come +on an unaccented syllable. The cases, however, when the +division cannot be made to come on either the syllable +bearing the primary accent or one bearing a secondary +accent will be comparatively few.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="RULES_FOR_DIVISION_OF_WORDS" id="RULES_FOR_DIVISION_OF_WORDS"></a>RULES FOR DIVISION OF WORDS</h2> + + +<p>I The general rule, then, is to divide according to pronunciation, +not according to etymology or any hard and +fast rule.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>As far as possible, consistently with pronunciation +and good spacing, divide according to meaning and +derivation, where known.</p> + +<p><i>un-even</i>, not <i>une-ven</i>, <i>auto-mobile</i>, not <i>automo-bile</i>, <i>en-abled</i>, +not <i>ena-bled</i>.</p></div> + +<p>II Divide on a vowel wherever practicable. In case a +vowel alone forms a syllable in the middle of a word it +should be run into the first line.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>busi-ness</i><br /> +<i>sepa-rate</i><br /> +<i>criti-cism</i><br /> +<i>particu-lar</i><br /> +<i>colo-nies</i><br /> +<i>dou-ble</i><br /> +<i>pro-gress</i><br /> +<i>pro-duct</i><br /> +<i>noi-sy</i><br /> +<i>wo-man</i><br /> +<i>pa-tron</i><br /> +<i>me-moir</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>III When two consonants meet between vowels, and the +syllable ends on one consonant, the division may properly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>be made between the consonants, the pronunciation determining +the place of division.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>advan-tage</i><br /> +<i>plain-tiff</i><br /> +<i>Wil-liam</i><br /> +<i>exces-sive</i><br /> +<i>scur-rilous</i><br /> +<i>mas-ter</i><br /> +<i>gram-mar</i><br /> +<i>profes-sor</i><br /> +<i>moun-tain</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>IV When three consonants come together between +two vowels the first of which is short, the division comes +after the first consonant.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>han-dle</i><br /> +<i>chil-dren</i><br /> +<i>frus-trate</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>V A single consonant between two vowels should be +joined to the first vowel, if it is short; if the first vowel is +long the consonant goes with the second.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>riv-er</i><br /> +<i>ri-val</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>VI Diphthongs should not be divided.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>peo-ple</i><br /> +<i>Cae-sar</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>VII Words compounded with a prefix should preferably +be divided on the prefix.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>dis-avow</i><br /> +<i>in-herit</i><br /> +<i>un-concern</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>VIII The terminations <i>-able</i>, <i>-ible</i>, <i>-tion</i>, <i>-cial</i>, <i>-tive</i>, and +<i>-ive</i> should go over to the next line.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>read-able</i><br /> +<i>convert-ible</i><br /> +<i>inten-tion</i><br /> +<i>discuss-ion</i><br /> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The termination <i>-sion</i> ordinarily goes over as in</p></div> + +<p class="words"> +<i>occa-sion</i><br /> +<i>apprehen-sion</i><br /> +<i>cis-sion</i><br /> +<i>declen-sion</i><br /> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Occasionally, however, the strong emphasis needed +for the <i>s</i> will call for a different arrangement, as in +<i>divis-ion</i>.</p></div> + +<p>IX The terminations <i>-ing</i>, <i>-en</i>, <i>-ed</i>, <i>-er</i>, <i>-est</i>, and the plural +<i>-es</i> go over to the next line except when the preceding +consonant is doubled, or when they follow <i>c</i> or <i>g</i> soft.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>lead-ing</i><br /> +<i>beat-en</i><br /> +<i>larg-er</i>, but<br /> +<i>lat-ter</i><br /> +<i>for-cing</i><br /> +<i>ran-ging</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>X Do not end a line with <i>j</i> or with <i>c</i> or <i>g</i> soft.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>pro-cess</i><br /> +<i>ne-cessary</i><br /> +<i>pre-judice</i><br /> +<i>prog-eny</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>XI Adjectives in <i>ical</i> divide on the <i>i</i>.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>physi-cal</i><br /> +<i>inimi-cal</i><br /> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>XII In derivatives of words ending in <i>-t</i>, the division +follows the accent.</p> + +<p><i>objec-tion</i>, not <i>object-ion</i>, <i>defec-tion</i>, not <i>defect-ion</i>, but +<i>respec-tively</i>, not <i>respect-ively</i> and <i>distinc-tion</i>, not <i>distinct-ion</i>.</p> + +<p>XIII Never separate <i>c</i> and <i>g</i> from the vowels <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, and +<i>y</i> upon which their soft sound depends.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>re-li-gion</i><br /> +<i>ca-pa-ci-ty</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>XIV Never separate <i>q</i> from <i>u</i>, <i>qu</i> is a single sound.</p> + +<p>XV Do not divide <i>nothing</i>.</p> + +<p>XVI Do not divide words of four letters.</p> + +<p>XVII Do not divide words of five or six letters if it can +be avoided. Good spacing, however, must be considered +of first importance.</p> + +<p>XVIII In wide measures (20 ems or more) do not divide +so as to end or begin a line with a syllable of two letters. Here +again, however, good spacing is the first consideration.</p> + +<p>XIX Do not divide words of two syllables pronounced +as one, including past participles of short words.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>heaven</i><br /> +<i>power</i><br /> +<i>prayer</i><br /> +<i>beamed</i><br /> +<i>often</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>XX Avoid additional hyphens in hyphenated words if +possible.</p> + +<p class="words"> +<i>object-lesson</i><br /> +<i>fellow-being</i><br /> +<i>poverty-stricken</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>XXI Do not separate a divisional mark (<i>a</i>), (<i>1</i>) from +the matter to which it pertains.</p> + +<p>XXII Do not divide an amount stated in figures.</p> + +<p>XXIII Do not divide proper names, especially those of +persons, if it can be avoided.</p> + +<p>XXIV Do not divide initials or such combinations as +<i>a.m.</i>, <i>B.C.</i></p> + +<p>XXV Do not divide the last word on a page so as to +carry a part of it to the next page.</p> + +<p>XXVI Do not divide the last word of the last full line +of a paragraph.</p> + +<p>XXVII More than two divisions in successive lines +should be avoided.</p> + +<p>XXVIII Never divide at all if you can help it.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="IMPORTANCE_OF_SPACING" id="IMPORTANCE_OF_SPACING"></a>IMPORTANCE OF SPACING</h2> + + +<p>It must always be remembered that good spacing is the +first consideration. Nothing is more offensive to the eye +of a good judge of printing than bad spacing. “Rivers” of +white, dark spots, crowded black text, are very serious +blemishes to a page. An ordinary book page is a study in +color, the colors employed being black and white. Proper +combination, balance, and proportion are as important here +as in places where a variety of colors is employed. Many +of the foregoing rules must be held subject to the exigencies +of proper spacing. A rigid adherence, for example, to the +rule that not more than two consecutive lines should end +with divided words will not justify a badly spaced, unsightly +line. There are many things that look worse than a hyphen +at the end of the last full line in a paragraph. Avoidance +of dividing the last word on a page, however, would justify +even bad spacing, because of the gain to the reader. In +the last resort, the interests of the reader must always have +first consideration.</p> + +<p>Division is greatly affected by the length of the measure. +A long measure, 18 or 20 ems or more, gives greater +opportunity for arranging the spacing, but, on the other +hand, makes division on short syllables conspicuous and +out of proportion. Very short register, as in two-column +Bibles or in cases where illustrations are inserted in the +text, presents very great difficulties and often calls for +division which would not be allowable elsewhere. Such +cases often call for the exercise of the greatest care and +ingenuity.</p> + +<p>It often happens that the author can be of great assistance +to the printer in making a handsome page. A change of +a phrase, or even of a word will avoid a difficulty which +cannot be avoided by a printer except at the cost of bad +division or bad spacing. If the author is a sensible person +he will gladly cooperate with the printer in giving his +thoughts clothing appropriate to their intrinsic beauty and +value. After the printer has exhausted his resources he +should not hesitate to carry his troubles to the author.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="DIVISION_IN_LINES_OF_DISPLAY" id="DIVISION_IN_LINES_OF_DISPLAY"></a>DIVISION IN LINES OF DISPLAY</h2> + + +<p>As a rule division is never used in lines of display. In +these cases the display is the important thing. Every word +long enough to be divided is important enough to be displayed +and emphasized. Divided words are weakened +words. Lines of irregular lengths are used of set purpose.</p> + +<p>In title pages words of bold display must never be divided. +In minor lines of display, such as subtitles and summaries, +words are often divided. A subheading of two +lines should never be divided in the first line when it is +possible to turn the full word over on to the next line. The +shortening of the first line is never a blemish, but a too +short second line following a hyphened first line is always +a fault.</p> + +<p>There is a school of ultra-artistic composition in book +titles which affects a solid squaring up and hesitates at no +means to secure its effects. It sets a definite measure and +forces the lines into it, dividing words arbitrarily and using +no hyphen. This is a passing fancy and will pass as +eccentricities always pass. It should not be used unless +the author insists upon it. The man who pays the bills +has a right to have his work done as he pleases. The +intelligent printer, however, will not allow the peculiarities +of the individual customer to affect his general practice.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Note</i></p> + +<p>The pupil is referred to the appendix to DeVinne's +“Correct Composition” for rules for the division of French, +German, and Spanish words. The same appendix contains +also a very excellent list of words which are spelled differently +by different authorities, together with divisions for +them.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="SUPPLEMENTARY_READING" id="SUPPLEMENTARY_READING"></a>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</h2> + + +<p>Correct Composition. By Theodore L. DeVinne. Oswald Publishing +Co., New York.</p> + +<p>The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick +A. Stokes Co., New York.</p> + +<p>A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur +Powell. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</p> + +<p>Worcester's New Pronouncing Spelling Book. The American +Book Company, New York.</p> + +<p>The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language: Dictionary +of Errors. By Sherwin Cody. The Old Greek Press, Chicago.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>(This is one of a series of six very excellent but inexpensive little books bearing the same +general title and by the same author. They will be found very useful in connection with Part +VI of the Typographic Technical Series generally.)</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="QUESTIONS" id="QUESTIONS"></a>QUESTIONS</h2> + + +<p>1. Is the spelling of English standardized?</p> + +<p>2. How long have we considered correct spelling important?</p> + +<p>3. What two causes exist for difficulties in spelling?</p> + +<p>4. What are the principal English authorities?</p> + +<p>5. What are the principal American authorities?</p> + +<p>6. How are these authorities used in printing offices?</p> + +<p>7. What are the rights and duties of the author in the +matter of spelling?</p> + +<p>8. What may be done in matter of “reformed” spelling?</p> + +<p>9. What is a safe attitude for the commercial printer +toward “reformed” spelling, and why?</p> + +<p>10. On what does correct spelling mainly depend?</p> + +<p>11. What is the best way to become a good speller?</p> + +<p>12. Why is English difficult to pronounce?</p> + +<p>13. What is a diphthong?</p> + +<p>14. What is a digraph?</p> + +<p>15. What are the two sounds each of <i>c</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>de</i>, <i>th</i>, and <i>s</i>? +Give examples of each.</p> + +<p>16. How many letters are there in the English alphabet +and how many sounds do they express?</p> + +<p>17. Upon what does correct pronunciation depend?</p> + +<p>18. What is a syllable, and of what does it consist?</p> + +<p>19. What peculiar use is made of <i>l</i> and <i>n</i> in English?</p> + +<p>20. How do we treat the parts of a diphthong or digraph?</p> + +<p>21. How do we know whether or not these compounds +are diphthongs or digraphs?</p> + +<p>22. What about vowel combinations?</p> + +<p>23. With what should a syllable not end?</p> + +<p>24. With what should a syllable not begin?</p> + +<p>25. What is the rule regarding prefixes and suffixes?</p> + +<p>26. How do we treat two or three consonants capable of +beginning a syllable?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>27. How do we treat two or three consonants capable of +ending a syllable?</p> + +<p>28. How do we treat doubled consonants?</p> + +<p>29. What is accent?</p> + +<p>30. Do words ever have more than one accent, and why?