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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wage Earning and Education, by R. R. Lutz
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wage Earning and Education
+
+Author: R. R. Lutz
+
+Release Date: October 30, 2005 [EBook #16964]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Stan Goodman, Jeannie Howse and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +------------------------------------------------+
+ | Transcriber's Note: Some very obvious typos |
+ | were corrected in this text. For a list please |
+ | see the bottom of the document. |
+ +------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION
+
+THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION
+
+Charles E. Adams, Chairman
+Thomas G. Fitzsimons
+Myrta L. Jones
+Bascom Little
+Victor W. Sincere
+
+Arthur D. Baldwin, Secretary
+James R. Garfield, Counsel
+Allen T. Burns, Director
+
+THE EDUCATION SURVEY
+
+Leonard P. Ayres, Director
+
+CLEVELAND EDUCATION SURVEY
+
+
+
+
+WAGE EARNING AND
+EDUCATION
+
+BY
+R.R. LUTZ
+
+THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION
+CLEVELAND · OHIO
+
+1916
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY
+THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION
+
+
+WM. F. FELL CO. PRINTERS
+PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+This summary volume, entitled "Wage Earning and Education," is one of
+the 25 sections of the report of the Education Survey of Cleveland
+conducted by the Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation in 1915
+and 1916. Copies of all the publications may be obtained from the
+Cleveland Foundation. They may also be obtained from the Division of
+Education of the Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. A complete
+list will be found in the back of this volume, together with prices.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+ PAGE
+Foreword 5
+List of Tables 10
+List of Diagrams 12
+
+CHAPTER
+ I. THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY 13
+ Types of occupations studied 13
+ The Survey staff and methods of work 14
+
+ II. FORECASTING FUTURE PROBABILITIES 18
+ The popular concept of industrial education 19
+ The importance of relative numbers 20
+ A constructive program must fit the facts 23
+ An actuarial basis for industrial education 24
+
+ III. THE WAGE EARNERS OF CLEVELAND 25
+
+ IV. THE FUTURE WAGE EARNERS OF CLEVELAND 29
+ The public schools 29
+ Ages of pupils 32
+ Education at the time of leaving school 34
+
+ V. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR BOYS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 38
+ What the boys in school will do 40
+ Organization and costs 44
+ What the elementary schools can do 45
+
+ VI. THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 47
+ Specialized training not practicable 48
+ A general industrial course 49
+ Industrial mathematics 52
+ Mechanical Drawing 54
+ Industrial science 55
+ Shop work 56
+ Vocational information 58
+
+ VII. TRADE TRAINING DURING THE LAST YEARS IN SCHOOL 60
+ The technical high schools 62
+ A two-year trade course 66
+
+ VIII. TRADE-PREPARATORY AND TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING
+ FOR BOYS AND MEN AT WORK 69
+ Continuation training from 15 to 18 74
+ The technical night schools 76
+ A combined program of continuation and trade-extension
+ training 80
+
+ IX. VOCATIONAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 83
+ Differentiation in the junior high school 86
+ Specialized training for the sewing trades 88
+ Other occupations 90
+
+ X. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 92
+ The work of the vocational counselor 92
+ The Girls' Vocation Bureau 94
+
+ XI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 97
+
+
+SUMMARIES OF SPECIAL REPORTS
+
+ XII. BOYS AND GIRLS IN COMMERCIAL WORK 101
+ A general view of commercial work 106
+ Bookkeeping 108
+ Stenography 108
+ Clerks' positions 109
+ Wages and regularity of employment 110
+ The problem of training 111
+
+ XIII. DEPARTMENT STORE OCCUPATIONS 115
+ Department stores 115
+ Neighborhood stores 116
+ Five and ten cent stores 117
+ Wages 118
+ Regularity of employment 122
+ Opportunities for advancement 123
+ The problem of training 124
+ Character of the instruction 129
+
+ XIV. THE GARMENT TRADES 131
+ Characteristics of the working force 132
+ Earnings 135
+ Regularity of employment 139
+ Training and promotion 140
+ Educational needs 143
+ Sewing courses in the public schools 145
+ Elective sewing courses in the junior high school 147
+ A one year trade course for girls 148
+ Trade extension training 149
+
+ XV. DRESSMAKING AND MILLINERY 151
+ Dressmaking 151
+ Millinery 153
+ The problem of training 156
+
+ XVI. THE METAL TRADES 158
+ Foundry and machine shop products 159
+ Automobile manufacturing 169
+ Steel works, rolling mills, and related industries 170
+
+ XVII. THE BUILDING TRADES 173
+ Sources of labor supply 173
+ Apprenticeship 174
+ Union organization 176
+ Earnings 176
+ Hours 178
+ Regularity of employment 179
+ Health conditions 179
+ Opportunities for advancement 180
+ The problem of training 181
+
+XVIII. RAILROAD AND STREET TRANSPORTATION 187
+ Railroad transportation 187
+ Motor and wagon transportation 192
+ Street railroad transportation 193
+
+ XIX. THE PRINTING TRADES 195
+ The composing room 198
+ The pressroom 201
+ The bindery 203
+ Other occupations 204
+ The problem of training 206
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF TABLES
+
+
+TABLE PAGE
+ 1. Occupational distribution of the working population
+ of Cleveland 26
+
+ 2. Nativity of the working population in Cleveland 27
+
+ 3. Pupils enrolled in the different grades of the public
+ day schools in June, 1915 30
+
+ 4. Enrollment of high school pupils, second semester,
+ 1914-15 31
+
+ 5. Ages of pupils enrolled in public elementary, high,
+ and normal schools in June, 1915 33
+
+ 6. Educational equipment of the children who drop out
+ of the public schools each year, as indicated by
+ the grades from which they leave 35
+
+ 7. Per cent of total male working population engaged in
+ specified occupations, 1900 and 1910 40
+
+ 8. Distribution of native born men between the ages of
+ 21 and 45 in the principal occupational groups 41
+
+ 9. Distribution of third and fourth year students in
+ trade courses in the Cleveland technical high
+ schools, first semester, 1915-16 63
+
+10. Distribution by occupations of Cleveland's technical
+ school graduates 64
+
+11. Time allotment in the apprentice course given by the
+ Warner and Swasey Company, Cleveland 70
+
+12. Course and number enrolled in the technical night
+ schools, January, 1915 77
+
+13. Per cent of total population engaged in gainful
+ occupations during three different age periods 84
+
+14. Number employed in the principal wage earning
+ occupations among each 1,000 women from 16 to 21
+ years of age 85
+
+15. Per cent of women employees over 18 years of age
+ earning $12 a week and over 120
+
+16. Wages for full-time working week, women's clothing,
+ Cleveland, 1915 139
+
+17. Average wages for full-time working week for similar
+ workers, in men's and women's clothing, Cleveland,
+ 1915 139
+
+18. Proportions and estimated numbers employed in machine
+ tool occupations, 1915 161
+
+19. Average, highest, and lowest earnings, in cents per
+ hour, and per cent employed on piece work and day
+ work, 1915 162
+
+20. Estimated time required to learn machine tool work 164
+
+21. Average earnings per hour in pattern making, molding,
+ core making, blacksmithing, and boiler making 166
+
+22. Estimated number of men engaged in building trades,
+ 1915 174
+
+23. Union regulations as to entering age of apprentice 175
+
+24. Union regulations as to length of apprenticeship
+ period 175
+
+25. Union scale of wages in cents per hour, May 1, 1915 177
+
+26. Usual weekly wages of apprentices in three building
+ trades 178
+
+27. Average daily earnings of job and newspaper composing
+ room workers, 1915 199
+
+28. Average daily earnings of pressroom workers, 1915 202
+
+29. Average daily earnings of bindery workers, 1915 203
+
+30. Average daily earnings in photoengraving, stereotyping,
+ electrotyping, and lithographing occupations, 1915 205
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF DIAGRAMS
+
+
+DIAGRAM PAGE
+ 1. Boys and girls under 18 years of age in office work 103
+
+ 2. Men and women 18 years of age and over in clerical
+ and administrative work in offices 104
+
+ 3. Per cent of women earning each class of weekly wages
+ in each of six occupations 119
+
+ 4. Per cent of salesmen and of men clerical workers in
+ stores, receiving each class of weekly wage 121
+
+ 5. Per cent of male workers in non-clerical positions in
+ six industries earning $18 per week and over 122
+
+ 6. Per cent that the average number of women employed
+ during the year is of the highest number employed
+ in each of six industries 123
+
+ 7. Distribution of 8,337 clothing workers by sex in the
+ principal occupations in the garment industry 134
+
+ 8. Percentage of women in men's and women's clothing and
+ seven other important women employing industries
+ receiving under $8, $8 to $12, and $12 and over
+ per week 136
+
+ 9. Percentage of men in men's and women's clothing and
+ seven other manufacturing industries receiving
+ under $18, $18 to $25, and $25 and over per week 138
+
+10. Average number of unemployed among each 100 workers,
+ men's clothing, women's clothing, and fifteen
+ other specified industries 141
+
+11. Percentages of unemployment in each of nine building
+ industries 180
+
+12. Number of men in each 100 in printing and five other
+ industries earning each class of weekly wage 196
+
+13. Number of women in each 100 in printing and six other
+ industries earning each class of weekly wage 198
+
+
+
+
+WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY
+
+
+The education survey of Cleveland was undertaken in April, 1915, at
+the invitation of the Cleveland Board of Education and the Survey
+Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, and continued until June, 1916.
+As a part of the work detailed studies were made of the leading
+industries of the city for the purpose of determining what measures
+should be taken by the public school system to prepare young people
+for wage-earning occupations and to provide supplementary trade
+instruction for those already in employment. The studies also dealt
+with all forms of vocational education conducted at that time under
+public school auspices.
+
+
+TYPES OF OCCUPATIONS STUDIED
+
+Separate studies were made of the metal industry, building and
+construction, printing and publishing, railroad and street
+transportation, clothing manufacture, department store work, and
+clerical occupations. The wage-earners in these fields of employment
+constitute nearly 60 per cent of the total number of persons engaged
+in gainful occupations and include 95 per cent of the skilled workmen
+in the city. The survey also gave considerable attention to the
+various types of semi-skilled work found in the principal industries.
+
+Each separate study was assigned to a particular member of the Survey
+Staff who personally carried on the field investigations and later
+submitted a report to the director of the survey. Each report was also
+subjected to careful analysis and criticism from other members of the
+Survey Staff before it was finally passed upon by the Survey
+Committee. Mimeographed copies were sent to representatives of the
+industry and to the superintendent of schools and members of the
+school board and their criticisms and suggestions were given careful
+consideration before the Committee and the director of the survey gave
+their final approval to the publication of the report. The value of
+the work was greatly enhanced through the ample discussion of the
+different studies from widely diverse points of view secured in this
+way. The industrial studies were carried through under the direction
+of the author of this summary volume.
+
+
+THE SURVEY STAFF AND METHODS OF WORK
+
+The reports of the studies relating to vocational education were
+published in a series of eight separate monograph volumes. The names
+of the reports and the previous experience in educational and
+investigational work of each member of the Survey Staff are as
+follows:
+
+ "Boys and Girls in Commercial Work"--Bertha M. Stevens; teacher
+ in elementary and secondary schools; agent of Associated
+ Charities; secretary of Consumers' League of Ohio; director of
+ Girls' Bureau of Cleveland; author of "Women's Work in
+ Cleveland"; co-author of "Commercial Work and Training for
+ Girls."
+
+ "Department Store Occupations"--Iris P. O'Leary; head of manual
+ training department, First Pennsylvania Normal School; head of
+ vocational work for girls and women, New Bedford Industrial
+ School; head of girls' department, Boardman Apprentice Shops, New
+ Haven, Conn.; special investigator of department stores for New
+ York State Factory Investigating Commission; three years' trade
+ experience as employer and employee; author of books on household
+ arts and department stores; Special Assistant for Vocational
+ Education, State Department of Public Instruction, New Jersey.
+
+ "The Garment Trades" and "Dressmaking and Millinery"--Edna Bryner;
+ teacher in grades, high school, and state normal college; eugenic
+ research worker New Jersey State Hospital; statistical expert in
+ United States Bureau of Labor Investigation of women and child
+ labor; statistical agent United States Post Office Department;
+ Special Agent Russell Sage Foundation.
+
+ "The Building Trades," and "The Printing Trades"--Frank L. Shaw;
+ teacher in grades and high school; principal of high school;
+ assistant superintendent of schools; superintendent of schools;
+ special agent United States Immigration Commission; special agent
+ United States Census; industrial secretary North American Civic
+ League for Immigrants; author of reports on immigration
+ legislation.
+
+ "The Metal Trades"--R.R. Lutz; teacher in rural and graded
+ schools; superintendent of schools; secretary of Department of
+ Education of Porto Rico; took part in school surveys of Greenwich,
+ Conn., Bridgeport, Conn., Springfield, Ill., Richmond, Va.;
+ Special Agent Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation.
+
+ "Railroad and Street Transportation"--Ralph D. Fleming; special
+ agent and investigator for United States Immigration Commission,
+ the Federal Census of Manufacturers, the United States Tariff
+ Board, the Minimum Wage Commission of Massachusetts, the National
+ Civic Federation, and the United States Commission on Industrial
+ Relations.
+
+The work began in April, 1915, and ended in the same month of the
+following year. Two members of the staff, with one stenographer and a
+clerk, were employed during the entire period. One member of the staff
+was employed 11 months, one nine months, one approximately five
+months, and one two months.
+
+The field investigations consisted largely of visits to industrial
+establishments for the purpose of securing first-hand information as
+to industrial conditions and the nature and educational content of
+particular occupations. Over 400 visits of this kind were made by
+members of the Survey Staff. Many conferences were held with employers
+and employees with the object of securing their views as to the needs
+and possibilities of industrial training.
+
+The task of tabulating and classifying the data obtained by the
+individual investigators in their visits to the local industrial
+establishments involved much time and labor. Although it was not found
+practicable to maintain complete uniformity in the different
+inquiries, the members of the staff kept in close touch with each
+other, so that with respect to the points of principal importance, the
+results of their investigations are comparable. Practically every
+recommendation made in the reports was discussed in conferences with
+school principals and with other members of the teaching force engaged
+in the teaching of vocational subjects.
+
+Throughout the survey the objective held constantly in mind was the
+formulation of a constructive program of vocational training in the
+public schools. In outlining the field of inquiry a clear distinction
+was drawn between those kinds of general education which have a more
+or less indirect vocational significance, and vocational training for
+specific occupations in which the controlling purpose is direct
+preparation for wage-earning. The studies were purposely limited to
+this latter type of vocational training. The survey did not concern
+itself with manual training conducted for general educational ends,
+with the art work of the schools, or with courses in domestic science
+and household arts. These subjects in the curriculum were dealt with
+in different sections of the education survey, but were considered as
+being outside the legitimate field of the vocational survey.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FORECASTING FUTURE PROBABILITIES
+
+
+The industrial education survey of Cleveland differs from other
+studies conducted elsewhere in that it bases its educational program
+on a careful study of the probable future occupational distribution of
+the young people now in school. It does not claim to foretell the
+specific positions that individual boys and girls will hold when they
+are adults but it does claim very definitely that our safest guide in
+foretelling their future vocational distribution is to be found in the
+official figures of the present occupational census of the city.
+
+One of the most familiar and time-worn platitudes of educational
+speakers and writers is that "The children of today are the citizens
+of tomorrow." In the field of industrial education it is quite as true
+that the school children of today are the workers of tomorrow.
+Moreover, since occupational distributions change but slowly even in
+these modern times, it is unquestionably true that the boys and girls
+now studying in the public schools will soon be scattered among the
+different gainful occupations of Cleveland's industrial, commercial,
+and professional life in just about the same proportions as their
+fathers and mothers and brothers and sisters are now distributed.
+
+The plan of the survey in advocating types of present preparation
+based on studies of future prospects seems at first sight so obvious a
+mode of procedure as hardly to warrant extended explanation. This is
+far from being the case. The reader who proposes to follow the
+working-out of the principle and to scrutinize the evidence underlying
+it must be prepared to scan many a detailed table of statistics and to
+arrive at most unforeseen conclusions.
+
+
+THE POPULAR CONCEPT OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
+
+For many years past the public has given respectful attention to the
+arguments of the champions of industrial education. There has been
+general assent to the proposition that the schools should train for
+and not away from the industrial age in which we live. We have come to
+think of the carpenter shop, the machine shop, the forge shop, and the
+cooking room as necessary and desirable adjuncts of the modern school
+and to our minds these shops have typified industrial education. All
+of these have come to be almost synonymous with progressive thought
+and action in public education. Very generally it has been felt that
+the problems of industrial education were to be solved through the
+wider extension of these shop facilities in our public schools.
+
+When these familiar generalizations are submitted to careful analysis
+their whole structure begins to totter. In Cleveland about 3,700 boys
+leave school each year and go to work. They represent various stages
+of advancement from the 4th grade of the elementary school to the 4th
+year of the high school. They are scattered through more than 100
+school buildings. The problem of industrial education is to give these
+boys with their differing ages, their widely varied school
+preparation, and their scattered geographical distribution, the best
+possible preparation for taking their places in the work-a-day world.
+They represent every grade of intelligence, every stratum of social
+and economic life, and it is extremely difficult to bring them
+together for instructional purposes. They are scattered in little
+groups through more than a thousand classrooms.
+
+
+THE IMPORTANCE OF RELATIVE NUMBERS
+
+Now it is possible to foretell with some certainty what these young
+people will be doing a few years from now. Almost all of them are of
+American birth and it is certain that in a few years they will be
+engaged in doing just about the same sorts of work as are now done in
+the city of Cleveland by adults of American birth. The data of the
+United States Census of Occupations show us that among every 100
+American born men in Cleveland there are eight who are clerks, seven
+who are machinists, four who are salesmen, and so on through the list
+of hundreds of occupations. The number of American born men in each
+100 engaged in each of the 10 leading sorts of occupations is
+approximately as follows:
+
+ Clerks 8
+ Machinists 7
+ Salesmen 4
+ Laborers and porters 4
+ Retail dealers 4
+ Draymen, teamsters, etc. 4
+ Bookkeepers 3
+ Carpenters 3
+ Commercial travelers 2
+ Manufacturers 2
+ ----
+ 41
+
+This simple list at once calls into question all the standard
+assumptions about the extension of industrial education depending on
+greatly increasing the number of carpenter shops and machine shops in
+the public schools. The figures show that among each 100 American born
+men in Cleveland only seven are machinists and only three are
+carpenters. Clearly we should not be justified in training all the
+boys in our public schools to enter the machinist's trade or the
+carpenter's trade when nine out of each 10 will in all probability
+engage in entirely different sorts of future work. The more the
+figures of the little table given above are studied, the clearer it
+appears that our conventional ideas about industrial education need
+critical scrutiny and careful challenge. These 10 leading occupations
+include only 41 out of each 100 American born men. Moreover, more than
+half of these 41 are engaged in mental work rather than in manual
+work.
+
+From these considerations one definite conclusion inevitably emerges.
+It is that the safest guide for thinking and planning for industrial
+education is to be found in a study of the occupational distribution
+of the present adults. From the very outset such a study indicates
+that the most difficult and important problems which must be met and
+coped with are not those relating to methods of instruction but rather
+those of organization and administration. The future carpenters and
+machinists cannot be taught until we can get them together in fair
+sized classes. They represent the most numerous of the industrial
+groups and yet their numbers are relatively so few that the average
+Cleveland school sends out into the world each year only two or three
+future machinists and perhaps one future carpenter.
+
+The trouble with present thinking about this matter has been that we
+have noted the very large numbers of machinists and carpenters in the
+population and have failed to realize that while these groups are
+numerous in the aggregate they are after all quite small when
+relatively considered and compared with the total number of workers.
+
+Another important fact that has been almost invariably overlooked is
+that many of the present carpenters and machinists are foreigners by
+birth and that there is every prospect that this same condition will
+maintain in the future. Hence these trades and most other industrial
+occupations are not recruited from our public schools to anything like
+the degree that has been assumed.
+
+
+A CONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAM MUST FIT THE FACTS
+
+The simple principle which underlies the method employed by the survey
+is the same on which all large business undertakings are conducted.
+The results of its application in the field of industrial education
+are, however, fundamentally different from those commonly arrived at
+on the assumption that nine-tenths of the rising generation will earn
+their living in industrial pursuits. The fact is that no such
+proportion of the children in school will become industrial workers.
+All the native born labor now employed in manufacturing and mechanical
+industries constitutes only 44 per cent of the total number of native
+born workers in the city. Moreover, nearly half of the industrial
+workers are employed in unskilled and semi-skilled occupations for
+which no training is required beyond a few days' or weeks' practice on
+the job. Such training calls for a mechanical equipment far more
+extensive than the resources of the school system can provide, and can
+be given by the factory more effectively and much more cheaply than by
+the schools.
+
+In the final analysis, the problem of industrial training narrows down
+to the skilled industrial trades. Approximately 22 per cent of the
+total number of American workers in the city are employed in skilled
+manual occupations. This does not mean that a constructive program of
+industrial education would affect 22 per cent of the present school
+enrollment. All the weight of educational opinion and experience is on
+the side of excluding the children of the lower and middle age groups
+as too young to profit by any sort of industrial training, while the
+evidence collected by the survey goes to show that of the remainder
+less than one-fifth of the girls and one-fourth of the boys are likely
+to become skilled industrial workers.
+
+
+AN ACTUARIAL BASIS FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
+
+Considerations like the foregoing have determined the fundamental
+method of the Cleveland Industrial Survey. Plans for the present
+generation have been formulated on the basis of future prospects as
+foretold by state and federal census data. The methods used were
+characterized by a member of the Cleveland Foundation Survey Committee
+as "the actuarial basis of vocational education." This is accurately
+descriptive, because the method of forecasting the number of men the
+community will need for each wage-earning occupation closely resembles
+that employed by life insurance actuaries in foretelling how long men
+of different ages are likely to live. Such methods are similar to
+those commonly used in commerce and industry. They deal with mass data
+rather than with individual figures, and with relative values rather
+than with absolute ones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAGE EARNERS OF CLEVELAND
+
+
+In 1910 Cleveland ranked sixth among the cities of the United States
+as to number of inhabitants, with a population of approximately
+561,000. The city is growing rapidly. From 1900 to 1910 the increase
+in the total number of inhabitants was over 46 per cent. The Census
+Bureau estimate of the population in 1914 is approximately 639,000.
+
+Of the 10 largest cities in the country only one--Detroit--had in 1910
+a greater proportion of its wage earners engaged in industrial
+employment than Cleveland. Relatively Cleveland has one and one-fourth
+times as many industrial workers as New York, Chicago, St. Louis, or
+Baltimore, and one and two-fifths times as many as Boston. On the
+other hand a smaller proportion of the adult workers of the city earn
+their living in professional, clerical, and commercial work, or in
+domestic and personal service employments than in most large cities.
+
+Table 1 shows by large occupational groups the distribution in 1910 of
+the working population in Cleveland. The classification is that
+adopted by the federal census. More than 56 per cent of the male
+workers of the city and about 33 per cent of the women workers were
+engaged in manufacturing and mechanical occupations. The trade group
+ranks next, about 14 per cent of the men and approximately 11 per cent
+of the women being engaged in commercial occupations. Of each 100
+women in employment 30 are servants, laundresses, housekeepers, or are
+engaged in some other form of personal service, while only five men of
+each 100 earn their living in this kind of work. Railroad and street
+transportation, with the telegraph and telephone and mail systems of
+communication, requires the services of 11 per cent of the male
+working population, but uses very few women. About seven per cent of
+the men and 15 per cent of the women are employed in clerical work. A
+slightly larger ratio of women to men is found in the professional
+occupations, due mainly to the large number of women in the teaching
+profession. The whole professional group constitutes less than five
+per cent of the total working population.
+
+
+TABLE 1.--OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING POPULATION OF
+CLEVELAND, CENSUS OF OCCUPATIONS, 1910
+
+----------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------
+Occupational group | Men | Women | Total
+----------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------
+Manufacturing and mechanical industries | 109,644 | 18,201 | 127,845
+Trade | 27,229 | 5,942 | 33,171
+Domestic and personal service | 9,546 | 16,467 | 26,063
+Transportation | 21,530 | 1,110 | 22,640
+Clerical occupations | 14,047 | 8,100 | 22,147
+Professional service | 7,204 | 4,869 | 12,073
+Public service | 3,461 | 39 | 3,500
+Agricultural and extraction of minerals | 1,367 | 80 | 1,447
+----------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------
+Total | 194,078 | 54,808 | 248,886
+----------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------
+
+From the standpoint of vocational training one of the most striking
+facts about Cleveland wage-earners is that a large majority of them
+are not Clevelanders. Almost exactly half of the men in gainful
+employment were born outside the United States and, due to the rapid
+growth of the city, there has been a considerable influx of workers
+from the surrounding country in recent years, so that a large
+proportion even of the American working population was born, brought
+up, and educated in some other place. The number and per cent of
+foreign born, of foreign or mixed parentage but born in this country,
+and of native parentage is shown in Table 2.
+
+
+TABLE 2.--NATIVITY OF THE WORKING POPULATION IN CLEVELAND. U.S.
+CENSUS, 1910
+
+----------------------------+-------------------+-----------------
+ | Men | Women
+ +--------+----------+--------+--------
+Nativity | Number | Per cent | Number |Per cent
+----------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------
+Foreign born | 96,291 | 50 | 16,673 | 31
+Foreign or mixed parentage | 55,074 | 28 | 24,275 | 44
+Native parentage | 42,713 | 22 | 13,860 | 25
+----------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------
+Total |194,078 | 100 | 54,808 | 100
+----------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------
+
+More than three-fourths are foreign or of foreign or mixed parentage.
+The proportion of those born in this country of American parentage is
+approximately the same for both sexes, but the number of women workers
+of mixed parentage is relatively much larger than among the men.
+Roughly, of each 10 men employed in gainful occupations, five, and of
+each 10 working women, three, were born abroad.
+
+The large proportion of foreigners in the trades has an important
+bearing on the problem of vocational training. Some of the skilled
+occupations are monopolized by foreign labor to such an extent that
+they offer a very limited field of employment for native workmen.
+Cabinet making, tailoring, molding, blacksmithing, baking, and shoe
+making, are examples. Some of these trades have practically ceased to
+recruit from American labor. This condition has to be constantly borne
+in mind in planning training courses to prepare boys for the skilled
+trades, because of the marked disparity which often exists between the
+size of a trade and the field of opportunity it presents for boys of
+native birth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FUTURE WAGE-EARNERS OF CLEVELAND
+
+
+In 1915 there were in Cleveland approximately 50,000 boys between the
+ages of six and 15, and 56,000 girls between the ages of six and 16,
+the age period during which school attendance is required by law. Of
+these 106,000 children approximately 37,000 boys and 38,000 girls were
+enrolled in the public schools. Exact data as to those attending
+private and parochial schools are not available. The total enrollment
+in such schools has been variously estimated as between 25,000 and
+30,000.
+
+
+THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS
+
+The public school system in 1915 enrolled approximately 82,000
+children of all ages, of whom about half were boys and half girls.
+They are taught in 98 elementary schools and 10 high schools. The
+elementary course comprises eight grades. At the beginning of the
+school year 1915-16 two junior high schools were opened for pupils of
+the seventh and eighth grades. It is to be expected that this plan
+will soon be extended throughout the city, so that the enrollment in
+elementary schools will be made up of pupils of the first six grades
+only. The distribution by grade is given in Table 3. The kindergarten
+grades and the special ungraded classes are omitted.
+
+
+TABLE 3.--PUPILS ENROLLED IN THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF THE PUBLIC DAY
+SCHOOLS IN JUNE, 1915
+
+-------------------+--------------------
+ Grade | Pupils
+-------------------+--------------------
+ 1 | 13,108
+ 2 | 10,857
+ 3 | 10,562
+ 4 | 9,323
+ 5 | 8,902
+ 6 | 7,259
+ 7 | 6,429
+ 8 | 4,903
+ |
+ I | 3,122
+ II | 2,100
+ III | 1,534
+ IV | 1,399
+-------------------+--------------------
+
+About 77 per cent of the children are enrolled in the grades below the
+seventh, about 13 per cent in the seventh and eighth grades, a little
+over six per cent in the first two years of the high school, and less
+than three and one-half per cent in the third and fourth.
+
+There are eight academic high schools, two technical high schools, and
+two commercial high schools. The technical high schools are steadily
+growing in favor. The registration of boys in these schools increased
+about 33 per cent from 1913 to 1915, and of girls about 77 per cent.
+During the same period the registration of boys in the academic high
+schools decreased slightly, while the increase of girl students was
+only eight per cent; in the commercial high schools the number of
+girl students increased 20 per cent, while the enrollment of boys fell
+off more than 10 per cent. The enrollment by individual schools is
+shown in Table 4.
+
+
+TABLE 4.--ENROLLMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS, SECOND SEMESTER, 1914-1915
+
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------+
+ | Enrollment |
+ Schools +---------+---------+---------+
+ | Boys | Girls | Total |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+ | | | |
+ Academic high schools | | | |
+ Central | 804 | 711 | 1,515 |
+ East | 607 | 688 | 1,295 |
+ Glenville | 405 | 611 | 1,016 |
+ West | 246 | 377 | 623 |
+ Lincoln | 277 | 329 | 606 |
+ South | 213 | 238 | 451 |
+ | | | |
+ Total | 2,552 | 2,954 | 5,506 |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+ | | | |
+ Technical high schools | | | |
+ East Technical | 1,161 | 548 | 1,709 |
+ West Technical | 515 | 242 | 757 |
+ | | | |
+ Total | 1,676 | 790 | 2,466 |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+ | | | |
+ Commercial high schools | | | |
+ West Commercial | 249 | 528 | 777 |
+ East Commercial | 49 | 96 | 145 |
+ | | | |
+ Total | 298 | 624 | 922 |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+ | | | |
+ All high schools | 4,526 | 4,368 | 8,894 |
+ | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+
+About three-eighths of the high school pupils of the city are in the
+technical and commercial schools. Of the boys 56 per cent are enrolled
+in the academic high schools, 37 per cent in the technical schools,
+and seven per cent in the commercial schools. Of the girls 68 per
+cent attend the academic high schools, 18 per cent the technical
+schools, and 14 per cent the commercial schools. In the commercial
+high school approximately two-thirds of the enrollment is made up of
+girls. In the technical high schools the opposite condition prevails,
+the girls constituting less than one-third of the total enrollment,
+while in the academic high schools the girls outnumber the boys by
+nearly one-sixth.
+
+
+AGES OF PUPILS
+
+The distribution as to ages is shown in Table 5. The largest group is
+made up of children seven years old. Between 14 and 15 over 30 per
+cent leave school. The loss from 16 to 17 is approximately 43 per
+cent, from 17 to 18 about 44 per cent, and from 18 to 19 nearly 62 per
+cent.
+
+The compulsory attendance law requires boys to attend school until
+they are 15 and girls until they are 16. That the law is not
+adequately enforced is demonstrated by the heavy loss between the ages
+of 14 and 15, and the fact that the loss between 15 and 16 is
+approximately the same for both boys and girls, although girls are
+required to attend one year longer than boys. Additional evidence as
+to the laxity in the enforcement of the compulsory law is found in the
+results of an inquiry conducted by the Consumers' League of Cleveland
+in the spring of 1916, in cooperation with the survey.
+
+
+TABLE 5.--AGES OF PUPILS ENROLLED IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY, HIGH, AND
+NORMAL SCHOOLS IN JUNE, 1915
+
+-------------------------------------------------
+ Age | Boys | Girls | Total
+-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------
+ 6 | 4,255 | 4,180 | 8,435
+ 7 | 5,012 | 4,815 | 9,827
+ 8 | 4,496 | 4,407 | 8,903
+ 9 | 4,268 | 4,103 | 8,371
+ 10 | 4,093 | 3,951 | 8,044
+ | | |
+ 11 | 3,747 | 3,593 | 7,340
+ 12 | 3,700 | 3,646 | 7,346
+ 13 | 3,676 | 3,631 | 7,307
+ 14 | 3,445 | 3,271 | 6,716
+ 15 | 2,358 | 2,291 | 4,649
+ | | |
+ 16 | 1,190 | 1,163 | 2,353
+ 17 | 672 | 680 | 1,352
+ 18 | 403 | 358 | 761
+ 19 | 135 | 156 | 291
+ 20 | 41 | 52 | 93
+ | | |
+ Over 20 | ... | 22 | 22
+-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------
+ Total | 41,491 | 40,319 | 81,810
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+An attempt was made to follow up the cases of all the children who had
+left one public elementary school during the period of one year
+preceding the study. The work was done by the case method and the
+homes of the children were visited. The total number of cases studied
+was 117, of whom 89 were girls. It was found that one-third of these
+children had graduated and gone on to high school. Another third had
+gone to work, and of these, 40 per cent had done so without
+graduating. The children constituting the remaining third were staying
+at home, and among these a majority had dropped out without
+graduating.
+
+Of the eighth grade graduates one-half were found to be illegally
+employed, as they were less than 16 years of age. Among those who
+dropped out and went to work before completing the course 80 per cent
+were illegally employed.
+
+The fact that many girls drop out without graduating and before the
+end of the legal attendance period and remain at home indicates that
+most of them do not leave on account of financial necessity. This
+conclusion is substantiated by the testimony of the girls and their
+parents, many of whom say that the girls left simply because they grew
+tired of attending and did not see the value of remaining.
+
+These facts point to the necessity for much more effective work in
+enforcing the compulsory attendance laws, for far better inspection of
+shops and factories to detect violations of the child labor laws, and
+above all to such a reform of the schooling opportunities provided for
+older girls as will make them and their parents see the value of
+securing the advantages of the training provided.
+
+
+EDUCATION AT THE TIME OF LEAVING SCHOOL
+
+About 3,700 boys and an approximately equal number of girls drop out
+of the public schools each year. Most of the boys and a considerable
+number of the girls enter wage-earning at once. Their educational
+equipment at the time of leaving school is indicated in Table 6.
+
+
+TABLE 6.--EDUCATIONAL EQUIPMENT OF THE CHILDREN WHO DROP OUT OF THE
+PUBLIC SCHOOLS EACH YEAR, AS INDICATED BY THE GRADES FROM WHICH THEY
+LEAVE
+
+--------------+---------------------
+ Grade | Number leaving
+--------------+---------------------
+ 4 | 70
+ 5 | 440
+ 6 | 960
+ 7 | 1260
+ 8 | 1630
+ |
+ I | 890
+ II | 590
+ III | 150
+ IV | 1410
+--------------+---------------------
+ Total | 7400
+--------------+---------------------
+
+Slightly less than one-fifth finish the high school course. Nearly
+three-fifths drop out before entering the high school, and
+approximately three-eighths before reaching the eighth grade.
+
+Under the present compulsory attendance law a boy who enters school at
+the age of six and afterwards advances at the rate of one grade per
+year until the end of the compulsory attendance period should cover
+nine grades--eight in the elementary school and one in high school--by
+the time he is 15 years old. In actual fact, however, only about
+two-fifths get any high school training. Nearly all of the rest take
+the eight to nine years' attendance required by law to complete eight,
+seven, six, or even a smaller number of grades.
+
+It is from this body of pupils that most of the wage-earners are
+recruited. In the course of the survey several investigations were
+made for the purpose of finding out what educational preparation
+workers in various industries had received. One of the most extensive
+of these was conducted in connection with the study of the printing
+industry. Educationally the printing trades rank higher than most
+other factory occupations, yet the average journeyman printer
+possesses less than a complete elementary education. Composing-room
+employees, such as compositors, linotypers, stonemen, proof-readers,
+etc., undoubtedly stand at the head of the skilled trades as to
+educational training, but it was found that only eight per cent were
+high school graduates. Six per cent had left school before reaching
+the seventh grade, and 16 per cent before reaching the eighth grade.
+The other departments of the printing industry made a much less
+favorable showing.
+
+An investigation conducted by the Survey in the spring of 1915,
+covering 5,000 young people at work under 21 years of age, indicated
+that only about 13 per cent of these young workers had received any
+high school training and that less than four per cent had completed a
+high school course. Over one-fifth reported the sixth grade as the
+last completed before leaving school, and nearly half had dropped out
+before completing the elementary course. Less than seven per cent of
+the boys engaged in industrial pursuits had received any high school
+training and only 42 per cent had got beyond the seventh grade. The
+educational preparation of the boys engaged in commercial and
+clerical occupations was somewhat better, nearly 22 per cent having
+attended high school one year or more; about one-half had left school
+after completing the eighth grade and nearly one-third had not
+completed the elementary course.
+
+These facts have a vital relation to the problem of vocational
+training. If the great majority of the children who will later enter
+wage-earning occupations do not remain in school beyond the end of the
+compulsory attendance period, and in addition over half fail to
+complete even the elementary course, vocational training, to reach
+them at all, must begin not later than the seventh grade, and if
+possible, before the pupils reach the age of 14.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR BOYS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
+
+
+In Chapter III the distribution of the wage-earners of the city was
+outlined, mainly for the purpose of establishing a basis on which to
+make a forecast of the future occupations of the children in the
+public schools. Such a forecast is essential as the preliminary step
+in any plan of vocational training to be carried out during the school
+period, for the reason that without it a clear understanding of the
+principal factors of the problem is impossible. The kinds of
+vocational training needed by children in school, and how and where
+such training should be given, must always depend in the first
+instance on what they are going to do when they grow up.
+
+The average elementary school in Cleveland enrolls between 350 and 400
+boys. When they leave school these boys will scatter into many
+different kinds of work. With respect to the future vocations of the
+pupils, the average school represents in a sense a cross section of
+the occupational activities of the city. It contains a certain number
+of recruits for each of the principal types of wage-earning pursuits.
+A few of the boys will later enter professional life; many will take
+up some sort of clerical work; a still larger number will be employed
+in commercial occupations; and the largest group of all will become
+wage-earners in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
+
+The future occupation cannot be foretold accurately with respect to
+any particular boy, but we do know that, whatever their individual
+tastes and abilities, the boys must finally engage in activities
+similar to those in which the adult born native male population is
+engaged, and in approximately the same proportions. We do not know,
+for example, whether Johnny Jones will become a doctor or a carpenter,
+but we do know that of each 1,000 boys in the public schools about
+seven will become doctors and about 25 will become carpenters, because
+for many years about those proportions of the boys of native birth in
+Cleveland have become doctors and carpenters.
+
+One of the most impressive facts which comes to light in the study of
+occupational statistics is the constancy in these proportions. The
+business of any community requires certain kinds of work to be
+performed and the relative amount of work required and consequently
+the relative number of workers vary but slightly over a long period of
+time. This principle is illustrated in a striking way by the list of
+occupations selected at random presented in Table 7, showing the
+number of persons engaged in the occupations specified among each 100
+male workers at two successive census years.
+
+
+TABLE 7--PER CENT OF TOTAL MALE WORKING POPULATION ENGAGED IN
+SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS, 1900 AND 1910
+
+----------------------------+---------------------
+ | Per cent of total
+ Occupation | working population
+ +----------+----------
+ | 1900 | 1910
+----------------------------+----------+----------
+Machinists | 4.7 | 5.8
+Saloon keepers | 1.1 | .7
+Tailors | 2.1 | 1.7
+Commercial travelers | .8 | 1.1
+Lawyers | .5 | .4
+Barbers | .8 | .7
+Bakers | .6 | .5
+Physicians | .6 | .5
+Carpenters | 3.4 | 3.3
+Cabinet makers | .5 | .4
+Plumbers | .9 | .9
+Stenographers and typists | .3 | .3
+----------------------------+----------+----------
+
+With the exception of plumbers and stenographers there was either an
+increase or a decrease from 1900 to 1910 in the relative number
+employed in each of these occupations. In only one occupation,
+however, that of machinist, did the change amount to as much as one
+per cent. In all the others the shift during the decade was less than
+one-half of one per cent, and in more than three-fifths of them it did
+not exceed one-tenth of one per cent of the total number of male
+workers.
+
+
+WHAT THE BOYS IN SCHOOL WILL DO
+
+The figures in this table, presented for illustrative purposes, do not
+accurately represent the proportions of boys now attending the public
+schools who are likely to enter the occupations named, because they
+do not take into account the fact that a considerable number of the
+workers in Cleveland came to this country after they reached adult
+manhood and that a disproportionate number of these foreign born
+workers enter the industrial occupations. For this reason the total
+adult working population is not strictly comparable with the school
+enrollment, which is approximately nine-tenths native born. When the
+boys in the public schools grow up they will be distributed among the
+different trades, professions, and industries in about the same
+proportions as are the American born men in the city at the present
+time. This distribution is shown for the different occupational groups
+in Table 8.
+
+
+TABLE 8.--DISTRIBUTION OF NATIVE BORN MEN BETWEEN THE AGES OF 21 AND
+45 IN THE PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS
+
+ Approximate
+ Occupational group per cent
+
+Manufacturing and mechanical occupations 44
+Commercial occupations 20
+Clerical occupations 16
+Transportation occupations 11
+Domestic and personal service occupations 5
+Professional occupations 3
+Public service occupations 1
+ ----
+ Total 100
+
+The figures in the column at the right of the table represent the
+number of native born men between the ages of 21 and 45 among each
+hundred native born male inhabitants engaged in the occupations
+comprehended in the various groups. In the case of the industrial
+group the figure is too high, as the census data relative to the
+distribution of foreign and native born include all ages, and there is
+a smaller proportion of American born adult men employed in industry
+than is found in the lower age groups. Extensive computations have
+shown, however, that the inaccuracies due to this cause are not
+serious enough to affect the use of the figures for our purpose.
+
+Let us now consider what these proportions mean in establishing
+vocational courses to prepare boys for wage-earning pursuits. The
+future expectations of the boys in a large elementary school enrolling
+say 1,000 pupils of both sexes would be about as follows:
+
+_Number of boys who will enter_
+ Manufacturing and mechanical occupations 220
+ Commercial occupations 100
+ Clerical occupations 80
+ Transportation occupations 55
+ Domestic and personal service occupations 25
+ Professional occupations 15
+ Public service occupations 5
+ ----
+ Total 500
+
+This distribution includes all pupils, from the beginners in the first
+grade to the older boys in the seventh and eighth grades. It is
+certain, however, that differentiated instruction for vocational
+purposes is not possible or advisable for the younger children.
+According to the commonly accepted view among educators, vocational
+training should not be undertaken before the age of 12 years, and many
+believe that this is too early. In an elementary school of 1,000
+pupils there would be about 80 boys 12 years old and over. Applying
+to this number the ratios given in the previous table we obtain the
+following:
+
+_Number of boys who will enter_
+ Manufacturing and mechanical occupations 35
+ Commercial occupations 16
+ Clerical occupations 13
+ Transportation occupations 9
+ Domestic and personal service occupations 4
+ Professional occupations 2
+ Public service occupations 1
+ ---
+ Total 80
+
+The industrial group includes all of the skilled trades and most of
+the semi-skilled and unskilled manual occupations. The skilled trades
+are usually grouped in four main classifications: metal trades,
+building trades, printing trades, and "other" trades, these last
+comprising a number of small trades in each of which relatively few
+men are employed. With respect to their future occupations the 35 boys
+in the industrial group are likely to be distributed about as follows:
+
+_Number of boys who will enter_
+ Metal trades 8
+ Building trades 7
+ Printing trades 1
+ Other trades 2
+ Semi-skilled and unskilled industrial occupations 17
+ ---
+ 35
+
+The analysis can be carried still further, for these trade groups are
+by no means homogeneous. The building trades, for example, include
+over 20 distinct trades, a number of which have little in common with
+the others as to methods of work and technical content.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION AND COSTS
+
+At this point it becomes necessary to take cognizance of certain
+administrative factors which have a marked bearing on the problem.
+They relate to the organization of classes in elementary schools and
+the cost of teaching. In a school of 1,000 pupils there would be at
+least five separate classes for the seventh and eighth grades. The 35
+boys who need industrial training are not all found in a single class,
+but are distributed more or less evenly throughout the five
+classrooms, that is, there are approximately seven in each class. A
+differentiated course under these conditions is difficult if not
+impossible. In a few of the Cleveland elementary schools the
+departmental system of teaching is in use. Under this plan something
+might be done, were it not that the total number of pupils requiring
+instruction relating specifically to the industrial trades is too
+small to justify the expense necessary for equipment, material, and
+special instruction required for such training. This is true as
+regards even an industrial course of the most general kind, while
+provision for particular trades is entirely out of the question. The
+machinist's trade employs more men than any other occupation in the
+city, yet the number of seventh and eighth grade boys in the average
+elementary school who will probably become machinists does not exceed
+five or six. Not over two boys are likely to enter employment in the
+printing industry. The smaller trades, such as pattern making, cabinet
+making, molding, and blacksmithing are represented by not more than
+one boy each.
+
+A possible alternative is the plan now followed in the teaching of
+manual training whereby the boys of the upper grades in various
+elementary schools are sent to one centrally located for a short
+period of instruction each week. The principal objection to this plan
+is that the amount of time now given is insufficient to accomplish
+much in an industrial course, nor can it be materially increased
+without seriously interfering with the work in other subjects.
+
+The first condition for successful industrial training is the
+concentration of a large number of pupils old enough to benefit by
+such training in a single school plant. Only in this way is it
+possible to bring the cost of teaching, equipment, and material within
+reasonable limits and provide facilities for differentiating the work
+on the basis of the vocational needs of the pupils. The fact that this
+condition cannot be met in elementary schools is one of the strongest
+arguments in favor of conducting the seventh and eighth grade work
+under the junior high school form of organization.
+
+
+WHAT THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS CAN DO
+
+The most important contribution to vocational education the elementary
+school can make consists in getting the children through the lower
+grades fast enough so that they will reach the junior high school by
+the time they are 13 years old, in order that before the end of the
+compulsory attendance period they may spend at least two years in a
+school where some kind of industrial training is possible. That this
+is not being done at the present time the data presented in Chapter IV
+amply demonstrate. In recent years there has been a tendency to regard
+vocational training as a remedy for retardation. The fact is that the
+cure of retardation is not a subsequent but a preliminary condition to
+successful training for wage-earning. Vocational training is not a
+means for the prevention of retardation, but retardation is a most
+effective means for the prevention of vocational training.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
+
+
+In 1915 the Board of Education authorized the establishment of a
+system of junior high schools in the city, and at the beginning of the
+school year of 1915-16 the new plan was inaugurated in two schools.
+The Empire Junior High School, situated in the eastern part of the
+city, had an enrollment of about 700 children made up of seventh and
+eighth grade pupils formerly accommodated in the elementary schools of
+that section. The Detroit Junior High School on the west side had an
+enrollment of about 400 pupils. No decision has yet been reached as to
+whether the course shall include only two years' work, or three years,
+as in other cities of the country where the junior high school plan
+has been adopted.
+
+A comparison of the course with that for corresponding grades of the
+elementary schools shows some marked differences. Less time is devoted
+to English in the junior high school and considerably more to
+arithmetic, geography, and history. Mechanical drawing, not taught in
+the elementary schools except incidentally in the manual training
+classes, is given an hour each week. All boys receive one hour of
+manual training a week against slightly less than one and one-half
+hours in the seventh and eighth elementary grades, but they may elect
+an additional two and one-half hours a week in this subject, together
+with applied arithmetic during the first year, or with bookkeeping
+during the second. Girls may elect an additional two and one-half
+hours a week of domestic science, with bookkeeping. The manual
+training for boys comprises woodwork and bookbinding.
+
+
+SPECIALIZED TRAINING NOT PRACTICABLE
+
+In the junior high school, as in the elementary school, the greatest
+difficulty in the way of trade training for specific occupations lies
+in the small number of pupils who can be expected, within the bounds
+of reasonable probability, to enter a single trade. Hand and machine
+composition, the largest of the printing trades, will serve as an
+example. In a junior high school of 1,000 pupils, boys and girls, the
+number of boys who are likely to become compositors is about five. But
+to teach this trade printing equipment occupying considerable space is
+necessary, together with a teacher who has had some experience or
+training as a printer. The expense per pupil for equipment, for the
+space it occupies, and for instruction renders special training for
+such small classes impracticable. All of the skilled occupations, with
+the exception perhaps of the machinist's trade, are in the same case.
+An attempt to form separate classes for each of the eight largest
+trades in the city would result in two classes of not over five
+pupils, three classes of not over 10 pupils, and only one of over 13
+pupils. The following table shows the number of boys, in a school of
+this size, who are likely to enter each of these trades.
+
+_Number of boys who will probably become:_
+ Machinists 36
+ Carpenters 13
+ Steam engineers 11
+ Painters 10
+ Electricians 9
+ Plumbers 7
+ Compositors 5
+ Molders 5
+
+
+A GENERAL INDUSTRIAL COURSE
+
+The members of the Survey Staff were, however, of the opinion that
+through the system of electives in the junior high school, industrial
+training of a more general type, made up chiefly of instruction in the
+applications of mathematics, drawing, physics, and chemistry to the
+commoner industrial processes, would be of considerable benefit to
+those boys who, on the basis of their own selection or that of their
+parents, are likely to enter industrial pursuits. A course of this
+kind is outlined in following sections of this chapter.
+
+The objections which may be brought against this plan are frankly
+recognized. It takes into account only the interests of the industrial
+group, comprising less than one-half of the boys in the school.
+Unquestionably it would tend to vitalize the teaching of mathematics,
+drawing, and science for the boys who enroll in the industrial course,
+but it leaves unsolved the question of method and content of
+instruction in these subjects for the boys in the non-industrial or
+so-called academic course. Very possibly future experience may
+demonstrate that the plan recommended for the general industrial
+course affords the best medium for teaching science and mathematics at
+this period to all pupils, in which case a differentiated course would
+be unnecessary.
+
+The organization of vocational training in junior high school grades
+presents many difficulties which cannot be solved by a more or less
+abstract study of educational and industrial needs. Experimentation on
+an extensive scale, covering a considerable period of time, is
+necessary before definite conclusions can be drawn as to the
+limitations and possibilities of such work. It is with a full
+appreciation of this fact that the following suggestive outline is
+presented.
+
+The purpose of the general industrial course is to afford to boys who
+wish to enter industrial occupations the opportunity to secure
+knowledge and training that will be of direct or indirect value to
+them in industrial employment. It is not expected that by this means
+they can be given much practical training in hand work for any
+particular trade. The most the school can do for the boy at this
+period is to bridge over for him the gap that exists between the
+knowledge he obtains from books and the rôle which this knowledge
+plays in the working world. It must not be assumed that the transition
+can be effected merely by the introduction of shop work, even if it
+were possible to provide the wide variety of manual training necessary
+to make up a fair representation of the principal occupations into
+which the boys will enter when they leave school. It is doubtful
+whether, so far as its vocational value is concerned, shop work
+isolated from other subjects of the curriculum is worth any more per
+unit of time devoted to it than several of the so-called academic
+subjects. This is particularly true of the two most common types of
+manual training--cabinet making and forge work. Both represent dying
+trades. During the decade 1900-1910 the increase in the number of
+cabinet makers in Cleveland fell far below the general increase in
+population. The blacksmiths made a still poorer showing. Both trades
+are recruited mainly from abroad and the relative number of Americans
+employed in them is steadily declining.
+
+In the opinion of the Survey Staff a general industrial course should
+cover instruction in at least the following five subjects: Industrial
+mathematics, mechanical drawing, industrial science, shop work, and
+the study of economic and working conditions in wage earning pursuits.
+These may be offered as independent electives or they may be required
+of all pupils who elect the industrial course. The details of
+organization must, of course, be worked out by trial and experiment.
+They will probably vary in different schools and from year to year.
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL MATHEMATICS
+
+Of the hundreds of employers who were interviewed by members of the
+Survey Staff as to the technical equipment needed by beginners in the
+various trades, nearly all emphasized the ability to apply the
+principles of simple arithmetic quickly, correctly, and accurately to
+industrial problems. Many employers criticized the present methods of
+teaching this subject in the public schools. In the main their
+criticisms were to the effect that the teaching was not "practical."
+"The boys I get may know arithmetic," said one, "but they haven't any
+mathematical sense." Another cited his experience with an apprentice
+who was told to cut a bar eight and one-half feet long into five
+pieces of equal length. He was not told the length of the bar, but was
+given the direct order: "Cut that bar into five pieces all of the same
+size." The boy was unable to lay out the work, although when asked by
+the foreman, "Don't you know how to divide 81/2 by 5?", he performed the
+arithmetical operation without difficulty. The employer gave this
+instance as an illustration of what to his mind constituted one of the
+principal defects of public school teaching. "Mere knowledge of
+mathematical principles and the ability to solve abstract problems is
+not enough," he said. "What the boys get in the schools is
+mathematical skill, but what they need in their work is mathematical
+intelligence. The first does not necessarily imply the second."
+
+This mathematical intelligence can be developed only through practice
+in the solution of practical problems, that is, problems which are
+stated in the every day terms of the working world and which require
+the student to go through the successive mental steps in the same way
+that he would if he were working in a shop. The problem referred to
+above is one of division of fractions. If we state it thus: "81/2÷5,"
+the pupil takes pencil and paper, performs the operation and announces
+the result. If we say, "A bar 81/2 feet long is to be cut into five
+pieces of equal length; how long should each piece be?", the problem
+calls for the exercise of greater intelligence, as the pupil must
+determine which process to use in order to obtain the correct result.
+It becomes still more difficult if we merely show him the bar and say:
+"This bar must be cut into five pieces of equal length; how long will
+each piece be?" Several additional preliminary steps are required,
+none of which was involved in the problem in its original form. Before
+the length of the pieces can be computed he must find out the length
+of the bar. He must know what to measure it with, and in what terms,
+whether feet or inches, the problem should be stated. Again, if we
+say: "Lay this bar out to be cut in five equal lengths," another
+step--the measurement and marking for each cut--is added. Many
+variations might be introduced, each involving additional
+opportunities for the exercise of thought.
+
+It is through practice in solving problems of this kind that the pupil
+acquires what the employer called mathematical intelligence. It
+consists in the ability to note what elements are involved in the
+problems and to decide which process of arithmetic should be used in
+dealing with them. Once these decisions are made the succeeding
+arithmetical calculations are simple and easy. In technical terms the
+ability that is needed is the ability to generalize one's experiences.
+In every-day terms it is the ability to use what one knows.
+
+The work in applied mathematics should cover a wide range of problems
+worded in the language of the trades and constantly varied in order to
+establish as many points of contact as possible between the pupil's
+knowledge of mathematics and the use of mathematics in industrial
+life. Practical shop work is one of the best means to this end. The
+trouble with much of the shop work given in the schools is that it
+runs to hand craftmanship in which the object is to "make something"
+by methods long ago discarded in the industrial world, rather than to
+give the pupil exercise in the sort of thinking he will need to do
+after he goes to work. Successful teaching does not depend so much on
+the use of tools and materials as on the teacher's knowledge of the
+conditions surrounding industrial work and his ability to originate
+methods for vitalizing the instruction in its relation to industrial
+needs.
+
+
+MECHANICAL DRAWING
+
+At the present time the junior high school course provides for one
+hour a week of mechanical drawing. All the boys who may be expected
+to elect the industrial course can well afford to devote more time to
+drawing. For such boys no other subject in the curriculum, except
+perhaps applied mathematics, is of greater importance. In many of the
+trades the ability to work from drawings is indispensable and the man
+who does not possess it is not likely to rise above purely routine
+work.
+
+In a drawing course for future industrial workers the emphasis should
+be placed on giving the pupil an understanding of the uses of drawing
+for industrial purposes, rather than on fine workmanship in making
+drawings. Seventh grade boys can't be made into draftsmen in three
+years and if they leave school at 15 they are not likely to become
+draftsmen. The ordinary skilled workman seldom has any need to make
+drawings or designs, beyond an occasional rough sketch, but he often
+has to work from drawings. To put it in another way, drawing to the
+average workman is like an additional language of which he needs a
+reading but not a writing knowledge. No doubt it would be well to
+teach him to write and read with equal skill, but in the two or three
+years most of these boys will remain in school there is not time
+enough to do both.
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE
+
+In many of the trades an introductory knowledge of physics and
+chemistry is of considerable advantage. Boys in the junior high school
+cannot be expected to take formal courses in these subjects, but they
+should not leave school without some acquaintance with them and a
+knowledge of their relations to industrial processes. A fair equipment
+should be provided for demonstrational and illustrative purposes. The
+subject matter should be correlated as closely as possible with the
+shop work, and the principal mechanical and chemical laws explained as
+the shop problems furnish examples of their application.
+
+In addition the boys should be taught the common technical terms used
+in trade hand books. The man who expects to advance in his trade will
+have to keep on learning after he leaves school. There are many
+avenues of information open to him, and the school can perform no more
+valuable service than to point the way to the sources of knowledge
+represented by reference books, trade journals, and other technical
+literature. Some of the popular magazines, such as "The Scientific
+American," "The Illustrated World," and "Popular Mechanics" can be
+used most effectively to bring home to the pupils the close connection
+existing between the class work and the outside world of science and
+invention.
+
+
+SHOP WORK
+
+It is difficult to determine the exact function of the manual training
+shop work in cabinet making and bookbinding which figures in the
+curriculum at present. That the work was not planned with vocational
+training in mind seems clear from the action of the school board in
+adding bookbinding to the course about the middle of the year. The
+bookbinding trade is one of the smallest in the city, and there is
+little probability that more than one boy among the total number
+enrolled in both junior high schools will enter it after leaving
+school.
+
+Fully three-fourths of the industrial group will later be employed in
+occupations where most of the work is done with machines or machine
+tools. Even in the hand tool trades, such as carpentry, sheet metal
+work, cabinet making, and blacksmithing, the use of machines is
+constantly increasing. It would seem, therefore, that some
+acquaintance with different types of machines would be of considerable
+value to the pupils who may later enter industrial employment. The
+number of boys who are likely to become machinists is large enough to
+warrant the installation of a small machine shop. Repairing,
+assembling, and taking apart machines should occupy an important place
+in the shop course. Most boys are intensely interested in getting at
+the "insides" of a machine, and the processes of assembling, with
+their attendant problems of adjustment and co-ordination of mechanical
+movements, afford opportunities for the best kind of practical
+instruction. One of the great advantages of this type of shop work
+lies in the fact that it consumes little or no material and is
+therefore inexpensive; another is that a fairly extensive equipment
+can be easily obtained, as any machine, old or new, will serve the
+purpose and may be used over and over again.
+
+The extent and variety of shop equipment will depend largely on the
+resources of the school system. The more the better, so long as the
+money is expended on the principle of the greatest good to the
+greatest number, which means that the kinds of tools and equipment
+used in the large trades should be preferred to those used only in the
+smaller trades.
+
+In order that the time devoted to shop work may yield its greatest
+results, it is necessary that every lesson center around knowledge and
+ability that will be of real subsequent use to the pupils. It must not
+run to "art" and it must not be mere tinkering. Its principal value as
+vocational training, in the last analysis, lies in its use as an
+objective medium for the teaching of industrial mathematics and
+science.
+
+
+VOCATIONAL INFORMATION
+
+During the second and third years all the boys who elect the
+industrial course or who expect to leave school at the end of the
+compulsory attendance period should be required to devote some time
+each week to the study of economic and working conditions in wage
+earning industrial and commercial occupations. A clear understanding
+of the comparative advantages of different kinds of employment is of
+the highest importance at this period of the boy's life. It seems to
+be generally assumed that an adequate basis of knowledge for the
+selection of an industrial vocation is an acquaintance with materials
+and processes. Such knowledge is valuable, but making a living is
+mainly an economic problem. What an occupation means in terms of
+income is more significant than what it means in terms of materials.
+The most important facts about the cabinet making trade, for example,
+are that it offers very few opportunities for employment to public
+school boys, and that it is one of the lowest paid skilled trades. The
+primary considerations in the intelligent selection of a vocation
+relate to wages, steadiness of employment, health risks, opportunities
+for advancement, apprenticeship conditions, union regulations, and the
+number of chances there are for getting into it. These things are
+fundamental, and any one of them may well take precedence over the
+matter of whether the tastes of the future wage-earner run to wood,
+brick, stone, or steel.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+TRADE TRAINING DURING THE LAST YEARS IN SCHOOL
+
+
+Between the end of the compulsory attendance period and the entering
+age in most of the trades there exists a gap of from one to two years
+which is not adequately covered by any of the present educational
+agencies of the school system.
+
+Two years ago the Ohio State legislature extended the compulsory
+attendance period from 14 to 15 for boys and from 14 to 16 for girls.
+The result has been to force into the first years of the high school
+course a considerable number of pupils who have no intention of taking
+the complete four year course, and who will leave as soon as they
+reach the end of the compulsory period. That these pupils are probably
+not getting all that they might out of the time they attend high
+school is no argument against the present compulsory attendance age
+limit, which should be raised rather than lowered.
+
+The study of industrial conditions conducted during the survey left
+every member of the Survey Staff firmly convinced that the industries
+of Cleveland have little or nothing worth while to offer to boys
+under 16. Very few of the skilled trades will accept an apprentice
+below this age. The general opinion among manufacturers was
+unfavorable to the employment of boys under 16. "They are more of a
+nuisance than a help," said one; "they are not old enough to
+understand the responsibilities of work." "They break more machinery
+and spoil more material than they are worth," said another. In several
+of the building trades apprentices must be 17 years old, as the law
+forbids boys under this age to work on scaffoldings. The new workmen's
+compensation law exerts a strong influence in favor of a higher
+working age limit, owing to the greater risk of accident among young
+workers.
+
+The fact is that the law is still about one year behind the
+requirements of industrial life. If a vote were taken among employers
+who can offer boys the opportunity to learn a trade it would be found
+that a large majority favor raising the working age to 16. Employment
+before this time usually leads nowhere, and the pittance the boy earns
+cannot be compared with the economic advantage he could derive from an
+additional year in a good vocational school. The average boy who
+leaves school at 15 spends a year or two loafing or working at odd
+jobs before he can obtain employment that offers any promise of future
+advancement. These years are often more than wasted, as he not only
+learns nothing of value from such casual jobs, but misses the healthy
+discipline of steady, orderly work, which is of so great importance
+during these formative years of his life.
+
+
+THE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS
+
+The two technical high schools, the East Technical and West Technical,
+occupy an important place among the secondary schools of the city. At
+the present time the two schools enroll nearly two-fifths of the boys
+attending high school. The course comprises four years' work. In the
+East Technical the shopwork includes joinery and wood-turning during
+the first year, and pattern making and foundry work during the second
+year. In the West Technical the first year course includes pattern
+making and either forging or sheet metal work; and that of the second
+year, forging, pipe-fitting, brazing, riveting, and cabinet making.
+During the remaining two years of the course the student may elect a
+particular trade, devoting about 10 hours a week to practice in the
+shop during the last half of the third year, and from 11 to 15 hours
+during the fourth year.
+
+The proportion of pupils who graduate is small and the mortality
+during the first two years is very heavy. This is due in part to the
+fact that the type of pupil who leaves school early is more likely to
+elect a technical course than an academic course. About 25 per cent of
+each entering class drops out after attending one year, and 25 per
+cent of the remainder by the end of the second year. By the time the
+third year is reached the classes are greatly depleted and the
+survivors as a rule are of the more intelligent and prosperous type.
+Only a small proportion of them expect to enter skilled manual
+occupations. Table 9 shows the distribution of the third and fourth
+year students among the different trade courses during the first
+semester of 1915-16.
+
+
+TABLE 9.--DISTRIBUTION OF THIRD AND FOURTH YEAR STUDENTS IN TRADE
+COURSES IN THE CLEVELAND TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS, FIRST SEMESTER,
+1915-1916
+
+ Trade courses Students
+ Electrical construction 68
+ Machine work 52
+ Printing 28
+ Cabinet making 22
+ Pattern making 12
+ Foundry work 1
+ ----
+ Total 183
+
+That relatively few of these students will ultimately become
+journeymen workmen is shown by the records of the boys graduated in
+the past. The principal of the East Technical High School recently
+sent a questionnaire to all the students graduated up to 1915, asking
+for information as to their present occupations and their earnings
+during the first four years after graduation. Of those who replied,
+over 60 per cent either were attending college, or employed as
+draftsmen or chemists. About 28 per cent were employed in the skilled
+trades. The distribution in detail is shown in Table 10.
+
+The data furnished by graduates as to their earnings during successive
+years after leaving school supply still more convincing evidence to
+the effect that the technical school graduate seldom remains in manual
+work more than two or three years. The complete course gives them an
+equipment of practical and theoretical knowledge that speedily takes
+them out of the handwork class. The technical high schools are
+primarily training schools for future civil, electrical, and
+mechanical engineers. To the student who cannot afford a college
+course they offer excellent preparation for rapid advancement to
+supervisory and executive industrial positions, and for drafting and
+office work in manufacturing plants.
+
+
+TABLE 10.--DISTRIBUTION BY OCCUPATION OF CLEVELAND TECHNICAL HIGH
+SCHOOL GRADUATES
+
+ Occupation Number
+ Attending college 111
+ Draftsmen 51
+ Electricians 33
+ Machinists 32
+ Chemists 8
+ Pattern makers 7
+ Cabinet makers 6
+ Printers 3
+ Foundrymen 1
+ Unclassified 32
+ ----
+ Total 284
+
+The output of the schools falls into two main divisions: those who
+leave at the end of the second year or earlier, and those who
+graduate. The records show that most of the pupils who reach the third
+year complete the course, but nearly half drop out during the first
+and second years. The benefit they obtain from these two years'
+attendance is problematical. The course was designed on the basis of
+four years' attendance, and the work of the first two years is to a
+considerable degree a preparation for that of the last two.
+
+The principals of both schools are fully alive to the disadvantages of
+the course for the large number of pupils who drop out within a year
+or two, and admit that such students would derive greater benefit from
+more practical instruction aimed directly toward preparation for the
+industrial trades. Both believe that the only practicable solution is
+a two-year trade course in a separate school, covering a much wider
+range of shop activities than the present high school course.
+
+To the only alternative--the institution of a short course within the
+technical schools to be conducted either as a part of or
+simultaneously with the four year course--they present objections of
+considerable weight. They point out that a preparatory course for the
+trades and a preparatory course with college as the goal differ not
+only in length but in kind. The work in mathematics for the future
+civil engineer, for example, must conform to college entrance
+standards and involves an amount of study that is quite unnecessary
+for the boy whose aim is to become a carpenter or machinist. The first
+needs a thorough course in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry; the
+second needs industrial arithmetic, with only such applications of
+higher mathematics as may be of use to him in his trade. The same
+principle holds with respect to other subjects.
+
+What boys who expect to enter industrial occupations most need at this
+period is instruction that will be of practical value to them for
+future wage earning. It is doubtful whether high school courses which
+have been formulated in the first instance to prepare pupils for a
+college course can furnish such instruction and it is still more
+doubtful whether the trade training required by the future mechanic
+and the broader preparation required for the professions can be given
+effectively in the same school.
+
+
+A TWO-YEAR TRADE COURSE
+
+It is the opinion of the Survey Staff that a separate school in which
+direct training for the industrial trades is emphasized would result
+in more profitable use of the pupils' time and probably induce many of
+them to remain in school up to the apprentice entering age. Such a
+school, with a curriculum embracing vocational training for all the
+principal trades, would easily command an enrollment sufficient to
+justify the installation of a good shop equipment and the employment
+of a corps of teachers qualified by special training and experience
+for this kind of work. Even if only one-half the number who enter the
+skilled trades each year attended the school, the enrollment would
+reach at least 800 boys.
+
+A trade school of this kind would relieve the first and second year
+classes of many pupils that the technical high schools do not want and
+cannot adequately provide for. The minimum entering age should be not
+less than 14, and no requirement other than age should be imposed.
+This would draw part of the over-age pupils from the grades and take
+from the junior high school a certain number of boys who could profit
+by the greater amount of time given to shop work in the trade school.
+
+A good many will stay only one year, and every effort should be made
+at the time of entrance to learn the intentions of the pupil. If it
+seems fairly certain that he will not remain longer than a year he may
+well omit such studies as have no direct bearing on the trade he
+wishes to learn. The courses should follow the lines laid down in the
+general industrial course recommended for the junior high school, but
+with a greater proportion of the time devoted to practical shopwork.
+As the number of pupils for each trade class would be relatively
+large, a closer correlation could be effected between the academic
+subjects and the work in the shops than is possible in the junior high
+school.
+
+Both general and special courses should be provided. Many of the
+pupils will wish to specialize on a particular trade. Others who have
+not yet reached a decision need a general course that will give them a
+wide range of experience with materials and processes. The
+organization of classes should be planned so as to permit transfers,
+whenever desirable, from the general to the special courses, or
+vice-versa.
+
+By the time the pupil has reached the second year he usually will
+settle down to steady work on the trade he selects, although here
+again the organization should be sufficiently elastic to allow
+transfers when there seems to be good reason for making them. It is to
+be expected, however, that nearly all the pupils will devote their
+time during the second year to practice and study limited to single
+trades. The success of the school in holding boys to the age of 16 or
+17 will depend on its ability to convince them that the extra time in
+school is a paying investment, and this cannot be done unless they
+stick to one line of work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TRADE-PREPARATORY AND TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING FOR BOYS AND MEN AT
+WORK
+
+
+Several forms of trade-preparatory and trade-extension training for
+apprentices and journeymen workmen are carried on in the city.
+Probably the most effective work done in the teaching of boys after
+they have entered employment is found in manufacturing establishments
+which maintain apprentice schools in connection with their shops.
+There are two excellent examples of this type of instruction in
+Cleveland--the apprentice schools conducted by the New York Central
+Railroad and by the Warner and Swasey Company, manufacturers of
+astronomical instruments and machine tools.
+
+The Warner and Swasey Company school was established in 1911. The
+course covers a total of 560 hours, extending over a period of four
+years. The apprentices attend the school four hours a week for 35
+weeks each year. The time allotment for the various subjects included
+in the course is shown in Table 11.
+
+In 1915 there were 65 apprentices enrolled in the school, most of them
+from the machinist's trade. The sessions are held during working
+hours in a room in the factory fitted up with drawing tables and
+blackboards. No shop equipment is used. The purpose of the course is
+to develop a body of trained workmen competent to take positions in
+the factory as foremen or heads of departments. Less than one-tenth of
+the total time of the course is devoted to the study of shop practice.
+Standard textbooks are used in the teaching of mathematics.
+
+
+TABLE 11.--TIME ALLOTMENT IN THE APPRENTICE COURSE GIVEN BY THE WARNER
+AND SWASEY COMPANY, CLEVELAND
+
+ Subject Hours
+ Arithmetic 35
+ English 65
+ Mechanical drawing 70
+ Shop practice 40
+ Algebra 70
+ Geometry 40
+ Trigonometry 30
+ Physics 70
+ Materials 35
+ Industrial history 35
+ Mechanics, strength of materials, and mechanical design 70
+ ---
+ Total 560
+
+The enrollment in the school conducted by the New York Central
+Railroad is about 140 boys, nearly all of whom are machinists'
+apprentices. They are divided into three classes, the members of each
+class attending the school four hours a week. About two-thirds of the
+time is devoted to mechanical drawing and one-third to mathematics and
+shop practice. The instruction in these two latter subjects is based
+on a series of graded mimeographed or blue print lesson sheets,
+containing a wide variety of shop problems, with a condensed and
+simplified explanation of the mathematical principles involved. In the
+main the work is limited to the application of simple arithmetic to
+problems of shop practice. No textbooks are used, but the booklets on
+machine shop practice published by the International Correspondence
+Schools are studied in connection with the course.
+
+In addition to the required classroom work in mechanical drawing, each
+apprentice serves four or five months of his term in the regular
+drafting rooms of the company. The classroom is equipped with models
+of railway appliances and machinery, together with laboratory
+apparatus for teaching the laws of mechanics. No machine tools or
+other shop equipment are used in the classes. The course covers about
+700 hours of instruction exclusive of the time spent in regular
+drafting room work. About 20 apprentices finished the course in 1915.
+
+Several of the building and printing trades' labor unions take an
+active interest in the training of apprentices, and in at least two
+instances the unions maintain evening classes for teaching trade
+theory. The Electrical Workers' Union, made up principally of inside
+wiremen, conducts apprentice classes taught by journeymen. The
+International Typographical Union course for compositors and
+compositors' apprentices is undoubtedly the best yet devised for
+giving supplementary training in hand composition. It is taught by
+journeymen in evening classes, under the supervision of the central
+office of the Typographical Union Commission, to which all the work
+must be submitted. In February, 1916, about 100 students were
+enrolled, of whom approximately one-third were apprentices and
+two-thirds journeymen. The course consists of 46 lessons in English,
+lettering, design, color harmony, job composition, and imposition for
+machine and hand folding. The classes are held at the headquarters of
+the union. As the students' daily practice in the shop provides plenty
+of opportunity for the acquisition of manual skill, no apparatus or
+shop equipment is used in connection with the course.
+
+The apprentice school conducted by the Y.M.C.A. represents another
+type of apprentice training. The instruction is given during the day.
+The apprentices are sent to the school by various firms in the city
+under an arrangement whereby the boys attend four and one-half hours
+each week during regular shop time. In February, 1916, the enrollment
+consisted of 46 apprentices, practically all from the metal trades.
+The employers pay the tuition fee, which amounts to $20 a year. The
+course requires four years' work of 40 weeks each, a total of 720
+hours. It comprises instruction in shop mathematics, drawing, English,
+physics, and industrial hygiene. No shop equipment is used. Fifteen
+boys were graduated from the course this year.
+
+The factory apprentice school of the Warner and Swasey Company and New
+York Central Railroad type possesses many advantages over any kind of
+continuation instruction carried on outside of the plants where the
+boys are employed. A better correlation between the class and shop
+work is possible together with a more personal relation between
+teacher and pupils than is usually found when the pupils are drawn
+from a number of different establishments. It must be admitted,
+however, that this method of training apprentices is not feasible
+except in very large plants, as in small classes the teaching cost
+becomes prohibitive. There is little probability that it will ever be
+adopted by enough employers to take care of more than an insignificant
+proportion of the boys who enter the skilled trades.
+
+The results obtained, here and in other cities, through coöperative
+schemes, such as the Y.M.C.A. continuation school, are in the main
+disappointing. Their failure to reach more than a few of the boys who
+need trade-extension training is due partly to the fact that they
+operate under a condition that is fundamentally unjust. One employer
+interviewed during the survey stated the case very clearly: "I can see
+no good reason why I should make pecuniary sacrifices for the benefit
+of my competitors. Very few of my apprentices remain until the end of
+their term, because by the time they have completed their second year
+other firms which make no effort to train their quota of skilled
+workmen for the trade steal them away from me. Any plan for the
+training of apprentices which does not apportion the burden among the
+different establishments in direct proportion to the number of men
+they have, simply penalizes those public-spirited employers who
+participate in it."
+
+
+CONTINUATION TRAINING FROM 15 TO 18
+
+The years between 15 and 18 are among the most important in the life
+of the young worker. If left to his own devices during this period, he
+is very likely to lose much of vocational value of his earlier
+education, because he does not grasp the relation which the knowledge
+he acquired in school bears to his daily work. As a result the problem
+of supplementary instruction at a later age, when he wakes up to his
+need for it, becomes much more difficult than if trade-extension
+training had been taken up at once when he entered employment.
+
+The vocational interests of young workers and the social interests of
+the community are both opposed to the current practice of "graduating"
+boys from the public schools at the ages of 15 or 16 and then losing
+sight of them. The fact that the large number who go into industrial
+occupations will not or cannot remain in school beyond these ages does
+not absolve the school system from further responsibility for their
+educational future. There should not be a complete severance between
+the boy and the school until he has reached a relatively mature age.
+In other words, the school system should maintain, as long as
+possible, such a relation with him as will help to round out his
+education and lead him to continue it after reaching manhood.
+
+It is the opinion of the Survey Staff that the only practicable
+solution of this problem lies in the day continuation school, backed
+by a compulsory law which will bring every boy and girl at work under
+the age of 18 into school for a certain number of hours per week. Only
+through a comprehensive plan that will reach large numbers of young
+workers can the difficulties inherent in the administration of small
+classes be overcome. The night schools have never been successful in
+holding boys long enough to make more than a beginning in
+trade-extension training. It is certain that growing boys should not
+be expected to add two hours of study to their nine or 10 hours of
+unaccustomed labor in the shop. Both individual and community
+interests demand that this problem be taken up in such a way as to
+obviate the sharp cleavage between the boy's school life and his
+working life. From every point of view it is unwise to permit him to
+lose all contact with the educational agencies of the city during his
+first years at work.
+
+The compulsory continuation school avoids the difficulties which are
+responsible for the common failure of those schemes which depend for
+their success on the initiative of individuals or the voluntary
+coöperation of employers and trade unions. One of its great advantages
+is that the principle on which it is based makes for equal justice to
+all. There can be no doubt that the decline of apprentice training in
+the shops is due partly to the fact that employers find that much of
+the time and money it costs goes toward providing a skilled labor
+force for competitors who make no effort to train young workers. The
+cooperation of employers on a comprehensive scale will be secured only
+when the burden is equally shared.
+
+
+THE TECHNICAL NIGHT SCHOOLS
+
+Night classes are conducted in both of the technical high schools for
+two terms a year of 10 weeks each, the pupils attending four hours a
+week. A tuition fee of $5 a term is collected, of which $3.50 is
+refunded to those who maintain an average attendance of 75 per cent.
+No special provision is made for apprentices as distinct from
+journeymen, and the trade classes are attended by a considerable
+number of wage-earners employed in occupations unrelated to industrial
+work. The list of courses offered during the past year, with the
+number enrolled in each course at the beginning of the second term, is
+shown in Table 12.
+
+A glance at the list of courses shows at once that while the
+vocational motive is given first importance, the schools also aim to
+provide instruction in cultural subjects which have only an indirect
+vocational application. Less than one-third of the students are
+pursuing courses which are directly related to their daily work. The
+remainder are enrolled in courses which have little or no connection
+with their daily occupations. In but four of the courses--machine
+shop, architectural drawing, printing, and sheet metal work--are more
+than half of the students employed in directly related occupations.
+
+
+TABLE 12.--COURSES AND NUMBER ENROLLED IN THE TECHNICAL NIGHT SCHOOLS,
+JANUARY, 1915
+
+
+ Number
+ Course enrolled
+
+ Mechanical drawing 328
+ Machine shop 222
+ Electrical construction 159
+ Sewing 103
+ Mathematics 89
+ Architectural drawing 83
+ Pattern making 73
+ Woodworking 67
+ Chemistry 59
+ Sheet metal drawing 52
+ Cooking 46
+ Foundry work 36
+ Agriculture 31
+ Printing 27
+ Sheet metal shop 23
+ Business English 20
+ Electric motors 19
+ Arts and crafts 18
+ Millinery 18
+ Electricity and magnetism 16
+ ------
+ Total 1,489
+
+The policy of the schools is to form a class in any subject for which
+a sufficient number of students make application. Only a small
+proportion of the pupils attend more than one year, and the mortality
+from term to term is very high, although the tuition fee plan insures
+fairly good attendance during the term. The data collected by the
+survey indicate that the average length of attendance is approximately
+two terms--the equivalent in student hours of less than three weeks in
+the ordinary day school.
+
+Most of the men who enroll in night school classes need a course of at
+least two or three years. All but a few, however, insist on having
+their supplementary training in small doses. Frequently they want
+only specific instruction about a specific thing, such as how to lay
+out a certain piece of work or how to set up a particular machine
+tool. They want to secure this knowledge in the shortest possible
+time, and very few want the same thing. A course of two or three years
+does not appeal to them. Another difficulty is that their previous
+educational equipment varies widely, and some are not capable of
+assimilating even the specialized bit of trade knowledge they need
+without a preliminary course in arithmetic. As the personnel of the
+classes changes to a marked degree from term to term, the courses
+undergo frequent modifications. Apparently the teachers and principals
+have made a sincere effort to adapt the instruction to the demands of
+the men who attend the schools, but the fact is that the difficulties
+inherent in such work make it impossible to organize the classes on
+any basis except that of subject matter, which means fitting students
+into courses, rather than adapting courses to the needs of particular
+groups of workers.
+
+The enrollment is far below what should be expected in a city of
+nearly three-quarters of a million inhabitants. The total number of
+journeymen, apprentices, and helpers from the skilled manual
+occupations, receiving trade instruction in the night schools, is
+considerably less than one per cent of the total number in the city.
+
+A large enrollment is necessary for efficient administration. Success
+in specializing courses in night schools, as in day schools, requires
+a large administrative unit. The possible variety of courses is in
+direct ratio to the number enrolled. In a class of 200 carpenters
+there would probably be, for example, 10 or 15 men who need
+specialized instruction in stair-building. On the basis of the present
+enrollment of 40 or 50 carpenters the class would dwindle to three or
+four, with the result that the per capita teaching cost becomes
+prohibitive.
+
+The relatively small result now obtained is not the fault of the
+schools, but is due principally to the fact that the great field of
+evening vocational instruction is treated by the school system as a
+mere side line of the technical high schools. The evening classes are
+taught by teachers who have already given their best in the day
+classes. The enrollment cannot be greatly increased so long as this
+type of education is handled as one of the marginal activities of the
+school system, manned by tired teachers and directed by tired
+principals. It is a totally different kind of job from regular day
+instruction and requires a different administrative organization, with
+a responsible head vested with sufficient authority to meet quickly
+and effectively the widely varying demands of its students. This will
+require the speeding-up of administrative methods in the establishment
+of courses and the employment of teachers, a freer hand for the
+principals as regards both expenditures and policy, and most important
+of all, the organization of all forms of continuation and night school
+instruction under a separate department.
+
+
+A COMBINED PROGRAM OF CONTINUATION AND TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING
+
+In considering the general conclusions of the survey as to what should
+be done in the matter of trade preparatory and trade-extension
+training in both day and night schools, it must be borne in mind that
+these two types of vocational training are still in the experimental
+stage. Their future development will probably involve a wide departure
+from conventional school methods and the evolution of a special
+technique through trial and experiment. At the present time we can
+only formulate certain of the main conditions to which future advance
+in these fields must conform.
+
+First of all, it must be recognized that such work is a big job in
+itself and cannot be successfully conducted as an appendix of the day
+school. It is worth doing well, or it is not worth doing. It needs an
+organization sufficiently elastic and adaptable to quickly make
+adjustments to unusual and unexpected conditions. It needs the
+supervision of a competent director who can devote to it all his time
+and energy, and a corps of teachers who not only know how and what to
+teach, but who possess a firm conviction of the value and utility of
+this kind of instruction. In the hands of teachers who bring to it
+only the margin of interest and energy remaining after a hard day's
+work in the high school, or who are unable to comprehend the radical
+difference between teaching a boy in the day school 35 hours a week
+and teaching a boy four hours a week in the continuation school or
+evening class, the full measure of success cannot be expected. The
+employment of day teachers for night school work has never been other
+than a makeshift, and the insignificant results attained in night
+schools throughout the country have been due in great measure to this
+cause.
+
+Apart from the fact that the interests of adolescent workers
+imperatively demand the establishment of day continuation schools, an
+additional argument in favor of such schools is that they would
+provide a means for making the night trade-extension work effective,
+through the use of continuation day school teachers for night school
+work. Such a plan would mean that teachers employed on this basis
+would have charge of a day continuation class during one session of
+four hours, and a night class of two hours, making a total of six
+hours' work per day. A plan of this kind would make possible the
+establishment of the fundamental conditions for successful
+trade--preparatory and trade-extension training in the night schools.
+The present system is unjust to both teachers and students;--to the
+students because the man or boy who sacrifices his recreation time to
+attend night school has a right to the best the schools can give; to
+the teachers because no teacher can work a two-hour night shift in
+addition to seven or eight hours in the technical high school without
+seriously impairing his efficiency.
+
+The development of this plan would necessitate the establishment of
+two centers, one located in the eastern and one in the western section
+of the city. In these centers should be housed the day vocational
+school, the day continuation classes, and the night vocational
+classes. This would relieve the technical high schools of a task which
+does not belong to them, and which by overloading the teachers
+seriously interferes with the work they were originally employed to
+do. At present a considerable number of the technical high school
+teachers are devoting from one-fifth to one-fourth of their total
+working day to elementary teaching, as most of the work in the night
+schools is below high school grade.
