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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States
+by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of the United States
+
+Author: Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
+
+Release Date: October 28, 2005 [EBook #16960]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, M and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+OF THE
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+
+BY
+
+
+CHARLES A. BEARD
+
+AND
+
+MARY R. BEARD
+
+
+
+New York
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+1921
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1921,
+
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1921.
+
+
+
+
+Norwood Press
+
+J.S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+
+NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+As things now stand, the course of instruction in American history in
+our public schools embraces three distinct treatments of the subject.
+Three separate books are used. First, there is the primary book, which
+is usually a very condensed narrative with emphasis on biographies and
+anecdotes. Second, there is the advanced text for the seventh or eighth
+grade, generally speaking, an expansion of the elementary book by the
+addition of forty or fifty thousand words. Finally, there is the high
+school manual. This, too, ordinarily follows the beaten path, giving
+fuller accounts of the same events and characters. To put it bluntly, we
+do not assume that our children obtain permanent possessions from their
+study of history in the lower grades. If mathematicians followed the
+same method, high school texts on algebra and geometry would include the
+multiplication table and fractions.
+
+There is, of course, a ready answer to the criticism advanced above. It
+is that teachers have learned from bitter experience how little history
+their pupils retain as they pass along the regular route. No teacher of
+history will deny this. Still it is a standing challenge to existing
+methods of historical instruction. If the study of history cannot be
+made truly progressive like the study of mathematics, science, and
+languages, then the historians assume a grave responsibility in adding
+their subject to the already overloaded curriculum. If the successive
+historical texts are only enlarged editions of the first text--more
+facts, more dates, more words--then history deserves most of the sharp
+criticism which it is receiving from teachers of science, civics, and
+economics.
+
+In this condition of affairs we find our justification for offering a
+new high school text in American history. Our first contribution is one
+of omission. The time-honored stories of exploration and the
+biographies of heroes are left out. We frankly hold that, if pupils know
+little or nothing about Columbus, Cortes, Magellan, or Captain John
+Smith by the time they reach the high school, it is useless to tell the
+same stories for perhaps the fourth time. It is worse than useless. It
+is an offense against the teachers of those subjects that are
+demonstrated to be progressive in character.
+
+In the next place we have omitted all descriptions of battles. Our
+reasons for this are simple. The strategy of a campaign or of a single
+battle is a highly technical, and usually a highly controversial, matter
+about which experts differ widely. In the field of military and naval
+operations most writers and teachers of history are mere novices. To
+dispose of Gettysburg or the Wilderness in ten lines or ten pages is
+equally absurd to the serious student of military affairs. Any one who
+compares the ordinary textbook account of a single Civil War campaign
+with the account given by Ropes, for instance, will ask for no further
+comment. No youth called upon to serve our country in arms would think
+of turning to a high school manual for information about the art of
+warfare. The dramatic scene or episode, so useful in arousing the
+interest of the immature pupil, seems out of place in a book that
+deliberately appeals to boys and girls on the very threshold of life's
+serious responsibilities.
+
+It is not upon negative features, however, that we rest our case. It is
+rather upon constructive features.
+
+_First._ We have written a topical, not a narrative, history. We have
+tried to set forth the important aspects, problems, and movements of
+each period, bringing in the narrative rather by way of illustration.
+
+_Second._ We have emphasized those historical topics which help to
+explain how our nation has come to be what it is to-day.
+
+_Third._ We have dwelt fully upon the social and economic aspects of our
+history, especially in relation to the politics of each period.
+
+_Fourth._ We have treated the causes and results of wars, the problems
+of financing and sustaining armed forces, rather than military strategy.
+These are the subjects which belong to a history for civilians. These
+are matters which civilians can understand--matters which they must
+understand, if they are to play well their part in war and peace.
+
+_Fifth._ By omitting the period of exploration, we have been able to
+enlarge the treatment of our own time. We have given special attention
+to the history of those current questions which must form the subject
+matter of sound instruction in citizenship.
+
+_Sixth._ We have borne in mind that America, with all her unique
+characteristics, is a part of a general civilization. Accordingly we
+have given diplomacy, foreign affairs, world relations, and the
+reciprocal influences of nations their appropriate place.
+
+_Seventh._ We have deliberately aimed at standards of maturity. The
+study of a mere narrative calls mainly for the use of the memory. We
+have aimed to stimulate habits of analysis, comparison, association,
+reflection, and generalization--habits calculated to enlarge as well as
+inform the mind. We have been at great pains to make our text clear,
+simple, and direct; but we have earnestly sought to stretch the
+intellects of our readers--to put them upon their mettle. Most of them
+will receive the last of their formal instruction in the high school.
+The world will soon expect maturity from them. Their achievements will
+depend upon the possession of other powers than memory alone. The
+effectiveness of their citizenship in our republic will be measured by
+the excellence of their judgment as well as the fullness of their
+information.
+
+     C.A.B.
+     M.R.B.
+
+     NEW YORK CITY,
+     February 8, 1921.
+
+
+
+
+=A SMALL LIBRARY IN AMERICAN HISTORY=
+
+
+_=SINGLE VOLUMES:=_
+
+BASSETT, J.S. _A Short History of the United States_
+ELSON, H.W. _History of the United States of America_
+
+
+_=SERIES:=_
+
+"EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY," EDITED BY A.B. HART
+
+HART, A.B. _Formation of the Union_
+THWAITES, R.G. _The Colonies_
+WILSON, WOODROW. _Division and Reunion_
+
+"RIVERSIDE SERIES," EDITED BY W.E. DODD
+
+BECKER, C.L. _Beginnings of the American People_
+DODD, W.E. _Expansion and Conflict_
+JOHNSON, A. _Union and Democracy_
+PAXSON, F.L. _The New Nation_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+    I.  THE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA                               1
+          The Agencies of American Colonization                      2
+          The Colonial Peoples                                       6
+          The Process of Colonization                               12
+
+   II.  COLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE                20
+          The Land and the Westward Movement                        20
+          Industrial and Commercial Development                     28
+
+  III.  SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS                               38
+          The Leadership of the Churches                            39
+          Schools and Colleges                                      43
+          The Colonial Press                                        46
+          The Evolution in Political Institutions                   48
+
+   IV.  THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM                     56
+          Relations with the Indians and the French                 57
+          The Effects of Warfare on the Colonies                    61
+          Colonial Relations with the British Government            64
+          Summary of Colonial Period                                73
+
+
+PART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE
+
+    V.  THE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY                   77
+          George III and His System                                 77
+          George III's Ministers and Their Colonial Policies        79
+          Colonial Resistance Forces Repeal                         83
+          Resumption of British Revenue and Commercial Policies     87
+          Renewed Resistance in America                             90
+          Retaliation by the British Government                     93
+          From Reform to Revolution in America                      95
+
+   VI.  THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION                                     99
+          Resistance and Retaliation                                99
+          American Independence                                    101
+          The Establishment of Government and the New Allegiance   108
+          Military Affairs                                         116
+          The Finances of the Revolution                           125
+          The Diplomacy of the Revolution                          127
+          Peace at Last                                            132
+          Summary of the Revolutionary Period                      135
+
+
+PART III. FOUNDATIONS OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+  VII.  THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION                          139
+          The Promise and the Difficulties of America              139
+          The Calling of a Constitutional Convention               143
+          The Framing of the Constitution                          146
+          The Struggle over Ratification                           157
+
+ VIII.  THE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES                             162
+          The Men and Measures of the New Government               162
+          The Rise of Political Parties                            168
+          Foreign Influences and Domestic Politics                 171
+
+   IX.  THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER                      186
+          Republican Principles and Policies                       186
+          The Republicans and the Great West                       188
+          The Republican War for Commercial Independence           193
+          The Republicans Nationalized                             201
+          The National Decisions of Chief Justice Marshall         208
+          Summary of Union and National Politics                   212
+
+
+PART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
+
+    X.  THE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS                        217
+          Preparation for Western Settlement                       217
+          The Western Migration and New States                     221
+          The Spirit of the Frontier                               228
+          The West and the East Meet                               230
+
+   XI.  JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY                                       238
+          The Democratic Movement in the East                      238
+          The New Democracy Enters the Arena                       244
+          The New Democracy at Washington                          250
+          The Rise of the Whigs                                    260
+          The Interaction of American and European Opinion         265
+
+  XII.  THE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST                       271
+          The Advance of the Middle Border                         271
+          On to the Pacific--Texas and the Mexican War             276
+          The Pacific Coast and Utah                               284
+          Summary of Western Development and National Politics     292
+
+
+PART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION
+
+ XIII.  THE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM                          295
+          The Industrial Revolution                                296
+          The Industrial Revolution and National Politics          307
+
+  XIV.  THE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS                  316
+          Slavery--North and South                                 316
+          Slavery in National Politics                             324
+          The Drift of Events toward the Irrepressible Conflict    332
+