</p> + +<p>31. What are the two general rules for the placing of +accent?</p> + +<p>32. What did the early printers do when the words did +not fit the line, and why?</p> + +<p>33. What practice came into use later?</p> + +<p>34. What methods of doing this have been devised?</p> + +<p>35. What considerations govern practice in this regard?</p> + +<p>36. Give two systems of division which have been proposed.</p> + +<p>37. What is the general rule for division?</p> + +<p>38. What is the rule about vowels?</p> + +<p>39. What is the rule about two consonants?</p> + +<p>40. What is the rule about three consonants?</p> + +<p>41. What should you do with a single consonant between +two vowels?</p> + +<p>42. How should you treat diphthongs?</p> + +<p>43. What is the rule for words compounded with a +prefix?</p> + +<p>44. What should be done with the terminations <i>-able</i>, +<i>-ible</i>, <i>-tion</i>, <i>-cial</i>, <i>-tive</i>, <i>-ive</i>, and <i>-sion</i>?</p> + +<p>45. What should be done with the terminations <i>-ing</i>, +<i>-en</i>, <i>-ed</i>, <i>-er</i>, and <i>-est</i>, and the plural <i>-es</i>?</p> + +<p>46. What letters should not end a line?</p> + +<p>47. How are adjectives in <i>ical</i> treated?</p> + +<p>48. How are derivatives of words ending in <i>-t</i> treated?</p> + +<p>49. What is the special rule about <i>c</i> and <i>g</i>?</p> + +<p>50. What is the rule about <i>qu</i>, and why?</p> + +<p>51. What is the rule about <i>nothing</i>?</p> + +<p>52. What is the rule about words of four letters?</p> + +<p>53. How should you treat words of five or six letters?</p> + +<p>54. What should be avoided in wide measures?</p> + +<p>55. How should you treat words of two syllables pronounced +as one?</p> + +<p>56. How should hyphenated compounds be treated?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>57. What should you do with divisional marks?</p> + +<p>58. How should you treat amounts stated in figures?</p> + +<p>59. How should you treat proper names?</p> + +<p>60. How are initials and similar combinations treated?</p> + +<p>61. What is the rule about the last word on a page?</p> + +<p>62. What is the rule about the last word of the last full +line of a paragraph?</p> + +<p>63. What is the rule about divisions in successive lines?</p> + +<p>64. What is the rule about division generally?</p> + +<p>65. What effect has spacing on deciding about division?</p> + +<p>66. What effect has length of measure on division?</p> + +<p>67. What can you do when the text presents unusual +difficulty as to spacing and division?</p> + +<p>68. What is the rule about division in lines of display, +and what is the reason for it?</p> + +<p>69. What is the usage with regard to division on title +pages?</p> + +<p>70. What can you say about eccentricities in the author's +or customer's ideas about division and lay-out?</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p class="smfont">As in the other volumes of this Part, the instructor should not content +himself with having the student learn the rules. He should give +drills in spelling and pronunciation and should give problems in composition +involving the application of rules. Constant and prolonged +practice is indispensable to proficiency in all these matters.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="TYPOGRAPHIC_TECHNICAL_SERIES" id="TYPOGRAPHIC_TECHNICAL_SERIES"></a>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES<br /> +FOR APPRENTICES</h2> + + +<p>The following list of publications, comprising the <span class="smcap">Typographic +Technical Series for Apprentices</span>, has been prepared +under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the +United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of +printing instruction, and by individuals.</p> + +<p>Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or +group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide +the printers of the United States—employers, journeymen, +and apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and +inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon +the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all +arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.</p> + +<p>The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5×8 inches. +Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has +been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief +synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each +volume will be found under each title in the following list.</p> + +<p>Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to +embody in each publication as completely as possible all the +rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding +of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements +accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential +information within the understanding of beginners in the different +fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined +drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving +additional clearness to the text.</p> + +<p>In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible +help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each +title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering +essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical +terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also +added to many of the books.</p> + +<p>These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of +America.</p> + +<p>Address all orders and inquiries to <span class="smcap">Committee on Education, +United Typothetae of America, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.</span></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="parth">PART I—<i>Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>1.</b> <b>Type: a Primer of Information</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font +schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp.; +illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>2.</b> <b>Compositors' Tools and Materials</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass +rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; illustrated; 50 review +questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>3.</b> <b>Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case +racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; illustrated; 33 review +questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>4.</b> <b>Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press, +including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; illustrated; +70 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>5.</b> <b>Proof Presses</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for +taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>6.</b> <b>Platen Printing Presses</b> <span class="author">By Daniel Baker</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction +of platen printing presses, from the original hand press to the modern +job press, to which is added a chapter on automatic presses of small size. +51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>7.</b> <b>Cylinder Printing Presses</b> <span class="author">By Herbert L. Baker</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of +cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review questions; +glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>8.</b> <b>Mechanical Feeders and Folders</b> <span class="author">By William E. Spurrier</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with +hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions; +glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>9.</b> <b>Power for Machinery in Printing Houses</b> <span class="author">By Carl F. Scott</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied +machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp.; illustrated; +69 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>10.</b> <b>Paper Cutting Machines</b> <span class="author">By Niel Gray, Jr.</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever +cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting paper, +70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>11.</b> <b>Printers' Rollers</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of +inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>12.</b> <b>Printing Inks</b> <span class="author">By Philip Ruxton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission +from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with +some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by +Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +</ul><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p><ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>13.</b> <b>How Paper is Made</b> <span class="author">By William Bond Wheelwright</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing +paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; 62 review questions; +glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>14.</b> <b>Relief Engravings</b> <span class="author">By Joseph P. Donovan</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving; +woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for reproduction; things +to remember when ordering engravings. Illustrated; review questions; +glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>15.</b> <b>Electrotyping and Stereotyping</b> <span class="author">By Harris B. Hatch and A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping. +94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries.</p></li> + +</ul> + +<p class="parth">PART II—<i>Hand and Machine Composition</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>16.</b> <b>Typesetting</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing, +correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated; +review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>17.</b> <b>Printers' Proofs</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with +observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>18.</b> <b>First Steps in Job Composition</b> <span class="author">By Camille DeVéze</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in getting his first jobs, +especially about the important little things which go to make good +display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>19.</b> <b>General Job Composition</b></p> + +<p class="brief">How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and +miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>20.</b> <b>Book Composition</b> <span class="author">By J.W. Bothwell</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Chapters from DeVinne's “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” +revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J.W. Bothwell of +The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part II: +Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>21.</b> <b>Tabular Composition</b> <span class="author">By Robert Seaver</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of +more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>22.</b> <b>Applied Arithmetic</b> <span class="author">By E.E. Sheldon</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, calculation +of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules +for computation, each subject amplified with examples and exercises. +159 pp.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>23.</b> <b>Typecasting and Composing Machines</b> <span class="author">A.W. Finlay, Editor</span></p> + +<p class="brief"> +Section I—The Linotype <span class="author">By L.A. Hornstein</span><br /> +Section II—The Monotype <span class="author">By Joseph Hays</span><br /> +Section III—The Intertype <span class="author">By Henry W. Cozzens</span><br /> +Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines <span class="author">By Frank H. Smith</span> +</p> + +<p class="brief">A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their +mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review questions; +glossary.</p></li> +</ul> + +<p class="parth">PART III—<i>Imposition and Stonework</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>24.</b> <b>Locking Forms for the Job Press</b> <span class="author">By Frank S. Henry</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and +about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>25.</b> <b>Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press</b> <span class="author">By Frank S. Henry</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of +handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review questions; +glossary.</p></li> +</ul> + +<p class="parth">PART IV—<i>Presswork</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>26.</b> <b>Making Ready on Platen Presses</b> <span class="author">By T.G. McGrew</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of +commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the +impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting gauges, and other +details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>27.</b> <b>Cylinder Presswork</b> <span class="author">By T.G. McGrew</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink +fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying; +modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>28.</b> <b>Pressroom Hints and Helps</b> <span class="author">By Charles L. Dunton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions +and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems. +87 pp.; 176 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>29.</b> <b>Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts</b> <span class="author">By A.W. Elson</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, the +intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. 84 pp.; illustrated; +100 review questions; glossary.</p></li> +</ul> + +<p class="parth">PART V—<i>Pamphlet and Book Binding</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>30.