+
+By bringing together all the trade preparatory and trade-extension
+work under one roof, it is possible to secure the highest efficiency
+in the use of equipment. Expensive shops can be justified only on the
+basis of constant use. If the suggestion for the establishment of a
+vocational school is acted upon, such future contingencies as the
+continuation school should be borne in mind in planning the buildings
+and equipment, so as to permit of extensions as they may be required.
+It is practically certain that universal continuation training for
+young workers up to the age of 17 or 18 will be made compulsory in all
+the progressive states of the country within the next decade. The Ohio
+school authorities should get ready to handle the continuation school
+problem before the example of other states and the overwhelming
+pressure of public opinion forces it upon them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+VOCATIONAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS
+
+
+The discussions in the preceding chapters have been limited
+intentionally to a consideration of the needs and possibilities of
+training for wage-earning pursuits in which men predominate. The
+conditions which surround vocational training for girls are so
+fundamentally unlike those encountered in the vocational training of
+boys that a combined treatment leads to needless complexity and
+confusion.
+
+Cleveland uses a relatively smaller amount of woman labor than most
+other large cities. In only one of the 10 largest cities in the
+country--Pittsburgh--is the proportion of women and girls at work
+smaller as compared with the total number of persons in gainful
+occupations than in Cleveland. In 1900, 20.4 per cent of the workers
+in the city were women; by 1910 the proportion of women workers had
+increased to 22 per cent, a shift of less than two per cent for the
+decade.
+
+A consideration of the occupational future of boys and girls shows at
+once how widely their problems differ. The typical boy in Cleveland
+attends school until he reaches the age of 15 or 16. About this period
+he becomes a wage-earner and for the next 30 or 40 years devotes most
+of his time and energy to making a living. The typical girl leaves
+school about the same time, becomes a wage-earner for a few years,
+then marries and spends the rest of her life keeping house and rearing
+children. To the man wage-earning is the real business of life. To the
+woman it is a means for filling in the gap between school and
+marriage, a little journey into the world previous to settling down to
+her main job.
+
+The most radical and important difference between the two sexes with
+respect to wage-earning is found in the length of the working life.
+The transitory character of the wage-earning phase in the life of most
+women is clearly seen in the contrasted age distribution shown in
+Table 13.
+
+
+TABLE 13.--PER CENT OF TOTAL POPULATION ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS
+DURING THREE DIFFERENT AGE PERIODS
+
+----------------------+-------------+------------+
+ Age period | Women | Men |
+----------------------+-------------+------------+
+ 16 to 21 | 60 | 85 |
+ 21 to 45 | 26 | 98 |
+ 45 and over | 12 | 85 |
+----------------------+-------------+------------+
+
+Approximately 85 per cent of the boys and slightly less than 60 per
+cent of the girls between the ages of 16 and 21 are at work. In the
+next age group--21 to 45--given by the census, 98 per cent of the men
+are at work, but the proportion of women employed in gainful
+occupations drops to 26 per cent, or about one in four; in the next
+age group--45 and over--it falls to about 12 per cent, as compared
+with 85 per cent of the men. Of the women still at work in the older
+age group, over one-half are engaged in domestic and personal service
+as servants, laundresses, housekeepers, etc.
+
+
+TABLE 14.--NUMBER EMPLOYED IN THE PRINCIPAL WAGE-EARNING OCCUPATIONS
+AMONG EACH 1,000 WOMEN FROM 16 TO 21 YEARS OF AGE
+
+Manufacturing and mechanical industries:
+ Apprentices to dressmakers and milliners 4
+ Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory) 20
+ Milliners and millinery dealers 17
+ Semi-skilled operatives:
+ Candy factories 6
+ Cigar and tobacco factories 15
+ Electrical supply factories 10
+ Knitting mills 11
+ Printing and publishing 8
+ Woolen and worsted mills:
+ Weavers 5
+ Other occupations 7
+ Sewers and sewing machine operators (factory) 53
+ Tailoresses 25
+
+Transportation:
+ Telephone operators 19
+
+Trade:
+ Clerks in stores 28
+ Saleswomen (stores) 35
+
+Professional service:
+ Musicians and teachers of music 6
+ Teachers (school) 4
+
+Domestic and personal service:
+ Charwomen and cleaners 5
+ Laundry operatives 13
+ Servants 81
+ Waitresses 9
+
+Clerical occupations:
+ Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants 26
+ Clerks (except clerks in stores) 20
+ Stenographers and typewriters 62
+
+The occupations in which the girls now in the public schools will
+later engage can be determined with a relative degree of accuracy by
+employing a method in general similar to that utilized in forecasting
+the occupations of boys. It must be taken into account, however, that
+the wage-earning period for women, except in the professional
+occupations, usually begins before the age of 21. For this reason the
+16 to 21 age group probably offers the best basis for determining the
+future occupational distribution of girls in school. If all women at
+work up to the age of 25 were included the figures would be more
+nearly exact, but unfortunately data for the period between 21 and 25
+are not available. The figures at the right of Table 14 show the
+number engaged in each specified occupation among each thousand women
+in the city between the ages of 16 and 21. The proportions given for
+the professional occupations, particularly teaching, are too small,
+because of the fact that few women enter the professions before the
+age of 21.
+
+Applying these proportions to the average elementary school unit, it
+will be seen at once that the number of girls old enough to profit by
+special training is too small in any single occupation to form a class
+of workable size. In such a school there would be about 80 girls 12
+years old and over. Of the skilled occupations listed in the table
+stenography and typewriting offers the largest field of employment,
+yet the number who are likely to take up this kind of work does not
+exceed five or six.
+
+
+DIFFERENTIATION IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
+
+The organization of the junior high school, where the enrollment is
+made up entirely of older pupils, obviates this difficulty to some
+extent. Instead of 80 girls there are from 300 to 500, with a
+corresponding increase in the number who will enter any given
+wage-earning occupation.
+
+Not less than one-eighth and probably not more than one-fifth of these
+girls will become needleworkers of some kind. They will need a more
+practical and intensive training in the fundamentals of sewing than is
+now provided by the household arts course. The skill required in trade
+work cannot be obtained in the amount of time now devoted to this
+subject. It should be made possible for a girl who expects to make a
+living with her needle to elect a thoroughly practical course in
+sewing in which the aim is to prepare for wage earning rather than
+merely to teach the girl how to make and mend her own garments. As
+proficiency in trade sewing requires first of all ample opportunity
+for practice, provision should be made for extending the time now
+given to sewing for those girls who wish to become needle workers.
+This can easily be done through the system of electives now in use.
+The establishment of classes in power machine operating during the
+junior high school period appears to be impracticable, due to the
+immaturity of the girls and the small number who could profit by such
+instruction.
+
+A discussion of the present sewing courses in the public schools will
+be found in Chapters XIV and XV, which summarize the special reports
+on the Garment Trades and Dressmaking and Millinery. In the present
+chapter the consideration of these occupations is limited to an
+examination of the administrative questions connected with training
+for the sewing trades.
+
+
+SPECIALIZED TRAINING FOR THE SEWING TRADES
+
+The compulsory attendance law requires all girls to attend school
+until they are 16 years old. This forces a considerable number into
+the high schools for one or two years before they go to work. As a
+rule the type of girl who is likely to enter the needle trades selects
+the technical high school course, not because she has any idea of
+finishing it, but because she believes it offers a less tiresome way
+of getting through her last one or two years in school than the
+academic course. The technical course requires three and three-quarter
+hours a week of sewing during the first two years. The student may
+elect trade dressmaking and millinery during the third and fourth
+years.
+
+Very few girls who can afford to spend four years in high school ever
+become dressmakers or factory operatives. If the school system is to
+do anything of direct vocational value for them it will have to begin
+further down. Most of them leave school before the age of 17 and the
+years between 14 and 16 represent the last chance the school will have
+to give them any direct aid towards preparation for immediate
+wage-earning.
+
+For successful work in machine operating the class must be large
+enough to warrant the purchase and operation of sufficient equipment
+to give the pupils an opportunity for intensive practice. The only way
+this condition can be secured is by concentrating in large groups the
+girls who need such training. Little will be accomplished in training
+for the sewing trades without specialization, and specialization in
+small administrative units is impossible. The teaching and operating
+cost in a school enrolling, say 200 girls, who want the same kind of
+work, can be brought within reasonable bounds. In a school where the
+total number who need specialized training does not exceed 10 or 15
+the cost is prohibitive.
+
+In the opinion of the Survey Staff a one or two year vocational course
+in the sewing trades should be established. The entrance age should
+not be less than 15. Courses should be provided for intensive work in
+trade dressmaking, power machine operating, and trade millinery. A
+conservative estimate of the number of girls who could be expected to
+enroll for courses in these subjects is 500. A trade school might be
+established where only this type of vocational training would be
+carried on, or it might be conducted in the same building with the
+trade courses for boys recommended in a previous chapter. In either
+case the number of pupils would be sufficient to warrant up-to-date
+equipment and a corps of specially trained teachers.
+
+Training for the sewing trades consumes more material than any other
+kind of vocational training. For this reason economical administration
+requires some arrangement for marketing the product. During the latter
+part of the course the school should be able to turn out first-class
+work. The familiarity with trade standards the pupils obtain through
+practice on garments which must meet the exacting demands of the
+buying public has a distinct educational value. The Manhattan Trade
+School for Girls in New York City and other successful schools in the
+country operate on this basis. There is reason to believe that there
+would be little difficulty in making arrangements with the clothing
+manufacturers in Cleveland to furnish a good trade school as much
+contract work as the classes could handle.
+
+
+OTHER OCCUPATIONS
+
+From one-fourth to one-fifth of the girls in the school will later
+enter employment in commercial and clerical occupations, as
+stenographers, typists, clerks, cashiers, bookkeepers, saleswomen, and
+so on. Their needs will be considered in Chapters XII and XIII, in
+which the findings of the special reports on Boys and Girls in
+Commercial Work and Department Store Occupations are summarized.
+
+A relatively small number will become semi-skilled operatives in
+industrial establishments, such as job printing houses, knitting
+mills, and factories making electrical supplies, metal products, and
+so on. As a rule such work requires only a small amount of manual
+skill or deftness. Not much training is needed and it can be given
+quickly and effectively in the factories.
+
+About one-ninth of the girls in the school will enter paid domestic or
+personal service of some kind. The household arts courses probably
+meet the needs of girls who may be employed in such occupations as far
+as they can be met under present conditions. The woman domestic
+servant occupies about the same social level as the male common
+laborer, and a course which openly sets out to train girls to be
+servants is not likely to prosper. The load of social stigma such work
+carries is too heavy. At some time in the future it may be possible to
+ignore the traditional and universal attitude of our public toward the
+so-called menial occupations sufficiently to consider training
+servants. At present such a possibility seems remote.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
+
+
+Very few of the army of young people who become wage earners each year
+take up the occupations in which they engage as the result of any
+conscious selection of their own or of their parents. They drift into
+some job aimlessly and ignorantly, following the line of least
+resistance, driven or led by the accidents and exigencies of gaining a
+livelihood. They possess no accurate or comprehensive knowledge of the
+advantages and disadvantages of different types of wage earning
+occupations, and frequently take up work for which they are entirely
+unfitted or which holds little future beyond a bare livelihood.
+
+
+THE WORK OF THE VOCATIONAL COUNSELOR
+
+The plan now followed in the technical high schools of the city, by
+which one teacher in the school specially qualified for such work is
+charged with the duty of advising pupils who leave school and aiding
+them in securing desirable employment, could be adapted to the junior
+high school, where the need for service of this kind is even greater
+than in the technical high schools. Such work requires men who have
+had some contact with industrial conditions, and who possess sound
+judgment, common sense, and a fairly comprehensive knowledge of the
+local industries. If the curriculum embraces the course in "Industrial
+Information" suggested in a previous chapter, the teacher of this
+subject might well be designated as vocational counselor for the boys
+in the school. A course similar in nature should be provided for the
+girls and a woman teacher selected to advise them when they leave
+school. Considerable difficulty probably will be experienced in
+securing women teachers competent to assume this task, but any
+wide-awake teacher who will devote some attention to published studies
+of industrial conditions and get in touch with the local organizations
+engaged in the investigation of wage earning employments, such as the
+Consumers' League and the Girls' Vocation Bureau, can soon acquire a
+fund of information that will enable her to offer valuable suggestions
+and advice to girls who expect to become wage earners.
+
+The vocational counselor must guard against conventional thinking and
+the mass of "inspirational" nonsense which forms the main contribution
+to the vocational guidance of youth provided in the average
+schoolroom. The ideals of success usually held up before school
+children seem to have been drawn from a mixture of Sunday school
+literature and the prospectuses of efficiency bureaus. Boiled down the
+rules prescribed for their attainment are two: first, "Be good;" and
+second, "Get ahead." The pupils are told about well-known men who
+became famous or rich, usually rich, by practicing these rules.
+Occasionally there is some prattle about the "dignity of labor," as a
+rule meaningless in the light of our current ideas of success. We do
+not think of a well-paid artisan as "successful." His success begins
+when he is promoted to office work, or becomes a foreman.
+
+The inherent difficulty with ideals of success which demand that the
+worker become a boss of somebody else is that the world of industry
+needs only a relatively small number of bosses. Theoretically it is
+possible for any individual to reach the eminence of boss-ship. In
+real life less than one-tenth of the boys who enter industrial
+employment can rise above the level of the journeyman artisan, at
+least before later middle age, because only about that proportion of
+bosses are needed.
+
+The task of the vocational counselor will consist in putting the
+pupil's feet on the first steps of the ladder rather than showing him
+rosy pictures of the top of it. For the great majority the top means
+no more than decent wages. This, after all, is a worthy ambition,
+frequently requiring the worker's best efforts for its realization.
+
+
+THE GIRLS' VOCATION BUREAU
+
+The Girls' Vocation Bureau, for the placement of girls and women in
+wage-earning employment, has been in operation about six years. At
+present it is under the general charge of the state and municipal
+employment bureau, although part of the funds for the support of the
+bureau is raised through private subscription. From July, 1914, to
+July, 1915, the Bureau secured positions for nearly 11,000 girls and
+women. Of these approximately 12 per cent were girls under 21. In many
+instances only temporary employment is secured, although efforts are
+made to place the girls in permanent positions. More girls are placed
+in office positions than in any other line of work, but a considerable
+proportion take employment in factories, domestic service,
+restaurants, and stores.
+
+A careful record is kept of each applicant's qualifications, home
+conditions, the names of employers, etc. The Bureau endeavors to keep
+in touch with the girls after they are placed through follow-up
+reports and visits by members of the office staff or by volunteer
+investigators.
+
+This spring every school in the city was visited by representatives of
+the Bureau in the endeavor to interest principals in the work of
+placement, and arrangements were made for sending to the Bureau lists
+of the girls who were expected to leave school permanently. This
+effort met with slight success, as only about 100 girls were reported
+from all the schools in the city, although the number of girls leaving
+school each year from the elementary grades alone is over 2,000. In
+all cases the girls were visited by a representative of the Bureau and
+urged to return to school, or if they were determined to seek
+employment the advantages of registering in the Bureau were brought to
+their attention.
+
+It is to be hoped that more effective coöperation between the Bureau
+and the schools can be established and that plans for a placement
+bureau for boys similar in method and aim to the Girls' Bureau may be
+realized. The matter of placement is the most difficult part of the
+vocational counselor's duties, and an arrangement whereby the
+vocational guidance departments of the various schools might serve as
+feeders to a central placement bureau would probably in the long run
+give the best results. Both guidance and placement are new things in
+the public schools and efficient methods of administration can be
+worked out only through trial and experiment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
+
+
+1. The future occupations of the children in school will correspond
+very closely to those of the native-born adult population. The
+occupational distribution of the city's working population therefore
+constitutes the best guide as to the kinds of industrial training
+which can be undertaken profitably by the school system.
+
+2. Industrial training in school has to do chiefly with preparation
+for work in the skilled trades. Training for semi-skilled occupations
+can be given more effectively and cheaply in the factories than in the
+schools.
+
+3. As a rule, industrial training is not practicable in elementary
+schools, for the reason that the number of boys in the average
+elementary school who are likely to enter the skilled trades and who
+are also old enough to profit by industrial training is too small to
+permit the organization of classes.
+
+4. The most important contribution to vocational education the
+elementary schools can make consists in getting the children through
+the course fast enough so that two or three years before the end of
+the compulsory attendance period they will enter an intermediate or
+vocational school where some kind of industrial training is possible.
+
+5. The survey recommends the establishment of a general industrial
+course in the junior high school, made up chiefly of instruction in
+the applications of mathematics, drawing, physics, and chemistry to
+the commoner industrial processes. The course should also include the
+study of economic and working conditions in the principal industrial
+occupations.
+
+6. One or two vocational schools equipped to offer specialized trade
+training for boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 17 are needed.
+At present a gap of from one to two years exists between the end of
+the compulsory attendance period and the entrance age in practically
+all the skilled trades, which could well be employed in direct
+preparation for trade work. Such schools would relieve the first and
+second year classes of the technical high schools of many pupils these
+schools do not want and cannot adequately provide for. General as well
+as special courses should be offered, although pupils should be
+encouraged to select a particular occupation and devote at least one
+year to intensive preparation for it.
+
+7. The survey favors the extension of the compulsory attendance period
+for boys to the age of 16. The industries of Cleveland have little or
+nothing worth while to offer boys below this age.
+
+8. The best form of trade-extension training is that provided in a few
+establishments which maintain apprentice schools in their plants. This
+plan is feasible only in large establishments. It will never take
+care of more than a small proportion of the young workers who need
+supplementary technical training.
+
+9. Plans for trade-extension training of apprentices depending on the
+coöperation of employers have met with slight success. The principle
+difficulty is that the sacrifices they involve are borne by a
+relatively small number of employers while the benefits are reaped by
+the industry in general. Either the industry as a whole or the
+community should bear the cost of such training.
+
+10. The vocational interests of young workers and the social interests
+of the community demand the establishment of a system of continuation
+training for all young people in employment, up to the age of 18
+years. The classes should be held during working hours and attendance
+should be compulsory.
+
+11. The enrollment in the trade classes of the night schools is far
+below what it should be in a city as large as Cleveland. The
+relatively small result now obtained is not the fault of the schools,
+but is due mainly to the fact that the field of vocational evening
+instruction is treated by the school system as a mere side line of the
+technical high schools.
+
+12. The survey recommends the organization of all forms of
+continuation, night vocational, and day vocational training under
+centralized full-time leadership. Only in this way can there be
+secured a type of organization and administration sufficiently elastic
+and adaptable to meet the widely varying needs of the working classes.
+
+13. Industrial training for girls will consist in the main of
+preparation for the sewing trades. Practically no other industrial
+occupations in which large numbers of women are employed possess
+sufficient technical content to warrant the establishment of training
+courses in the schools. The survey recommends a practical course of
+needle instruction in the junior high school and the introduction in
+the vocational schools of specialized courses in dressmaking, power
+machine operating, and trade millinery for the older girls who wish to
+enter these trades.
+
+14. The present experiment in vocational guidance and placement should
+be extended as rapidly as possible. Courses in vocational information
+should be offered in the junior high school and vocational counsellors
+appointed to advise pupils in the selection of their future vocations
+and aid them in securing desirable employment when they leave school.
+The full measure of success in this work demands better coöperation
+with outside agencies on the part of teachers and principals than has
+been secured up to the present time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON BOYS AND GIRLS IN COMMERCIAL WORK
+
+
+Particular attention is given throughout this report to the
+differences which exist between boys and girls in commercial
+employment with respect to the conditions which govern success and
+advancement. The majority of boys begin as messengers or office boys
+and subsequently become clerks or do bookkeeping work. As men they
+remain in these latter positions or, in at least an equal number of
+cases, pass on into the productive or administrative end of business.
+The majority of girls are stenographers, or to a less extent,
+assistants in bookkeeping or clerical work. Boys' work may be expected
+to take on the characteristics of the business that employs them;
+girls' work remains in essentials unchanged even in totally changed
+surroundings. Boys' work within limits is progressive; girls' work in
+its general type--with individual exceptions--is static. Boys as a
+rule cannot stay at the same kind of work and advance; girls as a rule
+stay at the same kind of work whether or not they advance. Boys in any
+position are expected to be qualifying themselves for "the job ahead,"
+but for girls that is not the case. Boys may expect to make a
+readjustment with every step in advancement. Each new position brings
+them to a new situation and into a new relation to the business. Girls
+receive salary advancement for increasingly responsible work, but any
+change in work is likely to be so gradual as to be almost
+imperceptible if they remain in the same place of employment. If they
+change to another place, those who are stenographers have a slight
+readjustment to make in getting accustomed to new terms and to the
+peculiarities of the new persons who dictate to them. Bookkeeping
+assistants may encounter different systems, but their part of the work
+will be so directed and planned that it cannot be said to necessitate
+difficult adaptation on their part. The work of clerical assistants is
+so simple and so nearly mechanical that the question of adjustment
+does not enter. These girl workers do not find that the change of
+position or firm brings them necessarily into a new relation to the
+business.
+
+Even moderate success is denied to a boy if he has not adaptability
+and the capacity to grasp business ideas and methods; but a
+comparatively high degree of success could be attained by a girl who
+possessed neither of these qualifications. A boy, however, who has no
+specific training which he can apply directly and definitely at work
+would be far more likely to obtain a good opening and promotion than a
+girl without it would be.
+
+The range of a boy's possible future occupations is as wide as the
+field of business. He cannot at first be trained specifically as a
+girl can be because he does not know what business will do with him
+or what he wants to do with business. The girl's choice is limited by
+custom. She can prepare herself definitely for stenography,
+bookkeeping, and machine operating and be sure that she is preparing
+for just the opportunity--and the whole opportunity--that business
+offers to her. Her very limitation of opportunity makes preliminary
+choice and training a definitely possible thing.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 1.--Boys and girls under 18 years of age in
+office work in Cleveland. Data from report of Ohio Industrial
+Commission, 1915]
+
+The difference between boys and girls begins at the beginning. Boys
+are given a larger share of the positions which the youngest worker
+can fill. Diagram 1 illustrates this and the figures of the United
+States Census for 1910 clearly corroborate it. Boys are taken for such
+work and taken younger than girls, not merely because the law permits
+them to go to work at an earlier age, but also because business
+itself intends to round their training. Girls, on the contrary, are
+expected to enter completely trained for definite positions. This fact
+alone would in most cases compel them to be older. Furthermore,
+because boys in first positions are looked upon as potential clerks,
+miscellaneous jobs about the office have for them a two-fold value.
+They give the employer a chance to weed out unpromising material; and
+they give boys an opportunity to find themselves and to gather ideas
+about the business and methods which they may be able to make use of
+in later adjustments.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 2.--Men and women 18 years of age and over in
+clerical and administrative work in offices in Cleveland. U.S. Census,
+1910]
+
+Diagram 2 shows that girls' training, if it is to meet the present
+situation, must prepare for a future in specialized clerical work;
+boys' future must apparently be thought of as in mostly the clerical
+and administrative fields. The term "clerical" as here used, covers
+bookkeepers, cashiers and accountants, stenographers and typists,
+clerks and a miscellaneous group of younger workers such as
+messengers, office boys, etc. "Administrative" covers proprietors,
+officials, managers, supervisors, and agents, but it does not include
+salespeople.
+
+The usual commercial course gives impartially to boys and girls two
+traditional "subjects" which they are to apply in wage earning
+whatever part of the wage earning field they may enter. These are
+stenography and bookkeeping. The evidence collected during the survey
+shows that these are rarely found in combination except in small
+offices. Of the men employed who are stenographers, the majority are
+of two kinds: (1) those who use stenography incidentally with their
+other and more important work as clerks, and (2) those for whom
+stenography is but a stepping-stone to another kind of position. The
+only firms which make a practice of offering ordinary stenographic
+positions for boys are those which restrict themselves to male
+employees for every kind of work.
+
+Independent stenographic work of various kinds is of course open to
+the sexes alike. In Cleveland there are a few women in court
+stenography. The 10 public stenographers' offices were found upon
+inquiry to include two men and 10 women. No figures regarding
+convention reporters were obtainable. In the positions of the
+bookkeeping group also there was some sex difference. The accountants,
+bookkeepers, cashiers, pay-masters and other persons of responsibility
+are, in large offices where both sexes work together, much more
+likely to be men than women; the assistants who work with these may be
+of either sex, but girls and women are likely to make up the greater
+portion. Of the small office this is less generally true. Boys who do
+machine operating are usually clerks whose machine work, as in the
+case of stenography, is merely an adjunct to other work; with girls
+machine operating is either the whole of the position or the most
+important part of it.
+
+The essential difference between the clerkship which boys for the most
+part hold and the general clerical work which girls do is that the
+boys' work is unified and is a definite, separate responsible part of
+the business, usually in line for promotion to some other clerkship;
+the girls' is a miscellany of more or less unrelated jobs and is not a
+preparation for specific promotion.
+
+
+A GENERAL VIEW OF COMMERCIAL WORK
+
+All commercial occupations may be roughly divided into two classes:
+those which have to do with administrative, merchandising, or
+productive work, and those which carry on the clerical routine which
+the others necessitate. The first class of occupations may be
+designated by the term "administrative work" and the second by
+"clerical work." A varying relation exists between the two which
+depends chiefly upon the kind of business represented. In some kinds
+clerical work is the stepping stone by which administrative work is
+reached; in others employment in clerical work side-tracks away from
+the administrative work.
+
+There is, of course, a future of promotion within the limits of
+clerical work without reference to its relation to administrative
+work. The practical aspect of it is, in most kinds of business, that
+the subordinate clerical positions far outnumber the chief ones.
+Promotion of any sort depends largely upon individual capacity; but
+this general distinction may be made between promotion in clerical
+work and in administrative work; in the clerical field it tends to be
+automatic but limited; in administrative work it comes more often
+through a worker's initiative or individuality than through automatic
+progression and it has no arbitrary limits.
+
+Obviously one kind of person will be adapted to an administrative
+career; another to a clerical one. Even a beginner in wage earning
+might be able to classify himself on a basis like this; yet it is not
+essential, for in many cases it is possible that his first positions
+recognize this choice. He needs fundamental experience in business
+methods whatever he is going to do; and for most administrative
+positions he needs maturity. He can achieve both by serving an
+apprenticeship in some form of clerical work. The important things for
+him in the early part of his career are to understand the distinction
+between the two classes of occupations; to sense the relation he holds
+to the business as a whole; and to act intelligently in the matter of
+making a change.
+
+
+BOOKKEEPING
+
+The bookkeeping which modern business, except in the small
+establishment, demands of young workers is certainly not the journal
+and ledger bookkeeping of the commercial schools. A modern office
+organization may have in its bookkeeping department of 20 persons only
+one "bookkeeper." This person is responsible for the system and he
+supervises the keeping of records and the preparation of statements. A
+minority of his assistants will need to be able to distinguish debits
+from credits; the rest will be occupied in making simple entries or in
+posting, in verifying and checking, or in finding totals with the aid
+of machines. The bookkeeping systems employed show wide variation, not
+only in different kinds of business, but in different establishments
+in the same kinds of business. Many firms are using a loose-leaf
+system; some use ledgers; and others have a system of record keeping
+which calls for neither of these devices. Bookkeeping work, especially
+in the positions held by girls, is frequently combined with
+comptometer or adding machine work, with typing, billing, filing, or
+statistical work; but rarely, except in the small office, are
+bookkeeping and stenography--the Siamese Twins of traditional and
+commercial training--found linked together.
+
+
+STENOGRAPHY
+
+Stenography is used throughout business chiefly in correspondence; to
+a less extent for report and statement work, for legal work, and for
+printer's copy. The stenographer in any business office, more than
+other clerical workers, is supposed to look after a variety of
+unorganized details including the use of office appliances, the filing
+of letters, and sometimes dealing with patrons or visitors in the
+absence of the employer. She is more important to the employer in his
+personal business relations than any other employee, except in the
+case of those few employers who have private secretaries.
+
+
+CLERKS' POSITIONS
+
+In the case of large corporations, which are by far the largest
+employers of clerks, this work has been standardized to a marked
+degree. The organization of the office work of the telegraph,
+telephone, and express companies, the railroads, and the occasional
+large wholesale company in Cleveland is a nearly exact duplication of
+that of other district or division offices controlled by these
+companies in other cities. The same is true of the Civil Service.
+Whatever effects standardization may have upon opportunity, it
+obviously makes for definiteness in regard to training requirements.
+All the positions are graded on the basis of experience and
+responsibility and a logical line of promotion from one to another has
+been worked out.
+
+The report contains detailed studies of different kinds of clerical
+work in the offices of transportation and public utility corporations,
+retail and wholesale stores, manufacturing establishments, banks, the
+civil service, and small offices employing relatively few people. In
+each of these such matters as character of the work, opportunities for
+advancement, kind of training needed and special qualifications are
+taken up.
+
+
+WAGES AND REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
+
+Stated briefly the conclusions of the report with respect to wages and
+regularity of employment in office positions are as follows:
+
+The wage opportunities for clerical workers, especially men, lie in
+business positions outside the limits of clerical work. Men clerical
+workers average about the same pay as salesmen and more pay than
+industrial workers. Women clerical workers receive more than either
+saleswomen or industrial workers. Employment is much more regular in
+clerical work than it is in salesmanship or industrial work. For men
+clerical workers the wage opportunity is better in manufacturing and
+trade than in some kinds of transportation business. For women it is
+better in manufacturing and transportation than it is in trade. Men's
+wages tend to be higher than women's in all branches of clerical work.
+
+Among the clerical positions, bookkeeping shows the highest wage
+average for men; clerks' positions show the lowest. Stenography shows
+the highest for women; machine work the lowest. Men bookkeepers show
+their best wage average in the wholesale business, clerks in
+transportation, and stenographers in manufacturing. The small office
+gives better wage opportunity to women bookkeepers and men
+stenographers; the large office favors women stenographers and men
+clerks.
+
+For boys, there is some indication that advanced education and
+commercial training, in their present status, are less closely related
+to high wages than are personal qualities and experience. For girls,
+the combination of high school education and business training is the
+best preparation for wage advancement. A general high school education
+and usually, business training, are essential to the assurance of even
+a living wage. Business training based upon less than high school
+education is almost futile.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+Six chapters of the report are devoted to a consideration of the needs
+and possibilities of training. The work now being done in the public
+schools of the city is discussed in detail, with suggestions for a
+better adaptation of the courses of study and methods and content of
+instruction to the needs of boys and girls who wish to prepare
+themselves to enter clerical occupations. The observations on training
+for such work may be summarized as follows:
+
+Commercial training should be open to all students whom commercial
+subjects and methods can serve best; but graduation should depend upon
+a high standard of efficiency.
+
+Statistics show that commercial training is not to be looked upon, in
+a wholesale way, as a successful means of taking care of backward
+academic students.
+
+Commercial students' need for cultural and other supplementary
+education may be even greater than that of academic students.
+
+The graduation rate of commercial students in public schools has been
+increased since the organization of a separate commercial high school
+and the number of students entering has been decreased.
+
+Commercial high schools receive a grade of children who are about
+medium in scholarship and normal in age.
+
+Commercial and academic high school teachers are similar in scholastic
+preparation and in the salaries they are paid.
+
+The Cleveland Normal School does not prepare definitely for the
+teaching of commercial subjects. Commercial teachers are nominally
+supervised by the district superintendents.
+
+Public schools receive 29 per cent of the city's day commercial
+students. The private schools receive a few more than the sum of
+public, parochial, and philanthropic schools.
+
+Public schools receive 22 per cent of the city's night commercial
+students. The private schools receive more than twice as many as the
+public and philanthropic schools. There are no night commercial
+classes in parochial schools.
+
+The length of the day course in most private schools is eight months
+or less; in public schools it is four years.
+
+The public school, if it believes in longer preparation for commercial
+work than most private schools give, should demonstrate the reason to
+parents and children.
+
+Training for boys and girls should be different in content and in
+emphasis.
+
+The usual course of study in commercial schools is suitable for girls
+and unsuitable for boys.
+
+A girl needs, chiefly, specific training in some one line of work. She
+has a choice among stenography, bookkeeping, and machine operating.
+
+A boy needs, chiefly, general education putting emphasis on writing,
+figuring, and spelling; general information; and the development of
+certain qualities and standards.
+
+For students electing to go into commercial work, general education
+may be taught more effectively through the medium of commercial
+subjects than through academic ones.
+
+Boys' training looks forward to both clerical work and business
+administration; but as clerical work is a preparation for business and
+is likely to occupy the first few years of wage earning, training
+should aim especially to meet the needs of clerical positions.
+
+Clerical positions for boys cover a variety of work which cannot be
+definitely anticipated and cannot therefore be specifically trained
+for. But certain fundamental needs are common to all.
+
+Most of the specialized training for boys should be given in night
+continuation classes.
+
+Girl stenographers need a full high school course for its educational
+value and for maturity. Girls going into other clerical positions can
+qualify with a year or two less of education; but immaturity in any
+case puts them at a disadvantage.
+
+Boys' training, for those who cannot remain in school, should be
+compressed into fewer than four years. Immaturity in the case of boys
+is not a great disadvantage.
+
+Bookkeeping has general value in the information it gives about
+business methods and for its drill in accuracy. To some extent it may
+aid in the development of reasoning.
+
+Much of the bookkeeping in actual use in business consists in making
+entries of one kind only and in checking and verifying. Understanding
+of debit and credit, posting, and trial balance, is the maximum
+practical need of the younger workers.
+
+Penmanship demands compactness, legibility, neatness, and ease in
+writing; also, the correct writing and placing of figures.
+
+The chief demand of business in arithmetic is for fundamental
+operations--adding and multiplying--also for ability to make
+calculations and to verify results mentally.
+
+Undergraduate experience in school or business offices may be a
+valuable method of acquainting students with office practice and
+routine and with business organization and business standards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON DEPARTMENT STORE OCCUPATIONS
+
+
+The field covered in this volume is limited to the business of retail
+selling as carried on in the department stores and some other stores
+of Cleveland. The retail stores considered can all be assigned to one
+of the three following classes: (1) The department store of the first
+rank which draws trade not only from the whole city and the suburbs
+but also from the towns and smaller cities of a large surrounding
+district; (2) the neighborhood store which does a smaller business
+within narrower limits, drawing its trade, as the name indicates, from
+the immediate neighborhood; (3) the five and ten cent store, well
+known by syndicate names, where no merchandise which must be sold
+above 10 cents is carried.
+
+
+DEPARTMENT STORES
+
+The five largest department stores in Cleveland employ about 5,800
+people distributed among several mercantile departments, and in a
+variety of occupations that find a place in the industry. Of these
+5,800 people approximately seven-tenths are women and three-tenths
+are men; 90 per cent are over 18 years of age and 10 per cent are
+under 18.
+
+The entire force of a store is sometimes arbitrarily divided by the
+management into "productive," and "non-productive" help. From 40 to 60
+per cent of the employees were reported as actually taking in money,
+while the remainder, the "non-producers," were engaged in keeping the
+business going and making it possible for the "producers" to sell
+goods.
+
+The greatest number of opportunities either for employment or
+promotion are in the selling force. This is often spoken as being "on
+the floor." Both boys and girls may find employment here, though a
+large majority of the sales force is made up of them. Speaking in
+general terms, men are only employed to sell men's furnishings,
+sporting goods, bulky merchandise, such as rugs, furniture, blankets,
+etc., and yard goods which are difficult to handle, such as household
+linens and dress goods. Positions as buyers and buyer's assistants are
+not restricted by sex and boys and girls may both consider them as a
+possible goal.
+
+
+NEIGHBORHOOD STORES
+
+A neighborhood store is that type of department store which draws its
+trade from a comparatively limited area of which the store is the
+center. The kind of goods carried are practically the same as in the
+large department store and the variety of merchandise may be nearly as
+great; but the selection is more limited because of the small stock.
+
+Promotion to selling positions is more rapid in the neighborhood
+stores than in regular department stores. One reason for this is that
+a larger proportion of the force is "productive," _i.e._, selling.
+This proportion may run as high as 80 or even 90 per cent, as compared
+with the 40 to 60 per cent of "productive" help in large department
+stores.
+
+Employment in these stores is looked upon as desirable preliminary
+training for service in larger department stores. This is the general
+opinion held by those who hire the employees in the larger stores. The
+selling experience gained in neighborhood stores is looked upon as
+general, in that it gives an acquaintance with a variety of
+merchandise rather than an extensive knowledge of any line of stock.
+This experience makes the employee adaptable and resourceful. Another
+advantage of neighborhood training for sales people is the fact that
+they are brought into closer human relations with the customer and
+thus learn the value of personality as a factor in making sales.
+
+
+FIVE AND TEN CENT STORES
+
+Cleveland had in the fall of 1915 six large stores where nothing
+costing over 10 cents is sold. These belong to three syndicates or
+chains. To show the extent to which this business has developed it may
+be stated that the largest of these syndicates, which controls three
+of the six Cleveland stores, has 747 branches in different parts of
+the country.
+
+The number of saleswomen in a single store ranges from 12 to 70. The
+total number in the six stores was approximately 226. The shift in
+this branch of retail trade is large, as there are continual changes
+in the selling force. One store reported the number of new employees
+hired in six months as being about equal to the average selling force.
+
+The managers of the five and ten cent stores without exception stated
+that they preferred to hire beginners who were without store
+experience. The hours of work are longer and the conditions under
+which the work is done are more trying than is usually the case in the
+larger department stores.
+
+The girl who expects her application for employment in the five and
+ten cent store to be accepted must be 18 years old in order that she
+may legally work after six o'clock. It is better for her to be without
+previous selling experience (unless in other five and ten cent
+stores), as employers in these stores prefer to train help according
+to their own methods.
+
+
+WAGES AND EMPLOYMENT
+
+The wages paid beginners in the department stores are fair as compared
+with other industries employing the same grade of help. Boys and girls
+when they first enter employment receive from $3.50 to $7, depending
+on the store where they get their first job. In addition to the salary
+most department stores give bonuses or commissions through which the
+members of the sales force may increase their compensation. The
+Survey Staff worked out comparisons on the basis of data supplied by
+the State Industrial Commission between the earnings of workers in
+department store occupations and those in other industries. Diagram 3
+shows graphically a comparison of the wages of women workers in six
+different industries. An interesting point brought out by this graphic
+comparison is that retail trade constitutes a much better field for
+women's employment as compared with the great majority of positions
+open to them in other lines than is commonly assumed to be the case.
+This is brought out even more clearly in Table 15, which compares, on
+a percentage basis, those who earn $12 a week and over, in all of the
+industries of the city employing as many as 500 women in 1914.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 3.--Per cent of women earning each class of
+weekly wages in each of six occupations]
+
+
+TABLE 15.--PER CENT OF WOMEN EMPLOYEES OVER 18 YEARS OF AGE EARNING
+$12 A WEEK AND OVER
+
+
+ Office employees, in retail and wholesale stores 31.8
+ Employees in women's clothing factories 22.5
+ Saleswomen in retail and wholesale stores 21.0
+ Employees in men's clothing factories 13.3
+ Employees in hosiery and knit goods factories 7.9
+ Employees in printing and publishing establishments 7.7
+ Employees in telephone and telegraph offices 6.3
+ Employees in laundries and dry cleaning establishments 4.4
+ Employees in cigar and tobacco factories 3.9
+ Employees in gas and electric fixtures concerns 3.2
+
+If the data were for retail stores only and did not include wholesale
+stores, then office work, which now stands at the head of the list,
+would probably not make so good a showing, although the superiority
+over the selling positions is, from the wage-earning standpoint, so
+marked that there seems to be no escape from the conclusion that on
+the whole women office workers are better paid than women in the sales
+force. On the other hand the proportion of saleswomen earning $12 and
+over is from nearly seven times as great to not far from twice as
+great as it is in the factory industries, if we except the workers in
+women's clothing factories, whose earnings per week are better than
+those of the saleswomen.
+
+With respect to the men employed on the sales force of the department
+stores a somewhat different situation exists. In Diagram 4 a
+comparison is made of the wages paid in sales positions with the wages
+paid in clerical positions. Here it will be noted that men who sell
+goods in retail and wholesale stores earn more on the average than men
+occupying clerical positions, such as bookkeepers, stenographers, and
+office clerks. This comparison does not include traveling salesmen. A
+further comparison of the earnings of the men in stores with the
+earnings of male workers (omitting office clerks) in the different
+industries of the city employing the largest number of men is given in
+Diagram 5, which shows the per cent in each industry earning $18 a
+week and over.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 4.--Per cent of salesmen and of men clerical
+workers in stores receiving each class of weekly wage]
+
+In comparing wages in stores with those in the manufacturing
+industries it must be not forgotten that the working day and week in
+the larger stores is shorter than in most of the factories. Hence a
+comparison of earnings on the basis of wage per hour would show a
+still greater advantage in favor of both sales persons and clerical
+workers.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 5.--Per cent of male workers in non-clerical
+positions in six industries earning $18 per week and over]
+
+
+REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
+
+In department store work and in nearly all branches of retail selling
+there is a marked fluctuation in the number employed during the year.
+Sales work in the department stores is seasonal in the sense that a
+large number of extra sales women are taken on during the Christmas
+season for a period of temporary employment, usually lasting from one
+to two months. The proportion of the total working force for the whole
+year employed in such transient jobs is approximately one-fourth. How
+selling positions in retail and wholesale stores compare with other
+fields of employment in this respect is seen in Diagram 6.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 6.--Per cent that the average number of women
+employed during the year is of the highest number employed in each of
+six industries]
+
+
+OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADVANCEMENT
+
+In regard to promotion in department stores it should be noted that as
+a rule the executives are made in the business and are not, as in some
+industries, brought in from the outside because they must have some
+special training which the organization itself does not provide. Not
+only in Cleveland but in other cities where studies of the same kind
+have been made it has been found that practically all the people
+holding important floor positions have come up from the ranks. The
+various lines of promotion through the different departments are
+analyzed in detail in the report.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+That vocational training for department store employees is both
+desirable and possible is proved by the fact that most of the large
+stores in Cleveland make some provision for the instruction of their
+workers. Some of these classes are carefully organized and excellently
+taught with every promise of increasing in usefulness. Others employ
+methods of instruction which belong to the academic school of an
+earlier decade and give evidence that the problem of vocational
+training with which they are presumably concerned is not even
+understood.
+
+From the standpoint of the school there are two well recognized kinds
+of training possible for department store employees: trade preparatory
+and trade extension training. Eventually it may prove practicable to
+organize instruction of both kinds, but it is the opinion of the
+author of the report that under present conditions the surest results
+can be expected from trade extension training. In trade extension
+instruction the members of the group to be dealt with have already
+secured their foothold in the industry; and having mastered at least
+the rudiments of their job they have acquired a basis of experience
+which may be utilized for purposes of instruction. These people are
+responsive to teaching organized with regard to their needs, for daily
+experience is demonstrating to them their deficiencies.
+
+The success of the proposed training will largely depend upon the
+employment of simple and direct methods that shall place this
+knowledge in the hands and head of the person or group needing it. The
+application of this instruction must be immediate and practical and
+must not be dependent upon the working out of a complicated course or
+schedule.
+
+The organization must be flexible enough to admit of bringing together
+a group having a common need, although they may come from different
+departments of the business. Since the unit of class organization is
+not previous school experience or similar employment, it will be seen
+that this class should be held only until the need is fully supplied
+and should then give place to another organized on the same basis.
+
+As in all vocational teaching, the size of the class should be
+limited. To make this work really effective, the instructor should
+come in sufficiently close contact with all pupils to enable him to
+obtain a personal knowledge of their needs and capabilities. A further
+necessity for small classes and individual instruction is found in the
+fact that there is a constant shift of employees in the industry as
+well as frequent accessions from the outside.
+
+It readily can be seen that this is not a problem of the regular
+school and that it cannot be met by ordinary classroom methods. Part
+time or continuation classes, such as have already proved feasible for
+other kinds of trade instruction, are the most practicable methods of
+doing this work.
+
+Classes for the instruction of employees are already maintained in the
+majority of large stores. The extension of this plan of separate
+responsibility is one way of meeting the problem. But this method has
+certain obvious faults. The unequal opportunity which it affords to
+department store employees as a body is a conspicuous drawback. The
+value of the instruction so given, moreover, will always depend to a
+large extent on the comprehension of the problem by the firm
+maintaining the classes. The method involves much duplication of
+effort, which is particularly wasteful when the instruction of small
+groups is involved.
+
+Another possible method would be for the several department stores to
+get together and coöperate in providing instruction. There would seem
+to be no reason why stores should not unite for this purpose as well
+as for any other. The advantages of this method are economy of
+maintenance and administration, the ability to command expert service,
+and the possibility of securing and sharing the results of a great
+variety of such experiences as does not consist of exclusive trade
+secrets.
+
+The number of people whom it would be necessary to employ exclusively
+for the purpose of conducting these classes would be small as
+compared with the results accomplished. Collectively these stores now
+have in their employ a body of highly paid experts in all lines of
+merchandise. A large amount of the most accurate technical knowledge
+covering the work of all departments is already available in the
+several stores. These are valuable resources which should be utilized
+by a coöperative school of this kind.
+
+For the head of such a school, it would be desirable to secure a man
+or woman of more than usual ability and discernment who, above all
+else, could sense the business and routine of each contributing store
+from the standpoint of the employee and of store organization. It
+would be the business of this person to become familiar with the
+available sources of knowledge in the different stores and then
+arrange for the presentation of this knowledge to the various classes.
+By coöperation with the floor men, heads of sections and departments,
+as well as with the employees themselves, he should come into close
+contact with the requirements of the workers and should gather from
+the different stores those who, because of their common need, can be
+made into a "school unit." It would also be necessary to employ
+assistants of practical experience who would attend to the details of
+routine teaching, and act as interpreters for those experts who have
+the knowledge but not the ability to impart it even to a small class.
+
+It is realized that a scheme of this kind would involve the overcoming
+of many objections and difficulties of adjustment before it could be
+put into actual operation. It would necessitate mutual concessions and
+forbearance on the part of everybody concerned, but the results would
+unquestionably justify the labor.
+
+A third method, already in operation in Boston, New York, and Buffalo,
+calls for the coöperation of the stores and the schools. This
+partnership, it is claimed, makes certain that the needs of the pupil
+are considered before the demands of the business. It insures equal
+opportunity for all employees so far as instruction is concerned and
+it divides the expense of maintenance between the industry and the
+school. It is to be regretted that this scheme frequently results in
+the employment of teachers who, although certificated for regular
+school work, have no other qualifications, instead of persons of
+practical experience. The employment of such teachers too often leads
+to the following of ordinary school practices and academic traditions
+rather than the methods and practice of business.
+
+In some quarters it is maintained that this instruction should be
+entirely taken over by the public schools, thus relieving the store of
+any responsibility in the matter. It is probably not now advisable for
+the school to assume full responsibility for such training. The heavy
+expense involved and the physical limitations of the schools would
+make it difficult, without the coöperation of the store, to reproduce
+the trade atmosphere necessary for real vocational training. As a
+result, the instruction would become abstract and theoretical, with
+the major portion of the effort limited to a continuation of
+elementary school subjects taught with reference to their application
+to department store work.
+
+
+CHARACTER OF THE INSTRUCTION
+
+The analysis of the industry shows that in each occupation or job
+there is a definite amount of knowledge which must be acquired by the
+efficient worker. A study of this analysis and of the examples of
+technical knowledge needed by the worker at different points in the
+industry will show that no such thing as a general course is possible.
+In every case the character of the instruction should be such that it
+will answer a definite need of the employee. What this instruction
+should be in specific cases can be settled only, on the one hand, by a
+thorough analysis of the occupation to determine what demands it makes
+upon the workers, and on the other, by a careful study of the workers
+themselves to ascertain how far they have been unable to meet these
+demands without assistance. Lessons can then be organized dealing with
+such subject matter as individuals or groups have failed to grasp, the
+lack of which limits their efficiency or restricts their usefulness.
+It can readily be seen that this instruction will cover a wide range
+of subjects, from the use of fractions needed by checkers and
+salesgirls in yard goods sections, to the special technical knowledge
+of fine furs required by the salesperson who handles this
+merchandise.
+
+The method by which this instruction can best be given is in a series
+of short unit courses. In every case the length of the course is to be
+determined by the subject matter. For instance, two one-half hour
+lessons may be a "course," when this time is sufficient for the
+necessary teaching.
+
+The group or class to which this instruction is given might be made up
+of those who need the same technical knowledge, although they might
+expect to make a different application of this instruction. For
+instance, the unit course on silks might be given to a group composed
+of salespeople from the silk section, the waists and gowns section,
+and the section of men's neckwear.
+
+The report gives detailed examples of the kinds of technical knowledge
+needed in the different departments of the store. It maintains that
+such instruction cannot be successfully given by regular school
+teachers. As in other industries the teacher needs actual experience
+in the occupation for which training is given. Academic training and
+teaching experience are desirable and valuable, but among the
+qualifications demanded of a teacher of this kind they are of
+secondary importance.
+
+The final chapter of the report contains valuable instructions for
+young persons who desire to secure positions in retail trade. These
+instructions cover such matters as work papers, methods of securing a
+position, and requirements for employment in various kinds of
+department store work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE GARMENT TRADES
+
+
+The clothing industry in Cleveland has grown very rapidly in recent
+years. During the 10 year period from 1900-10 the number of persons
+employed in the industry increased approximately 100 per cent. This
+increase was much greater than the increase throughout the country as
+a whole and was more than twice as large as the increase in the
+population of the city. There is every indication that this rapid
+growth is still continuing. It is estimated that approximately 10,000
+workers are employed in the industry at the present time.
+
+The distribution of men and women in the industry is most interesting.
+The making of men's garments has been more fully standardized and is
+subject to fewer changes than the making of women's garments. In this
+standardized and systematized branch of the industry the women now
+outnumber the men. In the manufacture of women's garments, where the
+styles change more frequently and the work is of a more varied
+character, more men than women are employed.
+
+The methods of work are of three general types: The old tailoring
+system known as "team work," or a slight modification of it; piece
+operating; and section work. Under the team system, used extensively
+in the making of women's coats, a head tailor hires his own helpers
+(operators and finishers), supervises them and pays them by the week
+out of the lump sum he receives for the garments from the clothing
+establishment. Under the piece operating system each operator sews up
+all the seams on one "piece," or garment, and each finisher does all
+the hand sewing on one garment. Each operator and each finisher is an
+independent worker. The whole body of finishers keeps pace with the
+whole body of operators. Piece operating is used almost entirely in
+dress and skirt making, and to some extent in coat making. The section
+system is based on the subdivision of processes into a number of minor
+operations. The workers are divided into groups, each group making a
+certain part of the garment. The various operations are divided into
+as many minor operations as the number of workers and quantity and
+kind of materials will warrant. Each of these minor operations is
+performed by operators who do nothing else. This specialization has
+been carried to a high degree in the manufacture of men's clothing,
+and section work is increasingly used on women's coats.
+
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORKING FORCE
+
+One of the objects of the study was to find how many positions there
+are for men and women in each occupation in the industry. Through the
+coöperation of employers data were obtained from the records of 50
+establishments employing a total of 8,337 garment workers,
+approximately four-fifths of the total number in the city. The
+distribution of workers by sex in the various occupations is shown in
+Diagram 7. The apportioning of work to the two sexes seems to depend
+partly upon the weight of materials and partly upon previous training.
+The men are mostly foreign born tailors who have had the kind of
+training necessary for the more complicated work. The women are
+largely American born of foreign parentage, trained in American shops
+and employed chiefly upon operations that may be learned in a
+relatively short time. Cutting and pressing are practically
+monopolized by men. Nearly all hand sewers are women, except for a few
+basters on men's clothing. Most designers are men, although a few
+women designers are found in dress and waist shops.
+
+In the largest trade,--machine operating,--about two-thirds of the
+workers are women. In no trade in which both sexes are employed is the
+difference in their work more apparent. The weight of materials
+decides to some extent the division of operating between men and
+women. Some employers are of the opinion that garments made of such
+thick materials as plush, corduroys, and cheviots are too heavy to be
+manipulated under needle machinery by women and consequently employ
+only men operators. Where light weight materials are used, as in the
+manufacture of dresses and waists, delicacy in handling is required,
+and nearly all the operators are women.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 7.--Distribution of 8,337 clothing workers by
+sex in the principal occupations in the garment industry]
+
+Four-fifths of the men and two-fifths of the women employed in the
+industry are of foreign birth and the majority of the native born
+workers are of foreign parentage. There is an increasing demand for
+workers who understand English, due to the fact that they are able to
+follow directions more intelligently.
+
+There are relatively few workers under the age of 18. Many firms will
+employ no one under this age because of various complications which
+arise in connection with the age and schooling certification of girls
+between the ages of 16 and 18. Of 25 women's clothing factories
+visited during the Survey only nine had any workers under 18.
+According to the report of the Industrial Commission of Ohio for 1914
+only eight per cent of the workers employed in making men's clothing,
+and less than two per cent of the workers employed in making women's
+clothing were under 18 years of age.
+
+
+EARNINGS
+
+In general the wages paid in garment making compare favorably with
+those of other manufacturing industries. This is particularly true
+with respect to the earnings of women workers. A considerably larger
+proportion of the women employed in the garment industry earn what may
+be considered high wages for industrial workers than in any of the
+larger factory industries of the city. This is clearly shown in
+Diagram 8 which lists nine of the principal fields of industrial
+employment for women. The proportions of women receiving under $8 a
+week are lower in men's and women's clothing than in the other seven
+industries. In the proportion of women receiving $12 and over, women's
+clothing ranks first and men's clothing third.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 8.--Percentage of women in men's and women's
+clothing and seven other important women employing industries
+receiving under $8, $8 to $12, and $12 and over per week.]
+
+The comparison of the wages paid men employees shown in Diagram 9 is
+somewhat less favorable. Women's clothing ranks with printing and
+publishing as to the proportion of male workers receiving the highest
+specified earnings per week. Men's clothing ranks sixth among the
+industries compared.
+
+The various kinds of work do not command fixed wage rates, as do many
+other types of industrial employment. Quantity of output as well as
+quality of workmanship is an important factor in the determination of
+wages. Men generally turn out a greater output than women on the same
+kind of work and piece workers usually earn more than those paid by
+the week. The lowest, average, and highest wages for each of the
+principal occupations in the two branches of the industry are shown in
+Tables 16 and 17.
+
+One reason often given for the higher earnings received by workers on
+women's garments is the greater irregularity of employment in this
+branch of the industry. This, however, does not sufficiently account
+for the difference. The most weighty reason is that a higher degree of
+adaptability is required of workers than is the case in the
+manufacture of men's clothing.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 9.--Percentage of men in men's and women's
+clothing and seven other manufacturing industries receiving under $18,
+$18 to $25, and $25 and over per week]
+
+
+TABLE 16.--WAGES FOR FULL-TIME WORKING WEEK, WOMEN'S CLOTHING,
+CLEVELAND, 1915
+
+---------------------------------------+--------+----------+---------+
+Workers | Lowest | Average | Highest |
+---------------------------------------+--------+----------+---------+
+Assorters, women | $6.00 | $8.75 | $14.00 |
+Hand sewers, women | 6.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 |
+Trimming girls | 7.00 | 10.25 | 15.00 |
+Operators,* women | 6.00 | 12.00 | 30.00 |
+Sample makers, women | 10.00 | 12.75 | 15.00 |
+Examiners, women | 8.00 | 13.50 | 18.00 |
+Models, suit and cloak | 10.00 | 15.25 | 21.00 |
+Forewomen | 9.00 | 16.25 | 25.00 |
+Operators,* men | 7.00 | 17.75 | 50.00 |
+Pressers, men | 9.00 | 18.25 | 35.00 |
+Cutters,§ men | 8.00 | 19.25 | 30.00 |
+Pattern graders, suit and cloak, men | 13.00 | 22.00 | 27.50 |
+Sample makers, men | 13.00 | 22.50 | 25.00 |
+Examiners, men | 16.00 | 25.00 | 45.00 |
+Head tailors, men | 18.00 | 25.00 | ... |
+Foremen | 14.00 | 30.00 | 75.00 |
+---------------------------------------+--------+----------+---------+
+*: Includes piece and section operators and helpers to head tailors
+§: Includes all cutters except foremen, apprentices, and pattern graders
+
+
+TABLE 17.--AVERAGE WAGES FOR FULL-TIME WORKING WEEK FOR SIMILAR
+WORKERS, MEN'S AND WOMEN'S CLOTHING, CLEVELAND, 1915
+
+---------------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
+Workers | Men's | Women's |
+ | clothing | clothing |
+---------------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
+Hand sewers, women | $9.50 | $10.00 |
+Section operators, women | 9.25 | 11.25 |
+Examiners, women | 7.00 | 13.50 |
+Section operators, men | 16.50 | 15.25 |
+Pressers, under | 12.00 | 15.75 |
+Forewomen | 11.00 | 16.25 |
+Pressers, upper | 18.50 | 19.50 |
+Cutters, cloth | 18.75 | 20.00 |
+Examiners, men | 17.75 | 25.00 |
+Foremen | 29.25 | 30.00 |
+---------------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+
+REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
+
+The making of women's clothing is seasonal, to meet a seasonal
+purchasing demand. Most people purchase their summer clothes in April
+and May, and their winter clothes in October and November. During the
+months previous to these purchasing seasons a large number of workers
+are needed, but after the height of the purchasing period employment
+becomes less and less steady until the first demands of the new season
+are felt. During the rush season a greater number of workers is
+employed, or the output may be augmented by increasing the speed at
+which the work is performed or the number of hours in the working day.
+A combination of these methods is frequently used. During dull periods
+the workers may be busy from a few hours a week to full working time;
+while in rush periods they may work not only the regular working
+hours, but in addition a good deal of over-time.
+
+Compared with other manufacturing industries as regards regularity of
+employment men's clothing makes an excellent showing while women's
+clothing ranks low. In Diagram 10 the average number of unemployed
+among each 100 workers is shown for men's and women's clothing and for
+15 other large manufacturing industries in the city. Men's clothing
+leads the list, with an average unemployment of four among each 100
+workers, while women's clothing ranks 14th, with 15 among each 100.
+
+
+TRAINING AND PROMOTION
+
+Designers learn their work through apprenticeships to custom tailors
+and cutters and by taking supplementary courses in drafting and
+grading of patterns in a designing school. Most designers in
+Cleveland have had training in designing schools in New York or
+Chicago.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 10.--The black portions of the bars show the
+average number of unemployed among each 100 workers in men's clothing,
+women's clothing and 15 other specified industries]
+
+With but few exceptions organized training for machine operating is
+found only in the largest establishments. There is general agreement
+among employers that it takes a girl who has never operated a machine
+before about four weeks to learn an easy operation well enough to be
+taken on at regular piece rates. A much longer time is required to
+become a first class worker on a single operation, and to acquire
+skill in a group of operations takes from one to two years.
+
+Girls are not usually employed as hand sewers unless they know how to
+do plain sewing. A girl who starts with this knowledge should be able
+to learn factory sewing well enough to earn fair wages within from six
+months to a year.
+
+In cutting, which has a so-called apprenticeship lasting from two to
+six years, there is no formal system of instruction. Boys must pick up
+the trade from observation and practice. Beginners start as errand
+boys, cloth boys, bundlers, or helpers.
+
+Pressing is usually learned in cleaning and pressing shops. It takes
+about eight weeks for a green hand to become a good seam presser. To
+become a final presser on skirts and dresses requires from six months
+to a year, and on jackets and cloaks from two to three years.
+
+Examiners have usually had considerable previous experience as machine
+operators or finishers. The length of experience depends on the kinds
+of garments and ranges from three to eight years.
+
+Trimmers and assorters learn their work as helpers to experienced
+employees. A year or so of experience is required before they can be
+entrusted with responsible work.
+
+Foremen are selected from the working force or, in a few cases,
+trained especially for their positions. Although there are few
+opportunities each year for advancement to foremanship, employers
+declare they cannot get enough persons of ability to fill vacancies. A
+study of the previous experience of foremen and forewomen made by the
+survey shows that they come from nearly every department of the
+factory. The length of previous experience among the cases studied
+ranged from three months to nine years.
+
+
+EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
+
+The quality which proprietors of garment making establishments value
+above all others in their employees is adaptability. The reason for
+this is that the manufacturing of clothing differs from almost all
+other kinds of industrial work in the frequency with which changes
+take place in the size and shape of the product and in the range of
+materials which must be handled by the same workers. There is an
+annual change in the weight of cloth used for the different seasons,
+from light to heavy and from heavy to light. The size and shape of the
+pieces which compose the finished garment are determined by changes in
+style which vary from the minor modifications occurring yearly in
+men's clothing to the radical changes in the style of women's
+clothing. A wide variety of fabrics is employed, ranging from thick to
+thin, smooth to rough, closely woven to loosely woven and from plain
+weave to fancy weave. In one season a single establishment will make
+garments from as many as 200 different fabrics, and each operator is
+likely to work upon 60 or more different kinds of cloth.
+
+In view of the fact that many of the workers are foreigners or of
+foreign parentage, and that the frequent changes in styles and
+materials require the giving of detailed instructions by foremen,
+instruction in English is of more importance in the garment trades
+than in occupations where there is a larger proportion of native born
+and where the products and processes are more uniformly standardized.
+
+All clothing workers should have a practical knowledge of the
+fundamental operations of arithmetic. Where the piece and section
+systems are in operation it is important for the worker to keep
+account of what she has accomplished and to know enough arithmetic to
+check her own record with the tally kept by the foreman or payroll
+girl. Some of the occupations, such as cutting, involve a considerable
+amount of arithmetical computation.
+
+As in other trades, all workers and prospective workers need a general
+knowledge of industrial conditions. They would greatly benefit from a
+better understanding of the supply of labor, factors affecting prices,
+organization of workers, industrial legislation, the relative
+importance of the field of employment in different industries, the
+nature of important industrial processes, and the like. At the present
+time there is little opportunity for gaining such information either
+before entering any specific line of work or afterwards.
+
+For certain small groups within the clothing industry there are needs
+in the way of technical training that are important and at present
+unsupplied. Training in applied mathematics, drafting and design would
+be of benefit to a considerable number of employees who are occupying
+or working towards advanced positions.
+
+A large proportion of the women workers need skill in hand sewing.
+Before girls enter the industry they should have careful and
+systematic training in plain sewing stitches, sewing on buttons and
+other fasteners, and button hole making.
+
+Machine operating is the most important occupation in the industry,
+and employs more women than any other occupation in the city, except
+perhaps dressmaking. After a careful study of the characteristics of
+this occupation and the various conditions affecting it, the survey
+reached the conclusion that there should be established by the school
+system a trade course for prospective power machine operators.
+
+
+SEWING COURSES IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS
+
+In the elementary schools manual training sewing is given in the fifth
+and sixth grades. It consists of one hour a week of hand sewing taught
+by a regular grade teacher or sometimes by teachers of domestic
+science or other special subjects. The aim is to give the girls a
+knowledge of practical sewing which may be of use to them in the home.
+In five of the elementary schools hand and machine sewing is taught by
+special sewing teachers. About four per cent of all the seventh and
+eighth grade girls in the elementary schools receive this instruction.
+In the technical high schools the sewing course covers four years
+work. During the first two years all girls are required to take plain
+hand and machine sewing three and three-quarter hours a week. In the
+third and fourth years they may elect either millinery or dressmaking,
+and special courses in these subjects are provided for girls who wish
+to prepare for trade work. The aim of the sewing course as stated in
+the outline of the East Technical High School is "(1) Preparation for
+efficiency in the selection of the materials used in sewing and the
+construction of articles relating to the home and family sewing: (2)
+laying the foundation for courses in college, normal school, or
+business school." A two year elective course in sewing is provided in
+the academic high school as a part of the home economic course. The
+aim of this sewing, which is called domestic art, is stated thus:
+"Problem--my personal appearance is one of my chief assets. What can I
+do to improve it?" Dressmaking and millinery classes are conducted in
+the night technical high schools to teach girls how to make their own
+clothes and hats.
+
+The manual training sewing in the fifth and sixth grades cannot be
+considered as furnishing any important contribution in the training of
+those who will make their living in the sewing trades. Much the same
+must be said of the work in the technical high schools. It is taught
+not for the purpose of securing quick, accurate hand or machine
+stitching, but to enable the girls to make a few garments for their
+personal use. Due to the fact that very few of the girls who become
+wage earners in these trades remain in school after the completion of
+the elementary course it is doubtful whether the technical high school
+offers a hopeful field for practical training. The work in the
+elementary schools is so hampered by lack of equipment that the
+results, from the standpoint of trade preparation, amount to very
+little.
+
+
+ELECTIVE SEWING COURSES IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
+
+The reduction of retardation all through the grades is of fundamental
+importance to any plan of vocational training. The age of 15 is the
+final compulsory attendance age for girls, and those who enter at six
+and seven and make regular progress should be in the first or second
+high school year by the time they reach this age. Last year there
+were, however, 1,170 fifteen-year-old girls in the Cleveland schools
+who were from one to seven grades below normal. Instead of being in
+the high school, they were scattered from the second grade to the
+eighth, and they constituted more than half of all the girls of that
+age in the school system. It is clear that unless the schools can
+carry them through more nearly on schedule time there is no hope of
+providing industrial training for a large proportion of them, because
+they reach the end of the compulsory period before entering the grades
+in which industrial training can be given effectively and
+economically.
+
+The report recommends that during the junior high school period girls
+who expect to enter the sewing trades should be given work in
+mechanical drawing, elementary science, industrial conditions,
+elementary mechanics and hand and machine sewing. The fundamentals of
+sewing can be thoroughly taught in two years. The work during the
+first year might well be limited to hand sewing. Machine sewing should
+be taken up in the second year, and the girls given an opportunity
+during the third year to specialize somewhat broadly in a trade school
+on the kind of work in which they may wish to engage--power operating,
+dressmaking, or millinery.
+
+
+A ONE YEAR TRADE COURSE FOR GIRLS
+
+Specialized training must be conducted under conditions closely
+resembling those found in the industry. This involves equipment
+similar to that used in the factory, an ample supply of materials, and
+a corps of teachers who have had practical experience. It might seem
+that on the score of adequate equipment the factory itself would be
+the place for such training. But the fact is that the main object of
+the factory is to turn out as large a quantity as possible of
+saleable product. In the school the main object should be to turn out
+as large a quantity of saleable skill and knowledge as possible, with
+the saleable product as a secondary, although necessary, feature.
+
+The junior high school is not the place for specialized trade
+training, since it is reasonably certain that there would not be a
+sufficient number of girls in each junior high school desiring to
+enter a single trade to warrant the provision of special equipment and
+special teachers. For this reason the report favors a trade course in
+a separate school plant where girls who wish to specialize in any of
+the sewing trades can be taught in fairly large classes. The work done
+during the past few years in such institutions as the Boston Trade
+School for Girls and the Manhattan Trade School for Girls in New York
+City gives evidence of the practicability of this plan.
+
+
+TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING
+
+The only instruction offered by the public school system at the
+present time which can be considered as trade-extension training for
+the garment industries is that given in the sewing classes in the
+technical night schools. The enrollment in these classes during the
+second term of 1915-16 was 229. Only a small proportion of the girls
+and women enrolled in the night sewing classes make their living by
+sewing. The students employed by day in clothing factories or in any
+of the sewing trades constitute somewhat less than 15 per cent of the
+total number enrolled. Nearly half of the enrollment is made up of
+workers in commercial, clerical or professional pursuits and
+approximately one-third are not employed in any gainful occupation.
+
+In both technical night schools the emphasis is laid on training for
+home sewing rather than on training for wage earning. The courses now
+given are not planned for workers in the garment trades, but to help
+women and girls who want to learn how to make, alter, and repair their
+own garments.
+
+If a trade school of the kind described in the previous section were
+established it would be possible to give at night short unit courses
+in machine or hand sewing to those workers who wish to extend their
+experience and prepare themselves for advancement, utilizing in the
+night classes the equipment of the day school. It is probable also
+that special day classes could be organized during the dull season to
+give beginners the opportunity to learn new processes and extend their
+knowledge of trade theory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON DRESSMAKING AND MILLINERY
+
+
+At the time of the last census the total number of women in Cleveland
+employed as milliners or dressmakers was approximately 5,000, of whom
+about seven-tenths were dressmakers and about three-tenths milliners.
+For the most part they were of native birth. The proportion of young
+girls engaged in these occupations was relatively small, the age
+distribution showing that only about one-third of the milliners and
+less than one-fifth of the dressmakers were under 21 years of age.
+
+
+DRESSMAKING
+
+Four distinctive lines of work are done by those who are classified by
+the census as dressmakers and seamstresses: dressmaking proper,
+usually carried on in shops; alteration work in stores; general sewing
+done by seamstresses at home or in the homes of customers; and the
+work of the so-called dressmaking "school," in which the dressmaker
+helps her customers do their general sewing.
+
+Shop dressmaking is in the main confined to the making of afternoon
+and evening gowns and fancy blouses. Nearly uniform processes of work
+are maintained and the workers in the different establishments need
+about the same kinds of abilities and degrees of skill. There is a
+strong and increasing tendency towards specialization of the work.
+
+Among each 100 workers in dressmaking shops about 13 are head girls,
+55 are finishers or makers, 16 are helpers, eight are apprentices, and
+the rest are lining makers, cutters, embroiderers, errand girls,
+shoppers, and stock girls.
+
+Alteration work constitutes a separate sewing trade and consists of
+the adjustment of ready-made garments to individual peculiarities. It
+furnishes employment to several hundred workers in Cleveland.
+
+The weekly wages most commonly paid to each class of workers in
+dressmaking shops may be roughly stated as follows: apprentices, $2 to
+$4; helpers $6 to $9; finishers or makers $10 to $12; and drapers $18
+to $20. Lining making, done in most shops by apprentices or helpers,
+pays from $4 to $6 a week. In one shop a specialist on linings
+received $12. Women cutters, found in two shops, and doing supervisory
+work similar to that done by drapers, earned from $15 to $25.
+Hemstitchers earn $10 to $14 and a guimpe maker in one shop earned
+$12. Errand girls were found at $3 and $6; stock girls at $8, $12, and
+$13; and shoppers at from $3.50 to $10.
+
+Beginners in alteration departments are started at from $5 to $7.
+Regular alteration hands earn from $7 to $18, the average being $9 or
+$10. Fitters earn about the same as drapers in dressmaking shops,
+averaging from $15 to $18, with a range of from $10 to $25.
+
+As a rule comparatively little time is lost through irregularity of
+employment. Workers average from 10 to 11 months' work out of the
+year. Establishments usually close during the month of August and for
+one or two weeks in the spring. Workers in alteration department
+average 11 months of work. Dress alteration work is steady, while suit
+and coat alteration is irregular.
+
+Apprenticeship in dressmaking comprehends a trying-out period of from
+six months to a year. Most shops take apprentices, the proportion in
+the trade being one to every 12 workers; and an effort is made to keep
+these new workers if they are at all satisfactory. There is no
+standardized apprenticeship wage. Girls may serve without pay for six
+months, or may start at from 50 cents to $4 a week. At the end of six
+months they may be earning from $1.50 to $6. The lack of any wage
+standard in apprenticeship probably accounts for the fact that it is
+difficult to get girls to enter this trade.
+
+
+MILLINERY
+
+Millinery requires the handling of small pieces of the most varied
+sorts of material, most of it perishable. The materials must be
+measured, cut, turned, twisted, and draped into innumerable designs
+and color combinations, and sewed with various kinds of stitching.
+The main processes are making, trimming, and designing. Making
+consists in fashioning a specified shape from wire or buckram and
+covering it with such materials as straw or velvet. The covering may
+be put on plain, or may be shirred or draped. Trimming consists in
+placing and sewing on all sorts of decorative materials. A combination
+of the two processes of making and trimming, known as copying,
+consists in making a hat from the beginning exactly like a specified
+model. Designing is the creation of original models.
+
+The increase in the use of the factory-made hat has decreased the
+number of workers in custom millinery, and has also had an effect in
+diverting business from small retail shops to millinery departments in
+stores. The number of millinery workers constantly fluctuates, not
+only from season to season, but from year to year. According to a
+close estimate not more than 2,000 workers were actually engaged in
+millinery occupations during the busiest part of 1915. Between 1,200
+and 1,400 were in retail shops; about 300 were in millinery
+departments in stores; and about 300 more were in wholesale houses.
+
+The data collected indicate that the wages of workers in retail shops
+are lower in general than the wages of workers in millinery
+departments in stores and in wholesale houses. Makers in retail shops
+earn from $3 to $16 a week, the average being about $8. Trimmers earn
+from $10 to $40, with an average of about $18. Out of 45 retail
+shops, only 22 paid as high as $10 to any maker; 15 paid as high as
+$12; six paid as high as $15; and only one paid over $15.
+
+In millinery departments in stores, trimmers, who are generally
+designers, earn from $15 to $50 a week or more. The rate most commonly
+received is $25. Makers are started at from $4 to $6 and may advance
+to $15, with an average of about $10.
+
+In wholesale houses designers earn from $25 to $60, or more. Makers
+start at about $5, and the usual range is from $10 to $15. Those
+employed in straight copying may earn between $15 and $20. The 1914
+report of the Industrial Commission of Ohio presents data showing that
+of the women 18 years of age and over employed in wholesale houses 37
+per cent receive under $8, about 22 per cent receive between $8 and
+$12, while 41 per cent receive $12 and over. The girls under 18 years
+of age were, with one exception, receiving less than $4 per week.
+
+Employment in retail shops averages about 32 weeks during the year; in
+the millinery departments of stores from 32 to 42 weeks; and in
+wholesale houses about 40 weeks. The proportion of workers employed
+the year round is very small. The majority of millinery workers are
+faced with the problem of tiding themselves over two dull seasons,
+aggregating from 12 to 28 weeks each year.
+
+The millinery apprenticeship period lasts for two seasons of 12 weeks
+each. Almost all retail shops take apprentices in large numbers, there
+being one apprentice to every three or four workers in the trade. Few
+apprentices are found in stores and wholesale houses. The
+apprenticeship wage is extremely low. The usual rate is $1 a week
+during the first season and from $1.50 to $2 during the second.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+The needs of girls who are soon to leave school and go to work can
+best be met by a modification of the junior high school course and by
+the establishment of a one-year trade school for girls. Before a
+re-organization of the junior high school work is made to meet the
+needs of these girls an effort should be made to reduce retardation so
+that more girls will reach the junior high school before the end of
+the compulsory attendance period. The present courses should be
+reorganized so as to give basic preparation for wage earning and
+should be as concrete and real as a thorough understanding of the
+requirements of the gainful occupations can make them. Thorough sewing
+courses planned from the standpoint of the sewing trades should be
+offered, extending over two years. The program suggested closely
+resembles that recommended for the garment trades.
+
+It is also recommended that a one-year trade school be established for
+preparing girls to enter employment in dressmaking and millinery. The
+history of trade schools for girls, both private and public, indicates
+that such a school, if properly conducted, would be highly successful
+in Cleveland.
+
+The classes in sewing and millinery in the evening technical high
+schools do not offer trade-extension training for workers and it is
+not likely that they could be easily reorganized to furnish such
+training. It is recommended that if a trade school is established in
+Cleveland, short unit courses in sewing and related subjects, such as
+design, be given in evening classes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE METAL TRADES
+
+
+Approximately one-half of the total number of persons in Cleveland
+engaged in manufacturing are found in the metal industries. When the
+last federal census was taken nearly one-seventh of the entire male
+population was employed in establishments engaged in the manufacture
+of crude or finished metal products. Pittsburgh only, among the 10
+largest cities in the country, has a higher proportion of its
+industrial population working in such establishments. In relation to
+its total population, Cleveland has twice as many people working in
+these industries as Chicago, three times as many as Philadelphia, and
+four times as many as New York. It is estimated that at the present
+time the number of wage earners in the city engaged in this kind of
+work is between 70,000 and 80,000.
+
+The report deals with the three leading industries of the
+city,--foundry and machine shop products, automobile manufacturing,
+and steel works and rolling mills. The study of this last group also
+includes several related industries, such as blast furnaces, wire
+mills, nail mills, and bolt, nut, and rivet factories. About
+three-fourths of the total number of wage earners in the city engaged
+in the manufacture of metal products are found in these three
+industries.
+
+The field investigations consisted of personal visits to the
+manufacturing establishments for the purpose of securing first hand
+data as to industrial conditions, and conferences with employers,
+superintendents, foremen, and workmen as to the need and possibilities
+of training for metal working occupations. In all, 60 establishments,
+employing approximately 35,000 men, were visited. The conclusions as
+to vocational training were based on an analysis of educational needs
+in the various metal industries, together with an extended study of
+the social and economic factors which condition the training of all
+workers. Particular attention was given to the administrative problems
+involved in such training in public schools.
+
+
+FOUNDRY AND MACHINE SHOP PRODUCTS
+
+According to the United States Census, foundries and factories making
+machine shop products gave employment in 1909 to nearly 18,000
+Cleveland wage-earners. This industrial group ranks first in the city,
+employing more than twice as many workers as the next largest
+industry,--automobile manufacturing,--and approximately two-fifths of
+the total working force in all metal industries. Its growth during the
+previous five years, from the standpoint of number of workers
+employed, showed an increase of about 33 per cent, and it is
+estimated that the total number of wage-earners in 1914 was
+approximately 25,000. At the present time, due to the impetus given to
+this branch of manufacturing by the European war, the working force is
+undoubtedly in excess of this figure.
+
+The report gives extended consideration to the machinist's trade,
+which constitutes by far the largest body of skilled workers in the
+city. This trade has been affected more than any other by the progress
+of invention and the modern tendency towards specialization. In many
+establishments the all-round machinist, competent to do independent
+work and operate the wide variety of machine tools now used in the
+trade, had practically disappeared. In his place are found
+"specialist" machine hands who have learned the operation of a single
+machine tool, but have no general knowledge of the trade, and who if
+called on to perform work requiring the use of a machine tool
+different from the one on which they are employed are unable to do so.
+There are hundreds of drill press hands who cannot operate a milling
+machine, lathe hands who know nothing of planer work, and so on. The
+subdivision of these occupations follows closely the advance in
+invention, so that employers advertising for help frequently specify
+not only the machine tool to be used but add the name of the firm
+which manufactures that particular type of machine, with the result
+that there are about as many kinds of machinists as there are
+manufacturers of machine tools. Table 18 shows the estimated number
+of men employed, with their distribution in the various branches of
+the trade.
+
+
+TABLE 18.--PROPORTIONS AND ESTIMATED NUMBERS EMPLOYED IN MACHINE TOOL
+OCCUPATIONS, 1915
+
+--------------------------------+------------+-------------+
+ | | Estimated |
+Workers | Per cent | number |
+--------------------------------+------------+-------------+
+Lathe hands | 18.8 | 3,384 |
+Drill press operators | 17.9 | 3,222 |
+Bench hands | 13.4 | 2,412 |
+Machinists | 12.7 | 2,286 |
+Screw machine operators | 9.4 | 1,692 |
+Milling machine operators | 8.6 | 1,548 |
+Tool makers | 8.3 | 1,494 |
+Grinding machine operators | 6.2 | 1,116 |
+Planer hands | 2.2 | 396 |
+Turret lathe operators | 1.8 | 324 |
+Gear cutter operators | .7 | 126 |
+--------------------------------+------------+-------------+
+Total | 100.0 | 18,000 |
+--------------------------------+------------+-------------+
+
+Specialization has operated to lower standards of skill and keep down
+wages. The average wage of the "all-round" machinist is very nearly
+the lowest found among the skilled trades. The union scale is but 14
+cents an hour above that paid unskilled labor, while the average
+earnings of machine operators range from four to 12 cents above
+laborers' wages. Only among the highly skilled tool makers do the
+wages approach those received by skilled labor in most other
+industries. Table 19 shows the average, highest, and lowest rates per
+hour for all branches of the machine trades in the establishments from
+which data were collected during the survey, with the per cent
+employed on piece work and day work.
+
+
+TABLE 19.--AVERAGE, HIGHEST, AND LOWEST EARNINGS, IN CENTS PER HOUR,
+AND PER CENT EMPLOYED ON PIECE WORK AND DAY WORK, 1915
+
+---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
+ | | | |Per cent|Per cent|
+ | | | |on piece| on day |
+ Workers |Lowest |Average|Highest| work | work |
+---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
+Tool makers | 25.0 | 39.0 | 50.0 | .. | 100 |
+Machinists | 25.0 | 33.2 | 50.0 | .. | 100 |
+Planer hands | 20.0 | 32.2 | 42.0 | .. | 100 |
+Grinding machine operators | 20.0 | 32.0 | 50.0 | 70 | 30 |
+Bench hands | 17.5 | 29.6 | 45.0 | 48 | 52 |
+Screw machine operators | 17.5 | 29.5 | 63.8 | 79 | 21 |
+Lathe hands | 19.0 | 29.1 | 40.0 | 40 | 60 |
+Turret lathe operators | 25.0 | 29.0 | 47.5 | 80 | 20 |
+Gear cutter operators | 20.0 | 26.7 | 40.0 | 96 | 4 |
+Milling machine operators | 15.0 | 25.9 | 40.0 | 53 | 47 |
+Drill press operators | 15.0 | 23.5 | 35.0 | 35 | 65 |
+Machinists' helpers | 20.0 | 22.2 | 25.0 | .. | 100 |
+---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
+
+On the basis of weekly or yearly earnings, the trade makes a better
+showing. Work is steady throughout the year, and the time lost through
+unemployment on account of seasonal changes is slight. Also, as the
+usual working day is from nine to 10 hours, that is, from one to two
+hours longer than in the higher paid building trades, the difference
+in daily wages is really less marked than a comparison of hourly rates
+would seem to indicate.
+
+Little attempt has been made to adapt the apprentice system to modern
+conditions. The term of service and rates of pay have changed but
+slightly over a long period of years. As a result only a small
+proportion of the boys who begin as apprentices finish the
+apprenticeship term of three or four years. Employers attribute this
+to the relatively high wages paid for machine operating, and the
+slight advantage, from a wage standpoint, of the "all-round" man over
+the machine operator. After a year or two the apprentice finds that he
+can double his pay by taking a job as operator, and the inducement for
+learning the trade thoroughly is too small to hold him. The report
+gives a comparison of the earnings of an apprentice and a machine
+operator, both starting at the same age, the first becoming a
+journeyman machinist at the end of three years and the second
+specializing on a particular machine. Assuming that both boys go to
+work at the age of 16 their total earnings up to the age of 25 years
+will be approximately equal. The lack of thoroughly trained workmen is
+beginning to be felt, but the efforts made by industrial
+establishments to meet it have small prospects of success unless the
+economic factors of the problem are given greater consideration.
+
+Inasmuch as no regular apprenticeship period is served for machine
+operating, a special effort was made to secure data relating to the
+time usually required for the worker to learn the operation of each
+tool well enough to earn average wages. In this matter the individual
+opinions of foremen and superintendents differed widely, but when the
+reports from all the establishments visited were compared, a
+sufficient degree of uniformity was found to serve as a basis for
+estimating the amount of experience workers of average intelligence
+would need, under normal shop conditions, in order to become fairly
+proficient.
+
+There was practical unanimity in fixing the period at four years for
+tool makers and three to four years for machinists. Higher estimates
+were received from the superintendents of plants doing a jobbing
+business or manufacturing high grade machine tools than from the
+specialized shops making a single product. The superintendents of
+automobile manufacturing plants, where the standard of quality in
+production is necessarily high, gave the lowest estimates of all.
+Table 20 shows the estimated time required to learn the various types
+of machine work.
+
+
+TABLE 20.--ESTIMATED TIME REQUIRED TO LEARN MACHINE TOOL WORK
+
+------------------------------------+----------------------+
+ Workers | Time required |
+------------------------------------+----------------------+
+Grinding machine operators | 12 to 15 months |
+Lathe hands | 6 to 9 months |
+Planer hands | 6 months |
+Gear cutter operators | 6 months |
+Turret lathe operators | 4 to 6 months |
+Screw machine operators | 3 to 6 months |
+Bench hands | 3 to 6 months |
+Milling machine operators | 2 to 4 months |
+Drilling machine operators | 2 weeks to 4 months |
+------------------------------------+----------------------+
+
+The weakness of specialization, with its constant tendency towards the
+substitution of semi-skilled operatives for trained workmen, lies in
+its failure to provide a body of workers from whom to recruit the
+large directive force needed in any scheme of production based on
+semi-skilled labor. This condition is regarded by many employers with
+grave concern, and in a few plants apprentice schools designed
+primarily to train future foremen have been established.