+   XV.  THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION                           344
+          The Southern Confederacy                                 344
+          The War Measures of the Federal Government               350
+          The Results of the Civil War                             365
+          Reconstruction in the South                              370
+          Summary of the Sectional Conflict                        375
+
+
+PART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS
+
+  XVI.  THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH          379
+          The South at the Close of the War                        379
+          The Restoration of White Supremacy                       382
+          The Economic Advance of the South                        389
+
+ XVII.  BUSINESS ENTERPRISE AND THE REPUBLICAN PARTY               401
+          Railways and Industry                                    401
+          The Supremacy of the Republican Party (1861-1885)        412
+          The Growth of Opposition to Republican Rule              417
+
+XVIII.  THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT WEST                          425
+          The Railways as Trail Blazers                            425
+          The Evolution of Grazing and Agriculture                 431
+          Mining and Manufacturing in the West                     436
+          The Admission of New States                              440
+          The Influence of the Far West on National Life           443
+
+  XIX.  DOMESTIC ISSUES BEFORE THE COUNTRY (1865-1897)             451
+          The Currency Question                                    452
+          The Protective Tariff and Taxation                       459
+          The Railways and Trusts                                  460
+          The Minor Parties and Unrest                             462
+          The Sound Money Battle of 1896                           466
+          Republican Measures and Results                          472
+
+   XX.  AMERICA A WORLD POWER (1865-1900)                          477
+          American Foreign Relations (1865-1898)                   478
+          Cuba and the Spanish War                                 485
+          American Policies in the Philippines and the Orient      497
+          Summary of National Growth and World Politics            504
+
+
+PART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR
+
+  XXI.  THE EVOLUTION OF REPUBLICAN POLICIES (1901-1913)           507
+          Foreign Affairs                                          508
+          Colonial Administration                                  515
+          The Roosevelt Domestic Policies                          519
+          Legislative and Executive Activities                     523
+          The Administration of President Taft                     527
+          Progressive Insurgency and the Election of 1912          530
+
+ XXII.  THE SPIRIT OF REFORM IN AMERICA                            536
+          An Age of Criticism                                      536
+          Political Reforms                                        538
+          Measures of Economic Reform                              546
+
+XXIII.  THE NEW POLITICAL DEMOCRACY                                554
+          The Rise of the Woman Movement                           555
+          The National Struggle for Woman Suffrage                 562
+
+ XXIV.  INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY                                       570
+          Coöperation between Employers and Employees              571
+          The Rise and Growth of Organized Labor                   575
+          The Wider Relations of Organized Labor                   577
+          Immigration and Americanization                          582
+
+  XXV.  PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR                         588
+          Domestic Legislation                                     588
+          Colonial and Foreign Policies                            592
+          The United States and the European War                   596
+          The United States at War                                 604
+          The Settlement at Paris                                  612
+          Summary of Democracy and the World War                   620
+
+APPENDIX                                                           627
+
+A TOPICAL SYLLABUS                                                 645
+
+INDEX                                                              655
+
+
+
+
+MAPS
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+The Original Grants (color map)                         _Facing_     4
+
+German and Scotch-Irish Settlements                                  8
+
+Distribution of Population in 1790                                  27
+
+English, French, and Spanish Possessions in America, 1750
+      (color map)                                      _Facing_     59
+
+The Colonies at the Time of the Declaration of Independence
+      (color map)                                     _Facing_     108
+
+North America according to the Treaty of 1783
+      (color map)                                     _Facing_     134
+
+The United States in 1805 (color map)                 _Facing_     193
+
+Roads and Trails into Western Territory (color map)   _Facing_     224
+
+The Cumberland Road                                                233
+
+Distribution of Population in 1830                                 235
+
+Texas and the Territory in Dispute                                 282
+
+The Oregon Country and the Disputed Boundary                       285
+
+The Overland Trails                                                287
+
+Distribution of Slaves in Southern States                          323
+
+The Missouri Compromise                                            326
+
+Slave and Free Soil on the Eve of the Civil War                    335
+
+The United States in 1861 (color map)                 _Facing_     345
+
+Railroads of the United States in 1918                             405
+
+The United States in 1870 (color map)                _Facing_      427
+
+The United States in 1912 (color map)                _Facing_      443
+
+American Dominions in the Pacific (color map)        _Facing_      500
+
+The Caribbean Region (color map)                     _Facing_      592
+
+Battle Lines of the Various Years of the World War                 613
+
+Europe in 1919 (color map)                         _Between_   618-619
+
+     "THE NATIONS OF THE WEST" (popularly called "The
+     Pioneers"), designed by A. Stirling Calder and modeled by
+     Mr. Calder, F.G.R. Roth, and Leo Lentelli, topped the Arch
+     of the Setting Sun at the Panama-Pacific Exposition held at
+     San Francisco in 1915. Facing the Court of the Universe
+     moves a group of men and women typical of those who have
+     made our civilization. From left to right appear the
+     French-Canadian, the Alaskan, the Latin-American, the
+     German, the Italian, the Anglo-American, and the American
+     Indian, squaw and warrior. In the place of honor in the
+     center of the group, standing between the oxen on the tongue
+     of the prairie schooner, is a figure, beautiful and almost
+     girlish, but strong, dignified, and womanly, the Mother of
+     To-morrow. Above the group rides the Spirit of Enterprise,
+     flanked right and left by the Hopes of the Future in the
+     person of two boys. The group as a whole is beautifully
+     symbolic of the westward march of American civilization.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Cardinell-Vincent Co., San Francisco_
+
+"THE NATIONS OF THE WEST"]
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+
+
+PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA
+
+
+The tide of migration that set in toward the shores of North America
+during the early years of the seventeenth century was but one phase in
+the restless and eternal movement of mankind upon the surface of the
+earth. The ancient Greeks flung out their colonies in every direction,
+westward as far as Gaul, across the Mediterranean, and eastward into
+Asia Minor, perhaps to the very confines of India. The Romans, supported
+by their armies and their government, spread their dominion beyond the
+narrow lands of Italy until it stretched from the heather of Scotland to
+the sands of Arabia. The Teutonic tribes, from their home beyond the
+Danube and the Rhine, poured into the empire of the Cæsars and made the
+beginnings of modern Europe. Of this great sweep of races and empires
+the settlement of America was merely a part. And it was, moreover, only
+one aspect of the expansion which finally carried the peoples, the
+institutions, and the trade of Europe to the very ends of the earth.
+
+In one vital point, it must be noted, American colonization differed
+from that of the ancients. The Greeks usually carried with them
+affection for the government they left behind and sacred fire from the
+altar of the parent city; but thousands of the immigrants who came to
+America disliked the state and disowned the church of the mother
+country. They established compacts of government for themselves and set
+up altars of their own. They sought not only new soil to till but also
+political and religious liberty for themselves and their children.
+
+
+THE AGENCIES OF AMERICAN COLONIZATION
+
+It was no light matter for the English to cross three thousand miles of
+water and found homes in the American wilderness at the opening of the
+seventeenth century. Ships, tools, and supplies called for huge outlays
+of money. Stores had to be furnished in quantities sufficient to sustain
+the life of the settlers until they could gather harvests of their own.
+Artisans and laborers of skill and industry had to be induced to risk
+the hazards of the new world. Soldiers were required for defense and
+mariners for the exploration of inland waters. Leaders of good judgment,
+adept in managing men, had to be discovered. Altogether such an
+enterprise demanded capital larger than the ordinary merchant or
+gentleman could amass and involved risks more imminent than he dared to
+assume. Though in later days, after initial tests had been made, wealthy
+proprietors were able to establish colonies on their own account, it was
+the corporation that furnished the capital and leadership in the
+beginning.
+
+=The Trading Company.=--English pioneers in exploration found an
+instrument for colonization in companies of merchant adventurers, which
+had long been employed in carrying on commerce with foreign countries.
+Such a corporation was composed of many persons of different ranks of
+society--noblemen, merchants, and gentlemen--who banded together for a
+particular undertaking, each contributing a sum of money and sharing in
+the profits of the venture. It was organized under royal authority; it
+received its charter, its grant of land, and its trading privileges from
+the king and carried on its operations under his supervision and
+control. The charter named all the persons originally included in the
+corporation and gave them certain powers in the management of its
+affairs, including the right to admit new members. The company was in
+fact a little government set up by the king. When the members of the
+corporation remained in England, as in the case of the Virginia Company,
+they operated through agents sent to the colony. When they came over the
+seas themselves and settled in America, as in the case of Massachusetts,
+they became the direct government of the country they possessed. The
+stockholders in that instance became the voters and the governor, the
+chief magistrate.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN WINTHROP, GOVERNOR OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY
+COMPANY]
+
+Four of the thirteen colonies in America owed their origins to the
+trading corporation. It was the London Company, created by King James I,
+in 1606, that laid during the following year the foundations of Virginia
+at Jamestown. It was under the auspices of their West India Company,
+chartered in 1621, that the Dutch planted the settlements of the New
+Netherland in the valley of the Hudson. The founders of Massachusetts
+were Puritan leaders and men of affairs whom King Charles I incorporated
+in 1629 under the title: "The governor and company of the Massachusetts
+Bay in New England." In this case the law did but incorporate a group
+drawn together by religious ties. "We must be knit together as one man,"
+wrote John Winthrop, the first Puritan governor in America. Far to the
+south, on the banks of the Delaware River, a Swedish commercial company
+in 1638 made the beginnings of a settlement, christened New Sweden; it
+was destined to pass under the rule of the Dutch, and finally under the
+rule of William Penn as the proprietary colony of Delaware.