</b> <b>Pamphlet Binding</b> <span class="author">By Bancroft L. Goodwin</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the various operations employed in +binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review +questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>31.</b> <b>Book Binding</b> <span class="author">By John J. Pleger</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; +folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case making +and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and blank-book +binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li> +</ul> + +<p class="parth">PART VI—<i>Correct Literary Composition</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>32.</b> <b>Word Study and English Grammar</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses. +68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>33.</b> <b>Punctuation</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use, +both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review questions; +glossary.</p></li> + +</ul><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p><ul class="books"> + +<li><p><b>34.</b> <b>Capitals</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical typographic +hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review questions; +glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>35.</b> <b>Division of Words</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on +spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>36.</b> <b>Compound Words</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds, +and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>37.</b> <b>Abbreviations and Signs</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified +lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>38.</b> <b>The Uses of Italic</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters. +31 pp.; 37 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>39.</b> <b>Proofreading</b> <span class="author">By Arnold Levitas</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, +revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by +examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>40.</b> <b>Preparation of Printers' Copy</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing +copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>41.</b> <b>Printers' Manual of Style</b></p> + +<p class="brief">A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions +relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, +numerals, and kindred features of composition.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>42.</b> <b>The Printer's Dictionary</b> <span class="author">By A.A. Stewart</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various +processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms explained. +Illustrated.</p></li> +</ul> + +<p class="parth">PART VII—<i>Design, Color, and Lettering</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>43.</b> <b>Applied Design for Printers</b> <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the +periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of harmony, +balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and variety; +ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 review questions; +glossary; bibliography.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>44.</b> <b>Elements of Typographic Design</b> <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material +of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. Handling +of shapes. Design of complete book, treating each part. Design of +commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; review questions, +glossary; bibliography.</p></li> +</ul><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p><ul class="books"> + +<li><p><b>45.</b> <b>Rudiments of Color in Printing</b> <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster effect, +in combinations of two, three, or more printings with process engravings. +Scientific nature of color, physical and chemical. Terms in which color +may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and +combinations. Color theory of process engraving. Experiments with +color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review questions; +glossary; bibliography.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>46.</b> <b>Lettering in Typography</b> <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. Development +of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type design. +Classification of general forms in lettering. Application of design to +lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully illustrated; review questions; +glossary; bibliography.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>47.</b> <b>Typographic Design in Advertising</b> <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising +is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, attention, +color. Method of studying advertising typography. Illustrations; +review questions; glossary; bibliography.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>48.</b> <b>Making Dummies and Layouts</b> <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed +final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of +layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy envelopes. +Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography.</p></li> +</ul> + +<p class="parth">PART VIII—<i>History of Printing</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>49.</b> <b>Books Before Typography</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the +history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; +illustrated; 64 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>50.</b> <b>The Invention of Typography</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. +64 pp.; 62 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>51.</b> <b>History of Printing—Part I</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the development +of the book, the development of printers' materials, and the work +of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>52.</b> <b>History of Printing—Part II</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from +1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, internal +conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>53.</b> <b>Printing in England</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time. +89 pp.; 65 review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>54.</b> <b>Printing in America</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on +publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; 84 +review questions.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>55.</b> <b>Type and Presses in America</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press +building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions.</p></li> +</ul> +<p class="parth"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> +PART IX—<i>Cost Finding and Accounting</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>56.</b> <b>Elements of Cost in Printing</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should +show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. +Glossary.</p> +</li> + +<li><p><b>57.</b> <b>Use of a Cost System</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should +show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. +Glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>58.</b> <b>The Printer as a Merchant</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The +relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished +product. Review questions. Glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>59.</b> <b>Fundamental Principles of Estimating</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p> + +<p class="brief">The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating. +Review questions. Glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>60.</b> <b>Estimating and Selling</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p> + +<p class="brief">An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation +to selling. Review questions. Glossary.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>61.</b> <b>Accounting for Printers</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books and +accessory records. Review questions. Glossary.</p></li> +</ul> + +<p class="parth">PART X—<i>Miscellaneous</i></p> + +<ul class="books"> +<li><p><b>62.</b> <b>Health, Sanitation, and Safety</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p> + +<p class="brief">Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; practical +suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and rules for safety.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>63.</b> <b>Topical Index</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic +Technical Series, alphabetically arranged.</p></li> + +<li><p><b>64.</b> <b>Courses of Study</b> <span class="author">By F.W. Hamilton</span></p> + +<p class="brief">A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom and +shop work.</p></li> +</ul> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="ACKNOWLEDGMENT" id="ACKNOWLEDGMENT"></a>ACKNOWLEDGMENT</h2> + + +<p>This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the +splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals +engaged in the printing business and its allied industries +in the United States of America.</p> + +<p>The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of +America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and +published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance +rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified +with this work.</p> + +<p>While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright +pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless +felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of +interest.</p> + +<p>The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who +have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, +constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books +comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed +(which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list +will be printed in each volume.</p> + +<p>The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to +the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its +publication.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 6em;"> +<span class="smcap">Committee on Education,<br /> +United Typothetae of America.</span></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 9em;"> +<span class="smcap">Henry P. Porter</span>, <i>Chairman</i>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">E. Lawrence Fell</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">A.M. Glossbrenner</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">J. Clyde Oswald</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">Toby Rubovits</span>.<br /> +</p> +<p style="margin-left: 6em;"> +<span class="smcap">Frederick W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Education Director</i>.<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTRIBUTORS" id="CONTRIBUTORS"></a>CONTRIBUTORS</h2> + + +<p><b>For Composition and Electrotypes</b></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<span class="smcap">Isaac H. Blanchard Company</span>, New York, N.Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">S.H. Burbank & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">J.S. Cushing & Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The DeVinne Press</span>, New York, N.Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">R.R. Donnelley & Sons Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Geo. H. Ellis Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Evans-Winter-Hebb</span>, Detroit, Mich.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Franklin Printing Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">F.H. Gilson Company</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Stephen Greene & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">W.F. Hall Printing Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">J.B. Lippincott Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">McCalla & Co. Inc.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Patteson Press</span>, New York, New York<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Plimpton Press</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Poole Bros.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Edward Stern & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Stone Printing & Mfg. Co.</span>, Roanoke, Va.<br /> +<span class="smcap">C.D. Traphagen</span>, Lincoln, Neb.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The University Press</span>, Cambridge, Mass.<br /> +</p> + +<p><b>For Composition</b></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<span class="smcap">Boston Typothetae School of Printing</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">William F. Fell Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Kalkhoff Company</span>, New York, N.Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Oxford-Print</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Toby Rubovits</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +</p> + +<p><b>For Electrotypes</b></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<span class="smcap">Blomgren Brothers Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Flower Steel Electrotyping Co.</span>, New York, N.Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">C.J. Peters & Son Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Royal Electrotype Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">H.C. Whitcomb & Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +</p> + +<p><b>For Engravings</b></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<span class="smcap">American Type Founders Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">C.B. Cottrell & Sons Co.