+
+Practically all the foremen in the shops visited had received an
+all-round training as machinists, and there are few opportunities for
+promotion open to men who have not a general knowledge of the trade.
+On the other hand, such general knowledge is only one of the
+requisites for advancement. Others are initiative, resourcefulness,
+tact, self-control, ability to get along with men, and a disposition
+to subordinate personal interests to the interests of the business. To
+these should be added the quality of patience, for there must be
+vacancies before there can be promotions, and vacancies among the
+better positions are not frequent. Ten of the establishments visited,
+employing a total working force of over 5,000 men, reported but eight
+vacancies among foremen's positions over a period of one year. These
+same establishments had in their employ a total of 618 all-round
+machinists and tool makers. Assuming that only the machinists and tool
+makers were eligible for promotion, the mathematical chance per man of
+becoming a foreman during the year was about one in 77.
+
+Other occupations studied in detail were pattern making, molding, core
+making, blacksmithing, and boiler making. Pattern making offers the
+most interesting work and the highest wages among the metal trades,
+but the total number of American born pattern makers in the city does
+not exceed seven or eight hundred, so the field of employment is
+relatively limited. Molding and core making, in which between 4,000
+and 5,000 men are engaged, have practically become foreign trades.
+Less than 20 per cent of the molders in the city were born in this
+country. These trades offer few opportunities for employment to boys
+of native birth. Somewhat similar conditions exist in the
+blacksmithing trade. Changed methods of production have largely done
+away with the old-time blacksmith, who survives only in horse-shoeing
+and repair shops. The proportion of native blacksmiths is steadily
+declining, and it is unlikely that any considerable number of boys
+from the public schools will enter the trade. The boiler making trade
+employs relatively few men, the total number of native born boiler
+makers at the time of the last census being less than 600. The trade
+seems to be at a standstill. The increase during the previous decade
+was less than five per cent against a total population increase of 46
+per cent. The average earnings per hour for these trades in the
+establishments visited by members of the Survey Staff are shown in
+Table 21.
+
+
+TABLE 21.--AVERAGE EARNINGS PER HOUR IN PATTERN MAKING, MOLDING, CORE
+MAKING, BLACKSMITHING, AND BOILER MAKING
+
+ Average earnings
+ Workers Per Hour
+
+ Pattern makers .44
+ Skilled molders .39
+ Semi-skilled molders .27
+ Skilled core makers .39
+ Semi-skilled core makers .27
+ Blacksmiths .33
+ Boiler makers .32
+
+The findings and recommendations as to training emphasize the fact
+that the vast majority of boys who become workers in the metal trades
+leave school by the time they are 15 with at most a common school
+education, so that any vocational training before they go to work must
+be given between the ages of 12 and 15 and before the end of the
+eighth grade. The report points out the impossibility of effective
+vocational instruction in elementary schools on account of the
+prohibitive cost per pupil for both equipment and teaching, and
+endorses the recently adopted junior high school plan. This form of
+organization has the great advantage of concentrating in large groups
+the boys who are old enough to make a beginning in prevocational
+training, and through the departmental system of teaching offers
+facilities for differentiation of courses to meet their varying needs.
+
+Whatever their cultural value, the present manual training courses in
+woodwork have little relation to the requirements of any metal working
+trade, except pattern making, in which some of the same tools are
+used. No manual training work in metal is offered in the elementary
+and junior high schools.
+
+The course recommended for the junior high school lays especial
+emphasis on applied mathematics, mechanical drawings, practice in
+assembling and taking apart machines, and the utilization of the shop
+as a laboratory for teaching industrial science. The report maintains
+that the object of such a course should be the development of
+industrial intelligence through the application of mathematical and
+mechanical principles to the solution of concrete problems, rather
+than the teaching of specific operations and skill in the use of
+tools. In mechanical drawing the ability to understand and interpret
+drawings should be given more importance than the ability to make
+drawings. Few workmen are ever called on to draw, while the ability to
+read plans and sketches is always in demand. It is also recommended
+that boys who do not expect to take a full high school course or who
+intend to leave at the end of the compulsory period should devote at
+least a period each week to the study of economic and working
+conditions in industrial and commercial occupations.
+
+With respect to the technical high schools the report holds that these
+schools are primarily training schools for the higher positions of
+industry. They undoubtedly offer the best instruction obtainable in
+the city for the ambitious boy who wishes to prepare himself for
+supervisory and managerial positions in industry or for a college
+engineering course.
+
+The establishment of a separate two-year vocational school, equipped
+for giving instruction in all the larger industrial trades, is
+recommended. The number of boys in the public schools between the ages
+of 14 and 16 who are likely to enter the metal trades is between 700
+and 800, of whom from 500 to 600 will become machinists or machine
+tool operators. An enrollment of much less than this number is
+sufficient to justify the installation of good shop equipment and the
+employment of a corps of teachers who have had the special training
+necessary for this kind of work. It should be possible to form a class
+in pattern making and foundry work of from 80 to 100 boys, and one of
+at least 30 in blacksmithing. Boiler making could be taught in
+connection with sheet metal work.
+
+Various changes are recommended in the present evening school classes
+for machinists, molders, and pattern makers now given by the technical
+high schools. It is claimed that the courses as now organized are not
+elastic enough to meet the varying needs of the journeymen, helpers,
+machine operators, and apprentices employed in these trades. The great
+need is for short unit courses in which the instruction is limited to
+a particular machine or a special branch of the trade. The long course
+tends to discourage the student, especially when it embraces an amount
+of theory out of all proportion to his working needs.
+
+
+AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING
+
+Due to the large number and specialized character of the occupations
+in this industry, they are taken up in a more general way than the
+"foundries and machine shop" group. The productive departments of the
+automobile factories utilize in the main the same equipment as other
+machinery manufacturing plants, but specialization has been carried to
+a degree found in few other metal industries. The "all-round" workman
+is a rara avis. The machine shops are manned by machine "specialists"
+most of whom know how to operate a single machine tool or perform a
+single operation made up of relatively simple elements. From one-half
+to two-thirds of the working force is recruited from immigrant labor
+which is "broken in" under skilful foremen within a period varying
+from a few days to a few weeks. In the simpler assembling operations
+the jobs are so subdivided that any man who is not actually
+feebleminded can learn the work in a few days. Production is on a
+large scale, permitting the maintenance of high-grade engineering and
+experimental departments, where all of the work is planned to the last
+detail. As a result the automobile manufacturers are turning out one
+of the most complicated and most efficient machines known to modern
+industry with a working force composed chiefly of semi-skilled labor.
+
+For the machine shop workers the training suggested is similar to that
+recommended for the same class of workmen in other machine shops. The
+necessity of short unit courses adapted for teaching parts of the
+trade rather than the whole trade is obvious, as most automobile
+workers are employed on specialized operations. Short unit evening
+courses for motor and transmission assemblers, and testers and
+inspectors, are recommended.
+
+
+STEEL WORKS, ROLLING MILLS, AND RELATED INDUSTRIES
+
+A somewhat similar treatment is followed with respect to the iron and
+steel group of industries--blast furnaces, steel mills, rolling mills,
+wire mills, nail mills, and bolt, nut, and rivet factories. These
+industries are characterized by a high proportion of common and
+semi-skilled labor in the working force. Between 75 and 90 per cent of
+the workers are of foreign birth. In the operating department of one
+mill only two Americans were found among a total of 600 employees. As
+a rule the native born workers are mechanics employed in the power and
+maintenance departments.
+
+With scarcely an exception the occupations are of a nature that
+require the worker to learn through actual experience in the mills.
+Theory and practice must be learned at the same time. Even the
+supervisory and executive positions in which a technical education is
+of considerable value require a long and arduous apprenticeship on the
+job before the worker can compete with men who have started with the
+scantiest educational equipment, but have picked up a knowledge of the
+processes by experience and observation. Below these positions the
+work rapidly grades off to various kinds of machine operating in which
+not even the ability to read or understand English is required.
+
+No plan of vocational training is presented, because at present the
+mills recruit almost exclusively from foreign labor, and only a very
+small number of boys from the public schools are likely to seek
+employment in them. The technical content of the work which might
+conceivably be given in evening classes, except in the case of the few
+directive and supervisory positions, is so small that continuation
+instruction offers but meager hopes of success. Under present
+conditions the long working day and the necessity of changing from
+the day to the night shift, or vice-versa every two weeks, constitutes
+an insuperable obstacle to the organization of night classes.
+
+The principal need of the rank and file is a speaking and reading
+knowledge of the English language, so that the workers can be taught
+to avoid and prevent accidents, and give themselves the necessary care
+when they occur. Instruction in English with possibly courses in
+accident prevention and personal hygiene represent about the only
+training possible that can be said to have any real vocational
+significance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE BUILDING TRADES
+
+
+A careful estimate places the number of men engaged in building
+construction in Cleveland at the present time at about 30,000,
+comprising more than one-fifth of the total number employed in
+manufacturing and mechanical occupations. About two-thirds of these
+workmen are skilled artisans, distributed among some 20 different
+trades. The estimated number in each trade is shown in Table 22.
+
+
+SOURCES OF LABOR SUPPLY
+
+The building trades get their workers from four principal sources:
+immigration, native journeymen from outside the city, helpers, and
+apprentices. Immigration contributes the largest proportion in both
+skilled and unskilled work, practically monopolizing the latter. Over
+four-fifths of all cabinet makers, more than two-thirds of all brick
+and stone masons, and nearly two-thirds of all carpenters are foreign
+born. Plumbers and steam-fitters show the smallest proportion of
+foreign labor.
+
+
+TABLE 22.--ESTIMATED NUMBER OF MEN ENGAGED IN BUILDING TRADES, 1915
+
+----------------------------------------+------------------+
+ Workers in trade | Number employed |
+----------------------------------------+------------------+
+Carpenters | 7,105 |
+Painters, glaziers, varnishers | 2,746 |
+Plumbers, gas- and steam-fitters | 2,014 |
+Bricklayers | 1,800 |
+Machine woodworkers | 1,198 |
+Sheet metal workers or tinsmiths | 1,069 |
+Cabinet-makers | 895 |
+Inside wiremen and fixture hangers | 750 |
+Plasterers | 638 |
+Paperhangers | 379 |
+Structural iron workers | 356 |
+Roofers and slaters | 315 |
+Stone-cutters | 292 |
+Lathers | 275 |
+Stone masons and marble setters | 250 |
+Ornamental iron workers | 200 |
+Cement finishers | 200 |
+Hoisting engineers | 150 |
+Elevator constructors | 100 |
+Parquet floor layers | 100 |
+Tile-layer | 100 |
+Asbestos workers | 75 |
+Wood carvers | 63 |
+Helpers | 926 |
+Apprentices | 306 |
+----------------------------------------+------------------+
+Total | 22,302 |
+----------------------------------------+------------------+
+
+
+APPRENTICESHIP
+
+The general decline of the apprenticeship system which began with the
+invention of modern labor-saving machinery has affected the building
+trades least of all. Here it survives in an active state and is
+steadily gaining ground. It is in favor with many employers and with
+all unions. The best apprenticeship systems are found in the strongly
+organized trades.
+
+It is true that in some of the trades apprenticeship is little more
+than a name, meaning simply that permission has been granted to learn
+the trade. The apprentice is left free to pick up what experience he
+can between the odd jobs that are given him. What meager instruction
+he receives comes from a journeyman worker who is none too eager to
+give up what he considers the secrets of his trade.
+
+The union regulations provide that boys shall not enter the trades as
+apprentices or helpers below the age of 16. The limits set by the
+various trades and the union regulations as to length of
+apprenticeship are shown in Tables 23 and 24.
+
+
+TABLE 23.--UNION REGULATIONS AS TO ENTERING AGE OF APPRENTICES
+
+----------------------------------------+------------------------+
+Asbestos workers | Enter at any age |
+Bricklayers | Between 16 and 23 |
+Carpenters | Between 17 and 22 |
+Cement finishers | Must be full grown |
+Elevator constructors | Must be full grown |
+Lathers | Must be 18 years old |
+Inside wiremen | Between 16 and 21 |
+Painters and paperhangers | Before 21 years old |
+Plumbers and gas-fitters | Must be 16 years old |
+Sheet metal workers | Must be over 16 years |
+Slate and tile roofers | Must enter before 25 |
+Steam-fitters | Must be full grown |
+Structural and ornamental iron workers | Between 18 and 25 |
+----------------------------------------+------------------------+
+
+
+TABLE 24.--UNION REGULATIONS AS TO LENGTH OF APPRENTICESHIP PERIOD
+
+_Trades in which indentures are usually signed_
+ Bricklayer 4 years
+ Plasterers 4 years
+ Sheet metal workers 4 years
+
+_Trades in which indentures are seldom signed_
+ Steam-fitters 5 years
+ Carpenters 4 years
+ Inside wiremen 4 years
+ Plumbers and gas-fitter 4 years
+ Cement finishers 3 years
+ Asbestos workers 3 years
+ Painters and paperhangers 3 years
+ Slate and tile roofers 3 years
+ Lathers 2 years
+ Structural and ornamental iron workers 11/2 years
+ Elevator constructors varies
+
+All obtainable information points to the conclusion that the number of
+apprentices employed in the city is far below the maximum permitted by
+the unions. Many large contractors have no apprentices and say they
+will not bother with them. Others state that they have been unable to
+get or keep good apprentices and have therefore given up the plan.
+
+
+UNION ORGANIZATION
+
+The building trades are among the most strongly organized in the city.
+It is estimated that their unions at the present time include about 90
+per cent of all the men engaged in building work. Practically all the
+large contracting firms employ only union labor. The few non-union
+workers are employed by small contractors.
+
+Requirements for admission to the different unions vary to a marked
+degree. If the union is strong and has a good control over the labor
+supply, admission fees are higher and regulations as to apprentices
+and helpers are more stringent than if the union is fighting to gain a
+foothold.
+
+
+EARNINGS
+
+No industrial workers in the city are paid better wages than those
+employed in the building trades. More than one-half of the skilled
+workers are in trades that pay an hourly wage of 50 cents or over. The
+hourly rate in each occupation is shown in Table 25.
+
+
+TABLE 25.--UNION SCALE OF WAGES IN CENTS PER HOUR MAY 1, 1915
+
+_70 Cents_
+ Bricklayers 70.00
+ Hoisting engineers on boom derricks, etc. 70.00
+ Stone masons 70.00
+ Structural iron workers 70.00
+
+_From 60 to 70 Cents_
+ Marble setters 68.75
+ Inside wiremen 68.75
+ Plasterers 68.75
+ Slate and tile roofers 67.50
+ Parquet floor layers (carpenters) 62.50
+ Lathers, first class 62.50
+ Plumbers 62.50
+ Steam-fitters 62.50
+ Stone-cutters 62.50
+ Hoisting engineers, brick hoists 60.00
+ Elevator constructors 60.00
+
+_From 50 to 60 Cents_
+ Tile layers 59.38
+ Lathers, second class 56.25
+ Carpenters 55.00
+ Cement workers, finishers 55.00
+ Sheet metal workers 50.00
+ Painters 50.00
+ Paperhangers 50.00
+
+_From 40 to 50 Cents_
+ Asbestos workers 47.50
+ Composition roofers 42.50
+
+_Under 40 Cents_
+ Cabinet-makers and bench hands 37.50
+ Machine woodworkers 37.50
+ Electrical fixture hangers 37.50
+ Hod-carriers 35.00
+
+Union organization is a more powerful factor in determining wages in
+these trades than technical knowledge and skill. A high degree of
+skill in a given trade brings little advantage in the matter of wages.
+By establishing a minimum scale below which no journeyman shall work,
+the union secures practically a flat rate of pay for most of the men
+in the trade. When there is much building work and good men are
+scarce, contractors sometimes pay higher wages to highly skilled
+workmen in order to secure their services. As a rule, however, their
+reward comes in the form of steadier employment. The less skilled man
+is the first to be laid off when business is slack, while the
+first-class workman, for the reason that he is so hard to replace, is
+the last to be discharged.
+
+Many unions, among them those of the carpenters, bricklayers, and
+painters, make no provision as to the wages of apprentices. Table 26
+shows the wages in three of the building trades that have established
+a uniform scale for apprentices. Sheet metal apprentices are paid a
+bonus of $1 extra for each week served.
+
+
+TABLE 26.--USUAL WEEKLY WAGES OF APPRENTICES IN THREE BUILDING TRADES
+
+-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
+ | | | Sheet metal |
+ Year | Inside wiremen | Plasterers | workers |
+-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
+First year | $5.50 | $5.50 to $6.25 | $5.00 |
+Second year | 13.20 | 8.25 to 11.02 | 5.50 to 6.00 |
+Third year | 17.60 | 13.75 to 16.00 | 6.50 to 7.00 |
+Fourth year | 22.00 | 19.25 | 8.00 to 9.00 |
+-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
+
+
+HOURS
+
+The usual working day is eight hours. Many of the trades work only a
+half day on Saturdays throughout the year; practically all have this
+half holiday during the four summer months. For holiday or over-time
+work the men receive either pay and a half or double pay.
+
+
+REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
+
+Due to the seasonal character of building work, it is next to
+impossible for a building contractor to keep a large force employed
+all the year. One result of this situation is that the men change
+employers more than any other workers in industry. Irregularity of
+employment is greater in building construction than in any other of
+the principal industries of the city. A comparison between the
+different branches of building work as to regularity of employment is
+presented in Diagram 11. The best showing is made by electrical
+contracting, in which the average number employed is 93 per cent of
+the maximum working force, and the poorest by plastering in which the
+average is only 66 per cent of the maximum.
+
+
+HEALTH CONDITIONS
+
+Nearly all of the building trades are open air occupations, much even
+of the inside work being done before the buildings are closed in. For
+the most part the materials used are not injurious to health if
+reasonable precautions are taken and ordinary habits of cleanliness
+observed. In general, health conditions are better than those found in
+the factory industries.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 11.--Sections in outline represent percentage
+of men employed, and sections in black percentage of men unemployed in
+each of nine building industries at the time when each industry showed
+the largest percentage of unemployment]
+
+
+OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADVANCEMENT
+
+The building trades offer many opportunities for advancement. One
+reason for this is the large number of supervisory positions made
+necessary by the wide range of building activities. A foreman in
+almost any of the trades must be able to read plans, as he must lay
+out the work. It is not necessary for him to be the most skilled
+mechanic in the force. Employers and superintendents say that in
+selecting foremen they lay about equal weight on skill and on ability
+to handle men.
+
+As a rule, foremanship carries with it higher wages, although in some
+cases the pay is the same as that of the regular journeymen. The
+reward for the added responsibility comes in the form of steadier
+employment. It is not uncommon for a foreman to be hired on a salary
+basis and carried on the payroll throughout the entire year.
+
+Small contracting offers another form of advancement. It requires but
+little initial investment to make a modest beginning, because
+individual workmen in the various building trades provide their own
+tools and no expensive machines are required. Comparatively little
+working capital is necessary, as provision is made in most contracts
+for part payments as the work progresses.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+The recommendations of the report relating to training for the
+building trades may be summarized under five headings:
+
+1. _Reduce retardation._ The first step in improving the educational
+preparation of workers entering the building trades is to reduce
+retardation or slow progress in the elementary grades. At present it
+is approximately true of the men entering the building trades that
+one-third drop out of school by the sixth grade, two-thirds by the
+seventh grade, and three-thirds by the eighth grade. Now according to
+law a boy cannot go to work until he is 16, and if he has made normal
+progress he will have completed the eight grades of the elementary
+course before he has reached that age. In point of fact, many of these
+boys do not make normal progress through the grades and hence they
+reach the age of 15 before completing the elementary course. As a
+result they fall out of school without having had those portions of
+the work in reading, drawing, mathematics, and elementary science
+which would be of most direct use to them in their future work.
+
+2. _General industrial courses in seventh, eighth, and ninth grades._
+If retardation could be largely reduced in the elementary grades,
+industrialized courses could be properly introduced in the seventh,
+eighth, and ninth grades for boys intending to enter the building
+trades. The specific changes recommended include as their most
+important elements:
+
+ a. Increased training in industrial arithmetic beginning in
+ the seventh grade.
+
+ b. Courses in industrial drawing.
+
+ c. Courses in elementary science relating to industry.
+
+ d. Courses in industrial information.
+
+ e. General courses in industrial shop work.
+
+These are general industrial courses and it is recommended that they
+be introduced as prominent features of the work of the junior high
+school. They are not intended to take the place of specialized courses
+in the building trades, but they are proposed as courses valuable for
+all future industrial workers and within which certain adaptations
+should be made for those who are intending to enter the building
+trades.
+
+3. _A two year industrial trade school._ In addition to the general
+industrial courses in junior high schools that have been recommended
+in the previous section, there should be established a two year
+industrial trade school for boys. It should receive boys 14 to 16
+years of age who desire direct trade-preparatory training. There are
+good reasons why the present elementary schools, the proposed junior
+high schools, and the existing technical high schools cannot
+satisfactorily take the place of a specialized two year course in
+giving boys direct trade-preparatory education. Boys who go through
+the technical high schools do not remain in the building trades as
+artisans. This is shown by the fact that less than two per cent of the
+graduates of these schools are working in the building trades.
+
+The elementary schools and the junior high schools cannot conduct
+satisfactory trade-preparatory courses for the building industry for
+the reason that they do not bring together at any one point a
+sufficient number of these future workers to make it possible to teach
+them economically. This is a consideration which conditions every
+plan for the organization of industrial education. It is a question of
+the community's capacity to absorb workmen trained for any given
+occupation. In Cleveland about 4,000 boys leave the public elementary
+schools each year. Approximately 2,400 of them drop out of the
+elementary schools or leave after graduating from them, while the
+remaining 1,600 go on to high school. The future workers in the
+building trades will be largely recruited from the 2,400 boys who
+leave the elementary schools each year. Most of them range in age from
+14 to 16 and in school advancement from the fifth to the eighth
+grades. They represent a cross-section of a large part of the city's
+adult manhood of a few years hence.
+
+Now the census figures tell us that if present conditions maintain in
+the future only about 100 of the 4,000 boys leaving school each year
+will be carpenters. For the purposes of the present inquiry we may
+assume that these 100 future carpenters are to be found among the
+2,400 boys who do not go on to high school. But Cleveland has 108
+elementary schools and these 100 future carpenters are widely
+scattered among them. Even if we knew which boys were destined to
+become carpenters, and even if we knew when they would leave school,
+and even if we should decide to give them all trade preparatory
+education for the last two years of their school life, we should still
+have an average class in carpentry of only two boys in each elementary
+school. This is administratively and educationally impossible. For
+similar reasons specialized trade preparatory classes in junior high
+schools would prove exceedingly difficult to organize.
+
+The whole situation is changed, however, when we gather in a central
+school all these future artisans who have decided that they wish to
+prepare for specific trades. Under these conditions classes would be
+sufficiently large so that specialized training could be given and
+special equipment provided. This work would best be undertaken in a
+school entirely devoted to the purpose, but such courses might be
+organized in connection with the present technical high schools. This
+arrangement would be less desirable and probably give inferior
+results. The important point, however, is not so much the organization
+or curriculum for these classes, it is the fundamental fact that trade
+classes can be wisely organized only when a sufficiently large number
+of pupils can be gathered in one place so as to make the work
+efficient and economical.
+
+The effectiveness of the trade-preparatory training recommended would
+be greatly increased if the upper limit of the compulsory attendance
+period for boys should be placed at 16 years instead of at 15 as it is
+now.
+
+4. _Trade-Extension Classes for Apprentices._ At the present time the
+technical high schools offer evening classes for apprentices in the
+building trades. About one-seventh of the apprentices of the city are
+enrolled in these classes. In the main they are full grown men. In
+general they do not want shop work related to their own trades, but
+prefer instead to enroll in courses in drawing.
+
+The considerations already presented bear in minor degree on the
+problem of providing evening instruction for trade apprentices. The
+essential for efficient work is that a sufficient number of pupils be
+brought together so as to make it possible to organize specialized
+classes in different kinds of work that the pupils want and need. So
+long as there are only 50 apprentices enrolled in the entire city, and
+these represent a number of trades, many different stages of
+advancement, and a variety of needs, truly efficient work will be
+impossible. Better conditions can be brought about only through the
+coöperation of the unions, the employers, and the school people.
+
+5. _Trade-Extension Work for Journeymen._ The evening technical
+schools now maintain shop classes and drawing classes for workers in
+the building trades. Less than one per cent of the workers in these
+trades are enrolled in these classes. There is little differentiation
+in the school work offered to helpers, apprentices, and journeymen.
+The result is that the work is much less efficient than it might well
+be. It cannot be rendered much more efficient than it is until the
+classes are increased in size and as a result the work differentiated
+and specialized. This type of improvement will result only from
+putting the night school work in the hands of skilful and well paid
+directors and teachers who bring to it a degree of energy, enterprise,
+ingenuity, and adaptability that it is unreasonable to expect and
+impossible to get from day school teachers who have already given the
+best that is in them to their regular classes and are giving a
+fatigued margin of work and attention to their night school pupils.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON RAILROAD AND STREET TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+The report on railroad and street transportation takes up a class of
+wage earning occupations that give employment in Cleveland to
+approximately 15,000 men. A much larger proportion than is found in
+most other industrial manual occupations are natives of the city.
+Although some of the work is relatively unskilled, all of the
+different occupations have one common characteristic--the necessity
+for a knowledge of the English language and some acquaintance with
+local customs and conditions. For this reason comparatively few
+foreigners are employed.
+
+The report takes up separately three types of workers, those employed
+in railroad train service, those engaged in wagon or automobile
+transportation, and the car service employees of the street railroad.
+
+
+RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION
+
+The study covered only those railroad occupations that are directly
+concerned with the actual operation of trains, such as those of
+engineers, firemen, conductors, and trainmen. These occupations have
+many points in common and bring into play many similar mental and
+physical characteristics. The requirements for entrance are strict and
+examinations for the higher positions are obligatory. In all of them
+the hazards are great. Each occupation is firmly intrenched in trade
+unionism. Differences with employers relating to such matters as
+promotion, hours of labor, wages, and overtime are settled by
+collective bargaining or, in case of failure to agree, by arbitration
+proceedings.
+
+The estimated number of men in Cleveland employed in these occupations
+in 1915 is approximately 4,500. Of these about one-fourth are
+switchmen and flagmen, one-fourth enginemen, one-fifth brakemen,
+one-sixth conductors, and one-eighth firemen.
+
+The requirements for entrance call for a high degree of physical
+fitness. The applicant for employment must pass a severe examination
+as to vision and hearing, and in addition furnish certain data as to
+his family history, as it relates to insanity, tuberculosis, and
+certain other diseases. The high standard maintained insures a type of
+employees which for physical fitness, mental alertness, and ability to
+handle difficult situations is unsurpassed in any industry.
+
+Frequent examinations, which are compulsory, are the stepping stones
+to the higher positions. In this way a brakeman qualifies for the
+position of freight conductor, a freight conductor for that of
+passenger conductor, and a fireman for a position as engineer.
+
+Each of the two services, passenger and freight, has its advantages.
+In the passenger service the working day is short, with little
+overtime. Freight service requires a longer working day and a
+considerable amount of overtime. Promotions in both services and from
+one to the other are made on the basis of seniority.
+
+Violation of the strict rules laid down for the operation of trains on
+the part of employees may result in reprimand, suspension, or
+dismissal, according to the gravity of the offense. The penalty of
+suspension has practically superseded the others except in extreme
+cases, such as drunkenness, theft, or other serious violations of the
+rules, for which offenders are summarily dismissed. On some railroads,
+a graded system of demerits is used. When an employee has received a
+certain number of demerits he is dismissed from the service.
+
+The railroad unions are among the strongest and most aggressive in the
+country. The total union membership among train operating employees
+alone in the country is approximately 350,000. The unions are all
+modeled upon the same general plan. They are quite independent of each
+other, keep strictly to their agreements and oppose the sympathetic
+strike. They all maintain some form of life insurance. Four
+organizations have underwritten over $500,000,000 of insurance and one
+of them in a single year paid claims amounting to $1,135,000. The
+influence of these unions has been particularly effective in securing
+the passage of protective state and national legislation such as full
+crew laws, standardization of train equipment, employers' liability
+laws, car limit laws, etc.
+
+The hazardous nature of the work is indicated by a statement made by a
+prominent union official to the effect that the Trainmen's Brotherhood
+paid a claim for death or disability every seven hours. A report to
+the Interstate Commerce Commission states that there is one case of
+injury in train or yard service every nine minutes. With the invention
+of safety devices the risk of accident has been greatly lessened, but
+railroading is still one of the most dangerous industrial occupations.
+
+There is little chance of employment for applicants under the age of
+21 years. In fact, many roads refuse to employ men below this age.
+Physical or sense defects which often accompany advancing years, and
+which would not disqualify a man in other occupations do so in
+railroad work. The average length of the working life is a little over
+12 years.
+
+Railroad employees are among the best paid workers in the country. A
+close estimate based on extensive wage investigations places the
+annual earnings of engineers at from $1,200 to $2,400 a year, with an
+average of $1,600. Conductors average about $1,350, firemen a little
+over $900, and other trainmen about $950. The usual working day is 10
+hours, although this is often exceeded. Overtime is paid on a regular
+scale agreed upon by the companies and the union.
+
+The educational requirements are not very exacting. A thorough
+grounding in the "three R's" is usually all that is necessary. A large
+amount of trade knowledge is obtained through contact and
+participation after entering employment and can be gained in no other
+way. The examinations for promotion are of a thorough-going character.
+One of the roads in Cleveland requires an examination of its firemen
+and trainmen six months after employment, as to vision, color-sense,
+and hearing. They must also pass an oral examination on the
+characteristics of their division and a written examination on certain
+set questions furnished them in advance. Two years later they are
+examined again, the fireman for engineman, and the brakeman for
+conductor. The scope of these examinations covers the whole range of
+train operating. Each of the five large railroads entering Cleveland
+has air-brake cars equipped with various forms of air brakes, air
+signals, pumps, valves, and injectors for the purpose of giving
+instruction to trainmen. A competent instructor is put in charge of
+these cars to explain the theory and practice of the apparatus and
+also to give instruction in any new type of engine or train equipment.
+
+The conclusions of the report are in the main negative with respect to
+specialized vocational training in the public schools. There is no
+doubt that the general industrial course recommended for the junior
+high school period in previous chapters would be of some value to boys
+who may enter this line of work. Problems of railroad transportation
+might well be included as part of the work in applied mathematics.
+What workers in these occupations need most, however, is a thorough
+elementary education.
+
+
+MOTOR AND WAGON TRANSPORTATION
+
+This section of the report takes up such occupations as those of
+teamsters, chauffeurs, and repairmen. There are no reliable data as to
+the number of men in the city employed in these occupations, but it is
+certain that it does not fall below 9,000. Notwithstanding the great
+increase in the use of automobiles and auto trucks in recent years the
+number of teamsters at the present time is in excess of 4,000 men. A
+very large proportion of the men employed in these occupations are of
+American birth.
+
+The general conditions of labor such as wages, hours of labor, and so
+on, are the same for teamsters and chauffeurs. They earn about the
+same wages, belong to the same union, and work about the same hours.
+The wages range from 25 to 37 cents an hour. Earnings in the better
+paid jobs compare favorably with those in several of the skilled
+trades. Automobile repairmen earn from 30 to 45 cents an hour, and
+work from nine to 10 hours a day. The working day for teamsters and
+chauffeurs is somewhat longer, ranging from 10 to 12 hours. At the
+present time these occupations are only partially organized in trade
+unions.
+
+The report recommends the establishment of a course in automobile
+construction and operation in the technical high schools. In view of
+the constantly increasing use of automobiles such a course would be of
+value to many boys besides those who enter employment as chauffeurs
+and truck drivers.
+
+
+STREET RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION
+
+There are employed in Cleveland at present approximately 2,500
+motormen and street car conductors. Almost all of them are of American
+birth, and the majority are natives of the city.
+
+As in railroad work each applicant for employment must pass an
+examination, although the requirements are less exacting than those
+demanded in railroad work. The preliminary training occupies about 10
+days, during which the motorman is taught by actual car operation how
+to operate the controller, how to apply and release the brakes, and
+other duties connected with the careful running of the car through
+crowded streets. The conductor is taught the names of the streets, how
+and when to call them, where stops are to be made, when to turn lights
+on and off, how to act in case of accidents, and the various duties
+which deal with the sale, collection, and reporting of transfers and
+tickets.
+
+No one is admitted into the service before the age of 21 or after 35.
+Promotion usually comes in the form of better runs. The chances of
+promotion to positions above the grade of conductor or motorman are
+very slight. About 90 per cent of the men belong to the local union.
+Union rates of pay for motormen and conductors are higher in Cleveland
+than in most cities in the country, in spite of the fact that this is
+the only large city in the country with a three cent street car fare.
+The wages of both motormen and conductors are 29 cents an hour for the
+first year and 32 in succeeding years. The hours of labor are very
+irregular. The usual working day is from 10 to 12 hours.
+
+The author of the report is of the opinion that no special instruction
+for this type of workers can be given by the public schools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE PRINTING TRADES
+
+
+A smaller proportion of the industrial population in Cleveland is
+engaged in printing than in most large cities. The number of persons
+employed in printing occupations in 1915 is estimated at approximately
+3,900, made up chiefly of skilled workmen. Little common labor is used
+in any department of the industry.
+
+The business of printing is usually conducted in small establishments.
+There are not more than six plants in the city which employ over 75
+wage earners. Data collected from 44 local printing shops, showed an
+average working force of only 36 persons. Due largely to this
+characteristic printing affords an unusual number of opportunities for
+advancement to the skilled workers in the industry. The smaller the
+establishments are the greater is the proportion of proprietors,
+superintendents, managers and foremen to the total number of wage
+earners. Ten per cent of the total working force in the printing
+industry is employed in supervisory and directive positions. In many
+of the large manufacturing industries of the city the proportion in
+such work is less than three per cent.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 12.--Number of men in each 100 in printing and
+five other industries earning each class of weekly wage. Black
+indicates less than $18, hatching, $18 to $25, and outline $25 and
+over]
+
+No other manufacturing industry employs so large a proportion of
+American born workers. In recent years many of the skilled industrial
+trades have been recruited to a very large extent from foreign labor,
+but in printing the American worker has so far held his own remarkably
+well. This is due in part to the relatively high wages and desirable
+working conditions and to the necessity in all branches of printing
+for a working knowledge of English.
+
+Practically all of the trades are thoroughly organized. The unions are
+united in a body called the Council of the Allied Printing Trades.
+Although only about half of the shops in the city employ union labor
+exclusively, the union regulations as to wages and hours of labor are
+observed in both open and closed shops.
+
+Printing workers are among the best paid industrial wage earners in
+the city. A comparison of the weekly earnings in the various
+manufacturing industries is shown in Diagram 12. This comparison is
+based upon the 1914 report of the Ohio Industrial Commission.
+
+The comparison of the earnings of women in various industries, shown
+in Diagram 13, is less favorable to printing. On the basis of the
+proportion of women that earn $12 and over per week this industry
+takes third place. It should be noted, however, that nearly all the
+women employed are engaged in semi-skilled work in binderies,--a lower
+grade of work than that done by most women workers in clothing
+factories, where wages are higher. Compared with other occupations
+that require about the same amount of experience and training, in
+textile, tobacco, and confectionery manufacturing establishments, the
+wages of women employed in the printing industry are relatively high.
+
+Wage earners in printing establishments lose less time through
+irregularity of employment than do those in most other factory
+industries. The kind of work done by women is more seasonal than that
+done by men, although less so than in other manufacturing industries
+which employ large numbers of women.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 13.--Number of women in each 100 in printing
+and six other industries earning each class of weekly wage. Black
+indicates less than $8, hatching $8 to $12, and outline $12 and over]
+
+
+COMPOSING ROOM WORKERS
+
+Nearly all the workers in this department of the industry are hand or
+machine compositors. Until about 30 years ago, before practical
+type-setting machines were invented, all type was set by hand. Today
+the hand compositor, except in very small shops, works only on jobs
+requiring special type and special arrangement, such as
+advertisements, title covers of books, letter heads, and so on.
+
+In the city there are about 1,200 people employed in composing room
+occupations, or about 30 per cent of the total number of workers in
+the industry. This number includes some 50 women employed as
+proof-readers and copy-holders. Nine-tenths of the composing room
+workers are members of the International Typographical Union, although
+the number of shops that employ union men exclusively, called closed
+shops, approximates only one-half of the total number in the city. The
+remainder, while employing union labor, observing union hours, and
+paying union wages, reserve the right to hire non-union workmen.
+
+Composing room workers are the best paid in the industry. A comparison
+of average wages in newspaper and job establishments is shown in Table
+27.
+
+
+TABLE 27.--AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF JOB AND NEWSPAPER COMPOSING-ROOM
+WORKERS, 1915
+
+-------------------------+---------------+------------+
+ | | Newspaper |
+Workers in trade | Job offices | offices |
+-------------------------+---------------+------------+
+Foremen | $5.19 | $6.65 |
+Linotype machinists | 4.66 | 4.84 |
+Proof-readers | 4.63 | 3.98 |
+Monotype operators | 4.57 | .. |
+Linotypers | 4.28 | 4.65 |
+Monotype casters | 3.96 | 4.30 |
+Stonemen | 3.94 | 4.89 |
+Hand-compositors | 3.48 | 4.58 |
+Copy-holders | 2.30 | 2.93 |
+Apprentices | 1.64 | 1.30 |
+-------------------------+---------------+------------+
+
+Compositors suffer most from the diseases that are common to indoor
+workers. The stooping position in which much of the work is done,
+together with insufficient ventilation and the presence of gases from
+the molten metal used in monotype and linotype machines, favors the
+development of lung diseases. The number of deaths from consumption
+among compositors is more than double that in most outdoor
+occupations.
+
+The apprenticeship system has held its own in the compositor's trade
+better than in most industrial occupations. In the establishments
+visited by the Survey Staff there were approximately 15 apprentices to
+each 100 hand and machine compositors. As a rule there is no real
+system or method of instruction. The points principally insisted upon
+by the union, which strongly favors the apprenticeship system, are
+that the number of apprentices employed shall not exceed that
+stipulated in the agreement between the employers and the union, and
+that each apprentice shall be required to serve the full term of five
+years.
+
+During the first and second years the apprentice is required to
+perform general work in the composing room under the direction of the
+foreman. In the third year he joins the union as an apprentice. The
+apprenticeship agreement stipulates that during this year he must be
+employed four hours each day at composition and distribution. In the
+fourth and fifth years the number of hours per day on such work is
+increased to six and seven respectively. During the last two years of
+his term he must take the evening trade course given by the
+International Typographical Union, the expense of tuition being met by
+the local union. The agreement contains no stipulation as to wages for
+the first and second years. The wage for the third year is $9 a week,
+for the fourth year $12, and for the fifth, $15. Apprentices in
+newspaper composing rooms are permitted to spend the last six months
+of their period working on type-setting machines.
+
+
+THE PRESSROOM
+
+The pressroom occupations include platen and cylinder pressmen, web or
+newspaper pressmen, platen and cylinder pressfeeders, plate printers,
+cutters, flyboys and apprentices. Approximately 15 per cent of the men
+employed are cylinder pressmen, about 10 per cent platen pressmen, and
+less than three per cent web pressmen. Pressfeeders comprise over 40
+per cent of the whole group. Nearly nine-tenths of all pressroom
+workers are employed in job establishments. Five occupations--those of
+cutters, floormen, flyboys, plate printers, and web pressmen--give
+employment to fewer than 40 men each.
+
+The average daily earnings of pressroom workers in the establishments
+from which wage data were collected during the survey are shown in
+Table 28.
+
+The hourly rates of pay are high as compared with those in other
+occupations requiring an equal or greater amount of skill and
+knowledge. Cylinder pressmen earn more per hour than do tool and die
+makers--the most highly skilled of the metal trades--and platen
+pressmen in charge of five or more presses earn more than all-round
+machinists and boiler makers. The rate for cylinder pressfeeders is
+about three cents an hour higher than that received for specialized
+machine work in the metal trades.
+
+
+TABLE 28.--AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF PRESSROOM WORKERS, 1915
+
+_Job pressroom workers_
+ Foremen $4.78
+ Cylinder pressmen 3.63
+ Cutters 3.41
+ Platen pressmen 2.97
+ Floormen 2.91
+ Cylinder pressfeeders, men 2.54
+ Cylinder pressfeeders, women 1.77
+ Platen pressfeeders, men 1.83
+ Platen pressfeeders, women 1.70
+ Flyboys 1.56
+
+_Newspaper pressroom workers_
+ Foremen 6.11
+ Web pressmen 4.33
+ Web pressmen's assistants 2.95
+
+Formal apprenticeship is practically unknown. The boy begins as a
+pressfeeder, usually on a platen press, and in the course of time gets
+to be a platen pressman. A knowledge of platen presswork does not
+qualify a man to run a cylinder press, and as a rule the platen
+pressman who wants to change must serve some time as a cylinder
+pressfeeder and cylinder pressman's assistant. There is no organized
+system for training beginners. The boy who wants to become a pressman
+must pick up the trade through experience and practice, the length of
+time required depending chiefly on how frequently changes occur among
+the force of pressmen employed in the shop.
+
+
+THE BINDERY
+
+The bindery is the only department of the industry in which any
+considerable number of women are employed. Some of the occupations,
+such as gathering, sewing, and stitching, are practically monopolized
+by women. They are also employed extensively in hand and machine
+folding. About one-fifth are gatherers and one-fifth sewers and
+stitchers. The other three-fifths are distributed among a number of
+occupations usually classed as general bindery work.
+
+The occupations in which men predominate are forwarding, ruling, and
+finishing, and cutting. The forwarders comprise more than one-fourth
+of the total number of men engaged in bindery work. The other two
+skilled trades--ruling and finishing--give employment to about 35 men
+each.
+
+The average daily earnings in the various occupations, based on
+returns from 44 establishments, were as shown in Table 29.
+
+
+TABLE 29.--AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF BINDERY WORKERS, 1915
+
+------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
+Workers in trade | Men | Women |
+------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
+Foremen | $4.78 | $2.05 |
+Rulers | 3.56 | .. |
+Finishers | 3.51 | .. |
+Forwarders | 3.23 | .. |
+Cutters | 3.21 | .. |
+Machine-folders | 2.81 | 1.49 |
+Wire-stitchers | .. | 1.57 |
+Apprentices | 1.53 | .. |
+Gatherers | .. | 1.52 |
+Sewers | .. | 1.52 |
+Other bindery operatives | 1.40 | 1.51 |
+------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
+
+On account of the seasonal character of the work considerable time is
+lost through unemployment, particularly in those occupations in which
+women predominate.
+
+Beginners in these occupations in which the majority of the women are
+employed, start on folding or pasting, and as opportunity presents,
+gradually acquire practice in the higher grades of work, such as
+gathering and machine operating. There are some traces of the
+apprenticeship system in forwarding, ruling, and finishing, but these
+trades are so small that all of them combined require only a very few
+new workers each year.
+
+
+OTHER OCCUPATIONS
+
+Other departments of the printing industry are photoengraving,
+stereotyping, electrotyping, and lithographing. They give employment
+to approximately 700 workers, distributed among more than 20 distinct
+trades, requiring the most diverse sorts of skill, knowledge, and
+training. There are about 100 men in the city engaged in the different
+processes of photoengraving. Nearly all of the stereotypers, numbering
+from 60 to 70, are employed in newspaper offices. There are about 125
+electrotypers and 400 lithographers. The labor conditions closely
+approximate those found in other departments of the industry. Average
+wages for the different occupations are shown in Table 30.
+
+
+TABLE 30.--AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS IN PHOTOENGRAVING, STEREOTYPING,
+ELECTROTYPING, AND LITHOGRAPHING OCCUPATIONS, 1915
+
+ Average
+Workers in trade daily earnings
+
+Photoengraving
+ Artists $6.32
+ Photographers 4.69
+ Etchers 4.52
+ Routers 4.25
+ Finishers 4.21
+ Proofers 3.69
+ Strippers 3.61
+ Blockers 2.36
+ Apprentices 1.49
+ Art apprentices 1.27
+
+Stereotyping 4.00
+
+Electrotyping
+ Molders 4.41
+ Finishers 4.01
+ Casters 3.18
+ Routers 3.17
+ Builders 3.13
+ Blockers 2.05
+ Batterymen 1.97
+ Case fillers 1.59
+ Apprentices 1.10
+
+Lithographing
+ Lettermen 6.63
+ Artists 6.41
+ Pressroom foremen 5.80
+ Grainers 4.73
+ Engravers 4.35
+ Pressmen 3.91
+ Transferers and proofers 3.41
+ Pressroom apprentices 2.80
+ Tracers 2.63
+ Stone polishers 2.53
+ Pressfeeders 1.72
+ Other apprentices 1.59
+ Artist apprentices 1.23
+ Flyboys 1.10
+
+There is no well organized system for training apprentices in
+photoengraving, stereotyping, and electrotyping, or in any of the
+lithographic trades, except that of poster artist, in which an
+efficient and strictly regulated system of apprenticeship is
+maintained.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+The report maintains that up to the end of the compulsory attendance
+period school training preparatory to entering the printing trades
+must be of the most general sort, due to the fact that in the average
+elementary school the number of boys who are likely to become printers
+is too small to form special classes. For example, in an elementary
+school of 1,000 pupils the number of boys 12 years old and over to
+whom instruction in printing would be of value from the standpoint of
+future vocational utility, would probably not exceed two. While
+admitting the advantages of the junior high school for the purposes of
+vocational training, the report points out that even in a school where
+only pupils of the upper grades are admitted, the number who are
+likely to become printers is still too small to warrant special
+instruction. In a junior high school of 1,000 pupils not more than
+nine boys are likely to become printers.
+
+The report recommends a general industrial course during the junior
+high school period. What the boys need at this time is practice in the
+application of mathematics, drawing, and elementary science to
+industrial problems. Shop equipment should be selected with this
+object in mind. It is doubtful whether it should include a printing
+shop, for while such a shop would be useful to the few boys who will
+become printers, it would be of little value in training for other
+industries. The report suggests as subjects which should be included
+in the general industrial course practice in handling and assembling
+machinery, the study of color harmony, and the principles of design in
+connection with the work in drawing, the use of printing shop problems
+in applied mathematics, and thorough instruction in spelling,
+punctuation, and the division of words. It also recommends the course
+of industrial information referred to in previous chapters.
+
+The establishment of a two year printing course in a separate
+vocational school is recommended to meet the need for specialized
+instruction from the end of the compulsory period to the apprentice
+entering age. The printing trades are relatively small and it is only
+by concentrating in a single school plant all the boys who may wish to
+enter them that specialized training can be made practicable. In this
+way it would be possible to secure classes of from 60 to 100 boys each
+for such trades as composition and presswork. The report emphasizes
+the need for instruction in trade theory as against practice on
+specific operations. It points out that the boys will have plenty of
+opportunity after they go to work to acquire speed and manual skill,
+while they have little chance, under modern shop conditions, to obtain
+an understanding of the relation of drawing, physics, chemistry,
+mathematics, and art to their work.
+
+The only trade extension training offered by the public schools at the
+present time is that given in the technical night schools. During the
+second term of 1915-16 there were 28 persons enrolled in the technical
+night school printing class. Of these 28 persons three were journeymen
+printers, five described themselves as "helpers," 11 were apprentices,
+one was employed in the office of a printing establishment, and eight
+were engaged in occupations unrelated to printing. No special
+provision is made for the apprentices. The course, which includes hand
+composition, a little press work, and lectures on trade subjects, is
+planned "to help broaden the shop training of those working at the
+trade." That it does so to any considerable extent is doubtful. Too
+much of the time is devoted to hand work and practice on operations
+which the boys can easily learn in the shops. It is believed that the
+plan followed in the evening apprentice course prescribed by the
+International Typographical Union, in which no shop equipment or
+apparatus is used, is better adapted to the needs of boys employed in
+the trade. The course consists of 46 lessons in English, lettering,
+design, color harmony, job composition, and imposition for machine,
+and hand folding. The classes are taught by journeymen teachers. In
+February 1916 about 100 students were enrolled, of whom approximately
+one-third were apprentices and two-thirds journeymen.
+
+
+CLEVELAND EDUCATION SURVEY REPORTS
+
+These reports can be secured from the Survey Committee of the
+Cleveland Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio. They will be sent postpaid for
+25 cents per volume with the exception of "Measuring the Work of the
+Public Schools" by Judd, "The Cleveland School Survey" by Ayres, and
+"Wage Earning and Education" by Lutz. These three volumes will be sent
+for 50 cents each. All of these reports may be secured at the same
+rates from the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation,
+New York City.
+
+ Child Accounting in the Public Schools--Ayres.
+ Educational Extension--Perry.
+ Education through Recreation--Johnson.
+ Financing the Public Schools--Clark.
+ Health Work in the Public Schools--Ayres.
+ Household Arts and School Lunches--Boughton.
+ Measuring the Work of the Public Schools--Judd.
+ Overcrowded Schools and the Platoon Plan--Hartwell.
+ School Buildings and Equipment--Ayres.
+ Schools and Classes for Exceptional Children--Mitchell.
+ School Organization and Administration--Ayres.
+ The Public Library and the Public Schools--Ayres and McKinnie.
+ The School and the Immigrant--Miller.
+ The Teaching Staff--Jessup.
+ What the Schools Teach and Might Teach--Bobbitt.
+ The Cleveland School Survey (Summary)--Ayres.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+ Boys and Girls in Commercial Work--Stevens.
+ Department Store Occupations--O'Leary.
+ Dressmaking and Millinery--Bryner.
+ Railroad and Street Transportation--Fleming.
+ The Building Trades--Shaw.
+ The Garment Trades--Bryner.
+ The Metal Trades--Lutz.
+ The Printing Trades--Shaw.
+ Wage Earning and Education (Summary)--Lutz.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Typos Corrected In Text: Table 15 on page 120: establishments for
+estabments page 194: "car fare" for "car far" page 15: employee for
+employe
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Wage Earning and Education, by R. R. Lutz
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wage Earning and Education, by R. R. Lutz
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wage Earning and Education
+
+Author: R. R. Lutz
+
+Release Date: October 30, 2005 [EBook #16964]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Stan Goodman, Jeannie Howse and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<div class="tr">
+<p class="noin">Transcriber's Note: Some very obvious typos
+were corrected in this text. For a list please
+see the bottom of the document.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>
+<h1>WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION</h1>
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>
+<h4>THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE<br />
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION</h4>
+<br />
+<p class="cen">Charles E. Adams, Chairman<br />
+Thomas G. Fitzsimons<br />
+Myrta L. Jones<br />
+Bascom Little<br />
+Victor W. Sincere<br />
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+Arthur D. Baldwin, Secretary<br />
+James R. Garfield, Counsel<br />
+Allen T. Burns, Director</p>
+<br />
+
+<h4>THE EDUCATION SURVEY</h4>
+<br />
+<p class="cen">Leonard P. Ayres, Director</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>
+
+
+<h4>CLEVELAND EDUCATION SURVEY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<h1>WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION</h1>
+<br />
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<h2>R.R. LUTZ</h2>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="img">
+<img border="0" src="images/cfs.png" width="117" height="130" alt="CFS" /><br />
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+
+<h5>THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE<br />
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION<br />
+CLEVELAND &middot; &nbsp;OHIO<br />
+<br />
+1916</h5>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+
+<a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>
+<h4><span class="sc">Copyright</span>, 1916, BY<br />
+THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE<br />
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION</h4>
+<br />
+<br />
+<h4>WM. F. FELL CO. PRINTERS<br />
+PHILADELPHIA</h4>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>
+<h3><a name="FOREWORD" id="FOREWORD"></a>FOREWORD</h3>
+<br />
+
+<p>This summary volume, entitled "Wage Earning and Education," is one of
+the 25 sections of the report of the Education Survey of Cleveland
+conducted by the Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation in 1915
+and 1916. Copies of all the publications may be obtained from the
+Cleveland Foundation. They may also be obtained from the Division of
+Education of the Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. A complete
+list will be found in the back of this volume, together with prices.</p>
+
+<a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="toc" id="toc"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>
+<h3>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h3>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="70%" summary="Table of Contents">
+ <tr>
+ <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdrsc" width="20%"><span style="font-size: 90%;">Page</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#FOREWORD">Foreword</a></td>
+ <td class="tdr">5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#TableList">List of Tables</a></td>
+ <td class="tdr">10</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#toi">List of Diagrams</a></td>
+ <td class="tdr">12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlsc" colspan="3"><span style="font-size: 90%;">Chapter</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a> The Industrial Education Survey</td>
+ <td class="tdr">13</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td width="5%">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" width="75%">Types of occupations studied</td>
+ <td class="tdr">13</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The Survey staff and methods of work</td>
+ <td class="tdr">14</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a> Forecasting Future Probabilities</td>
+ <td class="tdr">18</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The popular concept of industrial education</td>
+ <td class="tdr">19</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The importance of relative numbers</td>
+ <td class="tdr">20</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">A constructive program must fit the facts</td>
+ <td class="tdr">23</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">An actuarial basis for industrial education</td>
+ <td class="tdr">24</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a> The Wage Earners of Cleveland</td>
+ <td class="tdr">25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a> The Future Wage Earners of Cleveland</td>
+ <td class="tdr">29</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The public schools</td>
+ <td class="tdr">29</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Ages of pupils</td>
+ <td class="tdr">32</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Education at the time of leaving school</td>
+ <td class="tdr">34</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a> Industrial Training for Boys in Elementary Schools</td>
+ <td class="tdr">38</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">What the boys in school will do</td>
+ <td class="tdr">40</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Organization and costs</td>
+ <td class="tdr">44</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">What the elementary schools can do</td>
+ <td class="tdr">45</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a> The Junior High School</td>
+ <td class="tdr">47</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Specialized training not practicable</td>
+ <td class="tdr">48</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">A general industrial course</td>
+ <td class="tdr">49</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Industrial mathematics</td>
+ <td class="tdr">52</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Mechanical Drawing</td>
+ <td class="tdr">54</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Industrial science</td>
+ <td class="tdr">55</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Shop work</td>
+ <td class="tdr">56</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Vocational information</td>
+ <td class="tdr">58</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a> Trade Training During the Last Years in School<a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a></td>
+ <td class="tdr">60</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The technical high schools</td>
+ <td class="tdr">62</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">A two-year trade course</td>
+ <td class="tdr">66</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a> Trade-Preparatory and Trade-Extension Training
+ for Boys and Men at Work</td>
+ <td class="tdr">69</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Continuation training from 15 to 18</td>
+ <td class="tdr">74</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The technical night schools</td>
+ <td class="tdr">76</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">A combined program of continuation and trade-extension training</td>
+ <td class="tdr">80</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a> Vocational Training for Girls</td>
+ <td class="tdr">83</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Differentiation in the junior high school</td>
+ <td class="tdr">86</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Specialized training for the sewing trades</td>
+ <td class="tdr">88</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Other occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdr">90</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a> Vocational Guidance</td>
+ <td class="tdr">92</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The work of the vocational counselor</td>
+ <td class="tdr">92</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The Girls' Vocation Bureau</td>
+ <td class="tdr">94</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a> Conclusions and Recommendations</td>
+ <td class="tdr">97</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="line-height: 3em; font-weight: bold;">SUMMARIES OF SPECIAL REPORTS</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a> Boys and Girls in Commercial Work</td>
+ <td class="tdr">101</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">A general view of commercial work</td>
+ <td class="tdr">106</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Bookkeeping</td>
+ <td class="tdr">108</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Stenography</td>
+ <td class="tdr">108</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Clerks' positions</td>
+ <td class="tdr">109</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Wages and regularity of employment</td>
+ <td class="tdr">110</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The problem of training</td>
+ <td class="tdr">111</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a> Department Store Occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdr">115</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Department stores</td>
+ <td class="tdr">115</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Neighborhood stores</td>
+ <td class="tdr">116</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Five and ten cent stores</td>
+ <td class="tdr">117</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Wages</td>
+ <td class="tdr">118</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Regularity of employment</td>
+ <td class="tdr">122</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Opportunities for advancement</td>
+ <td class="tdr">123</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The problem of training</td>
+ <td class="tdr">124</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Character of the instruction</td>
+ <td class="tdr">129</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a> The Garment Trades<a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a></td>
+ <td class="tdr">131</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Characteristics of the working force</td>
+ <td class="tdr">132</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Earnings</td>
+ <td class="tdr">135</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Regularity of employment</td>
+ <td class="tdr">139</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Training and promotion</td>
+ <td class="tdr">140</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Educational needs</td>
+ <td class="tdr">143</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Sewing courses in the public schools</td>
+ <td class="tdr">145</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Elective sewing courses in the junior high school</td>
+ <td class="tdr">147</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">A one year trade course for girls</td>
+ <td class="tdr">148</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Trade extension training</td>
+ <td class="tdr">149</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a> Dressmaking and Millinery</td>
+ <td class="tdr">151</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Dressmaking</td>
+ <td class="tdr">151</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Millinery</td>
+ <td class="tdr">153</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The problem of training</td>
+ <td class="tdr">156</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a> The Metal Trades</td>
+ <td class="tdr">158</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Foundry and machine shop products</td>
+ <td class="tdr">159</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Automobile manufacturing</td>
+ <td class="tdr">169</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Steel works, rolling mills, and related industries</td>
+ <td class="tdr">170</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a> The Building Trades</td>
+ <td class="tdr">173</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Sources of labor supply</td>
+ <td class="tdr">173</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Apprenticeship</td>
+ <td class="tdr">174</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Union organization</td>
+ <td class="tdr">176</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Earnings</td>
+ <td class="tdr">176</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Hours</td>
+ <td class="tdr">178</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Regularity of employment</td>
+ <td class="tdr">179</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Health conditions</td>
+ <td class="tdr">179</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Opportunities for advancement</td>
+ <td class="tdr">180</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The problem of training</td>
+ <td class="tdr">181</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII.</a> Railroad and Street Transportation</td>
+ <td class="tdr">187</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Railroad transportation</td>
+ <td class="tdr">187</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Motor and wagon transportation</td>
+ <td class="tdr">192</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Street railroad transportation</td>
+ <td class="tdr">193</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">XIX.</a> The Printing Trades</td>
+ <td class="tdr">195</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The composing room</td>
+ <td class="tdr">198</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The pressroom</td>
+ <td class="tdr">201</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The bindery</td>
+ <td class="tdr">203</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Other occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdr">204</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">The problem of training</td>
+ <td class="tdr">206</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="TableList" id="TableList"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+
+<a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>
+<h3>LIST OF TABLES</h3>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="80%" summary="Table List">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrsc" width="8%"><span style="font-size: 90%;">Table</span></td>
+ <td width="82%">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdrsc" width="10%"><span style="font-size: 90%;">Page</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">1.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Occupational distribution of the working population of Cleveland</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table1">26</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">2.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Nativity of the working population in Cleveland</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table2">27</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">3.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Pupils enrolled in the different grades of the public
+ day schools in June, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table3">30</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">4.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Enrollment of high school pupils, second semester,
+ 1914-15</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table4">31</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">5.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Ages of pupils enrolled in public elementary, high,
+ and normal schools in June, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table5">33</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">6.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Educational equipment of the children who drop out
+ of the public schools each year, as indicated by
+ the grades from which they leave</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table6">35</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">7.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Per cent of total male working population engaged in
+ specified occupations, 1900 and 1910</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table7">40</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">8.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Distribution of native born men between the ages of
+ 21 and 45 in the principal occupational groups</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table8">41</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">9.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Distribution of third and fourth year students in
+ trade courses in the Cleveland technical high
+ schools, first semester, 1915-16</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table9">63</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">10.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Distribution by occupations of Cleveland's technical
+ school graduates</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table10">64</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">11.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Time allotment in the apprentice course given by the
+ Warner and Swasey Company, Cleveland</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table11">70</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">12.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Course and number enrolled in the technical night
+ schools, January, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table12">77</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">13.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Per cent of total population engaged in gainful
+ occupations during three different age periods</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table13">84</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">14.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Number employed in the principal wage earning
+ occupations among each 1,000 women from 16 to 21
+ years of age</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table14">85</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">15.<a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a></td>
+ <td class="tdl">Per cent of women employees over 18 years of age
+ earning $12 a week and over</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table15">120</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">16.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Wages for full-time working week, women's clothing,
+ Cleveland, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table16">139</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">17.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Average wages for full-time working week for similar
+ workers, in men's and women's clothing, Cleveland,
+ 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table17">139</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">18.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Proportions and estimated numbers employed in machine
+ tool occupations, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table18">161</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">19.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Average, highest, and lowest earnings, in cents per
+ hour, and per cent employed on piece work and day
+ work, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table19">162</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">20.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Estimated time required to learn machine tool work</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table20">164</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">21.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Average earnings per hour in pattern making, molding,
+ core making, blacksmithing, and boiler making</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table21">166</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">22.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Estimated number of men engaged in building trades,
+ 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table22">174</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">23.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Union regulations as to entering age of apprentice</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table23">175</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">24.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Union regulations as to length of apprenticeship
+ period</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table24">175</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">25.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Union scale of wages in cents per hour, May 1, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table25">177</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">26.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Usual weekly wages of apprentices in three building
+ trades</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table26">178</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">27.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Average daily earnings of job and newspaper composing
+ room workers, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table27">199</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">28.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Average daily earnings of pressroom workers, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table28">202</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">29.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Average daily earnings of bindery workers, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table29">203</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">30.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Average daily earnings in photoengraving, stereotyping,
+ electrotyping, and lithographing occupations, 1915</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#table30">205</a></td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="toi" id="toi"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>
+<h3>LIST OF DIAGRAMS</h3>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="80%" summary="Diagram List">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrsc" width="8%"><span style="font-size: 90%;">Diagram</span></td>
+ <td width="82%">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdrsc" width="10%"><span style="font-size: 90%;">Page</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">1.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Boys and girls under 18 years of age in office work</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram1">103</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">2.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Men and women 18 years of age and over in clerical
+ and administrative work in offices</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram2">104</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">3.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Per cent of women earning each class of weekly wages
+ in each of six occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram3">119</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">4.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Per cent of salesmen and of men clerical workers in
+ stores, receiving each class of weekly wage</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram4">121</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">5.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Per cent of male workers in non-clerical positions in
+ six industries earning $18 per week and over</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram5">122</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">6.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Per cent that the average number of women employed
+ during the year is of the highest number employed
+ in each of six industries</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram6">123</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">7.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Distribution of 8,337 clothing workers by sex in the
+ principal occupations in the garment industry</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram7">134</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">8.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Percentage of women in men's and women's clothing and
+ seven other important women employing industries
+ receiving under $8, $8 to $12, and $12 and over
+ per week</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram8">136</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">9.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Percentage of men in men's and women's clothing and
+ seven other manufacturing industries receiving
+ under $18, $18 to $25, and $25 and over per week</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram9">138</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">10.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Average number of unemployed among each 100 workers,
+ men's clothing, women's clothing, and fifteen
+ other specified industries</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram10">141</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">11.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Percentages of unemployment in each of nine building
+ industries</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram11">180</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">12.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Number of men in each 100 in printing and five other
+ industries earning each class of weekly wage</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram12">196</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp">13.</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Number of women in each 100 in printing and six other
+ industries earning each class of weekly wage</td>
+ <td class="tdr"><a href="#diagram13">198</a></td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>
+<h2>WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION</h2>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The education survey of Cleveland was undertaken in April, 1915, at
+the invitation of the Cleveland Board of Education and the Survey
+Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, and continued until June, 1916.
+As a part of the work detailed studies were made of the leading
+industries of the city for the purpose of determining what measures
+should be taken by the public school system to prepare young people
+for wage-earning occupations and to provide supplementary trade
+instruction for those already in employment. The studies also dealt
+with all forms of vocational education conducted at that time under
+public school auspices.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Types of Occupations Studied</h4>
+
+<p>Separate studies were made of the metal industry, building and
+construction, printing and publishing, railroad and street
+transportation, clothing manufacture, department store work, and
+clerical occupations. The wage-earners in these fields of <a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>employment
+constitute nearly 60 per cent of the total number of persons engaged
+in gainful occupations and include 95 per cent of the skilled workmen
+in the city. The survey also gave considerable attention to the
+various types of semi-skilled work found in the principal industries.</p>
+
+<p>Each separate study was assigned to a particular member of the Survey
+Staff who personally carried on the field investigations and later
+submitted a report to the director of the survey. Each report was also
+subjected to careful analysis and criticism from other members of the
+Survey Staff before it was finally passed upon by the Survey
+Committee. Mimeographed copies were sent to representatives of the
+industry and to the superintendent of schools and members of the
+school board and their criticisms and suggestions were given careful
+consideration before the Committee and the director of the survey gave
+their final approval to the publication of the report. The value of
+the work was greatly enhanced through the ample discussion of the
+different studies from widely diverse points of view secured in this
+way. The industrial studies were carried through under the direction
+of the author of this summary volume.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Survey Staff and Methods of Work</h4>
+
+<p>The reports of the studies relating to vocational education were
+published in a series of eight separate monograph volumes. The names
+of the reports and <a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>the previous experience in educational and
+investigational work of each member of the Survey Staff are as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot" style="line-height: 1em; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;">
+<p class="noin">"Boys and Girls in Commercial Work"&mdash;Bertha M. Stevens; teacher
+in elementary and secondary schools; agent of Associated
+Charities; secretary of Consumers' League of Ohio; director of
+Girls' Bureau of Cleveland; author of "Women's Work in
+Cleveland"; co-author of "Commercial Work and Training for
+Girls."</p>
+
+<p class="noin">"Department Store Occupations"&mdash;Iris P. O'Leary; head of manual
+training department, First Pennsylvania Normal School; head of
+vocational work for girls and women, New Bedford Industrial
+School; head of girls' department, Boardman Apprentice Shops, New
+Haven, Conn.; special investigator of department stores for New
+York State Factory Investigating Commission; three years' trade
+experience as employer and employee; author of books on household
+arts and department stores; Special Assistant for Vocational
+Education, State Department of Public Instruction, New Jersey.</p>
+
+<p class="noin">"The Garment Trades" and "Dressmaking and Millinery"&mdash;Edna Bryner;
+teacher in grades, high school, and state normal college; eugenic
+research worker New Jersey State Hospital; statistical expert in
+United States Bureau of Labor Investigation of women and child
+labor; statistical agent United States Post Office Department;
+Special Agent Russell Sage Foundation.</p>
+
+<p class="noin">"The Building Trades," and "The Printing Trades"&mdash;Frank L. Shaw;
+teacher in grades and high school; principal of high school;
+assistant superintendent of schools; superintendent of schools;
+special agent <a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>United States Immigration Commission; special agent
+United States Census; industrial secretary North American Civic
+League for Immigrants; author of reports on immigration
+legislation.</p>
+
+<p class="noin">"The Metal Trades"&mdash;R.R. Lutz; teacher in rural and graded
+schools; superintendent of schools; secretary of Department of
+Education of Porto Rico; took part in school surveys of Greenwich,
+Conn., Bridgeport, Conn., Springfield, Ill., Richmond, Va.;
+Special Agent Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation.</p>
+
+<p class="noin">"Railroad and Street Transportation"&mdash;Ralph D. Fleming; special
+agent and investigator for United States Immigration Commission,
+the Federal Census of Manufacturers, the United States Tariff
+Board, the Minimum Wage Commission of Massachusetts, the National
+Civic Federation, and the United States Commission on Industrial
+Relations.</p></div>
+
+<p>The work began in April, 1915, and ended in the same month of the
+following year. Two members of the staff, with one stenographer and a
+clerk, were employed during the entire period. One member of the staff
+was employed 11 months, one nine months, one approximately five
+months, and one two months.</p>
+
+<p>The field investigations consisted largely of visits to industrial
+establishments for the purpose of securing first-hand information as
+to industrial conditions and the nature and educational content of
+particular occupations. Over 400 visits of this kind were made by
+members of the Survey Staff. Many conferences were held with employers
+and employees with the object of securing their views as to the needs
+and possibilities of industrial training.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>The task of tabulating and classifying the data obtained by the
+individual investigators in their visits to the local industrial
+establishments involved much time and labor. Although it was not found
+practicable to maintain complete uniformity in the different
+inquiries, the members of the staff kept in close touch with each
+other, so that with respect to the points of principal importance, the
+results of their investigations are comparable. Practically every
+recommendation made in the reports was discussed in conferences with
+school principals and with other members of the teaching force engaged
+in the teaching of vocational subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the survey the objective held constantly in mind was the
+formulation of a constructive program of vocational training in the
+public schools. In outlining the field of inquiry a clear distinction
+was drawn between those kinds of general education which have a more
+or less indirect vocational significance, and vocational training for
+specific occupations in which the controlling purpose is direct
+preparation for wage-earning. The studies were purposely limited to
+this latter type of vocational training. The survey did not concern
+itself with manual training conducted for general educational ends,
+with the art work of the schools, or with courses in domestic science
+and household arts. These subjects in the curriculum were dealt with
+in different sections of the education survey, but were considered as
+being outside the legitimate field of the vocational survey.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER II<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>FORECASTING FUTURE PROBABILITIES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The industrial education survey of Cleveland differs from other
+studies conducted elsewhere in that it bases its educational program
+on a careful study of the probable future occupational distribution of
+the young people now in school. It does not claim to foretell the
+specific positions that individual boys and girls will hold when they
+are adults but it does claim very definitely that our safest guide in
+foretelling their future vocational distribution is to be found in the
+official figures of the present occupational census of the city.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most familiar and time-worn platitudes of educational
+speakers and writers is that "The children of today are the citizens
+of tomorrow." In the field of industrial education it is quite as true
+that the school children of today are the workers of tomorrow.
+Moreover, since occupational distributions change but slowly even in
+these modern times, it is unquestionably true that the boys and girls
+now studying in the public schools will soon be scattered among the
+different gainful occupations of Cleveland's industrial, commercial,
+and professional life in just about the same proportions as their
+<a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>fathers and mothers and brothers and sisters are now distributed.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of the survey in advocating types of present preparation
+based on studies of future prospects seems at first sight so obvious a
+mode of procedure as hardly to warrant extended explanation. This is
+far from being the case. The reader who proposes to follow the
+working-out of the principle and to scrutinize the evidence underlying
+it must be prepared to scan many a detailed table of statistics and to
+arrive at most unforeseen conclusions.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Popular Concept of Industrial Education</h4>
+
+<p>For many years past the public has given respectful attention to the
+arguments of the champions of industrial education. There has been
+general assent to the proposition that the schools should train for
+and not away from the industrial age in which we live. We have come to
+think of the carpenter shop, the machine shop, the forge shop, and the
+cooking room as necessary and desirable adjuncts of the modern school
+and to our minds these shops have typified industrial education. All
+of these have come to be almost synonymous with progressive thought
+and action in public education. Very generally it has been felt that
+the problems of industrial education were to be solved through the
+wider extension of these shop facilities in our public schools.</p>
+
+<p>When these familiar generalizations are submitted <a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>to careful analysis
+their whole structure begins to totter. In Cleveland about 3,700 boys
+leave school each year and go to work. They represent various stages
+of advancement from the 4th grade of the elementary school to the 4th
+year of the high school. They are scattered through more than 100
+school buildings. The problem of industrial education is to give these
+boys with their differing ages, their widely varied school
+preparation, and their scattered geographical distribution, the best
+possible preparation for taking their places in the work-a-day world.
+They represent every grade of intelligence, every stratum of social
+and economic life, and it is extremely difficult to bring them
+together for instructional purposes. They are scattered in little
+groups through more than a thousand classrooms.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Importance of Relative Numbers</h4>
+
+<p>Now it is possible to foretell with some certainty what these young
+people will be doing a few years from now. Almost all of them are of
+American birth and it is certain that in a few years they will be
+engaged in doing just about the same sorts of work as are now done in
+the city of Cleveland by adults of American birth. The data of the
+United States Census of Occupations show us that among every 100
+American born men in Cleveland there are eight who are clerks, seven
+who are machinists, four who are salesmen, and so on through the list
+of hundreds of occupations. The number of American born men in <a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>each
+100 engaged in each of the 10 leading sorts of occupations is
+approximately as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="left10">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="40%" summary="leading occupations">
+ <tr>
+ <td width="80%" class="tdl">Clerks</td>
+ <td class="tdr" width="20%">8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Machinists</td>
+ <td class="tdr">7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Salesmen</td>
+ <td class="tdr">4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Laborers and porters</td>
+ <td class="tdr">4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Retail dealers</td>
+ <td class="tdr">4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Draymen, teamsters, etc.</td>
+ <td class="tdr">4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Bookkeepers</td>
+ <td class="tdr">3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Carpenters</td>
+ <td class="tdr">3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Commercial travelers</td>
+ <td class="tdr">2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Manufacturers</td>
+ <td class="tdr">2<br />&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdr">41</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>This simple list at once calls into question all the standard
+assumptions about the extension of industrial education depending on
+greatly increasing the number of carpenter shops and machine shops in
+the public schools. The figures show that among each 100 American born
+men in Cleveland only seven are machinists and only three are
+carpenters. Clearly we should not be justified in training all the
+boys in our public schools to enter the machinist's trade or the
+carpenter's trade when nine out of each 10 will in all probability
+engage in entirely different sorts of future work. The more the
+figures of the little table given above are studied, the clearer it
+appears that our conventional ideas about industrial education need
+critical scrutiny and careful challenge. These 10 leading occupations
+include only 41 out of each 100 American born men. Moreover, more than
+half of these 41 are engaged in mental work rather than in manual
+work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>From these considerations one definite conclusion inevitably emerges.
+It is that the safest guide for thinking and planning for industrial
+education is to be found in a study of the occupational distribution
+of the present adults. From the very outset such a study indicates
+that the most difficult and important problems which must be met and
+coped with are not those relating to methods of instruction but rather
+those of organization and administration. The future carpenters and
+machinists cannot be taught until we can get them together in fair
+sized classes. They represent the most numerous of the industrial
+groups and yet their numbers are relatively so few that the average
+Cleveland school sends out into the world each year only two or three
+future machinists and perhaps one future carpenter.</p>
+
+<p>The trouble with present thinking about this matter has been that we
+have noted the very large numbers of machinists and carpenters in the
+population and have failed to realize that while these groups are
+numerous in the aggregate they are after all quite small when
+relatively considered and compared with the total number of workers.</p>
+
+<p>Another important fact that has been almost invariably overlooked is
+that many of the present carpenters and machinists are foreigners by
+birth and that there is every prospect that this same condition will
+maintain in the future. Hence these trades and most other industrial
+occupations are not recruited from our public schools to anything like
+the degree that has been assumed.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>A Constructive Program Must Fit the Facts</h4>
+
+<p>The simple principle which underlies the method employed by the survey
+is the same on which all large business undertakings are conducted.
+The results of its application in the field of industrial education
+are, however, fundamentally different from those commonly arrived at
+on the assumption that nine-tenths of the rising generation will earn
+their living in industrial pursuits. The fact is that no such
+proportion of the children in school will become industrial workers.
+All the native born labor now employed in manufacturing and mechanical
+industries constitutes only 44 per cent of the total number of native
+born workers in the city. Moreover, nearly half of the industrial
+workers are employed in unskilled and semi-skilled occupations for
+which no training is required beyond a few days' or weeks' practice on
+the job. Such training calls for a mechanical equipment far more
+extensive than the resources of the school system can provide, and can
+be given by the factory more effectively and much more cheaply than by
+the schools.</p>
+
+<p>In the final analysis, the problem of industrial training narrows down
+to the skilled industrial trades. Approximately 22 per cent of the
+total number of American workers in the city are employed in skilled
+manual occupations. This does not mean that a constructive program of
+industrial education would affect 22 per cent of the present school
+enrollment. All the weight of educational opinion and experience is on
+the side of excluding the children <a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>of the lower and middle age groups
+as too young to profit by any sort of industrial training, while the
+evidence collected by the survey goes to show that of the remainder
+less than one-fifth of the girls and one-fourth of the boys are likely
+to become skilled industrial workers.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">An Actuarial Basis for Industrial Education</h4>
+
+<p>Considerations like the foregoing have determined the fundamental
+method of the Cleveland Industrial Survey. Plans for the present
+generation have been formulated on the basis of future prospects as
+foretold by state and federal census data. The methods used were
+characterized by a member of the Cleveland Foundation Survey Committee
+as "the actuarial basis of vocational education." This is accurately
+descriptive, because the method of forecasting the number of men the
+community will need for each wage-earning occupation closely resembles
+that employed by life insurance actuaries in foretelling how long men
+of different ages are likely to live. Such methods are similar to
+those commonly used in commerce and industry. They deal with mass data
+rather than with individual figures, and with relative values rather
+than with absolute ones.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER III<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE WAGE EARNERS OF CLEVELAND</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>In 1910 Cleveland ranked sixth among the cities of the United States
+as to number of inhabitants, with a population of approximately
+561,000. The city is growing rapidly. From 1900 to 1910 the increase
+in the total number of inhabitants was over 46 per cent. The Census
+Bureau estimate of the population in 1914 is approximately 639,000.</p>
+
+<p>Of the 10 largest cities in the country only one&mdash;Detroit&mdash;had in 1910
+a greater proportion of its wage earners engaged in industrial
+employment than Cleveland. Relatively Cleveland has one and one-fourth
+times as many industrial workers as New York, Chicago, St. Louis, or
+Baltimore, and one and two-fifths times as many as Boston. On the
+other hand a smaller proportion of the adult workers of the city earn
+their living in professional, clerical, and commercial work, or in
+domestic and personal service employments than in most large cities.</p>
+
+<p>Table 1 shows by large occupational groups the distribution in 1910 of
+the working population in Cleveland. The classification is that
+adopted by the federal census. More than 56 per cent of the male
+workers of the city and about 33 per cent of the <a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>women workers were
+engaged in manufacturing and mechanical occupations. The trade group
+ranks next, about 14 per cent of the men and approximately 11 per cent
+of the women being engaged in commercial occupations. Of each 100
+women in employment 30 are servants, laundresses, housekeepers, or are
+engaged in some other form of personal service, while only five men of
+each 100 earn their living in this kind of work. Railroad and street
+transportation, with the telegraph and telephone and mail systems of
+communication, requires the services of 11 per cent of the male
+working population, but uses very few women. About seven per cent of
+the men and 15 per cent of the women are employed in clerical work. A
+slightly larger ratio of women to men is found in the professional
+occupations, due mainly to the large number of women in the teaching
+profession. The whole professional group constitutes less than five
+per cent of the total working population.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table1" id="table1"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 1.&mdash;OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING POPULATION OF
+CLEVELAND, <br />CENSUS OF OCCUPATIONS, 1910<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Occupational Distribution">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="55%">Occupational group</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Men</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Women</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Total</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Manufacturing and mechanical industries</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">109,644</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">18,201</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">127,845</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Trade</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">27,229</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">5,942</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">33,171</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Domestic and personal service</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">9,546</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">16,467</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">26,063</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Transportation</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">21,530</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">1,110</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">22,640</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Clerical occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">14,047</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">8,100</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">22,147</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Professional service</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">7,204</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">4,869</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">12,073</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Public service</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">3,461</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">39</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">3,500</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Agricultural and extraction of minerals</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">1,367</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">80</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">1,447</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">194,078</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">54,808</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">248,886</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>From the standpoint of vocational training one of the most striking
+facts about Cleveland wage-earners is that a large majority of them
+are not Clevelanders. Almost exactly half of the men in gainful
+employment were born outside the United States and, due to the rapid
+growth of the city, there has been a considerable influx of workers
+from the surrounding country in recent years, so that a large
+proportion even of the American working population was born, brought
+up, and educated in some other place. The number and per cent of
+foreign born, of foreign or mixed parentage but born in this country,
+and of native parentage is shown in Table 2.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table2" id="table2"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 2.&mdash;NATIVITY OF THE WORKING POPULATION IN CLEVELAND. U.S.
+CENSUS, 1910<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Nativity Of The Working Population In Cleveland">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="40%" style="vertical-align: middle;" rowspan="2">Nativity</td>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Men</td>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Women</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Number</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Per cent</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Number</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Per cent</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Foreign born</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">96,291</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">50</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">16,673</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">31</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Foreign or mixed parentage</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">55,074</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">28</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">24,275</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">44</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Native parentage</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">42,713</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">22</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">13,860</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">194,078</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">100</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">54,808</td>
+ <td class="tdrp2">100</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>More than three-fourths are foreign or of foreign or mixed parentage.
+The proportion of those born in this country of American parentage is
+approximately the same for both sexes, but the number of women workers
+of mixed parentage is relatively much larger than among the men.
+Roughly, of each 10 men employed in gainful occupations, five, and of
+each 10 working women, three, were born abroad.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>The large proportion of foreigners in the trades has an important
+bearing on the problem of vocational training. Some of the skilled
+occupations are monopolized by foreign labor to such an extent that
+they offer a very limited field of employment for native workmen.
+Cabinet making, tailoring, molding, blacksmithing, baking, and shoe
+making, are examples. Some of these trades have practically ceased to
+recruit from American labor. This condition has to be constantly borne
+in mind in planning training courses to prepare boys for the skilled
+trades, because of the marked disparity which often exists between the
+size of a trade and the field of opportunity it presents for boys of
+native birth.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER IV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE FUTURE WAGE-EARNERS OF CLEVELAND</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>In 1915 there were in Cleveland approximately 50,000 boys between the
+ages of six and 15, and 56,000 girls between the ages of six and 16,
+the age period during which school attendance is required by law. Of
+these 106,000 children approximately 37,000 boys and 38,000 girls were
+enrolled in the public schools. Exact data as to those attending
+private and parochial schools are not available. The total enrollment
+in such schools has been variously estimated as between 25,000 and
+30,000.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Public Schools</h4>
+
+<p>The public school system in 1915 enrolled approximately 82,000
+children of all ages, of whom about half were boys and half girls.
+They are taught in 98 elementary schools and 10 high schools. The
+elementary course comprises eight grades. At the beginning of the
+school year 1915-16 two junior high schools were opened for pupils of
+the seventh and eighth grades. It is to be expected that this plan
+will soon be extended throughout the city, so that the <a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>enrollment in
+elementary schools will be made up of pupils of the first six grades
+only. The distribution by grade is given in Table 3. The kindergarten
+grades and the special ungraded classes are omitted.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table3" id="table3"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 3.&mdash;PUPILS ENROLLED IN THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF THE PUBLIC DAY
+SCHOOLS IN JUNE, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="30%" summary="Pupils Enrolled In The Different Grades">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td width="50%" class="tdc">Grade</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="50%">Pupils</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td width="50%" class="tdrp3" style="white-space: nowrap;">
+ 1<br />
+ 2<br />
+ 3<br />
+ 4<br />
+ 5<br />
+ 6<br />
+ 7<br />
+ 8<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ I<br />
+ II<br />
+ III<br />
+ IV</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3" width="50%" style="white-space: nowrap;">
+ 13,108<br />
+ 10,857<br />
+ 10,562<br />
+ 9,323<br />
+ 8,902<br />
+ 7,259<br />
+ 6,429<br />
+ 4,903<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 3,122<br />
+ 2,100<br />
+ 1,534<br />
+ 1,399</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>About 77 per cent of the children are enrolled in the grades below the
+seventh, about 13 per cent in the seventh and eighth grades, a little
+over six per cent in the first two years of the high school, and less
+than three and one-half per cent in the third and fourth.</p>
+
+<p>There are eight academic high schools, two technical high schools, and
+two commercial high schools. The technical high schools are steadily
+growing in favor. The registration of boys in these schools increased
+about 33 per cent from 1913 to 1915, and of girls about 77 per cent.