+
+In a certain sense, Georgia may be included among the "company
+colonies." It was, however, originally conceived by the moving spirit,
+James Oglethorpe, as an asylum for poor men, especially those imprisoned
+for debt. To realize this humane purpose, he secured from King George
+II, in 1732, a royal charter uniting several gentlemen, including
+himself, into "one body politic and corporate," known as the "Trustees
+for establishing the colony of Georgia in America." In the structure of
+their organization and their methods of government, the trustees did not
+differ materially from the regular companies created for trade and
+colonization. Though their purposes were benevolent, their transactions
+had to be under the forms of law and according to the rules of business.
+
+=The Religious Congregation.=--A second agency which figured largely in
+the settlement of America was the religious brotherhood, or
+congregation, of men and women brought together in the bonds of a common
+religious faith. By one of the strange fortunes of history, this
+institution, founded in the early days of Christianity, proved to be a
+potent force in the origin and growth of self-government in a land far
+away from Galilee. "And the multitude of them that believed were of one
+heart and of one soul," we are told in the Acts describing the Church at
+Jerusalem. "We are knit together as a body in a most sacred covenant of
+the Lord ... by virtue of which we hold ourselves strictly tied to all
+care of each other's good and of the whole," wrote John Robinson, a
+leader among the Pilgrims who founded their tiny colony of Plymouth in
+1620. The Mayflower Compact, so famous in American history, was but a
+written and signed agreement, incorporating the spirit of obedience to
+the common good, which served as a guide to self-government until
+Plymouth was annexed to Massachusetts in 1691.
+
+[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL GRANTS]
+
+Three other colonies, all of which retained their identity until the eve
+of the American Revolution, likewise sprang directly from the
+congregations of the faithful: Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New
+Hampshire, mainly offshoots from Massachusetts. They were founded by
+small bodies of men and women, "united in solemn covenants with the
+Lord," who planted their settlements in the wilderness. Not until many a
+year after Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson conducted their followers
+to the Narragansett country was Rhode Island granted a charter of
+incorporation (1663) by the crown. Not until long after the congregation
+of Thomas Hooker from Newtown blazed the way into the Connecticut River
+Valley did the king of England give Connecticut a charter of its own
+(1662) and a place among the colonies. Half a century elapsed before the
+towns laid out beyond the Merrimac River by emigrants from Massachusetts
+were formed into the royal province of New Hampshire in 1679.
+
+Even when Connecticut was chartered, the parchment and sealing wax of
+the royal lawyers did but confirm rights and habits of self-government
+and obedience to law previously established by the congregations. The
+towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield had long lived happily
+under their "Fundamental Orders" drawn up by themselves in 1639; so had
+the settlers dwelt peacefully at New Haven under their "Fundamental
+Articles" drafted in the same year. The pioneers on the Connecticut
+shore had no difficulty in agreeing that "the Scriptures do hold forth a
+perfect rule for the direction and government of all men."
+
+=The Proprietor.=--A third and very important colonial agency was the
+proprietor, or proprietary. As the name, associated with the word
+"property," implies, the proprietor was a person to whom the king
+granted property in lands in North America to have, hold, use, and enjoy
+for his own benefit and profit, with the right to hand the estate down
+to his heirs in perpetual succession. The proprietor was a rich and
+powerful person, prepared to furnish or secure the capital, collect the
+ships, supply the stores, and assemble the settlers necessary to found
+and sustain a plantation beyond the seas. Sometimes the proprietor
+worked alone. Sometimes two or more were associated like partners in the
+common undertaking.
+
+Five colonies, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Carolinas,
+owe their formal origins, though not always their first settlements, nor
+in most cases their prosperity, to the proprietary system. Maryland,
+established in 1634 under a Catholic nobleman, Lord Baltimore, and
+blessed with religious toleration by the act of 1649, flourished under
+the mild rule of proprietors until it became a state in the American
+union. New Jersey, beginning its career under two proprietors, Berkeley
+and Carteret, in 1664, passed under the direct government of the crown
+in 1702. Pennsylvania was, in a very large measure, the product of the
+generous spirit and tireless labors of its first proprietor, the leader
+of the Friends, William Penn, to whom it was granted in 1681 and in
+whose family it remained until 1776. The two Carolinas were first
+organized as one colony in 1663 under the government and patronage of
+eight proprietors, including Lord Clarendon; but after more than half a
+century both became royal provinces governed by the king.
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM PENN, PROPRIETOR OF PENNSYLVANIA]
+
+
+THE COLONIAL PEOPLES
+
+=The English.=--In leadership and origin the thirteen colonies, except
+New York and Delaware, were English. During the early days of all, save
+these two, the main, if not the sole, current of immigration was from
+England. The colonists came from every walk of life. They were men,
+women, and children of "all sorts and conditions." The major portion
+were yeomen, or small land owners, farm laborers, and artisans. With
+them were merchants and gentlemen who brought their stocks of goods or
+their fortunes to the New World. Scholars came from Oxford and
+Cambridge to preach the gospel or to teach. Now and then the son of an
+English nobleman left his baronial hall behind and cast his lot with
+America. The people represented every religious faith--members of the
+Established Church of England; Puritans who had labored to reform that
+church; Separatists, Baptists, and Friends, who had left it altogether;
+and Catholics, who clung to the religion of their fathers.
+
+New England was almost purely English. During the years between 1629 and
+1640, the period of arbitrary Stuart government, about twenty thousand
+Puritans emigrated to America, settling in the colonies of the far
+North. Although minor additions were made from time to time, the greater
+portion of the New England people sprang from this original stock.
+Virginia, too, for a long time drew nearly all her immigrants from
+England alone. Not until the eve of the Revolution did other
+nationalities, mainly the Scotch-Irish and Germans, rival the English in
+numbers.
+
+The populations of later English colonies--the Carolinas, New York,
+Pennsylvania, and Georgia--while receiving a steady stream of
+immigration from England, were constantly augmented by wanderers from
+the older settlements. New York was invaded by Puritans from New England
+in such numbers as to cause the Anglican clergymen there to lament that
+"free thinking spreads almost as fast as the Church." North Carolina was
+first settled toward the northern border by immigrants from Virginia.
+Some of the North Carolinians, particularly the Quakers, came all the
+way from New England, tarrying in Virginia only long enough to learn how
+little they were wanted in that Anglican colony.
+
+=The Scotch-Irish.=--Next to the English in numbers and influence were
+the Scotch-Irish, Presbyterians in belief, English in tongue. Both
+religious and economic reasons sent them across the sea. Their Scotch
+ancestors, in the days of Cromwell, had settled in the north of Ireland
+whence the native Irish had been driven by the conqueror's sword. There
+the Scotch nourished for many years enjoying in peace their own form of
+religion and growing prosperous in the manufacture of fine linen and
+woolen cloth. Then the blow fell. Toward the end of the seventeenth
+century their religious worship was put under the ban and the export of
+their cloth was forbidden by the English Parliament. Within two decades
+twenty thousand Scotch-Irish left Ulster alone, for America; and all
+during the eighteenth century the migration continued to be heavy.
+Although no exact record was kept, it is reckoned that the Scotch-Irish
+and the Scotch who came directly from Scotland, composed one-sixth of
+the entire American population on the eve of the Revolution.
+
+[Illustration: SETTLEMENTS OF GERMAN AND SCOTCH-IRISH
+IMMIGRANTS]
+
+These newcomers in America made their homes chiefly in New Jersey,
+Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Coming late upon
+the scene, they found much of the land immediately upon the seaboard
+already taken up. For this reason most of them became frontier people
+settling the interior and upland regions. There they cleared the land,
+laid out their small farms, and worked as "sturdy yeomen on the soil,"
+hardy, industrious, and independent in spirit, sharing neither the
+luxuries of the rich planters nor the easy life of the leisurely
+merchants. To their agriculture they added woolen and linen
+manufactures, which, flourishing in the supple fingers of their tireless
+women, made heavy inroads upon the trade of the English merchants in
+the colonies. Of their labors a poet has sung:
+
+        "O, willing hands to toil;
+    Strong natures tuned to the harvest-song and bound to the kindly soil;
+    Bold pioneers for the wilderness, defenders in the field."
+
+=The Germans.=--Third among the colonists in order of numerical
+importance were the Germans. From the very beginning, they appeared in
+colonial records. A number of the artisans and carpenters in the first
+Jamestown colony were of German descent. Peter Minuit, the famous
+governor of New Motherland, was a German from Wesel on the Rhine, and
+Jacob Leisler, leader of a popular uprising against the provincial
+administration of New York, was a German from Frankfort-on-Main. The
+wholesale migration of Germans began with the founding of Pennsylvania.
+Penn was diligent in searching for thrifty farmers to cultivate his
+lands and he made a special effort to attract peasants from the Rhine
+country. A great association, known as the Frankfort Company, bought
+more than twenty thousand acres from him and in 1684 established a
+center at Germantown for the distribution of German immigrants. In old
+New York, Rhinebeck-on-the-Hudson became a similar center for
+distribution. All the way from Maine to Georgia inducements were offered
+to the German farmers and in nearly every colony were to be found, in
+time, German settlements. In fact the migration became so large that
+German princes were frightened at the loss of so many subjects and
+England was alarmed by the influx of foreigners into her overseas
+dominions. Yet nothing could stop the movement. By the end of the
+colonial period, the number of Germans had risen to more than two
+hundred thousand.