</span>, Westerly, R.I.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Golding Manufacturing Co.</span>, Franklin, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Harvard University</span>, Cambridge, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Inland Printer Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lanston Monotype Machine Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mergenthaler Linotype Company</span>, New York, N.Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Geo. H. Morrill Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Oswald Publishing Co.</span>, New York, N.Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Printing Art</span>, Cambridge, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">B.D. Rising Paper Company</span>, Housatonic, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Vandercook Press</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +</p> + +<p><b>For Book Paper</b></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<span class="smcap">American Writing Paper Co.</span>, Holyoke, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co.</span>, Mechanicville, N.Y.<br /> +</p> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Division of Words, by Frederick W. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Division of Words + Rules for the Division of Words at the Ends of Lines, with + Remarks on Spelling, Syllabication and Pronunciation + +Author: Frederick W. Hamilton + +Release Date: November 6, 2005 [EBook #17016] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIVISION OF WORDS *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +1. Some examples which appear not to follow the preceding guideline are +printed thus in the original book. It looks as if sometimes the guideline +is mistaken. + +2. Italicized text is rendered as _text_, bold text is rendered as =text=. + +3. Accented syllables are marked with a single quote ('). + +4. This book uses several diacritical marks for phonetics, the table below +lists the codings used: (the "x" represents a character with a diacritical +mark) + +Diacritical mark Above Below + +Macron (straight line) [=x] [x=] +2 dots (diaeresis, umlaut) [:x] [x:] +Breve (u-shaped symbol) [)x] [x)] +Tilde [~x] [x~] +Small capital I [Ix] + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI. NO. 35 + + +DIVISION OF +WORDS + + +RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS AT +THE ENDS OF LINES, WITH REMARKS +ON SPELLING, SYLLABICATION +AND PRONUNCIATION + + +BY + +FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. + +EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + + + + +PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA +1918 + + + + +COPYRIGHT, 1918 +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA +CHICAGO, ILL. + + + + +PREFACE + + +The principal purpose of this book is to give in brief form the rules and +usages governing the division of words when the measure will not permit +ending the word and the line together. This matter is considered in its +relation to good spacing and to the legibility of the printed page. + +Leading up to the discussion will be found some consideration of spelling, +the formation of syllables, pronunciation, and accent. This consideration +is necessarily brief, and no attempt has been made to give the rules for +spelling which are so frequently found in spelling books, or any of them. +In the writer's opinion such rules are of very little practical value. Good +spelling is not so much the result of remembering and applying rules as it +is of observation, practice, and memory. The lists of certain types of +troublesome words may be found useful for ready reference. + +Syllable formation, pronunciation, and accent are considered because it is +hoped that the volumes of this series, particularly those in Part VI +(Correct Literary Composition) and Part VIII (History of Printing), will +contribute something to the general education of the apprentice as well as +to his skill in the trade. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +SPELLING + +PRONUNCIATION + +ACCENT + +DIVISION OF WORDS + +RULES FOR DIVISION OF WORDS + +IMPORTANCE OF SPACING + +DIVISION IN LINES OF DISPLAY + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + + + +DIVISION OF WORDS + + +The division of words when the words do not exactly fit the register of the +line has always been a source of trouble. In the days of the manuscript +makers devices such as crowding letters, reducing their size, or omitting +them altogether were freely used and words were arbitrarily divided when +the scribes so desired. During the greater part of the time every scribe +divided as he pleased, often in ways which seem very strange to us, like +the Greek custom of dividing always after a vowel and even dividing words +of one syllable. With the invention of printing, however, the number of +these devices was greatly diminished. It became a matter of spacing out the +line or dividing the word. Of course that meant frequent word division and +called for a systematization of rules with regard to this division. These +rules for division are necessarily based on spelling and syllabication. + + + + +SPELLING + + +The idea that there is one right way to combine the letters representing a +certain sound or group of sounds, that is a word, and that all other ways +are wrong and little short of shameful is a comparatively new idea among +us. The English speaking folk held down to a comparatively recent time that +any group of letters which approximately represented the sound was amply +sufficient as a symbol of the word. This sort of phonetic spelling was +commonly followed, and followed with great freedom. No obligation was +recognized to be consistent. In ordinary writing, such as letters and the +like, it is not unusual to find the same word spelled in a variety of ways +in the same document. + +The last century has brought about an attempt to standardize spelling into +conventional forms any departure from which is regarded as highly +derogatory to the writer. In many cases these forms are fixed arbitrarily, +and in some there is even now disagreement among the highest authorities. +These difficulties and disagreements have two reasons: First, English is a +composite language, drawn from many sources and at many periods; hence +purely philological and etymological influences intervene, sometimes with +marked results, while there is a difference of opinion as to how far these +influences ought to prevail. Second, the English language uses an alphabet +which fits it very badly. Many letters have to do duty for the expression +of several sounds, and sometimes several of them have nearly or quite the +same sound. For example, there are a number of distinct sounds of _a_, _i_, +and _o_ while _g_ is sometimes indistinguishable from _j_ and _c_ from _k_. +This is not always a matter of modification of sounds by the sounds of +other letters combined with them. One has to learn how to pronounce +_cough_, _dough_, _enough_, and _plough_, the _ough_ having four distinct +sounds in these four words. Each one of these sounds, by the way, could be +exactly as well represented by another combination of letters which would +be unmistakable, viz., _coff_, _doe_, _enuff_, and _plow_. It is impossible +to tell except by the context either the pronunciation or the meaning of +_bow_. If the _ow_ is pronounced as in _low_, it means a weapon. If the +_ow_ is pronounced as in _cow_ it may mean either an obeisance or the front +end of a boat. + +This standardization of spelling is unfortunately not quite complete, +although nearly so. Concerning the vast majority of the words in the +English language there is no difference of opinion. A few words are +differently spelled by different authorities. There are seven of these +authorities of the first rank, three English, Stormonth, the Imperial +Dictionary, and the Oxford Dictionary; and four American, Webster's +International, Worcester, the Century Dictionary, and the Standard +Dictionary. American printers may ordinarily disregard the English +authorities. + +Any one of the four American authorities may be safely followed. In cases +where two spellings are given in the dictionary consulted, take the first +one. Ordinarily a printing office adopts one of the great authorities as a +standard and conforms the office style to it. All office copy will follow +it and all errors in copy from outside will be corrected by it. Spellings +differing from it will be regarded as errors, even though supported by +other authorities. + +This rule, however, is subject to one very important exception. The author +has an unquestionable right to choose his own dictionary or to use any +spelling for which there is any authority, English or American. If he has +his own ideas on the subject of spelling he should be very careful that his +manuscript is correctly spelled according to his ideas, and clearly written +or typed. He should also indicate on the manuscript the authority he wishes +used in correcting the spelling in case of mistakes or illegible passages. +Every care should be taken to make the manuscript copy as correct as +possible and as legible as possible. Such care may be very troublesome at +first, but it will result in great saving of expense. + +In addition to the authorities named there are the rules and "reformed" +spellings adopted by the American Philological Association and published by +the United States Government. These are followed fully in some offices, +partly in others, and in many not at all. This is a question of the office +style and the author's wish. If copy is clear and spelled according to any +authority, it is the compositor's duty to follow it. If it is misspelled or +illegible he is to correct it according to the office style unless +otherwise directed by the author in writing. If furnished with such a +direction he is to follow it. This procedure will clear the compositor of +all blame. Any questions which then arise lie between the author and the +proofreader. + +In the case of the reformed spellings, however, the departure from the +ordinary appearance of the words is so great that the author cannot be +allowed full freedom to set aside the office style. If he is paying for the +printing he may insist on his spelling. If he is contributing to a +periodical and the printing is done at the publisher's expense it is for +the publisher to determine the style of printing to be used. + +Any full consideration of the question of reformed spelling is hardly in +place in this book. The author may perhaps be permitted one observation. +Innovation in the use of the English language would appear to be primarily +the work of scholars, and the adoption of such innovations would seem to +belong to the book printer rather than to the commercial printer. The +public mind as a whole is conservative. It is not hospitable to changes and +does not soon become aware of them, much less familiar with them. The +commercial printer makes his appeal to the mind of the general public. He +will do well to use a vehicle familiar, intelligible, and acceptable to it. + +Correct spelling is mainly a matter of habit and observation. To a certain +extent it is a matter of careful pronunciation, but this is not always a +safe or even a possible guide. The vowels preceding or following the one on +which the primary accent falls, sometimes called obscure vowels, are so +slurringly pronounced that even a pedantic precision will hardly make it +possible to indicate clearly which vowel is used. The writer remembers +seeing an examination paper written by a fourth year medical student in +which the word _fever_ was spelled _fevor_. A moment's thought will show +that so far as pronunciation is concerned the word might be spelled +_fevar_, _fevir_, _fevor_, _fever_, or _fevur_ without any appreciable +difference. The correct spelling is merely a matter of observation. + +The author has on his desk at the moment of writing these lines half a +dozen good books, each containing a set of rules for spelling. From these +it would be easy to compile a set of fairly good rules. Each of these +rules, however, has exceptions, in some cases quite numerous. To remember +these rules with their exceptions would be a considerable mental task and +to apply them would be cumbrous and time consuming. The effort would +probably resolve itself into an actual learning of the words which present +difficulties. The best way to become a good speller is to form the habit +of careful reading, observing the form of every word as it passes before +the eye and so unconsciously fixing it in the memory. The dictionary should +be consulted whenever there is any doubt. + +If you are to write a word, call up a mental picture of it, and if the +picture is not perfectly clear go to the dictionary and fix a correct image +of it in your mind. Be careful to pronounce every word you use as correctly +as possible and you will get all the aid pronunciation can give you. +Careless speaking and careless reading are the two great sources of +incorrect spelling. + +The following tables will be found useful in settling practice with regard +to certain troublesome classes of words. + + +I + +American usage tends to the termination _-ize_ where English usage often +sanctions _-ise_. Use the termination _-ise_ in + +advertise +advise +appraise +apprise (_to inform_) +arise +chastise +circumcise +comprise +compromise +demise +devise +disfranchise +disguise +emprise +enfranchise +enterprise +exercise +exorcise +franchise +improvise +incise +merchandise +premise +reprise +revise +rise +supervise +surmise +surprise + +Use the termination _-ize_ or _-yze_ in + +aggrandize +agonize +analyze +anatomize +anglicize +apologize +apostrophize +apprize (_to value_) +authorize +baptize +brutalize +canonize +catechize +catholicize +cauterize +centralize +characterize +christianize +civilize +colonize +criticize +crystallize +demoralize +dogmatize +economize +emphasize +epitomize +equalize +eulogize +evangelize +extemporize +familiarize +fertilize +fossilize +fraternize +galvanize +generalize +gormandize +harmonize +immortalize +italicize +jeopardize +legalize +liberalize +localize +magnetize +memorialize +mesmerize +metamorphize +methodize +minimize +modernize +monopolize +moralize +nationalize +naturalize +neutralize +organize +ostracize +paralyze +particularize +pasteurize +patronize +philosophize +plagiarize +pulverize +realize +recognize +reorganize +revolutionize +satirize +scandalize +scrutinize +signalize +solemnize +soliloquize +specialize +spiritualize +standardize +stigmatize +subsidize +summarize +syllogize +symbolize +sympathize +tantalize +temporize +tranquilize +tyrannize +universalize +utilize +vaporize +vitalize +vocalize +vulcanize +vulgarize + +II + +Use the termination _-ible_ in the following words: + +accessible +admissible +appetible +apprehensible +audible +cessible +coercible +compatible +competible +comprehensible +compressible +conceptible +contemptible +contractible +controvertible +convertible +convincible +corrigible +corrosible +corruptible +credible +decoctible +deducible +defeasible +defensible +descendible +destructible +digestible +discernible +distensible +divisible +docible +edible +effectible +eligible +eludible +enforcible +evincible +expansible +expressible +extendible +extensible +fallible +feasible +fencible +flexible +forcible +frangible +fusible +gullible +horrible +illegible +immiscible +impassible +intelligible +irascible +legible +miscible +negligible +partible +passible (_susceptible_) +perceptible +permissible +persuasible +pervertible +plausible +possible +producible +reducible +reflexible +refrangible +remissible +reprehensible +resistible +responsible +reversible +revertible +risible +seducible +sensible +tangible +terrible +transmissible +visible + +In all other cases use _-able_. + + +III + +The following nouns end in _-er_. + +abetter +abstracter +accepter +adapter +adviser +affirmer +aider +almoner +annoyer +arbiter +assenter +asserter +bailer +caster +censer (vessel) +concocter +condenser +conferrer +conjurer +consulter +continuer +contradicter +contriver +convener +conveyer +corrupter +covenanter +debater +defender +deliberater +deserter +desolater +deviser +discontinuer +disturber +entreater +exalter +exasperater +exciter +executer (_except in law_) +expecter +frequenter +granter +idolater +imposer +impugner +incenser +inflicter +insulter +interceder +interpreter +interrupter +inviter +jailer +lamenter +mortgager (_except in law_) +obliger +obstructer +obtruder +perfecter +perjurer +preventer +probationer +propeller +protester +recognizer +regrater +relater +respecter +sailer (_ship_) +sorcerer +suggester +supplanter +upholder +vender + +The following nouns end in _-or_. + +abbreviator +abductor +abettor (_law_) +abominator +abrogator +accelerator +acceptor +accommodator +accumulator +actor +adjudicator +adjutor +administrator +admonitor +adulator +adulterator +aggregator +aggressor +agitator +amalgamator +animator +annotator +antecessor +apparitor +appreciator +arbitrator +assassinator +assessor +benefactor +bettor +calculator +calumniator +captor +castor (_oil_) +censor +coadjutor +collector +competitor +compositor +conductor +confessor +conqueror +conservator +consignor +conspirator +constrictor +constructor +contaminator +contemplator +continuator +contractor +contributor +corrector +councillor +counsellor +covenantor (_law_) +creator +creditor +cultivator +cunctator +debtor +decorator +delator (_law_) +denominator +denunciator +depredator +depressor +deteriorator +detractor +dictator +dilator +director +dissector +disseizor +disseminator +distributor +divisor +dominator +donor +effector +elector +elevator +elucidator +emulator +enactor +equivocator +escheator +estimator +exactor +excavator +exceptor +executor (_law_) +exhibitor +explorator +expositor +expostulator +extensor +extirpator +extractor +fabricator +factor +flexor +fornicator +fumigator +generator +gladiator +governor +grantor (_law_) +habitator +imitator +impostor +impropriator +inaugurator +inceptor +incisor +inheritor +initiator +innovator +insinuator +institutor +instructor +interlocutor +interpolator +interrogator +inventor +investor +juror +lector +legator +legislator +lessor +mediator +modulator +monitor +mortgagor (_law_) +multiplicator +narrator +navigator +negotiator +nonjuror +numerator +objector +obligor (_law_) +observator +operator +originator +pacificator +participator +peculator +percolator +perforator +perpetrator +persecutor +perturbator +possessor +preceptor +precursor +predecessor +predictor +prevaricator +procrastinator +procreator +procurator +professor +progenitor +projector +prolocutor +promulgator +propagator +propitiator +proprietor +prosecutor +protector +protractor +purveyor +recognizor (_law_) +recriminator +reflector +regenerator +regulator +relator (_law_) +rotator +sacrificator +sailor (_seaman_) +scrutator +sculptor +sectator +selector +senator +separator +sequestrator +servitor +solicitor +spectator +spoliator +sponsor +successor +suitor +supervisor +suppressor +surveyor +survivor +testator +tormentor +traitor +transgressor +translator +valuator +vendor (_law_) +venerator +ventilator +vindicator +violator +visitor + + +IV + +Words which in their shortest form end in _-d_, _-de_, _-ge_, _-unit_, +_-rt_, _-se_, _-sr_, take the ending _-sion_; e.g., _abscind_, +_abscission_; _include_, _inclusion_; _emerge_, _emersion_; _remit_, +_remission_; _infuse_, _infusion_; _repress_, _repression_. + +All others take the ending _-tion_. + +The following are irregularities: + +adhesion +assertion +attention +coercion +cohesion +crucifixion +declension +dimension +dissension +distortion +divulsion +expulsion +impulsion +insertion +intention +occasion +propulsion +recursion +repulsion +revulsion +scansion +suspicion +tension +version + +Words ending in _-ance_, _-ence_; _-ancy_, _-ency_; _-ant_, and _-ent_, +often cause confusion when carelessly written. + +The following is a list of the more common words with the _e_ form. + +abducent +abhorrence, -ent +abluent +absent, -ence +absorbent +abstergent +abstinence, -ent +adherence, -ent +advertency, -ent +affluence, -ent +antecedence, -ent +apparent +appertinent +appetence, -ency +ardent +benevolence, -ent +circumference +coexistence +coherence, -ent +coincidence, -ent +competence, -ent +concurrence, -ent +condolence +conference +confidence, -ent +confluence, -ent +consentient +consequence +consequent +consistence, -ent +consistency +constituent +continence, -ent +convenience, -ent +corpulence, -ent +correspondence, -ent +currency, -ent +deference +delinquency, -ent +dependence, -ent +deponent +descendent (_adj._) +despondency, -ent +difference +diffidence, -ent +diffluent +efficiency, -ent +eminence, -ency +eminent +excellence, -ency +excellent +existence, -ent +expediency +feculence, -ent +flocculence, -ent +fluency, -ent +fraudulence, -ent +imminence, -ent +impatience, -ent +impellent +imprudence, -ent +impudence, -ent +incipience, -ent +incumbency, -ent +independence, -ent +indolence, -ent +inference +inherence, -ent +intermittent +iridescence, -ent +lambent +latency, -ent +leniency, -ent +magniloquence, -ent +malevolence, -ent +mellifluence, -ent +mollient +obedience, -ent +occurrence, -ent +omniscience, -ent +opulence, -ency +opulent +patience, -ent +pendent (_adj._) +pendency +penitence, -ent +permanence, -ent +permanency +pertinence, -ent +pestilence, -ent +poculent +portent +potency, -ent +precedence, -ent +preference +prescience, -ent +presence, -ent +presidency, -ent +proficiency, -ent +prominence, -ent +proponent +providence, -ent +prudence, -ent +purulence, -ent +quintessence +recurrence, -ent +reference +refluence, -ent +repellent +residence, -ency +resident +resolvent +resplendence, -ent +respondent +reverence, -ent +sentient +solvency, -ent +somnolency, -ent +subserviency, -ent +subsidence, -ency +subsistence, -ent +succulent +superintendence +superintendency +superintendent +tendence, -ency +transcendence, -ent +transcendency +transference +transient +transparency, -ent +transplendency, -ent +turbulence, -ent +vicegerency, -ent +virulence, -ent + +Nearly all other words of this type take the _a_ form. + + * * * * * + +The instructor should drill the pupils in spelling not only these "catch" +words, but a wide range of English words. These lessons may be taken to +advantage from some of the books mentioned in the list for supplementary +reading, from any other good spelling book, or even from the pages of any +well printed book or magazine. The words should be given out orally and +written down by the pupil. A good exercise is the reading of a paragraph +from any good book, or some stanza of poetry, the passage read to be taken +down by the pupil with care to spell, punctuate, and capitalize properly. + +A number of topics sometimes treated under the head of spelling will be +found discussed in the "Printer's Manual of Style" (No. 41). + + + + +PRONUNCIATION + + +The English language is a difficult one to pronounce as well as to spell. +This arises from two causes. The English language has some sounds not +generally found in other languages, such as _w_ and _th_. As has already +been pointed out, the alphabet fits the language very badly. Careful +lexicographers indicate no less than seven sounds of _a_, five of _e_, +three of _i_, four of _o_ and six of _u_, as shown in the following table: + +[=a] as in [=a]le +[Ia] as in sen[Ia]te +[)a] as in [)a]m +a as in ask +[a:] as in [a:]ll +ae as in faether +(a) as in fin(a)l + +[=e] as in [=e]ve +[)e] as in [)e]nd +[Ie] as in ev[Ie]nt +[~e] as in f[~e]rn +(e) as in prud(e)nce + +[=i] as in [=i]ce +[Ii] as in [Ii]dea +[)i] as in p[)i]n + +[=o] as in [=o]ld +[Io] as in [Io]pen +[)o] as in [)o]dd +o as in orb + +[=u] as in [=u]se +[Iu] as in [Iu]nite +[)u] as in [)u]p +[u:] as in r[u:]de +[u=] as in f[u=]ll +u as in urn + +In addition to these there are diphthongs, combinations of vowel sounds +pronounced as one syllable, such as + +_ou_ as in _out_ +_oi_ as in _oil_ + +There are also a number of digraphs or combinations of vowels or consonants +which have but one sound, such as + +_ai_ as in _rain_ +_eo_ as in _people_ +_ou_ as in _soup_ +_ou_ as in _soul_ +_ph_ as in _phalanx_ +_ch_ as in _chorus_ or _chair_ + +_C_ has two sounds, hard before _a_, _o_, and _u_, as in _cat_, _cot_, and +_cut_, and soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_, as in _cell_, _city_, and +_cycle_. + +_G_ has two sounds, hard before _a_, _o_, and _u_, as in _gate_, _gone_, +and _gun_, soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_, as in _gem_, _gin_, and _gyve_, +although it is sometimes hard before _i_ as in _girl_. + +_Ch_ is sometimes soft as in _chair_ and _arch_, and sometimes hard as in +_choir_. + +_Th_ has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in _thin_ and _death_, and hard, or +sonant, as in _then_ and _smooth_. + +_S_ has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in _soft_ and _this_, and hard, or +sonant, as in _has_ and _wise_. + +We have, therefore, twenty-six letters with which to express fifty or more +sounds, not counting the digraphs and diphthongs. + +Correct pronunciation depends upon three things, correct sounding of the +letters, correct division into syllables, and correct placing of the +accent. + +A syllable is the smallest separately articulated, or pronounced, element +in speech, or one of the parts into which speech is broken. It consists of +a vowel alone or accompanied by one or more consonants and separated by +them, or by a pause, from a preceding or following vowel. This division of +words into syllables is indicated in dictionaries by the use of the hyphen +thus: _sub-trac-tion_, _co-or-din-ate_. It will be observed that in the +first of these examples the vowels are all separated by consonants, while +in the second two of them are separated by a pause only. + +The English language has the further peculiarity of using _l_ and _n_ as +vowels in syllabication, as in _middle_ (_mid-dl_) and _reck-on_ +(_reck-n_). + +The division of words into syllables for pronunciation is generally, but +not always, the same as that which should be followed in case the word has +to be divided typographically. As these text-books are intended to help the +apprentice as a speaker and writer of English as well as a printer, it is +worth while to give some attention to syllabication for pronunciation +before proceeding to discuss typographical division.