+During the same period the registration of boys in the academic high
+schools decreased slightly, while the increase of girl students was
+only eight per cent; in the commercial high <a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>schools the number of
+girl students increased 20 per cent, while the enrollment of boys fell
+off more than 10 per cent. The enrollment by individual schools is
+shown in Table 4.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table4" id="table4"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 4.&mdash;ENROLLMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS, SECOND SEMESTER, 1914-1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Enrollment Of High School Pupils">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;" width="55%" rowspan="2">Schools</td>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">Enrollment</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Boys</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Girls</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%">Total</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Academic high schools<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; Central<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; East<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; Glenville<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; West<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; Lincoln<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; South</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 804<br />
+ 607<br />
+ 405<br />
+ 246<br />
+ 277<br />
+ 213</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 711<br />
+ 688<br />
+ 611<br />
+ 377<br />
+ 329<br />
+ 238</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 1,515<br />
+ 1,295<br />
+ 1,016<br />
+ 623<br />
+ 606<br />
+ 451</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2,552</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2,954</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">5,506</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Technical high schools<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; East Technical<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; West Technical</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 1,161<br />
+ 515</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 548<br />
+ 242</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 1,709<br />
+ 757</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">1,676</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">790</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2,466</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Commercial high schools<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; West Commercial<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; East Commercial</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 249<br />
+ 49</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 528<br />
+ 96</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">&nbsp;<br />
+ 777<br />
+ 145</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">298</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">624</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">922</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">All high schools</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4,526</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4,368</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">8,894</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>About three-eighths of the high school pupils of the city are in the
+technical and commercial schools. Of the boys 56 per cent are enrolled
+in the academic high schools, 37 per cent in the technical schools,
+and <a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>seven per cent in the commercial schools. Of the girls 68 per
+cent attend the academic high schools, 18 per cent the technical
+schools, and 14 per cent the commercial schools. In the commercial
+high school approximately two-thirds of the enrollment is made up of
+girls. In the technical high schools the opposite condition prevails,
+the girls constituting less than one-third of the total enrollment,
+while in the academic high schools the girls outnumber the boys by
+nearly one-sixth.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Ages of Pupils</h4>
+
+<p>The distribution as to ages is shown in Table 5. The largest group is
+made up of children seven years old. Between 14 and 15 over 30 per
+cent leave school. The loss from 16 to 17 is approximately 43 per
+cent, from 17 to 18 about 44 per cent, and from 18 to 19 nearly 62 per
+cent.</p>
+
+<p>The compulsory attendance law requires boys to attend school until
+they are 15 and girls until they are 16. That the law is not
+adequately enforced is demonstrated by the heavy loss between the ages
+of 14 and 15, and the fact that the loss between 15 and 16 is
+approximately the same for both boys and girls, although girls are
+required to attend one year longer than boys. Additional evidence as
+to the laxity in the enforcement of the compulsory law is found in the
+results of an inquiry conducted by the Consumers' League of Cleveland
+in the spring of 1916, in cooperation with the survey.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table5" id="table5"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>TABLE 5.&mdash;AGES OF PUPILS ENROLLED IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY, HIGH, AND
+NORMAL SCHOOLS IN JUNE, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Ages Of Pupils Enrolled In Public Schools 1915">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%">Age</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%">Boys</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%">Girls</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%">Total</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdrp4" style="white-space: nowrap;">6<br />
+ 7<br />
+ 8<br />
+ 9<br />
+ 10<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 11<br />
+ 12<br />
+ 13<br />
+ 14<br />
+ 15<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 16<br />
+ 17<br />
+ 18<br />
+ 19<br />
+ 20<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ Over 20</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4" style="white-space: nowrap;">4,255<br />
+ 5,012<br />
+ 4,496<br />
+ 4,268<br />
+ 4,093<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 3,747<br />
+ 3,700<br />
+ 3,676<br />
+ 3,445<br />
+ 2,358<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 1,190<br />
+ 672<br />
+ 403<br />
+ 135<br />
+ 41<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ ...</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4" style="white-space: nowrap;">4,180<br />
+ 4,815<br />
+ 4,407<br />
+ 4,103<br />
+ 3,951<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 3,593<br />
+ 3,646<br />
+ 3,631<br />
+ 3,271<br />
+ 2,291<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 1,163<br />
+ 680<br />
+ 358<br />
+ 156<br />
+ 52<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 22</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4" style="white-space: nowrap;">8,435<br />
+ 9,827<br />
+ 8,903<br />
+ 8,371<br />
+ 8,044<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 7,340<br />
+ 7,346<br />
+ 7,307<br />
+ 6,716<br />
+ 4,649<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 2,353<br />
+ 1,352<br />
+ 761<br />
+ 291<br />
+ 93<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 22</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">41,491</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">40,319</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">81,810</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<p>An attempt was made to follow up the cases of all the children who had
+left one public elementary school during the period of one year
+preceding the study. The work was done by the case method and the
+homes of the children were visited. The total number of cases studied
+was 117, of whom 89 were girls. It was found that one-third of these
+children had graduated and gone on to high school. Another third had
+gone to work, and of these, 40 per cent had done so without
+graduating. The children constituting the remaining third were staying
+at home, and among these a majority had dropped out without
+graduating.</p>
+
+<p>Of the eighth grade graduates one-half were found <a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>to be illegally
+employed, as they were less than 16 years of age. Among those who
+dropped out and went to work before completing the course 80 per cent
+were illegally employed.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that many girls drop out without graduating and before the
+end of the legal attendance period and remain at home indicates that
+most of them do not leave on account of financial necessity. This
+conclusion is substantiated by the testimony of the girls and their
+parents, many of whom say that the girls left simply because they grew
+tired of attending and did not see the value of remaining.</p>
+
+<p>These facts point to the necessity for much more effective work in
+enforcing the compulsory attendance laws, for far better inspection of
+shops and factories to detect violations of the child labor laws, and
+above all to such a reform of the schooling opportunities provided for
+older girls as will make them and their parents see the value of
+securing the advantages of the training provided.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Education at the Time of Leaving School</h4>
+
+<p>About 3,700 boys and an approximately equal number of girls drop out
+of the public schools each year. Most of the boys and a considerable
+number of the girls enter wage-earning at once. Their educational
+equipment at the time of leaving school is indicated in Table 6.</p>
+
+<a name="table6" id="table6"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>TABLE 6.&mdash;EDUCATIONAL EQUIPMENT OF THE CHILDREN WHO DROP OUT OF THE
+PUBLIC SCHOOLS EACH YEAR, <br />AS INDICATED BY THE GRADES FROM WHICH THEY
+LEAVE<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="30%" summary="Pupils Enrolled In The Different Grades">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td width="50%" class="tdc">Grade</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="50%">Number leaving</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td width="50%" class="tdrp3" style="white-space: nowrap;">4<br />
+ 5<br />
+ 6<br />
+ 7<br />
+ 8<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ I<br />
+ II<br />
+ III<br />
+ IV</td>
+ <td width="50%" class="tdrp3" style="white-space: nowrap;">70<br />
+ 440<br />
+ 960<br />
+ 1260<br />
+ 1630<br />
+ &nbsp;<br />
+ 890<br />
+ 590<br />
+ 150<br />
+ 1410</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">7400</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Slightly less than one-fifth finish the high school course. Nearly
+three-fifths drop out before entering the high school, and
+approximately three-eighths before reaching the eighth grade.</p>
+
+<p>Under the present compulsory attendance law a boy who enters school at
+the age of six and afterwards advances at the rate of one grade per
+year until the end of the compulsory attendance period should cover
+nine grades&mdash;eight in the elementary school and one in high school&mdash;by
+the time he is 15 years old. In actual fact, however, only about
+two-fifths get any high school training. Nearly all of the rest take
+the eight to nine years' attendance required by law to complete eight,
+seven, six, or even a smaller number of grades.</p>
+
+<p>It is from this body of pupils that most of the <a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>wage-earners are
+recruited. In the course of the survey several investigations were
+made for the purpose of finding out what educational preparation
+workers in various industries had received. One of the most extensive
+of these was conducted in connection with the study of the printing
+industry. Educationally the printing trades rank higher than most
+other factory occupations, yet the average journeyman printer
+possesses less than a complete elementary education. Composing-room
+employees, such as compositors, linotypers, stonemen, proof-readers,
+etc., undoubtedly stand at the head of the skilled trades as to
+educational training, but it was found that only eight per cent were
+high school graduates. Six per cent had left school before reaching
+the seventh grade, and 16 per cent before reaching the eighth grade.
+The other departments of the printing industry made a much less
+favorable showing.</p>
+
+<p>An investigation conducted by the Survey in the spring of 1915,
+covering 5,000 young people at work under 21 years of age, indicated
+that only about 13 per cent of these young workers had received any
+high school training and that less than four per cent had completed a
+high school course. Over one-fifth reported the sixth grade as the
+last completed before leaving school, and nearly half had dropped out
+before completing the elementary course. Less than seven per cent of
+the boys engaged in industrial pursuits had received any high school
+training and only 42 per cent had got beyond the seventh grade. The
+educational preparation of the boys <a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>engaged in commercial and
+clerical occupations was somewhat better, nearly 22 per cent having
+attended high school one year or more; about one-half had left school
+after completing the eighth grade and nearly one-third had not
+completed the elementary course.</p>
+
+<p>These facts have a vital relation to the problem of vocational
+training. If the great majority of the children who will later enter
+wage-earning occupations do not remain in school beyond the end of the
+compulsory attendance period, and in addition over half fail to
+complete even the elementary course, vocational training, to reach
+them at all, must begin not later than the seventh grade, and if
+possible, before the pupils reach the age of 14.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER V<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR BOYS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>In Chapter III the distribution of the wage-earners of the city was
+outlined, mainly for the purpose of establishing a basis on which to
+make a forecast of the future occupations of the children in the
+public schools. Such a forecast is essential as the preliminary step
+in any plan of vocational training to be carried out during the school
+period, for the reason that without it a clear understanding of the
+principal factors of the problem is impossible. The kinds of
+vocational training needed by children in school, and how and where
+such training should be given, must always depend in the first
+instance on what they are going to do when they grow up.</p>
+
+<p>The average elementary school in Cleveland enrolls between 350 and 400
+boys. When they leave school these boys will scatter into many
+different kinds of work. With respect to the future vocations of the
+pupils, the average school represents in a sense a cross section of
+the occupational activities of the city. It contains a certain number
+of recruits for each of the principal types of wage-earning pursuits.
+A few of the boys will later enter professional life; <a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>many will take
+up some sort of clerical work; a still larger number will be employed
+in commercial occupations; and the largest group of all will become
+wage-earners in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.</p>
+
+<p>The future occupation cannot be foretold accurately with respect to
+any particular boy, but we do know that, whatever their individual
+tastes and abilities, the boys must finally engage in activities
+similar to those in which the adult born native male population is
+engaged, and in approximately the same proportions. We do not know,
+for example, whether Johnny Jones will become a doctor or a carpenter,
+but we do know that of each 1,000 boys in the public schools about
+seven will become doctors and about 25 will become carpenters, because
+for many years about those proportions of the boys of native birth in
+Cleveland have become doctors and carpenters.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most impressive facts which comes to light in the study of
+occupational statistics is the constancy in these proportions. The
+business of any community requires certain kinds of work to be
+performed and the relative amount of work required and consequently
+the relative number of workers vary but slightly over a long period of
+time. This principle is illustrated in a striking way by the list of
+occupations selected at random presented in Table 7, showing the
+number of persons engaged in the occupations specified among each 100
+male workers at two successive census years.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table7" id="table7"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>TABLE 7&mdash;PER CENT OF TOTAL MALE WORKING POPULATION ENGAGED IN
+SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS, 1900 AND 1910<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Per Cent Of Total Male Working Population">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;" width="50%" rowspan="2">Occupation</td>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;">Per cent of total working population</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%">1900</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%">1910</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Machinists<br />
+ Saloon keepers<br />
+ Tailors<br />
+ Commercial travelers<br />
+ Lawyers<br />
+ Barbers<br />
+ Bakers<br />
+ Physicians<br />
+ Carpenters<br />
+ Cabinet makers<br />
+ Plumbers<br />
+ Stenographers and typists</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.7<br />
+ 1.1<br />
+ 2.1<br />
+ .8<br />
+ .5<br />
+ .8<br />
+ .6<br />
+ .6<br />
+ 3.4<br />
+ .5<br />
+ .9<br />
+ .3</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.8<br />
+ .7<br />
+ 1.7<br />
+ 1.1<br />
+ .4<br />
+ .7<br />
+ .5<br />
+ .5<br />
+ 3.3<br />
+ .4<br />
+ .9<br />
+ .3</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<br />
+<p>With the exception of plumbers and stenographers there was either an
+increase or a decrease from 1900 to 1910 in the relative number
+employed in each of these occupations. In only one occupation,
+however, that of machinist, did the change amount to as much as one
+per cent. In all the others the shift during the decade was less than
+one-half of one per cent, and in more than three-fifths of them it did
+not exceed one-tenth of one per cent of the total number of male
+workers.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">What the Boys in School Will Do</h4>
+
+<p>The figures in this table, presented for illustrative purposes, do not
+accurately represent the proportions of boys now attending the public
+schools who are likely to enter the occupations named, because <a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>they
+do not take into account the fact that a considerable number of the
+workers in Cleveland came to this country after they reached adult
+manhood and that a disproportionate number of these foreign born
+workers enter the industrial occupations. For this reason the total
+adult working population is not strictly comparable with the school
+enrollment, which is approximately nine-tenths native born. When the
+boys in the public schools grow up they will be distributed among the
+different trades, professions, and industries in about the same
+proportions as are the American born men in the city at the present
+time. This distribution is shown for the different occupational groups
+in Table 8.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table8" id="table8"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 8.&mdash;DISTRIBUTION OF NATIVE BORN MEN BETWEEN THE AGES OF 21 AND
+45 <br />IN THE PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Distribution Principal Occupational Groups">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom; font-size: 90%;" width="70%">Occupational group</td>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 90%;" width="30%">Approximate<br />per cent</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Manufacturing and mechanical occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">44</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Commercial occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">20</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Clerical occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">16</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Transportation occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">11</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Domestic and personal service occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Professional occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" valign="top">Public service occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td colspan="2" class="tdrp4" style="line-height: .3em;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">100</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<p>The figures in the column at the right of the table represent the
+number of native born men between the ages of 21 and 45 among each
+hundred native born male inhabitants engaged in the occupations
+comprehended in the various groups. In the case of the industrial
+group the figure is too high, as the <a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>census data relative to the
+distribution of foreign and native born include all ages, and there is
+a smaller proportion of American born adult men employed in industry
+than is found in the lower age groups. Extensive computations have
+shown, however, that the inaccuracies due to this cause are not
+serious enough to affect the use of the figures for our purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider what these proportions mean in establishing
+vocational courses to prepare boys for wage-earning pursuits. The
+future expectations of the boys in a large elementary school enrolling
+say 1,000 pupils of both sexes would be about as follows:</p>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Future Expectations">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Number of boys who will enter</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4" width="70%">Manufacturing and mechanical occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">220</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Commercial occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">100</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Clerical occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">80</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Transportation occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">55</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Domestic and personal service occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Professional occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">15</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Public service occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td colspan="2" class="tdr" style="line-height: .3em;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">500</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>This distribution includes all pupils, from the beginners in the first
+grade to the older boys in the seventh and eighth grades. It is
+certain, however, that differentiated instruction for vocational
+purposes is not possible or advisable for the younger children.
+According to the commonly accepted view among educators, vocational
+training should not be undertaken before the age of 12 years, and many
+believe that this is too early. In an elementary school of 1,000
+pupils there would be about 80 boys 12 years <a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>old and over. Applying
+to this number the ratios given in the previous table we obtain the
+following:</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Vocational Training Distribution Principal Occupational Groups">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Number of boys who will enter</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4" width="70%">Commercial occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">16</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Clerical occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">13</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Transportation occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Domestic and personal service occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Professional occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Public service occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td colspan="2" class="tdr" style="line-height: .3em;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">80</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+
+<p>The industrial group includes all of the skilled trades and most of
+the semi-skilled and unskilled manual occupations. The skilled trades
+are usually grouped in four main classifications: metal trades,
+building trades, printing trades, and "other" trades, these last
+comprising a number of small trades in each of which relatively few
+men are employed. With respect to their future occupations the 35 boys
+in the industrial group are likely to be distributed about as follows:</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Industrial Trades">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Number of boys who will enter</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4" width="70%">Metal trades</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Building trades</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Printing trades</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Other trades</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Semi-skilled and unskilled industrial occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">17</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td colspan="2" class="tdr" style="line-height: .3em;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">35</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The analysis can be carried still further, for these trade groups are
+by no means homogeneous. The building trades, for example, include
+over 20 distinct trades, a number of which have little in <a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>common with
+the others as to methods of work and technical content.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Organization and Costs</h4>
+
+<p>At this point it becomes necessary to take cognizance of certain
+administrative factors which have a marked bearing on the problem.
+They relate to the organization of classes in elementary schools and
+the cost of teaching. In a school of 1,000 pupils there would be at
+least five separate classes for the seventh and eighth grades. The 35
+boys who need industrial training are not all found in a single class,
+but are distributed more or less evenly throughout the five
+classrooms, that is, there are approximately seven in each class. A
+differentiated course under these conditions is difficult if not
+impossible. In a few of the Cleveland elementary schools the
+departmental system of teaching is in use. Under this plan something
+might be done, were it not that the total number of pupils requiring
+instruction relating specifically to the industrial trades is too
+small to justify the expense necessary for equipment, material, and
+special instruction required for such training. This is true as
+regards even an industrial course of the most general kind, while
+provision for particular trades is entirely out of the question. The
+machinist's trade employs more men than any other occupation in the
+city, yet the number of seventh and eighth grade boys in the average
+elementary school who will probably become machinists does not exceed
+five or six. <a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>Not over two boys are likely to enter employment in the
+printing industry. The smaller trades, such as pattern making, cabinet
+making, molding, and blacksmithing are represented by not more than
+one boy each.</p>
+
+<p>A possible alternative is the plan now followed in the teaching of
+manual training whereby the boys of the upper grades in various
+elementary schools are sent to one centrally located for a short
+period of instruction each week. The principal objection to this plan
+is that the amount of time now given is insufficient to accomplish
+much in an industrial course, nor can it be materially increased
+without seriously interfering with the work in other subjects.</p>
+
+<p>The first condition for successful industrial training is the
+concentration of a large number of pupils old enough to benefit by
+such training in a single school plant. Only in this way is it
+possible to bring the cost of teaching, equipment, and material within
+reasonable limits and provide facilities for differentiating the work
+on the basis of the vocational needs of the pupils. The fact that this
+condition cannot be met in elementary schools is one of the strongest
+arguments in favor of conducting the seventh and eighth grade work
+under the junior high school form of organization.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">What the Elementary Schools Can Do</h4>
+
+<p>The most important contribution to vocational education the elementary
+school can make consists in <a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>getting the children through the lower
+grades fast enough so that they will reach the junior high school by
+the time they are 13 years old, in order that before the end of the
+compulsory attendance period they may spend at least two years in a
+school where some kind of industrial training is possible. That this
+is not being done at the present time the data presented in Chapter IV
+amply demonstrate. In recent years there has been a tendency to regard
+vocational training as a remedy for retardation. The fact is that the
+cure of retardation is not a subsequent but a preliminary condition to
+successful training for wage-earning. Vocational training is not a
+means for the prevention of retardation, but retardation is a most
+effective means for the prevention of vocational training.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER VI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>In 1915 the Board of Education authorized the establishment of a
+system of junior high schools in the city, and at the beginning of the
+school year of 1915-16 the new plan was inaugurated in two schools.
+The Empire Junior High School, situated in the eastern part of the
+city, had an enrollment of about 700 children made up of seventh and
+eighth grade pupils formerly accommodated in the elementary schools of
+that section. The Detroit Junior High School on the west side had an
+enrollment of about 400 pupils. No decision has yet been reached as to
+whether the course shall include only two years' work, or three years,
+as in other cities of the country where the junior high school plan
+has been adopted.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the course with that for corresponding grades of the
+elementary schools shows some marked differences. Less time is devoted
+to English in the junior high school and considerably more to
+arithmetic, geography, and history. Mechanical drawing, not taught in
+the elementary schools except incidentally in the manual training
+classes, is given an hour each week. All boys receive one hour of
+manual training a week against slightly <a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>less than one and one-half
+hours in the seventh and eighth elementary grades, but they may elect
+an additional two and one-half hours a week in this subject, together
+with applied arithmetic during the first year, or with bookkeeping
+during the second. Girls may elect an additional two and one-half
+hours a week of domestic science, with bookkeeping. The manual
+training for boys comprises woodwork and bookbinding.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Specialized Training Not Practicable</h4>
+
+<p>In the junior high school, as in the elementary school, the greatest
+difficulty in the way of trade training for specific occupations lies
+in the small number of pupils who can be expected, within the bounds
+of reasonable probability, to enter a single trade. Hand and machine
+composition, the largest of the printing trades, will serve as an
+example. In a junior high school of 1,000 pupils, boys and girls, the
+number of boys who are likely to become compositors is about five. But
+to teach this trade printing equipment occupying considerable space is
+necessary, together with a teacher who has had some experience or
+training as a printer. The expense per pupil for equipment, for the
+space it occupies, and for instruction renders special training for
+such small classes impracticable. All of the skilled occupations, with
+the exception perhaps of the machinist's trade, are in the same case.
+An attempt to form separate classes for each of the eight largest
+trades in the city would <a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>result in two classes of not over five
+pupils, three classes of not over 10 pupils, and only one of over 13
+pupils. The following table shows the number of boys, in a school of
+this size, who are likely to enter each of these trades.</p>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="40%" summary="Occupation Distribution">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Number of boys who will probably become:</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4" width="70%">Machinists</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" width="30%">36</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Carpenters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">13</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Steam engineers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">11</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Painters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">10</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Electricians</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Plumbers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Compositors</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Molders</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">5</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">A General Industrial Course</h4>
+
+<p>The members of the Survey Staff were, however, of the opinion that
+through the system of electives in the junior high school, industrial
+training of a more general type, made up chiefly of instruction in the
+applications of mathematics, drawing, physics, and chemistry to the
+commoner industrial processes, would be of considerable benefit to
+those boys who, on the basis of their own selection or that of their
+parents, are likely to enter industrial pursuits. A course of this
+kind is outlined in following sections of this chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The objections which may be brought against this plan are frankly
+recognized. It takes into account only the interests of the industrial
+group, comprising less than one-half of the boys in the school.
+Unquestionably it would tend to vitalize the teaching of <a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>mathematics,
+drawing, and science for the boys who enroll in the industrial course,
+but it leaves unsolved the question of method and content of
+instruction in these subjects for the boys in the non-industrial or
+so-called academic course. Very possibly future experience may
+demonstrate that the plan recommended for the general industrial
+course affords the best medium for teaching science and mathematics at
+this period to all pupils, in which case a differentiated course would
+be unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>The organization of vocational training in junior high school grades
+presents many difficulties which cannot be solved by a more or less
+abstract study of educational and industrial needs. Experimentation on
+an extensive scale, covering a considerable period of time, is
+necessary before definite conclusions can be drawn as to the
+limitations and possibilities of such work. It is with a full
+appreciation of this fact that the following suggestive outline is
+presented.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of the general industrial course is to afford to boys who
+wish to enter industrial occupations the opportunity to secure
+knowledge and training that will be of direct or indirect value to
+them in industrial employment. It is not expected that by this means
+they can be given much practical training in hand work for any
+particular trade. The most the school can do for the boy at this
+period is to bridge over for him the gap that exists between the
+knowledge he obtains from books and the r&ocirc;le which this knowledge
+plays in the working world. It must not be assumed that the transition
+can be effected <a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>merely by the introduction of shop work, even if it
+were possible to provide the wide variety of manual training necessary
+to make up a fair representation of the principal occupations into
+which the boys will enter when they leave school. It is doubtful
+whether, so far as its vocational value is concerned, shop work
+isolated from other subjects of the curriculum is worth any more per
+unit of time devoted to it than several of the so-called academic
+subjects. This is particularly true of the two most common types of
+manual training&mdash;cabinet making and forge work. Both represent dying
+trades. During the decade 1900-1910 the increase in the number of
+cabinet makers in Cleveland fell far below the general increase in
+population. The blacksmiths made a still poorer showing. Both trades
+are recruited mainly from abroad and the relative number of Americans
+employed in them is steadily declining.</p>
+
+<p>In the opinion of the Survey Staff a general industrial course should
+cover instruction in at least the following five subjects: Industrial
+mathematics, mechanical drawing, industrial science, shop work, and
+the study of economic and working conditions in wage earning pursuits.
+These may be offered as independent electives or they may be required
+of all pupils who elect the industrial course. The details of
+organization must, of course, be worked out by trial and experiment.
+They will probably vary in different schools and from year to year.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>Industrial Mathematics</h4>
+
+<p>Of the hundreds of employers who were interviewed by members of the
+Survey Staff as to the technical equipment needed by beginners in the
+various trades, nearly all emphasized the ability to apply the
+principles of simple arithmetic quickly, correctly, and accurately to
+industrial problems. Many employers criticized the present methods of
+teaching this subject in the public schools. In the main their
+criticisms were to the effect that the teaching was not "practical."
+"The boys I get may know arithmetic," said one, "but they haven't any
+mathematical sense." Another cited his experience with an apprentice
+who was told to cut a bar eight and one-half feet long into five
+pieces of equal length. He was not told the length of the bar, but was
+given the direct order: "Cut that bar into five pieces all of the same
+size." The boy was unable to lay out the work, although when asked by
+the foreman, "Don't you know how to divide 8&frac12; by 5?", he performed the
+arithmetical operation without difficulty. The employer gave this
+instance as an illustration of what to his mind constituted one of the
+principal defects of public school teaching. "Mere knowledge of
+mathematical principles and the ability to solve abstract problems is
+not enough," he said. "What the boys get in the schools is
+mathematical skill, but what they need in their work is mathematical
+intelligence. The first does not necessarily imply the second."</p>
+
+<p>This mathematical intelligence can be developed <a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>only through practice
+in the solution of practical problems, that is, problems which are
+stated in the every day terms of the working world and which require
+the student to go through the successive mental steps in the same way
+that he would if he were working in a shop. The problem referred to
+above is one of division of fractions. If we state it thus: "8&frac12;&divide;5,"
+the pupil takes pencil and paper, performs the operation and announces
+the result. If we say, "A bar 8&frac12; feet long is to be cut into five
+pieces of equal length; how long should each piece be?", the problem
+calls for the exercise of greater intelligence, as the pupil must
+determine which process to use in order to obtain the correct result.
+It becomes still more difficult if we merely show him the bar and say:
+"This bar must be cut into five pieces of equal length; how long will
+each piece be?" Several additional preliminary steps are required,
+none of which was involved in the problem in its original form. Before
+the length of the pieces can be computed he must find out the length
+of the bar. He must know what to measure it with, and in what terms,
+whether feet or inches, the problem should be stated. Again, if we
+say: "Lay this bar out to be cut in five equal lengths," another
+step&mdash;the measurement and marking for each cut&mdash;is added. Many
+variations might be introduced, each involving additional
+opportunities for the exercise of thought.</p>
+
+<p>It is through practice in solving problems of this kind that the pupil
+acquires what the employer called mathematical intelligence. It
+consists in the ability <a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>to note what elements are involved in the
+problems and to decide which process of arithmetic should be used in
+dealing with them. Once these decisions are made the succeeding
+arithmetical calculations are simple and easy. In technical terms the
+ability that is needed is the ability to generalize one's experiences.
+In every-day terms it is the ability to use what one knows.</p>
+
+<p>The work in applied mathematics should cover a wide range of problems
+worded in the language of the trades and constantly varied in order to
+establish as many points of contact as possible between the pupil's
+knowledge of mathematics and the use of mathematics in industrial
+life. Practical shop work is one of the best means to this end. The
+trouble with much of the shop work given in the schools is that it
+runs to hand craftmanship in which the object is to "make something"
+by methods long ago discarded in the industrial world, rather than to
+give the pupil exercise in the sort of thinking he will need to do
+after he goes to work. Successful teaching does not depend so much on
+the use of tools and materials as on the teacher's knowledge of the
+conditions surrounding industrial work and his ability to originate
+methods for vitalizing the instruction in its relation to industrial
+needs.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Mechanical Drawing</h4>
+
+<p>At the present time the junior high school course provides for one
+hour a week of mechanical drawing. <a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>All the boys who may be expected
+to elect the industrial course can well afford to devote more time to
+drawing. For such boys no other subject in the curriculum, except
+perhaps applied mathematics, is of greater importance. In many of the
+trades the ability to work from drawings is indispensable and the man
+who does not possess it is not likely to rise above purely routine
+work.</p>
+
+<p>In a drawing course for future industrial workers the emphasis should
+be placed on giving the pupil an understanding of the uses of drawing
+for industrial purposes, rather than on fine workmanship in making
+drawings. Seventh grade boys can't be made into draftsmen in three
+years and if they leave school at 15 they are not likely to become
+draftsmen. The ordinary skilled workman seldom has any need to make
+drawings or designs, beyond an occasional rough sketch, but he often
+has to work from drawings. To put it in another way, drawing to the
+average workman is like an additional language of which he needs a
+reading but not a writing knowledge. No doubt it would be well to
+teach him to write and read with equal skill, but in the two or three
+years most of these boys will remain in school there is not time
+enough to do both.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Industrial Science</h4>
+
+<p>In many of the trades an introductory knowledge of physics and
+chemistry is of considerable advantage. Boys in the junior high school
+cannot be expected <a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>to take formal courses in these subjects, but they
+should not leave school without some acquaintance with them and a
+knowledge of their relations to industrial processes. A fair equipment
+should be provided for demonstrational and illustrative purposes. The
+subject matter should be correlated as closely as possible with the
+shop work, and the principal mechanical and chemical laws explained as
+the shop problems furnish examples of their application.</p>
+
+<p>In addition the boys should be taught the common technical terms used
+in trade hand books. The man who expects to advance in his trade will
+have to keep on learning after he leaves school. There are many
+avenues of information open to him, and the school can perform no more
+valuable service than to point the way to the sources of knowledge
+represented by reference books, trade journals, and other technical
+literature. Some of the popular magazines, such as "The Scientific
+American," "The Illustrated World," and "Popular Mechanics" can be
+used most effectively to bring home to the pupils the close connection
+existing between the class work and the outside world of science and
+invention.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Shop Work</h4>
+
+<p>It is difficult to determine the exact function of the manual training
+shop work in cabinet making and bookbinding which figures in the
+curriculum at present. That the work was not planned with vocational
+training in mind seems clear from the action <a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>of the school board in
+adding bookbinding to the course about the middle of the year. The
+bookbinding trade is one of the smallest in the city, and there is
+little probability that more than one boy among the total number
+enrolled in both junior high schools will enter it after leaving
+school.</p>
+
+<p>Fully three-fourths of the industrial group will later be employed in
+occupations where most of the work is done with machines or machine
+tools. Even in the hand tool trades, such as carpentry, sheet metal
+work, cabinet making, and blacksmithing, the use of machines is
+constantly increasing. It would seem, therefore, that some
+acquaintance with different types of machines would be of considerable
+value to the pupils who may later enter industrial employment. The
+number of boys who are likely to become machinists is large enough to
+warrant the installation of a small machine shop. Repairing,
+assembling, and taking apart machines should occupy an important place
+in the shop course. Most boys are intensely interested in getting at
+the "insides" of a machine, and the processes of assembling, with
+their attendant problems of adjustment and co-ordination of mechanical
+movements, afford opportunities for the best kind of practical
+instruction. One of the great advantages of this type of shop work
+lies in the fact that it consumes little or no material and is
+therefore inexpensive; another is that a fairly extensive equipment
+can be easily obtained, as any machine, old or new, will serve the
+purpose and may be used over and over again.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>The extent and variety of shop equipment will depend largely on the
+resources of the school system. The more the better, so long as the
+money is expended on the principle of the greatest good to the
+greatest number, which means that the kinds of tools and equipment
+used in the large trades should be preferred to those used only in the
+smaller trades.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the time devoted to shop work may yield its greatest
+results, it is necessary that every lesson center around knowledge and
+ability that will be of real subsequent use to the pupils. It must not
+run to "art" and it must not be mere tinkering. Its principal value as
+vocational training, in the last analysis, lies in its use as an
+objective medium for the teaching of industrial mathematics and
+science.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Vocational Information</h4>
+
+<p>During the second and third years all the boys who elect the
+industrial course or who expect to leave school at the end of the
+compulsory attendance period should be required to devote some time
+each week to the study of economic and working conditions in wage
+earning industrial and commercial occupations. A clear understanding
+of the comparative advantages of different kinds of employment is of
+the highest importance at this period of the boy's life. It seems to
+be generally assumed that an adequate basis of knowledge for the
+selection of an industrial vocation is an acquaintance with materials
+and processes. Such knowledge is valuable, but <a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>making a living is
+mainly an economic problem. What an occupation means in terms of
+income is more significant than what it means in terms of materials.
+The most important facts about the cabinet making trade, for example,
+are that it offers very few opportunities for employment to public
+school boys, and that it is one of the lowest paid skilled trades. The
+primary considerations in the intelligent selection of a vocation
+relate to wages, steadiness of employment, health risks, opportunities
+for advancement, apprenticeship conditions, union regulations, and the
+number of chances there are for getting into it. These things are
+fundamental, and any one of them may well take precedence over the
+matter of whether the tastes of the future wage-earner run to wood,
+brick, stone, or steel.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER VII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>TRADE TRAINING DURING THE LAST YEARS IN SCHOOL</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Between the end of the compulsory attendance period and the entering
+age in most of the trades there exists a gap of from one to two years
+which is not adequately covered by any of the present educational
+agencies of the school system.</p>
+
+<p>Two years ago the Ohio State legislature extended the compulsory
+attendance period from 14 to 15 for boys and from 14 to 16 for girls.
+The result has been to force into the first years of the high school
+course a considerable number of pupils who have no intention of taking
+the complete four year course, and who will leave as soon as they
+reach the end of the compulsory period. That these pupils are probably
+not getting all that they might out of the time they attend high
+school is no argument against the present compulsory attendance age
+limit, which should be raised rather than lowered.</p>
+
+<p>The study of industrial conditions conducted during the survey left
+every member of the Survey Staff firmly convinced that the industries
+of Cleveland have little or nothing worth while to offer to boys
+<a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>under 16. Very few of the skilled trades will accept an apprentice
+below this age. The general opinion among manufacturers was
+unfavorable to the employment of boys under 16. "They are more of a
+nuisance than a help," said one; "they are not old enough to
+understand the responsibilities of work." "They break more machinery
+and spoil more material than they are worth," said another. In several
+of the building trades apprentices must be 17 years old, as the law
+forbids boys under this age to work on scaffoldings. The new workmen's
+compensation law exerts a strong influence in favor of a higher
+working age limit, owing to the greater risk of accident among young
+workers.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is that the law is still about one year behind the
+requirements of industrial life. If a vote were taken among employers
+who can offer boys the opportunity to learn a trade it would be found
+that a large majority favor raising the working age to 16. Employment
+before this time usually leads nowhere, and the pittance the boy earns
+cannot be compared with the economic advantage he could derive from an
+additional year in a good vocational school. The average boy who
+leaves school at 15 spends a year or two loafing or working at odd
+jobs before he can obtain employment that offers any promise of future
+advancement. These years are often more than wasted, as he not only
+learns nothing of value from such casual jobs, but misses the healthy
+discipline of steady, orderly work, which is of so great importance
+during these formative years of his life.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>The Technical High Schools</h4>
+
+<p>The two technical high schools, the East Technical and West Technical,
+occupy an important place among the secondary schools of the city. At
+the present time the two schools enroll nearly two-fifths of the boys
+attending high school. The course comprises four years' work. In the
+East Technical the shopwork includes joinery and wood-turning during
+the first year, and pattern making and foundry work during the second
+year. In the West Technical the first year course includes pattern
+making and either forging or sheet metal work; and that of the second
+year, forging, pipe-fitting, brazing, riveting, and cabinet making.
+During the remaining two years of the course the student may elect a
+particular trade, devoting about 10 hours a week to practice in the
+shop during the last half of the third year, and from 11 to 15 hours
+during the fourth year.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of pupils who graduate is small and the mortality
+during the first two years is very heavy. This is due in part to the
+fact that the type of pupil who leaves school early is more likely to
+elect a technical course than an academic course. About 25 per cent of
+each entering class drops out after attending one year, and 25 per
+cent of the remainder by the end of the second year. By the time the
+third year is reached the classes are greatly depleted and the
+survivors as a rule are of the more intelligent and prosperous type.
+Only a small proportion of them expect to enter skilled manual
+occupations. Table 9 shows the distribution of the third and fourth
+year <a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>students among the different trade courses during the first
+semester of 1915-16.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table9" id="table9"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 9.&mdash;DISTRIBUTION OF THIRD AND FOURTH YEAR STUDENTS IN TRADE
+COURSES <br />IN THE CLEVELAND TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS, FIRST SEMESTER,
+1915-1916<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Distribution Of Third And Fourth Year Students In Trade Courses">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom; font-size: 90%;" width="70%">Trade courses</td>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 90%;" width="30%">Students</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Electrical construction</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">68</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Machine work</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">52</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Printing</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">28</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Cabinet making</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">22</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Pattern making</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">12</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Foundry work</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: .3em;">
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">183</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>That relatively few of these students will ultimately become
+journeymen workmen is shown by the records of the boys graduated in
+the past. The principal of the East Technical High School recently
+sent a questionnaire to all the students graduated up to 1915, asking
+for information as to their present occupations and their earnings
+during the first four years after graduation. Of those who replied,
+over 60 per cent either were attending college, or employed as
+draftsmen or chemists. About 28 per cent were employed in the skilled
+trades. The distribution in detail is shown in Table 10.</p>
+
+<p>The data furnished by graduates as to their earnings during successive
+years after leaving school supply still more convincing evidence to
+the effect that the technical school graduate seldom remains in manual
+work more than two or three years. The complete course gives them an
+equipment of practical and theoretical knowledge that speedily takes
+them out <a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>of the handwork class. The technical high schools are
+primarily training schools for future civil, electrical, and
+mechanical engineers. To the student who cannot afford a college
+course they offer excellent preparation for rapid advancement to
+supervisory and executive industrial positions, and for drafting and
+office work in manufacturing plants.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table10" id="table10"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 10.&mdash;DISTRIBUTION BY OCCUPATION OF CLEVELAND TECHNICAL HIGH
+SCHOOL GRADUATES<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Distribution By Occupation">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom; font-size: 90%;" width="70%">Occupation</td>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 90%;" width="30%">Number</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Attending college</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">111</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Draftsmen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">51</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Electricians</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">33</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Machinists</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">32</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Chemists</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Pattern makers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Cabinet makers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Printers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Foundrymen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Unclassified</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">32</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: .3em;">
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">284</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The output of the schools falls into two main divisions: those who
+leave at the end of the second year or earlier, and those who
+graduate. The records show that most of the pupils who reach the third
+year complete the course, but nearly half drop out during the first
+and second years. The benefit they obtain from these two years'
+attendance is problematical. The course was designed on the basis of
+four years' attendance, and the work of the first two years is to a
+considerable degree a preparation for that of the last two.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>The principals of both schools are fully alive to the disadvantages of
+the course for the large number of pupils who drop out within a year
+or two, and admit that such students would derive greater benefit from
+more practical instruction aimed directly toward preparation for the
+industrial trades. Both believe that the only practicable solution is
+a two-year trade course in a separate school, covering a much wider
+range of shop activities than the present high school course.</p>
+
+<p>To the only alternative&mdash;the institution of a short course within the
+technical schools to be conducted either as a part of or
+simultaneously with the four year course&mdash;they present objections of
+considerable weight. They point out that a preparatory course for the
+trades and a preparatory course with college as the goal differ not
+only in length but in kind. The work in mathematics for the future
+civil engineer, for example, must conform to college entrance
+standards and involves an amount of study that is quite unnecessary
+for the boy whose aim is to become a carpenter or machinist. The first
+needs a thorough course in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry; the
+second needs industrial arithmetic, with only such applications of
+higher mathematics as may be of use to him in his trade. The same
+principle holds with respect to other subjects.</p>
+
+<p>What boys who expect to enter industrial occupations most need at this
+period is instruction that will be of practical value to them for
+future wage earning. It is doubtful whether high school courses which
+<a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>have been formulated in the first instance to prepare pupils for a
+college course can furnish such instruction and it is still more
+doubtful whether the trade training required by the future mechanic
+and the broader preparation required for the professions can be given
+effectively in the same school.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">A Two-Year Trade Course</h4>
+
+<p>It is the opinion of the Survey Staff that a separate school in which
+direct training for the industrial trades is emphasized would result
+in more profitable use of the pupils' time and probably induce many of
+them to remain in school up to the apprentice entering age. Such a
+school, with a curriculum embracing vocational training for all the
+principal trades, would easily command an enrollment sufficient to
+justify the installation of a good shop equipment and the employment
+of a corps of teachers qualified by special training and experience
+for this kind of work. Even if only one-half the number who enter the
+skilled trades each year attended the school, the enrollment would
+reach at least 800 boys.</p>
+
+<p>A trade school of this kind would relieve the first and second year
+classes of many pupils that the technical high schools do not want and
+cannot adequately provide for. The minimum entering age should be not
+less than 14, and no requirement other than age should be imposed.
+This would draw part of the over-age pupils from the grades and take
+from the junior high school a certain number of boys who <a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>could profit
+by the greater amount of time given to shop work in the trade school.</p>
+
+<p>A good many will stay only one year, and every effort should be made
+at the time of entrance to learn the intentions of the pupil. If it
+seems fairly certain that he will not remain longer than a year he may
+well omit such studies as have no direct bearing on the trade he
+wishes to learn. The courses should follow the lines laid down in the
+general industrial course recommended for the junior high school, but
+with a greater proportion of the time devoted to practical shopwork.
+As the number of pupils for each trade class would be relatively
+large, a closer correlation could be effected between the academic
+subjects and the work in the shops than is possible in the junior high
+school.</p>
+
+<p>Both general and special courses should be provided. Many of the
+pupils will wish to specialize on a particular trade. Others who have
+not yet reached a decision need a general course that will give them a
+wide range of experience with materials and processes. The
+organization of classes should be planned so as to permit transfers,
+whenever desirable, from the general to the special courses, or
+vice-versa.</p>
+
+<p>By the time the pupil has reached the second year he usually will
+settle down to steady work on the trade he selects, although here
+again the organization should be sufficiently elastic to allow
+transfers when there seems to be good reason for making them. It is to
+be expected, however, that nearly all the pupils will devote their
+time during the second year <a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>to practice and study limited to single
+trades. The success of the school in holding boys to the age of 16 or
+17 will depend on its ability to convince them that the extra time in
+school is a paying investment, and this cannot be done unless they
+stick to one line of work.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>TRADE-PREPARATORY AND TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING FOR BOYS AND MEN AT WORK</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Several forms of trade-preparatory and trade-extension training for
+apprentices and journeymen workmen are carried on in the city.
+Probably the most effective work done in the teaching of boys after
+they have entered employment is found in manufacturing establishments
+which maintain apprentice schools in connection with their shops.
+There are two excellent examples of this type of instruction in
+Cleveland&mdash;the apprentice schools conducted by the New York Central
+Railroad and by the Warner and Swasey Company, manufacturers of
+astronomical instruments and machine tools.</p>
+
+<p>The Warner and Swasey Company school was established in 1911. The
+course covers a total of 560 hours, extending over a period of four
+years. The apprentices attend the school four hours a week for 35
+weeks each year. The time allotment for the various subjects included
+in the course is shown in Table 11.</p>
+
+<p>In 1915 there were 65 apprentices enrolled in the school, most of them
+from the machinist's trade. <a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>The sessions are held during working
+hours in a room in the factory fitted up with drawing tables and
+blackboards. No shop equipment is used. The purpose of the course is
+to develop a body of trained workmen competent to take positions in
+the factory as foremen or heads of departments. Less than one-tenth of
+the total time of the course is devoted to the study of shop practice.
+Standard textbooks are used in the teaching of mathematics.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table11" id="table11"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 11.&mdash;TIME ALLOTMENT IN THE APPRENTICE COURSE <br />GIVEN BY THE WARNER
+AND SWASEY COMPANY, CLEVELAND<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="60%" summary="Time Allotment In The Apprentice Course">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2" style="vertical-align: bottom; font-size: 90%;" width="70%">Subject</td>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 90%;" width="30%">Hours</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Arithmetic</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">35</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">English</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">65</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Mechanical drawing</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">70</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Shop practice</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">40</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Algebra</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">70</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Geometry</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">40</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Trigonometry</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">30</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Physics</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">70</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Materials</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">35</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Industrial history</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">35</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Mechanics, strength of materials, and mechanical design</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">70</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: .3em;">
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">560</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+
+<p>The enrollment in the school conducted by the New York Central
+Railroad is about 140 boys, nearly all of whom are machinists'
+apprentices. They are divided into three classes, the members of each
+class attending the school four hours a week. About two-thirds of the
+time is devoted to mechanical drawing and one-third to mathematics and
+shop practice. The instruction in these two latter subjects is based
+on a series of graded mimeographed or blue print <a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>lesson sheets,
+containing a wide variety of shop problems, with a condensed and
+simplified explanation of the mathematical principles involved. In the
+main the work is limited to the application of simple arithmetic to
+problems of shop practice. No textbooks are used, but the booklets on
+machine shop practice published by the International Correspondence
+Schools are studied in connection with the course.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the required classroom work in mechanical drawing, each
+apprentice serves four or five months of his term in the regular
+drafting rooms of the company. The classroom is equipped with models
+of railway appliances and machinery, together with laboratory
+apparatus for teaching the laws of mechanics. No machine tools or
+other shop equipment are used in the classes. The course covers about
+700 hours of instruction exclusive of the time spent in regular
+drafting room work. About 20 apprentices finished the course in 1915.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the building and printing trades' labor unions take an
+active interest in the training of apprentices, and in at least two
+instances the unions maintain evening classes for teaching trade
+theory. The Electrical Workers' Union, made up principally of inside
+wiremen, conducts apprentice classes taught by journeymen. The
+International Typographical Union course for compositors and
+compositors' apprentices is undoubtedly the best yet devised for
+giving supplementary training in hand composition. It is taught by
+journeymen in evening classes, under the supervision of the central
+office of the <a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>Typographical Union Commission, to which all the work
+must be submitted. In February, 1916, about 100 students were
+enrolled, of whom approximately one-third were apprentices and
+two-thirds journeymen. The course consists of 46 lessons in English,
+lettering, design, color harmony, job composition, and imposition for
+machine and hand folding. The classes are held at the headquarters of
+the union. As the students' daily practice in the shop provides plenty
+of opportunity for the acquisition of manual skill, no apparatus or
+shop equipment is used in connection with the course.</p>
+
+<p>The apprentice school conducted by the Y.M.C.A. represents another
+type of apprentice training. The instruction is given during the day.
+The apprentices are sent to the school by various firms in the city
+under an arrangement whereby the boys attend four and one-half hours
+each week during regular shop time. In February, 1916, the enrollment
+consisted of 46 apprentices, practically all from the metal trades.
+The employers pay the tuition fee, which amounts to $20 a year. The
+course requires four years' work of 40 weeks each, a total of 720
+hours. It comprises instruction in shop mathematics, drawing, English,
+physics, and industrial hygiene. No shop equipment is used. Fifteen
+boys were graduated from the course this year.</p>
+
+<p>The factory apprentice school of the Warner and Swasey Company and New
+York Central Railroad type possesses many advantages over any kind of
+continuation instruction carried on outside of the <a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>plants where the
+boys are employed. A better correlation between the class and shop
+work is possible together with a more personal relation between
+teacher and pupils than is usually found when the pupils are drawn
+from a number of different establishments. It must be admitted,
+however, that this method of training apprentices is not feasible
+except in very large plants, as in small classes the teaching cost
+becomes prohibitive. There is little probability that it will ever be
+adopted by enough employers to take care of more than an insignificant
+proportion of the boys who enter the skilled trades.</p>
+
+<p>The results obtained, here and in other cities, through co&ouml;perative
+schemes, such as the Y.M.C.A. continuation school, are in the main
+disappointing. Their failure to reach more than a few of the boys who
+need trade-extension training is due partly to the fact that they
+operate under a condition that is fundamentally unjust. One employer
+interviewed during the survey stated the case very clearly: "I can see
+no good reason why I should make pecuniary sacrifices for the benefit
+of my competitors. Very few of my apprentices remain until the end of
+their term, because by the time they have completed their second year
+other firms which make no effort to train their quota of skilled
+workmen for the trade steal them away from me. Any plan for the
+training of apprentices which does not apportion the burden among the
+different establishments in direct proportion to the number of men
+they have, simply <a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>penalizes those public-spirited employers who
+participate in it."</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Continuation Training from 15 to 18</h4>
+
+<p>The years between 15 and 18 are among the most important in the life
+of the young worker. If left to his own devices during this period, he
+is very likely to lose much of vocational value of his earlier
+education, because he does not grasp the relation which the knowledge
+he acquired in school bears to his daily work. As a result the problem
+of supplementary instruction at a later age, when he wakes up to his
+need for it, becomes much more difficult than if trade-extension
+training had been taken up at once when he entered employment.</p>
+
+<p>The vocational interests of young workers and the social interests of
+the community are both opposed to the current practice of "graduating"
+boys from the public schools at the ages of 15 or 16 and then losing
+sight of them. The fact that the large number who go into industrial
+occupations will not or cannot remain in school beyond these ages does
+not absolve the school system from further responsibility for their
+educational future. There should not be a complete severance between
+the boy and the school until he has reached a relatively mature age.
+In other words, the school system should maintain, as long as
+possible, such a relation with him as will help to round out his
+education and lead him to continue it after reaching manhood.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>It is the opinion of the Survey Staff that the only practicable
+solution of this problem lies in the day continuation school, backed
+by a compulsory law which will bring every boy and girl at work under
+the age of 18 into school for a certain number of hours per week. Only
+through a comprehensive plan that will reach large numbers of young
+workers can the difficulties inherent in the administration of small
+classes be overcome. The night schools have never been successful in
+holding boys long enough to make more than a beginning in
+trade-extension training. It is certain that growing boys should not
+be expected to add two hours of study to their nine or 10 hours of
+unaccustomed labor in the shop. Both individual and community
+interests demand that this problem be taken up in such a way as to
+obviate the sharp cleavage between the boy's school life and his
+working life. From every point of view it is unwise to permit him to
+lose all contact with the educational agencies of the city during his
+first years at work.</p>
+
+<p>The compulsory continuation school avoids the difficulties which are
+responsible for the common failure of those schemes which depend for
+their success on the initiative of individuals or the voluntary
+co&ouml;peration of employers and trade unions. One of its great advantages
+is that the principle on which it is based makes for equal justice to
+all. There can be no doubt that the decline of apprentice training in
+the shops is due partly to the fact that employers find that much of
+the time and money it costs goes toward providing a skilled labor
+force for competitors <a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>who make no effort to train young workers. The
+cooperation of employers on a comprehensive scale will be secured only
+when the burden is equally shared.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Technical Night Schools</h4>
+
+<p>Night classes are conducted in both of the technical high schools for
+two terms a year of 10 weeks each, the pupils attending four hours a
+week. A tuition fee of $5 a term is collected, of which $3.50 is
+refunded to those who maintain an average attendance of 75 per cent.
+No special provision is made for apprentices as distinct from
+journeymen, and the trade classes are attended by a considerable
+number of wage-earners employed in occupations unrelated to industrial
+work. The list of courses offered during the past year, with the
+number enrolled in each course at the beginning of the second term, is
+shown in Table 12.</p>
+
+<p>A glance at the list of courses shows at once that while the
+vocational motive is given first importance, the schools also aim to
+provide instruction in cultural subjects which have only an indirect
+vocational application. Less than one-third of the students are
+pursuing courses which are directly related to their daily work. The
+remainder are enrolled in courses which have little or no connection
+with their daily occupations. In but four of the courses&mdash;machine
+shop, architectural drawing, printing, and sheet metal work&mdash;are more
+than half of the students employed in directly related occupations.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table12" id="table12"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>TABLE 12.&mdash;COURSES AND NUMBER ENROLLED IN THE TECHNICAL NIGHT SCHOOLS,
+JANUARY, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Time Allotment In The Apprentice Course">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2" style="vertical-align: bottom; font-size: 90%;" width="70%">Course</td>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 90%;" width="30%">Number enrolled</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Mechanical drawing</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">328</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Machine shop</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">222</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Electrical construction</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">159</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Sewing</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">103</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Mathematics</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">89</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Architectural drawing</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">83</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Pattern making</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">73</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Woodworking</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">67</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Chemistry</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">59</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Sheet metal drawing</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">52</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Cooking</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">46</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Foundry work</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">36</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Agriculture</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">31</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Printing</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">27</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Sheet metal shop</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">23</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Business English</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">20</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Electric motors</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">19</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Arts and crafts</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">18</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Millinery</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">18</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Electricity and magnetism</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">16</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: .3em;">
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3">1,489</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The policy of the schools is to form a class in any subject for which
+a sufficient number of students make application. Only a small
+proportion of the pupils attend more than one year, and the mortality
+from term to term is very high, although the tuition fee plan insures
+fairly good attendance during the term. The data collected by the
+survey indicate that the average length of attendance is approximately
+two terms&mdash;the equivalent in student hours of less than three weeks in
+the ordinary day school.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the men who enroll in night school classes need a course of at
+least two or three years. All but a few, however, insist on having
+their supplementary <a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>training in small doses. Frequently they want
+only specific instruction about a specific thing, such as how to lay
+out a certain piece of work or how to set up a particular machine
+tool. They want to secure this knowledge in the shortest possible
+time, and very few want the same thing. A course of two or three years
+does not appeal to them. Another difficulty is that their previous
+educational equipment varies widely, and some are not capable of
+assimilating even the specialized bit of trade knowledge they need
+without a preliminary course in arithmetic. As the personnel of the
+classes changes to a marked degree from term to term, the courses
+undergo frequent modifications. Apparently the teachers and principals
+have made a sincere effort to adapt the instruction to the demands of
+the men who attend the schools, but the fact is that the difficulties
+inherent in such work make it impossible to organize the classes on
+any basis except that of subject matter, which means fitting students
+into courses, rather than adapting courses to the needs of particular
+groups of workers.</p>
+
+<p>The enrollment is far below what should be expected in a city of
+nearly three-quarters of a million inhabitants. The total number of
+journeymen, apprentices, and helpers from the skilled manual
+occupations, receiving trade instruction in the night schools, is
+considerably less than one per cent of the total number in the city.</p>
+
+<p>A large enrollment is necessary for efficient administration. Success
+in specializing courses in night <a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>schools, as in day schools, requires
+a large administrative unit. The possible variety of courses is in
+direct ratio to the number enrolled. In a class of 200 carpenters
+there would probably be, for example, 10 or 15 men who need
+specialized instruction in stair-building. On the basis of the present
+enrollment of 40 or 50 carpenters the class would dwindle to three or
+four, with the result that the per capita teaching cost becomes
+prohibitive.</p>
+
+<p>The relatively small result now obtained is not the fault of the
+schools, but is due principally to the fact that the great field of
+evening vocational instruction is treated by the school system as a
+mere side line of the technical high schools. The evening classes are
+taught by teachers who have already given their best in the day
+classes. The enrollment cannot be greatly increased so long as this
+type of education is handled as one of the marginal activities of the
+school system, manned by tired teachers and directed by tired
+principals. It is a totally different kind of job from regular day
+instruction and requires a different administrative organization, with
+a responsible head vested with sufficient authority to meet quickly
+and effectively the widely varying demands of its students. This will
+require the speeding-up of administrative methods in the establishment
+of courses and the employment of teachers, a freer hand for the
+principals as regards both expenditures and policy, and most important
+of all, the organization of all forms of continuation and night school
+instruction under a separate department.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>A Combined Program of Continuation and Trade-Extension
+Training</h4>
+
+<p>In considering the general conclusions of the survey as to what should
+be done in the matter of trade preparatory and trade-extension
+training in both day and night schools, it must be borne in mind that
+these two types of vocational training are still in the experimental
+stage. Their future development will probably involve a wide departure
+from conventional school methods and the evolution of a special
+technique through trial and experiment. At the present time we can
+only formulate certain of the main conditions to which future advance
+in these fields must conform.</p>
+
+<p>First of all, it must be recognized that such work is a big job in
+itself and cannot be successfully conducted as an appendix of the day
+school. It is worth doing well, or it is not worth doing. It needs an
+organization sufficiently elastic and adaptable to quickly make
+adjustments to unusual and unexpected conditions. It needs the
+supervision of a competent director who can devote to it all his time
+and energy, and a corps of teachers who not only know how and what to
+teach, but who possess a firm conviction of the value and utility of
+this kind of instruction. In the hands of teachers who bring to it
+only the margin of interest and energy remaining after a hard day's
+work in the high school, or who are unable to comprehend the radical
+difference between teaching a boy in the day school 35 hours a week
+and teaching a boy four hours a week in the <a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>continuation school or
+evening class, the full measure of success cannot be expected. The
+employment of day teachers for night school work has never been other
+than a makeshift, and the insignificant results attained in night
+schools throughout the country have been due in great measure to this
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the fact that the interests of adolescent workers
+imperatively demand the establishment of day continuation schools, an
+additional argument in favor of such schools is that they would
+provide a means for making the night trade-extension work effective,
+through the use of continuation day school teachers for night school
+work. Such a plan would mean that teachers employed on this basis
+would have charge of a day continuation class during one session of
+four hours, and a night class of two hours, making a total of six
+hours' work per day. A plan of this kind would make possible the
+establishment of the fundamental conditions for successful
+trade&mdash;preparatory and trade-extension training in the night schools.
+The present system is unjust to both teachers and students;&mdash;to the
+students because the man or boy who sacrifices his recreation time to
+attend night school has a right to the best the schools can give; to
+the teachers because no teacher can work a two-hour night shift in
+addition to seven or eight hours in the technical high school without
+seriously impairing his efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>The development of this plan would necessitate the establishment of
+two centers, one located in the eastern and one in the western section
+of the city. <a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>In these centers should be housed the day vocational
+school, the day continuation classes, and the night vocational
+classes. This would relieve the technical high schools of a task which
+does not belong to them, and which by overloading the teachers
+seriously interferes with the work they were originally employed to
+do. At present a considerable number of the technical high school
+teachers are devoting from one-fifth to one-fourth of their total
+working day to elementary teaching, as most of the work in the night
+schools is below high school grade.</p>
+
+<p>By bringing together all the trade preparatory and trade-extension
+work under one roof, it is possible to secure the highest efficiency
+in the use of equipment. Expensive shops can be justified only on the
+basis of constant use. If the suggestion for the establishment of a
+vocational school is acted upon, such future contingencies as the
+continuation school should be borne in mind in planning the buildings
+and equipment, so as to permit of extensions as they may be required.
+It is practically certain that universal continuation training for
+young workers up to the age of 17 or 18 will be made compulsory in all
+the progressive states of the country within the next decade. The Ohio
+school authorities should get ready to handle the continuation school
+problem before the example of other states and the overwhelming
+pressure of public opinion forces it upon them.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER IX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>VOCATIONAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The discussions in the preceding chapters have been limited
+intentionally to a consideration of the needs and possibilities of
+training for wage-earning pursuits in which men predominate. The
+conditions which surround vocational training for girls are so
+fundamentally unlike those encountered in the vocational training of
+boys that a combined treatment leads to needless complexity and
+confusion.</p>
+
+<p>Cleveland uses a relatively smaller amount of woman labor than most
+other large cities. In only one of the 10 largest cities in the
+country&mdash;Pittsburgh&mdash;is the proportion of women and girls at work
+smaller as compared with the total number of persons in gainful
+occupations than in Cleveland. In 1900, 20.4 per cent of the workers
+in the city were women; by 1910 the proportion of women workers had
+increased to 22 per cent, a shift of less than two per cent for the
+decade.</p>
+
+<p>A consideration of the occupational future of boys and girls shows at
+once how widely their problems differ. The typical boy in Cleveland
+attends school until he reaches the age of 15 or 16. About this period
+he becomes a wage-earner and for the next 30 or 40 <a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>years devotes most
+of his time and energy to making a living. The typical girl leaves
+school about the same time, becomes a wage-earner for a few years,
+then marries and spends the rest of her life keeping house and rearing
+children. To the man wage-earning is the real business of life. To the
+woman it is a means for filling in the gap between school and
+marriage, a little journey into the world previous to settling down to
+her main job.</p>
+
+<p>The most radical and important difference between the two sexes with
+respect to wage-earning is found in the length of the working life.
+The transitory character of the wage-earning phase in the life of most
+women is clearly seen in the contrasted age distribution shown in
+Table 13.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table13" id="table13"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 13.&mdash;PER CENT OF TOTAL POPULATION ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS
+DURING THREE DIFFERENT AGE PERIODS<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Per Cent Of Total Population Engaged In Gainful Occupations">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="50%">Age period</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%">Women</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%">Men</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">16 to 21</td>
+ <td class="tdc">60</td>
+ <td class="tdc">85</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">21 to 45</td>
+ <td class="tdc">26</td>
+ <td class="tdc">98</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">45 and over</td>
+ <td class="tdc">12</td>
+ <td class="tdc">85</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Approximately 85 per cent of the boys and slightly less than 60 per
+cent of the girls between the ages of 16 and 21 are at work. In the
+next age group&mdash;21 to 45&mdash;given by the census, 98 per cent of the men
+are at work, but the proportion of women employed in gainful
+occupations drops to 26 per cent, or about one in four; in the next
+age group&mdash;45 and <a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>over&mdash;it falls to about 12 per cent, as compared
+with 85 per cent of the men. Of the women still at work in the older
+age group, over one-half are engaged in domestic and personal service
+as servants, laundresses, housekeepers, etc.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table14" id="table14"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 14.&mdash;NUMBER EMPLOYED IN THE PRINCIPAL WAGE-EARNING OCCUPATIONS<br />
+AMONG EACH 1,000 WOMEN FROM 16 TO 21 YEARS OF AGE<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Per Cent Of Total Population Engaged In Gainful Occupations">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Manufacturing and mechanical industries:</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td width="5%">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Apprentices to dressmakers and milliners</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" width="10%">4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory)</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">20</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Milliners and millinery dealers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">17</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Semi-skilled operatives:</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td width="5%">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Candy factories</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cigar and tobacco factories</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">15</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Electrical supply factories</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">10</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Knitting mills</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">11</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Printing and publishing</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Woolen and worsted mills:</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td width="5%">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" width="75%">Weavers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl">Other occupations</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Sewers and sewing machine operators (factory)</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">53</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Tailoresses</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Transportation:</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Telephone operators</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">19</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Trade:</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Clerks in stores</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">28</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Saleswomen (stores)</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">35</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Professional service:</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Musicians and teachers of music</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Teachers (school)</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Domestic and personal service:</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Charwomen and cleaners</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Laundry operatives</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">13</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Servants</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">81</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Waitresses</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Clerical occupations:</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">26</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Clerks (except clerks in stores)</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">20</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Stenographers and typewriters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">62</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The occupations in which the girls now in the public schools will
+later engage can be determined with a relative degree of accuracy by
+employing a method in general similar to that utilized in forecasting
+the occupations of boys. It must be taken into account, however, that
+the wage-earning period for women, except in the professional
+occupations, usually begins <a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>before the age of 21. For this reason the
+16 to 21 age group probably offers the best basis for determining the
+future occupational distribution of girls in school. If all women at
+work up to the age of 25 were included the figures would be more
+nearly exact, but unfortunately data for the period between 21 and 25
+are not available. The figures at the right of Table 14 show the
+number engaged in each specified occupation among each thousand women
+in the city between the ages of 16 and 21. The proportions given for
+the professional occupations, particularly teaching, are too small,
+because of the fact that few women enter the professions before the
+age of 21.</p>
+
+<p>Applying these proportions to the average elementary school unit, it
+will be seen at once that the number of girls old enough to profit by
+special training is too small in any single occupation to form a class
+of workable size. In such a school there would be about 80 girls 12
+years old and over. Of the skilled occupations listed in the table
+stenography and typewriting offers the largest field of employment,
+yet the number who are likely to take up this kind of work does not
+exceed five or six.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Differentiation in the Junior High School</h4>
+
+<p>The organization of the junior high school, where the enrollment is
+made up entirely of older pupils, obviates this difficulty to some
+extent. Instead of 80 girls there are from 300 to 500, with a
+corresponding increase in the number who will enter any given
+wage-earning occupation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>Not less than one-eighth and probably not more than one-fifth of these
+girls will become needleworkers of some kind. They will need a more
+practical and intensive training in the fundamentals of sewing than is
+now provided by the household arts course. The skill required in trade
+work cannot be obtained in the amount of time now devoted to this
+subject. It should be made possible for a girl who expects to make a
+living with her needle to elect a thoroughly practical course in
+sewing in which the aim is to prepare for wage earning rather than
+merely to teach the girl how to make and mend her own garments. As
+proficiency in trade sewing requires first of all ample opportunity
+for practice, provision should be made for extending the time now
+given to sewing for those girls who wish to become needle workers.
+This can easily be done through the system of electives now in use.
+The establishment of classes in power machine operating during the
+junior high school period appears to be impracticable, due to the
+immaturity of the girls and the small number who could profit by such
+instruction.</p>
+
+<p>A discussion of the present sewing courses in the public schools will
+be found in Chapters XIV and XV, which summarize the special reports
+on the Garment Trades and Dressmaking and Millinery. In the present
+chapter the consideration of these occupations is limited to an
+examination of the administrative questions connected with training
+for the sewing trades.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>Specialized Training for the Sewing Trades</h4>
+
+<p>The compulsory attendance law requires all girls to attend school
+until they are 16 years old. This forces a considerable number into
+the high schools for one or two years before they go to work. As a
+rule the type of girl who is likely to enter the needle trades selects
+the technical high school course, not because she has any idea of
+finishing it, but because she believes it offers a less tiresome way
+of getting through her last one or two years in school than the
+academic course. The technical course requires three and three-quarter
+hours a week of sewing during the first two years. The student may
+elect trade dressmaking and millinery during the third and fourth
+years.</p>
+
+<p>Very few girls who can afford to spend four years in high school ever
+become dressmakers or factory operatives. If the school system is to
+do anything of direct vocational value for them it will have to begin
+further down. Most of them leave school before the age of 17 and the
+years between 14 and 16 represent the last chance the school will have
+to give them any direct aid towards preparation for immediate
+wage-earning.</p>
+
+<p>For successful work in machine operating the class must be large
+enough to warrant the purchase and operation of sufficient equipment
+to give the pupils an opportunity for intensive practice. The only way
+this condition can be secured is by concentrating in large groups the
+girls who need such training. Little will be accomplished in training
+for the sewing <a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>trades without specialization, and specialization in
+small administrative units is impossible. The teaching and operating
+cost in a school enrolling, say 200 girls, who want the same kind of
+work, can be brought within reasonable bounds. In a school where the
+total number who need specialized training does not exceed 10 or 15
+the cost is prohibitive.</p>
+
+<p>In the opinion of the Survey Staff a one or two year vocational course
+in the sewing trades should be established. The entrance age should
+not be less than 15. Courses should be provided for intensive work in
+trade dressmaking, power machine operating, and trade millinery. A
+conservative estimate of the number of girls who could be expected to
+enroll for courses in these subjects is 500. A trade school might be
+established where only this type of vocational training would be
+carried on, or it might be conducted in the same building with the
+trade courses for boys recommended in a previous chapter. In either
+case the number of pupils would be sufficient to warrant up-to-date
+equipment and a corps of specially trained teachers.</p>
+
+<p>Training for the sewing trades consumes more material than any other
+kind of vocational training. For this reason economical administration
+requires some arrangement for marketing the product. During the latter
+part of the course the school should be able to turn out first-class
+work. The familiarity with trade standards the pupils obtain through
+practice on garments which must meet the exacting demands of the
+buying public has a distinct educational <a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>value. The Manhattan Trade
+School for Girls in New York City and other successful schools in the
+country operate on this basis. There is reason to believe that there
+would be little difficulty in making arrangements with the clothing
+manufacturers in Cleveland to furnish a good trade school as much
+contract work as the classes could handle.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Other Occupations</h4>
+
+<p>From one-fourth to one-fifth of the girls in the school will later
+enter employment in commercial and clerical occupations, as
+stenographers, typists, clerks, cashiers, bookkeepers, saleswomen, and
+so on. Their needs will be considered in Chapters XII and XIII, in
+which the findings of the special reports on Boys and Girls in
+Commercial Work and Department Store Occupations are summarized.</p>
+
+<p>A relatively small number will become semi-skilled operatives in
+industrial establishments, such as job printing houses, knitting
+mills, and factories making electrical supplies, metal products, and
+so on. As a rule such work requires only a small amount of manual
+skill or deftness. Not much training is needed and it can be given
+quickly and effectively in the factories.</p>
+
+<p>About one-ninth of the girls in the school will enter paid domestic or
+personal service of some kind. The household arts courses probably
+meet the needs of girls who may be employed in such occupations as far
+as they can be met under present conditions. <a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>The woman domestic
+servant occupies about the same social level as the male common
+laborer, and a course which openly sets out to train girls to be
+servants is not likely to prosper. The load of social stigma such work
+carries is too heavy. At some time in the future it may be possible to
+ignore the traditional and universal attitude of our public toward the
+so-called menial occupations sufficiently to consider training
+servants. At present such a possibility seems remote.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER X<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Very few of the army of young people who become wage earners each year
+take up the occupations in which they engage as the result of any
+conscious selection of their own or of their parents. They drift into
+some job aimlessly and ignorantly, following the line of least
+resistance, driven or led by the accidents and exigencies of gaining a
+livelihood. They possess no accurate or comprehensive knowledge of the
+advantages and disadvantages of different types of wage earning
+occupations, and frequently take up work for which they are entirely
+unfitted or which holds little future beyond a bare livelihood.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Work of the Vocational Counselor</h4>
+
+<p>The plan now followed in the technical high schools of the city, by
+which one teacher in the school specially qualified for such work is
+charged with the duty of advising pupils who leave school and aiding
+them in securing desirable employment, could be adapted to the junior
+high school, where the need for service of this kind is even greater
+than in the technical high schools. Such work requires men who have
+<a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>had some contact with industrial conditions, and who possess sound
+judgment, common sense, and a fairly comprehensive knowledge of the
+local industries. If the curriculum embraces the course in "Industrial
+Information" suggested in a previous chapter, the teacher of this
+subject might well be designated as vocational counselor for the boys
+in the school. A course similar in nature should be provided for the
+girls and a woman teacher selected to advise them when they leave
+school. Considerable difficulty probably will be experienced in
+securing women teachers competent to assume this task, but any
+wide-awake teacher who will devote some attention to published studies
+of industrial conditions and get in touch with the local organizations
+engaged in the investigation of wage earning employments, such as the
+Consumers' League and the Girls' Vocation Bureau, can soon acquire a
+fund of information that will enable her to offer valuable suggestions
+and advice to girls who expect to become wage earners.</p>
+
+<p>The vocational counselor must guard against conventional thinking and
+the mass of "inspirational" nonsense which forms the main contribution
+to the vocational guidance of youth provided in the average
+schoolroom. The ideals of success usually held up before school
+children seem to have been drawn from a mixture of Sunday school
+literature and the prospectuses of efficiency bureaus. Boiled down the
+rules prescribed for their attainment are two: first, "Be good;" and
+second, "Get ahead." The pupils are told about well-known men who
+became famous <a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>or rich, usually rich, by practicing these rules.
+Occasionally there is some prattle about the "dignity of labor," as a
+rule meaningless in the light of our current ideas of success. We do
+not think of a well-paid artisan as "successful." His success begins
+when he is promoted to office work, or becomes a foreman.</p>
+
+<p>The inherent difficulty with ideals of success which demand that the
+worker become a boss of somebody else is that the world of industry
+needs only a relatively small number of bosses. Theoretically it is
+possible for any individual to reach the eminence of boss-ship. In
+real life less than one-tenth of the boys who enter industrial
+employment can rise above the level of the journeyman artisan, at
+least before later middle age, because only about that proportion of
+bosses are needed.</p>
+
+<p>The task of the vocational counselor will consist in putting the
+pupil's feet on the first steps of the ladder rather than showing him
+rosy pictures of the top of it. For the great majority the top means
+no more than decent wages. This, after all, is a worthy ambition,
+frequently requiring the worker's best efforts for its realization.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Girls' Vocation Bureau</h4>
+
+<p>The Girls' Vocation Bureau, for the placement of girls and women in
+wage-earning employment, has been in operation about six years. At
+present it is under the general charge of the state and municipal
+<a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>employment bureau, although part of the funds for the support of the
+bureau is raised through private subscription. From July, 1914, to
+July, 1915, the Bureau secured positions for nearly 11,000 girls and
+women. Of these approximately 12 per cent were girls under 21. In many
+instances only temporary employment is secured, although efforts are
+made to place the girls in permanent positions. More girls are placed
+in office positions than in any other line of work, but a considerable
+proportion take employment in factories, domestic service,
+restaurants, and stores.</p>
+
+<p>A careful record is kept of each applicant's qualifications, home
+conditions, the names of employers, etc. The Bureau endeavors to keep
+in touch with the girls after they are placed through follow-up
+reports and visits by members of the office staff or by volunteer
+investigators.</p>
+
+<p>This spring every school in the city was visited by representatives of
+the Bureau in the endeavor to interest principals in the work of
+placement, and arrangements were made for sending to the Bureau lists
+of the girls who were expected to leave school permanently. This
+effort met with slight success, as only about 100 girls were reported
+from all the schools in the city, although the number of girls leaving
+school each year from the elementary grades alone is over 2,000. In
+all cases the girls were visited by a representative of the Bureau and
+urged to return to school, or if they were determined to seek
+<a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>employment the advantages of registering in the Bureau were brought to
+their attention.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be hoped that more effective co&ouml;peration between the Bureau
+and the schools can be established and that plans for a placement
+bureau for boys similar in method and aim to the Girls' Bureau may be
+realized. The matter of placement is the most difficult part of the
+vocational counselor's duties, and an arrangement whereby the
+vocational guidance departments of the various schools might serve as
+feeders to a central placement bureau would probably in the long run
+give the best results. Both guidance and placement are new things in
+the public schools and efficient methods of administration can be
+worked out only through trial and experiment.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>1. The future occupations of the children in school will correspond
+very closely to those of the native-born adult population. The
+occupational distribution of the city's working population therefore
+constitutes the best guide as to the kinds of industrial training
+which can be undertaken profitably by the school system.</p>
+
+<p>2. Industrial training in school has to do chiefly with preparation
+for work in the skilled trades. Training for semi-skilled occupations
+can be given more effectively and cheaply in the factories than in the
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>3. As a rule, industrial training is not practicable in elementary
+schools, for the reason that the number of boys in the average
+elementary school who are likely to enter the skilled trades and who
+are also old enough to profit by industrial training is too small to
+permit the organization of classes.</p>
+
+<p>4. The most important contribution to vocational education the
+elementary schools can make consists in getting the children through
+the course fast enough so that two or three years before the end of
+the compulsory attendance period they will enter an <a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>intermediate or
+vocational school where some kind of industrial training is possible.</p>
+
+<p>5. The survey recommends the establishment of a general industrial
+course in the junior high school, made up chiefly of instruction in
+the applications of mathematics, drawing, physics, and chemistry to
+the commoner industrial processes. The course should also include the
+study of economic and working conditions in the principal industrial
+occupations.</p>
+
+<p>6. One or two vocational schools equipped to offer specialized trade
+training for boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 17 are needed.
+At present a gap of from one to two years exists between the end of
+the compulsory attendance period and the entrance age in practically
+all the skilled trades, which could well be employed in direct
+preparation for trade work. Such schools would relieve the first and
+second year classes of the technical high schools of many pupils these
+schools do not want and cannot adequately provide for. General as well
+as special courses should be offered, although pupils should be
+encouraged to select a particular occupation and devote at least one
+year to intensive preparation for it.</p>
+
+<p>7. The survey favors the extension of the compulsory attendance period
+for boys to the age of 16. The industries of Cleveland have little or
+nothing worth while to offer boys below this age.</p>
+
+<p>8. The best form of trade-extension training is that provided in a few
+establishments which maintain apprentice schools in their plants. This
+plan is feasible only in large establishments. It will never take
+<a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>care of more than a small proportion of the young workers who need
+supplementary technical training.</p>
+
+<p>9. Plans for trade-extension training of apprentices depending on the
+co&ouml;peration of employers have met with slight success. The principle
+difficulty is that the sacrifices they involve are borne by a
+relatively small number of employers while the benefits are reaped by
+the industry in general. Either the industry as a whole or the
+community should bear the cost of such training.</p>
+
+<p>10. The vocational interests of young workers and the social interests
+of the community demand the establishment of a system of continuation
+training for all young people in employment, up to the age of 18
+years. The classes should be held during working hours and attendance
+should be compulsory.</p>
+
+<p>11. The enrollment in the trade classes of the night schools is far
+below what it should be in a city as large as Cleveland. The
+relatively small result now obtained is not the fault of the schools,
+but is due mainly to the fact that the field of vocational evening
+instruction is treated by the school system as a mere side line of the
+technical high schools.</p>
+
+<p>12. The survey recommends the organization of all forms of
+continuation, night vocational, and day vocational training under
+centralized full-time leadership. Only in this way can there be
+secured a type of organization and administration sufficiently elastic
+and adaptable to meet the widely varying needs of the working classes.</p>
+
+<p>13. Industrial training for girls will consist in the <a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>main of
+preparation for the sewing trades. Practically no other industrial
+occupations in which large numbers of women are employed possess
+sufficient technical content to warrant the establishment of training
+courses in the schools. The survey recommends a practical course of
+needle instruction in the junior high school and the introduction in
+the vocational schools of specialized courses in dressmaking, power
+machine operating, and trade millinery for the older girls who wish to
+enter these trades.</p>
+
+<p>14. The present experiment in vocational guidance and placement should
+be extended as rapidly as possible. Courses in vocational information
+should be offered in the junior high school and vocational counsellors
+appointed to advise pupils in the selection of their future vocations
+and aid them in securing desirable employment when they leave school.
+The full measure of success in this work demands better co&ouml;peration
+with outside agencies on the part of teachers and principals than has
+been secured up to the present time.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF REPORT ON BOYS AND GIRLS IN COMMERCIAL WORK</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Particular attention is given throughout this report to the
+differences which exist between boys and girls in commercial
+employment with respect to the conditions which govern success and
+advancement. The majority of boys begin as messengers or office boys
+and subsequently become clerks or do bookkeeping work. As men they
+remain in these latter positions or, in at least an equal number of
+cases, pass on into the productive or administrative end of business.
+The majority of girls are stenographers, or to a less extent,
+assistants in bookkeeping or clerical work. Boys' work may be expected
+to take on the characteristics of the business that employs them;
+girls' work remains in essentials unchanged even in totally changed
+surroundings. Boys' work within limits is progressive; girls' work in
+its general type&mdash;with individual exceptions&mdash;is static. Boys as a
+rule cannot stay at the same kind of work and advance; girls as a rule
+stay at the same kind of work whether or not they advance. Boys in any
+position are expected to be qualifying themselves for "the job ahead,"
+but for girls that is not the case. Boys may <a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>expect to make a
+readjustment with every step in advancement. Each new position brings
+them to a new situation and into a new relation to the business. Girls
+receive salary advancement for increasingly responsible work, but any
+change in work is likely to be so gradual as to be almost
+imperceptible if they remain in the same place of employment. If they
+change to another place, those who are stenographers have a slight
+readjustment to make in getting accustomed to new terms and to the
+peculiarities of the new persons who dictate to them. Bookkeeping
+assistants may encounter different systems, but their part of the work
+will be so directed and planned that it cannot be said to necessitate
+difficult adaptation on their part. The work of clerical assistants is
+so simple and so nearly mechanical that the question of adjustment
+does not enter. These girl workers do not find that the change of
+position or firm brings them necessarily into a new relation to the
+business.</p>
+
+<p>Even moderate success is denied to a boy if he has not adaptability
+and the capacity to grasp business ideas and methods; but a
+comparatively high degree of success could be attained by a girl who
+possessed neither of these qualifications. A boy, however, who has no
+specific training which he can apply directly and definitely at work
+would be far more likely to obtain a good opening and promotion than a
+girl without it would be.</p>
+
+<p>The range of a boy's possible future occupations is as wide as the
+field of business. He cannot at first be trained specifically as a
+girl can be because he does <a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>not know what business will do with him
+or what he wants to do with business. The girl's choice is limited by
+custom. She can prepare herself definitely for stenography,
+bookkeeping, and machine operating and be sure that she is preparing
+for just the opportunity&mdash;and the whole opportunity&mdash;that business
+offers to her. Her very limitation of opportunity makes preliminary
+choice and training a definitely possible thing.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram1" id="diagram1"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram1.jpg" width="240" height="241" alt="Diagram 1" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 1.&mdash;Boys and girls under 18 years of age in
+office work in Cleveland. <br />Data from report of Ohio Industrial
+Commission, 1915<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The difference between boys and girls begins at the beginning. Boys
+are given a larger share of the positions which the youngest worker
+can fill. Diagram 1 illustrates this and the figures of the United
+States Census for 1910 clearly corroborate it. Boys are taken for such
+work and taken younger than girls, not merely because the law permits
+them to go to work at an earlier age, but also because business
+<a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>itself intends to round their training. Girls, on the contrary, are
+expected to enter completely trained for definite positions. This fact
+alone would in most cases compel them to be older. Furthermore,
+because boys in first positions are looked upon as potential clerks,
+miscellaneous jobs about the office have for them a two-fold value.
+They give the employer a chance to weed out unpromising material; and
+they give boys an opportunity to find themselves and to gather ideas
+about the business and methods which they may be able to make use of
+in later adjustments.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram2" id="diagram2"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram2.jpg" width="546" height="288" alt="Diagram 2" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 2.&mdash;Men and women 18 years of age and over in
+clerical and administrative work in offices in Cleveland. <br />U.S. Census,
+1910<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Diagram 2 shows that girls' training, if it is to meet the present
+situation, must prepare for a future in specialized clerical work;
+boys' future must apparently be thought of as in mostly the clerical
+and administrative fields. The term "clerical" as here used, covers
+bookkeepers, cashiers and accountants, <a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>stenographers and typists,
+clerks and a miscellaneous group of younger workers such as
+messengers, office boys, etc. "Administrative" covers proprietors,
+officials, managers, supervisors, and agents, but it does not include
+salespeople.</p>
+
+<p>The usual commercial course gives impartially to boys and girls two
+traditional "subjects" which they are to apply in wage earning
+whatever part of the wage earning field they may enter. These are
+stenography and bookkeeping. The evidence collected during the survey
+shows that these are rarely found in combination except in small
+offices. Of the men employed who are stenographers, the majority are
+of two kinds: (1) those who use stenography incidentally with their
+other and more important work as clerks, and (2) those for whom
+stenography is but a stepping-stone to another kind of position. The
+only firms which make a practice of offering ordinary stenographic
+positions for boys are those which restrict themselves to male
+employees for every kind of work.</p>
+
+<p>Independent stenographic work of various kinds is of course open to
+the sexes alike. In Cleveland there are a few women in court
+stenography. The 10 public stenographers' offices were found upon
+inquiry to include two men and 10 women. No figures regarding
+convention reporters were obtainable. In the positions of the
+bookkeeping group also there was some sex difference. The accountants,
+bookkeepers, cashiers, pay-masters and other persons of responsibility
+are, in large offices where both sexes <a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>work together, much more
+likely to be men than women; the assistants who work with these may be
+of either sex, but girls and women are likely to make up the greater
+portion. Of the small office this is less generally true. Boys who do
+machine operating are usually clerks whose machine work, as in the
+case of stenography, is merely an adjunct to other work; with girls
+machine operating is either the whole of the position or the most
+important part of it.</p>
+
+<p>The essential difference between the clerkship which boys for the most
+part hold and the general clerical work which girls do is that the
+boys' work is unified and is a definite, separate responsible part of
+the business, usually in line for promotion to some other clerkship;
+the girls' is a miscellany of more or less unrelated jobs and is not a
+preparation for specific promotion.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">A General View of Commercial Work</h4>
+
+<p>All commercial occupations may be roughly divided into two classes:
+those which have to do with administrative, merchandising, or
+productive work, and those which carry on the clerical routine which
+the others necessitate. The first class of occupations may be
+designated by the term "administrative work" and the second by
+"clerical work." A varying relation exists between the two which
+depends chiefly upon the kind of business represented. In some kinds
+clerical work is the stepping stone by which <a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>administrative work is
+reached; in others employment in clerical work side-tracks away from
+the administrative work.</p>
+
+<p>There is, of course, a future of promotion within the limits of
+clerical work without reference to its relation to administrative
+work. The practical aspect of it is, in most kinds of business, that
+the subordinate clerical positions far outnumber the chief ones.