+
+The majority of them were Protestants from the Rhine region, and South
+Germany. Wars, religious controversies, oppression, and poverty drove
+them forth to America. Though most of them were farmers, there were also
+among them skilled artisans who contributed to the rapid growth of
+industries in Pennsylvania. Their iron, glass, paper, and woolen mills,
+dotted here and there among the thickly settled regions, added to the
+wealth and independence of the province.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+A GLIMPSE OF OLD GERMANTOWN]
+
+Unlike the Scotch-Irish, the Germans did not speak the language of the
+original colonists or mingle freely with them. They kept to themselves,
+built their own schools, founded their own newspapers, and published
+their own books. Their clannish habits often irritated their neighbors
+and led to occasional agitations against "foreigners." However, no
+serious collisions seem to have occurred; and in the days of the
+Revolution, German soldiers from Pennsylvania fought in the patriot
+armies side by side with soldiers from the English and Scotch-Irish
+sections.
+
+=Other Nationalities.=--Though the English, the Scotch-Irish, and the
+Germans made up the bulk of the colonial population, there were other
+racial strains as well, varying in numerical importance but contributing
+their share to colonial life.
+
+From France came the Huguenots fleeing from the decree of the king which
+inflicted terrible penalties upon Protestants.
+
+From "Old Ireland" came thousands of native Irish, Celtic in race and
+Catholic in religion. Like their Scotch-Irish neighbors to the north,
+they revered neither the government nor the church of England imposed
+upon them by the sword. How many came we do not know, but shipping
+records of the colonial period show that boatload after boatload left
+the southern and eastern shores of Ireland for the New World.
+Undoubtedly thousands of their passengers were Irish of the native
+stock. This surmise is well sustained by the constant appearance of
+Celtic names in the records of various colonies.
+
+[Illustration:_From an old print_
+
+OLD DUTCH FORT AND ENGLISH CHURCH NEAR ALBANY]
+
+The Jews, then as ever engaged in their age-long battle for religious
+and economic toleration, found in the American colonies, not complete
+liberty, but certainly more freedom than they enjoyed in England,
+France, Spain, or Portugal. The English law did not actually recognize
+their right to live in any of the dominions, but owing to the easy-going
+habits of the Americans they were allowed to filter into the seaboard
+towns. The treatment they received there varied. On one occasion the
+mayor and council of New York forbade them to sell by retail and on
+another prohibited the exercise of their religious worship. Newport,
+Philadelphia, and Charleston were more hospitable, and there large
+Jewish colonies, consisting principally of merchants and their families,
+flourished in spite of nominal prohibitions of the law.
+
+Though the small Swedish colony in Delaware was quickly submerged
+beneath the tide of English migration, the Dutch in New York continued
+to hold their own for more than a hundred years after the English
+conquest in 1664. At the end of the colonial period over one-half of the
+170,000 inhabitants of the province were descendants of the original
+Dutch--still distinct enough to give a decided cast to the life and
+manners of New York. Many of them clung as tenaciously to their mother
+tongue as they did to their capacious farmhouses or their Dutch ovens;
+but they were slowly losing their identity as the English pressed in
+beside them to farm and trade.
+
+The melting pot had begun its historic mission.
+
+
+THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION
+
+Considered from one side, colonization, whatever the motives of the
+emigrants, was an economic matter. It involved the use of capital to pay
+for their passage, to sustain them on the voyage, and to start them on
+the way of production. Under this stern economic necessity, Puritans,
+Scotch-Irish, Germans, and all were alike laid.
+
+=Immigrants Who Paid Their Own Way.=--Many of the immigrants to America
+in colonial days were capitalists themselves, in a small or a large way,
+and paid their own passage. What proportion of the colonists were able
+to finance their voyage across the sea is a matter of pure conjecture.
+Undoubtedly a very considerable number could do so, for we can trace the
+family fortunes of many early settlers. Henry Cabot Lodge is authority
+for the statement that "the settlers of New England were drawn from the
+country gentlemen, small farmers, and yeomanry of the mother
+country.... Many of the emigrants were men of wealth, as the old lists
+show, and all of them, with few exceptions, were men of property and
+good standing. They did not belong to the classes from which emigration
+is usually supplied, for they all had a stake in the country they left
+behind." Though it would be interesting to know how accurate this
+statement is or how applicable to the other colonies, no study has as
+yet been made to gratify that interest. For the present it is an
+unsolved problem just how many of the colonists were able to bear the
+cost of their own transfer to the New World.
+
+=Indentured Servants.=--That at least tens of thousands of immigrants
+were unable to pay for their passage is established beyond the shadow of
+a doubt by the shipping records that have come down to us. The great
+barrier in the way of the poor who wanted to go to America was the cost
+of the sea voyage. To overcome this difficulty a plan was worked out
+whereby shipowners and other persons of means furnished the passage
+money to immigrants in return for their promise, or bond, to work for a
+term of years to repay the sum advanced. This system was called
+indentured servitude.
+
+It is probable that the number of bond servants exceeded the original
+twenty thousand Puritans, the yeomen, the Virginia gentlemen, and the
+Huguenots combined. All the way down the coast from Massachusetts to
+Georgia were to be found in the fields, kitchens, and workshops, men,
+women, and children serving out terms of bondage generally ranging from
+five to seven years. In the proprietary colonies the proportion of bond
+servants was very high. The Baltimores, Penns, Carterets, and other
+promoters anxiously sought for workers of every nationality to till
+their fields, for land without labor was worth no more than land in the
+moon. Hence the gates of the proprietary colonies were flung wide open.
+Every inducement was offered to immigrants in the form of cheap land,
+and special efforts were made to increase the population by importing
+servants. In Pennsylvania, it was not uncommon to find a master with
+fifty bond servants on his estate. It has been estimated that two-thirds
+of all the immigrants into Pennsylvania between the opening of the
+eighteenth century and the outbreak of the Revolution were in bondage.
+In the other Middle colonies the number was doubtless not so large; but
+it formed a considerable part of the population.
+
+The story of this traffic in white servants is one of the most striking
+things in the history of labor. Bondmen differed from the serfs of the
+feudal age in that they were not bound to the soil but to the master.
+They likewise differed from the negro slaves in that their servitude had
+a time limit. Still they were subject to many special disabilities. It
+was, for instance, a common practice to impose on them penalties far
+heavier than were imposed upon freemen for the same offense. A free
+citizen of Pennsylvania who indulged in horse racing and gambling was
+let off with a fine; a white servant guilty of the same unlawful conduct
+was whipped at the post and fined as well.
+
+The ordinary life of the white servant was also severely restricted. A
+bondman could not marry without his master's consent; nor engage in
+trade; nor refuse work assigned to him. For an attempt to escape or
+indeed for any infraction of the law, the term of service was extended.
+The condition of white bondmen in Virginia, according to Lodge, "was
+little better than that of slaves. Loose indentures and harsh laws put
+them at the mercy of their masters." It would not be unfair to add that
+such was their lot in all other colonies. Their fate depended upon the
+temper of their masters.
+
+Cruel as was the system in many ways, it gave thousands of people in the
+Old World a chance to reach the New--an opportunity to wrestle with fate
+for freedom and a home of their own. When their weary years of servitude
+were over, if they survived, they might obtain land of their own or
+settle as free mechanics in the towns. For many a bondman the gamble
+proved to be a losing venture because he found himself unable to rise
+out of the state of poverty and dependence into which his servitude
+carried him. For thousands, on the contrary, bondage proved to be a real
+avenue to freedom and prosperity. Some of the best citizens of America
+have the blood of indentured servants in their veins.
+
+=The Transported--Involuntary Servitude.=--In their anxiety to secure
+settlers, the companies and proprietors having colonies in America
+either resorted to or connived at the practice of kidnapping men, women,
+and children from the streets of English cities. In 1680 it was
+officially estimated that "ten thousand persons were spirited away" to
+America. Many of the victims of the practice were young children, for
+the traffic in them was highly profitable. Orphans and dependents were
+sometimes disposed of in America by relatives unwilling to support them.
+In a single year, 1627, about fifteen hundred children were shipped to
+Virginia.
+
+In this gruesome business there lurked many tragedies, and very few
+romances. Parents were separated from their children and husbands from
+their wives. Hundreds of skilled artisans--carpenters, smiths, and
+weavers--utterly disappeared as if swallowed up by death. A few thus
+dragged off to the New World to be sold into servitude for a term of
+five or seven years later became prosperous and returned home with
+fortunes. In one case a young man who was forcibly carried over the sea
+lived to make his way back to England and establish his claim to a
+peerage.
+
+Akin to the kidnapped, at least in economic position, were convicts
+deported to the colonies for life in lieu of fines and imprisonment. The
+Americans protested vigorously but ineffectually against this practice.
+Indeed, they exaggerated its evils, for many of the "criminals" were
+only mild offenders against unduly harsh and cruel laws. A peasant
+caught shooting a rabbit on a lord's estate or a luckless servant girl
+who purloined a pocket handkerchief was branded as a criminal along with
+sturdy thieves and incorrigible rascals. Other transported offenders
+were "political criminals"; that is, persons who criticized or opposed
+the government. This class included now Irish who revolted against
+British rule in Ireland; now Cavaliers who championed the king against
+the Puritan revolutionists; Puritans, in turn, dispatched after the
+monarchy was restored; and Scotch and English subjects in general who
+joined in political uprisings against the king.