[The illustrations from +this point to the end of this section on page 16 are not typographic +divisions. They concern pronunciation only.] + +Two letters forming a diphthong or digraph are not to be separated. +_Coin-age_ (_oi_ diphthong) but _co-in-ci-dence_ (_oi_ not a diphthong). +_Excess_ (_ss_ digraph, pronounced practically like a single s) gives +_ex-cess-es_, _ex-cess-ive_, etc. Whether or not the letters thus occurring +together form a diphthong or digraph will depend on the derivation of the +word, thus in _cat-head_ (verb), a nautical term, _th_ is not a digraph but +in _ca-the-dral_ _th_ is a digraph, as is usually the case with these two +letters. You would not say _cat-hed-ral_. + +Two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, coming together but sounded +separately belong to separate syllables. + +_A-or-ta_, _co-op-er-ate_, but _coop-er-age_, _moi-e-ty_. + +Do not end a syllable with + + (_a_) _c_ or _g_ when soft, _en-ti-cing_, but _dic-tion_, _wa-ges_ + but _wag-on_. + + (_b_) _t_, _s_, _z_, _c_, _sc_, _g_, and _d_, when followed by _i_ + or _e_ giving the sound of _sh_; _ra-tion-al_, _o-cean_, _re-gion_, + _as-cen-sion_. + + (_c_) _d_, _s_, _t_, and _z_ when followed by _u_ giving the sound + of _ch_, _sh_, _zh_, or _j_, _cen-sure_, _sei-zure_, _na-ture_, + _ver-dure_. + +Do not begin a syllable with + + (_a_) _x_ with the sound of _ks_ or _gs_, _anx-ious_, _ex-act-ly_. + + (_b_) _r_ preceded by _a_ or _e_; _par-ent_, _av-er-age_, but by + exception, _pa-rent-al_. + + (_c_) Single _l_, _n_, or _v_, followed by _i_ with the sound of + _y_ consonant; _fol-io_ (_fol-yo_), _gen-ius_ (_gen-yus_), + _sav-ior_ (_sav-yor_). + +Prefixes and suffixes are generally separated, _yel-low-ish_, _eat-able_, +_pre-lude_. This last word is sometimes pronounced _prel-ude_ and this +pronunciation has some dictionary support, but it is objectionable. + +A consonant or digraph between two sounded vowels usually joins the +following vowel, _rea-son_, _no-ti-fy_, _mo-ther_. + +When two or three consonants capable of beginning a syllable come between +two sounded vowels they may all be joined to the following vowel. + + (_a_) When the preceding vowel is long and accented; _en-a-bling_, + _He-brew_, _i-dler_. + + (_b_) When the following vowel is an accented syllable; _o-blige_, + _re-dress_. + +When two or three consonants capable of beginning a syllable come between +two sounded vowels one may be joined to the preceding vowel. + + (_a_) When the vowel is short; _tab-let_, _res-cue_, _mus-ket_. + + (_b_) When the consonants are _st_, _str_, or _sp_, if either the + preceding or following vowel is accented; _mis-tress_, _aus-tere_, + _oys-ter_, _sus-pect_. + +When a consonant is doubled (not forming a digraph) the two are generally +separated; _beg-gar_, _bril-liant_, _cun-ning_. + +The old-fashioned method of oral spelling by syllables +_m-a-s-mas-t-e-r-ter-master_ will be found extremely useful in teaching +correct syllabication. It is recommended that constant use be made of it in +spelling drill. + + + + +ACCENT + + +When a word consists of two syllables one of them receives more stress of +voice than the other. This stress of voice is called accent. If the word +consists of three or more syllables there is usually another syllable +stressed in somewhat less degree. This is called a secondary accent. In +some cases there may even be a third accent if the word is very long; +_In'-come_, _val-e-tu'-di-na'-ri-an_. This fact arises from the tendency +natural to all human speech to take more or less musical forms. The +monotony of a series of stressed or of unstressed sounds would be +unbearable. The pronunciation of such a series would be a highly artificial +and very difficult performance. Correct pronunciation is very greatly +concerned with the proper placing of the accent. Indeed the meaning of a +familiar word may be quite obscured by a misplaced accent. For example, +_he-red'-it-ary_ is a very familiar word, but when pronounced +_he-red-it'-ary_, as it was habitually by a friend of the author, we have +to stop and think before catching the meaning. + +The placing of the accent in English is subject to two general rules. + + I The accent clings to the syllable which gives the meaning to the + word, or in technical terms, the root syllable, _re-call'_, + _in-stall'_, _in-stal-la'-tion_ (accent falling on the syllable + which defines the word as a noun), _in-her'-it_. + + II Where the root syllable is not known the accent falls on the + first syllable, with secondary accents following at intervals to + relieve the voice. + +This last tendency not infrequently supersedes the other, partly from the +natural habit of the language, and partly because the average man is not an +etymologist and knows very little about the derivation of the words he +uses. For example, in Shakespeare's time English people followed the first +rule and said _re-ven'-ue_, but now we say _rev'-e-nue_. + +These two rules will serve as a good general guide to accent. Attention +should be paid to the pronunciation of good speakers, and care taken to +follow it. In case of doubt the dictionary should be consulted and the +proper accent carefully fixed in the mind. + + + + +DIVISION OF WORDS + + +When the words do not fit the line what shall we do? The early printers +used only one kind of spaces. In setting a line of type they proceeded +until there was no room in the line for the next complete word of the copy. +Then they filled out the line with spaces and began the next word on the +next line. The length of the register being known in advance and nothing +but spaces being used in setting the line, the compositor was spared much +that makes composition at once a hard labor and a fine art. The result was +an irregular margin at the right such as we now see in typewritten letters. + +With improvements in types and typography the squaring out of the page soon +came into fashion. In many cases this can be done by the careful use of +spaces so as to bring a certain number of words squarely out to the end of +the line. There have been printers who have insisted that this should +always be done. Their efforts have not, however, been successful. They +result in a freakish looking page with white spots in the lines where +letters or words have been spaced out to fill the register. It would be +better, on the whole, to resort to the practice of the old masters and +leave the right-hand margin irregular. + +Ordinarily the difficulty has been met by dividing words and putting a part +of a word on one line and the rest of it on another, indicating the break +by a hyphen. The hyphen in such a case is always the closing character in +the first line. Clearly this division must be so made as to assist the +reader in his task. The primary purpose of all printing is to be read. +Anything that adds to the legibility of the printing improves it; anything +that detracts from its legibility harms it. How can we so divide words that +the legibility and intelligibility of the text will be maintained, the line +justified to register, and the beauty of the page enhanced? These +ends--legibility, intelligibility, and beauty--are the aims of all the +rules which have been devised for the division of words. These are the +things the reader will see and by them he will judge the results. He will +probably know nothing about the rules by which the compositor gains his +results. The compositor needs to know the rules, but to remember always +that they are only means by which to secure results. + +There have been several attempts to devise systems of division, but no one +of them is thoroughly consistent or universally adopted. + +One system requires the division of a word when the pronunciation will +permit on the vowel at the end of the syllable. It has the defect of making +no provision for syllables that end in consonants. Moreover, if rigorously +applied it would give us such divisions as _ca-pa-ci-ty_, _cata-stro-phe_, +_lexi-co-gra-pher_, _pre-fe-rence_, _pro-gno-sti-cate_, and _re-co-gnize_. + +Another system requires the division of consolidated words at the junction +of their elements, for example: + +_magn-animous_ +_cata-clysm_ +_found-ation_ +_oceano-graphy_ +_theo-logy_ +_know-ledge_ +_lexi-co-grapher_ +_in-fer-ence_ +_pre-judice_ +_pro-gnos-ticate_ +_pro-position_ +_typo-graphy_ + +In some cases this rule would lead to queer looking divisions. More serious +objections are that the system does not provide for words that are long +enough to be divided but are yet not consolidated words, and, most of all, +that the average compositor is not an accomplished etymologist and knows +very little about the derivation, make up, and compounding of the words he +has to set up. He may be familiar, for example with the word _rheostat_, +but it would puzzle him to tell from what language it is derived, while the +word _enclave_ would probably send him to the dictionary for meaning as +well as derivation, unless he happened to be used to one particular kind of +writing. + +Another system, and probably on the whole the best one, requires the +division of the word on the accented syllable. + +_theol-ogy_ +_catas-trophe_ +_geog-raphy_ +_lexi-cog-rapher_ +_pref-erence_ +_prog-nos-ticate_ + +It will be noted that some of these examples show division in more than one +place, that is on the syllables which bear either the primary or the +secondary accent. This rule does not provide for the cases when the +division must come on an unaccented syllable. The cases, however, when the +division cannot be made to come on either the syllable bearing the primary +accent or one bearing a secondary accent will be comparatively few. + + + + +RULES FOR DIVISION OF WORDS + + +I The general rule, then, is to divide according to pronunciation, not +according to etymology or any hard and fast rule. + + As far as possible, consistently with pronunciation and good + spacing, divide according to meaning and derivation, where known. + + _un-even_, not _une-ven_, _auto-mobile_, not _automo-bile_, + _en-abled_, not _ena-bled_. + +II Divide on a vowel wherever practicable. In case a vowel alone forms a +syllable in the middle of a word it should be run into the first line. + +_busi-ness_ +_sepa-rate_ +_criti-cism_ +_particu-lar_ +_colo-nies_ +_dou-ble_ +_pro-gress_ +_pro-duct_ +_noi-sy_ +_wo-man_ +_pa-tron_ +_me-moir_ + +III When two consonants meet between vowels, and the syllable ends on one +consonant, the division may properly be made between the consonants, the +pronunciation determining the place of division. + +_advan-tage_ +_plain-tiff_ +_Wil-liam_ +_exces-sive_ +_scur-rilous_ +_mas-ter_ +_gram-mar_ +_profes-sor_ +_moun-tain_ + +IV When three consonants come together between two vowels the first of +which is short, the division comes after the first consonant. + +_han-dle_ +_chil-dren_ +_frus-trate_ + +V A single consonant between two vowels should be joined to the first +vowel, if it is short; if the first vowel is long the consonant goes with +the second. + +_riv-er_ +_ri-val_ + +VI Diphthongs should not be divided. + +_peo-ple_ +_Cae-sar_ + +VII Words compounded with a prefix should preferably be divided on the +prefix. + +_dis-avow_ +_in-herit_ +_un-concern_ + +VIII The terminations _-able_, _-ible_, _-tion_, _-cial_, _-tive_, and +_-ive_ should go over to the next line. + +_read-able_ +_convert-ible_ +_inten-tion_ +_discuss-ion_ + + The termination _-sion_ ordinarily goes over as in + +_occa-sion_ +_apprehen-sion_ +_cis-sion_ +_declen-sion_ + + Occasionally, however, the strong emphasis needed for the _s_ will + call for a different arrangement, as in _divis-ion_. + +IX The terminations _-ing_, _-en_, _-ed_, _-er_, _-est_, and the plural +_-es_ go over to the next line except when the preceding consonant is +doubled, or when they follow _c_ or _g_ soft. + +_lead-ing_ +_beat-en_ +_larg-er_, but +_lat-ter_ +_for-cing_ +_ran-ging_ + +X Do not end a line with _j_ or with _c_ or _g_ soft. + +_pro-cess_ +_ne-cessary_ +_pre-judice_ +_prog-eny_ + +XI Adjectives in _ical_ divide on the _i_. + +_physi-cal_ +_inimi-cal_ + +XII In derivatives of words ending in _-t_, the division follows the +accent. + +_objec-tion_, not _object-ion_, _defec-tion_, not _defect-ion_, but +_respec-tively_, not _respect-ively_ and _distinc-tion_, not +_distinct-ion_. + +XIII Never separate _c_ and _g_ from the vowels _e_, _i_, and _y_ upon +which their soft sound depends. + +_re-li-gion_ +_ca-pa-ci-ty_ + +XIV Never separate _q_ from _u_, _qu_ is a single sound. + +XV Do not divide _nothing_. + +XVI Do not divide words of four letters. + +XVII Do not divide words of five or six letters if it can be avoided. Good +spacing, however, must be considered of first importance. + +XVIII In wide measures (20 ems or more) do not divide so as to end or begin +a line with a syllable of two letters. Here again, however, good spacing is +the first consideration. + +XIX Do not divide words of two syllables pronounced as one, including past +participles of short words. + +_heaven_ +_power_ +_prayer_ +_beamed_ +_often_ + +XX Avoid additional hyphens in hyphenated words if possible. + +_object-lesson_ +_fellow-being_ +_poverty-stricken_ + +XXI Do not separate a divisional mark (_a_), (_1_) from the matter to which +it pertains. + +XXII Do not divide an amount stated in figures. + +XXIII Do not divide proper names, especially those of persons, if it can be +avoided. + +XXIV Do not divide initials or such combinations as _a.m._, _B.C._ + +XXV Do not divide the last word on a page so as to carry a part of it to +the next page. + +XXVI Do not divide the last word of the last full line of a paragraph. + +XXVII More than two divisions in successive lines should be avoided. + +XXVIII Never divide at all if you can help it. + + + + +IMPORTANCE OF SPACING + + +It must always be remembered that good spacing is the first consideration. +Nothing is more offensive to the eye of a good judge of printing than bad +spacing. "Rivers" of white, dark spots, crowded black text, are very +serious blemishes to a page. An ordinary book page is a study in color, the +colors employed being black and white. Proper combination, balance, and +proportion are as important here as in places where a variety of colors is +employed. Many of the foregoing rules must be held subject to the +exigencies of proper spacing. A rigid adherence, for example, to the rule +that not more than two consecutive lines should end with divided words will +not justify a badly spaced, unsightly line. There are many things that look +worse than a hyphen at the end of the last full line in a paragraph. +Avoidance of dividing the last word on a page, however, would justify even +bad spacing, because of the gain to the reader. In the last resort, the +interests of the reader must always have first consideration. + +Division is greatly affected by the length of the measure. A long measure, +18 or 20 ems or more, gives greater opportunity for arranging the spacing, +but, on the other hand, makes division on short syllables conspicuous and +out of proportion. Very short register, as in two-column Bibles or in cases +where illustrations are inserted in the text, presents very great +difficulties and often calls for division which would not be allowable +elsewhere. Such cases often call for the exercise of the greatest care and +ingenuity. + +It often happens that the author can be of great assistance to the printer +in making a handsome page. A change of a phrase, or even of a word will +avoid a difficulty which cannot be avoided by a printer except at the cost +of bad division or bad spacing. If the author is a sensible person he will +gladly cooperate with the printer in giving his thoughts clothing +appropriate to their intrinsic beauty and value. After the printer has +exhausted his resources he should not hesitate to carry his troubles to the +author. + + + + +DIVISION IN LINES OF DISPLAY + + +As a rule division is never used in lines of display. In these cases the +display is the important thing. Every word long enough to be divided is +important enough to be displayed and emphasized. Divided words are weakened +words. Lines of irregular lengths are used of set purpose. + +In title pages words of bold display must never be divided. In minor lines +of display, such as subtitles and summaries, words are often divided. A +subheading of two lines should never be divided in the first line when it +is possible to turn the full word over on to the next line. The shortening +of the first line is never a blemish, but a too short second line following +a hyphened first line is always a fault. + +There is a school of ultra-artistic composition in book titles which +affects a solid squaring up and hesitates at no means to secure its +effects. It sets a definite measure and forces the lines into it, dividing +words arbitrarily and using no hyphen. This is a passing fancy and will +pass as eccentricities always pass. It should not be used unless the author +insists upon it. The man who pays the bills has a right to have his work +done as he pleases. The intelligent printer, however, will not allow the +peculiarities of the individual customer to affect his general practice. + + +_Note_ + +The pupil is referred to the appendix to DeVinne's "Correct Composition" +for rules for the division of French, German, and Spanish words. The same +appendix contains also a very excellent list of words which are spelled +differently by different authorities, together with divisions for them. + + + + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING + + +Correct Composition. By Theodore L. DeVinne. Oswald Publishing Co., New +York. + +The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. Stokes Co., +New York. + +A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur Powell. The +University of Chicago Press, Chicago. + +Worcester's New Pronouncing Spelling Book. The American Book Company, New +York. + +The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language: Dictionary of Errors. +By Sherwin Cody. The Old Greek Press, Chicago. + + (This is one of a series of six very excellent but inexpensive + little books bearing the same general title and by the same author. + They will be found very useful in connection with Part VI of the + Typographic Technical Series generally.) + + + + +QUESTIONS + + +1. Is the spelling of English standardized? + +2. How long have we considered correct spelling important? + +3. What two causes exist for difficulties in spelling? + +4. What are the principal English authorities? + +5. What are the principal American authorities? + +6. How are these authorities used in printing offices? + +7. What are the rights and duties of the author in the matter of spelling? + +8. What may be done in matter of "reformed" spelling? + +9. What is a safe attitude for the commercial printer toward "reformed" +spelling, and why? + +10. On what does correct spelling mainly depend? + +11. What is the best way to become a good speller? + +12. Why is English difficult to pronounce? + +13. What is a diphthong? + +14. What is a digraph? + +15. What are the two sounds each of _c_, _g_, _de_, _th_, and _s_? Give +examples of each. + +16. How many letters are there in the English alphabet and how many sounds +do they express? + +17. Upon what does correct pronunciation depend? + +18. What is a syllable, and of what does it consist? + +19. What peculiar use is made of _l_ and _n_ in English? + +20. How do we treat the parts of a diphthong or digraph? + +21. How do we know whether or not these compounds are diphthongs or +digraphs? + +22. What about vowel combinations? + +23. With what should a syllable not end? + +24. With what should a syllable not begin? + +25. What is the rule regarding prefixes and suffixes? + +26. How do we treat two or three consonants capable of beginning a +syllable? + +27. How do we treat two or three consonants capable of ending a syllable? + +28. How do we treat doubled consonants? + +29. What is accent? + +30. Do words ever have more than one accent, and why? + +31. What are the two general rules for the placing of accent? + +32. What did the early printers do when the words did not fit the line, and +why? + +33. What practice came into use later? + +34. What methods of doing this have been devised? + +35. What considerations govern practice in this regard? + +36. Give two systems of division which have been proposed. + +37. What is the general rule for division? + +38. What is the rule about vowels? + +39. What is the rule about two consonants? + +40. What is the rule about three consonants? + +41. What should you do with a single consonant between two vowels? + +42. How should you treat diphthongs? + +43. What is the rule for words compounded with a prefix? + +44. What should be done with the terminations _-able_, _-ible_, _-tion_, +_-cial_, _-tive_, _-ive_, and _-sion_? + +45. What should be done with the terminations _-ing_, _-en_, _-ed_, _-er_, +and _-est_, and the plural _-es_? + +46. What letters should not end a line? + +47. How are adjectives in _ical_ treated? + +48. How are derivatives of words ending in _-t_ treated? + +49. What is the special rule about _c_ and _g_? + +50. What is the rule about _qu_, and why? + +51. What is the rule about _nothing_? + +52. What is the rule about words of four letters? + +53. How should you treat words of five or six letters? + +54. What should be avoided in wide measures? + +55. How should you treat words of two syllables pronounced as one? + +56. How should hyphenated compounds be treated? + +57. What should you do with divisional marks? + +58. How should you treat amounts stated in figures? + +59. How should you treat proper names? + +60. How are initials and similar combinations treated? + +61. What is the rule about the last word on a page? + +62. What is the rule about the last word of the last full line of a +paragraph? + +63. What is the rule about divisions in successive lines? + +64. What is the rule about division generally? + +65. What effect has spacing on deciding about division? + +66. What effect has length of measure on division? + +67. What can you do when the text presents unusual difficulty as to spacing +and division? + +68. What is the rule about division in lines of display, and what is the +reason for it? + +69. What is the usage with regard to division on title pages? + +70. What can you say about eccentricities in the author's or customer's +ideas about division and lay-out? + + * * * * * + +As in the other volumes of this Part, the instructor should not content +himself with having the student learn the rules. He should give drills in +spelling and pronunciation and should give problems in composition +involving the application of rules. Constant and prolonged practice is +indispensable to proficiency in all these matters. + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES + + +The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL +SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the +Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade +classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. + +Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of +authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of +the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a +comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, +up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the +printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. + +The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5x8 inches. Their +general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as +practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular +contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each +title in the following list. + +Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each +publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and +essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been +taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of +bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the +different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined +drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional +clearness to the text. + +In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in +trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by +a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. +A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department +treated is also added to many of the books. + +These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. + +Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED +TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U.S.A. + + +PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ + +=1.= =Type: a Primer of Information= By A.A. Stewart + + Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, + font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. + 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. + +=2.= =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, + brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; + illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. + +=3.= =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, + case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; + illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. + +=4.= =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A.A. Stewart + + Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the + press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 + pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. + +=5.= =Proof Presses= By A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the customary methods and machines + for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review + questions; glossary. + +=6.= =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker + + A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical + construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand + press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on + automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review + questions; glossary. + +=7.= =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker + + Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types + of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review + questions; glossary. + +=8.= =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier + + The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; + with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + +=9.= =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott + + A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and + allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 + pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. + +=10.= =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. + + A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever + cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting + paper, 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. + +=11.= =Printers' Rollers= By A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and + care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; + glossary. + +=12.= =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton + + Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by + permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of + Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the + everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review + questions; glossary. + +=13.= =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright + + A primer of information about the materials and processes of + manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; + 62 review questions; glossary. + +=14.= =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan + + Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of + engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for + reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=15.= =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= + By Harris B. Hatch and A.A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and + stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; + glossaries. + + +PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ + +=16.= =Typesetting= By A.A. Stewart + + A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, + spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=17.= =Printers' Proofs= By A.A. Stewart + + The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with + observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=18.= =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVeze + + Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in getting his first + jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make + good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; + glossary. + +=19.= =General Job Composition= + + How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and + miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=20.= =Book Composition= By J.W. Bothwell + + Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition," + revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J.W. Bothwell + of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part + II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review + questions; glossary. + +=21.