+Promotion of any sort depends largely upon individual capacity; but
+this general distinction may be made between promotion in clerical
+work and in administrative work; in the clerical field it tends to be
+automatic but limited; in administrative work it comes more often
+through a worker's initiative or individuality than through automatic
+progression and it has no arbitrary limits.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously one kind of person will be adapted to an administrative
+career; another to a clerical one. Even a beginner in wage earning
+might be able to classify himself on a basis like this; yet it is not
+essential, for in many cases it is possible that his first positions
+recognize this choice. He needs fundamental experience in business
+methods whatever he is going to do; and for most administrative
+positions he needs maturity. He can achieve both by serving an
+apprenticeship in some form of clerical work. The important things for
+him in the early part of his career are to understand the distinction
+between the two classes of occupations; to sense the relation he holds
+to the business as a whole; and to act intelligently in the matter of
+making a change.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>Bookkeeping</h4>
+
+<p>The bookkeeping which modern business, except in the small
+establishment, demands of young workers is certainly not the journal
+and ledger bookkeeping of the commercial schools. A modern office
+organization may have in its bookkeeping department of 20 persons only
+one "bookkeeper." This person is responsible for the system and he
+supervises the keeping of records and the preparation of statements. A
+minority of his assistants will need to be able to distinguish debits
+from credits; the rest will be occupied in making simple entries or in
+posting, in verifying and checking, or in finding totals with the aid
+of machines. The bookkeeping systems employed show wide variation, not
+only in different kinds of business, but in different establishments
+in the same kinds of business. Many firms are using a loose-leaf
+system; some use ledgers; and others have a system of record keeping
+which calls for neither of these devices. Bookkeeping work, especially
+in the positions held by girls, is frequently combined with
+comptometer or adding machine work, with typing, billing, filing, or
+statistical work; but rarely, except in the small office, are
+bookkeeping and stenography&mdash;the Siamese Twins of traditional and
+commercial training&mdash;found linked together.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Stenography</h4>
+
+<p>Stenography is used throughout business chiefly in correspondence; to
+a less extent for report and <a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>statement work, for legal work, and for
+printer's copy. The stenographer in any business office, more than
+other clerical workers, is supposed to look after a variety of
+unorganized details including the use of office appliances, the filing
+of letters, and sometimes dealing with patrons or visitors in the
+absence of the employer. She is more important to the employer in his
+personal business relations than any other employee, except in the
+case of those few employers who have private secretaries.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Clerks' Positions</h4>
+
+<p>In the case of large corporations, which are by far the largest
+employers of clerks, this work has been standardized to a marked
+degree. The organization of the office work of the telegraph,
+telephone, and express companies, the railroads, and the occasional
+large wholesale company in Cleveland is a nearly exact duplication of
+that of other district or division offices controlled by these
+companies in other cities. The same is true of the Civil Service.
+Whatever effects standardization may have upon opportunity, it
+obviously makes for definiteness in regard to training requirements.
+All the positions are graded on the basis of experience and
+responsibility and a logical line of promotion from one to another has
+been worked out.</p>
+
+<p>The report contains detailed studies of different kinds of clerical
+work in the offices of transportation and public utility corporations,
+retail and wholesale <a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>stores, manufacturing establishments, banks, the
+civil service, and small offices employing relatively few people. In
+each of these such matters as character of the work, opportunities for
+advancement, kind of training needed and special qualifications are
+taken up.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Wages and Regularity of Employment</h4>
+
+<p>Stated briefly the conclusions of the report with respect to wages and
+regularity of employment in office positions are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The wage opportunities for clerical workers, especially men, lie in
+business positions outside the limits of clerical work. Men clerical
+workers average about the same pay as salesmen and more pay than
+industrial workers. Women clerical workers receive more than either
+saleswomen or industrial workers. Employment is much more regular in
+clerical work than it is in salesmanship or industrial work. For men
+clerical workers the wage opportunity is better in manufacturing and
+trade than in some kinds of transportation business. For women it is
+better in manufacturing and transportation than it is in trade. Men's
+wages tend to be higher than women's in all branches of clerical work.</p>
+
+<p>Among the clerical positions, bookkeeping shows the highest wage
+average for men; clerks' positions show the lowest. Stenography shows
+the highest for women; machine work the lowest. Men bookkeepers show
+their best wage average in the wholesale <a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>business, clerks in
+transportation, and stenographers in manufacturing. The small office
+gives better wage opportunity to women bookkeepers and men
+stenographers; the large office favors women stenographers and men
+clerks.</p>
+
+<p>For boys, there is some indication that advanced education and
+commercial training, in their present status, are less closely related
+to high wages than are personal qualities and experience. For girls,
+the combination of high school education and business training is the
+best preparation for wage advancement. A general high school education
+and usually, business training, are essential to the assurance of even
+a living wage. Business training based upon less than high school
+education is almost futile.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Problem of Training</h4>
+
+<p>Six chapters of the report are devoted to a consideration of the needs
+and possibilities of training. The work now being done in the public
+schools of the city is discussed in detail, with suggestions for a
+better adaptation of the courses of study and methods and content of
+instruction to the needs of boys and girls who wish to prepare
+themselves to enter clerical occupations. The observations on training
+for such work may be summarized as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Commercial training should be open to all students whom commercial
+subjects and methods can serve best; but graduation should depend upon
+a high standard of efficiency.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>Statistics show that commercial training is not to be looked upon, in
+a wholesale way, as a successful means of taking care of backward
+academic students.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial students' need for cultural and other supplementary
+education may be even greater than that of academic students.</p>
+
+<p>The graduation rate of commercial students in public schools has been
+increased since the organization of a separate commercial high school
+and the number of students entering has been decreased.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial high schools receive a grade of children who are about
+medium in scholarship and normal in age.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial and academic high school teachers are similar in scholastic
+preparation and in the salaries they are paid.</p>
+
+<p>The Cleveland Normal School does not prepare definitely for the
+teaching of commercial subjects. Commercial teachers are nominally
+supervised by the district superintendents.</p>
+
+<p>Public schools receive 29 per cent of the city's day commercial
+students. The private schools receive a few more than the sum of
+public, parochial, and philanthropic schools.</p>
+
+<p>Public schools receive 22 per cent of the city's night commercial
+students. The private schools receive more than twice as many as the
+public and philanthropic schools. There are no night commercial
+classes in parochial schools.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the day course in most private <a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>schools is eight months
+or less; in public schools it is four years.</p>
+
+<p>The public school, if it believes in longer preparation for commercial
+work than most private schools give, should demonstrate the reason to
+parents and children.</p>
+
+<p>Training for boys and girls should be different in content and in
+emphasis.</p>
+
+<p>The usual course of study in commercial schools is suitable for girls
+and unsuitable for boys.</p>
+
+<p>A girl needs, chiefly, specific training in some one line of work. She
+has a choice among stenography, bookkeeping, and machine operating.</p>
+
+<p>A boy needs, chiefly, general education putting emphasis on writing,
+figuring, and spelling; general information; and the development of
+certain qualities and standards.</p>
+
+<p>For students electing to go into commercial work, general education
+may be taught more effectively through the medium of commercial
+subjects than through academic ones.</p>
+
+<p>Boys' training looks forward to both clerical work and business
+administration; but as clerical work is a preparation for business and
+is likely to occupy the first few years of wage earning, training
+should aim especially to meet the needs of clerical positions.</p>
+
+<p>Clerical positions for boys cover a variety of work which cannot be
+definitely anticipated and cannot therefore be specifically trained
+for. But certain fundamental needs are common to all.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>Most of the specialized training for boys should be given in night
+continuation classes.</p>
+
+<p>Girl stenographers need a full high school course for its educational
+value and for maturity. Girls going into other clerical positions can
+qualify with a year or two less of education; but immaturity in any
+case puts them at a disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p>Boys' training, for those who cannot remain in school, should be
+compressed into fewer than four years. Immaturity in the case of boys
+is not a great disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p>Bookkeeping has general value in the information it gives about
+business methods and for its drill in accuracy. To some extent it may
+aid in the development of reasoning.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the bookkeeping in actual use in business consists in making
+entries of one kind only and in checking and verifying. Understanding
+of debit and credit, posting, and trial balance, is the maximum
+practical need of the younger workers.</p>
+
+<p>Penmanship demands compactness, legibility, neatness, and ease in
+writing; also, the correct writing and placing of figures.</p>
+
+<p>The chief demand of business in arithmetic is for fundamental
+operations&mdash;adding and multiplying&mdash;also for ability to make
+calculations and to verify results mentally.</p>
+
+<p>Undergraduate experience in school or business offices may be a
+valuable method of acquainting students with office practice and
+routine and with business organization and business standards.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF REPORT ON DEPARTMENT STORE OCCUPATIONS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The field covered in this volume is limited to the business of retail
+selling as carried on in the department stores and some other stores
+of Cleveland. The retail stores considered can all be assigned to one
+of the three following classes: (1) The department store of the first
+rank which draws trade not only from the whole city and the suburbs
+but also from the towns and smaller cities of a large surrounding
+district; (2) the neighborhood store which does a smaller business
+within narrower limits, drawing its trade, as the name indicates, from
+the immediate neighborhood; (3) the five and ten cent store, well
+known by syndicate names, where no merchandise which must be sold
+above 10 cents is carried.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Department Stores</h4>
+
+<p>The five largest department stores in Cleveland employ about 5,800
+people distributed among several mercantile departments, and in a
+variety of occupations that find a place in the industry. Of these
+5,800 people approximately seven-tenths are women <a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>and three-tenths
+are men; 90 per cent are over 18 years of age and 10 per cent are
+under 18.</p>
+
+<p>The entire force of a store is sometimes arbitrarily divided by the
+management into "productive," and "non-productive" help. From 40 to 60
+per cent of the employees were reported as actually taking in money,
+while the remainder, the "non-producers," were engaged in keeping the
+business going and making it possible for the "producers" to sell
+goods.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest number of opportunities either for employment or
+promotion are in the selling force. This is often spoken as being "on
+the floor." Both boys and girls may find employment here, though a
+large majority of the sales force is made up of them. Speaking in
+general terms, men are only employed to sell men's furnishings,
+sporting goods, bulky merchandise, such as rugs, furniture, blankets,
+etc., and yard goods which are difficult to handle, such as household
+linens and dress goods. Positions as buyers and buyer's assistants are
+not restricted by sex and boys and girls may both consider them as a
+possible goal.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Neighborhood Stores</h4>
+
+<p>A neighborhood store is that type of department store which draws its
+trade from a comparatively limited area of which the store is the
+center. The kind of goods carried are practically the same as in the
+large department store and the variety of merchandise may be nearly as
+great; but the selection is more limited because of the small stock.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>Promotion to selling positions is more rapid in the neighborhood
+stores than in regular department stores. One reason for this is that
+a larger proportion of the force is "productive," <i>i.e.</i>, selling.
+This proportion may run as high as 80 or even 90 per cent, as compared
+with the 40 to 60 per cent of "productive" help in large department
+stores.</p>
+
+<p>Employment in these stores is looked upon as desirable preliminary
+training for service in larger department stores. This is the general
+opinion held by those who hire the employees in the larger stores. The
+selling experience gained in neighborhood stores is looked upon as
+general, in that it gives an acquaintance with a variety of
+merchandise rather than an extensive knowledge of any line of stock.
+This experience makes the employee adaptable and resourceful. Another
+advantage of neighborhood training for sales people is the fact that
+they are brought into closer human relations with the customer and
+thus learn the value of personality as a factor in making sales.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Five and Ten Cent Stores</h4>
+
+<p>Cleveland had in the fall of 1915 six large stores where nothing
+costing over 10 cents is sold. These belong to three syndicates or
+chains. To show the extent to which this business has developed it may
+be stated that the largest of these syndicates, which controls three
+of the six Cleveland stores, has 747 branches in different parts of
+the country.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>The number of saleswomen in a single store ranges from 12 to 70. The
+total number in the six stores was approximately 226. The shift in
+this branch of retail trade is large, as there are continual changes
+in the selling force. One store reported the number of new employees
+hired in six months as being about equal to the average selling force.</p>
+
+<p>The managers of the five and ten cent stores without exception stated
+that they preferred to hire beginners who were without store
+experience. The hours of work are longer and the conditions under
+which the work is done are more trying than is usually the case in the
+larger department stores.</p>
+
+<p>The girl who expects her application for employment in the five and
+ten cent store to be accepted must be 18 years old in order that she
+may legally work after six o'clock. It is better for her to be without
+previous selling experience (unless in other five and ten cent
+stores), as employers in these stores prefer to train help according
+to their own methods.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Wages and Employment</h4>
+
+<p>The wages paid beginners in the department stores are fair as compared
+with other industries employing the same grade of help. Boys and girls
+when they first enter employment receive from $3.50 to $7, depending
+on the store where they get their first job. In addition to the salary
+most department stores give bonuses or commissions through which the
+members of the sales force may increase their <a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>compensation. The
+Survey Staff worked out comparisons on the basis of data supplied by
+the State Industrial Commission between the earnings of workers in
+department store occupations and those in other industries. Diagram 3
+shows graphically a comparison of the wages of women workers in six
+different industries. An interesting point brought out by this graphic
+comparison is that retail trade constitutes a <a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>much better field for
+women's employment as compared with the great majority of positions
+open to them in other lines than is commonly assumed to be the case.
+This is brought out even more clearly in Table 15, which compares, on
+a percentage basis, those who earn $12 a week and over, in all of the
+industries of the city employing as many as 500 women in 1914.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram3" id="diagram3"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram3.jpg" width="550" height="564" alt="Diagram 3" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 3.&mdash;Per cent of women earning each class of
+weekly wages in each of six occupations<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a name="table15" id="table15"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 15.&mdash;PER CENT OF WOMEN EMPLOYEES OVER 18 YEARS OF AGE EARNING
+$12 A WEEK AND OVER<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Per Cent Of Women Employees Over 18 Years Of Age Earning $12 A Week And Over">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" width="90%">Office employees, in retail and wholesale stores</td>
+ <td class="tdr" width="25%">31.8</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Employees in women's clothing factories</td>
+ <td class="tdr">21.0</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Saleswomen in retail and wholesale stores</td>
+ <td class="tdr">21.0</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Employees in men's clothing factories</td>
+ <td class="tdr">13.3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Employees in hosiery and knit goods factories</td>
+ <td class="tdr">7.9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Employees in printing and publishing establishments</td>
+ <td class="tdr">7.7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Employees in telephone and telegraph offices</td>
+ <td class="tdr">6.3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Employees in laundries and dry cleaning establishments</td>
+ <td class="tdr">4.4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Employees in cigar and tobacco factories</td>
+ <td class="tdr">3.9</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Employees in gas and electric fixtures concerns</td>
+ <td class="tdr">3.2</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>If the data were for retail stores only and did not include wholesale
+stores, then office work, which now stands at the head of the list,
+would probably not make so good a showing, although the superiority
+over the selling positions is, from the wage-earning standpoint, so
+marked that there seems to be no escape from the conclusion that on
+the whole women office workers are better paid than women in the sales
+force. On the other hand the proportion of saleswomen earning $12 and
+over is from nearly seven times as great to not far from twice as
+great as it is in the factory industries, if we except the workers <a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>in
+women's clothing factories, whose earnings per week are better than
+those of the saleswomen.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the men employed on the sales force of the department
+stores a somewhat different situation exists. In Diagram 4 a
+comparison is made of the wages paid in sales positions with the wages
+paid in clerical positions. Here it will be noted that men who sell
+goods in retail and wholesale stores earn more on the average than men
+occupying clerical positions, such as bookkeepers, stenographers, and
+office clerks. This comparison does not include traveling salesmen. A
+further comparison of the earnings of the men in stores with the
+earnings of male workers (omitting office clerks) in the different
+industries of the city employing the largest number of men is given in
+Diagram 5, which shows the per cent in each industry earning $18 a
+week and over.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram4" id="diagram4"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram4.jpg" width="550" height="231" alt="Diagram 4" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 4.&mdash;Per cent of salesmen and of men clerical
+workers in stores receiving each class of weekly wage<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In comparing wages in stores with those in the manufacturing
+industries it must be not forgotten <a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>that the working day and week in
+the larger stores is shorter than in most of the factories. Hence a
+comparison of earnings on the basis of wage per hour would show a
+still greater advantage in favor of both sales persons and clerical
+workers.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram5" id="diagram5"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram5.jpg" width="550" height="362" alt="Diagram 5" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 5.&mdash;Per cent of male workers in non-clerical
+positions in six industries earning $18 per week and
+ over<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Regularity of Employment</h4>
+
+<p>In department store work and in nearly all branches of retail selling
+there is a marked fluctuation in the number employed during the year.
+Sales work in the department stores is seasonal in the sense that a
+large number of extra sales women are taken on during the Christmas
+season for a period of temporary employment, usually lasting from one
+to two months. The proportion of the total working force for the whole
+year employed in such transient jobs <a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>is approximately one-fourth. How
+selling positions in retail and wholesale stores compare with other
+fields of employment in this respect is seen in Diagram 6.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram6" id="diagram6"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram6.jpg" width="550" height="504" alt="Diagram 6" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 6.&mdash;Per cent that the average number of women
+employed during the year is of the highest number employed in each of
+six industries<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Opportunities for Advancement</h4>
+
+<p>In regard to promotion in department stores it should be noted that as
+a rule the executives are made in the business and are not, as in some
+industries, brought in from the outside because they <a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>must have some
+special training which the organization itself does not provide. Not
+only in Cleveland but in other cities where studies of the same kind
+have been made it has been found that practically all the people
+holding important floor positions have come up from the ranks. The
+various lines of promotion through the different departments are
+analyzed in detail in the report.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Problem of Training</h4>
+
+<p>That vocational training for department store employees is both
+desirable and possible is proved by the fact that most of the large
+stores in Cleveland make some provision for the instruction of their
+workers. Some of these classes are carefully organized and excellently
+taught with every promise of increasing in usefulness. Others employ
+methods of instruction which belong to the academic school of an
+earlier decade and give evidence that the problem of vocational
+training with which they are presumably concerned is not even
+understood.</p>
+
+<p>From the standpoint of the school there are two well recognized kinds
+of training possible for department store employees: trade preparatory
+and trade extension training. Eventually it may prove practicable to
+organize instruction of both kinds, but it is the opinion of the
+author of the report that under present conditions the surest results
+can be expected from trade extension training. In trade extension
+instruction the members of the group to be dealt with <a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>have already
+secured their foothold in the industry; and having mastered at least
+the rudiments of their job they have acquired a basis of experience
+which may be utilized for purposes of instruction. These people are
+responsive to teaching organized with regard to their needs, for daily
+experience is demonstrating to them their deficiencies.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the proposed training will largely depend upon the
+employment of simple and direct methods that shall place this
+knowledge in the hands and head of the person or group needing it. The
+application of this instruction must be immediate and practical and
+must not be dependent upon the working out of a complicated course or
+schedule.</p>
+
+<p>The organization must be flexible enough to admit of bringing together
+a group having a common need, although they may come from different
+departments of the business. Since the unit of class organization is
+not previous school experience or similar employment, it will be seen
+that this class should be held only until the need is fully supplied
+and should then give place to another organized on the same basis.</p>
+
+<p>As in all vocational teaching, the size of the class should be
+limited. To make this work really effective, the instructor should
+come in sufficiently close contact with all pupils to enable him to
+obtain a personal knowledge of their needs and capabilities. A further
+necessity for small classes and individual instruction is found in the
+fact that there is a constant shift of employees in the industry as
+well as frequent accessions from the outside.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>It readily can be seen that this is not a problem of the regular
+school and that it cannot be met by ordinary classroom methods. Part
+time or continuation classes, such as have already proved feasible for
+other kinds of trade instruction, are the most practicable methods of
+doing this work.</p>
+
+<p>Classes for the instruction of employees are already maintained in the
+majority of large stores. The extension of this plan of separate
+responsibility is one way of meeting the problem. But this method has
+certain obvious faults. The unequal opportunity which it affords to
+department store employees as a body is a conspicuous drawback. The
+value of the instruction so given, moreover, will always depend to a
+large extent on the comprehension of the problem by the firm
+maintaining the classes. The method involves much duplication of
+effort, which is particularly wasteful when the instruction of small
+groups is involved.</p>
+
+<p>Another possible method would be for the several department stores to
+get together and co&ouml;perate in providing instruction. There would seem
+to be no reason why stores should not unite for this purpose as well
+as for any other. The advantages of this method are economy of
+maintenance and administration, the ability to command expert service,
+and the possibility of securing and sharing the results of a great
+variety of such experiences as does not consist of exclusive trade
+secrets.</p>
+
+<p>The number of people whom it would be necessary to employ exclusively
+for the purpose of conducting <a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>these classes would be small as
+compared with the results accomplished. Collectively these stores now
+have in their employ a body of highly paid experts in all lines of
+merchandise. A large amount of the most accurate technical knowledge
+covering the work of all departments is already available in the
+several stores. These are valuable resources which should be utilized
+by a co&ouml;perative school of this kind.</p>
+
+<p>For the head of such a school, it would be desirable to secure a man
+or woman of more than usual ability and discernment who, above all
+else, could sense the business and routine of each contributing store
+from the standpoint of the employee and of store organization. It
+would be the business of this person to become familiar with the
+available sources of knowledge in the different stores and then
+arrange for the presentation of this knowledge to the various classes.
+By co&ouml;peration with the floor men, heads of sections and departments,
+as well as with the employees themselves, he should come into close
+contact with the requirements of the workers and should gather from
+the different stores those who, because of their common need, can be
+made into a "school unit." It would also be necessary to employ
+assistants of practical experience who would attend to the details of
+routine teaching, and act as interpreters for those experts who have
+the knowledge but not the ability to impart it even to a small class.</p>
+
+<p>It is realized that a scheme of this kind would involve the overcoming
+of many objections and <a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>difficulties of adjustment before it could be
+put into actual operation. It would necessitate mutual concessions and
+forbearance on the part of everybody concerned, but the results would
+unquestionably justify the labor.</p>
+
+<p>A third method, already in operation in Boston, New York, and Buffalo,
+calls for the co&ouml;peration of the stores and the schools. This
+partnership, it is claimed, makes certain that the needs of the pupil
+are considered before the demands of the business. It insures equal
+opportunity for all employees so far as instruction is concerned and
+it divides the expense of maintenance between the industry and the
+school. It is to be regretted that this scheme frequently results in
+the employment of teachers who, although certificated for regular
+school work, have no other qualifications, instead of persons of
+practical experience. The employment of such teachers too often leads
+to the following of ordinary school practices and academic traditions
+rather than the methods and practice of business.</p>
+
+<p>In some quarters it is maintained that this instruction should be
+entirely taken over by the public schools, thus relieving the store of
+any responsibility in the matter. It is probably not now advisable for
+the school to assume full responsibility for such training. The heavy
+expense involved and the physical limitations of the schools would
+make it difficult, without the co&ouml;peration of the store, to reproduce
+the trade atmosphere necessary for real vocational training. As a
+result, the instruction would become <a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>abstract and theoretical, with
+the major portion of the effort limited to a continuation of
+elementary school subjects taught with reference to their application
+to department store work.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Character of the Instruction</h4>
+
+<p>The analysis of the industry shows that in each occupation or job
+there is a definite amount of knowledge which must be acquired by the
+efficient worker. A study of this analysis and of the examples of
+technical knowledge needed by the worker at different points in the
+industry will show that no such thing as a general course is possible.
+In every case the character of the instruction should be such that it
+will answer a definite need of the employee. What this instruction
+should be in specific cases can be settled only, on the one hand, by a
+thorough analysis of the occupation to determine what demands it makes
+upon the workers, and on the other, by a careful study of the workers
+themselves to ascertain how far they have been unable to meet these
+demands without assistance. Lessons can then be organized dealing with
+such subject matter as individuals or groups have failed to grasp, the
+lack of which limits their efficiency or restricts their usefulness.
+It can readily be seen that this instruction will cover a wide range
+of subjects, from the use of fractions needed by checkers and
+salesgirls in yard goods sections, to the special technical knowledge
+of fine furs required by the salesperson who handles this
+merchandise.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>The method by which this instruction can best be given is in a series
+of short unit courses. In every case the length of the course is to be
+determined by the subject matter. For instance, two one-half hour
+lessons may be a "course," when this time is sufficient for the
+necessary teaching.</p>
+
+<p>The group or class to which this instruction is given might be made up
+of those who need the same technical knowledge, although they might
+expect to make a different application of this instruction. For
+instance, the unit course on silks might be given to a group composed
+of salespeople from the silk section, the waists and gowns section,
+and the section of men's neckwear.</p>
+
+<p>The report gives detailed examples of the kinds of technical knowledge
+needed in the different departments of the store. It maintains that
+such instruction cannot be successfully given by regular school
+teachers. As in other industries the teacher needs actual experience
+in the occupation for which training is given. Academic training and
+teaching experience are desirable and valuable, but among the
+qualifications demanded of a teacher of this kind they are of
+secondary importance.</p>
+
+<p>The final chapter of the report contains valuable instructions for
+young persons who desire to secure positions in retail trade. These
+instructions cover such matters as work papers, methods of securing a
+position, and requirements for employment in various kinds of
+department store work.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE GARMENT TRADES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The clothing industry in Cleveland has grown very rapidly in recent
+years. During the 10 year period from 1900-10 the number of persons
+employed in the industry increased approximately 100 per cent. This
+increase was much greater than the increase throughout the country as
+a whole and was more than twice as large as the increase in the
+population of the city. There is every indication that this rapid
+growth is still continuing. It is estimated that approximately 10,000
+workers are employed in the industry at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of men and women in the industry is most interesting.
+The making of men's garments has been more fully standardized and is
+subject to fewer changes than the making of women's garments. In this
+standardized and systematized branch of the industry the women now
+outnumber the men. In the manufacture of women's garments, where the
+styles change more frequently and the work is of a more varied
+character, more men than women are employed.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of work are of three general types: <a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>The old tailoring
+system known as "team work," or a slight modification of it; piece
+operating; and section work. Under the team system, used extensively
+in the making of women's coats, a head tailor hires his own helpers
+(operators and finishers), supervises them and pays them by the week
+out of the lump sum he receives for the garments from the clothing
+establishment. Under the piece operating system each operator sews up
+all the seams on one "piece," or garment, and each finisher does all
+the hand sewing on one garment. Each operator and each finisher is an
+independent worker. The whole body of finishers keeps pace with the
+whole body of operators. Piece operating is used almost entirely in
+dress and skirt making, and to some extent in coat making. The section
+system is based on the subdivision of processes into a number of minor
+operations. The workers are divided into groups, each group making a
+certain part of the garment. The various operations are divided into
+as many minor operations as the number of workers and quantity and
+kind of materials will warrant. Each of these minor operations is
+performed by operators who do nothing else. This specialization has
+been carried to a high degree in the manufacture of men's clothing,
+and section work is increasingly used on women's coats.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Characteristics of the Working Force</h4>
+
+<p>One of the objects of the study was to find how many positions there
+are for men and women in each <a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>occupation in the industry. Through the
+co&ouml;peration of employers data were obtained from the records of 50
+establishments employing a total of 8,337 garment workers,
+approximately four-fifths of the total number in the city. The
+distribution of workers by sex in the various occupations is shown in
+Diagram 7. The apportioning of work to the two sexes seems to depend
+partly upon the weight of materials and partly upon previous training.
+The men are mostly foreign born tailors who have had the kind of
+training necessary for the more complicated work. The women are
+largely American born of foreign parentage, trained in American shops
+and employed chiefly upon operations that may be learned in a
+relatively short time. Cutting and pressing are practically
+monopolized by men. Nearly all hand sewers are women, except for a few
+basters on men's clothing. Most designers are men, although a few
+women designers are found in dress and waist shops.</p>
+
+<p>In the largest trade,&mdash;machine operating,&mdash;about two-thirds of the
+workers are women. In no trade in which both sexes are employed is the
+difference in their work more apparent. The weight of materials
+decides to some extent the division of operating between men and
+women. Some employers are of the opinion that garments made of such
+thick materials as plush, corduroys, and cheviots are too heavy to be
+manipulated under needle machinery by women and consequently employ
+only men operators. Where light weight materials are used, as in the
+manufacture of dresses and waists, delicacy in <a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>handling is required,
+and nearly all the operators are women.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram7" id="diagram7"></a><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram7.jpg" width="407" height="600" alt="Diagram 7" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 7.&mdash;Distribution of 8,337 clothing workers by
+sex in the principal occupations in the garment industry<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Four-fifths of the men and two-fifths of the women employed in the
+industry are of foreign birth and the majority of the native born
+workers are of foreign parentage. There is an increasing demand for
+workers who understand English, due to the fact that they are able to
+follow directions more intelligently.</p>
+
+<p>There are relatively few workers under the age of 18. Many firms will
+employ no one under this age because of various complications which
+arise in connection with the age and schooling certification of girls
+between the ages of 16 and 18. Of 25 women's clothing factories
+visited during the Survey only nine had any workers under 18.
+According to the report of the Industrial Commission of Ohio for 1914
+only eight per cent of the workers employed in making men's clothing,
+and less than two per cent of the workers employed in making women's
+clothing were under 18 years of age.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Earnings</h4>
+
+<p>In general the wages paid in garment making compare favorably with
+those of other manufacturing industries. This is particularly true
+with respect to the earnings of women workers. A considerably larger
+proportion of the women employed in the garment industry earn what may
+be considered high wages for industrial workers than in any of the
+larger factory industries of the city. This is clearly shown <a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>in
+Diagram 8 which lists nine of the principal fields of industrial
+employment for women. The proportions of women receiving under $8 a
+week are lower in men's and women's clothing than in the other seven
+industries. In the proportion of women receiving $12 and over, women's
+clothing ranks first and men's clothing third.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram8" id="diagram8"></a><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram8.jpg" width="467" height="700" alt="Diagram 8" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 8.&mdash;Percentage of women in men's and women's
+clothing and seven other important <br />women employing industries
+receiving under $8, $8 to $12, and $12 and over per week.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The comparison of the wages paid men employees shown in Diagram 9 is
+somewhat less favorable. Women's clothing ranks with printing and
+publishing as to the proportion of male workers receiving the highest
+specified earnings per week. Men's clothing ranks sixth among the
+industries compared.</p>
+
+<p>The various kinds of work do not command fixed wage rates, as do many
+other types of industrial employment. Quantity of output as well as
+quality of workmanship is an important factor in the determination of
+wages. Men generally turn out a greater output than women on the same
+kind of work and piece workers usually earn more than those paid by
+the week. The lowest, average, and highest wages for each of the
+principal occupations in the two branches of the industry are shown in
+Tables 16 and 17.</p>
+
+<p>One reason often given for the higher earnings received by workers on
+women's garments is the greater irregularity of employment in this
+branch of the industry. This, however, does not sufficiently account
+for the difference. The most weighty reason is that a higher degree of
+adaptability is required of workers than is the case in the
+manufacture of men's clothing.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram9" id="diagram9"></a><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram9.jpg" width="465" height="700" alt="Diagram 9" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 9.&mdash;Percentage of men in men's and women's
+clothing and seven other manufacturing industries <br />receiving under $18,
+$18 to $25, and $25 and over per week<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a name="table16" id="table16"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>TABLE 16.&mdash;WAGES FOR FULL-TIME WORKING WEEK, WOMEN'S CLOTHING,
+CLEVELAND, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Wages For Full-time Working Week, Women's Clothing">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="55%">Workers</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Lowest</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Average</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Highest</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Assorters, women<br />
+ Hand sewers, women<br />
+ Trimming girls<br />
+ Operators,* women<br />
+ Sample makers, women<br />
+ Examiners, women<br />
+ Models, suit and cloak<br />
+ Forewomen<br />
+ Operators,* men<br />
+ Pressers, men<br />
+ Cutters,&sect; men<br />
+ Pattern graders, suit and cloak, men<br />
+ Sample makers, men<br />
+ Examiners, men<br />
+ Head tailors, men<br />
+ Foremen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">$6.00<br />
+ 6.00<br />
+ 7.00<br />
+ 6.00<br />
+ 10.00<br />
+ 8.00<br />
+ 10.00<br />
+ 9.00<br />
+ 7.00<br />
+ 9.00<br />
+ 8.00<br />
+ 13.00<br />
+ 13.00<br />
+ 16.00<br />
+ 18.00<br />
+ 14.00</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">$8.75<br />
+ 10.00<br />
+ 10.25<br />
+ 12.00<br />
+ 12.75<br />
+ 13.50<br />
+ 15.25<br />
+ 16.25<br />
+ 17.75<br />
+ 18.25<br />
+ 19.25<br />
+ 22.00<br />
+ 22.50<br />
+ 25.00<br />
+ 25.00<br />
+ 30.00</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">$14.00<br />
+ 20.00<br />
+ 15.00<br />
+ 30.00<br />
+ 15.00<br />
+ 18.00<br />
+ 21.00<br />
+ 25.00<br />
+ 50.00<br />
+ 35.00<br />
+ 30.00<br />
+ 27.50<br />
+ 25.00<br />
+ 45.00<br />
+ ... <br />
+ 75.00</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+<br />
+
+
+<a name="table17" id="table17"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 17.&mdash;AVERAGE WAGES FOR FULL-TIME WORKING WEEK FOR SIMILAR
+WORKERS, <br />MEN'S AND WOMEN'S CLOTHING, CLEVELAND, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Wages For Full-time Working Week, Women's Clothing">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom;" width="70%">Workers</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Men's <br />clothing</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Women's <br />clothing</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Hand sewers, women<br />
+ Section operators, women<br />
+ Examiners, women<br />
+ Section operators, men<br />
+ Pressers, under<br />
+ Forewomen<br />
+ Pressers, upper<br />
+ Cutters, cloth<br />
+ Examiners, men<br />
+ Foremen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">$9.50<br />
+ 9.25<br />
+ 7.00<br />
+ 16.50<br />
+ 12.00<br />
+ 11.00<br />
+ 18.50<br />
+ 18.75<br />
+ 17.75<br />
+ 29.25</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">$10.00<br />
+ 11.25<br />
+ 13.50<br />
+ 15.25<br />
+ 15.75<br />
+ 16.25<br />
+ 19.50<br />
+ 20.00<br />
+ 25.00<br />
+ 30.00</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Regularity of Employment</h4>
+
+<p>The making of women's clothing is seasonal, to meet a seasonal
+purchasing demand. Most people purchase their summer clothes in April
+and May, and <a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>their winter clothes in October and November. During the
+months previous to these purchasing seasons a large number of workers
+are needed, but after the height of the purchasing period employment
+becomes less and less steady until the first demands of the new season
+are felt. During the rush season a greater number of workers is
+employed, or the output may be augmented by increasing the speed at
+which the work is performed or the number of hours in the working day.
+A combination of these methods is frequently used. During dull periods
+the workers may be busy from a few hours a week to full working time;
+while in rush periods they may work not only the regular working
+hours, but in addition a good deal of over-time.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with other manufacturing industries as regards regularity of
+employment men's clothing makes an excellent showing while women's
+clothing ranks low. In Diagram 10 the average number of unemployed
+among each 100 workers is shown for men's and women's clothing and for
+15 other large manufacturing industries in the city. Men's clothing
+leads the list, with an average unemployment of four among each 100
+workers, while women's clothing ranks 14th, with 15 among each 100.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Training and Promotion</h4>
+
+<p>Designers learn their work through apprenticeships to custom tailors
+and cutters and by taking supplementary courses in drafting and
+grading of patterns <a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>in a designing school. Most designers in
+Cleveland have had training in designing schools in New York or
+Chicago.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram10" id="diagram10"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram10.jpg" width="519" height="700" alt="Diagram 10" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 10.&mdash;The black portions of the bars show the
+average number of unemployed among each 100 workers in men's clothing,<br />
+women's clothing and 15 other specified industries<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With but few exceptions organized training for <a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>machine operating is
+found only in the largest establishments. There is general agreement
+among employers that it takes a girl who has never operated a machine
+before about four weeks to learn an easy operation well enough to be
+taken on at regular piece rates. A much longer time is required to
+become a first class worker on a single operation, and to acquire
+skill in a group of operations takes from one to two years.</p>
+
+<p>Girls are not usually employed as hand sewers unless they know how to
+do plain sewing. A girl who starts with this knowledge should be able
+to learn factory sewing well enough to earn fair wages within from six
+months to a year.</p>
+
+<p>In cutting, which has a so-called apprenticeship lasting from two to
+six years, there is no formal system of instruction. Boys must pick up
+the trade from observation and practice. Beginners start as errand
+boys, cloth boys, bundlers, or helpers.</p>
+
+<p>Pressing is usually learned in cleaning and pressing shops. It takes
+about eight weeks for a green hand to become a good seam presser. To
+become a final presser on skirts and dresses requires from six months
+to a year, and on jackets and cloaks from two to three years.</p>
+
+<p>Examiners have usually had considerable previous experience as machine
+operators or finishers. The length of experience depends on the kinds
+of garments and ranges from three to eight years.</p>
+
+<p>Trimmers and assorters learn their work as helpers to experienced
+employees. A year or so of experience <a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>is required before they can be
+entrusted with responsible work.</p>
+
+<p>Foremen are selected from the working force or, in a few cases,
+trained especially for their positions. Although there are few
+opportunities each year for advancement to foremanship, employers
+declare they cannot get enough persons of ability to fill vacancies. A
+study of the previous experience of foremen and forewomen made by the
+survey shows that they come from nearly every department of the
+factory. The length of previous experience among the cases studied
+ranged from three months to nine years.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Educational Needs</h4>
+
+<p>The quality which proprietors of garment making establishments value
+above all others in their employees is adaptability. The reason for
+this is that the manufacturing of clothing differs from almost all
+other kinds of industrial work in the frequency with which changes
+take place in the size and shape of the product and in the range of
+materials which must be handled by the same workers. There is an
+annual change in the weight of cloth used for the different seasons,
+from light to heavy and from heavy to light. The size and shape of the
+pieces which compose the finished garment are determined by changes in
+style which vary from the minor modifications occurring yearly in
+men's clothing to the radical changes in the style of women's
+clothing. A wide variety of fabrics is employed, ranging from thick to
+thin, smooth to <a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>rough, closely woven to loosely woven and from plain
+weave to fancy weave. In one season a single establishment will make
+garments from as many as 200 different fabrics, and each operator is
+likely to work upon 60 or more different kinds of cloth.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the fact that many of the workers are foreigners or of
+foreign parentage, and that the frequent changes in styles and
+materials require the giving of detailed instructions by foremen,
+instruction in English is of more importance in the garment trades
+than in occupations where there is a larger proportion of native born
+and where the products and processes are more uniformly standardized.</p>
+
+<p>All clothing workers should have a practical knowledge of the
+fundamental operations of arithmetic. Where the piece and section
+systems are in operation it is important for the worker to keep
+account of what she has accomplished and to know enough arithmetic to
+check her own record with the tally kept by the foreman or payroll
+girl. Some of the occupations, such as cutting, involve a considerable
+amount of arithmetical computation.</p>
+
+<p>As in other trades, all workers and prospective workers need a general
+knowledge of industrial conditions. They would greatly benefit from a
+better understanding of the supply of labor, factors affecting prices,
+organization of workers, industrial legislation, the relative
+importance of the field of employment in different industries, the
+nature of important industrial processes, and the like. At the present
+time there is little opportunity for gaining such <a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>information either
+before entering any specific line of work or afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>For certain small groups within the clothing industry there are needs
+in the way of technical training that are important and at present
+unsupplied. Training in applied mathematics, drafting and design would
+be of benefit to a considerable number of employees who are occupying
+or working towards advanced positions.</p>
+
+<p>A large proportion of the women workers need skill in hand sewing.
+Before girls enter the industry they should have careful and
+systematic training in plain sewing stitches, sewing on buttons and
+other fasteners, and button hole making.</p>
+
+<p>Machine operating is the most important occupation in the industry,
+and employs more women than any other occupation in the city, except
+perhaps dressmaking. After a careful study of the characteristics of
+this occupation and the various conditions affecting it, the survey
+reached the conclusion that there should be established by the school
+system a trade course for prospective power machine operators.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Sewing Courses in the Public Schools</h4>
+
+<p>In the elementary schools manual training sewing is given in the fifth
+and sixth grades. It consists of one hour a week of hand sewing taught
+by a regular grade teacher or sometimes by teachers of domestic
+science or other special subjects. The aim is to give <a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>the girls a
+knowledge of practical sewing which may be of use to them in the home.
+In five of the elementary schools hand and machine sewing is taught by
+special sewing teachers. About four per cent of all the seventh and
+eighth grade girls in the elementary schools receive this instruction.
+In the technical high schools the sewing course covers four years
+work. During the first two years all girls are required to take plain
+hand and machine sewing three and three-quarter hours a week. In the
+third and fourth years they may elect either millinery or dressmaking,
+and special courses in these subjects are provided for girls who wish
+to prepare for trade work. The aim of the sewing course as stated in
+the outline of the East Technical High School is "(1) Preparation for
+efficiency in the selection of the materials used in sewing and the
+construction of articles relating to the home and family sewing: (2)
+laying the foundation for courses in college, normal school, or
+business school." A two year elective course in sewing is provided in
+the academic high school as a part of the home economic course. The
+aim of this sewing, which is called domestic art, is stated thus:
+"Problem&mdash;my personal appearance is one of my chief assets. What can I
+do to improve it?" Dressmaking and millinery classes are conducted in
+the night technical high schools to teach girls how to make their own
+clothes and hats.</p>
+
+<p>The manual training sewing in the fifth and sixth grades cannot be
+considered as furnishing any important contribution in the training of
+those who will <a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>make their living in the sewing trades. Much the same
+must be said of the work in the technical high schools. It is taught
+not for the purpose of securing quick, accurate hand or machine
+stitching, but to enable the girls to make a few garments for their
+personal use. Due to the fact that very few of the girls who become
+wage earners in these trades remain in school after the completion of
+the elementary course it is doubtful whether the technical high school
+offers a hopeful field for practical training. The work in the
+elementary schools is so hampered by lack of equipment that the
+results, from the standpoint of trade preparation, amount to very
+little.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Elective Sewing Courses in the Junior High School</h4>
+
+<p>The reduction of retardation all through the grades is of fundamental
+importance to any plan of vocational training. The age of 15 is the
+final compulsory attendance age for girls, and those who enter at six
+and seven and make regular progress should be in the first or second
+high school year by the time they reach this age. Last year there
+were, however, 1,170 fifteen-year-old girls in the Cleveland schools
+who were from one to seven grades below normal. Instead of being in
+the high school, they were scattered from the second grade to the
+eighth, and they constituted more than half of all the girls of that
+age in the school system. It is clear that unless the schools can
+carry them through more nearly on schedule <a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>time there is no hope of
+providing industrial training for a large proportion of them, because
+they reach the end of the compulsory period before entering the grades
+in which industrial training can be given effectively and
+economically.</p>
+
+<p>The report recommends that during the junior high school period girls
+who expect to enter the sewing trades should be given work in
+mechanical drawing, elementary science, industrial conditions,
+elementary mechanics and hand and machine sewing. The fundamentals of
+sewing can be thoroughly taught in two years. The work during the
+first year might well be limited to hand sewing. Machine sewing should
+be taken up in the second year, and the girls given an opportunity
+during the third year to specialize somewhat broadly in a trade school
+on the kind of work in which they may wish to engage&mdash;power operating,
+dressmaking, or millinery.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">A One Year Trade Course for Girls</h4>
+
+<p>Specialized training must be conducted under conditions closely
+resembling those found in the industry. This involves equipment
+similar to that used in the factory, an ample supply of materials, and
+a corps of teachers who have had practical experience. It might seem
+that on the score of adequate equipment the factory itself would be
+the place for such training. But the fact is that the main object of
+the factory is to turn out as large a quantity as possible <a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>of
+saleable product. In the school the main object should be to turn out
+as large a quantity of saleable skill and knowledge as possible, with
+the saleable product as a secondary, although necessary, feature.</p>
+
+<p>The junior high school is not the place for specialized trade
+training, since it is reasonably certain that there would not be a
+sufficient number of girls in each junior high school desiring to
+enter a single trade to warrant the provision of special equipment and
+special teachers. For this reason the report favors a trade course in
+a separate school plant where girls who wish to specialize in any of
+the sewing trades can be taught in fairly large classes. The work done
+during the past few years in such institutions as the Boston Trade
+School for Girls and the Manhattan Trade School for Girls in New York
+City gives evidence of the practicability of this plan.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Trade-Extension Training</h4>
+
+<p>The only instruction offered by the public school system at the
+present time which can be considered as trade-extension training for
+the garment industries is that given in the sewing classes in the
+technical night schools. The enrollment in these classes during the
+second term of 1915-16 was 229. Only a small proportion of the girls
+and women enrolled in the night sewing classes make their living by
+sewing. The students employed by day in clothing factories or in any
+of the sewing trades constitute somewhat less than 15 per cent of the
+total number enrolled. <a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>Nearly half of the enrollment is made up of
+workers in commercial, clerical or professional pursuits and
+approximately one-third are not employed in any gainful occupation.</p>
+
+<p>In both technical night schools the emphasis is laid on training for
+home sewing rather than on training for wage earning. The courses now
+given are not planned for workers in the garment trades, but to help
+women and girls who want to learn how to make, alter, and repair their
+own garments.</p>
+
+<p>If a trade school of the kind described in the previous section were
+established it would be possible to give at night short unit courses
+in machine or hand sewing to those workers who wish to extend their
+experience and prepare themselves for advancement, utilizing in the
+night classes the equipment of the day school. It is probable also
+that special day classes could be organized during the dull season to
+give beginners the opportunity to learn new processes and extend their
+knowledge of trade theory.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF REPORT ON DRESSMAKING AND MILLINERY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>At the time of the last census the total number of women in Cleveland
+employed as milliners or dressmakers was approximately 5,000, of whom
+about seven-tenths were dressmakers and about three-tenths milliners.
+For the most part they were of native birth. The proportion of young
+girls engaged in these occupations was relatively small, the age
+distribution showing that only about one-third of the milliners and
+less than one-fifth of the dressmakers were under 21 years of age.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Dressmaking</h4>
+
+<p>Four distinctive lines of work are done by those who are classified by
+the census as dressmakers and seamstresses: dressmaking proper,
+usually carried on in shops; alteration work in stores; general sewing
+done by seamstresses at home or in the homes of customers; and the
+work of the so-called dressmaking "school," in which the dressmaker
+helps her customers do their general sewing.</p>
+
+<p>Shop dressmaking is in the main confined to the <a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>making of afternoon
+and evening gowns and fancy blouses. Nearly uniform processes of work
+are maintained and the workers in the different establishments need
+about the same kinds of abilities and degrees of skill. There is a
+strong and increasing tendency towards specialization of the work.</p>
+
+<p>Among each 100 workers in dressmaking shops about 13 are head girls,
+55 are finishers or makers, 16 are helpers, eight are apprentices, and
+the rest are lining makers, cutters, embroiderers, errand girls,
+shoppers, and stock girls.</p>
+
+<p>Alteration work constitutes a separate sewing trade and consists of
+the adjustment of ready-made garments to individual peculiarities. It
+furnishes employment to several hundred workers in Cleveland.</p>
+
+<p>The weekly wages most commonly paid to each class of workers in
+dressmaking shops may be roughly stated as follows: apprentices, $2 to
+$4; helpers $6 to $9; finishers or makers $10 to $12; and drapers $18
+to $20. Lining making, done in most shops by apprentices or helpers,
+pays from $4 to $6 a week. In one shop a specialist on linings
+received $12. Women cutters, found in two shops, and doing supervisory
+work similar to that done by drapers, earned from $15 to $25.
+Hemstitchers earn $10 to $14 and a guimpe maker in one shop earned
+$12. Errand girls were found at $3 and $6; stock girls at $8, $12, and
+$13; and shoppers at from $3.50 to $10.</p>
+
+<p>Beginners in alteration departments are started at from $5 to $7.
+Regular alteration hands earn from <a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>$7 to $18, the average being $9 or
+$10. Fitters earn about the same as drapers in dressmaking shops,
+averaging from $15 to $18, with a range of from $10 to $25.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule comparatively little time is lost through irregularity of
+employment. Workers average from 10 to 11 months' work out of the
+year. Establishments usually close during the month of August and for
+one or two weeks in the spring. Workers in alteration department
+average 11 months of work. Dress alteration work is steady, while suit
+and coat alteration is irregular.</p>
+
+<p>Apprenticeship in dressmaking comprehends a trying-out period of from
+six months to a year. Most shops take apprentices, the proportion in
+the trade being one to every 12 workers; and an effort is made to keep
+these new workers if they are at all satisfactory. There is no
+standardized apprenticeship wage. Girls may serve without pay for six
+months, or may start at from 50 cents to $4 a week. At the end of six
+months they may be earning from $1.50 to $6. The lack of any wage
+standard in apprenticeship probably accounts for the fact that it is
+difficult to get girls to enter this trade.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Millinery</h4>
+
+<p>Millinery requires the handling of small pieces of the most varied
+sorts of material, most of it perishable. The materials must be
+measured, cut, turned, twisted, and draped into innumerable designs
+and <a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>color combinations, and sewed with various kinds of stitching.
+The main processes are making, trimming, and designing. Making
+consists in fashioning a specified shape from wire or buckram and
+covering it with such materials as straw or velvet. The covering may
+be put on plain, or may be shirred or draped. Trimming consists in
+placing and sewing on all sorts of decorative materials. A combination
+of the two processes of making and trimming, known as copying,
+consists in making a hat from the beginning exactly like a specified
+model. Designing is the creation of original models.</p>
+
+<p>The increase in the use of the factory-made hat has decreased the
+number of workers in custom millinery, and has also had an effect in
+diverting business from small retail shops to millinery departments in
+stores. The number of millinery workers constantly fluctuates, not
+only from season to season, but from year to year. According to a
+close estimate not more than 2,000 workers were actually engaged in
+millinery occupations during the busiest part of 1915. Between 1,200
+and 1,400 were in retail shops; about 300 were in millinery
+departments in stores; and about 300 more were in wholesale houses.</p>
+
+<p>The data collected indicate that the wages of workers in retail shops
+are lower in general than the wages of workers in millinery
+departments in stores and in wholesale houses. Makers in retail shops
+earn from $3 to $16 a week, the average being about $8. Trimmers earn
+from $10 to $40, with an average of <a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>about $18. Out of 45 retail
+shops, only 22 paid as high as $10 to any maker; 15 paid as high as
+$12; six paid as high as $15; and only one paid over $15.</p>
+
+<p>In millinery departments in stores, trimmers, who are generally
+designers, earn from $15 to $50 a week or more. The rate most commonly
+received is $25. Makers are started at from $4 to $6 and may advance
+to $15, with an average of about $10.</p>
+
+<p>In wholesale houses designers earn from $25 to $60, or more. Makers
+start at about $5, and the usual range is from $10 to $15. Those
+employed in straight copying may earn between $15 and $20. The 1914
+report of the Industrial Commission of Ohio presents data showing that
+of the women 18 years of age and over employed in wholesale houses 37
+per cent receive under $8, about 22 per cent receive between $8 and
+$12, while 41 per cent receive $12 and over. The girls under 18 years
+of age were, with one exception, receiving less than $4 per week.</p>
+
+<p>Employment in retail shops averages about 32 weeks during the year; in
+the millinery departments of stores from 32 to 42 weeks; and in
+wholesale houses about 40 weeks. The proportion of workers employed
+the year round is very small. The majority of millinery workers are
+faced with the problem of tiding themselves over two dull seasons,
+aggregating from 12 to 28 weeks each year.</p>
+
+<p>The millinery apprenticeship period lasts for two seasons of 12 weeks
+each. Almost all retail shops take apprentices in large numbers, there
+being one apprentice to every three or four workers in the trade. <a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>Few
+apprentices are found in stores and wholesale houses. The
+apprenticeship wage is extremely low. The usual rate is $1 a week
+during the first season and from $1.50 to $2 during the second.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Problem of Training</h4>
+
+<p>The needs of girls who are soon to leave school and go to work can
+best be met by a modification of the junior high school course and by
+the establishment of a one-year trade school for girls. Before a
+re-organization of the junior high school work is made to meet the
+needs of these girls an effort should be made to reduce retardation so
+that more girls will reach the junior high school before the end of
+the compulsory attendance period. The present courses should be
+reorganized so as to give basic preparation for wage earning and
+should be as concrete and real as a thorough understanding of the
+requirements of the gainful occupations can make them. Thorough sewing
+courses planned from the standpoint of the sewing trades should be
+offered, extending over two years. The program suggested closely
+resembles that recommended for the garment trades.</p>
+
+<p>It is also recommended that a one-year trade school be established for
+preparing girls to enter employment in dressmaking and millinery. The
+history of trade schools for girls, both private and public, indicates
+that such a school, if properly conducted, would be highly successful
+in Cleveland.</p>
+
+<p>The classes in sewing and millinery in the evening <a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>technical high
+schools do not offer trade-extension training for workers and it is
+not likely that they could be easily reorganized to furnish such
+training. It is recommended that if a trade school is established in
+Cleveland, short unit courses in sewing and related subjects, such as
+design, be given in evening classes.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE METAL TRADES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Approximately one-half of the total number of persons in Cleveland
+engaged in manufacturing are found in the metal industries. When the
+last federal census was taken nearly one-seventh of the entire male
+population was employed in establishments engaged in the manufacture
+of crude or finished metal products. Pittsburgh only, among the 10
+largest cities in the country, has a higher proportion of its
+industrial population working in such establishments. In relation to
+its total population, Cleveland has twice as many people working in
+these industries as Chicago, three times as many as Philadelphia, and
+four times as many as New York. It is estimated that at the present
+time the number of wage earners in the city engaged in this kind of
+work is between 70,000 and 80,000.</p>
+
+<p>The report deals with the three leading industries of the
+city,&mdash;foundry and machine shop products, automobile manufacturing,
+and steel works and rolling mills. The study of this last group also
+includes several related industries, such as blast furnaces, wire
+mills, nail mills, and bolt, nut, and rivet <a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>factories. About
+three-fourths of the total number of wage earners in the city engaged
+in the manufacture of metal products are found in these three
+industries.</p>
+
+<p>The field investigations consisted of personal visits to the
+manufacturing establishments for the purpose of securing first hand
+data as to industrial conditions, and conferences with employers,
+superintendents, foremen, and workmen as to the need and possibilities
+of training for metal working occupations. In all, 60 establishments,
+employing approximately 35,000 men, were visited. The conclusions as
+to vocational training were based on an analysis of educational needs
+in the various metal industries, together with an extended study of
+the social and economic factors which condition the training of all
+workers. Particular attention was given to the administrative problems
+involved in such training in public schools.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Foundry and Machine Shop Products</h4>
+
+<p>According to the United States Census, foundries and factories making
+machine shop products gave employment in 1909 to nearly 18,000
+Cleveland wage-earners. This industrial group ranks first in the city,
+employing more than twice as many workers as the next largest
+industry,&mdash;automobile manufacturing,&mdash;and approximately two-fifths of
+the total working force in all metal industries. Its growth during the
+previous five years, from the standpoint of number of workers
+employed, showed <a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>an increase of about 33 per cent, and it is
+estimated that the total number of wage-earners in 1914 was
+approximately 25,000. At the present time, due to the impetus given to
+this branch of manufacturing by the European war, the working force is
+undoubtedly in excess of this figure.</p>
+
+<p>The report gives extended consideration to the machinist's trade,
+which constitutes by far the largest body of skilled workers in the
+city. This trade has been affected more than any other by the progress
+of invention and the modern tendency towards specialization. In many
+establishments the all-round machinist, competent to do independent
+work and operate the wide variety of machine tools now used in the
+trade, had practically disappeared. In his place are found
+"specialist" machine hands who have learned the operation of a single
+machine tool, but have no general knowledge of the trade, and who if
+called on to perform work requiring the use of a machine tool
+different from the one on which they are employed are unable to do so.
+There are hundreds of drill press hands who cannot operate a milling
+machine, lathe hands who know nothing of planer work, and so on. The
+subdivision of these occupations follows closely the advance in
+invention, so that employers advertising for help frequently specify
+not only the machine tool to be used but add the name of the firm
+which manufactures that particular type of machine, with the result
+that there are about as many kinds of machinists as there are
+manufacturers of machine tools. Table 18 shows the <a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>estimated number
+of men employed, with their distribution in the various branches of
+the trade.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table18" id="table18"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 18.&mdash;PROPORTIONS AND ESTIMATED NUMBERS EMPLOYED IN MACHINE TOOL
+OCCUPATIONS, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Proportions And Estimated Numbers Employed In Machine Tool Occupations, 1915">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom;" width="66%">Workers</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="18%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Per cent</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="18%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Estimated <br />number</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Lathe hands<br />
+ Drill press operators<br />
+ Bench hands<br />
+ Machinists<br />
+ Screw machine operators<br />
+ Milling machine operators<br />
+ Tool makers<br />
+ Grinding machine operators<br />
+ Planer hands<br />
+ Turret lathe operators<br />
+ Gear cutter operators</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">18.8<br />
+ 17.9<br />
+ 13.4<br />
+ 12.7<br />
+ 9.4<br />
+ 8.6<br />
+ 8.3<br />
+ 6.2<br />
+ 2.2<br />
+ 1.8<br />
+ .7</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">3,384<br />
+ 3,222<br />
+ 2,412<br />
+ 2,286<br />
+ 1,692<br />
+ 1,548<br />
+ 1,494<br />
+ 1,116<br />
+ 396<br />
+ 324<br />
+ 126</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">100.0</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">18,000</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Specialization has operated to lower standards of skill and keep down
+wages. The average wage of the "all-round" machinist is very nearly
+the lowest found among the skilled trades. The union scale is but 14
+cents an hour above that paid unskilled labor, while the average
+earnings of machine operators range from four to 12 cents above
+laborers' wages. Only among the highly skilled tool makers do the
+wages approach those received by skilled labor in most other
+industries. Table 19 shows the average, highest, and lowest rates per
+hour for all branches of the machine trades in the establishments from
+which data were collected during the survey, with the per cent
+employed on piece work and day work.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table19" id="table19"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>TABLE 19.&mdash;AVERAGE, HIGHEST, AND LOWEST EARNINGS, IN CENTS PER HOUR,<br />
+AND PER CENT EMPLOYED ON PIECE WORK AND DAY WORK, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Average, Highest, And Lowest Earnings, In Cents Per Hour">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom; white-space: nowrap;" width="50%">Workers</td>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom; white-space: nowrap;" width="10%">Lowest</td>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom; white-space: nowrap;" width="10%">Average</td>
+ <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom; white-space: nowrap;" width="10%">Highest</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="10%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Per cent <br />on piece <br />work</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="10%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Per cent <br />on day <br />work</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Tool makers<br />
+ Machinists<br />
+ Planer hands<br />
+ Grinding machine operators<br />
+ Bench hands<br />
+ Screw machine operators<br />
+ Lathe hands<br />
+ Turret lathe operators<br />
+ Gear cutter operators<br />
+ Milling machine operators<br />
+ Drill press operators<br />
+ Machinists' helpers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">25.0<br />
+ 25.0<br />
+ 20.0<br />
+ 20.0<br />
+ 17.5<br />
+ 17.5<br />
+ 19.0<br />
+ 25.0<br />
+ 20.0<br />
+ 15.0<br />
+ 15.0<br />
+ 20.0</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">39.0<br />
+ 33.2<br />
+ 32.2<br />
+ 32.0<br />
+ 29.6<br />
+ 29.5<br />
+ 29.1<br />
+ 29.0<br />
+ 26.7<br />
+ 25.9<br />
+ 23.5<br />
+ 22.2</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">50.0<br />
+ 50.0<br />
+ 42.0<br />
+ 50.0<br />
+ 45.0<br />
+ 63.8<br />
+ 40.0<br />
+ 47.5<br />
+ 40.0<br />
+ 40.0<br />
+ 35.0<br />
+ 25.0</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">...<br />
+ ...<br />
+ ...<br />
+ 70<br />
+ 48<br />
+ 79<br />
+ 40<br />
+ 80<br />
+ 96<br />
+ 53<br />
+ 35<br />
+ ...</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">100<br />
+ 100<br />
+ 100<br />
+ 30<br />
+ 52<br />
+ 21<br />
+ 60<br />
+ 20<br />
+ 4<br />
+ 47<br />
+ 65<br />
+ 100</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>On the basis of weekly or yearly earnings, the trade makes a better
+showing. Work is steady throughout the year, and the time lost through
+unemployment on account of seasonal changes is slight. Also, as the
+usual working day is from nine to 10 hours, that is, from one to two
+hours longer than in the higher paid building trades, the difference
+in daily wages is really less marked than a comparison of hourly rates
+would seem to indicate.</p>
+
+<p>Little attempt has been made to adapt the apprentice system to modern
+conditions. The term of service and rates of pay have changed but
+slightly over a long period of years. As a result only a small
+proportion of the boys who begin as apprentices finish the
+apprenticeship term of three or four years. Employers attribute this
+to the relatively high wages paid for machine operating, and the
+slight advantage, <a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>from a wage standpoint, of the "all-round" man over
+the machine operator. After a year or two the apprentice finds that he
+can double his pay by taking a job as operator, and the inducement for
+learning the trade thoroughly is too small to hold him. The report
+gives a comparison of the earnings of an apprentice and a machine
+operator, both starting at the same age, the first becoming a
+journeyman machinist at the end of three years and the second
+specializing on a particular machine. Assuming that both boys go to
+work at the age of 16 their total earnings up to the age of 25 years
+will be approximately equal. The lack of thoroughly trained workmen is
+beginning to be felt, but the efforts made by industrial
+establishments to meet it have small prospects of success unless the
+economic factors of the problem are given greater consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as no regular apprenticeship period is served for machine
+operating, a special effort was made to secure data relating to the
+time usually required for the worker to learn the operation of each
+tool well enough to earn average wages. In this matter the individual
+opinions of foremen and superintendents differed widely, but when the
+reports from all the establishments visited were compared, a
+sufficient degree of uniformity was found to serve as a basis for
+estimating the amount of experience workers of average intelligence
+would need, under normal shop conditions, in order to become fairly
+proficient.</p>
+
+<p>There was practical unanimity in fixing the period <a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>at four years for
+tool makers and three to four years for machinists. Higher estimates
+were received from the superintendents of plants doing a jobbing
+business or manufacturing high grade machine tools than from the
+specialized shops making a single product. The superintendents of
+automobile manufacturing plants, where the standard of quality in
+production is necessarily high, gave the lowest estimates of all.
+Table 20 shows the estimated time required to learn the various types
+of machine work.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table20" id="table20"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 20.&mdash;ESTIMATED TIME REQUIRED TO LEARN MACHINE TOOL WORK<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Estimated Time Required To Learn Machine Tool Work">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="65%">Workers</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="35%">Time required</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Grinding machine operators<br />
+ Lathe hands<br />
+ Planer hands<br />
+ Gear cutter operators<br />
+ Turret lathe operators<br />
+ Screw machine operators<br />
+ Bench hands<br />
+ Milling machine operators<br />
+ Drilling machine operators</td>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 to 15 months<br />
+ 6 to 9 months<br />
+ 6 months<br />
+ 6 months<br />
+ 4 to 6 months<br />
+ 3 to 6 months<br />
+ 3 to 6 months<br />
+ 2 to 4 months<br />
+ 2 weeks to 4 months</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The weakness of specialization, with its constant tendency towards the
+substitution of semi-skilled operatives for trained workmen, lies in
+its failure to provide a body of workers from whom to recruit the
+large directive force needed in any scheme of production based on
+semi-skilled labor. This condition is regarded by many employers with
+grave concern, and in a few plants apprentice schools designed
+primarily to train future foremen have been established.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>Practically all the foremen in the shops visited had received an
+all-round training as machinists, and there are few opportunities for
+promotion open to men who have not a general knowledge of the trade.
+On the other hand, such general knowledge is only one of the
+requisites for advancement. Others are initiative, resourcefulness,
+tact, self-control, ability to get along with men, and a disposition
+to subordinate personal interests to the interests of the business. To
+these should be added the quality of patience, for there must be
+vacancies before there can be promotions, and vacancies among the
+better positions are not frequent. Ten of the establishments visited,
+employing a total working force of over 5,000 men, reported but eight
+vacancies among foremen's positions over a period of one year. These
+same establishments had in their employ a total of 618 all-round
+machinists and tool makers. Assuming that only the machinists and tool
+makers were eligible for promotion, the mathematical chance per man of
+becoming a foreman during the year was about one in 77.</p>
+
+<p>Other occupations studied in detail were pattern making, molding, core
+making, blacksmithing, and boiler making. Pattern making offers the
+most interesting work and the highest wages among the metal trades,
+but the total number of American born pattern makers in the city does
+not exceed seven or eight hundred, so the field of employment is
+relatively limited. Molding and core making, in which between 4,000
+and 5,000 men are engaged, have <a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>practically become foreign trades.
+Less than 20 per cent of the molders in the city were born in this
+country. These trades offer few opportunities for employment to boys
+of native birth. Somewhat similar conditions exist in the
+blacksmithing trade. Changed methods of production have largely done
+away with the old-time blacksmith, who survives only in horse-shoeing
+and repair shops. The proportion of native blacksmiths is steadily
+declining, and it is unlikely that any considerable number of boys
+from the public schools will enter the trade. The boiler making trade
+employs relatively few men, the total number of native born boiler
+makers at the time of the last census being less than 600. The trade
+seems to be at a standstill. The increase during the previous decade
+was less than five per cent against a total population increase of 46
+per cent. The average earnings per hour for these trades in the
+establishments visited by members of the Survey Staff are shown in
+Table 21.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table21" id="table21"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 21.&mdash;AVERAGE EARNINGS PER HOUR IN PATTERN MAKING, MOLDING, <br />CORE
+MAKING, BLACKSMITHING, AND BOILER MAKING<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Average Earnings Per Hour In Pattern Making">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2" style="vertical-align: bottom;" width="70%">Workers</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="30%">Average earnings<br />Per Hour</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Pattern makers<br />
+ Skilled molders<br />
+ Semi-skilled molders<br />
+ Skilled core makers<br />
+ Semi-skilled core makers<br />
+ Blacksmiths<br />
+ Boiler makers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4" style="white-space: nowrap;">.44<br />
+ .39<br />
+ .27<br />
+ .39<br />
+ .27<br />
+ .33<br />
+ .32</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The findings and recommendations as to training emphasize the fact
+that the vast majority of boys <a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>who become workers in the metal trades
+leave school by the time they are 15 with at most a common school
+education, so that any vocational training before they go to work must
+be given between the ages of 12 and 15 and before the end of the
+eighth grade. The report points out the impossibility of effective
+vocational instruction in elementary schools on account of the
+prohibitive cost per pupil for both equipment and teaching, and
+endorses the recently adopted junior high school plan. This form of
+organization has the great advantage of concentrating in large groups
+the boys who are old enough to make a beginning in prevocational
+training, and through the departmental system of teaching offers
+facilities for differentiation of courses to meet their varying needs.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever their cultural value, the present manual training courses in
+woodwork have little relation to the requirements of any metal working
+trade, except pattern making, in which some of the same tools are
+used. No manual training work in metal is offered in the elementary
+and junior high schools.</p>
+
+<p>The course recommended for the junior high school lays especial
+emphasis on applied mathematics, mechanical drawings, practice in
+assembling and taking apart machines, and the utilization of the shop
+as a laboratory for teaching industrial science. The report maintains
+that the object of such a course should be the development of
+industrial intelligence through the application of mathematical and
+mechanical principles to the solution of concrete problems, rather
+than the teaching of specific operations and skill in <a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>the use of
+tools. In mechanical drawing the ability to understand and interpret
+drawings should be given more importance than the ability to make
+drawings. Few workmen are ever called on to draw, while the ability to
+read plans and sketches is always in demand. It is also recommended
+that boys who do not expect to take a full high school course or who
+intend to leave at the end of the compulsory period should devote at
+least a period each week to the study of economic and working
+conditions in industrial and commercial occupations.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the technical high schools the report holds that these
+schools are primarily training schools for the higher positions of
+industry. They undoubtedly offer the best instruction obtainable in
+the city for the ambitious boy who wishes to prepare himself for
+supervisory and managerial positions in industry or for a college
+engineering course.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of a separate two-year vocational school, equipped
+for giving instruction in all the larger industrial trades, is
+recommended. The number of boys in the public schools between the ages
+of 14 and 16 who are likely to enter the metal trades is between 700
+and 800, of whom from 500 to 600 will become machinists or machine
+tool operators. An enrollment of much less than this number is
+sufficient to justify the installation of good shop equipment and the
+employment of a corps of teachers who have had the special training
+necessary for this kind of work. It should be possible to form a class
+in pattern making and foundry work of from 80 to 100 boys, and one <a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>of
+at least 30 in blacksmithing. Boiler making could be taught in
+connection with sheet metal work.</p>
+
+<p>Various changes are recommended in the present evening school classes
+for machinists, molders, and pattern makers now given by the technical
+high schools. It is claimed that the courses as now organized are not
+elastic enough to meet the varying needs of the journeymen, helpers,
+machine operators, and apprentices employed in these trades. The great
+need is for short unit courses in which the instruction is limited to
+a particular machine or a special branch of the trade. The long course
+tends to discourage the student, especially when it embraces an amount
+of theory out of all proportion to his working needs.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Automobile Manufacturing</h4>
+
+<p>Due to the large number and specialized character of the occupations
+in this industry, they are taken up in a more general way than the
+"foundries and machine shop" group. The productive departments of the
+automobile factories utilize in the main the same equipment as other
+machinery manufacturing plants, but specialization has been carried to
+a degree found in few other metal industries. The "all-round" workman
+is a rara avis. The machine shops are manned by machine "specialists"
+most of whom know how to operate a single machine tool or perform a
+single operation made up of relatively simple elements. From one-half
+to two-thirds of the <a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>working force is recruited from immigrant labor
+which is "broken in" under skilful foremen within a period varying
+from a few days to a few weeks. In the simpler assembling operations
+the jobs are so subdivided that any man who is not actually
+feebleminded can learn the work in a few days. Production is on a
+large scale, permitting the maintenance of high-grade engineering and
+experimental departments, where all of the work is planned to the last
+detail. As a result the automobile manufacturers are turning out one
+of the most complicated and most efficient machines known to modern
+industry with a working force composed chiefly of semi-skilled labor.</p>
+
+<p>For the machine shop workers the training suggested is similar to that
+recommended for the same class of workmen in other machine shops. The
+necessity of short unit courses adapted for teaching parts of the
+trade rather than the whole trade is obvious, as most automobile
+workers are employed on specialized operations. Short unit evening
+courses for motor and transmission assemblers, and testers and
+inspectors, are recommended.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Steel Works, Rolling Mills, and Related Industries</h4>
+
+<p>A somewhat similar treatment is followed with respect to the iron and
+steel group of industries&mdash;blast furnaces, steel mills, rolling mills,
+wire mills, nail mills, and bolt, nut, and rivet factories. These
+industries are characterized by a high proportion of <a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>common and
+semi-skilled labor in the working force. Between 75 and 90 per cent of
+the workers are of foreign birth. In the operating department of one
+mill only two Americans were found among a total of 600 employees. As
+a rule the native born workers are mechanics employed in the power and
+maintenance departments.</p>
+
+<p>With scarcely an exception the occupations are of a nature that
+require the worker to learn through actual experience in the mills.
+Theory and practice must be learned at the same time. Even the
+supervisory and executive positions in which a technical education is
+of considerable value require a long and arduous apprenticeship on the
+job before the worker can compete with men who have started with the
+scantiest educational equipment, but have picked up a knowledge of the
+processes by experience and observation. Below these positions the
+work rapidly grades off to various kinds of machine operating in which
+not even the ability to read or understand English is required.</p>
+
+<p>No plan of vocational training is presented, because at present the
+mills recruit almost exclusively from foreign labor, and only a very
+small number of boys from the public schools are likely to seek
+employment in them. The technical content of the work which might
+conceivably be given in evening classes, except in the case of the few
+directive and supervisory positions, is so small that continuation
+instruction offers but meager hopes of success. Under present
+conditions the long working day and the <a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>necessity of changing from
+the day to the night shift, or vice-versa every two weeks, constitutes
+an insuperable obstacle to the organization of night classes.</p>
+
+<p>The principal need of the rank and file is a speaking and reading
+knowledge of the English language, so that the workers can be taught
+to avoid and prevent accidents, and give themselves the necessary care
+when they occur. Instruction in English with possibly courses in
+accident prevention and personal hygiene represent about the only
+training possible that can be said to have any real vocational
+significance.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE BUILDING TRADES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>A careful estimate places the number of men engaged in building
+construction in Cleveland at the present time at about 30,000,
+comprising more than one-fifth of the total number employed in
+manufacturing and mechanical occupations. About two-thirds of these
+workmen are skilled artisans, distributed among some 20 different
+trades. The estimated number in each trade is shown in Table 22.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Sources of Labor Supply</h4>
+
+<p>The building trades get their workers from four principal sources:
+immigration, native journeymen from outside the city, helpers, and
+apprentices. Immigration contributes the largest proportion in both
+skilled and unskilled work, practically monopolizing the latter. Over
+four-fifths of all cabinet makers, more than two-thirds of all brick
+and stone masons, and nearly two-thirds of all carpenters are foreign
+born. Plumbers and steam-fitters show the smallest proportion of
+foreign labor.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table22" id="table22"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>TABLE 22.&mdash;ESTIMATED
+NUMBER OF MEN ENGAGED IN BUILDING TRADES, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Estimated Number Of Men Engaged In Building Trades, 1915">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="65%">Workers in trade</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="35%">Number employed</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Carpenters<br />
+ Painters, glaziers, varnishers<br />
+ Plumbers, gas- and steam-fitters<br />
+ Bricklayers<br />
+ Machine woodworkers<br />
+ Sheet metal workers or tinsmiths<br />
+ Cabinet-makers<br />
+ Inside wiremen and fixture hangers<br />
+ Plasterers<br />
+ Paperhangers<br />
+ Structural iron workers<br />
+ Roofers and slaters<br />
+ Stone-cutters<br />
+ Lathers<br />
+ Stone masons and marble setters<br />
+ Ornamental iron workers<br />
+ Cement finishers<br />
+ Hoisting engineers<br />
+ Elevator constructors<br />
+ Parquet floor layers<br />
+ Tile-layer<br />
+ Asbestos workers<br />
+ Wood carvers<br />
+ Helpers<br />
+ Apprentices</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3" style="white-space: nowrap;">7,105<br />
+ 2,746<br />
+ 2,014<br />
+ 1,800<br />
+ 1,198<br />
+ 1,069<br />
+ 895<br />
+ 750<br />
+ 638<br />
+ 379<br />
+ 356<br />
+ 315<br />
+ 292<br />
+ 275<br />
+ 250<br />
+ 200<br />
+ 200<br />
+ 150<br />
+ 100<br />
+ 100<br />
+ 100<br />
+ 75<br />
+ 63<br />
+ 926<br />
+ 306</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdlp2" width="65%">Total</td>
+ <td class="tdrp3" width="35%">22,302</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Apprenticeship</h4>
+
+<p>The general decline of the apprenticeship system which began with the
+invention of modern labor-saving machinery has affected the building
+trades least of all. Here it survives in an active state and is
+steadily gaining ground. It is in favor with many employers and with
+all unions. The best apprenticeship systems are found in the strongly
+organized trades.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that in some of the trades apprenticeship is little more
+than a name, meaning simply that <a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>permission has been granted to learn
+the trade. The apprentice is left free to pick up what experience he
+can between the odd jobs that are given him. What meager instruction
+he receives comes from a journeyman worker who is none too eager to
+give up what he considers the secrets of his trade.</p>
+
+<p>The union regulations provide that boys shall not enter the trades as
+apprentices or helpers below the age of 16. The limits set by the
+various trades and the union regulations as to length of
+apprenticeship are shown in Tables 23 and 24.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table23" id="table23"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 23.&mdash;UNION REGULATIONS AS TO ENTERING AGE OF APPRENTICES<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Union Regulations As To Entering Age Of Apprentices">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="65%">Workers</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="35%">Time required</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Asbestos workers<br />
+ Bricklayers<br />
+ Carpenters<br />
+ Cement finishers<br />
+ Elevator constructors<br />
+ Lathers<br />
+ Inside wiremen<br />
+ Painters and paperhangers<br />
+ Plumbers and gas-fitters<br />
+ Sheet metal workers<br />
+ Slate and tile roofers<br />
+ Steam-fitters<br />
+ Structural and ornamental iron workers</td>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Enter at any age<br />
+ Between 16 and 23<br />
+ Between 17 and 22<br />
+ Must be full grown<br />
+ Must be full grown<br />
+ Must be 18 years old<br />
+ Between 16 and 21<br />
+ Before 21 years old<br />
+ Must be 16 years old<br />
+ Must be over 16 years<br />
+ Must enter before 25<br />
+ Must be full grown<br />
+ Between 18 and 25</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<a name="table24" id="table24"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 24.&mdash;UNION REGULATIONS AS TO LENGTH OF APPRENTICESHIP PERIOD<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Union Regulations As To Length Of Apprenticeship Period">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"><i>Trades in which indentures are usually signed</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2" width="75%">Bricklayer</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" width="25%">4 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Plasterers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Sheet metal workers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"><i>Trades in which indentures are seldom signed</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Steam-fitters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">5 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Carpenters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Inside wiremen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Plumbers and gas-fitter</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Cement finishers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">3 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Asbestos workers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">3 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Painters and paperhangers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">3 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Slate and tile roofers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">3 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Lathers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2 years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Structural and ornamental iron workers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">1&frac12; years</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Elevator constructors</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">varies</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+
+<p><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>All obtainable information points to the conclusion that the number of
+apprentices employed in the city is far below the maximum permitted by
+the unions. Many large contractors have no apprentices and say they
+will not bother with them. Others state that they have been unable to
+get or keep good apprentices and have therefore given up the plan.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Union Organization</h4>
+
+<p>The building trades are among the most strongly organized in the city.
+It is estimated that their unions at the present time include about 90
+per cent of all the men engaged in building work. Practically all the
+large contracting firms employ only union labor. The few non-union
+workers are employed by small contractors.</p>
+
+<p>Requirements for admission to the different unions vary to a marked
+degree. If the union is strong and has a good control over the labor
+supply, admission fees are higher and regulations as to apprentices
+and helpers are more stringent than if the union is fighting to gain a
+foothold.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Earnings</h4>
+
+<p>No industrial workers in the city are paid better wages than those
+employed in the building trades. More than one-half of the skilled
+workers are in trades that pay an hourly wage of 50 cents or over. The
+hourly rate in each occupation is shown in Table 25.</p>
+<br />
+
+
+<a name="table25" id="table25"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>TABLE 25.&mdash;UNION SCALE OF WAGES IN CENTS PER HOUR MAY 1, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Union Scale Of Wages In Cents Per Hour May 1, 1915">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"><i>70 Cents</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2" width="75%">Bricklayers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" width="25%">70.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Hoisting engineers on boom derricks, etc.</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">70.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Stone masons</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">70.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Structural iron workers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">70.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"><i>From 60 to 70 Cents</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Marble setters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">68.75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Inside wiremen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">68.75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Plasterers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">68.75</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Slate and tile roofers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">67.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Parquet floor layers (carpenters)</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">62.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Lathers, first class</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">62.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Plumbers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">62.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Steam-fitters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">62.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Stone-cutters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">62.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Hoisting engineers, brick hoists</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">60.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Elevator constructors</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">60.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"><i>From 50 to 60 Cents</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Tile layers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">59.38</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Lathers, second class</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">56.25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Carpenters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">55.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Cement workers, finishers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">55.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Sheet metal workers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">50.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Painters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">50.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Paperhangers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">50.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"><i>From 40 to 50 Cents</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Asbestos workers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">47.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Composition roofers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">42.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap;"><i>Under 40 Cents</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Cabinet-makers and bench hands</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">37.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Machine woodworkers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">37.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Electrical fixture hangers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">37.50</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp2">Hod-carriers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">35.00</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Union organization is a more powerful factor in determining wages in
+these trades than technical knowledge and skill. A high degree of
+skill in a given trade brings little advantage in the matter of wages.