+
+=The African Slaves.=--Rivaling in numbers, in the course of time, the
+indentured servants and whites carried to America against their will
+were the African negroes brought to America and sold into slavery. When
+this form of bondage was first introduced into Virginia in 1619, it was
+looked upon as a temporary necessity to be discarded with the increase
+of the white population. Moreover it does not appear that those planters
+who first bought negroes at the auction block intended to establish a
+system of permanent bondage. Only by a slow process did chattel slavery
+take firm root and become recognized as the leading source of the labor
+supply. In 1650, thirty years after the introduction of slavery, there
+were only three hundred Africans in Virginia.
+
+The great increase in later years was due in no small measure to the
+inordinate zeal for profits that seized slave traders both in Old and in
+New England. Finding it relatively easy to secure negroes in Africa,
+they crowded the Southern ports with their vessels. The English Royal
+African Company sent to America annually between 1713 and 1743 from five
+to ten thousand slaves. The ship owners of New England were not far
+behind their English brethren in pushing this extraordinary traffic.
+
+As the proportion of the negroes to the free white population steadily
+rose, and as whole sections were overrun with slaves and slave traders,
+the Southern colonies grew alarmed. In 1710, Virginia sought to curtail
+the importation by placing a duty of £5 on each slave. This effort was
+futile, for the royal governor promptly vetoed it. From time to time
+similar bills were passed, only to meet with royal disapproval. South
+Carolina, in 1760, absolutely prohibited importation; but the measure
+was killed by the British crown. As late as 1772, Virginia, not daunted
+by a century of rebuffs, sent to George III a petition in this vein:
+"The importation of slaves into the colonies from the coast of Africa
+hath long been considered as a trade of great inhumanity and under its
+present encouragement, we have too much reason to fear, will endanger
+the very existence of Your Majesty's American dominions.... Deeply
+impressed with these sentiments, we most humbly beseech Your Majesty to
+remove all those restraints on Your Majesty's governors of this colony
+which inhibit their assenting to such laws as might check so very
+pernicious a commerce."
+
+All such protests were without avail. The negro population grew by leaps
+and bounds, until on the eve of the Revolution it amounted to more than
+half a million. In five states--Maryland, Virginia, the two Carolinas,
+and Georgia--the slaves nearly equalled or actually exceeded the whites
+in number. In South Carolina they formed almost two-thirds of the
+population. Even in the Middle colonies of Delaware and Pennsylvania
+about one-fifth of the inhabitants were from Africa. To the North, the
+proportion of slaves steadily diminished although chattel servitude was
+on the same legal footing as in the South. In New York approximately one
+in six and in New England one in fifty were negroes, including a few
+freedmen.
+
+The climate, the soil, the commerce, and the industry of the North were
+all unfavorable to the growth of a servile population. Still, slavery,
+though sectional, was a part of the national system of economy. Northern
+ships carried slaves to the Southern colonies and the produce of the
+plantations to Europe. "If the Northern states will consult their
+interest, they will not oppose the increase in slaves which will
+increase the commodities of which they will become the carriers," said
+John Rutledge, of South Carolina, in the convention which framed the
+Constitution of the United States. "What enriches a part enriches the
+whole and the states are the best judges of their particular interest,"
+responded Oliver Ellsworth, the distinguished spokesman of Connecticut.
+
+=References=
+
+E. Charming, _History of the United States_, Vols. I and II.
+
+J.A. Doyle, _The English Colonies in America_ (5 vols.).
+
+J. Fiske, _Old Virginia and Her Neighbors_ (2 vols.).
+
+A.B. Faust, _The German Element in the United States_ (2 vols.).
+
+H.J. Ford, _The Scotch-Irish in America_.
+
+L. Tyler, _England in America_ (American Nation Series).
+
+R. Usher, _The Pilgrims and Their History_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. America has been called a nation of immigrants. Explain why.
+
+2. Why were individuals unable to go alone to America in the beginning?
+What agencies made colonization possible? Discuss each of them.
+
+3. Make a table of the colonies, showing the methods employed in their
+settlement.
+
+4. Why were capital and leadership so very important in early
+colonization?
+
+5. What is meant by the "melting pot"? What nationalities were
+represented among the early colonists?
+
+6. Compare the way immigrants come to-day with the way they came in
+colonial times.
+
+7. Contrast indentured servitude with slavery and serfdom.
+
+8. Account for the anxiety of companies and proprietors to secure
+colonists.
+
+9. What forces favored the heavy importation of slaves?
+
+10. In what way did the North derive advantages from slavery?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Chartered Company.=--Compare the first and third charters of
+Virginia in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book of American History_,
+1606-1898, pp. 1-14. Analyze the first and second Massachusetts charters
+in Macdonald, pp. 22-84. Special reference: W.A.S. Hewins, _English
+Trading Companies_.
+
+=Congregations and Compacts for Self-government.=--A study of the
+Mayflower Compact, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and the
+Fundamental Articles of New Haven in Macdonald, pp. 19, 36, 39.
+Reference: Charles Borgeaud, _Rise of Modern Democracy_, and C.S.
+Lobingier, _The People's Law_, Chaps. I-VII.
+
+=The Proprietary System.=--Analysis of Penn's charter of 1681, in
+Macdonald, p. 80. Reference: Lodge, _Short History of the English
+Colonies in America_, p. 211.
+
+=Studies of Individual Colonies.=--Review of outstanding events in
+history of each colony, using Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+55-159, as the basis.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--John Smith, John Winthrop, William Penn, Lord
+Baltimore, William Bradford, Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, Thomas
+Hooker, and Peter Stuyvesant, using any good encyclopedia.
+
+=Indentured Servitude.=--In Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. 69-72;
+in Pennsylvania, pp. 242-244. Contemporary account in Callender,
+_Economic History of the United States_, pp. 44-51. Special reference:
+Karl Geiser, _Redemptioners and Indentured Servants_ (Yale Review, X,
+No. 2 Supplement).
+
+=Slavery.=--In Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. 67-69; in the
+Northern colonies, pp. 241, 275, 322, 408, 442.
+
+=The People of the Colonies.=--Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp.
+67-73; New England, pp. 406-409, 441-450; Pennsylvania, pp. 227-229,
+240-250; New York, pp. 312-313, 322-335.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+COLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE
+
+THE LAND AND THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT
+
+
+=The Significance of Land Tenure.=--The way in which land may be
+acquired, held, divided among heirs, and bought and sold exercises a
+deep influence on the life and culture of a people. The feudal and
+aristocratic societies of Europe were founded on a system of landlordism
+which was characterized by two distinct features. In the first place,
+the land was nearly all held in great estates, each owned by a single
+proprietor. In the second place, every estate was kept intact under the
+law of primogeniture, which at the death of a lord transferred all his
+landed property to his eldest son. This prevented the subdivision of
+estates and the growth of a large body of small farmers or freeholders
+owning their own land. It made a form of tenantry or servitude
+inevitable for the mass of those who labored on the land. It also
+enabled the landlords to maintain themselves in power as a governing
+class and kept the tenants and laborers subject to their economic and
+political control. If land tenure was so significant in Europe, it was
+equally important in the development of America, where practically all
+the first immigrants were forced by circumstances to derive their
+livelihood from the soil.
+
+=Experiments in Common Tillage.=--In the New World, with its broad
+extent of land awaiting the white man's plow, it was impossible to
+introduce in its entirety and over the whole area the system of lords
+and tenants that existed across the sea. So it happened that almost
+every kind of experiment in land tenure, from communism to feudalism,
+was tried. In the early days of the Jamestown colony, the land, though
+owned by the London Company, was tilled in common by the settlers. No
+man had a separate plot of his own. The motto of the community was:
+"Labor and share alike." All were supposed to work in the fields and
+receive an equal share of the produce. At Plymouth, the Pilgrims
+attempted a similar experiment, laying out the fields in common and
+distributing the joint produce of their labor with rough equality among
+the workers.
+
+In both colonies the communistic experiments were failures. Angry at the
+lazy men in Jamestown who idled their time away and yet expected regular
+meals, Captain John Smith issued a manifesto: "Everyone that gathereth
+not every day as much as I do, the next day shall be set beyond the
+river and forever banished from the fort and live there or starve." Even
+this terrible threat did not bring a change in production. Not until
+each man was given a plot of his own to till, not until each gathered
+the fruits of his own labor, did the colony prosper. In Plymouth, where
+the communal experiment lasted for five years, the results were similar
+to those in Virginia, and the system was given up for one of separate
+fields in which every person could "set corn for his own particular."
+Some other New England towns, refusing to profit by the experience of
+their Plymouth neighbor, also made excursions into common ownership and
+labor, only to abandon the idea and go in for individual ownership of
+the land. "By degrees it was seen that even the Lord's people could not
+carry the complicated communist legislation into perfect and wholesome
+practice."