= =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver + + A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples + of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review + questions. + +=22.= =Applied Arithmetic= By E.E. Sheldon + + Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, + calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard + tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with + examples and exercises. 159 pp. + +=23.= =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A.W. Finlay, Editor + + Section I--The Linotype By L.A. Hornstein + Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays + Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens + Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines + By Frank H. Smith + + A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their + mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ + +=24.= =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and + about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=25.= =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods + of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART IV--_Presswork_ + +=26.= =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T.G. McGrew + + The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive + features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, + regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting + gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=27.= =Cylinder Presswork= By T.G. McGrew + + Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, + ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and + overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=28.= =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton + + Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with + directions and useful information relating to a variety of + printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. + +=29.= =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A.W. Elson + + A primer of information about the distinctive features of the + relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. + 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. + + +PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ + +=30.= =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin + + A primer of information about the various operations employed in + binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; + review questions; glossary. + +=31.= =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger + + Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; + folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case + making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and + blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ + +=32.= =Word Study and English Grammar= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about words, their relations, and their + uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. + +=33.= =Punctuation= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their + use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review + questions; glossary. + +=34.= =Capitals= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical + typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review + questions; glossary. + +=35.= =Division of Words= By F.W. Hamilton + + Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks + on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review + questions. + +=36.= =Compound Words= By F.W. Hamilton + + A study of the principles of compounding, the components of + compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. + +=37.= =Abbreviations and Signs= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with + classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review + questions. + +=38.= =The Uses of Italic= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the history and uses of italic + letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. + +=39.= =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas + + The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, + revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by + examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. + +=40.= =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F.W. Hamilton + + Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in + preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. + +=41.= =Printers' Manual of Style= + + A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions + relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, + abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. + +=42.= =The Printer's Dictionary= By A.A. Stewart + + A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about + various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical + terms explained. Illustrated. + + +PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ + +=43.= =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage + + A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on + the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats + of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and + variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 + review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +=44.= =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage + + Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building + material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and + illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, + treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. + Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. + +=45.= =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage + + Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster + effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with + process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and + chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, + intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory + of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full + color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +=46.= =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage + + Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. + Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on + type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. + Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully + illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +=47.= =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage + + The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which + advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, + legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising + typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +=48.= =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage + + A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a + proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. + Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy + envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + + +PART VIII--_History of Printing_ + +=49.= =Books Before Typography= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the + history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; + illustrated; 64 review questions. + +=50.= =The Invention of Typography= By F.W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. + 64 pp.; 62 review questions. + +=51.= =History of Printing--Part I= By F.W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the + development of the book, the development of printers' materials, + and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. + +=52.= =History of Printing--Part II= By F.W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry + from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, + internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review + questions. + +=53.= =Printing in England= By F.W. Hamilton + + A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present + time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. + +=54.= =Printing in America= By F.W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes + on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; + 84 review questions. + +=55.= =Type and Presses in America= By F.W. Hamilton + + A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and + press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. + + +PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ + +=56.= =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +=57.= =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +=58.= =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter + + The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. + The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of + the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. + +=59.= =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter + + The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for + estimating. Review questions. Glossary. + +=60.= =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter + + An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their + relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. + +=61.= =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter + + A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary + books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. + + +PART X--_Miscellaneous_ + +=62.= =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter + + Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; + practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and + rules for safety. + +=63.= =Topical Index= By F.W. Hamilton + + A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic + Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. + +=64.= =Courses of Study= By F.W. Hamilton + + A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for + classroom and shop work. + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENT + + +This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid +co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the +printing business and its allied industries in the United States of +America. + +The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whose +auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges its +indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors, +printers, and others identified with this work. + +While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those +contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a group +list of co-operating firms would be of interest. + +The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have +co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting the +first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the +Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee hopes +will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume. + +The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many +subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. + +COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. + + HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, + E. LAWRENCE FELL, + A.M. GLOSSBRENNER, + J. CLYDE OSWALD, + TOBY RUBOVITS. + +FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. + + + + +CONTRIBUTORS + + +=For Composition and Electrotypes= + +ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N.Y. +S.H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +J.S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. +THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N.Y. +R.R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. +GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. +EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. +FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. +F.H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. +STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +W.F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. +J.B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York +THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. +POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. +EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. +C.D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. +THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. + +=For Composition= + +BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. +WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N.Y. +OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. +TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. + +=For Electrotypes= + +BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. +FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N.Y. +C.J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. +ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +H.C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. + +=For Engravings= + +AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. +C.B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R.I. +GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. +HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. +INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. +LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. +MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N.Y. +GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. +OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N.Y. +THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. +B.D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. +THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. + +=For Book Paper= + +AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. +WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N.Y. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Division of Words, by Frederick W. 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