+By establishing a minimum scale below which no <a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>journeyman shall work,
+the union secures practically a flat rate of pay for most of the men
+in the trade. When there is much building work and good men are
+scarce, contractors sometimes pay higher wages to highly skilled
+workmen in order to secure their services. As a rule, however, their
+reward comes in the form of steadier employment. The less skilled man
+is the first to be laid off when business is slack, while the
+first-class workman, for the reason that he is so hard to replace, is
+the last to be discharged.</p>
+
+<p>Many unions, among them those of the carpenters, bricklayers, and
+painters, make no provision as to the wages of apprentices. Table 26
+shows the wages in three of the building trades that have established
+a uniform scale for apprentices. Sheet metal apprentices are paid a
+bonus of $1 extra for each week served.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table26" id="table26"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 26.&mdash;USUAL WEEKLY WAGES OF APPRENTICES IN THREE BUILDING TRADES<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Usual Weekly Wages Of Apprentices In Three Building Trades">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%" style="white-space: nowrap; vertical-align: bottom;">Year</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%" style="white-space: nowrap; vertical-align: bottom;">Inside wiremen</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%" style="white-space: nowrap; vertical-align: bottom;">Plasterers</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="25%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Sheet metal <br />workers</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">First year<br />
+ Second year<br />
+ Third year <br />
+ Fourth year</td>
+ <td class="tdc">$5.50<br />
+13.20<br />
+17.60<br />
+22.00</td>
+ <td class="tdc">$5.50 to $6.25<br />
+ 8.25 to 11.02<br />
+ 13.75 to 16.00<br />
+ 19.25</td>
+ <td class="tdc">$5.00<br />
+ 5.50 to 6.00<br />
+ 6.50 to 7.00<br />
+ 8.00 to 9.00</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Hours</h4>
+
+<p>The usual working day is eight hours. Many of the trades work only a
+half day on Saturdays throughout the year; practically all have this
+half holiday during <a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>the four summer months. For holiday or over-time
+work the men receive either pay and a half or double pay.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Regularity of Employment</h4>
+
+<p>Due to the seasonal character of building work, it is next to
+impossible for a building contractor to keep a large force employed
+all the year. One result of this situation is that the men change
+employers more than any other workers in industry. Irregularity of
+employment is greater in building construction than in any other of
+the principal industries of the city. A comparison between the
+different branches of building work as to regularity of employment is
+presented in Diagram 11. The best showing is made by electrical
+contracting, in which the average number employed is 93 per cent of
+the maximum working force, and the poorest by plastering in which the
+average is only 66 per cent of the maximum.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Health Conditions</h4>
+
+<p>Nearly all of the building trades are open air occupations, much even
+of the inside work being done before the buildings are closed in. For
+the most part the materials used are not injurious to health if
+reasonable precautions are taken and ordinary habits of cleanliness
+observed. In general, health conditions are better than those found in
+the factory industries.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram11" id="diagram11"></a><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram11.jpg" width="434" height="600" alt="Diagram 11" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 11.&mdash;Sections in outline represent percentage
+of men employed, and sections in black percentage of men unemployed<br /> in
+each of nine building industries at the time when each industry showed
+the largest percentage of unemployment<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Opportunities for Advancement</h4>
+
+<p>The building trades offer many opportunities for advancement. One
+reason for this is the large number <a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>of supervisory positions made
+necessary by the wide range of building activities. A foreman in
+almost any of the trades must be able to read plans, as he must lay
+out the work. It is not necessary for him to be the most skilled
+mechanic in the force. Employers and superintendents say that in
+selecting foremen they lay about equal weight on skill and on ability
+to handle men.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, foremanship carries with it higher wages, although in some
+cases the pay is the same as that of the regular journeymen. The
+reward for the added responsibility comes in the form of steadier
+employment. It is not uncommon for a foreman to be hired on a salary
+basis and carried on the payroll throughout the entire year.</p>
+
+<p>Small contracting offers another form of advancement. It requires but
+little initial investment to make a modest beginning, because
+individual workmen in the various building trades provide their own
+tools and no expensive machines are required. Comparatively little
+working capital is necessary, as provision is made in most contracts
+for part payments as the work progresses.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Problem of Training</h4>
+
+<p>The recommendations of the report relating to training for the
+building trades may be summarized under five headings:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Reduce retardation.</i> The first step in improving the educational
+preparation of workers entering the <a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>building trades is to reduce
+retardation or slow progress in the elementary grades. At present it
+is approximately true of the men entering the building trades that
+one-third drop out of school by the sixth grade, two-thirds by the
+seventh grade, and three-thirds by the eighth grade. Now according to
+law a boy cannot go to work until he is 16, and if he has made normal
+progress he will have completed the eight grades of the elementary
+course before he has reached that age. In point of fact, many of these
+boys do not make normal progress through the grades and hence they
+reach the age of 15 before completing the elementary course. As a
+result they fall out of school without having had those portions of
+the work in reading, drawing, mathematics, and elementary science
+which would be of most direct use to them in their future work.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>General industrial courses in seventh, eighth, and ninth grades.</i>
+If retardation could be largely reduced in the elementary grades,
+industrialized courses could be properly introduced in the seventh,
+eighth, and ninth grades for boys intending to enter the building
+trades. The specific changes recommended include as their most
+important elements:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>a. Increased training in industrial arithmetic beginning in
+the seventh grade.</p>
+
+<p>b. Courses in industrial drawing.</p>
+
+<p>c. Courses in elementary science relating to industry.</p>
+
+<p>d. Courses in industrial information.</p>
+
+<p>e. General courses in industrial shop work.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>These are general industrial courses and it is recommended that they
+be introduced as prominent features of the work of the junior high
+school. They are not intended to take the place of specialized courses
+in the building trades, but they are proposed as courses valuable for
+all future industrial workers and within which certain adaptations
+should be made for those who are intending to enter the building
+trades.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>A two year industrial trade school.</i> In addition to the general
+industrial courses in junior high schools that have been recommended
+in the previous section, there should be established a two year
+industrial trade school for boys. It should receive boys 14 to 16
+years of age who desire direct trade-preparatory training. There are
+good reasons why the present elementary schools, the proposed junior
+high schools, and the existing technical high schools cannot
+satisfactorily take the place of a specialized two year course in
+giving boys direct trade-preparatory education. Boys who go through
+the technical high schools do not remain in the building trades as
+artisans. This is shown by the fact that less than two per cent of the
+graduates of these schools are working in the building trades.</p>
+
+<p>The elementary schools and the junior high schools cannot conduct
+satisfactory trade-preparatory courses for the building industry for
+the reason that they do not bring together at any one point a
+sufficient number of these future workers to make it possible to teach
+them economically. This is a <a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>consideration which conditions every
+plan for the organization of industrial education. It is a question of
+the community's capacity to absorb workmen trained for any given
+occupation. In Cleveland about 4,000 boys leave the public elementary
+schools each year. Approximately 2,400 of them drop out of the
+elementary schools or leave after graduating from them, while the
+remaining 1,600 go on to high school. The future workers in the
+building trades will be largely recruited from the 2,400 boys who
+leave the elementary schools each year. Most of them range in age from
+14 to 16 and in school advancement from the fifth to the eighth
+grades. They represent a cross-section of a large part of the city's
+adult manhood of a few years hence.</p>
+
+<p>Now the census figures tell us that if present conditions maintain in
+the future only about 100 of the 4,000 boys leaving school each year
+will be carpenters. For the purposes of the present inquiry we may
+assume that these 100 future carpenters are to be found among the
+2,400 boys who do not go on to high school. But Cleveland has 108
+elementary schools and these 100 future carpenters are widely
+scattered among them. Even if we knew which boys were destined to
+become carpenters, and even if we knew when they would leave school,
+and even if we should decide to give them all trade preparatory
+education for the last two years of their school life, we should still
+have an average class in carpentry of only two boys in each elementary
+school. This is administratively and educationally impossible. For
+<a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>similar reasons specialized trade preparatory classes in junior high
+schools would prove exceedingly difficult to organize.</p>
+
+<p>The whole situation is changed, however, when we gather in a central
+school all these future artisans who have decided that they wish to
+prepare for specific trades. Under these conditions classes would be
+sufficiently large so that specialized training could be given and
+special equipment provided. This work would best be undertaken in a
+school entirely devoted to the purpose, but such courses might be
+organized in connection with the present technical high schools. This
+arrangement would be less desirable and probably give inferior
+results. The important point, however, is not so much the organization
+or curriculum for these classes, it is the fundamental fact that trade
+classes can be wisely organized only when a sufficiently large number
+of pupils can be gathered in one place so as to make the work
+efficient and economical.</p>
+
+<p>The effectiveness of the trade-preparatory training recommended would
+be greatly increased if the upper limit of the compulsory attendance
+period for boys should be placed at 16 years instead of at 15 as it is
+now.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Trade-Extension Classes for Apprentices.</i> At the present time the
+technical high schools offer evening classes for apprentices in the
+building trades. About one-seventh of the apprentices of the city are
+enrolled in these classes. In the main they are full grown men. In
+general they do not want shop work related to their own trades, but
+prefer instead to enroll in courses in drawing.</p>
+
+<p>The considerations already presented bear in minor <a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>degree on the
+problem of providing evening instruction for trade apprentices. The
+essential for efficient work is that a sufficient number of pupils be
+brought together so as to make it possible to organize specialized
+classes in different kinds of work that the pupils want and need. So
+long as there are only 50 apprentices enrolled in the entire city, and
+these represent a number of trades, many different stages of
+advancement, and a variety of needs, truly efficient work will be
+impossible. Better conditions can be brought about only through the
+co&ouml;peration of the unions, the employers, and the school people.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Trade-Extension Work for Journeymen.</i> The evening technical
+schools now maintain shop classes and drawing classes for workers in
+the building trades. Less than one per cent of the workers in these
+trades are enrolled in these classes. There is little differentiation
+in the school work offered to helpers, apprentices, and journeymen.
+The result is that the work is much less efficient than it might well
+be. It cannot be rendered much more efficient than it is until the
+classes are increased in size and as a result the work differentiated
+and specialized. This type of improvement will result only from
+putting the night school work in the hands of skilful and well paid
+directors and teachers who bring to it a degree of energy, enterprise,
+ingenuity, and adaptability that it is unreasonable to expect and
+impossible to get from day school teachers who have already given the
+best that is in them to their regular classes and are giving a
+fatigued margin of work and attention to their night school pupils.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF REPORT ON RAILROAD AND STREET TRANSPORTATION</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The report on railroad and street transportation takes up a class of
+wage earning occupations that give employment in Cleveland to
+approximately 15,000 men. A much larger proportion than is found in
+most other industrial manual occupations are natives of the city.
+Although some of the work is relatively unskilled, all of the
+different occupations have one common characteristic&mdash;the necessity
+for a knowledge of the English language and some acquaintance with
+local customs and conditions. For this reason comparatively few
+foreigners are employed.</p>
+
+<p>The report takes up separately three types of workers, those employed
+in railroad train service, those engaged in wagon or automobile
+transportation, and the car service employees of the street railroad.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Railroad Transportation</h4>
+
+<p>The study covered only those railroad occupations that are directly
+concerned with the actual <a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>operation of trains, such as those of
+engineers, firemen, conductors, and trainmen. These occupations have
+many points in common and bring into play many similar mental and
+physical characteristics. The requirements for entrance are strict and
+examinations for the higher positions are obligatory. In all of them
+the hazards are great. Each occupation is firmly intrenched in trade
+unionism. Differences with employers relating to such matters as
+promotion, hours of labor, wages, and overtime are settled by
+collective bargaining or, in case of failure to agree, by arbitration
+proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>The estimated number of men in Cleveland employed in these occupations
+in 1915 is approximately 4,500. Of these about one-fourth are
+switchmen and flagmen, one-fourth enginemen, one-fifth brakemen,
+one-sixth conductors, and one-eighth firemen.</p>
+
+<p>The requirements for entrance call for a high degree of physical
+fitness. The applicant for employment must pass a severe examination
+as to vision and hearing, and in addition furnish certain data as to
+his family history, as it relates to insanity, tuberculosis, and
+certain other diseases. The high standard maintained insures a type of
+employees which for physical fitness, mental alertness, and ability to
+handle difficult situations is unsurpassed in any industry.</p>
+
+<p>Frequent examinations, which are compulsory, are the stepping stones
+to the higher positions. In this way a brakeman qualifies for the
+position of freight conductor, a freight conductor for that of
+<a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>passenger conductor, and a fireman for a position as engineer.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the two services, passenger and freight, has its advantages.
+In the passenger service the working day is short, with little
+overtime. Freight service requires a longer working day and a
+considerable amount of overtime. Promotions in both services and from
+one to the other are made on the basis of seniority.</p>
+
+<p>Violation of the strict rules laid down for the operation of trains on
+the part of employees may result in reprimand, suspension, or
+dismissal, according to the gravity of the offense. The penalty of
+suspension has practically superseded the others except in extreme
+cases, such as drunkenness, theft, or other serious violations of the
+rules, for which offenders are summarily dismissed. On some railroads,
+a graded system of demerits is used. When an employee has received a
+certain number of demerits he is dismissed from the service.</p>
+
+<p>The railroad unions are among the strongest and most aggressive in the
+country. The total union membership among train operating employees
+alone in the country is approximately 350,000. The unions are all
+modeled upon the same general plan. They are quite independent of each
+other, keep strictly to their agreements and oppose the sympathetic
+strike. They all maintain some form of life insurance. Four
+organizations have underwritten over $500,000,000 of insurance and one
+of them in a single year paid claims amounting to $1,135,000. The
+influence of <a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>these unions has been particularly effective in securing
+the passage of protective state and national legislation such as full
+crew laws, standardization of train equipment, employers' liability
+laws, car limit laws, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The hazardous nature of the work is indicated by a statement made by a
+prominent union official to the effect that the Trainmen's Brotherhood
+paid a claim for death or disability every seven hours. A report to
+the Interstate Commerce Commission states that there is one case of
+injury in train or yard service every nine minutes. With the invention
+of safety devices the risk of accident has been greatly lessened, but
+railroading is still one of the most dangerous industrial occupations.</p>
+
+<p>There is little chance of employment for applicants under the age of
+21 years. In fact, many roads refuse to employ men below this age.
+Physical or sense defects which often accompany advancing years, and
+which would not disqualify a man in other occupations do so in
+railroad work. The average length of the working life is a little over
+12 years.</p>
+
+<p>Railroad employees are among the best paid workers in the country. A
+close estimate based on extensive wage investigations places the
+annual earnings of engineers at from $1,200 to $2,400 a year, with an
+average of $1,600. Conductors average about $1,350, firemen a little
+over $900, and other trainmen about $950. The usual working day is 10
+hours, although this is often exceeded. Overtime is paid <a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>on a regular
+scale agreed upon by the companies and the union.</p>
+
+<p>The educational requirements are not very exacting. A thorough
+grounding in the "three R's" is usually all that is necessary. A large
+amount of trade knowledge is obtained through contact and
+participation after entering employment and can be gained in no other
+way. The examinations for promotion are of a thorough-going character.
+One of the roads in Cleveland requires an examination of its firemen
+and trainmen six months after employment, as to vision, color-sense,
+and hearing. They must also pass an oral examination on the
+characteristics of their division and a written examination on certain
+set questions furnished them in advance. Two years later they are
+examined again, the fireman for engineman, and the brakeman for
+conductor. The scope of these examinations covers the whole range of
+train operating. Each of the five large railroads entering Cleveland
+has air-brake cars equipped with various forms of air brakes, air
+signals, pumps, valves, and injectors for the purpose of giving
+instruction to trainmen. A competent instructor is put in charge of
+these cars to explain the theory and practice of the apparatus and
+also to give instruction in any new type of engine or train equipment.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusions of the report are in the main negative with respect to
+specialized vocational training in the public schools. There is no
+doubt that the general industrial course recommended for the <a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>junior
+high school period in previous chapters would be of some value to boys
+who may enter this line of work. Problems of railroad transportation
+might well be included as part of the work in applied mathematics.
+What workers in these occupations need most, however, is a thorough
+elementary education.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Motor and Wagon Transportation</h4>
+
+<p>This section of the report takes up such occupations as those of
+teamsters, chauffeurs, and repairmen. There are no reliable data as to
+the number of men in the city employed in these occupations, but it is
+certain that it does not fall below 9,000. Notwithstanding the great
+increase in the use of automobiles and auto trucks in recent years the
+number of teamsters at the present time is in excess of 4,000 men. A
+very large proportion of the men employed in these occupations are of
+American birth.</p>
+
+<p>The general conditions of labor such as wages, hours of labor, and so
+on, are the same for teamsters and chauffeurs. They earn about the
+same wages, belong to the same union, and work about the same hours.
+The wages range from 25 to 37 cents an hour. Earnings in the better
+paid jobs compare favorably with those in several of the skilled
+trades. Automobile repairmen earn from 30 to 45 cents an hour, and
+work from nine to 10 hours a day. The working day for teamsters and
+chauffeurs is somewhat longer, ranging from 10 to 12 hours. At the
+<a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>present time these occupations are only partially organized in trade
+unions.</p>
+
+<p>The report recommends the establishment of a course in automobile
+construction and operation in the technical high schools. In view of
+the constantly increasing use of automobiles such a course would be of
+value to many boys besides those who enter employment as chauffeurs
+and truck drivers.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Street Railroad Transportation</h4>
+
+<p>There are employed in Cleveland at present approximately 2,500
+motormen and street car conductors. Almost all of them are of American
+birth, and the majority are natives of the city.</p>
+
+<p>As in railroad work each applicant for employment must pass an
+examination, although the requirements are less exacting than those
+demanded in railroad work. The preliminary training occupies about 10
+days, during which the motorman is taught by actual car operation how
+to operate the controller, how to apply and release the brakes, and
+other duties connected with the careful running of the car through
+crowded streets. The conductor is taught the names of the streets, how
+and when to call them, where stops are to be made, when to turn lights
+on and off, how to act in case of accidents, and the various duties
+which deal with the sale, collection, and reporting of transfers and
+tickets.</p>
+
+<p>No one is admitted into the service before the age of 21 or after 35.
+Promotion usually comes in the <a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>form of better runs. The chances of
+promotion to positions above the grade of conductor or motorman are
+very slight. About 90 per cent of the men belong to the local union.
+Union rates of pay for motormen and conductors are higher in Cleveland
+than in most cities in the country, in spite of the fact that this is
+the only large city in the country with a three cent street car fare.
+The wages of both motormen and conductors are 29 cents an hour for the
+first year and 32 in succeeding years. The hours of labor are very
+irregular. The usual working day is from 10 to 12 hours.</p>
+
+<p>The author of the report is of the opinion that no special instruction
+for this type of workers can be given by the public schools.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE PRINTING TRADES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>A smaller proportion of the industrial population in Cleveland is
+engaged in printing than in most large cities. The number of persons
+employed in printing occupations in 1915 is estimated at approximately
+3,900, made up chiefly of skilled workmen. Little common labor is used
+in any department of the industry.</p>
+
+<p>The business of printing is usually conducted in small establishments.
+There are not more than six plants in the city which employ over 75
+wage earners. Data collected from 44 local printing shops, showed an
+average working force of only 36 persons. Due largely to this
+characteristic printing affords an unusual number of opportunities for
+advancement to the skilled workers in the industry. The smaller the
+establishments are the greater is the proportion of proprietors,
+superintendents, managers and foremen to the total number of wage
+earners. Ten per cent of the total working force in the printing
+industry is employed in supervisory and directive positions. In many
+of the large manufacturing industries of the city the proportion in
+such work is less than three per cent.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram12" id="diagram12"></a><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram12.jpg" width="550" height="499" alt="Diagram 12" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 12.&mdash;Number of men in each 100 in printing and
+five other industries earning each class of weekly wage. <br />Black
+indicates less than $18, hatching, $18 to $25, and outline $25 and
+over<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>No other manufacturing industry employs so large a proportion of
+American born workers. In recent years many of the skilled industrial
+trades have been recruited to a very large extent from foreign labor,
+but in printing the American worker has so far held his own remarkably
+well. This is due in part to the relatively high wages and desirable
+working conditions and to the necessity in all branches of printing
+for a working knowledge of English.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>Practically all of the trades are thoroughly organized. The unions are
+united in a body called the Council of the Allied Printing Trades.
+Although only about half of the shops in the city employ union labor
+exclusively, the union regulations as to wages and hours of labor are
+observed in both open and closed shops.</p>
+
+<p>Printing workers are among the best paid industrial wage earners in
+the city. A comparison of the weekly earnings in the various
+manufacturing industries is shown in Diagram 12. This comparison is
+based upon the 1914 report of the Ohio Industrial Commission.</p>
+
+<p>The comparison of the earnings of women in various industries, shown
+in Diagram 13, is less favorable to printing. On the basis of the
+proportion of women that earn $12 and over per week this industry
+takes third place. It should be noted, however, that nearly all the
+women employed are engaged in semi-skilled work in binderies,&mdash;a lower
+grade of work than that done by most women workers in clothing
+factories, where wages are higher. Compared with other occupations
+that require about the same amount of experience and training, in
+textile, tobacco, and confectionery manufacturing establishments, the
+wages of women employed in the printing industry are relatively high.</p>
+
+<p>Wage earners in printing establishments lose less time through
+irregularity of employment than do those in most other factory
+industries. The kind of work done by women is more seasonal than that
+done <a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>by men, although less so than in other manufacturing industries
+which employ large numbers of women.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="diagram13" id="diagram13"></a>
+<img border="0" src="images/diagram13.jpg" width="563" height="600" alt="Diagram 13" /><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Diagram 13.&mdash;Number of women in each 100 in printing
+and six other industries earning each class of weekly wage. <br />Black
+indicates less than $8, hatching $8 to $12, and outline $12 and over<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">DiagramList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Composing Room Workers</h4>
+
+<p>Nearly all the workers in this department of the industry are hand or
+machine compositors. Until about 30 years ago, before practical
+type-setting machines were invented, all type was set by hand. <a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>Today
+the hand compositor, except in very small shops, works only on jobs
+requiring special type and special arrangement, such as
+advertisements, title covers of books, letter heads, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>In the city there are about 1,200 people employed in composing room
+occupations, or about 30 per cent of the total number of workers in
+the industry. This number includes some 50 women employed as
+proof-readers and copy-holders. Nine-tenths of the composing room
+workers are members of the International Typographical Union, although
+the number of shops that employ union men exclusively, called closed
+shops, approximates only one-half of the total number in the city. The
+remainder, while employing union labor, observing union hours, and
+paying union wages, reserve the right to hire non-union workmen.</p>
+
+<p>Composing room workers are the best paid in the industry. A comparison
+of average wages in newspaper and job establishments is shown in Table
+27.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table27" id="table27"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 27.&mdash;AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF JOB AND NEWSPAPER COMPOSING-ROOM
+WORKERS, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Average Daily Earnings Of Job And Newspaper Composing-Room Workers, 1915">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" width="60%" style="white-space: nowrap; vertical-align: bottom;">Workers in trade</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="20%" style="white-space: nowrap; vertical-align: bottom;">Job offices</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="20%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Newspaper <br />offices</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp">Foremen<br />
+ Linotype machinists<br />
+ Proof-readers<br />
+ Monotype operators<br />
+ Linotypers<br />
+ Monotype casters<br />
+ Stonemen<br />
+ Hand-compositors<br />
+ Copy-holders<br />
+ Apprentices</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">$5.19<br />
+ 4.66<br />
+ 4.63<br />
+ 4.57<br />
+ 4.28<br />
+ 3.96<br />
+ 3.94<br />
+ 3.48<br />
+ 2.30<br />
+ 1.64</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">$6.65<br />
+ 4.84<br />
+ 3.98<br />
+ ... <br />
+ 4.65<br />
+ 4.30<br />
+ 4.89<br />
+ 4.58<br />
+ 2.93<br />
+ 1.30</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>Compositors suffer most from the diseases that are common to indoor
+workers. The stooping position in which much of the work is done,
+together with insufficient ventilation and the presence of gases from
+the molten metal used in monotype and linotype machines, favors the
+development of lung diseases. The number of deaths from consumption
+among compositors is more than double that in most outdoor
+occupations.</p>
+
+<p>The apprenticeship system has held its own in the compositor's trade
+better than in most industrial occupations. In the establishments
+visited by the Survey Staff there were approximately 15 apprentices to
+each 100 hand and machine compositors. As a rule there is no real
+system or method of instruction. The points principally insisted upon
+by the union, which strongly favors the apprenticeship system, are
+that the number of apprentices employed shall not exceed that
+stipulated in the agreement between the employers and the union, and
+that each apprentice shall be required to serve the full term of five
+years.</p>
+
+<p>During the first and second years the apprentice is required to
+perform general work in the composing room under the direction of the
+foreman. In the third year he joins the union as an apprentice. The
+apprenticeship agreement stipulates that during this year he must be
+employed four hours each day at composition and distribution. In the
+fourth and fifth years the number of hours per day on such work is
+increased to six and seven respectively. During the last two years of
+his term he must take the <a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>evening trade course given by the
+International Typographical Union, the expense of tuition being met by
+the local union. The agreement contains no stipulation as to wages for
+the first and second years. The wage for the third year is $9 a week,
+for the fourth year $12, and for the fifth, $15. Apprentices in
+newspaper composing rooms are permitted to spend the last six months
+of their period working on type-setting machines.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Pressroom</h4>
+
+<p>The pressroom occupations include platen and cylinder pressmen, web or
+newspaper pressmen, platen and cylinder pressfeeders, plate printers,
+cutters, flyboys and apprentices. Approximately 15 per cent of the men
+employed are cylinder pressmen, about 10 per cent platen pressmen, and
+less than three per cent web pressmen. Pressfeeders comprise over 40
+per cent of the whole group. Nearly nine-tenths of all pressroom
+workers are employed in job establishments. Five occupations&mdash;those of
+cutters, floormen, flyboys, plate printers, and web pressmen&mdash;give
+employment to fewer than 40 men each.</p>
+
+<p>The average daily earnings of pressroom workers in the establishments
+from which wage data were collected during the survey are shown in
+Table 28.</p>
+
+<p>The hourly rates of pay are high as compared with those in other
+occupations requiring an equal or greater amount of skill and
+knowledge. Cylinder pressmen earn more per hour than do tool and die
+makers&mdash;the most highly skilled of the metal <a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>trades&mdash;and platen
+pressmen in charge of five or more presses earn more than all-round
+machinists and boiler makers. The rate for cylinder pressfeeders is
+about three cents an hour higher than that received for specialized
+machine work in the metal trades.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table28" id="table28"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 28.&mdash;AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF PRESSROOM WORKERS, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Average Daily Earnings Of Pressroom Workers, 1915">
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Job pressroom workers</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td width="70%" class="tdlp4">Foremen</td>
+ <td width="30%" class="tdrp">$4.78</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Cylinder pressmen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">3.63</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Cutters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">3.41</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Platen pressmen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2.97</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Floormen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2.91</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Cylinder pressfeeders, men</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2.54</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Cylinder pressfeeders, women</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">1.77</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Platen pressfeeders, men</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">1.83</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Platen pressfeeders, women</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">1.70</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Flyboys</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">1.56</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Newspaper pressroom workers</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Foremen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">6.11</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Web pressmen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">4.33</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Web pressmen's assistants</td>
+ <td class="tdrp">2.95</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Formal apprenticeship is practically unknown. The boy begins as a
+pressfeeder, usually on a platen press, and in the course of time gets
+to be a platen pressman. A knowledge of platen presswork does not
+qualify a man to run a cylinder press, and as a rule the platen
+pressman who wants to change must serve some time as a cylinder
+pressfeeder and cylinder pressman's assistant. There is no organized
+system for training beginners. The boy who wants to become a pressman
+must pick up the trade through experience and practice, the length of
+time required depending chiefly on how frequently changes occur among
+the force of pressmen employed in the shop.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>The Bindery</h4>
+
+<p>The bindery is the only department of the industry in which any
+considerable number of women are employed. Some of the occupations,
+such as gathering, sewing, and stitching, are practically monopolized
+by women. They are also employed extensively in hand and machine
+folding. About one-fifth are gatherers and one-fifth sewers and
+stitchers. The other three-fifths are distributed among a number of
+occupations usually classed as general bindery work.</p>
+
+<p>The occupations in which men predominate are forwarding, ruling, and
+finishing, and cutting. The forwarders comprise more than one-fourth
+of the total number of men engaged in bindery work. The other two
+skilled trades&mdash;ruling and finishing&mdash;give employment to about 35 men
+each.</p>
+
+<p>The average daily earnings in the various occupations, based on
+returns from 44 establishments, were as shown in Table 29.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table29" id="table29"></a>
+<h4>TABLE 29.&mdash;AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF BINDERY WORKERS, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Average Daily Earnings Of Bindery Workers, 1915">
+ <tr style="line-height: 2em;">
+ <td class="tdc" width="70%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Workers in trade</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Men</td>
+ <td class="tdc" width="15%" style="white-space: nowrap;">Women</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp" style="white-space: nowrap;">Foremen<br />
+ Rulers<br />
+ Finishers<br />
+ Forwarders<br />
+ Cutters<br />
+ Machine-folders<br />
+ Wire-stitchers<br />
+ Apprentices<br />
+ Gatherers<br />
+ Sewers<br />
+ Other bindery operatives</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">$4.78<br />
+ 3.56<br />
+ 3.51<br />
+ 3.23<br />
+ 3.21<br />
+ 2.81<br />
+ ...<br />
+ 1.53<br />
+ ...<br />
+ ...<br />
+ 1.40</td>
+ <td class="tdrp" style="white-space: nowrap;">$2.05<br />
+ ...<br />
+ ...<br />
+ ...<br />
+ ...<br />
+ 1.49<br />
+ 1.57<br />
+ ...<br />
+ 1.52<br />
+ 1.52<br />
+ 1.51</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>On account of the seasonal character of the work considerable time is
+lost through unemployment, particularly in those occupations in which
+women predominate.</p>
+
+<p>Beginners in these occupations in which the majority of the women are
+employed, start on folding or pasting, and as opportunity presents,
+gradually acquire practice in the higher grades of work, such as
+gathering and machine operating. There are some traces of the
+apprenticeship system in forwarding, ruling, and finishing, but these
+trades are so small that all of them combined require only a very few
+new workers each year.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">Other Occupations</h4>
+
+<p>Other departments of the printing industry are photoengraving,
+stereotyping, electrotyping, and lithographing. They give employment
+to approximately 700 workers, distributed among more than 20 distinct
+trades, requiring the most diverse sorts of skill, knowledge, and
+training. There are about 100 men in the city engaged in the different
+processes of photoengraving. Nearly all of the stereotypers, numbering
+from 60 to 70, are employed in newspaper offices. There are about 125
+electrotypers and 400 lithographers. The labor conditions closely
+approximate those found in other departments of the industry. Average
+wages for the different occupations are shown in Table 30.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name="table30" id="table30"></a>
+<h4><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>TABLE 30.&mdash;AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS IN PHOTOENGRAVING, STEREOTYPING,
+<br />ELECTROTYPING, AND LITHOGRAPHING OCCUPATIONS, 1915<span class="tot"><a href="#TableList">TableList</a></span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="50%" summary="Average Daily Earnings Of Pressroom Workers, 1915">
+ <tr>
+ <td width="70%" class="tdc" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Workers in trade</td>
+ <td width="30%" class="tdc">Average<br />daily earnings</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Photoengraving</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Artists</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">$6.32</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Photographers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.69</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Etchers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.52</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Routers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.25</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Finishers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.21</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Proofers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">3.69</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Strippers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">3.61</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Blockers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">2.36</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Apprentices</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.49</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Art apprentices</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.27</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" style="line-height: .3em;" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl">Stereotyping</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.00</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" style="line-height: .3em;" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Electrotyping</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Molders</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.41</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Finishers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.01</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Casters</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">3.18</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Routers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">3.17</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Builders</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">3.13</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Blockers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">2.05</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Batterymen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.97</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Case fillers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.59</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Apprentices</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.10</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" style="line-height: .3em;" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lithographing</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Lettermen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">6.63</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Artists</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">6.41</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Pressroom foremen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">5.80</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Grainers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.73</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Engravers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">4.35</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Pressmen</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">3.91</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Transferers and proofers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">3.41</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Pressroom apprentices</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">2.80</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Tracers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">2.63</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Stone polishers</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">2.53</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Pressfeeders</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.72</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Other apprentices</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.59</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Artist apprentices</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.23</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdlp4">Flyboys</td>
+ <td class="tdrp4">1.10</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>There is no well organized system for training apprentices in
+photoengraving, stereotyping, and electrotyping, or in any of the
+lithographic trades, except that of poster artist, in which an
+efficient and strictly regulated system of apprenticeship is
+maintained.</p>
+
+
+<br />
+<h4 class="sc">The Problem of Training</h4>
+
+<p>The report maintains that up to the end of the compulsory attendance
+period school training preparatory to entering the printing trades
+must be of the most general sort, due to the fact that in the average
+elementary school the number of boys who are likely to become printers
+is too small to form special classes. For example, in an elementary
+school of 1,000 pupils the number of boys 12 years old and over to
+whom instruction in printing would be of value from the standpoint of
+future vocational utility, would probably not exceed two. While
+admitting the advantages of the junior high school for the purposes of
+vocational training, the report points out that even in a school where
+only pupils of the upper grades are admitted, the number who are
+likely to become printers is still too small to warrant special
+instruction. In a junior high school of 1,000 pupils not more than
+nine boys are likely to become printers.</p>
+
+<p>The report recommends a general industrial course during the junior
+high school period. What the boys need at this time is practice in the
+application of mathematics, drawing, and elementary science to
+industrial problems. Shop equipment should be <a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>selected with this
+object in mind. It is doubtful whether it should include a printing
+shop, for while such a shop would be useful to the few boys who will
+become printers, it would be of little value in training for other
+industries. The report suggests as subjects which should be included
+in the general industrial course practice in handling and assembling
+machinery, the study of color harmony, and the principles of design in
+connection with the work in drawing, the use of printing shop problems
+in applied mathematics, and thorough instruction in spelling,
+punctuation, and the division of words. It also recommends the course
+of industrial information referred to in previous chapters.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of a two year printing course in a separate
+vocational school is recommended to meet the need for specialized
+instruction from the end of the compulsory period to the apprentice
+entering age. The printing trades are relatively small and it is only
+by concentrating in a single school plant all the boys who may wish to
+enter them that specialized training can be made practicable. In this
+way it would be possible to secure classes of from 60 to 100 boys each
+for such trades as composition and presswork. The report emphasizes
+the need for instruction in trade theory as against practice on
+specific operations. It points out that the boys will have plenty of
+opportunity after they go to work to acquire speed and manual skill,
+while they have little chance, under modern shop conditions, to obtain
+an understanding of the <a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>relation of drawing, physics, chemistry,
+mathematics, and art to their work.</p>
+
+<p>The only trade extension training offered by the public schools at the
+present time is that given in the technical night schools. During the
+second term of 1915-16 there were 28 persons enrolled in the technical
+night school printing class. Of these 28 persons three were journeymen
+printers, five described themselves as "helpers," 11 were apprentices,
+one was employed in the office of a printing establishment, and eight
+were engaged in occupations unrelated to printing. No special
+provision is made for the apprentices. The course, which includes hand
+composition, a little press work, and lectures on trade subjects, is
+planned "to help broaden the shop training of those working at the
+trade." That it does so to any considerable extent is doubtful. Too
+much of the time is devoted to hand work and practice on operations
+which the boys can easily learn in the shops. It is believed that the
+plan followed in the evening apprentice course prescribed by the
+International Typographical Union, in which no shop equipment or
+apparatus is used, is better adapted to the needs of boys employed in
+the trade. The course consists of 46 lessons in English, lettering,
+design, color harmony, job composition, and imposition for machine,
+and hand folding. The classes are taught by journeymen teachers. In
+February 1916 about 100 students were enrolled, of whom approximately
+one-third were apprentices and two-thirds journeymen.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<h3><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>CLEVELAND EDUCATION SURVEY REPORTS</h3>
+<br />
+
+<p>These reports can be secured from the Survey Committee of the
+Cleveland Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio. They will be sent postpaid for
+25 cents per volume with the exception of "Measuring the Work of the
+Public Schools" by Judd, "The Cleveland School Survey" by Ayres, and
+"Wage Earning and Education" by Lutz. These three volumes will be sent
+for 50 cents each. All of these reports may be secured at the same
+rates from the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation,
+New York City.</p>
+
+<div class="left20">
+<p class="noin">Child Accounting in the Public Schools&mdash;Ayres.</p>
+<p class="noin">Educational Extension&mdash;Perry.</p>
+<p class="noin">Education through Recreation&mdash;Johnson.</p>
+<p class="noin">Financing the Public Schools&mdash;Clark.</p>
+<p class="noin">Health Work in the Public Schools&mdash;Ayres.</p>
+<p class="noin">Household Arts and School Lunches&mdash;Boughton.</p>
+<p class="noin">Measuring the Work of the Public Schools&mdash;Judd.</p>
+<p class="noin">Overcrowded Schools and the Platoon Plan&mdash;Hartwell.</p>
+<p class="noin">School Buildings and Equipment&mdash;Ayres.</p>
+<p class="noin">Schools and Classes for Exceptional Children&mdash;Mitchell.</p>
+<p class="noin">School Organization and Administration&mdash;Ayres.</p>
+<p class="noin">The Public Library and the Public Schools&mdash;Ayres and McKinnie.</p>
+<p class="noin">The School and the Immigrant&mdash;Miller.</p>
+<p class="noin">The Teaching Staff&mdash;Jessup.</p>
+<p class="noin">What the Schools Teach and Might Teach&mdash;Bobbitt.</p>
+<p class="noin">The Cleveland School Survey (Summary)&mdash;Ayres.</p>
+<br />
+<p class="noin">Boys and Girls in Commercial Work&mdash;Stevens.</p>
+<p class="noin">Department Store Occupations&mdash;O'Leary.</p>
+<p class="noin">Dressmaking and Millinery&mdash;Bryner.</p>
+<p class="noin">Railroad and Street Transportation&mdash;Fleming.</p>
+<p class="noin">The Building Trades&mdash;Shaw.</p>
+<p class="noin">The Garment Trades&mdash;Bryner.</p>
+<p class="noin">The Metal Trades&mdash;Lutz.</p>
+<p class="noin">The Printing Trades&mdash;Shaw.</p>
+<p class="noin">Wage Earning and Education (Summary)&mdash;Lutz.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<div class="tr">
+<div class="left10">
+<p class="noin">Transcriber's Notes.<br />
+Typos Corrected In Text: <br /><br />
+Table 15 on page 120: establishments for estabments <br />
+page 194: "car fare" for "car far" <br />
+page 15: employee for employe</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Wage Earning and Education, by R. R. Lutz
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wage Earning and Education, by R. R. Lutz
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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+
+
+Title: Wage Earning and Education
+
+Author: R. R. Lutz
+
+Release Date: October 30, 2005 [EBook #16964]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION ***
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+ | Transcriber's Note: Some very obvious typos |
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+
+WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION
+
+THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION
+
+Charles E. Adams, Chairman
+Thomas G. Fitzsimons
+Myrta L. Jones
+Bascom Little
+Victor W. Sincere
+
+Arthur D. Baldwin, Secretary
+James R. Garfield, Counsel
+Allen T. Burns, Director
+
+THE EDUCATION SURVEY
+
+Leonard P. Ayres, Director
+
+CLEVELAND EDUCATION SURVEY
+
+
+
+
+WAGE EARNING AND
+EDUCATION
+
+BY
+R.R. LUTZ
+
+THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION
+CLEVELAND . OHIO
+
+1916
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY
+THE SURVEY COMMITTEE OF THE
+CLEVELAND FOUNDATION
+
+
+WM. F. FELL CO. PRINTERS
+PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+This summary volume, entitled "Wage Earning and Education," is one of
+the 25 sections of the report of the Education Survey of Cleveland
+conducted by the Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation in 1915
+and 1916. Copies of all the publications may be obtained from the
+Cleveland Foundation. They may also be obtained from the Division of
+Education of the Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. A complete
+list will be found in the back of this volume, together with prices.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+ PAGE
+Foreword 5
+List of Tables 10
+List of Diagrams 12
+
+CHAPTER
+ I. THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY 13
+ Types of occupations studied 13
+ The Survey staff and methods of work 14
+
+ II. FORECASTING FUTURE PROBABILITIES 18
+ The popular concept of industrial education 19
+ The importance of relative numbers 20
+ A constructive program must fit the facts 23
+ An actuarial basis for industrial education 24
+
+ III. THE WAGE EARNERS OF CLEVELAND 25
+
+ IV. THE FUTURE WAGE EARNERS OF CLEVELAND 29
+ The public schools 29
+ Ages of pupils 32
+ Education at the time of leaving school 34
+
+ V. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR BOYS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 38
+ What the boys in school will do 40
+ Organization and costs 44
+ What the elementary schools can do 45
+
+ VI. THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 47
+ Specialized training not practicable 48
+ A general industrial course 49
+ Industrial mathematics 52
+ Mechanical Drawing 54
+ Industrial science 55
+ Shop work 56
+ Vocational information 58
+
+ VII. TRADE TRAINING DURING THE LAST YEARS IN SCHOOL 60
+ The technical high schools 62
+ A two-year trade course 66
+
+ VIII. TRADE-PREPARATORY AND TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING
+ FOR BOYS AND MEN AT WORK 69
+ Continuation training from 15 to 18 74
+ The technical night schools 76
+ A combined program of continuation and trade-extension
+ training 80
+
+ IX. VOCATIONAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 83
+ Differentiation in the junior high school 86
+ Specialized training for the sewing trades 88
+ Other occupations 90
+
+ X. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 92
+ The work of the vocational counselor 92
+ The Girls' Vocation Bureau 94
+
+ XI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 97
+
+
+SUMMARIES OF SPECIAL REPORTS
+
+ XII. BOYS AND GIRLS IN COMMERCIAL WORK 101
+ A general view of commercial work 106
+ Bookkeeping 108
+ Stenography 108
+ Clerks' positions 109
+ Wages and regularity of employment 110
+ The problem of training 111
+
+ XIII. DEPARTMENT STORE OCCUPATIONS 115
+ Department stores 115
+ Neighborhood stores 116
+ Five and ten cent stores 117
+ Wages 118
+ Regularity of employment 122
+ Opportunities for advancement 123
+ The problem of training 124
+ Character of the instruction 129
+
+ XIV. THE GARMENT TRADES 131
+ Characteristics of the working force 132
+ Earnings 135
+ Regularity of employment 139
+ Training and promotion 140
+ Educational needs 143
+ Sewing courses in the public schools 145
+ Elective sewing courses in the junior high school 147
+ A one year trade course for girls 148
+ Trade extension training 149
+
+ XV. DRESSMAKING AND MILLINERY 151
+ Dressmaking 151
+ Millinery 153
+ The problem of training 156
+
+ XVI. THE METAL TRADES 158
+ Foundry and machine shop products 159
+ Automobile manufacturing 169
+ Steel works, rolling mills, and related industries 170
+
+ XVII. THE BUILDING TRADES 173
+ Sources of labor supply 173
+ Apprenticeship 174
+ Union organization 176
+ Earnings 176
+ Hours 178
+ Regularity of employment 179
+ Health conditions 179
+ Opportunities for advancement 180
+ The problem of training 181
+
+XVIII. RAILROAD AND STREET TRANSPORTATION 187
+ Railroad transportation 187
+ Motor and wagon transportation 192
+ Street railroad transportation 193
+
+ XIX. THE PRINTING TRADES 195
+ The composing room 198
+ The pressroom 201
+ The bindery 203
+ Other occupations 204
+ The problem of training 206
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF TABLES
+
+
+TABLE PAGE
+ 1. Occupational distribution of the working population
+ of Cleveland 26
+
+ 2. Nativity of the working population in Cleveland 27
+
+ 3. Pupils enrolled in the different grades of the public
+ day schools in June, 1915 30
+
+ 4. Enrollment of high school pupils, second semester,
+ 1914-15 31
+
+ 5. Ages of pupils enrolled in public elementary, high,
+ and normal schools in June, 1915 33
+
+ 6. Educational equipment of the children who drop out
+ of the public schools each year, as indicated by
+ the grades from which they leave 35
+
+ 7. Per cent of total male working population engaged in
+ specified occupations, 1900 and 1910 40
+
+ 8. Distribution of native born men between the ages of
+ 21 and 45 in the principal occupational groups 41
+
+ 9. Distribution of third and fourth year students in
+ trade courses in the Cleveland technical high
+ schools, first semester, 1915-16 63
+
+10. Distribution by occupations of Cleveland's technical
+ school graduates 64
+
+11. Time allotment in the apprentice course given by the
+ Warner and Swasey Company, Cleveland 70
+
+12. Course and number enrolled in the technical night
+ schools, January, 1915 77
+
+13. Per cent of total population engaged in gainful
+ occupations during three different age periods 84
+
+14. Number employed in the principal wage earning
+ occupations among each 1,000 women from 16 to 21
+ years of age 85
+
+15. Per cent of women employees over 18 years of age
+ earning $12 a week and over 120
+
+16. Wages for full-time working week, women's clothing,
+ Cleveland, 1915 139
+
+17. Average wages for full-time working week for similar
+ workers, in men's and women's clothing, Cleveland,
+ 1915 139
+
+18. Proportions and estimated numbers employed in machine
+ tool occupations, 1915 161
+
+19. Average, highest, and lowest earnings, in cents per
+ hour, and per cent employed on piece work and day
+ work, 1915 162
+
+20. Estimated time required to learn machine tool work 164
+
+21. Average earnings per hour in pattern making, molding,
+ core making, blacksmithing, and boiler making 166
+
+22. Estimated number of men engaged in building trades,
+ 1915 174
+
+23. Union regulations as to entering age of apprentice 175
+
+24. Union regulations as to length of apprenticeship
+ period 175
+
+25. Union scale of wages in cents per hour, May 1, 1915 177
+
+26. Usual weekly wages of apprentices in three building
+ trades 178
+
+27. Average daily earnings of job and newspaper composing
+ room workers, 1915 199
+
+28. Average daily earnings of pressroom workers, 1915 202
+
+29. Average daily earnings of bindery workers, 1915 203
+
+30. Average daily earnings in photoengraving, stereotyping,
+ electrotyping, and lithographing occupations, 1915 205
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF DIAGRAMS
+
+
+DIAGRAM PAGE
+ 1. Boys and girls under 18 years of age in office work 103
+
+ 2. Men and women 18 years of age and over in clerical
+ and administrative work in offices 104
+
+ 3. Per cent of women earning each class of weekly wages
+ in each of six occupations 119
+
+ 4. Per cent of salesmen and of men clerical workers in
+ stores, receiving each class of weekly wage 121
+
+ 5. Per cent of male workers in non-clerical positions in
+ six industries earning $18 per week and over 122
+
+ 6. Per cent that the average number of women employed
+ during the year is of the highest number employed
+ in each of six industries 123
+
+ 7. Distribution of 8,337 clothing workers by sex in the
+ principal occupations in the garment industry 134
+
+ 8. Percentage of women in men's and women's clothing and
+ seven other important women employing industries
+ receiving under $8, $8 to $12, and $12 and over
+ per week 136
+
+ 9. Percentage of men in men's and women's clothing and
+ seven other manufacturing industries receiving
+ under $18, $18 to $25, and $25 and over per week 138
+
+10. Average number of unemployed among each 100 workers,
+ men's clothing, women's clothing, and fifteen
+ other specified industries 141
+
+11. Percentages of unemployment in each of nine building
+ industries 180
+
+12. Number of men in each 100 in printing and five other
+ industries earning each class of weekly wage 196
+
+13. Number of women in each 100 in printing and six other
+ industries earning each class of weekly wage 198
+
+
+
+
+WAGE EARNING AND EDUCATION
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY
+
+
+The education survey of Cleveland was undertaken in April, 1915, at
+the invitation of the Cleveland Board of Education and the Survey
+Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, and continued until June, 1916.
+As a part of the work detailed studies were made of the leading
+industries of the city for the purpose of determining what measures
+should be taken by the public school system to prepare young people
+for wage-earning occupations and to provide supplementary trade
+instruction for those already in employment. The studies also dealt
+with all forms of vocational education conducted at that time under
+public school auspices.
+
+
+TYPES OF OCCUPATIONS STUDIED
+
+Separate studies were made of the metal industry, building and
+construction, printing and publishing, railroad and street
+transportation, clothing manufacture, department store work, and
+clerical occupations. The wage-earners in these fields of employment
+constitute nearly 60 per cent of the total number of persons engaged
+in gainful occupations and include 95 per cent of the skilled workmen
+in the city. The survey also gave considerable attention to the
+various types of semi-skilled work found in the principal industries.
+
+Each separate study was assigned to a particular member of the Survey
+Staff who personally carried on the field investigations and later
+submitted a report to the director of the survey. Each report was also
+subjected to careful analysis and criticism from other members of the
+Survey Staff before it was finally passed upon by the Survey
+Committee. Mimeographed copies were sent to representatives of the
+industry and to the superintendent of schools and members of the
+school board and their criticisms and suggestions were given careful
+consideration before the Committee and the director of the survey gave
+their final approval to the publication of the report. The value of
+the work was greatly enhanced through the ample discussion of the
+different studies from widely diverse points of view secured in this
+way. The industrial studies were carried through under the direction
+of the author of this summary volume.
+
+
+THE SURVEY STAFF AND METHODS OF WORK
+
+The reports of the studies relating to vocational education were
+published in a series of eight separate monograph volumes. The names
+of the reports and the previous experience in educational and
+investigational work of each member of the Survey Staff are as
+follows:
+
+ "Boys and Girls in Commercial Work"--Bertha M. Stevens; teacher
+ in elementary and secondary schools; agent of Associated
+ Charities; secretary of Consumers' League of Ohio; director of
+ Girls' Bureau of Cleveland; author of "Women's Work in
+ Cleveland"; co-author of "Commercial Work and Training for
+ Girls."
+
+ "Department Store Occupations"--Iris P. O'Leary; head of manual
+ training department, First Pennsylvania Normal School; head of
+ vocational work for girls and women, New Bedford Industrial
+ School; head of girls' department, Boardman Apprentice Shops, New
+ Haven, Conn.; special investigator of department stores for New
+ York State Factory Investigating Commission; three years' trade
+ experience as employer and employee; author of books on household
+ arts and department stores; Special Assistant for Vocational
+ Education, State Department of Public Instruction, New Jersey.
+
+ "The Garment Trades" and "Dressmaking and Millinery"--Edna Bryner;
+ teacher in grades, high school, and state normal college; eugenic
+ research worker New Jersey State Hospital; statistical expert in
+ United States Bureau of Labor Investigation of women and child
+ labor; statistical agent United States Post Office Department;
+ Special Agent Russell Sage Foundation.
+
+ "The Building Trades," and "The Printing Trades"--Frank L. Shaw;
+ teacher in grades and high school; principal of high school;
+ assistant superintendent of schools; superintendent of schools;
+ special agent United States Immigration Commission; special agent
+ United States Census; industrial secretary North American Civic
+ League for Immigrants; author of reports on immigration
+ legislation.
+
+ "The Metal Trades"--R.R. Lutz; teacher in rural and graded
+ schools; superintendent of schools; secretary of Department of
+ Education of Porto Rico; took part in school surveys of Greenwich,
+ Conn., Bridgeport, Conn., Springfield, Ill., Richmond, Va.;
+ Special Agent Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation.
+
+ "Railroad and Street Transportation"--Ralph D. Fleming; special
+ agent and investigator for United States Immigration Commission,
+ the Federal Census of Manufacturers, the United States Tariff
+ Board, the Minimum Wage Commission of Massachusetts, the National
+ Civic Federation, and the United States Commission on Industrial
+ Relations.
+
+The work began in April, 1915, and ended in the same month of the
+following year. Two members of the staff, with one stenographer and a
+clerk, were employed during the entire period. One member of the staff
+was employed 11 months, one nine months, one approximately five
+months, and one two months.
+
+The field investigations consisted largely of visits to industrial
+establishments for the purpose of securing first-hand information as
+to industrial conditions and the nature and educational content of
+particular occupations. Over 400 visits of this kind were made by
+members of the Survey Staff. Many conferences were held with employers
+and employees with the object of securing their views as to the needs
+and possibilities of industrial training.
+
+The task of tabulating and classifying the data obtained by the
+individual investigators in their visits to the local industrial
+establishments involved much time and labor. Although it was not found
+practicable to maintain complete uniformity in the different
+inquiries, the members of the staff kept in close touch with each
+other, so that with respect to the points of principal importance, the
+results of their investigations are comparable. Practically every
+recommendation made in the reports was discussed in conferences with
+school principals and with other members of the teaching force engaged
+in the teaching of vocational subjects.
+
+Throughout the survey the objective held constantly in mind was the
+formulation of a constructive program of vocational training in the
+public schools. In outlining the field of inquiry a clear distinction
+was drawn between those kinds of general education which have a more
+or less indirect vocational significance, and vocational training for
+specific occupations in which the controlling purpose is direct
+preparation for wage-earning. The studies were purposely limited to
+this latter type of vocational training. The survey did not concern
+itself with manual training conducted for general educational ends,
+with the art work of the schools, or with courses in domestic science
+and household arts. These subjects in the curriculum were dealt with
+in different sections of the education survey, but were considered as
+being outside the legitimate field of the vocational survey.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FORECASTING FUTURE PROBABILITIES
+
+
+The industrial education survey of Cleveland differs from other
+studies conducted elsewhere in that it bases its educational program
+on a careful study of the probable future occupational distribution of
+the young people now in school. It does not claim to foretell the
+specific positions that individual boys and girls will hold when they
+are adults but it does claim very definitely that our safest guide in
+foretelling their future vocational distribution is to be found in the
+official figures of the present occupational census of the city.
+
+One of the most familiar and time-worn platitudes of educational
+speakers and writers is that "The children of today are the citizens
+of tomorrow." In the field of industrial education it is quite as true
+that the school children of today are the workers of tomorrow.
+Moreover, since occupational distributions change but slowly even in
+these modern times, it is unquestionably true that the boys and girls
+now studying in the public schools will soon be scattered among the
+different gainful occupations of Cleveland's industrial, commercial,
+and professional life in just about the same proportions as their
+fathers and mothers and brothers and sisters are now distributed.
+
+The plan of the survey in advocating types of present preparation
+based on studies of future prospects seems at first sight so obvious a
+mode of procedure as hardly to warrant extended explanation. This is
+far from being the case. The reader who proposes to follow the
+working-out of the principle and to scrutinize the evidence underlying
+it must be prepared to scan many a detailed table of statistics and to
+arrive at most unforeseen conclusions.
+
+
+THE POPULAR CONCEPT OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
+
+For many years past the public has given respectful attention to the
+arguments of the champions of industrial education. There has been
+general assent to the proposition that the schools should train for
+and not away from the industrial age in which we live. We have come to
+think of the carpenter shop, the machine shop, the forge shop, and the
+cooking room as necessary and desirable adjuncts of the modern school
+and to our minds these shops have typified industrial education. All
+of these have come to be almost synonymous with progressive thought
+and action in public education. Very generally it has been felt that
+the problems of industrial education were to be solved through the
+wider extension of these shop facilities in our public schools.
+
+When these familiar generalizations are submitted to careful analysis
+their whole structure begins to totter. In Cleveland about 3,700 boys
+leave school each year and go to work. They represent various stages
+of advancement from the 4th grade of the elementary school to the 4th
+year of the high school. They are scattered through more than 100
+school buildings. The problem of industrial education is to give these
+boys with their differing ages, their widely varied school
+preparation, and their scattered geographical distribution, the best
+possible preparation for taking their places in the work-a-day world.
+They represent every grade of intelligence, every stratum of social
+and economic life, and it is extremely difficult to bring them
+together for instructional purposes. They are scattered in little
+groups through more than a thousand classrooms.
+
+
+THE IMPORTANCE OF RELATIVE NUMBERS
+
+Now it is possible to foretell with some certainty what these young
+people will be doing a few years from now. Almost all of them are of
+American birth and it is certain that in a few years they will be
+engaged in doing just about the same sorts of work as are now done in
+the city of Cleveland by adults of American birth. The data of the
+United States Census of Occupations show us that among every 100
+American born men in Cleveland there are eight who are clerks, seven
+who are machinists, four who are salesmen, and so on through the list
+of hundreds of occupations. The number of American born men in each
+100 engaged in each of the 10 leading sorts of occupations is
+approximately as follows:
+
+ Clerks 8
+ Machinists 7
+ Salesmen 4
+ Laborers and porters 4
+ Retail dealers 4
+ Draymen, teamsters, etc. 4
+ Bookkeepers 3
+ Carpenters 3
+ Commercial travelers 2
+ Manufacturers 2
+ ----
+ 41
+
+This simple list at once calls into question all the standard
+assumptions about the extension of industrial education depending on
+greatly increasing the number of carpenter shops and machine shops in
+the public schools. The figures show that among each 100 American born
+men in Cleveland only seven are machinists and only three are
+carpenters. Clearly we should not be justified in training all the
+boys in our public schools to enter the machinist's trade or the
+carpenter's trade when nine out of each 10 will in all probability
+engage in entirely different sorts of future work. The more the
+figures of the little table given above are studied, the clearer it
+appears that our conventional ideas about industrial education need
+critical scrutiny and careful challenge. These 10 leading occupations
+include only 41 out of each 100 American born men. Moreover, more than
+half of these 41 are engaged in mental work rather than in manual
+work.
+
+From these considerations one definite conclusion inevitably emerges.
+It is that the safest guide for thinking and planning for industrial
+education is to be found in a study of the occupational distribution
+of the present adults. From the very outset such a study indicates
+that the most difficult and important problems which must be met and
+coped with are not those relating to methods of instruction but rather
+those of organization and administration. The future carpenters and
+machinists cannot be taught until we can get them together in fair
+sized classes. They represent the most numerous of the industrial
+groups and yet their numbers are relatively so few that the average
+Cleveland school sends out into the world each year only two or three
+future machinists and perhaps one future carpenter.
+
+The trouble with present thinking about this matter has been that we
+have noted the very large numbers of machinists and carpenters in the
+population and have failed to realize that while these groups are
+numerous in the aggregate they are after all quite small when
+relatively considered and compared with the total number of workers.
+
+Another important fact that has been almost invariably overlooked is
+that many of the present carpenters and machinists are foreigners by
+birth and that there is every prospect that this same condition will
+maintain in the future. Hence these trades and most other industrial
+occupations are not recruited from our public schools to anything like
+the degree that has been assumed.
+
+
+A CONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAM MUST FIT THE FACTS
+
+The simple principle which underlies the method employed by the survey
+is the same on which all large business undertakings are conducted.
+The results of its application in the field of industrial education
+are, however, fundamentally different from those commonly arrived at
+on the assumption that nine-tenths of the rising generation will earn
+their living in industrial pursuits. The fact is that no such
+proportion of the children in school will become industrial workers.
+All the native born labor now employed in manufacturing and mechanical
+industries constitutes only 44 per cent of the total number of native
+born workers in the city. Moreover, nearly half of the industrial
+workers are employed in unskilled and semi-skilled occupations for
+which no training is required beyond a few days' or weeks' practice on
+the job. Such training calls for a mechanical equipment far more
+extensive than the resources of the school system can provide, and can
+be given by the factory more effectively and much more cheaply than by
+the schools.
+
+In the final analysis, the problem of industrial training narrows down
+to the skilled industrial trades. Approximately 22 per cent of the
+total number of American workers in the city are employed in skilled
+manual occupations. This does not mean that a constructive program of
+industrial education would affect 22 per cent of the present school
+enrollment. All the weight of educational opinion and experience is on
+the side of excluding the children of the lower and middle age groups
+as too young to profit by any sort of industrial training, while the
+evidence collected by the survey goes to show that of the remainder
+less than one-fifth of the girls and one-fourth of the boys are likely
+to become skilled industrial workers.
+
+
+AN ACTUARIAL BASIS FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
+
+Considerations like the foregoing have determined the fundamental
+method of the Cleveland Industrial Survey. Plans for the present
+generation have been formulated on the basis of future prospects as
+foretold by state and federal census data. The methods used were
+characterized by a member of the Cleveland Foundation Survey Committee
+as "the actuarial basis of vocational education." This is accurately
+descriptive, because the method of forecasting the number of men the
+community will need for each wage-earning occupation closely resembles
+that employed by life insurance actuaries in foretelling how long men
+of different ages are likely to live. Such methods are similar to
+those commonly used in commerce and industry. They deal with mass data
+rather than with individual figures, and with relative values rather
+than with absolute ones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAGE EARNERS OF CLEVELAND
+
+
+In 1910 Cleveland ranked sixth among the cities of the United States
+as to number of inhabitants, with a population of approximately
+561,000. The city is growing rapidly. From 1900 to 1910 the increase
+in the total number of inhabitants was over 46 per cent. The Census
+Bureau estimate of the population in 1914 is approximately 639,000.
+
+Of the 10 largest cities in the country only one--Detroit--had in 1910
+a greater proportion of its wage earners engaged in industrial
+employment than Cleveland. Relatively Cleveland has one and one-fourth
+times as many industrial workers as New York, Chicago, St. Louis, or
+Baltimore, and one and two-fifths times as many as Boston. On the
+other hand a smaller proportion of the adult workers of the city earn
+their living in professional, clerical, and commercial work, or in
+domestic and personal service employments than in most large cities.
+
+Table 1 shows by large occupational groups the distribution in 1910 of
+the working population in Cleveland. The classification is that
+adopted by the federal census. More than 56 per cent of the male
+workers of the city and about 33 per cent of the women workers were
+engaged in manufacturing and mechanical occupations. The trade group
+ranks next, about 14 per cent of the men and approximately 11 per cent
+of the women being engaged in commercial occupations. Of each 100
+women in employment 30 are servants, laundresses, housekeepers, or are
+engaged in some other form of personal service, while only five men of
+each 100 earn their living in this kind of work. Railroad and street
+transportation, with the telegraph and telephone and mail systems of
+communication, requires the services of 11 per cent of the male
+working population, but uses very few women. About seven per cent of
+the men and 15 per cent of the women are employed in clerical work. A
+slightly larger ratio of women to men is found in the professional
+occupations, due mainly to the large number of women in the teaching
+profession. The whole professional group constitutes less than five
+per cent of the total working population.
+
+
+TABLE 1.--OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING POPULATION OF
+CLEVELAND, CENSUS OF OCCUPATIONS, 1910
+
+----------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------
+Occupational group | Men | Women | Total
+----------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------
+Manufacturing and mechanical industries | 109,644 | 18,201 | 127,845
+Trade | 27,229 | 5,942 | 33,171
+Domestic and personal service | 9,546 | 16,467 | 26,063
+Transportation | 21,530 | 1,110 | 22,640
+Clerical occupations | 14,047 | 8,100 | 22,147
+Professional service | 7,204 | 4,869 | 12,073
+Public service | 3,461 | 39 | 3,500
+Agricultural and extraction of minerals | 1,367 | 80 | 1,447
+----------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------
+Total | 194,078 | 54,808 | 248,886
+----------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------
+
+From the standpoint of vocational training one of the most striking
+facts about Cleveland wage-earners is that a large majority of them
+are not Clevelanders. Almost exactly half of the men in gainful
+employment were born outside the United States and, due to the rapid
+growth of the city, there has been a considerable influx of workers
+from the surrounding country in recent years, so that a large
+proportion even of the American working population was born, brought
+up, and educated in some other place. The number and per cent of
+foreign born, of foreign or mixed parentage but born in this country,
+and of native parentage is shown in Table 2.
+
+
+TABLE 2.--NATIVITY OF THE WORKING POPULATION IN CLEVELAND. U.S.
+CENSUS, 1910
+
+----------------------------+-------------------+-----------------
+ | Men | Women
+ +--------+----------+--------+--------
+Nativity | Number | Per cent | Number |Per cent
+----------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------
+Foreign born | 96,291 | 50 | 16,673 | 31
+Foreign or mixed parentage | 55,074 | 28 | 24,275 | 44
+Native parentage | 42,713 | 22 | 13,860 | 25
+----------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------
+Total |194,078 | 100 | 54,808 | 100
+----------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------
+
+More than three-fourths are foreign or of foreign or mixed parentage.
+The proportion of those born in this country of American parentage is
+approximately the same for both sexes, but the number of women workers
+of mixed parentage is relatively much larger than among the men.
+Roughly, of each 10 men employed in gainful occupations, five, and of
+each 10 working women, three, were born abroad.
+
+The large proportion of foreigners in the trades has an important
+bearing on the problem of vocational training. Some of the skilled
+occupations are monopolized by foreign labor to such an extent that
+they offer a very limited field of employment for native workmen.
+Cabinet making, tailoring, molding, blacksmithing, baking, and shoe
+making, are examples. Some of these trades have practically ceased to
+recruit from American labor. This condition has to be constantly borne
+in mind in planning training courses to prepare boys for the skilled
+trades, because of the marked disparity which often exists between the
+size of a trade and the field of opportunity it presents for boys of
+native birth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FUTURE WAGE-EARNERS OF CLEVELAND
+
+
+In 1915 there were in Cleveland approximately 50,000 boys between the
+ages of six and 15, and 56,000 girls between the ages of six and 16,
+the age period during which school attendance is required by law. Of
+these 106,000 children approximately 37,000 boys and 38,000 girls were
+enrolled in the public schools. Exact data as to those attending
+private and parochial schools are not available. The total enrollment
+in such schools has been variously estimated as between 25,000 and
+30,000.
+
+
+THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS
+
+The public school system in 1915 enrolled approximately 82,000
+children of all ages, of whom about half were boys and half girls.
+They are taught in 98 elementary schools and 10 high schools. The
+elementary course comprises eight grades. At the beginning of the
+school year 1915-16 two junior high schools were opened for pupils of
+the seventh and eighth grades. It is to be expected that this plan
+will soon be extended throughout the city, so that the enrollment in
+elementary schools will be made up of pupils of the first six grades
+only. The distribution by grade is given in Table 3. The kindergarten
+grades and the special ungraded classes are omitted.
+
+
+TABLE 3.--PUPILS ENROLLED IN THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF THE PUBLIC DAY
+SCHOOLS IN JUNE, 1915
+
+-------------------+--------------------
+ Grade | Pupils
+-------------------+--------------------
+ 1 | 13,108
+ 2 | 10,857
+ 3 | 10,562
+ 4 | 9,323
+ 5 | 8,902
+ 6 | 7,259
+ 7 | 6,429
+ 8 | 4,903
+ |
+ I | 3,122
+ II | 2,100
+ III | 1,534
+ IV | 1,399
+-------------------+--------------------
+
+About 77 per cent of the children are enrolled in the grades below the
+seventh, about 13 per cent in the seventh and eighth grades, a little
+over six per cent in the first two years of the high school, and less
+than three and one-half per cent in the third and fourth.
+
+There are eight academic high schools, two technical high schools, and
+two commercial high schools. The technical high schools are steadily
+growing in favor. The registration of boys in these schools increased
+about 33 per cent from 1913 to 1915, and of girls about 77 per cent.
+During the same period the registration of boys in the academic high
+schools decreased slightly, while the increase of girl students was
+only eight per cent; in the commercial high schools the number of
+girl students increased 20 per cent, while the enrollment of boys fell
+off more than 10 per cent. The enrollment by individual schools is
+shown in Table 4.
+
+
+TABLE 4.--ENROLLMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS, SECOND SEMESTER, 1914-1915
+
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------+
+ | Enrollment |
+ Schools +---------+---------+---------+
+ | Boys | Girls | Total |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+ | | | |
+ Academic high schools | | | |
+ Central | 804 | 711 | 1,515 |
+ East | 607 | 688 | 1,295 |
+ Glenville | 405 | 611 | 1,016 |
+ West | 246 | 377 | 623 |
+ Lincoln | 277 | 329 | 606 |
+ South | 213 | 238 | 451 |
+ | | | |
+ Total | 2,552 | 2,954 | 5,506 |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+ | | | |
+ Technical high schools | | | |
+ East Technical | 1,161 | 548 | 1,709 |
+ West Technical | 515 | 242 | 757 |
+ | | | |
+ Total | 1,676 | 790 | 2,466 |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+ | | | |
+ Commercial high schools | | | |
+ West Commercial | 249 | 528 | 777 |
+ East Commercial | 49 | 96 | 145 |
+ | | | |
+ Total | 298 | 624 | 922 |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+ | | | |
+ All high schools | 4,526 | 4,368 | 8,894 |
+ | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+
+About three-eighths of the high school pupils of the city are in the
+technical and commercial schools. Of the boys 56 per cent are enrolled
+in the academic high schools, 37 per cent in the technical schools,
+and seven per cent in the commercial schools. Of the girls 68 per
+cent attend the academic high schools, 18 per cent the technical
+schools, and 14 per cent the commercial schools. In the commercial
+high school approximately two-thirds of the enrollment is made up of
+girls. In the technical high schools the opposite condition prevails,
+the girls constituting less than one-third of the total enrollment,
+while in the academic high schools the girls outnumber the boys by
+nearly one-sixth.
+
+
+AGES OF PUPILS
+
+The distribution as to ages is shown in Table 5. The largest group is
+made up of children seven years old. Between 14 and 15 over 30 per
+cent leave school. The loss from 16 to 17 is approximately 43 per
+cent, from 17 to 18 about 44 per cent, and from 18 to 19 nearly 62 per
+cent.
+
+The compulsory attendance law requires boys to attend school until
+they are 15 and girls until they are 16. That the law is not
+adequately enforced is demonstrated by the heavy loss between the ages
+of 14 and 15, and the fact that the loss between 15 and 16 is
+approximately the same for both boys and girls, although girls are
+required to attend one year longer than boys. Additional evidence as
+to the laxity in the enforcement of the compulsory law is found in the
+results of an inquiry conducted by the Consumers' League of Cleveland
+in the spring of 1916, in cooperation with the survey.
+
+
+TABLE 5.--AGES OF PUPILS ENROLLED IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY, HIGH, AND
+NORMAL SCHOOLS IN JUNE, 1915
+
+-------------------------------------------------
+ Age | Boys | Girls | Total
+-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------
+ 6 | 4,255 | 4,180 | 8,435
+ 7 | 5,012 | 4,815 | 9,827
+ 8 | 4,496 | 4,407 | 8,903
+ 9 | 4,268 | 4,103 | 8,371
+ 10 | 4,093 | 3,951 | 8,044
+ | | |
+ 11 | 3,747 | 3,593 | 7,340
+ 12 | 3,700 | 3,646 | 7,346
+ 13 | 3,676 | 3,631 | 7,307
+ 14 | 3,445 | 3,271 | 6,716
+ 15 | 2,358 | 2,291 | 4,649
+ | | |
+ 16 | 1,190 | 1,163 | 2,353
+ 17 | 672 | 680 | 1,352
+ 18 | 403 | 358 | 761
+ 19 | 135 | 156 | 291
+ 20 | 41 | 52 | 93
+ | | |
+ Over 20 | ... | 22 | 22
+-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------
+ Total | 41,491 | 40,319 | 81,810
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+An attempt was made to follow up the cases of all the children who had
+left one public elementary school during the period of one year
+preceding the study. The work was done by the case method and the
+homes of the children were visited. The total number of cases studied
+was 117, of whom 89 were girls. It was found that one-third of these
+children had graduated and gone on to high school. Another third had
+gone to work, and of these, 40 per cent had done so without
+graduating. The children constituting the remaining third were staying
+at home, and among these a majority had dropped out without
+graduating.
+
+Of the eighth grade graduates one-half were found to be illegally
+employed, as they were less than 16 years of age. Among those who
+dropped out and went to work before completing the course 80 per cent
+were illegally employed.
+
+The fact that many girls drop out without graduating and before the
+end of the legal attendance period and remain at home indicates that
+most of them do not leave on account of financial necessity. This
+conclusion is substantiated by the testimony of the girls and their
+parents, many of whom say that the girls left simply because they grew
+tired of attending and did not see the value of remaining.
+
+These facts point to the necessity for much more effective work in
+enforcing the compulsory attendance laws, for far better inspection of
+shops and factories to detect violations of the child labor laws, and
+above all to such a reform of the schooling opportunities provided for
+older girls as will make them and their parents see the value of
+securing the advantages of the training provided.
+
+
+EDUCATION AT THE TIME OF LEAVING SCHOOL
+
+About 3,700 boys and an approximately equal number of girls drop out
+of the public schools each year. Most of the boys and a considerable
+number of the girls enter wage-earning at once. Their educational
+equipment at the time of leaving school is indicated in Table 6.
+
+
+TABLE 6.--EDUCATIONAL EQUIPMENT OF THE CHILDREN WHO DROP OUT OF THE
+PUBLIC SCHOOLS EACH YEAR, AS INDICATED BY THE GRADES FROM WHICH THEY
+LEAVE
+
+--------------+---------------------
+ Grade | Number leaving
+--------------+---------------------
+ 4 | 70
+ 5 | 440
+ 6 | 960
+ 7 | 1260
+ 8 | 1630
+ |
+ I | 890
+ II | 590
+ III | 150
+ IV | 1410
+--------------+---------------------
+ Total | 7400
+--------------+---------------------
+
+Slightly less than one-fifth finish the high school course. Nearly
+three-fifths drop out before entering the high school, and
+approximately three-eighths before reaching the eighth grade.
+
+Under the present compulsory attendance law a boy who enters school at
+the age of six and afterwards advances at the rate of one grade per
+year until the end of the compulsory attendance period should cover
+nine grades--eight in the elementary school and one in high school--by
+the time he is 15 years old. In actual fact, however, only about
+two-fifths get any high school training. Nearly all of the rest take
+the eight to nine years' attendance required by law to complete eight,
+seven, six, or even a smaller number of grades.
+
+It is from this body of pupils that most of the wage-earners are
+recruited. In the course of the survey several investigations were
+made for the purpose of finding out what educational preparation
+workers in various industries had received. One of the most extensive
+of these was conducted in connection with the study of the printing
+industry. Educationally the printing trades rank higher than most
+other factory occupations, yet the average journeyman printer
+possesses less than a complete elementary education. Composing-room
+employees, such as compositors, linotypers, stonemen, proof-readers,
+etc., undoubtedly stand at the head of the skilled trades as to
+educational training, but it was found that only eight per cent were
+high school graduates. Six per cent had left school before reaching
+the seventh grade, and 16 per cent before reaching the eighth grade.
+The other departments of the printing industry made a much less
+favorable showing.
+
+An investigation conducted by the Survey in the spring of 1915,
+covering 5,000 young people at work under 21 years of age, indicated
+that only about 13 per cent of these young workers had received any
+high school training and that less than four per cent had completed a
+high school course. Over one-fifth reported the sixth grade as the
+last completed before leaving school, and nearly half had dropped out
+before completing the elementary course. Less than seven per cent of
+the boys engaged in industrial pursuits had received any high school
+training and only 42 per cent had got beyond the seventh grade. The
+educational preparation of the boys engaged in commercial and
+clerical occupations was somewhat better, nearly 22 per cent having
+attended high school one year or more; about one-half had left school
+after completing the eighth grade and nearly one-third had not
+completed the elementary course.
+
+These facts have a vital relation to the problem of vocational
+training. If the great majority of the children who will later enter
+wage-earning occupations do not remain in school beyond the end of the
+compulsory attendance period, and in addition over half fail to
+complete even the elementary course, vocational training, to reach
+them at all, must begin not later than the seventh grade, and if
+possible, before the pupils reach the age of 14.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR BOYS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
+
+
+In Chapter III the distribution of the wage-earners of the city was
+outlined, mainly for the purpose of establishing a basis on which to
+make a forecast of the future occupations of the children in the
+public schools. Such a forecast is essential as the preliminary step
+in any plan of vocational training to be carried out during the school
+period, for the reason that without it a clear understanding of the
+principal factors of the problem is impossible. The kinds of
+vocational training needed by children in school, and how and where
+such training should be given, must always depend in the first
+instance on what they are going to do when they grow up.
+
+The average elementary school in Cleveland enrolls between 350 and 400
+boys. When they leave school these boys will scatter into many
+different kinds of work. With respect to the future vocations of the
+pupils, the average school represents in a sense a cross section of
+the occupational activities of the city. It contains a certain number
+of recruits for each of the principal types of wage-earning pursuits.
+A few of the boys will later enter professional life; many will take
+up some sort of clerical work; a still larger number will be employed
+in commercial occupations; and the largest group of all will become
+wage-earners in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits.
+
+The future occupation cannot be foretold accurately with respect to
+any particular boy, but we do know that, whatever their individual
+tastes and abilities, the boys must finally engage in activities
+similar to those in which the adult born native male population is
+engaged, and in approximately the same proportions. We do not know,
+for example, whether Johnny Jones will become a doctor or a carpenter,
+but we do know that of each 1,000 boys in the public schools about
+seven will become doctors and about 25 will become carpenters, because
+for many years about those proportions of the boys of native birth in
+Cleveland have become doctors and carpenters.
+
+One of the most impressive facts which comes to light in the study of
+occupational statistics is the constancy in these proportions. The
+business of any community requires certain kinds of work to be
+performed and the relative amount of work required and consequently
+the relative number of workers vary but slightly over a long period of
+time. This principle is illustrated in a striking way by the list of
+occupations selected at random presented in Table 7, showing the
+number of persons engaged in the occupations specified among each 100
+male workers at two successive census years.
+
+
+TABLE 7--PER CENT OF TOTAL MALE WORKING POPULATION ENGAGED IN
+SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS, 1900 AND 1910
+
+----------------------------+---------------------
+ | Per cent of total
+ Occupation | working population
+ +----------+----------
+ | 1900 | 1910
+----------------------------+----------+----------
+Machinists | 4.7 | 5.8
+Saloon keepers | 1.1 | .7
+Tailors | 2.1 | 1.7
+Commercial travelers | .8 | 1.1
+Lawyers | .5 | .4
+Barbers | .8 | .7
+Bakers | .6 | .5
+Physicians | .6 | .5
+Carpenters | 3.4 | 3.3
+Cabinet makers | .5 | .4
+Plumbers | .9 | .9
+Stenographers and typists | .3 | .3
+----------------------------+----------+----------
+
+With the exception of plumbers and stenographers there was either an
+increase or a decrease from 1900 to 1910 in the relative number
+employed in each of these occupations. In only one occupation,
+however, that of machinist, did the change amount to as much as one
+per cent. In all the others the shift during the decade was less than
+one-half of one per cent, and in more than three-fifths of them it did
+not exceed one-tenth of one per cent of the total number of male
+workers.
+
+
+WHAT THE BOYS IN SCHOOL WILL DO
+
+The figures in this table, presented for illustrative purposes, do not
+accurately represent the proportions of boys now attending the public
+schools who are likely to enter the occupations named, because they
+do not take into account the fact that a considerable number of the
+workers in Cleveland came to this country after they reached adult
+manhood and that a disproportionate number of these foreign born
+workers enter the industrial occupations. For this reason the total
+adult working population is not strictly comparable with the school
+enrollment, which is approximately nine-tenths native born. When the
+boys in the public schools grow up they will be distributed among the
+different trades, professions, and industries in about the same
+proportions as are the American born men in the city at the present
+time. This distribution is shown for the different occupational groups
+in Table 8.
+
+
+TABLE 8.--DISTRIBUTION OF NATIVE BORN MEN BETWEEN THE AGES OF 21 AND
+45 IN THE PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS
+
+ Approximate
+ Occupational group per cent
+
+Manufacturing and mechanical occupations 44
+Commercial occupations 20
+Clerical occupations 16
+Transportation occupations 11
+Domestic and personal service occupations 5
+Professional occupations 3
+Public service occupations 1
+ ----
+ Total 100
+
+The figures in the column at the right of the table represent the
+number of native born men between the ages of 21 and 45 among each
+hundred native born male inhabitants engaged in the occupations
+comprehended in the various groups. In the case of the industrial
+group the figure is too high, as the census data relative to the
+distribution of foreign and native born include all ages, and there is
+a smaller proportion of American born adult men employed in industry
+than is found in the lower age groups. Extensive computations have
+shown, however, that the inaccuracies due to this cause are not
+serious enough to affect the use of the figures for our purpose.
+
+Let us now consider what these proportions mean in establishing
+vocational courses to prepare boys for wage-earning pursuits. The
+future expectations of the boys in a large elementary school enrolling
+say 1,000 pupils of both sexes would be about as follows:
+
+_Number of boys who will enter_
+ Manufacturing and mechanical occupations 220
+ Commercial occupations 100
+ Clerical occupations 80
+ Transportation occupations 55
+ Domestic and personal service occupations 25
+ Professional occupations 15
+ Public service occupations 5
+ ----
+ Total 500
+
+This distribution includes all pupils, from the beginners in the first
+grade to the older boys in the seventh and eighth grades. It is
+certain, however, that differentiated instruction for vocational
+purposes is not possible or advisable for the younger children.
+According to the commonly accepted view among educators, vocational
+training should not be undertaken before the age of 12 years, and many
+believe that this is too early. In an elementary school of 1,000
+pupils there would be about 80 boys 12 years old and over. Applying
+to this number the ratios given in the previous table we obtain the
+following:
+
+_Number of boys who will enter_
+ Manufacturing and mechanical occupations 35
+ Commercial occupations 16
+ Clerical occupations 13
+ Transportation occupations 9
+ Domestic and personal service occupations 4
+ Professional occupations 2
+ Public service occupations 1
+ ---
+ Total 80
+
+The industrial group includes all of the skilled trades and most of
+the semi-skilled and unskilled manual occupations. The skilled trades
+are usually grouped in four main classifications: metal trades,
+building trades, printing trades, and "other" trades, these last
+comprising a number of small trades in each of which relatively few
+men are employed. With respect to their future occupations the 35 boys
+in the industrial group are likely to be distributed about as follows:
+
+_Number of boys who will enter_
+ Metal trades 8
+ Building trades 7
+ Printing trades 1
+ Other trades 2
+ Semi-skilled and unskilled industrial occupations 17
+ ---
+ 35
+
+The analysis can be carried still further, for these trade groups are
+by no means homogeneous. The building trades, for example, include
+over 20 distinct trades, a number of which have little in common with
+the others as to methods of work and technical content.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION AND COSTS
+
+At this point it becomes necessary to take cognizance of certain
+administrative factors which have a marked bearing on the problem.
+They relate to the organization of classes in elementary schools and
+the cost of teaching. In a school of 1,000 pupils there would be at
+least five separate classes for the seventh and eighth grades. The 35
+boys who need industrial training are not all found in a single class,
+but are distributed more or less evenly throughout the five
+classrooms, that is, there are approximately seven in each class. A
+differentiated course under these conditions is difficult if not
+impossible. In a few of the Cleveland elementary schools the
+departmental system of teaching is in use. Under this plan something
+might be done, were it not that the total number of pupils requiring
+instruction relating specifically to the industrial trades is too
+small to justify the expense necessary for equipment, material, and
+special instruction required for such training. This is true as
+regards even an industrial course of the most general kind, while
+provision for particular trades is entirely out of the question. The
+machinist's trade employs more men than any other occupation in the
+city, yet the number of seventh and eighth grade boys in the average
+elementary school who will probably become machinists does not exceed
+five or six. Not over two boys are likely to enter employment in the
+printing industry. The smaller trades, such as pattern making, cabinet
+making, molding, and blacksmithing are represented by not more than
+one boy each.
+
+A possible alternative is the plan now followed in the teaching of
+manual training whereby the boys of the upper grades in various
+elementary schools are sent to one centrally located for a short
+period of instruction each week. The principal objection to this plan
+is that the amount of time now given is insufficient to accomplish
+much in an industrial course, nor can it be materially increased
+without seriously interfering with the work in other subjects.
+
+The first condition for successful industrial training is the
+concentration of a large number of pupils old enough to benefit by
+such training in a single school plant. Only in this way is it
+possible to bring the cost of teaching, equipment, and material within
+reasonable limits and provide facilities for differentiating the work
+on the basis of the vocational needs of the pupils. The fact that this
+condition cannot be met in elementary schools is one of the strongest
+arguments in favor of conducting the seventh and eighth grade work
+under the junior high school form of organization.
+
+
+WHAT THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS CAN DO
+
+The most important contribution to vocational education the elementary
+school can make consists in getting the children through the lower
+grades fast enough so that they will reach the junior high school by
+the time they are 13 years old, in order that before the end of the
+compulsory attendance period they may spend at least two years in a
+school where some kind of industrial training is possible. That this
+is not being done at the present time the data presented in Chapter IV
+amply demonstrate. In recent years there has been a tendency to regard
+vocational training as a remedy for retardation. The fact is that the
+cure of retardation is not a subsequent but a preliminary condition to
+successful training for wage-earning. Vocational training is not a
+means for the prevention of retardation, but retardation is a most
+effective means for the prevention of vocational training.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
+
+
+In 1915 the Board of Education authorized the establishment of a
+system of junior high schools in the city, and at the beginning of the
+school year of 1915-16 the new plan was inaugurated in two schools.
+The Empire Junior High School, situated in the eastern part of the
+city, had an enrollment of about 700 children made up of seventh and
+eighth grade pupils formerly accommodated in the elementary schools of
+that section. The Detroit Junior High School on the west side had an
+enrollment of about 400 pupils. No decision has yet been reached as to
+whether the course shall include only two years' work, or three years,
+as in other cities of the country where the junior high school plan
+has been adopted.
+
+A comparison of the course with that for corresponding grades of the
+elementary schools shows some marked differences. Less time is devoted
+to English in the junior high school and considerably more to
+arithmetic, geography, and history. Mechanical drawing, not taught in
+the elementary schools except incidentally in the manual training
+classes, is given an hour each week. All boys receive one hour of
+manual training a week against slightly less than one and one-half
+hours in the seventh and eighth elementary grades, but they may elect
+an additional two and one-half hours a week in this subject, together
+with applied arithmetic during the first year, or with bookkeeping
+during the second. Girls may elect an additional two and one-half
+hours a week of domestic science, with bookkeeping. The manual
+training for boys comprises woodwork and bookbinding.
+
+
+SPECIALIZED TRAINING NOT PRACTICABLE
+
+In the junior high school, as in the elementary school, the greatest
+difficulty in the way of trade training for specific occupations lies
+in the small number of pupils who can be expected, within the bounds
+of reasonable probability, to enter a single trade. Hand and machine
+composition, the largest of the printing trades, will serve as an
+example. In a junior high school of 1,000 pupils, boys and girls, the
+number of boys who are likely to become compositors is about five. But
+to teach this trade printing equipment occupying considerable space is
+necessary, together with a teacher who has had some experience or
+training as a printer. The expense per pupil for equipment, for the
+space it occupies, and for instruction renders special training for
+such small classes impracticable. All of the skilled occupations, with
+the exception perhaps of the machinist's trade, are in the same case.
+An attempt to form separate classes for each of the eight largest
+trades in the city would result in two classes of not over five
+pupils, three classes of not over 10 pupils, and only one of over 13
+pupils. The following table shows the number of boys, in a school of
+this size, who are likely to enter each of these trades.
+
+_Number of boys who will probably become:_
+ Machinists 36
+ Carpenters 13
+ Steam engineers 11
+ Painters 10
+ Electricians 9
+ Plumbers 7
+ Compositors 5
+ Molders 5
+
+
+A GENERAL INDUSTRIAL COURSE
+
+The members of the Survey Staff were, however, of the opinion that
+through the system of electives in the junior high school, industrial
+training of a more general type, made up chiefly of instruction in the
+applications of mathematics, drawing, physics, and chemistry to the
+commoner industrial processes, would be of considerable benefit to
+those boys who, on the basis of their own selection or that of their
+parents, are likely to enter industrial pursuits. A course of this
+kind is outlined in following sections of this chapter.
+
+The objections which may be brought against this plan are frankly
+recognized. It takes into account only the interests of the industrial
+group, comprising less than one-half of the boys in the school.
+Unquestionably it would tend to vitalize the teaching of mathematics,
+drawing, and science for the boys who enroll in the industrial course,
+but it leaves unsolved the question of method and content of
+instruction in these subjects for the boys in the non-industrial or
+so-called academic course. Very possibly future experience may
+demonstrate that the plan recommended for the general industrial
+course affords the best medium for teaching science and mathematics at
+this period to all pupils, in which case a differentiated course would
+be unnecessary.
+
+The organization of vocational training in junior high school grades
+presents many difficulties which cannot be solved by a more or less
+abstract study of educational and industrial needs. Experimentation on
+an extensive scale, covering a considerable period of time, is
+necessary before definite conclusions can be drawn as to the
+limitations and possibilities of such work. It is with a full
+appreciation of this fact that the following suggestive outline is
+presented.