+
+=Feudal Elements in the Colonies--Quit Rents, Manors, and
+Plantations.=--At the other end of the scale were the feudal elements of
+land tenure found in the proprietary colonies, in the seaboard regions
+of the South, and to some extent in New York. The proprietor was in fact
+a powerful feudal lord, owning land granted to him by royal charter. He
+could retain any part of it for his personal use or dispose of it all in
+large or small lots. While he generally kept for himself an estate of
+baronial proportions, it was impossible for him to manage directly any
+considerable part of the land in his dominion. Consequently he either
+sold it in parcels for lump sums or granted it to individuals on
+condition that they make to him an annual payment in money, known as
+"quit rent." In Maryland, the proprietor sometimes collected as high as
+£9000 (equal to about $500,000 to-day) in a single year from this
+source. In Pennsylvania, the quit rents brought a handsome annual
+tribute into the exchequer of the Penn family. In the royal provinces,
+the king of England claimed all revenues collected in this form from the
+land, a sum amounting to £19,000 at the time of the Revolution. The quit
+rent,--"really a feudal payment from freeholders,"--was thus a material
+source of income for the crown as well as for the proprietors. Wherever
+it was laid, however, it proved to be a burden, a source of constant
+irritation; and it became a formidable item in the long list of
+grievances which led to the American Revolution.
+
+Something still more like the feudal system of the Old World appeared in
+the numerous manors or the huge landed estates granted by the crown, the
+companies, or the proprietors. In the colony of Maryland alone there
+were sixty manors of three thousand acres each, owned by wealthy men and
+tilled by tenants holding small plots under certain restrictions of
+tenure. In New York also there were many manors of wide extent, most of
+which originated in the days of the Dutch West India Company, when
+extensive concessions were made to patroons to induce them to bring over
+settlers. The Van Rensselaer, the Van Cortlandt, and the Livingston
+manors were so large and populous that each was entitled to send a
+representative to the provincial legislature. The tenants on the New
+York manors were in somewhat the same position as serfs on old European
+estates. They were bound to pay the owner a rent in money and kind; they
+ground their grain at his mill; and they were subject to his judicial
+power because he held court and meted out justice, in some instances
+extending to capital punishment.
+
+The manors of New York or Maryland were, however, of slight consequence
+as compared with the vast plantations of the Southern seaboard--huge
+estates, far wider in expanse than many a European barony and tilled by
+slaves more servile than any feudal tenants. It must not be forgotten
+that this system of land tenure became the dominant feature of a large
+section and gave a decided bent to the economic and political life of
+America.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTHERN PLANTATION MANSION]
+
+=The Small Freehold.=--In the upland regions of the South, however, and
+throughout most of the North, the drift was against all forms of
+servitude and tenantry and in the direction of the freehold; that is,
+the small farm owned outright and tilled by the possessor and his
+family. This was favored by natural circumstances and the spirit of the
+immigrants. For one thing, the abundance of land and the scarcity of
+labor made it impossible for the companies, the proprietors, or the
+crown to develop over the whole continent a network of vast estates. In
+many sections, particularly in New England, the climate, the stony soil,
+the hills, and the narrow valleys conspired to keep the farms within a
+moderate compass. For another thing, the English, Scotch-Irish, and
+German peasants, even if they had been tenants in the Old World, did not
+propose to accept permanent dependency of any kind in the New. If they
+could not get freeholds, they would not settle at all; thus they forced
+proprietors and companies to bid for their enterprise by selling land in
+small lots. So it happened that the freehold of modest proportions
+became the cherished unit of American farmers. The people who tilled the
+farms were drawn from every quarter of western Europe; but the freehold
+system gave a uniform cast to their economic and social life in America.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+A NEW ENGLAND FARMHOUSE]
+
+=Social Effects of Land Tenure.=--Land tenure and the process of western
+settlement thus developed two distinct types of people engaged in the
+same pursuit--agriculture. They had a common tie in that they both
+cultivated the soil and possessed the local interest and independence
+which arise from that occupation. Their methods and their culture,
+however, differed widely.
+
+The Southern planter, on his broad acres tilled by slaves, resembled the
+English landlord on his estates more than he did the colonial farmer who
+labored with his own hands in the fields and forests. He sold his rice
+and tobacco in large amounts directly to English factors, who took his
+entire crop in exchange for goods and cash. His fine clothes,
+silverware, china, and cutlery he bought in English markets. Loving the
+ripe old culture of the mother country, he often sent his sons to Oxford
+or Cambridge for their education. In short, he depended very largely for
+his prosperity and his enjoyment of life upon close relations with the
+Old World. He did not even need market towns in which to buy native
+goods, for they were made on his own plantation by his own artisans who
+were usually gifted slaves.
+
+The economic condition of the small farmer was totally different. His
+crops were not big enough to warrant direct connection with English
+factors or the personal maintenance of a corps of artisans. He needed
+local markets, and they sprang up to meet the need. Smiths, hatters,
+weavers, wagon-makers, and potters at neighboring towns supplied him
+with the rough products of their native skill. The finer goods, bought
+by the rich planter in England, the small farmer ordinarily could not
+buy. His wants were restricted to staples like tea and sugar, and
+between him and the European market stood the merchant. His community
+was therefore more self-sufficient than the seaboard line of great
+plantations. It was more isolated, more provincial, more independent,
+more American. The planter faced the Old East. The farmer faced the New
+West.
+
+=The Westward Movement.=--Yeoman and planter nevertheless were alike in
+one respect. Their land hunger was never appeased. Each had the eye of
+an expert for new and fertile soil; and so, north and south, as soon as
+a foothold was secured on the Atlantic coast, the current of migration
+set in westward, creeping through forests, across rivers, and over
+mountains. Many of the later immigrants, in their search for cheap
+lands, were compelled to go to the border; but in a large part the path
+breakers to the West were native Americans of the second and third
+generations. Explorers, fired by curiosity and the lure of the
+mysterious unknown, and hunters, fur traders, and squatters, following
+their own sweet wills, blazed the trail, opening paths and sending back
+stories of the new regions they traversed. Then came the regular
+settlers with lawful titles to the lands they had purchased, sometimes
+singly and sometimes in companies.
+
+In Massachusetts, the westward movement is recorded in the founding of
+Springfield in 1636 and Great Barrington in 1725. By the opening of the
+eighteenth century the pioneers of Connecticut had pushed north and west
+until their outpost towns adjoined the Hudson Valley settlements. In New
+York, the inland movement was directed by the Hudson River to Albany,
+and from that old Dutch center it radiated in every direction,
+particularly westward through the Mohawk Valley. New Jersey was early
+filled to its borders, the beginnings of the present city of New
+Brunswick being made in 1681 and those of Trenton in 1685. In
+Pennsylvania, as in New York, the waterways determined the main lines of
+advance. Pioneers, pushing up through the valley of the Schuylkill,
+spread over the fertile lands of Berks and Lancaster counties, laying
+out Reading in 1748. Another current of migration was directed by the
+Susquehanna, and, in 1726, the first farmhouse was built on the bank
+where Harrisburg was later founded. Along the southern tier of counties
+a thin line of settlements stretched westward to Pittsburgh, reaching
+the upper waters of the Ohio while the colony was still under the Penn
+family.
+
+In the South the westward march was equally swift. The seaboard was
+quickly occupied by large planters and their slaves engaged in the
+cultivation of tobacco and rice. The Piedmont Plateau, lying back from
+the coast all the way from Maryland to Georgia, was fed by two streams
+of migration, one westward from the sea and the other southward from the
+other colonies--Germans from Pennsylvania and Scotch-Irish furnishing
+the main supply. "By 1770, tide-water Virginia was full to overflowing
+and the 'back country' of the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah was fully
+occupied. Even the mountain valleys ... were claimed by sturdy pioneers.
+Before the Declaration of Independence, the oncoming tide of
+home-seekers had reached the crest of the Alleghanies."
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1790]
+
+Beyond the mountains pioneers had already ventured, harbingers of an
+invasion that was about to break in upon Kentucky and Tennessee. As
+early as 1769 that mighty Nimrod, Daniel Boone, curious to hunt
+buffaloes, of which he had heard weird reports, passed through the
+Cumberland Gap and brought back news of a wonderful country awaiting the
+plow. A hint was sufficient. Singly, in pairs, and in groups, settlers
+followed the trail he had blazed. A great land corporation, the
+Transylvania Company, emulating the merchant adventurers of earlier
+times, secured a huge grant of territory and sought profits in quit
+rents from lands sold to farmers. By the outbreak of the Revolution
+there were several hundred people in the Kentucky region. Like the older
+colonists, they did not relish quit rents, and their opposition wrecked
+the Transylvania Company. They even carried their protests into the
+Continental Congress in 1776, for by that time they were our "embryo
+fourteenth colony."
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+Though the labor of the colonists was mainly spent in farming, there was
+a steady growth in industrial and commercial pursuits. Most of the
+staple industries of to-day, not omitting iron and textiles, have their
+beginnings in colonial times. Manufacturing and trade soon gave rise to
+towns which enjoyed an importance all out of proportion to their
+numbers. The great centers of commerce and finance on the seaboard
+originated in the days when the king of England was "lord of these
+dominions."
+
+[Illustration: DOMESTIC INDUSTRY: DIPPING TALLOW CANDLES]
+
+=Textile Manufacture as a Domestic Industry.=--Colonial women, in
+addition to sharing every hardship of pioneering, often the heavy labor
+of the open field, developed in the course of time a national industry
+which was almost exclusively their own. Wool and flax were raised in
+abundance in the North and South. "Every farm house," says Coman, the
+economic historian, "was a workshop where the women spun and wove the
+serges, kerseys, and linsey-woolseys which served for the common wear."
+By the close of the seventeenth century, New England manufactured cloth
+in sufficient quantities to export it to the Southern colonies and to
+the West Indies. As the industry developed, mills were erected for the
+more difficult process of dyeing, weaving, and fulling, but carding and
+spinning continued to be done in the home. The Dutch of New Netherland,
+the Swedes of Delaware, and the Scotch-Irish of the interior "were not
+one whit behind their Yankee neighbors."
+
+The importance of this enterprise to British economic life can hardly be
+overestimated. For many a century the English had employed their fine
+woolen cloth as the chief staple in a lucrative foreign trade, and the
+government had come to look upon it as an object of special interest and
+protection. When the colonies were established, both merchants and
+statesmen naturally expected to maintain a monopoly of increasing value;
+but before long the Americans, instead of buying cloth, especially of
+the coarser varieties, were making it to sell. In the place of
+customers, here were rivals. In the place of helpless reliance upon
+English markets, here was the germ of economic independence.
+
+If British merchants had not discovered it in the ordinary course of
+trade, observant officers in the provinces would have conveyed the news
+to them. Even in the early years of the eighteenth century the royal
+governor of New York wrote of the industrious Americans to his home
+government: "The consequence will be that if they can clothe themselves
+once, not only comfortably, but handsomely too, without the help of
+England, they who already are not very fond of submitting to government
+will soon think of putting in execution designs they have long harboured
+in their breasts. This will not seem strange when you consider what sort
+of people this country is inhabited by."
+
+=The Iron Industry.=--Almost equally widespread was the art of iron
+working--one of the earliest and most picturesque of colonial
+industries. Lynn, Massachusetts, had a forge and skilled artisans within
+fifteen years after the founding of Boston. The smelting of iron began
+at New London and New Haven about 1658; in Litchfield county,
+Connecticut, a few years later; at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in
+1731; and near by at Lenox some thirty years after that. New Jersey had
+iron works at Shrewsbury within ten years after the founding of the
+colony in 1665. Iron forges appeared in the valleys of the Delaware and
+the Susquehanna early in the following century, and iron masters then
+laid the foundations of fortunes in a region destined to become one of
+the great iron centers of the world. Virginia began iron working in the
+year that saw the introduction of slavery. Although the industry soon
+lapsed, it was renewed and flourished in the eighteenth century.
+Governor Spotswood was called the "Tubal Cain" of the Old Dominion
+because he placed the industry on a firm foundation. Indeed it seems
+that every colony, except Georgia, had its iron foundry. Nails, wire,
+metallic ware, chains, anchors, bar and pig iron were made in large
+quantities; and Great Britain, by an act in 1750, encouraged the
+colonists to export rough iron to the British Islands.
+
+=Shipbuilding.=--Of all the specialized industries in the colonies,
+shipbuilding was the most important. The abundance of fir for masts, oak
+for timbers and boards, pitch for tar and turpentine, and hemp for rope
+made the way of the shipbuilder easy. Early in the seventeenth century a
+ship was built at New Amsterdam, and by the middle of that century
+shipyards were scattered along the New England coast at Newburyport,
+Salem, New Bedford, Newport, Providence, New London, and New Haven.
+Yards at Albany and Poughkeepsie in New York built ships for the trade
+of that colony with England and the Indies. Wilmington and Philadelphia
+soon entered the race and outdistanced New York, though unable to equal
+the pace set by New England. While Maryland, Virginia, and South
+Carolina also built ships, Southern interest was mainly confined to the
+lucrative business of producing ship materials: fir, cedar, hemp, and
+tar.
+
+=Fishing.=--The greatest single economic resource of New England outside
+of agriculture was the fisheries. This industry, started by hardy
+sailors from Europe, long before the landing of the Pilgrims, flourished
+under the indomitable seamanship of the Puritans, who labored with the
+net and the harpoon in almost every quarter of the Atlantic. "Look,"
+exclaimed Edmund Burke, in the House of Commons, "at the manner in
+which the people of New England have of late carried on the whale
+fishery. Whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice and
+behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay
+and Davis's Straits, while we are looking for them beneath the arctic
+circle, we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar
+cold, that they are at the antipodes and engaged under the frozen
+serpent of the south.... Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging
+to them than the accumulated winter of both poles. We know that, whilst
+some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of
+Africa, others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game along
+the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed by their fisheries. No
+climate that is not witness to their toils. Neither the perseverance of
+Holland nor the activity of France nor the dexterous and firm sagacity
+of English enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of hard
+industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by this recent
+people."
+
+The influence of the business was widespread. A large and lucrative
+European trade was built upon it. The better quality of the fish caught
+for food was sold in the markets of Spain, Portugal, and Italy, or
+exchanged for salt, lemons, and raisins for the American market. The
+lower grades of fish were carried to the West Indies for slave
+consumption, and in part traded for sugar and molasses, which furnished
+the raw materials for the thriving rum industry of New England. These
+activities, in turn, stimulated shipbuilding, steadily enlarging the
+demand for fishing and merchant craft of every kind and thus keeping the
+shipwrights, calkers, rope makers, and other artisans of the seaport
+towns rushed with work. They also increased trade with the mother
+country for, out of the cash collected in the fish markets of Europe and
+the West Indies, the colonists paid for English manufactures. So an
+ever-widening circle of American enterprise centered around this single
+industry, the nursery of seamanship and the maritime spirit.
+
+=Oceanic Commerce and American Merchants.=--All through the eighteenth
+century, the commerce of the American colonies spread in every direction
+until it rivaled in the number of people employed, the capital engaged,
+and the profits gleaned, the commerce of European nations. A modern
+historian has said: "The enterprising merchants of New England developed
+a network of trade routes that covered well-nigh half the world." This
+commerce, destined to be of such significance in the conflict with the
+mother country, presented, broadly speaking, two aspects.
+
+On the one side, it involved the export of raw materials and
+agricultural produce. The Southern colonies produced for shipping,
+tobacco, rice, tar, pitch, and pine; the Middle colonies, grain, flour,
+furs, lumber, and salt pork; New England, fish, flour, rum, furs, shoes,
+and small articles of manufacture. The variety of products was in fact
+astounding. A sarcastic writer, while sneering at the idea of an
+American union, once remarked of colonial trade: "What sort of dish will
+you make? New England will throw in fish and onions. The middle states,
+flax-seed and flour. Maryland and Virginia will add tobacco. North
+Carolina, pitch, tar, and turpentine. South Carolina, rice and indigo,
+and Georgia will sprinkle the whole composition with sawdust. Such an
+absurd jumble will you make if you attempt to form a union among such
+discordant materials as the thirteen British provinces."
+
+On the other side, American commerce involved the import trade,
+consisting principally of English and continental manufactures, tea, and
+"India goods." Sugar and molasses, brought from the West Indies,
+supplied the flourishing distilleries of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
+and Connecticut. The carriage of slaves from Africa to the Southern
+colonies engaged hundreds of New England's sailors and thousands of
+pounds of her capital.
+
+The disposition of imported goods in the colonies, though in part
+controlled by English factors located in America, employed also a large
+and important body of American merchants like the Willings and Morrises
+of Philadelphia; the Amorys, Hancocks, and Faneuils of Boston; and the
+Livingstons and Lows of New York. In their zeal and enterprise, they
+were worthy rivals of their English competitors, so celebrated for
+world-wide commercial operations. Though fully aware of the advantages
+they enjoyed in British markets and under the protection of the British
+navy, the American merchants were high-spirited and mettlesome, ready to
+contend with royal officers in order to shield American interests
+against outside interference.
+
+[Illustration: THE DUTCH WEST INDIA WAREHOUSE IN NEW AMSTERDAM
+(NEW YORK CITY)]
+
+Measured against the immense business of modern times, colonial commerce
+seems perhaps trivial. That, however, is not the test of its
+significance. It must be considered in relation to the growth of English
+colonial trade in its entirety--a relation which can be shown by a few
+startling figures. The whole export trade of England, including that to
+the colonies, was, in 1704, £6,509,000. On the eve of the American
+Revolution, namely, in 1772, English exports to the American colonies
+alone amounted to £6,024,000; in other words, almost as much as the
+whole foreign business of England two generations before. At the first
+date, colonial trade was but one-twelfth of the English export business;
+at the second date, it was considerably more than one-third. In 1704,
+Pennsylvania bought in English markets goods to the value of £11,459; in
+1772 the purchases of the same colony amounted to £507,909. In short,
+Pennsylvania imports increased fifty times within sixty-eight years,
+amounting in 1772 to almost the entire export trade of England to the
+colonies at the opening of the century. The American colonies were
+indeed a great source of wealth to English merchants.
+
+=Intercolonial Commerce.=--Although the bad roads of colonial times made
+overland transportation difficult and costly, the many rivers and
+harbors along the coast favored a lively water-borne trade among the
+colonies. The Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna rivers in
+the North and the many smaller rivers in the South made it possible for
+goods to be brought from, and carried to, the interior regions in little
+sailing vessels with comparative ease. Sloops laden with manufactures,
+domestic and foreign, collected at some city like Providence, New York,
+or Philadelphia, skirted the coasts, visited small ports, and sailed up
+the navigable rivers to trade with local merchants who had for exchange
+the raw materials which they had gathered in from neighboring farms.