+
+The purpose of the general industrial course is to afford to boys who
+wish to enter industrial occupations the opportunity to secure
+knowledge and training that will be of direct or indirect value to
+them in industrial employment. It is not expected that by this means
+they can be given much practical training in hand work for any
+particular trade. The most the school can do for the boy at this
+period is to bridge over for him the gap that exists between the
+knowledge he obtains from books and the role which this knowledge
+plays in the working world. It must not be assumed that the transition
+can be effected merely by the introduction of shop work, even if it
+were possible to provide the wide variety of manual training necessary
+to make up a fair representation of the principal occupations into
+which the boys will enter when they leave school. It is doubtful
+whether, so far as its vocational value is concerned, shop work
+isolated from other subjects of the curriculum is worth any more per
+unit of time devoted to it than several of the so-called academic
+subjects. This is particularly true of the two most common types of
+manual training--cabinet making and forge work. Both represent dying
+trades. During the decade 1900-1910 the increase in the number of
+cabinet makers in Cleveland fell far below the general increase in
+population. The blacksmiths made a still poorer showing. Both trades
+are recruited mainly from abroad and the relative number of Americans
+employed in them is steadily declining.
+
+In the opinion of the Survey Staff a general industrial course should
+cover instruction in at least the following five subjects: Industrial
+mathematics, mechanical drawing, industrial science, shop work, and
+the study of economic and working conditions in wage earning pursuits.
+These may be offered as independent electives or they may be required
+of all pupils who elect the industrial course. The details of
+organization must, of course, be worked out by trial and experiment.
+They will probably vary in different schools and from year to year.
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL MATHEMATICS
+
+Of the hundreds of employers who were interviewed by members of the
+Survey Staff as to the technical equipment needed by beginners in the
+various trades, nearly all emphasized the ability to apply the
+principles of simple arithmetic quickly, correctly, and accurately to
+industrial problems. Many employers criticized the present methods of
+teaching this subject in the public schools. In the main their
+criticisms were to the effect that the teaching was not "practical."
+"The boys I get may know arithmetic," said one, "but they haven't any
+mathematical sense." Another cited his experience with an apprentice
+who was told to cut a bar eight and one-half feet long into five
+pieces of equal length. He was not told the length of the bar, but was
+given the direct order: "Cut that bar into five pieces all of the same
+size." The boy was unable to lay out the work, although when asked by
+the foreman, "Don't you know how to divide 81/2 by 5?", he performed the
+arithmetical operation without difficulty. The employer gave this
+instance as an illustration of what to his mind constituted one of the
+principal defects of public school teaching. "Mere knowledge of
+mathematical principles and the ability to solve abstract problems is
+not enough," he said. "What the boys get in the schools is
+mathematical skill, but what they need in their work is mathematical
+intelligence. The first does not necessarily imply the second."
+
+This mathematical intelligence can be developed only through practice
+in the solution of practical problems, that is, problems which are
+stated in the every day terms of the working world and which require
+the student to go through the successive mental steps in the same way
+that he would if he were working in a shop. The problem referred to
+above is one of division of fractions. If we state it thus: "81/2/5,"
+the pupil takes pencil and paper, performs the operation and announces
+the result. If we say, "A bar 81/2 feet long is to be cut into five
+pieces of equal length; how long should each piece be?", the problem
+calls for the exercise of greater intelligence, as the pupil must
+determine which process to use in order to obtain the correct result.
+It becomes still more difficult if we merely show him the bar and say:
+"This bar must be cut into five pieces of equal length; how long will
+each piece be?" Several additional preliminary steps are required,
+none of which was involved in the problem in its original form. Before
+the length of the pieces can be computed he must find out the length
+of the bar. He must know what to measure it with, and in what terms,
+whether feet or inches, the problem should be stated. Again, if we
+say: "Lay this bar out to be cut in five equal lengths," another
+step--the measurement and marking for each cut--is added. Many
+variations might be introduced, each involving additional
+opportunities for the exercise of thought.
+
+It is through practice in solving problems of this kind that the pupil
+acquires what the employer called mathematical intelligence. It
+consists in the ability to note what elements are involved in the
+problems and to decide which process of arithmetic should be used in
+dealing with them. Once these decisions are made the succeeding
+arithmetical calculations are simple and easy. In technical terms the
+ability that is needed is the ability to generalize one's experiences.
+In every-day terms it is the ability to use what one knows.
+
+The work in applied mathematics should cover a wide range of problems
+worded in the language of the trades and constantly varied in order to
+establish as many points of contact as possible between the pupil's
+knowledge of mathematics and the use of mathematics in industrial
+life. Practical shop work is one of the best means to this end. The
+trouble with much of the shop work given in the schools is that it
+runs to hand craftmanship in which the object is to "make something"
+by methods long ago discarded in the industrial world, rather than to
+give the pupil exercise in the sort of thinking he will need to do
+after he goes to work. Successful teaching does not depend so much on
+the use of tools and materials as on the teacher's knowledge of the
+conditions surrounding industrial work and his ability to originate
+methods for vitalizing the instruction in its relation to industrial
+needs.
+
+
+MECHANICAL DRAWING
+
+At the present time the junior high school course provides for one
+hour a week of mechanical drawing. All the boys who may be expected
+to elect the industrial course can well afford to devote more time to
+drawing. For such boys no other subject in the curriculum, except
+perhaps applied mathematics, is of greater importance. In many of the
+trades the ability to work from drawings is indispensable and the man
+who does not possess it is not likely to rise above purely routine
+work.
+
+In a drawing course for future industrial workers the emphasis should
+be placed on giving the pupil an understanding of the uses of drawing
+for industrial purposes, rather than on fine workmanship in making
+drawings. Seventh grade boys can't be made into draftsmen in three
+years and if they leave school at 15 they are not likely to become
+draftsmen. The ordinary skilled workman seldom has any need to make
+drawings or designs, beyond an occasional rough sketch, but he often
+has to work from drawings. To put it in another way, drawing to the
+average workman is like an additional language of which he needs a
+reading but not a writing knowledge. No doubt it would be well to
+teach him to write and read with equal skill, but in the two or three
+years most of these boys will remain in school there is not time
+enough to do both.
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE
+
+In many of the trades an introductory knowledge of physics and
+chemistry is of considerable advantage. Boys in the junior high school
+cannot be expected to take formal courses in these subjects, but they
+should not leave school without some acquaintance with them and a
+knowledge of their relations to industrial processes. A fair equipment
+should be provided for demonstrational and illustrative purposes. The
+subject matter should be correlated as closely as possible with the
+shop work, and the principal mechanical and chemical laws explained as
+the shop problems furnish examples of their application.
+
+In addition the boys should be taught the common technical terms used
+in trade hand books. The man who expects to advance in his trade will
+have to keep on learning after he leaves school. There are many
+avenues of information open to him, and the school can perform no more
+valuable service than to point the way to the sources of knowledge
+represented by reference books, trade journals, and other technical
+literature. Some of the popular magazines, such as "The Scientific
+American," "The Illustrated World," and "Popular Mechanics" can be
+used most effectively to bring home to the pupils the close connection
+existing between the class work and the outside world of science and
+invention.
+
+
+SHOP WORK
+
+It is difficult to determine the exact function of the manual training
+shop work in cabinet making and bookbinding which figures in the
+curriculum at present. That the work was not planned with vocational
+training in mind seems clear from the action of the school board in
+adding bookbinding to the course about the middle of the year. The
+bookbinding trade is one of the smallest in the city, and there is
+little probability that more than one boy among the total number
+enrolled in both junior high schools will enter it after leaving
+school.
+
+Fully three-fourths of the industrial group will later be employed in
+occupations where most of the work is done with machines or machine
+tools. Even in the hand tool trades, such as carpentry, sheet metal
+work, cabinet making, and blacksmithing, the use of machines is
+constantly increasing. It would seem, therefore, that some
+acquaintance with different types of machines would be of considerable
+value to the pupils who may later enter industrial employment. The
+number of boys who are likely to become machinists is large enough to
+warrant the installation of a small machine shop. Repairing,
+assembling, and taking apart machines should occupy an important place
+in the shop course. Most boys are intensely interested in getting at
+the "insides" of a machine, and the processes of assembling, with
+their attendant problems of adjustment and co-ordination of mechanical
+movements, afford opportunities for the best kind of practical
+instruction. One of the great advantages of this type of shop work
+lies in the fact that it consumes little or no material and is
+therefore inexpensive; another is that a fairly extensive equipment
+can be easily obtained, as any machine, old or new, will serve the
+purpose and may be used over and over again.
+
+The extent and variety of shop equipment will depend largely on the
+resources of the school system. The more the better, so long as the
+money is expended on the principle of the greatest good to the
+greatest number, which means that the kinds of tools and equipment
+used in the large trades should be preferred to those used only in the
+smaller trades.
+
+In order that the time devoted to shop work may yield its greatest
+results, it is necessary that every lesson center around knowledge and
+ability that will be of real subsequent use to the pupils. It must not
+run to "art" and it must not be mere tinkering. Its principal value as
+vocational training, in the last analysis, lies in its use as an
+objective medium for the teaching of industrial mathematics and
+science.
+
+
+VOCATIONAL INFORMATION
+
+During the second and third years all the boys who elect the
+industrial course or who expect to leave school at the end of the
+compulsory attendance period should be required to devote some time
+each week to the study of economic and working conditions in wage
+earning industrial and commercial occupations. A clear understanding
+of the comparative advantages of different kinds of employment is of
+the highest importance at this period of the boy's life. It seems to
+be generally assumed that an adequate basis of knowledge for the
+selection of an industrial vocation is an acquaintance with materials
+and processes. Such knowledge is valuable, but making a living is
+mainly an economic problem. What an occupation means in terms of
+income is more significant than what it means in terms of materials.
+The most important facts about the cabinet making trade, for example,
+are that it offers very few opportunities for employment to public
+school boys, and that it is one of the lowest paid skilled trades. The
+primary considerations in the intelligent selection of a vocation
+relate to wages, steadiness of employment, health risks, opportunities
+for advancement, apprenticeship conditions, union regulations, and the
+number of chances there are for getting into it. These things are
+fundamental, and any one of them may well take precedence over the
+matter of whether the tastes of the future wage-earner run to wood,
+brick, stone, or steel.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+TRADE TRAINING DURING THE LAST YEARS IN SCHOOL
+
+
+Between the end of the compulsory attendance period and the entering
+age in most of the trades there exists a gap of from one to two years
+which is not adequately covered by any of the present educational
+agencies of the school system.
+
+Two years ago the Ohio State legislature extended the compulsory
+attendance period from 14 to 15 for boys and from 14 to 16 for girls.
+The result has been to force into the first years of the high school
+course a considerable number of pupils who have no intention of taking
+the complete four year course, and who will leave as soon as they
+reach the end of the compulsory period. That these pupils are probably
+not getting all that they might out of the time they attend high
+school is no argument against the present compulsory attendance age
+limit, which should be raised rather than lowered.
+
+The study of industrial conditions conducted during the survey left
+every member of the Survey Staff firmly convinced that the industries
+of Cleveland have little or nothing worth while to offer to boys
+under 16. Very few of the skilled trades will accept an apprentice
+below this age. The general opinion among manufacturers was
+unfavorable to the employment of boys under 16. "They are more of a
+nuisance than a help," said one; "they are not old enough to
+understand the responsibilities of work." "They break more machinery
+and spoil more material than they are worth," said another. In several
+of the building trades apprentices must be 17 years old, as the law
+forbids boys under this age to work on scaffoldings. The new workmen's
+compensation law exerts a strong influence in favor of a higher
+working age limit, owing to the greater risk of accident among young
+workers.
+
+The fact is that the law is still about one year behind the
+requirements of industrial life. If a vote were taken among employers
+who can offer boys the opportunity to learn a trade it would be found
+that a large majority favor raising the working age to 16. Employment
+before this time usually leads nowhere, and the pittance the boy earns
+cannot be compared with the economic advantage he could derive from an
+additional year in a good vocational school. The average boy who
+leaves school at 15 spends a year or two loafing or working at odd
+jobs before he can obtain employment that offers any promise of future
+advancement. These years are often more than wasted, as he not only
+learns nothing of value from such casual jobs, but misses the healthy
+discipline of steady, orderly work, which is of so great importance
+during these formative years of his life.
+
+
+THE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS
+
+The two technical high schools, the East Technical and West Technical,
+occupy an important place among the secondary schools of the city. At
+the present time the two schools enroll nearly two-fifths of the boys
+attending high school. The course comprises four years' work. In the
+East Technical the shopwork includes joinery and wood-turning during
+the first year, and pattern making and foundry work during the second
+year. In the West Technical the first year course includes pattern
+making and either forging or sheet metal work; and that of the second
+year, forging, pipe-fitting, brazing, riveting, and cabinet making.
+During the remaining two years of the course the student may elect a
+particular trade, devoting about 10 hours a week to practice in the
+shop during the last half of the third year, and from 11 to 15 hours
+during the fourth year.
+
+The proportion of pupils who graduate is small and the mortality
+during the first two years is very heavy. This is due in part to the
+fact that the type of pupil who leaves school early is more likely to
+elect a technical course than an academic course. About 25 per cent of
+each entering class drops out after attending one year, and 25 per
+cent of the remainder by the end of the second year. By the time the
+third year is reached the classes are greatly depleted and the
+survivors as a rule are of the more intelligent and prosperous type.
+Only a small proportion of them expect to enter skilled manual
+occupations. Table 9 shows the distribution of the third and fourth
+year students among the different trade courses during the first
+semester of 1915-16.
+
+
+TABLE 9.--DISTRIBUTION OF THIRD AND FOURTH YEAR STUDENTS IN TRADE
+COURSES IN THE CLEVELAND TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS, FIRST SEMESTER,
+1915-1916
+
+ Trade courses Students
+ Electrical construction 68
+ Machine work 52
+ Printing 28
+ Cabinet making 22
+ Pattern making 12
+ Foundry work 1
+ ----
+ Total 183
+
+That relatively few of these students will ultimately become
+journeymen workmen is shown by the records of the boys graduated in
+the past. The principal of the East Technical High School recently
+sent a questionnaire to all the students graduated up to 1915, asking
+for information as to their present occupations and their earnings
+during the first four years after graduation. Of those who replied,
+over 60 per cent either were attending college, or employed as
+draftsmen or chemists. About 28 per cent were employed in the skilled
+trades. The distribution in detail is shown in Table 10.
+
+The data furnished by graduates as to their earnings during successive
+years after leaving school supply still more convincing evidence to
+the effect that the technical school graduate seldom remains in manual
+work more than two or three years. The complete course gives them an
+equipment of practical and theoretical knowledge that speedily takes
+them out of the handwork class. The technical high schools are
+primarily training schools for future civil, electrical, and
+mechanical engineers. To the student who cannot afford a college
+course they offer excellent preparation for rapid advancement to
+supervisory and executive industrial positions, and for drafting and
+office work in manufacturing plants.
+
+
+TABLE 10.--DISTRIBUTION BY OCCUPATION OF CLEVELAND TECHNICAL HIGH
+SCHOOL GRADUATES
+
+ Occupation Number
+ Attending college 111
+ Draftsmen 51
+ Electricians 33
+ Machinists 32
+ Chemists 8
+ Pattern makers 7
+ Cabinet makers 6
+ Printers 3
+ Foundrymen 1
+ Unclassified 32
+ ----
+ Total 284
+
+The output of the schools falls into two main divisions: those who
+leave at the end of the second year or earlier, and those who
+graduate. The records show that most of the pupils who reach the third
+year complete the course, but nearly half drop out during the first
+and second years. The benefit they obtain from these two years'
+attendance is problematical. The course was designed on the basis of
+four years' attendance, and the work of the first two years is to a
+considerable degree a preparation for that of the last two.
+
+The principals of both schools are fully alive to the disadvantages of
+the course for the large number of pupils who drop out within a year
+or two, and admit that such students would derive greater benefit from
+more practical instruction aimed directly toward preparation for the
+industrial trades. Both believe that the only practicable solution is
+a two-year trade course in a separate school, covering a much wider
+range of shop activities than the present high school course.
+
+To the only alternative--the institution of a short course within the
+technical schools to be conducted either as a part of or
+simultaneously with the four year course--they present objections of
+considerable weight. They point out that a preparatory course for the
+trades and a preparatory course with college as the goal differ not
+only in length but in kind. The work in mathematics for the future
+civil engineer, for example, must conform to college entrance
+standards and involves an amount of study that is quite unnecessary
+for the boy whose aim is to become a carpenter or machinist. The first
+needs a thorough course in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry; the
+second needs industrial arithmetic, with only such applications of
+higher mathematics as may be of use to him in his trade. The same
+principle holds with respect to other subjects.
+
+What boys who expect to enter industrial occupations most need at this
+period is instruction that will be of practical value to them for
+future wage earning. It is doubtful whether high school courses which
+have been formulated in the first instance to prepare pupils for a
+college course can furnish such instruction and it is still more
+doubtful whether the trade training required by the future mechanic
+and the broader preparation required for the professions can be given
+effectively in the same school.
+
+
+A TWO-YEAR TRADE COURSE
+
+It is the opinion of the Survey Staff that a separate school in which
+direct training for the industrial trades is emphasized would result
+in more profitable use of the pupils' time and probably induce many of
+them to remain in school up to the apprentice entering age. Such a
+school, with a curriculum embracing vocational training for all the
+principal trades, would easily command an enrollment sufficient to
+justify the installation of a good shop equipment and the employment
+of a corps of teachers qualified by special training and experience
+for this kind of work. Even if only one-half the number who enter the
+skilled trades each year attended the school, the enrollment would
+reach at least 800 boys.
+
+A trade school of this kind would relieve the first and second year
+classes of many pupils that the technical high schools do not want and
+cannot adequately provide for. The minimum entering age should be not
+less than 14, and no requirement other than age should be imposed.
+This would draw part of the over-age pupils from the grades and take
+from the junior high school a certain number of boys who could profit
+by the greater amount of time given to shop work in the trade school.
+
+A good many will stay only one year, and every effort should be made
+at the time of entrance to learn the intentions of the pupil. If it
+seems fairly certain that he will not remain longer than a year he may
+well omit such studies as have no direct bearing on the trade he
+wishes to learn. The courses should follow the lines laid down in the
+general industrial course recommended for the junior high school, but
+with a greater proportion of the time devoted to practical shopwork.
+As the number of pupils for each trade class would be relatively
+large, a closer correlation could be effected between the academic
+subjects and the work in the shops than is possible in the junior high
+school.
+
+Both general and special courses should be provided. Many of the
+pupils will wish to specialize on a particular trade. Others who have
+not yet reached a decision need a general course that will give them a
+wide range of experience with materials and processes. The
+organization of classes should be planned so as to permit transfers,
+whenever desirable, from the general to the special courses, or
+vice-versa.
+
+By the time the pupil has reached the second year he usually will
+settle down to steady work on the trade he selects, although here
+again the organization should be sufficiently elastic to allow
+transfers when there seems to be good reason for making them. It is to
+be expected, however, that nearly all the pupils will devote their
+time during the second year to practice and study limited to single
+trades. The success of the school in holding boys to the age of 16 or
+17 will depend on its ability to convince them that the extra time in
+school is a paying investment, and this cannot be done unless they
+stick to one line of work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TRADE-PREPARATORY AND TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING FOR BOYS AND MEN AT
+WORK
+
+
+Several forms of trade-preparatory and trade-extension training for
+apprentices and journeymen workmen are carried on in the city.
+Probably the most effective work done in the teaching of boys after
+they have entered employment is found in manufacturing establishments
+which maintain apprentice schools in connection with their shops.
+There are two excellent examples of this type of instruction in
+Cleveland--the apprentice schools conducted by the New York Central
+Railroad and by the Warner and Swasey Company, manufacturers of
+astronomical instruments and machine tools.
+
+The Warner and Swasey Company school was established in 1911. The
+course covers a total of 560 hours, extending over a period of four
+years. The apprentices attend the school four hours a week for 35
+weeks each year. The time allotment for the various subjects included
+in the course is shown in Table 11.
+
+In 1915 there were 65 apprentices enrolled in the school, most of them
+from the machinist's trade. The sessions are held during working
+hours in a room in the factory fitted up with drawing tables and
+blackboards. No shop equipment is used. The purpose of the course is
+to develop a body of trained workmen competent to take positions in
+the factory as foremen or heads of departments. Less than one-tenth of
+the total time of the course is devoted to the study of shop practice.
+Standard textbooks are used in the teaching of mathematics.
+
+
+TABLE 11.--TIME ALLOTMENT IN THE APPRENTICE COURSE GIVEN BY THE WARNER
+AND SWASEY COMPANY, CLEVELAND
+
+ Subject Hours
+ Arithmetic 35
+ English 65
+ Mechanical drawing 70
+ Shop practice 40
+ Algebra 70
+ Geometry 40
+ Trigonometry 30
+ Physics 70
+ Materials 35
+ Industrial history 35
+ Mechanics, strength of materials, and mechanical design 70
+ ---
+ Total 560
+
+The enrollment in the school conducted by the New York Central
+Railroad is about 140 boys, nearly all of whom are machinists'
+apprentices. They are divided into three classes, the members of each
+class attending the school four hours a week. About two-thirds of the
+time is devoted to mechanical drawing and one-third to mathematics and
+shop practice. The instruction in these two latter subjects is based
+on a series of graded mimeographed or blue print lesson sheets,
+containing a wide variety of shop problems, with a condensed and
+simplified explanation of the mathematical principles involved. In the
+main the work is limited to the application of simple arithmetic to
+problems of shop practice. No textbooks are used, but the booklets on
+machine shop practice published by the International Correspondence
+Schools are studied in connection with the course.
+
+In addition to the required classroom work in mechanical drawing, each
+apprentice serves four or five months of his term in the regular
+drafting rooms of the company. The classroom is equipped with models
+of railway appliances and machinery, together with laboratory
+apparatus for teaching the laws of mechanics. No machine tools or
+other shop equipment are used in the classes. The course covers about
+700 hours of instruction exclusive of the time spent in regular
+drafting room work. About 20 apprentices finished the course in 1915.
+
+Several of the building and printing trades' labor unions take an
+active interest in the training of apprentices, and in at least two
+instances the unions maintain evening classes for teaching trade
+theory. The Electrical Workers' Union, made up principally of inside
+wiremen, conducts apprentice classes taught by journeymen. The
+International Typographical Union course for compositors and
+compositors' apprentices is undoubtedly the best yet devised for
+giving supplementary training in hand composition. It is taught by
+journeymen in evening classes, under the supervision of the central
+office of the Typographical Union Commission, to which all the work
+must be submitted. In February, 1916, about 100 students were
+enrolled, of whom approximately one-third were apprentices and
+two-thirds journeymen. The course consists of 46 lessons in English,
+lettering, design, color harmony, job composition, and imposition for
+machine and hand folding. The classes are held at the headquarters of
+the union. As the students' daily practice in the shop provides plenty
+of opportunity for the acquisition of manual skill, no apparatus or
+shop equipment is used in connection with the course.
+
+The apprentice school conducted by the Y.M.C.A. represents another
+type of apprentice training. The instruction is given during the day.
+The apprentices are sent to the school by various firms in the city
+under an arrangement whereby the boys attend four and one-half hours
+each week during regular shop time. In February, 1916, the enrollment
+consisted of 46 apprentices, practically all from the metal trades.
+The employers pay the tuition fee, which amounts to $20 a year. The
+course requires four years' work of 40 weeks each, a total of 720
+hours. It comprises instruction in shop mathematics, drawing, English,
+physics, and industrial hygiene. No shop equipment is used. Fifteen
+boys were graduated from the course this year.
+
+The factory apprentice school of the Warner and Swasey Company and New
+York Central Railroad type possesses many advantages over any kind of
+continuation instruction carried on outside of the plants where the
+boys are employed. A better correlation between the class and shop
+work is possible together with a more personal relation between
+teacher and pupils than is usually found when the pupils are drawn
+from a number of different establishments. It must be admitted,
+however, that this method of training apprentices is not feasible
+except in very large plants, as in small classes the teaching cost
+becomes prohibitive. There is little probability that it will ever be
+adopted by enough employers to take care of more than an insignificant
+proportion of the boys who enter the skilled trades.
+
+The results obtained, here and in other cities, through cooeperative
+schemes, such as the Y.M.C.A. continuation school, are in the main
+disappointing. Their failure to reach more than a few of the boys who
+need trade-extension training is due partly to the fact that they
+operate under a condition that is fundamentally unjust. One employer
+interviewed during the survey stated the case very clearly: "I can see
+no good reason why I should make pecuniary sacrifices for the benefit
+of my competitors. Very few of my apprentices remain until the end of
+their term, because by the time they have completed their second year
+other firms which make no effort to train their quota of skilled
+workmen for the trade steal them away from me. Any plan for the
+training of apprentices which does not apportion the burden among the
+different establishments in direct proportion to the number of men
+they have, simply penalizes those public-spirited employers who
+participate in it."
+
+
+CONTINUATION TRAINING FROM 15 TO 18
+
+The years between 15 and 18 are among the most important in the life
+of the young worker. If left to his own devices during this period, he
+is very likely to lose much of vocational value of his earlier
+education, because he does not grasp the relation which the knowledge
+he acquired in school bears to his daily work. As a result the problem
+of supplementary instruction at a later age, when he wakes up to his
+need for it, becomes much more difficult than if trade-extension
+training had been taken up at once when he entered employment.
+
+The vocational interests of young workers and the social interests of
+the community are both opposed to the current practice of "graduating"
+boys from the public schools at the ages of 15 or 16 and then losing
+sight of them. The fact that the large number who go into industrial
+occupations will not or cannot remain in school beyond these ages does
+not absolve the school system from further responsibility for their
+educational future. There should not be a complete severance between
+the boy and the school until he has reached a relatively mature age.
+In other words, the school system should maintain, as long as
+possible, such a relation with him as will help to round out his
+education and lead him to continue it after reaching manhood.
+
+It is the opinion of the Survey Staff that the only practicable
+solution of this problem lies in the day continuation school, backed
+by a compulsory law which will bring every boy and girl at work under
+the age of 18 into school for a certain number of hours per week. Only
+through a comprehensive plan that will reach large numbers of young
+workers can the difficulties inherent in the administration of small
+classes be overcome. The night schools have never been successful in
+holding boys long enough to make more than a beginning in
+trade-extension training. It is certain that growing boys should not
+be expected to add two hours of study to their nine or 10 hours of
+unaccustomed labor in the shop. Both individual and community
+interests demand that this problem be taken up in such a way as to
+obviate the sharp cleavage between the boy's school life and his
+working life. From every point of view it is unwise to permit him to
+lose all contact with the educational agencies of the city during his
+first years at work.
+
+The compulsory continuation school avoids the difficulties which are
+responsible for the common failure of those schemes which depend for
+their success on the initiative of individuals or the voluntary
+cooeperation of employers and trade unions. One of its great advantages
+is that the principle on which it is based makes for equal justice to
+all. There can be no doubt that the decline of apprentice training in
+the shops is due partly to the fact that employers find that much of
+the time and money it costs goes toward providing a skilled labor
+force for competitors who make no effort to train young workers. The
+cooperation of employers on a comprehensive scale will be secured only
+when the burden is equally shared.
+
+
+THE TECHNICAL NIGHT SCHOOLS
+
+Night classes are conducted in both of the technical high schools for
+two terms a year of 10 weeks each, the pupils attending four hours a
+week. A tuition fee of $5 a term is collected, of which $3.50 is
+refunded to those who maintain an average attendance of 75 per cent.
+No special provision is made for apprentices as distinct from
+journeymen, and the trade classes are attended by a considerable
+number of wage-earners employed in occupations unrelated to industrial
+work. The list of courses offered during the past year, with the
+number enrolled in each course at the beginning of the second term, is
+shown in Table 12.
+
+A glance at the list of courses shows at once that while the
+vocational motive is given first importance, the schools also aim to
+provide instruction in cultural subjects which have only an indirect
+vocational application. Less than one-third of the students are
+pursuing courses which are directly related to their daily work. The
+remainder are enrolled in courses which have little or no connection
+with their daily occupations. In but four of the courses--machine
+shop, architectural drawing, printing, and sheet metal work--are more
+than half of the students employed in directly related occupations.
+
+
+TABLE 12.--COURSES AND NUMBER ENROLLED IN THE TECHNICAL NIGHT SCHOOLS,
+JANUARY, 1915
+
+
+ Number
+ Course enrolled
+
+ Mechanical drawing 328
+ Machine shop 222
+ Electrical construction 159
+ Sewing 103
+ Mathematics 89
+ Architectural drawing 83
+ Pattern making 73
+ Woodworking 67
+ Chemistry 59
+ Sheet metal drawing 52
+ Cooking 46
+ Foundry work 36
+ Agriculture 31
+ Printing 27
+ Sheet metal shop 23
+ Business English 20
+ Electric motors 19
+ Arts and crafts 18
+ Millinery 18
+ Electricity and magnetism 16
+ ------
+ Total 1,489
+
+The policy of the schools is to form a class in any subject for which
+a sufficient number of students make application. Only a small
+proportion of the pupils attend more than one year, and the mortality
+from term to term is very high, although the tuition fee plan insures
+fairly good attendance during the term. The data collected by the
+survey indicate that the average length of attendance is approximately
+two terms--the equivalent in student hours of less than three weeks in
+the ordinary day school.
+
+Most of the men who enroll in night school classes need a course of at
+least two or three years. All but a few, however, insist on having
+their supplementary training in small doses. Frequently they want
+only specific instruction about a specific thing, such as how to lay
+out a certain piece of work or how to set up a particular machine
+tool. They want to secure this knowledge in the shortest possible
+time, and very few want the same thing. A course of two or three years
+does not appeal to them. Another difficulty is that their previous
+educational equipment varies widely, and some are not capable of
+assimilating even the specialized bit of trade knowledge they need
+without a preliminary course in arithmetic. As the personnel of the
+classes changes to a marked degree from term to term, the courses
+undergo frequent modifications. Apparently the teachers and principals
+have made a sincere effort to adapt the instruction to the demands of
+the men who attend the schools, but the fact is that the difficulties
+inherent in such work make it impossible to organize the classes on
+any basis except that of subject matter, which means fitting students
+into courses, rather than adapting courses to the needs of particular
+groups of workers.
+
+The enrollment is far below what should be expected in a city of
+nearly three-quarters of a million inhabitants. The total number of
+journeymen, apprentices, and helpers from the skilled manual
+occupations, receiving trade instruction in the night schools, is
+considerably less than one per cent of the total number in the city.
+
+A large enrollment is necessary for efficient administration. Success
+in specializing courses in night schools, as in day schools, requires
+a large administrative unit. The possible variety of courses is in
+direct ratio to the number enrolled. In a class of 200 carpenters
+there would probably be, for example, 10 or 15 men who need
+specialized instruction in stair-building. On the basis of the present
+enrollment of 40 or 50 carpenters the class would dwindle to three or
+four, with the result that the per capita teaching cost becomes
+prohibitive.
+
+The relatively small result now obtained is not the fault of the
+schools, but is due principally to the fact that the great field of
+evening vocational instruction is treated by the school system as a
+mere side line of the technical high schools. The evening classes are
+taught by teachers who have already given their best in the day
+classes. The enrollment cannot be greatly increased so long as this
+type of education is handled as one of the marginal activities of the
+school system, manned by tired teachers and directed by tired
+principals. It is a totally different kind of job from regular day
+instruction and requires a different administrative organization, with
+a responsible head vested with sufficient authority to meet quickly
+and effectively the widely varying demands of its students. This will
+require the speeding-up of administrative methods in the establishment
+of courses and the employment of teachers, a freer hand for the
+principals as regards both expenditures and policy, and most important
+of all, the organization of all forms of continuation and night school
+instruction under a separate department.
+
+
+A COMBINED PROGRAM OF CONTINUATION AND TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING
+
+In considering the general conclusions of the survey as to what should
+be done in the matter of trade preparatory and trade-extension
+training in both day and night schools, it must be borne in mind that
+these two types of vocational training are still in the experimental
+stage. Their future development will probably involve a wide departure
+from conventional school methods and the evolution of a special
+technique through trial and experiment. At the present time we can
+only formulate certain of the main conditions to which future advance
+in these fields must conform.
+
+First of all, it must be recognized that such work is a big job in
+itself and cannot be successfully conducted as an appendix of the day
+school. It is worth doing well, or it is not worth doing. It needs an
+organization sufficiently elastic and adaptable to quickly make
+adjustments to unusual and unexpected conditions. It needs the
+supervision of a competent director who can devote to it all his time
+and energy, and a corps of teachers who not only know how and what to
+teach, but who possess a firm conviction of the value and utility of
+this kind of instruction. In the hands of teachers who bring to it
+only the margin of interest and energy remaining after a hard day's
+work in the high school, or who are unable to comprehend the radical
+difference between teaching a boy in the day school 35 hours a week
+and teaching a boy four hours a week in the continuation school or
+evening class, the full measure of success cannot be expected. The
+employment of day teachers for night school work has never been other
+than a makeshift, and the insignificant results attained in night
+schools throughout the country have been due in great measure to this
+cause.
+
+Apart from the fact that the interests of adolescent workers
+imperatively demand the establishment of day continuation schools, an
+additional argument in favor of such schools is that they would
+provide a means for making the night trade-extension work effective,
+through the use of continuation day school teachers for night school
+work. Such a plan would mean that teachers employed on this basis
+would have charge of a day continuation class during one session of
+four hours, and a night class of two hours, making a total of six
+hours' work per day. A plan of this kind would make possible the
+establishment of the fundamental conditions for successful
+trade--preparatory and trade-extension training in the night schools.
+The present system is unjust to both teachers and students;--to the
+students because the man or boy who sacrifices his recreation time to
+attend night school has a right to the best the schools can give; to
+the teachers because no teacher can work a two-hour night shift in
+addition to seven or eight hours in the technical high school without
+seriously impairing his efficiency.
+
+The development of this plan would necessitate the establishment of
+two centers, one located in the eastern and one in the western section
+of the city. In these centers should be housed the day vocational
+school, the day continuation classes, and the night vocational
+classes. This would relieve the technical high schools of a task which
+does not belong to them, and which by overloading the teachers
+seriously interferes with the work they were originally employed to
+do. At present a considerable number of the technical high school
+teachers are devoting from one-fifth to one-fourth of their total
+working day to elementary teaching, as most of the work in the night
+schools is below high school grade.
+
+By bringing together all the trade preparatory and trade-extension
+work under one roof, it is possible to secure the highest efficiency
+in the use of equipment. Expensive shops can be justified only on the
+basis of constant use. If the suggestion for the establishment of a
+vocational school is acted upon, such future contingencies as the
+continuation school should be borne in mind in planning the buildings
+and equipment, so as to permit of extensions as they may be required.
+It is practically certain that universal continuation training for
+young workers up to the age of 17 or 18 will be made compulsory in all
+the progressive states of the country within the next decade. The Ohio
+school authorities should get ready to handle the continuation school
+problem before the example of other states and the overwhelming
+pressure of public opinion forces it upon them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+VOCATIONAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS
+
+
+The discussions in the preceding chapters have been limited
+intentionally to a consideration of the needs and possibilities of
+training for wage-earning pursuits in which men predominate. The
+conditions which surround vocational training for girls are so
+fundamentally unlike those encountered in the vocational training of
+boys that a combined treatment leads to needless complexity and
+confusion.
+
+Cleveland uses a relatively smaller amount of woman labor than most
+other large cities. In only one of the 10 largest cities in the
+country--Pittsburgh--is the proportion of women and girls at work
+smaller as compared with the total number of persons in gainful
+occupations than in Cleveland. In 1900, 20.4 per cent of the workers
+in the city were women; by 1910 the proportion of women workers had
+increased to 22 per cent, a shift of less than two per cent for the
+decade.
+
+A consideration of the occupational future of boys and girls shows at
+once how widely their problems differ. The typical boy in Cleveland
+attends school until he reaches the age of 15 or 16. About this period
+he becomes a wage-earner and for the next 30 or 40 years devotes most
+of his time and energy to making a living. The typical girl leaves
+school about the same time, becomes a wage-earner for a few years,
+then marries and spends the rest of her life keeping house and rearing
+children. To the man wage-earning is the real business of life. To the
+woman it is a means for filling in the gap between school and
+marriage, a little journey into the world previous to settling down to
+her main job.
+
+The most radical and important difference between the two sexes with
+respect to wage-earning is found in the length of the working life.
+The transitory character of the wage-earning phase in the life of most
+women is clearly seen in the contrasted age distribution shown in
+Table 13.
+
+
+TABLE 13.--PER CENT OF TOTAL POPULATION ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS
+DURING THREE DIFFERENT AGE PERIODS
+
+----------------------+-------------+------------+
+ Age period | Women | Men |
+----------------------+-------------+------------+
+ 16 to 21 | 60 | 85 |
+ 21 to 45 | 26 | 98 |
+ 45 and over | 12 | 85 |
+----------------------+-------------+------------+
+
+Approximately 85 per cent of the boys and slightly less than 60 per
+cent of the girls between the ages of 16 and 21 are at work. In the
+next age group--21 to 45--given by the census, 98 per cent of the men
+are at work, but the proportion of women employed in gainful
+occupations drops to 26 per cent, or about one in four; in the next
+age group--45 and over--it falls to about 12 per cent, as compared
+with 85 per cent of the men. Of the women still at work in the older
+age group, over one-half are engaged in domestic and personal service
+as servants, laundresses, housekeepers, etc.
+
+
+TABLE 14.--NUMBER EMPLOYED IN THE PRINCIPAL WAGE-EARNING OCCUPATIONS
+AMONG EACH 1,000 WOMEN FROM 16 TO 21 YEARS OF AGE
+
+Manufacturing and mechanical industries:
+ Apprentices to dressmakers and milliners 4
+ Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory) 20
+ Milliners and millinery dealers 17
+ Semi-skilled operatives:
+ Candy factories 6
+ Cigar and tobacco factories 15
+ Electrical supply factories 10
+ Knitting mills 11
+ Printing and publishing 8
+ Woolen and worsted mills:
+ Weavers 5
+ Other occupations 7
+ Sewers and sewing machine operators (factory) 53
+ Tailoresses 25
+
+Transportation:
+ Telephone operators 19
+
+Trade:
+ Clerks in stores 28
+ Saleswomen (stores) 35
+
+Professional service:
+ Musicians and teachers of music 6
+ Teachers (school) 4
+
+Domestic and personal service:
+ Charwomen and cleaners 5
+ Laundry operatives 13
+ Servants 81
+ Waitresses 9
+
+Clerical occupations:
+ Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants 26
+ Clerks (except clerks in stores) 20
+ Stenographers and typewriters 62
+
+The occupations in which the girls now in the public schools will
+later engage can be determined with a relative degree of accuracy by
+employing a method in general similar to that utilized in forecasting
+the occupations of boys. It must be taken into account, however, that
+the wage-earning period for women, except in the professional
+occupations, usually begins before the age of 21. For this reason the
+16 to 21 age group probably offers the best basis for determining the
+future occupational distribution of girls in school. If all women at
+work up to the age of 25 were included the figures would be more
+nearly exact, but unfortunately data for the period between 21 and 25
+are not available. The figures at the right of Table 14 show the
+number engaged in each specified occupation among each thousand women
+in the city between the ages of 16 and 21. The proportions given for
+the professional occupations, particularly teaching, are too small,
+because of the fact that few women enter the professions before the
+age of 21.
+
+Applying these proportions to the average elementary school unit, it
+will be seen at once that the number of girls old enough to profit by
+special training is too small in any single occupation to form a class
+of workable size. In such a school there would be about 80 girls 12
+years old and over. Of the skilled occupations listed in the table
+stenography and typewriting offers the largest field of employment,
+yet the number who are likely to take up this kind of work does not
+exceed five or six.
+
+
+DIFFERENTIATION IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
+
+The organization of the junior high school, where the enrollment is
+made up entirely of older pupils, obviates this difficulty to some
+extent. Instead of 80 girls there are from 300 to 500, with a
+corresponding increase in the number who will enter any given
+wage-earning occupation.
+
+Not less than one-eighth and probably not more than one-fifth of these
+girls will become needleworkers of some kind. They will need a more
+practical and intensive training in the fundamentals of sewing than is
+now provided by the household arts course. The skill required in trade
+work cannot be obtained in the amount of time now devoted to this
+subject. It should be made possible for a girl who expects to make a
+living with her needle to elect a thoroughly practical course in
+sewing in which the aim is to prepare for wage earning rather than
+merely to teach the girl how to make and mend her own garments. As
+proficiency in trade sewing requires first of all ample opportunity
+for practice, provision should be made for extending the time now
+given to sewing for those girls who wish to become needle workers.
+This can easily be done through the system of electives now in use.
+The establishment of classes in power machine operating during the
+junior high school period appears to be impracticable, due to the
+immaturity of the girls and the small number who could profit by such
+instruction.
+
+A discussion of the present sewing courses in the public schools will
+be found in Chapters XIV and XV, which summarize the special reports
+on the Garment Trades and Dressmaking and Millinery. In the present
+chapter the consideration of these occupations is limited to an
+examination of the administrative questions connected with training
+for the sewing trades.
+
+
+SPECIALIZED TRAINING FOR THE SEWING TRADES
+
+The compulsory attendance law requires all girls to attend school
+until they are 16 years old. This forces a considerable number into
+the high schools for one or two years before they go to work. As a
+rule the type of girl who is likely to enter the needle trades selects
+the technical high school course, not because she has any idea of
+finishing it, but because she believes it offers a less tiresome way
+of getting through her last one or two years in school than the
+academic course. The technical course requires three and three-quarter
+hours a week of sewing during the first two years. The student may
+elect trade dressmaking and millinery during the third and fourth
+years.
+
+Very few girls who can afford to spend four years in high school ever
+become dressmakers or factory operatives. If the school system is to
+do anything of direct vocational value for them it will have to begin
+further down. Most of them leave school before the age of 17 and the
+years between 14 and 16 represent the last chance the school will have
+to give them any direct aid towards preparation for immediate
+wage-earning.
+
+For successful work in machine operating the class must be large
+enough to warrant the purchase and operation of sufficient equipment
+to give the pupils an opportunity for intensive practice. The only way
+this condition can be secured is by concentrating in large groups the
+girls who need such training. Little will be accomplished in training
+for the sewing trades without specialization, and specialization in
+small administrative units is impossible. The teaching and operating
+cost in a school enrolling, say 200 girls, who want the same kind of
+work, can be brought within reasonable bounds. In a school where the
+total number who need specialized training does not exceed 10 or 15
+the cost is prohibitive.
+
+In the opinion of the Survey Staff a one or two year vocational course
+in the sewing trades should be established. The entrance age should
+not be less than 15. Courses should be provided for intensive work in
+trade dressmaking, power machine operating, and trade millinery. A
+conservative estimate of the number of girls who could be expected to
+enroll for courses in these subjects is 500. A trade school might be
+established where only this type of vocational training would be
+carried on, or it might be conducted in the same building with the
+trade courses for boys recommended in a previous chapter. In either
+case the number of pupils would be sufficient to warrant up-to-date
+equipment and a corps of specially trained teachers.
+
+Training for the sewing trades consumes more material than any other
+kind of vocational training. For this reason economical administration
+requires some arrangement for marketing the product. During the latter
+part of the course the school should be able to turn out first-class
+work. The familiarity with trade standards the pupils obtain through
+practice on garments which must meet the exacting demands of the
+buying public has a distinct educational value. The Manhattan Trade
+School for Girls in New York City and other successful schools in the
+country operate on this basis. There is reason to believe that there
+would be little difficulty in making arrangements with the clothing
+manufacturers in Cleveland to furnish a good trade school as much
+contract work as the classes could handle.
+
+
+OTHER OCCUPATIONS
+
+From one-fourth to one-fifth of the girls in the school will later
+enter employment in commercial and clerical occupations, as
+stenographers, typists, clerks, cashiers, bookkeepers, saleswomen, and
+so on. Their needs will be considered in Chapters XII and XIII, in
+which the findings of the special reports on Boys and Girls in
+Commercial Work and Department Store Occupations are summarized.
+
+A relatively small number will become semi-skilled operatives in
+industrial establishments, such as job printing houses, knitting
+mills, and factories making electrical supplies, metal products, and
+so on. As a rule such work requires only a small amount of manual
+skill or deftness. Not much training is needed and it can be given
+quickly and effectively in the factories.
+
+About one-ninth of the girls in the school will enter paid domestic or
+personal service of some kind. The household arts courses probably
+meet the needs of girls who may be employed in such occupations as far
+as they can be met under present conditions. The woman domestic
+servant occupies about the same social level as the male common
+laborer, and a course which openly sets out to train girls to be
+servants is not likely to prosper. The load of social stigma such work
+carries is too heavy. At some time in the future it may be possible to
+ignore the traditional and universal attitude of our public toward the
+so-called menial occupations sufficiently to consider training
+servants. At present such a possibility seems remote.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
+
+
+Very few of the army of young people who become wage earners each year
+take up the occupations in which they engage as the result of any
+conscious selection of their own or of their parents. They drift into
+some job aimlessly and ignorantly, following the line of least
+resistance, driven or led by the accidents and exigencies of gaining a
+livelihood. They possess no accurate or comprehensive knowledge of the
+advantages and disadvantages of different types of wage earning
+occupations, and frequently take up work for which they are entirely
+unfitted or which holds little future beyond a bare livelihood.
+
+
+THE WORK OF THE VOCATIONAL COUNSELOR
+
+The plan now followed in the technical high schools of the city, by
+which one teacher in the school specially qualified for such work is
+charged with the duty of advising pupils who leave school and aiding
+them in securing desirable employment, could be adapted to the junior
+high school, where the need for service of this kind is even greater
+than in the technical high schools. Such work requires men who have
+had some contact with industrial conditions, and who possess sound
+judgment, common sense, and a fairly comprehensive knowledge of the
+local industries. If the curriculum embraces the course in "Industrial
+Information" suggested in a previous chapter, the teacher of this
+subject might well be designated as vocational counselor for the boys
+in the school. A course similar in nature should be provided for the
+girls and a woman teacher selected to advise them when they leave
+school. Considerable difficulty probably will be experienced in
+securing women teachers competent to assume this task, but any
+wide-awake teacher who will devote some attention to published studies
+of industrial conditions and get in touch with the local organizations
+engaged in the investigation of wage earning employments, such as the
+Consumers' League and the Girls' Vocation Bureau, can soon acquire a
+fund of information that will enable her to offer valuable suggestions
+and advice to girls who expect to become wage earners.
+
+The vocational counselor must guard against conventional thinking and
+the mass of "inspirational" nonsense which forms the main contribution
+to the vocational guidance of youth provided in the average
+schoolroom. The ideals of success usually held up before school
+children seem to have been drawn from a mixture of Sunday school
+literature and the prospectuses of efficiency bureaus. Boiled down the
+rules prescribed for their attainment are two: first, "Be good;" and
+second, "Get ahead." The pupils are told about well-known men who
+became famous or rich, usually rich, by practicing these rules.
+Occasionally there is some prattle about the "dignity of labor," as a
+rule meaningless in the light of our current ideas of success. We do
+not think of a well-paid artisan as "successful." His success begins
+when he is promoted to office work, or becomes a foreman.
+
+The inherent difficulty with ideals of success which demand that the
+worker become a boss of somebody else is that the world of industry
+needs only a relatively small number of bosses. Theoretically it is
+possible for any individual to reach the eminence of boss-ship. In
+real life less than one-tenth of the boys who enter industrial
+employment can rise above the level of the journeyman artisan, at
+least before later middle age, because only about that proportion of
+bosses are needed.
+
+The task of the vocational counselor will consist in putting the
+pupil's feet on the first steps of the ladder rather than showing him
+rosy pictures of the top of it. For the great majority the top means
+no more than decent wages. This, after all, is a worthy ambition,
+frequently requiring the worker's best efforts for its realization.
+
+
+THE GIRLS' VOCATION BUREAU
+
+The Girls' Vocation Bureau, for the placement of girls and women in
+wage-earning employment, has been in operation about six years. At
+present it is under the general charge of the state and municipal
+employment bureau, although part of the funds for the support of the
+bureau is raised through private subscription. From July, 1914, to
+July, 1915, the Bureau secured positions for nearly 11,000 girls and
+women. Of these approximately 12 per cent were girls under 21. In many
+instances only temporary employment is secured, although efforts are
+made to place the girls in permanent positions. More girls are placed
+in office positions than in any other line of work, but a considerable
+proportion take employment in factories, domestic service,
+restaurants, and stores.
+
+A careful record is kept of each applicant's qualifications, home
+conditions, the names of employers, etc. The Bureau endeavors to keep
+in touch with the girls after they are placed through follow-up
+reports and visits by members of the office staff or by volunteer
+investigators.
+
+This spring every school in the city was visited by representatives of
+the Bureau in the endeavor to interest principals in the work of
+placement, and arrangements were made for sending to the Bureau lists
+of the girls who were expected to leave school permanently. This
+effort met with slight success, as only about 100 girls were reported
+from all the schools in the city, although the number of girls leaving
+school each year from the elementary grades alone is over 2,000. In
+all cases the girls were visited by a representative of the Bureau and
+urged to return to school, or if they were determined to seek
+employment the advantages of registering in the Bureau were brought to
+their attention.
+
+It is to be hoped that more effective cooeperation between the Bureau
+and the schools can be established and that plans for a placement
+bureau for boys similar in method and aim to the Girls' Bureau may be
+realized. The matter of placement is the most difficult part of the
+vocational counselor's duties, and an arrangement whereby the
+vocational guidance departments of the various schools might serve as
+feeders to a central placement bureau would probably in the long run
+give the best results. Both guidance and placement are new things in
+the public schools and efficient methods of administration can be
+worked out only through trial and experiment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
+
+
+1. The future occupations of the children in school will correspond
+very closely to those of the native-born adult population. The
+occupational distribution of the city's working population therefore
+constitutes the best guide as to the kinds of industrial training
+which can be undertaken profitably by the school system.
+
+2. Industrial training in school has to do chiefly with preparation
+for work in the skilled trades. Training for semi-skilled occupations
+can be given more effectively and cheaply in the factories than in the
+schools.
+
+3. As a rule, industrial training is not practicable in elementary
+schools, for the reason that the number of boys in the average
+elementary school who are likely to enter the skilled trades and who
+are also old enough to profit by industrial training is too small to
+permit the organization of classes.
+
+4. The most important contribution to vocational education the
+elementary schools can make consists in getting the children through
+the course fast enough so that two or three years before the end of
+the compulsory attendance period they will enter an intermediate or
+vocational school where some kind of industrial training is possible.
+
+5. The survey recommends the establishment of a general industrial
+course in the junior high school, made up chiefly of instruction in
+the applications of mathematics, drawing, physics, and chemistry to
+the commoner industrial processes. The course should also include the
+study of economic and working conditions in the principal industrial
+occupations.
+
+6. One or two vocational schools equipped to offer specialized trade
+training for boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 17 are needed.
+At present a gap of from one to two years exists between the end of
+the compulsory attendance period and the entrance age in practically
+all the skilled trades, which could well be employed in direct
+preparation for trade work. Such schools would relieve the first and
+second year classes of the technical high schools of many pupils these
+schools do not want and cannot adequately provide for. General as well
+as special courses should be offered, although pupils should be
+encouraged to select a particular occupation and devote at least one
+year to intensive preparation for it.
+
+7. The survey favors the extension of the compulsory attendance period
+for boys to the age of 16. The industries of Cleveland have little or
+nothing worth while to offer boys below this age.
+
+8. The best form of trade-extension training is that provided in a few
+establishments which maintain apprentice schools in their plants. This
+plan is feasible only in large establishments. It will never take
+care of more than a small proportion of the young workers who need
+supplementary technical training.
+
+9. Plans for trade-extension training of apprentices depending on the
+cooeperation of employers have met with slight success. The principle
+difficulty is that the sacrifices they involve are borne by a
+relatively small number of employers while the benefits are reaped by
+the industry in general. Either the industry as a whole or the
+community should bear the cost of such training.
+
+10. The vocational interests of young workers and the social interests
+of the community demand the establishment of a system of continuation
+training for all young people in employment, up to the age of 18
+years. The classes should be held during working hours and attendance
+should be compulsory.
+
+11. The enrollment in the trade classes of the night schools is far
+below what it should be in a city as large as Cleveland. The
+relatively small result now obtained is not the fault of the schools,
+but is due mainly to the fact that the field of vocational evening
+instruction is treated by the school system as a mere side line of the
+technical high schools.
+
+12. The survey recommends the organization of all forms of
+continuation, night vocational, and day vocational training under
+centralized full-time leadership. Only in this way can there be
+secured a type of organization and administration sufficiently elastic
+and adaptable to meet the widely varying needs of the working classes.
+
+13. Industrial training for girls will consist in the main of
+preparation for the sewing trades. Practically no other industrial
+occupations in which large numbers of women are employed possess
+sufficient technical content to warrant the establishment of training
+courses in the schools. The survey recommends a practical course of
+needle instruction in the junior high school and the introduction in
+the vocational schools of specialized courses in dressmaking, power
+machine operating, and trade millinery for the older girls who wish to
+enter these trades.
+
+14. The present experiment in vocational guidance and placement should
+be extended as rapidly as possible. Courses in vocational information
+should be offered in the junior high school and vocational counsellors
+appointed to advise pupils in the selection of their future vocations
+and aid them in securing desirable employment when they leave school.
+The full measure of success in this work demands better cooeperation
+with outside agencies on the part of teachers and principals than has
+been secured up to the present time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON BOYS AND GIRLS IN COMMERCIAL WORK
+
+
+Particular attention is given throughout this report to the
+differences which exist between boys and girls in commercial
+employment with respect to the conditions which govern success and
+advancement. The majority of boys begin as messengers or office boys
+and subsequently become clerks or do bookkeeping work. As men they
+remain in these latter positions or, in at least an equal number of
+cases, pass on into the productive or administrative end of business.
+The majority of girls are stenographers, or to a less extent,
+assistants in bookkeeping or clerical work. Boys' work may be expected
+to take on the characteristics of the business that employs them;
+girls' work remains in essentials unchanged even in totally changed
+surroundings. Boys' work within limits is progressive; girls' work in
+its general type--with individual exceptions--is static. Boys as a
+rule cannot stay at the same kind of work and advance; girls as a rule
+stay at the same kind of work whether or not they advance. Boys in any
+position are expected to be qualifying themselves for "the job ahead,"
+but for girls that is not the case. Boys may expect to make a
+readjustment with every step in advancement. Each new position brings
+them to a new situation and into a new relation to the business. Girls
+receive salary advancement for increasingly responsible work, but any
+change in work is likely to be so gradual as to be almost
+imperceptible if they remain in the same place of employment. If they
+change to another place, those who are stenographers have a slight
+readjustment to make in getting accustomed to new terms and to the
+peculiarities of the new persons who dictate to them. Bookkeeping
+assistants may encounter different systems, but their part of the work
+will be so directed and planned that it cannot be said to necessitate
+difficult adaptation on their part. The work of clerical assistants is
+so simple and so nearly mechanical that the question of adjustment
+does not enter. These girl workers do not find that the change of
+position or firm brings them necessarily into a new relation to the
+business.
+
+Even moderate success is denied to a boy if he has not adaptability
+and the capacity to grasp business ideas and methods; but a
+comparatively high degree of success could be attained by a girl who
+possessed neither of these qualifications. A boy, however, who has no
+specific training which he can apply directly and definitely at work
+would be far more likely to obtain a good opening and promotion than a
+girl without it would be.
+
+The range of a boy's possible future occupations is as wide as the
+field of business. He cannot at first be trained specifically as a
+girl can be because he does not know what business will do with him
+or what he wants to do with business. The girl's choice is limited by
+custom. She can prepare herself definitely for stenography,
+bookkeeping, and machine operating and be sure that she is preparing
+for just the opportunity--and the whole opportunity--that business
+offers to her. Her very limitation of opportunity makes preliminary
+choice and training a definitely possible thing.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 1.--Boys and girls under 18 years of age in
+office work in Cleveland. Data from report of Ohio Industrial
+Commission, 1915]
+
+The difference between boys and girls begins at the beginning. Boys
+are given a larger share of the positions which the youngest worker
+can fill. Diagram 1 illustrates this and the figures of the United
+States Census for 1910 clearly corroborate it. Boys are taken for such
+work and taken younger than girls, not merely because the law permits
+them to go to work at an earlier age, but also because business
+itself intends to round their training. Girls, on the contrary, are
+expected to enter completely trained for definite positions. This fact
+alone would in most cases compel them to be older. Furthermore,
+because boys in first positions are looked upon as potential clerks,
+miscellaneous jobs about the office have for them a two-fold value.
+They give the employer a chance to weed out unpromising material; and
+they give boys an opportunity to find themselves and to gather ideas
+about the business and methods which they may be able to make use of
+in later adjustments.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 2.--Men and women 18 years of age and over in
+clerical and administrative work in offices in Cleveland. U.S. Census,
+1910]
+
+Diagram 2 shows that girls' training, if it is to meet the present
+situation, must prepare for a future in specialized clerical work;
+boys' future must apparently be thought of as in mostly the clerical
+and administrative fields. The term "clerical" as here used, covers
+bookkeepers, cashiers and accountants, stenographers and typists,
+clerks and a miscellaneous group of younger workers such as
+messengers, office boys, etc. "Administrative" covers proprietors,
+officials, managers, supervisors, and agents, but it does not include
+salespeople.
+
+The usual commercial course gives impartially to boys and girls two
+traditional "subjects" which they are to apply in wage earning
+whatever part of the wage earning field they may enter. These are
+stenography and bookkeeping. The evidence collected during the survey
+shows that these are rarely found in combination except in small
+offices. Of the men employed who are stenographers, the majority are
+of two kinds: (1) those who use stenography incidentally with their
+other and more important work as clerks, and (2) those for whom
+stenography is but a stepping-stone to another kind of position. The
+only firms which make a practice of offering ordinary stenographic
+positions for boys are those which restrict themselves to male
+employees for every kind of work.
+
+Independent stenographic work of various kinds is of course open to
+the sexes alike. In Cleveland there are a few women in court
+stenography. The 10 public stenographers' offices were found upon
+inquiry to include two men and 10 women. No figures regarding
+convention reporters were obtainable. In the positions of the
+bookkeeping group also there was some sex difference. The accountants,
+bookkeepers, cashiers, pay-masters and other persons of responsibility
+are, in large offices where both sexes work together, much more
+likely to be men than women; the assistants who work with these may be
+of either sex, but girls and women are likely to make up the greater
+portion. Of the small office this is less generally true. Boys who do
+machine operating are usually clerks whose machine work, as in the
+case of stenography, is merely an adjunct to other work; with girls
+machine operating is either the whole of the position or the most
+important part of it.
+
+The essential difference between the clerkship which boys for the most
+part hold and the general clerical work which girls do is that the
+boys' work is unified and is a definite, separate responsible part of
+the business, usually in line for promotion to some other clerkship;
+the girls' is a miscellany of more or less unrelated jobs and is not a
+preparation for specific promotion.
+
+
+A GENERAL VIEW OF COMMERCIAL WORK
+
+All commercial occupations may be roughly divided into two classes:
+those which have to do with administrative, merchandising, or
+productive work, and those which carry on the clerical routine which
+the others necessitate. The first class of occupations may be
+designated by the term "administrative work" and the second by
+"clerical work." A varying relation exists between the two which
+depends chiefly upon the kind of business represented. In some kinds
+clerical work is the stepping stone by which administrative work is
+reached; in others employment in clerical work side-tracks away from
+the administrative work.
+
+There is, of course, a future of promotion within the limits of
+clerical work without reference to its relation to administrative
+work. The practical aspect of it is, in most kinds of business, that
+the subordinate clerical positions far outnumber the chief ones.
+Promotion of any sort depends largely upon individual capacity; but
+this general distinction may be made between promotion in clerical
+work and in administrative work; in the clerical field it tends to be
+automatic but limited; in administrative work it comes more often
+through a worker's initiative or individuality than through automatic
+progression and it has no arbitrary limits.
+
+Obviously one kind of person will be adapted to an administrative
+career; another to a clerical one. Even a beginner in wage earning
+might be able to classify himself on a basis like this; yet it is not
+essential, for in many cases it is possible that his first positions
+recognize this choice. He needs fundamental experience in business
+methods whatever he is going to do; and for most administrative
+positions he needs maturity. He can achieve both by serving an
+apprenticeship in some form of clerical work. The important things for
+him in the early part of his career are to understand the distinction
+between the two classes of occupations; to sense the relation he holds
+to the business as a whole; and to act intelligently in the matter of
+making a change.
+
+
+BOOKKEEPING
+
+The bookkeeping which modern business, except in the small
+establishment, demands of young workers is certainly not the journal
+and ledger bookkeeping of the commercial schools. A modern office
+organization may have in its bookkeeping department of 20 persons only
+one "bookkeeper." This person is responsible for the system and he
+supervises the keeping of records and the preparation of statements. A
+minority of his assistants will need to be able to distinguish debits
+from credits; the rest will be occupied in making simple entries or in
+posting, in verifying and checking, or in finding totals with the aid
+of machines. The bookkeeping systems employed show wide variation, not
+only in different kinds of business, but in different establishments
+in the same kinds of business. Many firms are using a loose-leaf
+system; some use ledgers; and others have a system of record keeping
+which calls for neither of these devices. Bookkeeping work, especially
+in the positions held by girls, is frequently combined with
+comptometer or adding machine work, with typing, billing, filing, or
+statistical work; but rarely, except in the small office, are
+bookkeeping and stenography--the Siamese Twins of traditional and
+commercial training--found linked together.
+
+
+STENOGRAPHY
+
+Stenography is used throughout business chiefly in correspondence; to
+a less extent for report and statement work, for legal work, and for
+printer's copy. The stenographer in any business office, more than
+other clerical workers, is supposed to look after a variety of
+unorganized details including the use of office appliances, the filing
+of letters, and sometimes dealing with patrons or visitors in the
+absence of the employer. She is more important to the employer in his
+personal business relations than any other employee, except in the
+case of those few employers who have private secretaries.
+
+
+CLERKS' POSITIONS
+
+In the case of large corporations, which are by far the largest
+employers of clerks, this work has been standardized to a marked
+degree. The organization of the office work of the telegraph,
+telephone, and express companies, the railroads, and the occasional
+large wholesale company in Cleveland is a nearly exact duplication of
+that of other district or division offices controlled by these
+companies in other cities. The same is true of the Civil Service.
+Whatever effects standardization may have upon opportunity, it
+obviously makes for definiteness in regard to training requirements.
+All the positions are graded on the basis of experience and
+responsibility and a logical line of promotion from one to another has
+been worked out.
+
+The report contains detailed studies of different kinds of clerical
+work in the offices of transportation and public utility corporations,
+retail and wholesale stores, manufacturing establishments, banks, the
+civil service, and small offices employing relatively few people. In
+each of these such matters as character of the work, opportunities for
+advancement, kind of training needed and special qualifications are
+taken up.
+
+
+WAGES AND REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
+
+Stated briefly the conclusions of the report with respect to wages and
+regularity of employment in office positions are as follows:
+
+The wage opportunities for clerical workers, especially men, lie in
+business positions outside the limits of clerical work. Men clerical
+workers average about the same pay as salesmen and more pay than
+industrial workers. Women clerical workers receive more than either
+saleswomen or industrial workers. Employment is much more regular in
+clerical work than it is in salesmanship or industrial work. For men
+clerical workers the wage opportunity is better in manufacturing and
+trade than in some kinds of transportation business. For women it is
+better in manufacturing and transportation than it is in trade. Men's
+wages tend to be higher than women's in all branches of clerical work.
+
+Among the clerical positions, bookkeeping shows the highest wage
+average for men; clerks' positions show the lowest. Stenography shows
+the highest for women; machine work the lowest. Men bookkeepers show
+their best wage average in the wholesale business, clerks in
+transportation, and stenographers in manufacturing. The small office
+gives better wage opportunity to women bookkeepers and men
+stenographers; the large office favors women stenographers and men
+clerks.
+
+For boys, there is some indication that advanced education and
+commercial training, in their present status, are less closely related
+to high wages than are personal qualities and experience. For girls,
+the combination of high school education and business training is the
+best preparation for wage advancement. A general high school education
+and usually, business training, are essential to the assurance of even
+a living wage. Business training based upon less than high school
+education is almost futile.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+Six chapters of the report are devoted to a consideration of the needs
+and possibilities of training. The work now being done in the public
+schools of the city is discussed in detail, with suggestions for a
+better adaptation of the courses of study and methods and content of
+instruction to the needs of boys and girls who wish to prepare
+themselves to enter clerical occupations. The observations on training
+for such work may be summarized as follows:
+
+Commercial training should be open to all students whom commercial
+subjects and methods can serve best; but graduation should depend upon
+a high standard of efficiency.
+
+Statistics show that commercial training is not to be looked upon, in
+a wholesale way, as a successful means of taking care of backward
+academic students.
+
+Commercial students' need for cultural and other supplementary
+education may be even greater than that of academic students.
+
+The graduation rate of commercial students in public schools has been
+increased since the organization of a separate commercial high school
+and the number of students entering has been decreased.
+
+Commercial high schools receive a grade of children who are about
+medium in scholarship and normal in age.
+
+Commercial and academic high school teachers are similar in scholastic
+preparation and in the salaries they are paid.
+
+The Cleveland Normal School does not prepare definitely for the
+teaching of commercial subjects. Commercial teachers are nominally
+supervised by the district superintendents.
+
+Public schools receive 29 per cent of the city's day commercial
+students. The private schools receive a few more than the sum of
+public, parochial, and philanthropic schools.
+
+Public schools receive 22 per cent of the city's night commercial
+students. The private schools receive more than twice as many as the
+public and philanthropic schools. There are no night commercial
+classes in parochial schools.
+
+The length of the day course in most private schools is eight months
+or less; in public schools it is four years.
+
+The public school, if it believes in longer preparation for commercial
+work than most private schools give, should demonstrate the reason to
+parents and children.
+
+Training for boys and girls should be different in content and in
+emphasis.
+
+The usual course of study in commercial schools is suitable for girls
+and unsuitable for boys.
+
+A girl needs, chiefly, specific training in some one line of work. She
+has a choice among stenography, bookkeeping, and machine operating.
+
+A boy needs, chiefly, general education putting emphasis on writing,
+figuring, and spelling; general information; and the development of
+certain qualities and standards.
+
+For students electing to go into commercial work, general education
+may be taught more effectively through the medium of commercial
+subjects than through academic ones.
+
+Boys' training looks forward to both clerical work and business
+administration; but as clerical work is a preparation for business and
+is likely to occupy the first few years of wage earning, training
+should aim especially to meet the needs of clerical positions.
+
+Clerical positions for boys cover a variety of work which cannot be
+definitely anticipated and cannot therefore be specifically trained
+for. But certain fundamental needs are common to all.
+
+Most of the specialized training for boys should be given in night
+continuation classes.
+
+Girl stenographers need a full high school course for its educational
+value and for maturity. Girls going into other clerical positions can
+qualify with a year or two less of education; but immaturity in any
+case puts them at a disadvantage.
+
+Boys' training, for those who cannot remain in school, should be
+compressed into fewer than four years. Immaturity in the case of boys
+is not a great disadvantage.
+
+Bookkeeping has general value in the information it gives about
+business methods and for its drill in accuracy. To some extent it may
+aid in the development of reasoning.
+
+Much of the bookkeeping in actual use in business consists in making
+entries of one kind only and in checking and verifying. Understanding
+of debit and credit, posting, and trial balance, is the maximum
+practical need of the younger workers.
+
+Penmanship demands compactness, legibility, neatness, and ease in
+writing; also, the correct writing and placing of figures.
+
+The chief demand of business in arithmetic is for fundamental
+operations--adding and multiplying--also for ability to make
+calculations and to verify results mentally.
+
+Undergraduate experience in school or business offices may be a
+valuable method of acquainting students with office practice and
+routine and with business organization and business standards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON DEPARTMENT STORE OCCUPATIONS
+
+
+The field covered in this volume is limited to the business of retail
+selling as carried on in the department stores and some other stores
+of Cleveland. The retail stores considered can all be assigned to one
+of the three following classes: (1) The department store of the first
+rank which draws trade not only from the whole city and the suburbs
+but also from the towns and smaller cities of a large surrounding
+district; (2) the neighborhood store which does a smaller business
+within narrower limits, drawing its trade, as the name indicates, from
+the immediate neighborhood; (3) the five and ten cent store, well
+known by syndicate names, where no merchandise which must be sold
+above 10 cents is carried.
+
+
+DEPARTMENT STORES
+
+The five largest department stores in Cleveland employ about 5,800
+people distributed among several mercantile departments, and in a
+variety of occupations that find a place in the industry. Of these
+5,800 people approximately seven-tenths are women and three-tenths
+are men; 90 per cent are over 18 years of age and 10 per cent are
+under 18.
+
+The entire force of a store is sometimes arbitrarily divided by the
+management into "productive," and "non-productive" help. From 40 to 60
+per cent of the employees were reported as actually taking in money,
+while the remainder, the "non-producers," were engaged in keeping the
+business going and making it possible for the "producers" to sell
+goods.
+
+The greatest number of opportunities either for employment or
+promotion are in the selling force. This is often spoken as being "on
+the floor." Both boys and girls may find employment here, though a
+large majority of the sales force is made up of them. Speaking in
+general terms, men are only employed to sell men's furnishings,
+sporting goods, bulky merchandise, such as rugs, furniture, blankets,
+etc., and yard goods which are difficult to handle, such as household
+linens and dress goods. Positions as buyers and buyer's assistants are
+not restricted by sex and boys and girls may both consider them as a
+possible goal.
+
+
+NEIGHBORHOOD STORES
+
+A neighborhood store is that type of department store which draws its
+trade from a comparatively limited area of which the store is the
+center. The kind of goods carried are practically the same as in the
+large department store and the variety of merchandise may be nearly as
+great; but the selection is more limited because of the small stock.
+
+Promotion to selling positions is more rapid in the neighborhood
+stores than in regular department stores. One reason for this is that
+a larger proportion of the force is "productive," _i.e._, selling.
+This proportion may run as high as 80 or even 90 per cent, as compared
+with the 40 to 60 per cent of "productive" help in large department
+stores.
+
+Employment in these stores is looked upon as desirable preliminary
+training for service in larger department stores. This is the general
+opinion held by those who hire the employees in the larger stores. The
+selling experience gained in neighborhood stores is looked upon as
+general, in that it gives an acquaintance with a variety of
+merchandise rather than an extensive knowledge of any line of stock.
+This experience makes the employee adaptable and resourceful. Another
+advantage of neighborhood training for sales people is the fact that
+they are brought into closer human relations with the customer and
+thus learn the value of personality as a factor in making sales.
+
+
+FIVE AND TEN CENT STORES
+
+Cleveland had in the fall of 1915 six large stores where nothing
+costing over 10 cents is sold. These belong to three syndicates or
+chains. To show the extent to which this business has developed it may
+be stated that the largest of these syndicates, which controls three
+of the six Cleveland stores, has 747 branches in different parts of
+the country.
+
+The number of saleswomen in a single store ranges from 12 to 70. The
+total number in the six stores was approximately 226. The shift in
+this branch of retail trade is large, as there are continual changes
+in the selling force. One store reported the number of new employees
+hired in six months as being about equal to the average selling force.
+
+The managers of the five and ten cent stores without exception stated
+that they preferred to hire beginners who were without store
+experience. The hours of work are longer and the conditions under
+which the work is done are more trying than is usually the case in the
+larger department stores.
+
+The girl who expects her application for employment in the five and
+ten cent store to be accepted must be 18 years old in order that she
+may legally work after six o'clock. It is better for her to be without
+previous selling experience (unless in other five and ten cent
+stores), as employers in these stores prefer to train help according
+to their own methods.
+
+
+WAGES AND EMPLOYMENT
+
+The wages paid beginners in the department stores are fair as compared
+with other industries employing the same grade of help. Boys and girls
+when they first enter employment receive from $3.50 to $7, depending
+on the store where they get their first job. In addition to the salary
+most department stores give bonuses or commissions through which the
+members of the sales force may increase their compensation. The
+Survey Staff worked out comparisons on the basis of data supplied by
+the State Industrial Commission between the earnings of workers in
+department store occupations and those in other industries. Diagram 3
+shows graphically a comparison of the wages of women workers in six
+different industries. An interesting point brought out by this graphic
+comparison is that retail trade constitutes a much better field for
+women's employment as compared with the great majority of positions
+open to them in other lines than is commonly assumed to be the case.
+This is brought out even more clearly in Table 15, which compares, on
+a percentage basis, those who earn $12 a week and over, in all of the
+industries of the city employing as many as 500 women in 1914.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 3.--Per cent of women earning each class of
+weekly wages in each of six occupations]
+
+
+TABLE 15.--PER CENT OF WOMEN EMPLOYEES OVER 18 YEARS OF AGE EARNING
+$12 A WEEK AND OVER
+
+
+ Office employees, in retail and wholesale stores 31.8
+ Employees in women's clothing factories 22.5
+ Saleswomen in retail and wholesale stores 21.0
+ Employees in men's clothing factories 13.3
+ Employees in hosiery and knit goods factories 7.9
+ Employees in printing and publishing establishments 7.7
+ Employees in telephone and telegraph offices 6.3
+ Employees in laundries and dry cleaning establishments 4.4
+ Employees in cigar and tobacco factories 3.9
+ Employees in gas and electric fixtures concerns 3.2
+
+If the data were for retail stores only and did not include wholesale
+stores, then office work, which now stands at the head of the list,
+would probably not make so good a showing, although the superiority
+over the selling positions is, from the wage-earning standpoint, so
+marked that there seems to be no escape from the conclusion that on
+the whole women office workers are better paid than women in the sales
+force. On the other hand the proportion of saleswomen earning $12 and
+over is from nearly seven times as great to not far from twice as
+great as it is in the factory industries, if we except the workers in
+women's clothing factories, whose earnings per week are better than
+those of the saleswomen.
+
+With respect to the men employed on the sales force of the department
+stores a somewhat different situation exists. In Diagram 4 a
+comparison is made of the wages paid in sales positions with the wages
+paid in clerical positions. Here it will be noted that men who sell
+goods in retail and wholesale stores earn more on the average than men
+occupying clerical positions, such as bookkeepers, stenographers, and
+office clerks. This comparison does not include traveling salesmen. A
+further comparison of the earnings of the men in stores with the
+earnings of male workers (omitting office clerks) in the different
+industries of the city employing the largest number of men is given in
+Diagram 5, which shows the per cent in each industry earning $18 a
+week and over.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 4.--Per cent of salesmen and of men clerical
+workers in stores receiving each class of weekly wage]
+
+In comparing wages in stores with those in the manufacturing
+industries it must be not forgotten that the working day and week in
+the larger stores is shorter than in most of the factories. Hence a
+comparison of earnings on the basis of wage per hour would show a
+still greater advantage in favor of both sales persons and clerical
+workers.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 5.--Per cent of male workers in non-clerical
+positions in six industries earning $18 per week and over]
+
+
+REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
+
+In department store work and in nearly all branches of retail selling
+there is a marked fluctuation in the number employed during the year.
+Sales work in the department stores is seasonal in the sense that a
+large number of extra sales women are taken on during the Christmas
+season for a period of temporary employment, usually lasting from one
+to two months. The proportion of the total working force for the whole
+year employed in such transient jobs is approximately one-fourth. How
+selling positions in retail and wholesale stores compare with other
+fields of employment in this respect is seen in Diagram 6.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 6.--Per cent that the average number of women
+employed during the year is of the highest number employed in each of
+six industries]
+
+
+OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADVANCEMENT
+
+In regard to promotion in department stores it should be noted that as
+a rule the executives are made in the business and are not, as in some
+industries, brought in from the outside because they must have some
+special training which the organization itself does not provide. Not
+only in Cleveland but in other cities where studies of the same kind
+have been made it has been found that practically all the people
+holding important floor positions have come up from the ranks. The
+various lines of promotion through the different departments are
+analyzed in detail in the report.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+That vocational training for department store employees is both
+desirable and possible is proved by the fact that most of the large
+stores in Cleveland make some provision for the instruction of their
+workers. Some of these classes are carefully organized and excellently
+taught with every promise of increasing in usefulness. Others employ
+methods of instruction which belong to the academic school of an
+earlier decade and give evidence that the problem of vocational
+training with which they are presumably concerned is not even
+understood.
+
+From the standpoint of the school there are two well recognized kinds
+of training possible for department store employees: trade preparatory
+and trade extension training. Eventually it may prove practicable to
+organize instruction of both kinds, but it is the opinion of the
+author of the report that under present conditions the surest results
+can be expected from trade extension training. In trade extension
+instruction the members of the group to be dealt with have already
+secured their foothold in the industry; and having mastered at least
+the rudiments of their job they have acquired a basis of experience
+which may be utilized for purposes of instruction. These people are
+responsive to teaching organized with regard to their needs, for daily
+experience is demonstrating to them their deficiencies.
+
+The success of the proposed training will largely depend upon the
+employment of simple and direct methods that shall place this
+knowledge in the hands and head of the person or group needing it. The
+application of this instruction must be immediate and practical and
+must not be dependent upon the working out of a complicated course or
+schedule.
+
+The organization must be flexible enough to admit of bringing together
+a group having a common need, although they may come from different
+departments of the business. Since the unit of class organization is
+not previous school experience or similar employment, it will be seen
+that this class should be held only until the need is fully supplied
+and should then give place to another organized on the same basis.
+
+As in all vocational teaching, the size of the class should be
+limited. To make this work really effective, the instructor should
+come in sufficiently close contact with all pupils to enable him to
+obtain a personal knowledge of their needs and capabilities. A further
+necessity for small classes and individual instruction is found in the
+fact that there is a constant shift of employees in the industry as
+well as frequent accessions from the outside.
+
+It readily can be seen that this is not a problem of the regular
+school and that it cannot be met by ordinary classroom methods. Part
+time or continuation classes, such as have already proved feasible for
+other kinds of trade instruction, are the most practicable methods of
+doing this work.
+
+Classes for the instruction of employees are already maintained in the
+majority of large stores. The extension of this plan of separate
+responsibility is one way of meeting the problem. But this method has
+certain obvious faults. The unequal opportunity which it affords to
+department store employees as a body is a conspicuous drawback. The
+value of the instruction so given, moreover, will always depend to a
+large extent on the comprehension of the problem by the firm
+maintaining the classes. The method involves much duplication of
+effort, which is particularly wasteful when the instruction of small
+groups is involved.
+
+Another possible method would be for the several department stores to
+get together and cooeperate in providing instruction. There would seem
+to be no reason why stores should not unite for this purpose as well
+as for any other. The advantages of this method are economy of
+maintenance and administration, the ability to command expert service,
+and the possibility of securing and sharing the results of a great
+variety of such experiences as does not consist of exclusive trade
+secrets.
+
+The number of people whom it would be necessary to employ exclusively
+for the purpose of conducting these classes would be small as
+compared with the results accomplished. Collectively these stores now
+have in their employ a body of highly paid experts in all lines of
+merchandise. A large amount of the most accurate technical knowledge
+covering the work of all departments is already available in the
+several stores. These are valuable resources which should be utilized
+by a cooeperative school of this kind.
+
+For the head of such a school, it would be desirable to secure a man
+or woman of more than usual ability and discernment who, above all
+else, could sense the business and routine of each contributing store
+from the standpoint of the employee and of store organization. It
+would be the business of this person to become familiar with the
+available sources of knowledge in the different stores and then
+arrange for the presentation of this knowledge to the various classes.
+By cooeperation with the floor men, heads of sections and departments,
+as well as with the employees themselves, he should come into close
+contact with the requirements of the workers and should gather from
+the different stores those who, because of their common need, can be
+made into a "school unit." It would also be necessary to employ
+assistants of practical experience who would attend to the details of
+routine teaching, and act as interpreters for those experts who have
+the knowledge but not the ability to impart it even to a small class.
+
+It is realized that a scheme of this kind would involve the overcoming
+of many objections and difficulties of adjustment before it could be
+put into actual operation. It would necessitate mutual concessions and
+forbearance on the part of everybody concerned, but the results would
+unquestionably justify the labor.
+
+A third method, already in operation in Boston, New York, and Buffalo,
+calls for the cooeperation of the stores and the schools. This
+partnership, it is claimed, makes certain that the needs of the pupil
+are considered before the demands of the business. It insures equal
+opportunity for all employees so far as instruction is concerned and
+it divides the expense of maintenance between the industry and the
+school. It is to be regretted that this scheme frequently results in
+the employment of teachers who, although certificated for regular
+school work, have no other qualifications, instead of persons of
+practical experience. The employment of such teachers too often leads
+to the following of ordinary school practices and academic traditions
+rather than the methods and practice of business.
+
+In some quarters it is maintained that this instruction should be
+entirely taken over by the public schools, thus relieving the store of
+any responsibility in the matter. It is probably not now advisable for
+the school to assume full responsibility for such training. The heavy
+expense involved and the physical limitations of the schools would
+make it difficult, without the cooeperation of the store, to reproduce
+the trade atmosphere necessary for real vocational training. As a
+result, the instruction would become abstract and theoretical, with
+the major portion of the effort limited to a continuation of
+elementary school subjects taught with reference to their application
+to department store work.
+
+
+CHARACTER OF THE INSTRUCTION
+
+The analysis of the industry shows that in each occupation or job
+there is a definite amount of knowledge which must be acquired by the
+efficient worker. A study of this analysis and of the examples of
+technical knowledge needed by the worker at different points in the
+industry will show that no such thing as a general course is possible.
+In every case the character of the instruction should be such that it
+will answer a definite need of the employee. What this instruction
+should be in specific cases can be settled only, on the one hand, by a
+thorough analysis of the occupation to determine what demands it makes
+upon the workers, and on the other, by a careful study of the workers
+themselves to ascertain how far they have been unable to meet these
+demands without assistance. Lessons can then be organized dealing with
+such subject matter as individuals or groups have failed to grasp, the
+lack of which limits their efficiency or restricts their usefulness.
+It can readily be seen that this instruction will cover a wide range
+of subjects, from the use of fractions needed by checkers and
+salesgirls in yard goods sections, to the special technical knowledge
+of fine furs required by the salesperson who handles this
+merchandise.
+
+The method by which this instruction can best be given is in a series
+of short unit courses. In every case the length of the course is to be
+determined by the subject matter. For instance, two one-half hour
+lessons may be a "course," when this time is sufficient for the
+necessary teaching.
+
+The group or class to which this instruction is given might be made up
+of those who need the same technical knowledge, although they might
+expect to make a different application of this instruction. For
+instance, the unit course on silks might be given to a group composed
+of salespeople from the silk section, the waists and gowns section,
+and the section of men's neckwear.
+
+The report gives detailed examples of the kinds of technical knowledge
+needed in the different departments of the store. It maintains that
+such instruction cannot be successfully given by regular school
+teachers. As in other industries the teacher needs actual experience
+in the occupation for which training is given. Academic training and
+teaching experience are desirable and valuable, but among the
+qualifications demanded of a teacher of this kind they are of
+secondary importance.
+
+The final chapter of the report contains valuable instructions for
+young persons who desire to secure positions in retail trade. These
+instructions cover such matters as work papers, methods of securing a
+position, and requirements for employment in various kinds of
+department store work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE GARMENT TRADES
+
+
+The clothing industry in Cleveland has grown very rapidly in recent
+years. During the 10 year period from 1900-10 the number of persons
+employed in the industry increased approximately 100 per cent. This
+increase was much greater than the increase throughout the country as
+a whole and was more than twice as large as the increase in the
+population of the city. There is every indication that this rapid
+growth is still continuing. It is estimated that approximately 10,000
+workers are employed in the industry at the present time.
+
+The distribution of men and women in the industry is most interesting.
+The making of men's garments has been more fully standardized and is
+subject to fewer changes than the making of women's garments. In this
+standardized and systematized branch of the industry the women now
+outnumber the men. In the manufacture of women's garments, where the
+styles change more frequently and the work is of a more varied
+character, more men than women are employed.
+
+The methods of work are of three general types: The old tailoring
+system known as "team work," or a slight modification of it; piece
+operating; and section work. Under the team system, used extensively
+in the making of women's coats, a head tailor hires his own helpers
+(operators and finishers), supervises them and pays them by the week
+out of the lump sum he receives for the garments from the clothing
+establishment. Under the piece operating system each operator sews up
+all the seams on one "piece," or garment, and each finisher does all
+the hand sewing on one garment. Each operator and each finisher is an
+independent worker. The whole body of finishers keeps pace with the
+whole body of operators. Piece operating is used almost entirely in
+dress and skirt making, and to some extent in coat making. The section
+system is based on the subdivision of processes into a number of minor
+operations. The workers are divided into groups, each group making a
+certain part of the garment. The various operations are divided into
+as many minor operations as the number of workers and quantity and
+kind of materials will warrant. Each of these minor operations is
+performed by operators who do nothing else. This specialization has
+been carried to a high degree in the manufacture of men's clothing,
+and section work is increasingly used on women's coats.
+
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORKING FORCE
+
+One of the objects of the study was to find how many positions there
+are for men and women in each occupation in the industry. Through the
+cooeperation of employers data were obtained from the records of 50
+establishments employing a total of 8,337 garment workers,
+approximately four-fifths of the total number in the city. The
+distribution of workers by sex in the various occupations is shown in
+Diagram 7. The apportioning of work to the two sexes seems to depend
+partly upon the weight of materials and partly upon previous training.
+The men are mostly foreign born tailors who have had the kind of
+training necessary for the more complicated work. The women are
+largely American born of foreign parentage, trained in American shops
+and employed chiefly upon operations that may be learned in a
+relatively short time. Cutting and pressing are practically
+monopolized by men. Nearly all hand sewers are women, except for a few
+basters on men's clothing. Most designers are men, although a few
+women designers are found in dress and waist shops.
+
+In the largest trade,--machine operating,--about two-thirds of the
+workers are women. In no trade in which both sexes are employed is the
+difference in their work more apparent. The weight of materials
+decides to some extent the division of operating between men and
+women. Some employers are of the opinion that garments made of such
+thick materials as plush, corduroys, and cheviots are too heavy to be
+manipulated under needle machinery by women and consequently employ
+only men operators. Where light weight materials are used, as in the
+manufacture of dresses and waists, delicacy in handling is required,
+and nearly all the operators are women.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 7.--Distribution of 8,337 clothing workers by
+sex in the principal occupations in the garment industry]
+
+Four-fifths of the men and two-fifths of the women employed in the
+industry are of foreign birth and the majority of the native born
+workers are of foreign parentage. There is an increasing demand for
+workers who understand English, due to the fact that they are able to
+follow directions more intelligently.
+
+There are relatively few workers under the age of 18. Many firms will
+employ no one under this age because of various complications which
+arise in connection with the age and schooling certification of girls
+between the ages of 16 and 18. Of 25 women's clothing factories
+visited during the Survey only nine had any workers under 18.
+According to the report of the Industrial Commission of Ohio for 1914
+only eight per cent of the workers employed in making men's clothing,
+and less than two per cent of the workers employed in making women's
+clothing were under 18 years of age.
+
+
+EARNINGS
+
+In general the wages paid in garment making compare favorably with
+those of other manufacturing industries. This is particularly true
+with respect to the earnings of women workers. A considerably larger
+proportion of the women employed in the garment industry earn what may
+be considered high wages for industrial workers than in any of the
+larger factory industries of the city. This is clearly shown in
+Diagram 8 which lists nine of the principal fields of industrial
+employment for women. The proportions of women receiving under $8 a
+week are lower in men's and women's clothing than in the other seven
+industries. In the proportion of women receiving $12 and over, women's
+clothing ranks first and men's clothing third.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 8.--Percentage of women in men's and women's
+clothing and seven other important women employing industries
+receiving under $8, $8 to $12, and $12 and over per week.]
+
+The comparison of the wages paid men employees shown in Diagram 9 is
+somewhat less favorable. Women's clothing ranks with printing and
+publishing as to the proportion of male workers receiving the highest
+specified earnings per week. Men's clothing ranks sixth among the
+industries compared.
+
+The various kinds of work do not command fixed wage rates, as do many
+other types of industrial employment. Quantity of output as well as
+quality of workmanship is an important factor in the determination of
+wages. Men generally turn out a greater output than women on the same
+kind of work and piece workers usually earn more than those paid by
+the week. The lowest, average, and highest wages for each of the
+principal occupations in the two branches of the industry are shown in
+Tables 16 and 17.
+
+One reason often given for the higher earnings received by workers on
+women's garments is the greater irregularity of employment in this
+branch of the industry. This, however, does not sufficiently account
+for the difference. The most weighty reason is that a higher degree of
+adaptability is required of workers than is the case in the
+manufacture of men's clothing.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 9.--Percentage of men in men's and women's
+clothing and seven other manufacturing industries receiving under $18,
+$18 to $25, and $25 and over per week]
+
+
+TABLE 16.--WAGES FOR FULL-TIME WORKING WEEK, WOMEN'S CLOTHING,
+CLEVELAND, 1915
+
+---------------------------------------+--------+----------+---------+
+Workers | Lowest | Average | Highest |
+---------------------------------------+--------+----------+---------+
+Assorters, women | $6.00 | $8.75 | $14.00 |
+Hand sewers, women | 6.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 |
+Trimming girls | 7.00 | 10.25 | 15.00 |
+Operators,* women | 6.00 | 12.00 | 30.00 |
+Sample makers, women | 10.00 | 12.75 | 15.00 |
+Examiners, women | 8.00 | 13.50 | 18.00 |
+Models, suit and cloak | 10.00 | 15.25 | 21.00 |
+Forewomen | 9.00 | 16.25 | 25.00 |
+Operators,* men | 7.00 | 17.75 | 50.00 |
+Pressers, men | 9.00 | 18.25 | 35.00 |
+Cutters,Sec. men | 8.00 | 19.25 | 30.00 |
+Pattern graders, suit and cloak, men | 13.00 | 22.00 | 27.50 |
+Sample makers, men | 13.00 | 22.50 | 25.00 |
+Examiners, men | 16.00 | 25.00 | 45.00 |
+Head tailors, men | 18.00 | 25.00 | ... |
+Foremen | 14.00 | 30.00 | 75.00 |
+---------------------------------------+--------+----------+---------+
+*: Includes piece and section operators and helpers to head tailors
+Sec.: Includes all cutters except foremen, apprentices, and pattern graders
+
+
+TABLE 17.--AVERAGE WAGES FOR FULL-TIME WORKING WEEK FOR SIMILAR
+WORKERS, MEN'S AND WOMEN'S CLOTHING, CLEVELAND, 1915
+
+---------------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
+Workers | Men's | Women's |
+ | clothing | clothing |
+---------------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
+Hand sewers, women | $9.50 | $10.00 |
+Section operators, women | 9.25 | 11.25 |
+Examiners, women | 7.00 | 13.50 |
+Section operators, men | 16.50 | 15.25 |
+Pressers, under | 12.00 | 15.75 |
+Forewomen | 11.00 | 16.25 |
+Pressers, upper | 18.50 | 19.50 |
+Cutters, cloth | 18.75 | 20.00 |
+Examiners, men | 17.75 | 25.00 |
+Foremen | 29.25 | 30.00 |
+---------------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+
+REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
+
+The making of women's clothing is seasonal, to meet a seasonal
+purchasing demand. Most people purchase their summer clothes in April
+and May, and their winter clothes in October and November. During the
+months previous to these purchasing seasons a large number of workers
+are needed, but after the height of the purchasing period employment
+becomes less and less steady until the first demands of the new season
+are felt. During the rush season a greater number of workers is
+employed, or the output may be augmented by increasing the speed at
+which the work is performed or the number of hours in the working day.
+A combination of these methods is frequently used. During dull periods
+the workers may be busy from a few hours a week to full working time;
+while in rush periods they may work not only the regular working
+hours, but in addition a good deal of over-time.
+
+Compared with other manufacturing industries as regards regularity of
+employment men's clothing makes an excellent showing while women's
+clothing ranks low. In Diagram 10 the average number of unemployed
+among each 100 workers is shown for men's and women's clothing and for
+15 other large manufacturing industries in the city. Men's clothing
+leads the list, with an average unemployment of four among each 100
+workers, while women's clothing ranks 14th, with 15 among each 100.
+
+
+TRAINING AND PROMOTION
+
+Designers learn their work through apprenticeships to custom tailors
+and cutters and by taking supplementary courses in drafting and
+grading of patterns in a designing school. Most designers in
+Cleveland have had training in designing schools in New York or
+Chicago.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 10.--The black portions of the bars show the
+average number of unemployed among each 100 workers in men's clothing,
+women's clothing and 15 other specified industries]
+
+With but few exceptions organized training for machine operating is
+found only in the largest establishments. There is general agreement
+among employers that it takes a girl who has never operated a machine
+before about four weeks to learn an easy operation well enough to be
+taken on at regular piece rates. A much longer time is required to
+become a first class worker on a single operation, and to acquire
+skill in a group of operations takes from one to two years.
+
+Girls are not usually employed as hand sewers unless they know how to
+do plain sewing. A girl who starts with this knowledge should be able
+to learn factory sewing well enough to earn fair wages within from six
+months to a year.
+
+In cutting, which has a so-called apprenticeship lasting from two to
+six years, there is no formal system of instruction. Boys must pick up
+the trade from observation and practice. Beginners start as errand
+boys, cloth boys, bundlers, or helpers.
+
+Pressing is usually learned in cleaning and pressing shops. It takes
+about eight weeks for a green hand to become a good seam presser. To
+become a final presser on skirts and dresses requires from six months
+to a year, and on jackets and cloaks from two to three years.
+
+Examiners have usually had considerable previous experience as machine
+operators or finishers. The length of experience depends on the kinds
+of garments and ranges from three to eight years.
+
+Trimmers and assorters learn their work as helpers to experienced
+employees. A year or so of experience is required before they can be
+entrusted with responsible work.
+
+Foremen are selected from the working force or, in a few cases,
+trained especially for their positions. Although there are few
+opportunities each year for advancement to foremanship, employers
+declare they cannot get enough persons of ability to fill vacancies. A
+study of the previous experience of foremen and forewomen made by the
+survey shows that they come from nearly every department of the
+factory. The length of previous experience among the cases studied
+ranged from three months to nine years.
+
+
+EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
+
+The quality which proprietors of garment making establishments value
+above all others in their employees is adaptability. The reason for
+this is that the manufacturing of clothing differs from almost all
+other kinds of industrial work in the frequency with which changes
+take place in the size and shape of the product and in the range of
+materials which must be handled by the same workers. There is an
+annual change in the weight of cloth used for the different seasons,
+from light to heavy and from heavy to light. The size and shape of the
+pieces which compose the finished garment are determined by changes in
+style which vary from the minor modifications occurring yearly in
+men's clothing to the radical changes in the style of women's
+clothing. A wide variety of fabrics is employed, ranging from thick to
+thin, smooth to rough, closely woven to loosely woven and from plain
+weave to fancy weave. In one season a single establishment will make
+garments from as many as 200 different fabrics, and each operator is
+likely to work upon 60 or more different kinds of cloth.
+
+In view of the fact that many of the workers are foreigners or of
+foreign parentage, and that the frequent changes in styles and
+materials require the giving of detailed instructions by foremen,
+instruction in English is of more importance in the garment trades
+than in occupations where there is a larger proportion of native born
+and where the products and processes are more uniformly standardized.
+
+All clothing workers should have a practical knowledge of the
+fundamental operations of arithmetic. Where the piece and section
+systems are in operation it is important for the worker to keep
+account of what she has accomplished and to know enough arithmetic to
+check her own record with the tally kept by the foreman or payroll
+girl. Some of the occupations, such as cutting, involve a considerable
+amount of arithmetical computation.
+
+As in other trades, all workers and prospective workers need a general
+knowledge of industrial conditions. They would greatly benefit from a
+better understanding of the supply of labor, factors affecting prices,
+organization of workers, industrial legislation, the relative
+importance of the field of employment in different industries, the
+nature of important industrial processes, and the like. At the present
+time there is little opportunity for gaining such information either
+before entering any specific line of work or afterwards.
+
+For certain small groups within the clothing industry there are needs
+in the way of technical training that are important and at present
+unsupplied. Training in applied mathematics, drafting and design would
+be of benefit to a considerable number of employees who are occupying
+or working towards advanced positions.
+
+A large proportion of the women workers need skill in hand sewing.
+Before girls enter the industry they should have careful and
+systematic training in plain sewing stitches, sewing on buttons and
+other fasteners, and button hole making.
+
+Machine operating is the most important occupation in the industry,
+and employs more women than any other occupation in the city, except
+perhaps dressmaking. After a careful study of the characteristics of
+this occupation and the various conditions affecting it, the survey
+reached the conclusion that there should be established by the school
+system a trade course for prospective power machine operators.
+
+
+SEWING COURSES IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS
+
+In the elementary schools manual training sewing is given in the fifth
+and sixth grades. It consists of one hour a week of hand sewing taught
+by a regular grade teacher or sometimes by teachers of domestic
+science or other special subjects. The aim is to give the girls a
+knowledge of practical sewing which may be of use to them in the home.
+In five of the elementary schools hand and machine sewing is taught by
+special sewing teachers. About four per cent of all the seventh and
+eighth grade girls in the elementary schools receive this instruction.
+In the technical high schools the sewing course covers four years
+work. During the first two years all girls are required to take plain
+hand and machine sewing three and three-quarter hours a week. In the
+third and fourth years they may elect either millinery or dressmaking,
+and special courses in these subjects are provided for girls who wish
+to prepare for trade work. The aim of the sewing course as stated in
+the outline of the East Technical High School is "(1) Preparation for
+efficiency in the selection of the materials used in sewing and the
+construction of articles relating to the home and family sewing: (2)
+laying the foundation for courses in college, normal school, or
+business school." A two year elective course in sewing is provided in
+the academic high school as a part of the home economic course. The
+aim of this sewing, which is called domestic art, is stated thus:
+"Problem--my personal appearance is one of my chief assets. What can I
+do to improve it?" Dressmaking and millinery classes are conducted in
+the night technical high schools to teach girls how to make their own
+clothes and hats.
+
+The manual training sewing in the fifth and sixth grades cannot be
+considered as furnishing any important contribution in the training of
+those who will make their living in the sewing trades. Much the same
+must be said of the work in the technical high schools. It is taught
+not for the purpose of securing quick, accurate hand or machine
+stitching, but to enable the girls to make a few garments for their
+personal use. Due to the fact that very few of the girls who become
+wage earners in these trades remain in school after the completion of
+the elementary course it is doubtful whether the technical high school
+offers a hopeful field for practical training. The work in the
+elementary schools is so hampered by lack of equipment that the
+results, from the standpoint of trade preparation, amount to very
+little.
+
+
+ELECTIVE SEWING COURSES IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
+
+The reduction of retardation all through the grades is of fundamental
+importance to any plan of vocational training. The age of 15 is the
+final compulsory attendance age for girls, and those who enter at six
+and seven and make regular progress should be in the first or second
+high school year by the time they reach this age. Last year there
+were, however, 1,170 fifteen-year-old girls in the Cleveland schools
+who were from one to seven grades below normal. Instead of being in
+the high school, they were scattered from the second grade to the
+eighth, and they constituted more than half of all the girls of that
+age in the school system. It is clear that unless the schools can
+carry them through more nearly on schedule time there is no hope of
+providing industrial training for a large proportion of them, because
+they reach the end of the compulsory period before entering the grades
+in which industrial training can be given effectively and
+economically.
+
+The report recommends that during the junior high school period girls
+who expect to enter the sewing trades should be given work in
+mechanical drawing, elementary science, industrial conditions,
+elementary mechanics and hand and machine sewing. The fundamentals of
+sewing can be thoroughly taught in two years. The work during the
+first year might well be limited to hand sewing. Machine sewing should
+be taken up in the second year, and the girls given an opportunity
+during the third year to specialize somewhat broadly in a trade school
+on the kind of work in which they may wish to engage--power operating,
+dressmaking, or millinery.
+
+
+A ONE YEAR TRADE COURSE FOR GIRLS
+
+Specialized training must be conducted under conditions closely
+resembling those found in the industry. This involves equipment
+similar to that used in the factory, an ample supply of materials, and
+a corps of teachers who have had practical experience. It might seem
+that on the score of adequate equipment the factory itself would be
+the place for such training. But the fact is that the main object of
+the factory is to turn out as large a quantity as possible of
+saleable product. In the school the main object should be to turn out
+as large a quantity of saleable skill and knowledge as possible, with
+the saleable product as a secondary, although necessary, feature.
+
+The junior high school is not the place for specialized trade
+training, since it is reasonably certain that there would not be a
+sufficient number of girls in each junior high school desiring to
+enter a single trade to warrant the provision of special equipment and
+special teachers. For this reason the report favors a trade course in
+a separate school plant where girls who wish to specialize in any of
+the sewing trades can be taught in fairly large classes. The work done
+during the past few years in such institutions as the Boston Trade
+School for Girls and the Manhattan Trade School for Girls in New York
+City gives evidence of the practicability of this plan.
+
+
+TRADE-EXTENSION TRAINING
+
+The only instruction offered by the public school system at the
+present time which can be considered as trade-extension training for
+the garment industries is that given in the sewing classes in the
+technical night schools. The enrollment in these classes during the
+second term of 1915-16 was 229. Only a small proportion of the girls
+and women enrolled in the night sewing classes make their living by
+sewing. The students employed by day in clothing factories or in any
+of the sewing trades constitute somewhat less than 15 per cent of the
+total number enrolled. Nearly half of the enrollment is made up of
+workers in commercial, clerical or professional pursuits and
+approximately one-third are not employed in any gainful occupation.
+
+In both technical night schools the emphasis is laid on training for
+home sewing rather than on training for wage earning. The courses now
+given are not planned for workers in the garment trades, but to help
+women and girls who want to learn how to make, alter, and repair their
+own garments.
+
+If a trade school of the kind described in the previous section were
+established it would be possible to give at night short unit courses
+in machine or hand sewing to those workers who wish to extend their
+experience and prepare themselves for advancement, utilizing in the
+night classes the equipment of the day school. It is probable also
+that special day classes could be organized during the dull season to
+give beginners the opportunity to learn new processes and extend their
+knowledge of trade theory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON DRESSMAKING AND MILLINERY
+
+
+At the time of the last census the total number of women in Cleveland
+employed as milliners or dressmakers was approximately 5,000, of whom
+about seven-tenths were dressmakers and about three-tenths milliners.
+For the most part they were of native birth. The proportion of young
+girls engaged in these occupations was relatively small, the age
+distribution showing that only about one-third of the milliners and
+less than one-fifth of the dressmakers were under 21 years of age.
+
+
+DRESSMAKING
+
+Four distinctive lines of work are done by those who are classified by
+the census as dressmakers and seamstresses: dressmaking proper,
+usually carried on in shops; alteration work in stores; general sewing
+done by seamstresses at home or in the homes of customers; and the
+work of the so-called dressmaking "school," in which the dressmaker
+helps her customers do their general sewing.
+
+Shop dressmaking is in the main confined to the making of afternoon
+and evening gowns and fancy blouses. Nearly uniform processes of work
+are maintained and the workers in the different establishments need
+about the same kinds of abilities and degrees of skill. There is a
+strong and increasing tendency towards specialization of the work.
+
+Among each 100 workers in dressmaking shops about 13 are head girls,
+55 are finishers or makers, 16 are helpers, eight are apprentices, and
+the rest are lining makers, cutters, embroiderers, errand girls,
+shoppers, and stock girls.
+
+Alteration work constitutes a separate sewing trade and consists of
+the adjustment of ready-made garments to individual peculiarities. It
+furnishes employment to several hundred workers in Cleveland.
+
+The weekly wages most commonly paid to each class of workers in
+dressmaking shops may be roughly stated as follows: apprentices, $2 to
+$4; helpers $6 to $9; finishers or makers $10 to $12; and drapers $18
+to $20. Lining making, done in most shops by apprentices or helpers,
+pays from $4 to $6 a week. In one shop a specialist on linings
+received $12. Women cutters, found in two shops, and doing supervisory
+work similar to that done by drapers, earned from $15 to $25.
+Hemstitchers earn $10 to $14 and a guimpe maker in one shop earned
+$12. Errand girls were found at $3 and $6; stock girls at $8, $12, and
+$13; and shoppers at from $3.50 to $10.
+
+Beginners in alteration departments are started at from $5 to $7.
+Regular alteration hands earn from $7 to $18, the average being $9 or
+$10. Fitters earn about the same as drapers in dressmaking shops,
+averaging from $15 to $18, with a range of from $10 to $25.
+
+As a rule comparatively little time is lost through irregularity of
+employment. Workers average from 10 to 11 months' work out of the
+year. Establishments usually close during the month of August and for
+one or two weeks in the spring. Workers in alteration department
+average 11 months of work. Dress alteration work is steady, while suit
+and coat alteration is irregular.
+
+Apprenticeship in dressmaking comprehends a trying-out period of from
+six months to a year. Most shops take apprentices, the proportion in
+the trade being one to every 12 workers; and an effort is made to keep
+these new workers if they are at all satisfactory. There is no
+standardized apprenticeship wage. Girls may serve without pay for six
+months, or may start at from 50 cents to $4 a week. At the end of six
+months they may be earning from $1.50 to $6. The lack of any wage
+standard in apprenticeship probably accounts for the fact that it is
+difficult to get girls to enter this trade.
+
+
+MILLINERY
+
+Millinery requires the handling of small pieces of the most varied
+sorts of material, most of it perishable. The materials must be
+measured, cut, turned, twisted, and draped into innumerable designs
+and color combinations, and sewed with various kinds of stitching.
+The main processes are making, trimming, and designing. Making
+consists in fashioning a specified shape from wire or buckram and
+covering it with such materials as straw or velvet. The covering may
+be put on plain, or may be shirred or draped. Trimming consists in
+placing and sewing on all sorts of decorative materials. A combination
+of the two processes of making and trimming, known as copying,
+consists in making a hat from the beginning exactly like a specified
+model. Designing is the creation of original models.
+
+The increase in the use of the factory-made hat has decreased the
+number of workers in custom millinery, and has also had an effect in
+diverting business from small retail shops to millinery departments in
+stores. The number of millinery workers constantly fluctuates, not
+only from season to season, but from year to year. According to a
+close estimate not more than 2,000 workers were actually engaged in
+millinery occupations during the busiest part of 1915. Between 1,200
+and 1,400 were in retail shops; about 300 were in millinery
+departments in stores; and about 300 more were in wholesale houses.
+
+The data collected indicate that the wages of workers in retail shops
+are lower in general than the wages of workers in millinery
+departments in stores and in wholesale houses. Makers in retail shops
+earn from $3 to $16 a week, the average being about $8. Trimmers earn
+from $10 to $40, with an average of about $18. Out of 45 retail
+shops, only 22 paid as high as $10 to any maker; 15 paid as high as
+$12; six paid as high as $15; and only one paid over $15.
+
+In millinery departments in stores, trimmers, who are generally
+designers, earn from $15 to $50 a week or more. The rate most commonly
+received is $25. Makers are started at from $4 to $6 and may advance
+to $15, with an average of about $10.
+
+In wholesale houses designers earn from $25 to $60, or more. Makers
+start at about $5, and the usual range is from $10 to $15. Those
+employed in straight copying may earn between $15 and $20. The 1914
+report of the Industrial Commission of Ohio presents data showing that
+of the women 18 years of age and over employed in wholesale houses 37
+per cent receive under $8, about 22 per cent receive between $8 and
+$12, while 41 per cent receive $12 and over. The girls under 18 years
+of age were, with one exception, receiving less than $4 per week.
+
+Employment in retail shops averages about 32 weeks during the year; in
+the millinery departments of stores from 32 to 42 weeks; and in
+wholesale houses about 40 weeks. The proportion of workers employed
+the year round is very small. The majority of millinery workers are
+faced with the problem of tiding themselves over two dull seasons,
+aggregating from 12 to 28 weeks each year.
+
+The millinery apprenticeship period lasts for two seasons of 12 weeks
+each. Almost all retail shops take apprentices in large numbers, there
+being one apprentice to every three or four workers in the trade. Few
+apprentices are found in stores and wholesale houses. The
+apprenticeship wage is extremely low. The usual rate is $1 a week
+during the first season and from $1.50 to $2 during the second.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+The needs of girls who are soon to leave school and go to work can
+best be met by a modification of the junior high school course and by
+the establishment of a one-year trade school for girls. Before a
+re-organization of the junior high school work is made to meet the
+needs of these girls an effort should be made to reduce retardation so
+that more girls will reach the junior high school before the end of
+the compulsory attendance period. The present courses should be
+reorganized so as to give basic preparation for wage earning and
+should be as concrete and real as a thorough understanding of the
+requirements of the gainful occupations can make them. Thorough sewing
+courses planned from the standpoint of the sewing trades should be
+offered, extending over two years. The program suggested closely
+resembles that recommended for the garment trades.
+
+It is also recommended that a one-year trade school be established for
+preparing girls to enter employment in dressmaking and millinery. The
+history of trade schools for girls, both private and public, indicates
+that such a school, if properly conducted, would be highly successful
+in Cleveland.
+
+The classes in sewing and millinery in the evening technical high
+schools do not offer trade-extension training for workers and it is
+not likely that they could be easily reorganized to furnish such
+training. It is recommended that if a trade school is established in
+Cleveland, short unit courses in sewing and related subjects, such as
+design, be given in evening classes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE METAL TRADES
+
+
+Approximately one-half of the total number of persons in Cleveland
+engaged in manufacturing are found in the metal industries. When the
+last federal census was taken nearly one-seventh of the entire male
+population was employed in establishments engaged in the manufacture
+of crude or finished metal products. Pittsburgh only, among the 10
+largest cities in the country, has a higher proportion of its
+industrial population working in such establishments. In relation to
+its total population, Cleveland has twice as many people working in
+these industries as Chicago, three times as many as Philadelphia, and
+four times as many as New York. It is estimated that at the present
+time the number of wage earners in the city engaged in this kind of
+work is between 70,000 and 80,000.
+
+The report deals with the three leading industries of the
+city,--foundry and machine shop products, automobile manufacturing,
+and steel works and rolling mills. The study of this last group also
+includes several related industries, such as blast furnaces, wire
+mills, nail mills, and bolt, nut, and rivet factories. About
+three-fourths of the total number of wage earners in the city engaged
+in the manufacture of metal products are found in these three
+industries.
+
+The field investigations consisted of personal visits to the
+manufacturing establishments for the purpose of securing first hand
+data as to industrial conditions, and conferences with employers,
+superintendents, foremen, and workmen as to the need and possibilities
+of training for metal working occupations. In all, 60 establishments,
+employing approximately 35,000 men, were visited. The conclusions as
+to vocational training were based on an analysis of educational needs
+in the various metal industries, together with an extended study of
+the social and economic factors which condition the training of all
+workers. Particular attention was given to the administrative problems
+involved in such training in public schools.
+
+
+FOUNDRY AND MACHINE SHOP PRODUCTS
+
+According to the United States Census, foundries and factories making
+machine shop products gave employment in 1909 to nearly 18,000
+Cleveland wage-earners. This industrial group ranks first in the city,
+employing more than twice as many workers as the next largest
+industry,--automobile manufacturing,--and approximately two-fifths of
+the total working force in all metal industries. Its growth during the
+previous five years, from the standpoint of number of workers
+employed, showed an increase of about 33 per cent, and it is
+estimated that the total number of wage-earners in 1914 was
+approximately 25,000. At the present time, due to the impetus given to
+this branch of manufacturing by the European war, the working force is
+undoubtedly in excess of this figure.
+
+The report gives extended consideration to the machinist's trade,
+which constitutes by far the largest body of skilled workers in the
+city. This trade has been affected more than any other by the progress
+of invention and the modern tendency towards specialization. In many
+establishments the all-round machinist, competent to do independent
+work and operate the wide variety of machine tools now used in the
+trade, had practically disappeared. In his place are found
+"specialist" machine hands who have learned the operation of a single
+machine tool, but have no general knowledge of the trade, and who if
+called on to perform work requiring the use of a machine tool
+different from the one on which they are employed are unable to do so.
+There are hundreds of drill press hands who cannot operate a milling
+machine, lathe hands who know nothing of planer work, and so on. The
+subdivision of these occupations follows closely the advance in
+invention, so that employers advertising for help frequently specify
+not only the machine tool to be used but add the name of the firm
+which manufactures that particular type of machine, with the result
+that there are about as many kinds of machinists as there are
+manufacturers of machine tools. Table 18 shows the estimated number
+of men employed, with their distribution in the various branches of
+the trade.
+
+
+TABLE 18.--PROPORTIONS AND ESTIMATED NUMBERS EMPLOYED IN MACHINE TOOL
+OCCUPATIONS, 1915
+
+--------------------------------+------------+-------------+
+ | | Estimated |
+Workers | Per cent | number |
+--------------------------------+------------+-------------+
+Lathe hands | 18.8 | 3,384 |
+Drill press operators | 17.9 | 3,222 |
+Bench hands | 13.4 | 2,412 |
+Machinists | 12.7 | 2,286 |
+Screw machine operators | 9.4 | 1,692 |
+Milling machine operators | 8.6 | 1,548 |
+Tool makers | 8.3 | 1,494 |
+Grinding machine operators | 6.2 | 1,116 |
+Planer hands | 2.2 | 396 |
+Turret lathe operators | 1.8 | 324 |
+Gear cutter operators | .7 | 126 |
+--------------------------------+------------+-------------+
+Total | 100.0 | 18,000 |
+--------------------------------+------------+-------------+
+
+Specialization has operated to lower standards of skill and keep down
+wages. The average wage of the "all-round" machinist is very nearly
+the lowest found among the skilled trades. The union scale is but 14
+cents an hour above that paid unskilled labor, while the average
+earnings of machine operators range from four to 12 cents above
+laborers' wages. Only among the highly skilled tool makers do the
+wages approach those received by skilled labor in most other
+industries. Table 19 shows the average, highest, and lowest rates per
+hour for all branches of the machine trades in the establishments from
+which data were collected during the survey, with the per cent
+employed on piece work and day work.
+
+
+TABLE 19.--AVERAGE, HIGHEST, AND LOWEST EARNINGS, IN CENTS PER HOUR,
+AND PER CENT EMPLOYED ON PIECE WORK AND DAY WORK, 1915
+
+---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
+ | | | |Per cent|Per cent|
+ | | | |on piece| on day |
+ Workers |Lowest |Average|Highest| work | work |
+---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
+Tool makers | 25.0 | 39.0 | 50.0 | .. | 100 |
+Machinists | 25.0 | 33.2 | 50.0 | .. | 100 |
+Planer hands | 20.0 | 32.2 | 42.0 | .. | 100 |
+Grinding machine operators | 20.0 | 32.0 | 50.0 | 70 | 30 |
+Bench hands | 17.5 | 29.6 | 45.0 | 48 | 52 |
+Screw machine operators | 17.5 | 29.5 | 63.8 | 79 | 21 |
+Lathe hands | 19.0 | 29.1 | 40.0 | 40 | 60 |
+Turret lathe operators | 25.0 | 29.0 | 47.5 | 80 | 20 |
+Gear cutter operators | 20.0 | 26.7 | 40.0 | 96 | 4 |
+Milling machine operators | 15.0 | 25.9 | 40.0 | 53 | 47 |
+Drill press operators | 15.0 | 23.5 | 35.0 | 35 | 65 |
+Machinists' helpers | 20.0 | 22.2 | 25.0 | .. | 100 |
+---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
+
+On the basis of weekly or yearly earnings, the trade makes a better
+showing. Work is steady throughout the year, and the time lost through
+unemployment on account of seasonal changes is slight. Also, as the
+usual working day is from nine to 10 hours, that is, from one to two
+hours longer than in the higher paid building trades, the difference
+in daily wages is really less marked than a comparison of hourly rates
+would seem to indicate.
+
+Little attempt has been made to adapt the apprentice system to modern
+conditions. The term of service and rates of pay have changed but
+slightly over a long period of years. As a result only a small
+proportion of the boys who begin as apprentices finish the
+apprenticeship term of three or four years. Employers attribute this
+to the relatively high wages paid for machine operating, and the
+slight advantage, from a wage standpoint, of the "all-round" man over
+the machine operator. After a year or two the apprentice finds that he
+can double his pay by taking a job as operator, and the inducement for
+learning the trade thoroughly is too small to hold him. The report
+gives a comparison of the earnings of an apprentice and a machine
+operator, both starting at the same age, the first becoming a
+journeyman machinist at the end of three years and the second
+specializing on a particular machine. Assuming that both boys go to
+work at the age of 16 their total earnings up to the age of 25 years
+will be approximately equal. The lack of thoroughly trained workmen is
+beginning to be felt, but the efforts made by industrial
+establishments to meet it have small prospects of success unless the
+economic factors of the problem are given greater consideration.
+
+Inasmuch as no regular apprenticeship period is served for machine
+operating, a special effort was made to secure data relating to the
+time usually required for the worker to learn the operation of each
+tool well enough to earn average wages. In this matter the individual
+opinions of foremen and superintendents differed widely, but when the
+reports from all the establishments visited were compared, a
+sufficient degree of uniformity was found to serve as a basis for
+estimating the amount of experience workers of average intelligence
+would need, under normal shop conditions, in order to become fairly
+proficient.
+
+There was practical unanimity in fixing the period at four years for
+tool makers and three to four years for machinists. Higher estimates
+were received from the superintendents of plants doing a jobbing
+business or manufacturing high grade machine tools than from the
+specialized shops making a single product. The superintendents of
+automobile manufacturing plants, where the standard of quality in
+production is necessarily high, gave the lowest estimates of all.
+Table 20 shows the estimated time required to learn the various types
+of machine work.
+
+
+TABLE 20.--ESTIMATED TIME REQUIRED TO LEARN MACHINE TOOL WORK
+
+------------------------------------+----------------------+
+ Workers | Time required |
+------------------------------------+----------------------+
+Grinding machine operators | 12 to 15 months |
+Lathe hands | 6 to 9 months |
+Planer hands | 6 months |
+Gear cutter operators | 6 months |
+Turret lathe operators | 4 to 6 months |
+Screw machine operators | 3 to 6 months |
+Bench hands | 3 to 6 months |
+Milling machine operators | 2 to 4 months |
+Drilling machine operators | 2 weeks to 4 months |
+------------------------------------+----------------------+
+
+The weakness of specialization, with its constant tendency towards the
+substitution of semi-skilled operatives for trained workmen, lies in
+its failure to provide a body of workers from whom to recruit the
+large directive force needed in any scheme of production based on
+semi-skilled labor. This condition is regarded by many employers with
+grave concern, and in a few plants apprentice schools designed
+primarily to train future foremen have been established.
+
+Practically all the foremen in the shops visited had received an
+all-round training as machinists, and there are few opportunities for
+promotion open to men who have not a general knowledge of the trade.
+On the other hand, such general knowledge is only one of the
+requisites for advancement. Others are initiative, resourcefulness,
+tact, self-control, ability to get along with men, and a disposition
+to subordinate personal interests to the interests of the business. To
+these should be added the quality of patience, for there must be
+vacancies before there can be promotions, and vacancies among the
+better positions are not frequent. Ten of the establishments visited,
+employing a total working force of over 5,000 men, reported but eight
+vacancies among foremen's positions over a period of one year. These
+same establishments had in their employ a total of 618 all-round
+machinists and tool makers. Assuming that only the machinists and tool
+makers were eligible for promotion, the mathematical chance per man of
+becoming a foreman during the year was about one in 77.
+
+Other occupations studied in detail were pattern making, molding, core
+making, blacksmithing, and boiler making. Pattern making offers the
+most interesting work and the highest wages among the metal trades,
+but the total number of American born pattern makers in the city does
+not exceed seven or eight hundred, so the field of employment is
+relatively limited. Molding and core making, in which between 4,000
+and 5,000 men are engaged, have practically become foreign trades.
+Less than 20 per cent of the molders in the city were born in this
+country. These trades offer few opportunities for employment to boys
+of native birth. Somewhat similar conditions exist in the
+blacksmithing trade. Changed methods of production have largely done
+away with the old-time blacksmith, who survives only in horse-shoeing
+and repair shops. The proportion of native blacksmiths is steadily
+declining, and it is unlikely that any considerable number of boys
+from the public schools will enter the trade. The boiler making trade
+employs relatively few men, the total number of native born boiler
+makers at the time of the last census being less than 600. The trade
+seems to be at a standstill. The increase during the previous decade
+was less than five per cent against a total population increase of 46
+per cent. The average earnings per hour for these trades in the
+establishments visited by members of the Survey Staff are shown in
+Table 21.
+
+
+TABLE 21.--AVERAGE EARNINGS PER HOUR IN PATTERN MAKING, MOLDING, CORE
+MAKING, BLACKSMITHING, AND BOILER MAKING
+
+ Average earnings
+ Workers Per Hour
+
+ Pattern makers .44
+ Skilled molders .39
+ Semi-skilled molders .27
+ Skilled core makers .39
+ Semi-skilled core makers .27
+ Blacksmiths .33
+ Boiler makers .32
+
+The findings and recommendations as to training emphasize the fact
+that the vast majority of boys who become workers in the metal trades
+leave school by the time they are 15 with at most a common school
+education, so that any vocational training before they go to work must
+be given between the ages of 12 and 15 and before the end of the
+eighth grade. The report points out the impossibility of effective
+vocational instruction in elementary schools on account of the
+prohibitive cost per pupil for both equipment and teaching, and
+endorses the recently adopted junior high school plan. This form of
+organization has the great advantage of concentrating in large groups
+the boys who are old enough to make a beginning in prevocational
+training, and through the departmental system of teaching offers
+facilities for differentiation of courses to meet their varying needs.
+
+Whatever their cultural value, the present manual training courses in
+woodwork have little relation to the requirements of any metal working
+trade, except pattern making, in which some of the same tools are
+used. No manual training work in metal is offered in the elementary
+and junior high schools.
+
+The course recommended for the junior high school lays especial
+emphasis on applied mathematics, mechanical drawings, practice in
+assembling and taking apart machines, and the utilization of the shop
+as a laboratory for teaching industrial science. The report maintains
+that the object of such a course should be the development of
+industrial intelligence through the application of mathematical and
+mechanical principles to the solution of concrete problems, rather
+than the teaching of specific operations and skill in the use of
+tools. In mechanical drawing the ability to understand and interpret
+drawings should be given more importance than the ability to make
+drawings. Few workmen are ever called on to draw, while the ability to
+read plans and sketches is always in demand. It is also recommended
+that boys who do not expect to take a full high school course or who
+intend to leave at the end of the compulsory period should devote at
+least a period each week to the study of economic and working
+conditions in industrial and commercial occupations.
+
+With respect to the technical high schools the report holds that these
+schools are primarily training schools for the higher positions of
+industry. They undoubtedly offer the best instruction obtainable in
+the city for the ambitious boy who wishes to prepare himself for
+supervisory and managerial positions in industry or for a college
+engineering course.
+
+The establishment of a separate two-year vocational school, equipped
+for giving instruction in all the larger industrial trades, is
+recommended. The number of boys in the public schools between the ages
+of 14 and 16 who are likely to enter the metal trades is between 700
+and 800, of whom from 500 to 600 will become machinists or machine
+tool operators. An enrollment of much less than this number is
+sufficient to justify the installation of good shop equipment and the
+employment of a corps of teachers who have had the special training
+necessary for this kind of work. It should be possible to form a class
+in pattern making and foundry work of from 80 to 100 boys, and one of
+at least 30 in blacksmithing. Boiler making could be taught in
+connection with sheet metal work.
+
+Various changes are recommended in the present evening school classes
+for machinists, molders, and pattern makers now given by the technical
+high schools. It is claimed that the courses as now organized are not
+elastic enough to meet the varying needs of the journeymen, helpers,
+machine operators, and apprentices employed in these trades. The great
+need is for short unit courses in which the instruction is limited to
+a particular machine or a special branch of the trade. The long course
+tends to discourage the student, especially when it embraces an amount
+of theory out of all proportion to his working needs.
+
+
+AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING
+
+Due to the large number and specialized character of the occupations
+in this industry, they are taken up in a more general way than the
+"foundries and machine shop" group. The productive departments of the
+automobile factories utilize in the main the same equipment as other
+machinery manufacturing plants, but specialization has been carried to
+a degree found in few other metal industries. The "all-round" workman
+is a rara avis. The machine shops are manned by machine "specialists"
+most of whom know how to operate a single machine tool or perform a
+single operation made up of relatively simple elements. From one-half
+to two-thirds of the working force is recruited from immigrant labor
+which is "broken in" under skilful foremen within a period varying
+from a few days to a few weeks. In the simpler assembling operations
+the jobs are so subdivided that any man who is not actually
+feebleminded can learn the work in a few days. Production is on a
+large scale, permitting the maintenance of high-grade engineering and
+experimental departments, where all of the work is planned to the last
+detail. As a result the automobile manufacturers are turning out one
+of the most complicated and most efficient machines known to modern
+industry with a working force composed chiefly of semi-skilled labor.
+
+For the machine shop workers the training suggested is similar to that
+recommended for the same class of workmen in other machine shops. The
+necessity of short unit courses adapted for teaching parts of the
+trade rather than the whole trade is obvious, as most automobile
+workers are employed on specialized operations. Short unit evening
+courses for motor and transmission assemblers, and testers and
+inspectors, are recommended.
+
+
+STEEL WORKS, ROLLING MILLS, AND RELATED INDUSTRIES
+
+A somewhat similar treatment is followed with respect to the iron and
+steel group of industries--blast furnaces, steel mills, rolling mills,
+wire mills, nail mills, and bolt, nut, and rivet factories. These
+industries are characterized by a high proportion of common and
+semi-skilled labor in the working force. Between 75 and 90 per cent of
+the workers are of foreign birth. In the operating department of one
+mill only two Americans were found among a total of 600 employees. As
+a rule the native born workers are mechanics employed in the power and
+maintenance departments.
+
+With scarcely an exception the occupations are of a nature that
+require the worker to learn through actual experience in the mills.
+Theory and practice must be learned at the same time. Even the
+supervisory and executive positions in which a technical education is
+of considerable value require a long and arduous apprenticeship on the
+job before the worker can compete with men who have started with the
+scantiest educational equipment, but have picked up a knowledge of the
+processes by experience and observation. Below these positions the
+work rapidly grades off to various kinds of machine operating in which
+not even the ability to read or understand English is required.
+
+No plan of vocational training is presented, because at present the
+mills recruit almost exclusively from foreign labor, and only a very
+small number of boys from the public schools are likely to seek
+employment in them. The technical content of the work which might
+conceivably be given in evening classes, except in the case of the few
+directive and supervisory positions, is so small that continuation
+instruction offers but meager hopes of success. Under present
+conditions the long working day and the necessity of changing from
+the day to the night shift, or vice-versa every two weeks, constitutes
+an insuperable obstacle to the organization of night classes.
+
+The principal need of the rank and file is a speaking and reading
+knowledge of the English language, so that the workers can be taught
+to avoid and prevent accidents, and give themselves the necessary care
+when they occur. Instruction in English with possibly courses in
+accident prevention and personal hygiene represent about the only
+training possible that can be said to have any real vocational
+significance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE BUILDING TRADES
+
+
+A careful estimate places the number of men engaged in building
+construction in Cleveland at the present time at about 30,000,
+comprising more than one-fifth of the total number employed in
+manufacturing and mechanical occupations. About two-thirds of these
+workmen are skilled artisans, distributed among some 20 different
+trades. The estimated number in each trade is shown in Table 22.
+
+
+SOURCES OF LABOR SUPPLY
+
+The building trades get their workers from four principal sources:
+immigration, native journeymen from outside the city, helpers, and
+apprentices. Immigration contributes the largest proportion in both
+skilled and unskilled work, practically monopolizing the latter. Over
+four-fifths of all cabinet makers, more than two-thirds of all brick
+and stone masons, and nearly two-thirds of all carpenters are foreign
+born. Plumbers and steam-fitters show the smallest proportion of
+foreign labor.
+
+
+TABLE 22.--ESTIMATED NUMBER OF MEN ENGAGED IN BUILDING TRADES, 1915
+
+----------------------------------------+------------------+
+ Workers in trade | Number employed |
+----------------------------------------+------------------+
+Carpenters | 7,105 |
+Painters, glaziers, varnishers | 2,746 |
+Plumbers, gas- and steam-fitters | 2,014 |
+Bricklayers | 1,800 |
+Machine woodworkers | 1,198 |
+Sheet metal workers or tinsmiths | 1,069 |
+Cabinet-makers | 895 |
+Inside wiremen and fixture hangers | 750 |
+Plasterers | 638 |
+Paperhangers | 379 |
+Structural iron workers | 356 |
+Roofers and slaters | 315 |
+Stone-cutters | 292 |
+Lathers | 275 |
+Stone masons and marble setters | 250 |
+Ornamental iron workers | 200 |
+Cement finishers | 200 |
+Hoisting engineers | 150 |
+Elevator constructors | 100 |
+Parquet floor layers | 100 |
+Tile-layer | 100 |
+Asbestos workers | 75 |
+Wood carvers | 63 |
+Helpers | 926 |
+Apprentices | 306 |
+----------------------------------------+------------------+
+Total | 22,302 |
+----------------------------------------+------------------+
+
+
+APPRENTICESHIP
+
+The general decline of the apprenticeship system which began with the
+invention of modern labor-saving machinery has affected the building
+trades least of all. Here it survives in an active state and is
+steadily gaining ground. It is in favor with many employers and with
+all unions. The best apprenticeship systems are found in the strongly
+organized trades.
+
+It is true that in some of the trades apprenticeship is little more
+than a name, meaning simply that permission has been granted to learn
+the trade. The apprentice is left free to pick up what experience he
+can between the odd jobs that are given him. What meager instruction
+he receives comes from a journeyman worker who is none too eager to
+give up what he considers the secrets of his trade.
+
+The union regulations provide that boys shall not enter the trades as
+apprentices or helpers below the age of 16. The limits set by the
+various trades and the union regulations as to length of
+apprenticeship are shown in Tables 23 and 24.
+
+
+TABLE 23.--UNION REGULATIONS AS TO ENTERING AGE OF APPRENTICES
+
+----------------------------------------+------------------------+
+Asbestos workers | Enter at any age |
+Bricklayers | Between 16 and 23 |
+Carpenters | Between 17 and 22 |
+Cement finishers | Must be full grown |
+Elevator constructors | Must be full grown |
+Lathers | Must be 18 years old |
+Inside wiremen | Between 16 and 21 |
+Painters and paperhangers | Before 21 years old |
+Plumbers and gas-fitters | Must be 16 years old |
+Sheet metal workers | Must be over 16 years |
+Slate and tile roofers | Must enter before 25 |
+Steam-fitters | Must be full grown |
+Structural and ornamental iron workers | Between 18 and 25 |
+----------------------------------------+------------------------+
+
+
+TABLE 24.--UNION REGULATIONS AS TO LENGTH OF APPRENTICESHIP PERIOD
+
+_Trades in which indentures are usually signed_
+ Bricklayer 4 years
+ Plasterers 4 years
+ Sheet metal workers 4 years
+
+_Trades in which indentures are seldom signed_
+ Steam-fitters 5 years
+ Carpenters 4 years
+ Inside wiremen 4 years
+ Plumbers and gas-fitter 4 years
+ Cement finishers 3 years
+ Asbestos workers 3 years
+ Painters and paperhangers 3 years
+ Slate and tile roofers 3 years
+ Lathers 2 years
+ Structural and ornamental iron workers 11/2 years
+ Elevator constructors varies
+
+All obtainable information points to the conclusion that the number of
+apprentices employed in the city is far below the maximum permitted by
+the unions. Many large contractors have no apprentices and say they
+will not bother with them. Others state that they have been unable to
+get or keep good apprentices and have therefore given up the plan.
+
+
+UNION ORGANIZATION
+
+The building trades are among the most strongly organized in the city.
+It is estimated that their unions at the present time include about 90
+per cent of all the men engaged in building work. Practically all the
+large contracting firms employ only union labor. The few non-union
+workers are employed by small contractors.
+
+Requirements for admission to the different unions vary to a marked
+degree. If the union is strong and has a good control over the labor
+supply, admission fees are higher and regulations as to apprentices
+and helpers are more stringent than if the union is fighting to gain a
+foothold.
+
+
+EARNINGS
+
+No industrial workers in the city are paid better wages than those
+employed in the building trades. More than one-half of the skilled
+workers are in trades that pay an hourly wage of 50 cents or over. The
+hourly rate in each occupation is shown in Table 25.
+
+
+TABLE 25.--UNION SCALE OF WAGES IN CENTS PER HOUR MAY 1, 1915
+
+_70 Cents_
+ Bricklayers 70.00
+ Hoisting engineers on boom derricks, etc. 70.00
+ Stone masons 70.00
+ Structural iron workers 70.00
+
+_From 60 to 70 Cents_
+ Marble setters 68.75
+ Inside wiremen 68.75
+ Plasterers 68.75
+ Slate and tile roofers 67.50
+ Parquet floor layers (carpenters) 62.50
+ Lathers, first class 62.50
+ Plumbers 62.50
+ Steam-fitters 62.50
+ Stone-cutters 62.50
+ Hoisting engineers, brick hoists 60.00
+ Elevator constructors 60.00
+
+_From 50 to 60 Cents_
+ Tile layers 59.38
+ Lathers, second class 56.25
+ Carpenters 55.00
+ Cement workers, finishers 55.00
+ Sheet metal workers 50.00
+ Painters 50.00
+ Paperhangers 50.00
+
+_From 40 to 50 Cents_
+ Asbestos workers 47.50
+ Composition roofers 42.50
+
+_Under 40 Cents_
+ Cabinet-makers and bench hands 37.50
+ Machine woodworkers 37.50
+ Electrical fixture hangers 37.50
+ Hod-carriers 35.00
+
+Union organization is a more powerful factor in determining wages in
+these trades than technical knowledge and skill. A high degree of
+skill in a given trade brings little advantage in the matter of wages.
+By establishing a minimum scale below which no journeyman shall work,
+the union secures practically a flat rate of pay for most of the men
+in the trade. When there is much building work and good men are
+scarce, contractors sometimes pay higher wages to highly skilled
+workmen in order to secure their services. As a rule, however, their
+reward comes in the form of steadier employment. The less skilled man
+is the first to be laid off when business is slack, while the
+first-class workman, for the reason that he is so hard to replace, is
+the last to be discharged.
+
+Many unions, among them those of the carpenters, bricklayers, and
+painters, make no provision as to the wages of apprentices. Table 26
+shows the wages in three of the building trades that have established
+a uniform scale for apprentices. Sheet metal apprentices are paid a
+bonus of $1 extra for each week served.
+
+
+TABLE 26.--USUAL WEEKLY WAGES OF APPRENTICES IN THREE BUILDING TRADES
+
+-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
+ | | | Sheet metal |
+ Year | Inside wiremen | Plasterers | workers |
+-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
+First year | $5.50 | $5.50 to $6.25 | $5.00 |
+Second year | 13.20 | 8.25 to 11.02 | 5.50 to 6.00 |
+Third year | 17.60 | 13.75 to 16.00 | 6.50 to 7.00 |
+Fourth year | 22.00 | 19.25 | 8.00 to 9.00 |
+-------------+----------------+----------------+--------------+
+
+
+HOURS
+
+The usual working day is eight hours. Many of the trades work only a
+half day on Saturdays throughout the year; practically all have this
+half holiday during the four summer months. For holiday or over-time
+work the men receive either pay and a half or double pay.
+
+
+REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
+
+Due to the seasonal character of building work, it is next to
+impossible for a building contractor to keep a large force employed
+all the year. One result of this situation is that the men change
+employers more than any other workers in industry. Irregularity of
+employment is greater in building construction than in any other of
+the principal industries of the city. A comparison between the
+different branches of building work as to regularity of employment is
+presented in Diagram 11. The best showing is made by electrical
+contracting, in which the average number employed is 93 per cent of
+the maximum working force, and the poorest by plastering in which the
+average is only 66 per cent of the maximum.
+
+
+HEALTH CONDITIONS
+
+Nearly all of the building trades are open air occupations, much even
+of the inside work being done before the buildings are closed in. For
+the most part the materials used are not injurious to health if
+reasonable precautions are taken and ordinary habits of cleanliness
+observed. In general, health conditions are better than those found in
+the factory industries.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 11.--Sections in outline represent percentage
+of men employed, and sections in black percentage of men unemployed in
+each of nine building industries at the time when each industry showed
+the largest percentage of unemployment]
+
+
+OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADVANCEMENT
+
+The building trades offer many opportunities for advancement. One
+reason for this is the large number of supervisory positions made
+necessary by the wide range of building activities. A foreman in
+almost any of the trades must be able to read plans, as he must lay
+out the work. It is not necessary for him to be the most skilled
+mechanic in the force. Employers and superintendents say that in
+selecting foremen they lay about equal weight on skill and on ability
+to handle men.
+
+As a rule, foremanship carries with it higher wages, although in some
+cases the pay is the same as that of the regular journeymen. The
+reward for the added responsibility comes in the form of steadier
+employment. It is not uncommon for a foreman to be hired on a salary
+basis and carried on the payroll throughout the entire year.
+
+Small contracting offers another form of advancement. It requires but
+little initial investment to make a modest beginning, because
+individual workmen in the various building trades provide their own
+tools and no expensive machines are required. Comparatively little
+working capital is necessary, as provision is made in most contracts
+for part payments as the work progresses.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+The recommendations of the report relating to training for the
+building trades may be summarized under five headings:
+
+1. _Reduce retardation._ The first step in improving the educational
+preparation of workers entering the building trades is to reduce
+retardation or slow progress in the elementary grades. At present it
+is approximately true of the men entering the building trades that
+one-third drop out of school by the sixth grade, two-thirds by the
+seventh grade, and three-thirds by the eighth grade. Now according to
+law a boy cannot go to work until he is 16, and if he has made normal
+progress he will have completed the eight grades of the elementary
+course before he has reached that age. In point of fact, many of these
+boys do not make normal progress through the grades and hence they
+reach the age of 15 before completing the elementary course. As a
+result they fall out of school without having had those portions of
+the work in reading, drawing, mathematics, and elementary science
+which would be of most direct use to them in their future work.
+
+2. _General industrial courses in seventh, eighth, and ninth grades._
+If retardation could be largely reduced in the elementary grades,
+industrialized courses could be properly introduced in the seventh,
+eighth, and ninth grades for boys intending to enter the building
+trades. The specific changes recommended include as their most
+important elements:
+
+ a. Increased training in industrial arithmetic beginning in
+ the seventh grade.
+
+ b. Courses in industrial drawing.
+
+ c. Courses in elementary science relating to industry.
+
+ d. Courses in industrial information.
+
+ e. General courses in industrial shop work.
+
+These are general industrial courses and it is recommended that they
+be introduced as prominent features of the work of the junior high
+school. They are not intended to take the place of specialized courses
+in the building trades, but they are proposed as courses valuable for
+all future industrial workers and within which certain adaptations
+should be made for those who are intending to enter the building
+trades.
+
+3. _A two year industrial trade school._ In addition to the general
+industrial courses in junior high schools that have been recommended
+in the previous section, there should be established a two year
+industrial trade school for boys. It should receive boys 14 to 16
+years of age who desire direct trade-preparatory training. There are
+good reasons why the present elementary schools, the proposed junior
+high schools, and the existing technical high schools cannot
+satisfactorily take the place of a specialized two year course in
+giving boys direct trade-preparatory education. Boys who go through
+the technical high schools do not remain in the building trades as
+artisans. This is shown by the fact that less than two per cent of the
+graduates of these schools are working in the building trades.
+
+The elementary schools and the junior high schools cannot conduct
+satisfactory trade-preparatory courses for the building industry for
+the reason that they do not bring together at any one point a
+sufficient number of these future workers to make it possible to teach
+them economically. This is a consideration which conditions every
+plan for the organization of industrial education. It is a question of
+the community's capacity to absorb workmen trained for any given
+occupation. In Cleveland about 4,000 boys leave the public elementary
+schools each year. Approximately 2,400 of them drop out of the
+elementary schools or leave after graduating from them, while the
+remaining 1,600 go on to high school. The future workers in the
+building trades will be largely recruited from the 2,400 boys who
+leave the elementary schools each year. Most of them range in age from
+14 to 16 and in school advancement from the fifth to the eighth
+grades. They represent a cross-section of a large part of the city's
+adult manhood of a few years hence.
+
+Now the census figures tell us that if present conditions maintain in
+the future only about 100 of the 4,000 boys leaving school each year
+will be carpenters. For the purposes of the present inquiry we may
+assume that these 100 future carpenters are to be found among the
+2,400 boys who do not go on to high school. But Cleveland has 108
+elementary schools and these 100 future carpenters are widely
+scattered among them. Even if we knew which boys were destined to
+become carpenters, and even if we knew when they would leave school,
+and even if we should decide to give them all trade preparatory
+education for the last two years of their school life, we should still
+have an average class in carpentry of only two boys in each elementary
+school. This is administratively and educationally impossible. For
+similar reasons specialized trade preparatory classes in junior high
+schools would prove exceedingly difficult to organize.
+
+The whole situation is changed, however, when we gather in a central
+school all these future artisans who have decided that they wish to
+prepare for specific trades. Under these conditions classes would be
+sufficiently large so that specialized training could be given and
+special equipment provided. This work would best be undertaken in a
+school entirely devoted to the purpose, but such courses might be
+organized in connection with the present technical high schools. This
+arrangement would be less desirable and probably give inferior
+results. The important point, however, is not so much the organization
+or curriculum for these classes, it is the fundamental fact that trade
+classes can be wisely organized only when a sufficiently large number
+of pupils can be gathered in one place so as to make the work
+efficient and economical.
+
+The effectiveness of the trade-preparatory training recommended would
+be greatly increased if the upper limit of the compulsory attendance
+period for boys should be placed at 16 years instead of at 15 as it is
+now.
+
+4. _Trade-Extension Classes for Apprentices._ At the present time the
+technical high schools offer evening classes for apprentices in the
+building trades. About one-seventh of the apprentices of the city are
+enrolled in these classes. In the main they are full grown men. In
+general they do not want shop work related to their own trades, but
+prefer instead to enroll in courses in drawing.
+
+The considerations already presented bear in minor degree on the
+problem of providing evening instruction for trade apprentices. The
+essential for efficient work is that a sufficient number of pupils be
+brought together so as to make it possible to organize specialized
+classes in different kinds of work that the pupils want and need. So
+long as there are only 50 apprentices enrolled in the entire city, and
+these represent a number of trades, many different stages of
+advancement, and a variety of needs, truly efficient work will be
+impossible. Better conditions can be brought about only through the
+cooeperation of the unions, the employers, and the school people.
+
+5. _Trade-Extension Work for Journeymen._ The evening technical
+schools now maintain shop classes and drawing classes for workers in
+the building trades. Less than one per cent of the workers in these
+trades are enrolled in these classes. There is little differentiation
+in the school work offered to helpers, apprentices, and journeymen.
+The result is that the work is much less efficient than it might well
+be. It cannot be rendered much more efficient than it is until the
+classes are increased in size and as a result the work differentiated
+and specialized. This type of improvement will result only from
+putting the night school work in the hands of skilful and well paid
+directors and teachers who bring to it a degree of energy, enterprise,
+ingenuity, and adaptability that it is unreasonable to expect and
+impossible to get from day school teachers who have already given the
+best that is in them to their regular classes and are giving a
+fatigued margin of work and attention to their night school pupils.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON RAILROAD AND STREET TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+The report on railroad and street transportation takes up a class of
+wage earning occupations that give employment in Cleveland to
+approximately 15,000 men. A much larger proportion than is found in
+most other industrial manual occupations are natives of the city.
+Although some of the work is relatively unskilled, all of the
+different occupations have one common characteristic--the necessity
+for a knowledge of the English language and some acquaintance with
+local customs and conditions. For this reason comparatively few
+foreigners are employed.
+
+The report takes up separately three types of workers, those employed
+in railroad train service, those engaged in wagon or automobile
+transportation, and the car service employees of the street railroad.
+
+
+RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION
+
+The study covered only those railroad occupations that are directly
+concerned with the actual operation of trains, such as those of
+engineers, firemen, conductors, and trainmen. These occupations have
+many points in common and bring into play many similar mental and
+physical characteristics. The requirements for entrance are strict and
+examinations for the higher positions are obligatory. In all of them
+the hazards are great. Each occupation is firmly intrenched in trade
+unionism. Differences with employers relating to such matters as
+promotion, hours of labor, wages, and overtime are settled by
+collective bargaining or, in case of failure to agree, by arbitration
+proceedings.
+
+The estimated number of men in Cleveland employed in these occupations
+in 1915 is approximately 4,500. Of these about one-fourth are
+switchmen and flagmen, one-fourth enginemen, one-fifth brakemen,
+one-sixth conductors, and one-eighth firemen.
+
+The requirements for entrance call for a high degree of physical
+fitness. The applicant for employment must pass a severe examination
+as to vision and hearing, and in addition furnish certain data as to
+his family history, as it relates to insanity, tuberculosis, and
+certain other diseases. The high standard maintained insures a type of
+employees which for physical fitness, mental alertness, and ability to
+handle difficult situations is unsurpassed in any industry.
+
+Frequent examinations, which are compulsory, are the stepping stones
+to the higher positions. In this way a brakeman qualifies for the
+position of freight conductor, a freight conductor for that of
+passenger conductor, and a fireman for a position as engineer.
+
+Each of the two services, passenger and freight, has its advantages.
+In the passenger service the working day is short, with little
+overtime. Freight service requires a longer working day and a
+considerable amount of overtime. Promotions in both services and from
+one to the other are made on the basis of seniority.
+
+Violation of the strict rules laid down for the operation of trains on
+the part of employees may result in reprimand, suspension, or
+dismissal, according to the gravity of the offense. The penalty of
+suspension has practically superseded the others except in extreme
+cases, such as drunkenness, theft, or other serious violations of the
+rules, for which offenders are summarily dismissed. On some railroads,
+a graded system of demerits is used. When an employee has received a
+certain number of demerits he is dismissed from the service.
+
+The railroad unions are among the strongest and most aggressive in the
+country. The total union membership among train operating employees
+alone in the country is approximately 350,000. The unions are all
+modeled upon the same general plan. They are quite independent of each
+other, keep strictly to their agreements and oppose the sympathetic
+strike. They all maintain some form of life insurance. Four
+organizations have underwritten over $500,000,000 of insurance and one
+of them in a single year paid claims amounting to $1,135,000. The
+influence of these unions has been particularly effective in securing
+the passage of protective state and national legislation such as full
+crew laws, standardization of train equipment, employers' liability
+laws, car limit laws, etc.
+
+The hazardous nature of the work is indicated by a statement made by a
+prominent union official to the effect that the Trainmen's Brotherhood
+paid a claim for death or disability every seven hours. A report to
+the Interstate Commerce Commission states that there is one case of
+injury in train or yard service every nine minutes. With the invention
+of safety devices the risk of accident has been greatly lessened, but
+railroading is still one of the most dangerous industrial occupations.
+
+There is little chance of employment for applicants under the age of
+21 years. In fact, many roads refuse to employ men below this age.
+Physical or sense defects which often accompany advancing years, and
+which would not disqualify a man in other occupations do so in
+railroad work. The average length of the working life is a little over
+12 years.
+
+Railroad employees are among the best paid workers in the country. A
+close estimate based on extensive wage investigations places the
+annual earnings of engineers at from $1,200 to $2,400 a year, with an
+average of $1,600. Conductors average about $1,350, firemen a little
+over $900, and other trainmen about $950. The usual working day is 10
+hours, although this is often exceeded. Overtime is paid on a regular
+scale agreed upon by the companies and the union.
+
+The educational requirements are not very exacting. A thorough
+grounding in the "three R's" is usually all that is necessary. A large
+amount of trade knowledge is obtained through contact and
+participation after entering employment and can be gained in no other
+way. The examinations for promotion are of a thorough-going character.
+One of the roads in Cleveland requires an examination of its firemen
+and trainmen six months after employment, as to vision, color-sense,
+and hearing. They must also pass an oral examination on the
+characteristics of their division and a written examination on certain
+set questions furnished them in advance. Two years later they are
+examined again, the fireman for engineman, and the brakeman for
+conductor. The scope of these examinations covers the whole range of
+train operating. Each of the five large railroads entering Cleveland
+has air-brake cars equipped with various forms of air brakes, air
+signals, pumps, valves, and injectors for the purpose of giving
+instruction to trainmen. A competent instructor is put in charge of
+these cars to explain the theory and practice of the apparatus and
+also to give instruction in any new type of engine or train equipment.
+
+The conclusions of the report are in the main negative with respect to
+specialized vocational training in the public schools. There is no
+doubt that the general industrial course recommended for the junior
+high school period in previous chapters would be of some value to boys
+who may enter this line of work. Problems of railroad transportation
+might well be included as part of the work in applied mathematics.
+What workers in these occupations need most, however, is a thorough
+elementary education.
+
+
+MOTOR AND WAGON TRANSPORTATION
+
+This section of the report takes up such occupations as those of
+teamsters, chauffeurs, and repairmen. There are no reliable data as to
+the number of men in the city employed in these occupations, but it is
+certain that it does not fall below 9,000. Notwithstanding the great
+increase in the use of automobiles and auto trucks in recent years the
+number of teamsters at the present time is in excess of 4,000 men. A
+very large proportion of the men employed in these occupations are of
+American birth.
+
+The general conditions of labor such as wages, hours of labor, and so
+on, are the same for teamsters and chauffeurs. They earn about the
+same wages, belong to the same union, and work about the same hours.
+The wages range from 25 to 37 cents an hour. Earnings in the better
+paid jobs compare favorably with those in several of the skilled
+trades. Automobile repairmen earn from 30 to 45 cents an hour, and
+work from nine to 10 hours a day. The working day for teamsters and
+chauffeurs is somewhat longer, ranging from 10 to 12 hours. At the
+present time these occupations are only partially organized in trade
+unions.
+
+The report recommends the establishment of a course in automobile
+construction and operation in the technical high schools. In view of
+the constantly increasing use of automobiles such a course would be of
+value to many boys besides those who enter employment as chauffeurs
+and truck drivers.
+
+
+STREET RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION
+
+There are employed in Cleveland at present approximately 2,500
+motormen and street car conductors. Almost all of them are of American
+birth, and the majority are natives of the city.
+
+As in railroad work each applicant for employment must pass an
+examination, although the requirements are less exacting than those
+demanded in railroad work. The preliminary training occupies about 10
+days, during which the motorman is taught by actual car operation how
+to operate the controller, how to apply and release the brakes, and
+other duties connected with the careful running of the car through
+crowded streets. The conductor is taught the names of the streets, how
+and when to call them, where stops are to be made, when to turn lights
+on and off, how to act in case of accidents, and the various duties
+which deal with the sale, collection, and reporting of transfers and
+tickets.
+
+No one is admitted into the service before the age of 21 or after 35.
+Promotion usually comes in the form of better runs. The chances of
+promotion to positions above the grade of conductor or motorman are
+very slight. About 90 per cent of the men belong to the local union.
+Union rates of pay for motormen and conductors are higher in Cleveland
+than in most cities in the country, in spite of the fact that this is
+the only large city in the country with a three cent street car fare.
+The wages of both motormen and conductors are 29 cents an hour for the
+first year and 32 in succeeding years. The hours of labor are very
+irregular. The usual working day is from 10 to 12 hours.
+
+The author of the report is of the opinion that no special instruction
+for this type of workers can be given by the public schools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+SUMMARY OF REPORT ON THE PRINTING TRADES
+
+
+A smaller proportion of the industrial population in Cleveland is
+engaged in printing than in most large cities. The number of persons
+employed in printing occupations in 1915 is estimated at approximately
+3,900, made up chiefly of skilled workmen. Little common labor is used
+in any department of the industry.
+
+The business of printing is usually conducted in small establishments.
+There are not more than six plants in the city which employ over 75
+wage earners. Data collected from 44 local printing shops, showed an
+average working force of only 36 persons. Due largely to this
+characteristic printing affords an unusual number of opportunities for
+advancement to the skilled workers in the industry. The smaller the
+establishments are the greater is the proportion of proprietors,
+superintendents, managers and foremen to the total number of wage
+earners. Ten per cent of the total working force in the printing
+industry is employed in supervisory and directive positions. In many
+of the large manufacturing industries of the city the proportion in
+such work is less than three per cent.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 12.--Number of men in each 100 in printing and
+five other industries earning each class of weekly wage. Black
+indicates less than $18, hatching, $18 to $25, and outline $25 and
+over]
+
+No other manufacturing industry employs so large a proportion of
+American born workers. In recent years many of the skilled industrial
+trades have been recruited to a very large extent from foreign labor,
+but in printing the American worker has so far held his own remarkably
+well. This is due in part to the relatively high wages and desirable
+working conditions and to the necessity in all branches of printing
+for a working knowledge of English.
+
+Practically all of the trades are thoroughly organized. The unions are
+united in a body called the Council of the Allied Printing Trades.
+Although only about half of the shops in the city employ union labor
+exclusively, the union regulations as to wages and hours of labor are
+observed in both open and closed shops.
+
+Printing workers are among the best paid industrial wage earners in
+the city. A comparison of the weekly earnings in the various
+manufacturing industries is shown in Diagram 12. This comparison is
+based upon the 1914 report of the Ohio Industrial Commission.
+
+The comparison of the earnings of women in various industries, shown
+in Diagram 13, is less favorable to printing. On the basis of the
+proportion of women that earn $12 and over per week this industry
+takes third place. It should be noted, however, that nearly all the
+women employed are engaged in semi-skilled work in binderies,--a lower
+grade of work than that done by most women workers in clothing
+factories, where wages are higher. Compared with other occupations
+that require about the same amount of experience and training, in
+textile, tobacco, and confectionery manufacturing establishments, the
+wages of women employed in the printing industry are relatively high.
+
+Wage earners in printing establishments lose less time through
+irregularity of employment than do those in most other factory
+industries. The kind of work done by women is more seasonal than that
+done by men, although less so than in other manufacturing industries
+which employ large numbers of women.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 13.--Number of women in each 100 in printing
+and six other industries earning each class of weekly wage. Black
+indicates less than $8, hatching $8 to $12, and outline $12 and over]
+
+
+COMPOSING ROOM WORKERS
+
+Nearly all the workers in this department of the industry are hand or
+machine compositors. Until about 30 years ago, before practical
+type-setting machines were invented, all type was set by hand. Today
+the hand compositor, except in very small shops, works only on jobs
+requiring special type and special arrangement, such as
+advertisements, title covers of books, letter heads, and so on.
+
+In the city there are about 1,200 people employed in composing room
+occupations, or about 30 per cent of the total number of workers in
+the industry. This number includes some 50 women employed as
+proof-readers and copy-holders. Nine-tenths of the composing room
+workers are members of the International Typographical Union, although
+the number of shops that employ union men exclusively, called closed
+shops, approximates only one-half of the total number in the city. The
+remainder, while employing union labor, observing union hours, and
+paying union wages, reserve the right to hire non-union workmen.
+
+Composing room workers are the best paid in the industry. A comparison
+of average wages in newspaper and job establishments is shown in Table
+27.
+
+
+TABLE 27.--AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF JOB AND NEWSPAPER COMPOSING-ROOM
+WORKERS, 1915
+
+-------------------------+---------------+------------+
+ | | Newspaper |
+Workers in trade | Job offices | offices |
+-------------------------+---------------+------------+
+Foremen | $5.19 | $6.65 |
+Linotype machinists | 4.66 | 4.84 |
+Proof-readers | 4.63 | 3.98 |
+Monotype operators | 4.57 | .. |
+Linotypers | 4.28 | 4.65 |
+Monotype casters | 3.96 | 4.30 |
+Stonemen | 3.94 | 4.89 |
+Hand-compositors | 3.48 | 4.58 |
+Copy-holders | 2.30 | 2.93 |
+Apprentices | 1.64 | 1.30 |
+-------------------------+---------------+------------+
+
+Compositors suffer most from the diseases that are common to indoor
+workers. The stooping position in which much of the work is done,
+together with insufficient ventilation and the presence of gases from
+the molten metal used in monotype and linotype machines, favors the
+development of lung diseases. The number of deaths from consumption
+among compositors is more than double that in most outdoor
+occupations.
+
+The apprenticeship system has held its own in the compositor's trade
+better than in most industrial occupations. In the establishments
+visited by the Survey Staff there were approximately 15 apprentices to
+each 100 hand and machine compositors. As a rule there is no real
+system or method of instruction. The points principally insisted upon
+by the union, which strongly favors the apprenticeship system, are
+that the number of apprentices employed shall not exceed that
+stipulated in the agreement between the employers and the union, and
+that each apprentice shall be required to serve the full term of five
+years.
+
+During the first and second years the apprentice is required to
+perform general work in the composing room under the direction of the
+foreman. In the third year he joins the union as an apprentice. The
+apprenticeship agreement stipulates that during this year he must be
+employed four hours each day at composition and distribution. In the
+fourth and fifth years the number of hours per day on such work is
+increased to six and seven respectively. During the last two years of
+his term he must take the evening trade course given by the
+International Typographical Union, the expense of tuition being met by
+the local union. The agreement contains no stipulation as to wages for
+the first and second years. The wage for the third year is $9 a week,
+for the fourth year $12, and for the fifth, $15. Apprentices in
+newspaper composing rooms are permitted to spend the last six months
+of their period working on type-setting machines.
+
+
+THE PRESSROOM
+
+The pressroom occupations include platen and cylinder pressmen, web or
+newspaper pressmen, platen and cylinder pressfeeders, plate printers,
+cutters, flyboys and apprentices. Approximately 15 per cent of the men
+employed are cylinder pressmen, about 10 per cent platen pressmen, and
+less than three per cent web pressmen. Pressfeeders comprise over 40
+per cent of the whole group. Nearly nine-tenths of all pressroom
+workers are employed in job establishments. Five occupations--those of
+cutters, floormen, flyboys, plate printers, and web pressmen--give
+employment to fewer than 40 men each.
+
+The average daily earnings of pressroom workers in the establishments
+from which wage data were collected during the survey are shown in
+Table 28.
+
+The hourly rates of pay are high as compared with those in other
+occupations requiring an equal or greater amount of skill and
+knowledge. Cylinder pressmen earn more per hour than do tool and die
+makers--the most highly skilled of the metal trades--and platen
+pressmen in charge of five or more presses earn more than all-round
+machinists and boiler makers. The rate for cylinder pressfeeders is
+about three cents an hour higher than that received for specialized
+machine work in the metal trades.
+
+
+TABLE 28.--AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF PRESSROOM WORKERS, 1915
+
+_Job pressroom workers_
+ Foremen $4.78
+ Cylinder pressmen 3.63
+ Cutters 3.41
+ Platen pressmen 2.97
+ Floormen 2.91
+ Cylinder pressfeeders, men 2.54
+ Cylinder pressfeeders, women 1.77
+ Platen pressfeeders, men 1.83
+ Platen pressfeeders, women 1.70
+ Flyboys 1.56
+
+_Newspaper pressroom workers_
+ Foremen 6.11
+ Web pressmen 4.33
+ Web pressmen's assistants 2.95
+
+Formal apprenticeship is practically unknown. The boy begins as a
+pressfeeder, usually on a platen press, and in the course of time gets
+to be a platen pressman. A knowledge of platen presswork does not
+qualify a man to run a cylinder press, and as a rule the platen
+pressman who wants to change must serve some time as a cylinder
+pressfeeder and cylinder pressman's assistant. There is no organized
+system for training beginners. The boy who wants to become a pressman
+must pick up the trade through experience and practice, the length of
+time required depending chiefly on how frequently changes occur among
+the force of pressmen employed in the shop.
+
+
+THE BINDERY
+
+The bindery is the only department of the industry in which any
+considerable number of women are employed. Some of the occupations,
+such as gathering, sewing, and stitching, are practically monopolized
+by women. They are also employed extensively in hand and machine
+folding. About one-fifth are gatherers and one-fifth sewers and
+stitchers. The other three-fifths are distributed among a number of
+occupations usually classed as general bindery work.
+
+The occupations in which men predominate are forwarding, ruling, and
+finishing, and cutting. The forwarders comprise more than one-fourth
+of the total number of men engaged in bindery work. The other two
+skilled trades--ruling and finishing--give employment to about 35 men
+each.
+
+The average daily earnings in the various occupations, based on
+returns from 44 establishments, were as shown in Table 29.
+
+
+TABLE 29.--AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS OF BINDERY WORKERS, 1915
+
+------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
+Workers in trade | Men | Women |
+------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
+Foremen | $4.78 | $2.05 |
+Rulers | 3.56 | .. |
+Finishers | 3.51 | .. |
+Forwarders | 3.23 | .. |
+Cutters | 3.21 | .. |
+Machine-folders | 2.81 | 1.49 |
+Wire-stitchers | .. | 1.57 |
+Apprentices | 1.53 | .. |
+Gatherers | .. | 1.52 |
+Sewers | .. | 1.52 |
+Other bindery operatives | 1.40 | 1.51 |
+------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
+
+On account of the seasonal character of the work considerable time is
+lost through unemployment, particularly in those occupations in which
+women predominate.
+
+Beginners in these occupations in which the majority of the women are
+employed, start on folding or pasting, and as opportunity presents,
+gradually acquire practice in the higher grades of work, such as
+gathering and machine operating. There are some traces of the
+apprenticeship system in forwarding, ruling, and finishing, but these
+trades are so small that all of them combined require only a very few
+new workers each year.
+
+
+OTHER OCCUPATIONS
+
+Other departments of the printing industry are photoengraving,
+stereotyping, electrotyping, and lithographing. They give employment
+to approximately 700 workers, distributed among more than 20 distinct
+trades, requiring the most diverse sorts of skill, knowledge, and
+training. There are about 100 men in the city engaged in the different
+processes of photoengraving. Nearly all of the stereotypers, numbering
+from 60 to 70, are employed in newspaper offices. There are about 125
+electrotypers and 400 lithographers. The labor conditions closely
+approximate those found in other departments of the industry. Average
+wages for the different occupations are shown in Table 30.
+
+
+TABLE 30.--AVERAGE DAILY EARNINGS IN PHOTOENGRAVING, STEREOTYPING,
+ELECTROTYPING, AND LITHOGRAPHING OCCUPATIONS, 1915
+
+ Average
+Workers in trade daily earnings
+
+Photoengraving
+ Artists $6.32
+ Photographers 4.69
+ Etchers 4.52
+ Routers 4.25
+ Finishers 4.21
+ Proofers 3.69
+ Strippers 3.61
+ Blockers 2.36
+ Apprentices 1.49
+ Art apprentices 1.27
+
+Stereotyping 4.00
+
+Electrotyping
+ Molders 4.41
+ Finishers 4.01
+ Casters 3.18
+ Routers 3.17
+ Builders 3.13
+ Blockers 2.05
+ Batterymen 1.97
+ Case fillers 1.59
+ Apprentices 1.10
+
+Lithographing
+ Lettermen 6.63
+ Artists 6.41
+ Pressroom foremen 5.80
+ Grainers 4.73
+ Engravers 4.35
+ Pressmen 3.91
+ Transferers and proofers 3.41
+ Pressroom apprentices 2.80
+ Tracers 2.63
+ Stone polishers 2.53
+ Pressfeeders 1.72
+ Other apprentices 1.59
+ Artist apprentices 1.23
+ Flyboys 1.10
+
+There is no well organized system for training apprentices in
+photoengraving, stereotyping, and electrotyping, or in any of the
+lithographic trades, except that of poster artist, in which an
+efficient and strictly regulated system of apprenticeship is
+maintained.
+
+
+THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING
+
+The report maintains that up to the end of the compulsory attendance
+period school training preparatory to entering the printing trades
+must be of the most general sort, due to the fact that in the average
+elementary school the number of boys who are likely to become printers
+is too small to form special classes. For example, in an elementary
+school of 1,000 pupils the number of boys 12 years old and over to
+whom instruction in printing would be of value from the standpoint of
+future vocational utility, would probably not exceed two. While
+admitting the advantages of the junior high school for the purposes of
+vocational training, the report points out that even in a school where
+only pupils of the upper grades are admitted, the number who are
+likely to become printers is still too small to warrant special
+instruction. In a junior high school of 1,000 pupils not more than
+nine boys are likely to become printers.
+
+The report recommends a general industrial course during the junior
+high school period. What the boys need at this time is practice in the
+application of mathematics, drawing, and elementary science to
+industrial problems. Shop equipment should be selected with this
+object in mind. It is doubtful whether it should include a printing
+shop, for while such a shop would be useful to the few boys who will
+become printers, it would be of little value in training for other
+industries. The report suggests as subjects which should be included
+in the general industrial course practice in handling and assembling
+machinery, the study of color harmony, and the principles of design in
+connection with the work in drawing, the use of printing shop problems
+in applied mathematics, and thorough instruction in spelling,
+punctuation, and the division of words. It also recommends the course
+of industrial information referred to in previous chapters.
+
+The establishment of a two year printing course in a separate
+vocational school is recommended to meet the need for specialized
+instruction from the end of the compulsory period to the apprentice
+entering age. The printing trades are relatively small and it is only
+by concentrating in a single school plant all the boys who may wish to
+enter them that specialized training can be made practicable. In this
+way it would be possible to secure classes of from 60 to 100 boys each
+for such trades as composition and presswork. The report emphasizes
+the need for instruction in trade theory as against practice on
+specific operations. It points out that the boys will have plenty of
+opportunity after they go to work to acquire speed and manual skill,
+while they have little chance, under modern shop conditions, to obtain
+an understanding of the relation of drawing, physics, chemistry,
+mathematics, and art to their work.
+
+The only trade extension training offered by the public schools at the
+present time is that given in the technical night schools. During the
+second term of 1915-16 there were 28 persons enrolled in the technical
+night school printing class. Of these 28 persons three were journeymen
+printers, five described themselves as "helpers," 11 were apprentices,
+one was employed in the office of a printing establishment, and eight
+were engaged in occupations unrelated to printing. No special
+provision is made for the apprentices. The course, which includes hand
+composition, a little press work, and lectures on trade subjects, is
+planned "to help broaden the shop training of those working at the
+trade." That it does so to any considerable extent is doubtful. Too
+much of the time is devoted to hand work and practice on operations
+which the boys can easily learn in the shops. It is believed that the
+plan followed in the evening apprentice course prescribed by the
+International Typographical Union, in which no shop equipment or
+apparatus is used, is better adapted to the needs of boys employed in
+the trade. The course consists of 46 lessons in English, lettering,
+design, color harmony, job composition, and imposition for machine,
+and hand folding. The classes are taught by journeymen teachers. In
+February 1916 about 100 students were enrolled, of whom approximately
+one-third were apprentices and two-thirds journeymen.
+
+
+CLEVELAND EDUCATION SURVEY REPORTS
+
+These reports can be secured from the Survey Committee of the
+Cleveland Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio. They will be sent postpaid for
+25 cents per volume with the exception of "Measuring the Work of the
+Public Schools" by Judd, "The Cleveland School Survey" by Ayres, and
+"Wage Earning and Education" by Lutz. These three volumes will be sent
+for 50 cents each. All of these reports may be secured at the same
+rates from the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation,
+New York City.
+
+ Child Accounting in the Public Schools--Ayres.
+ Educational Extension--Perry.
+ Education through Recreation--Johnson.
+ Financing the Public Schools--Clark.
+ Health Work in the Public Schools--Ayres.
+ Household Arts and School Lunches--Boughton.
+ Measuring the Work of the Public Schools--Judd.
+ Overcrowded Schools and the Platoon Plan--Hartwell.
+ School Buildings and Equipment--Ayres.
+ Schools and Classes for Exceptional Children--Mitchell.
+ School Organization and Administration--Ayres.
+ The Public Library and the Public Schools--Ayres and McKinnie.
+ The School and the Immigrant--Miller.
+ The Teaching Staff--Jessup.
+ What the Schools Teach and Might Teach--Bobbitt.
+ The Cleveland School Survey (Summary)--Ayres.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+ Boys and Girls in Commercial Work--Stevens.
+ Department Store Occupations--O'Leary.
+ Dressmaking and Millinery--Bryner.
+ Railroad and Street Transportation--Fleming.
+ The Building Trades--Shaw.
+ The Garment Trades--Bryner.
+ The Metal Trades--Lutz.
+ The Printing Trades--Shaw.
+ Wage Earning and Education (Summary)--Lutz.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Typos Corrected In Text: Table 15 on page 120: establishments for
+estabments page 194: "car fare" for "car far" page 15: employee for
+employe
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Wage Earning and Education, by R. R. Lutz
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