+Larger ships carried the grain, live stock, cloth, and hardware of New
+England to the Southern colonies, where they were traded for tobacco,
+leather, tar, and ship timber. From the harbors along the Connecticut
+shores there were frequent sailings down through Long Island Sound to
+Maryland, Virginia, and the distant Carolinas.
+
+=Growth of Towns.=--In connection with this thriving trade and industry
+there grew up along the coast a number of prosperous commercial centers
+which were soon reckoned among the first commercial towns of the whole
+British empire, comparing favorably in numbers and wealth with such
+ports as Liverpool and Bristol. The statistical records of that time are
+mainly guesses; but we know that Philadelphia stood first in size among
+these towns. Serving as the port of entry for Pennsylvania, Delaware,
+and western Jersey, it had drawn within its borders, just before the
+Revolution, about 25,000 inhabitants. Boston was second in rank, with
+somewhat more than 20,000 people. New York, the "commercial capital of
+Connecticut and old East Jersey," was slightly smaller than Boston, but
+growing at a steady rate. The fourth town in size was Charleston, South
+Carolina, with about 10,000 inhabitants. Newport in Rhode Island, a
+center of rum manufacture and shipping, stood fifth, with a population
+of about 7000. Baltimore and Norfolk were counted as "considerable
+towns." In the interior, Hartford in Connecticut, Lancaster and York in
+Pennsylvania, and Albany in New York, with growing populations and
+increasing trade, gave prophecy of an urban America away from the
+seaboard. The other towns were straggling villages. Williamsburg,
+Virginia, for example, had about two hundred houses, in which dwelt a
+dozen families of the gentry and a few score of tradesmen. Inland county
+seats often consisted of nothing more than a log courthouse, a prison,
+and one wretched inn to house judges, lawyers, and litigants during the
+sessions of the court.
+
+The leading towns exercised an influence on colonial opinion all out of
+proportion to their population. They were the centers of wealth, for one
+thing; of the press and political activity, for another. Merchants and
+artisans could readily take concerted action on public questions arising
+from their commercial operations. The towns were also centers for news,
+gossip, religious controversy, and political discussion. In the market
+places the farmers from the countryside learned of British policies and
+laws, and so, mingling with the townsmen, were drawn into the main
+currents of opinion which set in toward colonial nationalism and
+independence.
+
+
+=References=
+
+J. Bishop, _History of American Manufactures_ (2 vols.).
+
+E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_.
+
+P.A. Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_ (2 vols.).
+
+E. Semple, _American History and Its Geographical Conditions_.
+
+W. Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_. (2 vols.).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Is land in your community parceled out into small farms? Contrast the
+system in your community with the feudal system of land tenure.
+
+2. Are any things owned and used in common in your community? Why did
+common tillage fail in colonial times?
+
+3. Describe the elements akin to feudalism which were introduced in the
+colonies.
+
+4. Explain the success of freehold tillage.
+
+5. Compare the life of the planter with that of the farmer.
+
+6. How far had the western frontier advanced by 1776?
+
+7. What colonial industry was mainly developed by women? Why was it very
+important both to the Americans and to the English?
+
+8. What were the centers for iron working? Ship building?
+
+9. Explain how the fisheries affected many branches of trade and
+industry.
+
+10. Show how American trade formed a vital part of English business.
+
+11. How was interstate commerce mainly carried on?
+
+12. What were the leading towns? Did they compare in importance with
+British towns of the same period?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Land Tenure.=--Coman, _Industrial History_ (rev. ed.), pp. 32-38.
+Special reference: Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_, Vol. I, Chap.
+VIII.
+
+=Tobacco Planting in Virginia.=--Callender, _Economic History of the
+United States_, pp. 22-28.
+
+=Colonial Agriculture.=--Coman, pp. 48-63. Callender, pp. 69-74.
+Reference: J.R.H. Moore, _Industrial History of the American People_,
+pp. 131-162.
+
+=Colonial Manufactures.=--Coman, pp. 63-73. Callender, pp. 29-44.
+Special reference: Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_.
+
+=Colonial Commerce.=--Coman, pp. 73-85. Callender, pp. 51-63, 78-84.
+Moore, pp. 163-208. Lodge, _Short History of the English Colonies_, pp.
+409-412, 229-231, 312-314.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS
+
+
+Colonial life, crowded as it was with hard and unremitting toil, left
+scant leisure for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. There was
+little money in private purses or public treasuries to be dedicated to
+schools, libraries, and museums. Few there were with time to read long
+and widely, and fewer still who could devote their lives to things that
+delight the eye and the mind. And yet, poor and meager as the
+intellectual life of the colonists may seem by way of comparison, heroic
+efforts were made in every community to lift the people above the plane
+of mere existence. After the first clearings were opened in the forests
+those efforts were redoubled, and with lengthening years told upon the
+thought and spirit of the land. The appearance, during the struggle with
+England, of an extraordinary group of leaders familiar with history,
+political philosophy, and the arts of war, government, and diplomacy
+itself bore eloquent testimony to the high quality of the American
+intellect. No one, not even the most critical, can run through the
+writings of distinguished Americans scattered from Massachusetts to
+Georgia--the Adamses, Ellsworth, the Morrises, the Livingstons,
+Hamilton, Franklin, Washington, Madison, Marshall, Henry, the Randolphs,
+and the Pinckneys--without coming to the conclusion that there was
+something in American colonial life which fostered minds of depth and
+power. Women surmounted even greater difficulties than the men in the
+process of self-education, and their keen interest in public issues is
+evident in many a record like the _Letters_ of Mrs. John Adams to her
+husband during the Revolution; the writings of Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren,
+the sister of James Otis, who measured her pen with the British
+propagandists; and the patriot newspapers founded and managed by women.
+
+
+THE LEADERSHIP OF THE CHURCHES
+
+In the intellectual life of America, the churches assumed a rôle of high
+importance. There were abundant reasons for this. In many of the
+colonies--Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New England--the religious impulse
+had been one of the impelling motives in stimulating immigration. In all
+the colonies, the clergy, at least in the beginning, formed the only
+class with any leisure to devote to matters of the spirit. They preached
+on Sundays and taught school on week days. They led in the discussion of
+local problems and in the formation of political opinion, so much of
+which was concerned with the relation between church and state. They
+wrote books and pamphlets. They filled most of the chairs in the
+colleges; under clerical guidance, intellectual and spiritual, the
+Americans received their formal education. In several of the provinces
+the Anglican Church was established by law. In New England the Puritans
+were supreme, notwithstanding the efforts of the crown to overbear their
+authority. In the Middle colonies, particularly, the multiplication of
+sects made the dominance of any single denomination impossible; and in
+all of them there was a growing diversity of faith, which promised in
+time a separation of church and state and freedom of opinion.
+
+=The Church of England.=--Virginia was the stronghold of the English
+system of church and state. The Anglican faith and worship were
+prescribed by law, sustained by taxes imposed on all, and favored by the
+governor, the provincial councilors, and the richest planters. "The
+Established Church," says Lodge, "was one of the appendages of the
+Virginia aristocracy. They controlled the vestries and the ministers,
+and the parish church stood not infrequently on the estate of the
+planter who built and managed it." As in England, Catholics and
+Protestant Dissenters were at first laid under heavy disabilities. Only
+slowly and on sufferance were they admitted to the province; but when
+once they were even covertly tolerated, they pressed steadily in, until,
+by the Revolution, they outnumbered the adherents of the established
+order.
+
+The Church was also sanctioned by law and supported by taxes in the
+Carolinas after 1704, and in Georgia after that colony passed directly
+under the crown in 1754--this in spite of the fact that the majority of
+the inhabitants were Dissenters. Against the protests of the Catholics
+it was likewise established in Maryland. In New York, too,
+notwithstanding the resistance of the Dutch, the Established Church was
+fostered by the provincial officials, and the Anglicans, embracing about
+one-fifteenth of the population, exerted an influence all out of
+proportion to their numbers.
+
+Many factors helped to enhance the power of the English Church in the
+colonies. It was supported by the British government and the official
+class sent out to the provinces. Its bishops and archbishops in England
+were appointed by the king, and its faith and service were set forth by
+acts of Parliament. Having its seat of power in the English monarchy, it
+could hold its clergy and missionaries loyal to the crown and so
+counteract to some extent the independent spirit that was growing up in
+America. The Church, always a strong bulwark of the state, therefore had
+a political rôle to play here as in England. Able bishops and far-seeing
+leaders firmly grasped this fact about the middle of the eighteenth
+century and redoubled their efforts to augment the influence of the
+Church in provincial affairs. Unhappily for their plans they failed to
+calculate in advance the effect of their methods upon dissenting
+Protestants, who still cherished memories of bitter religious conflicts
+in the mother country.
+
+=Puritanism in New England.=--If the established faith made for imperial
+unity, the same could not be said of Puritanism. The Plymouth Pilgrims
+had cast off all allegiance to the Anglican Church and established a
+separate and independent congregation before they came to America. The
+Puritans, essaying at first the task of reformers within the Church,
+soon after their arrival in Massachusetts, likewise flung off their yoke
+of union with the Anglicans. In each town a separate congregation was
+organized, the male members choosing the pastor, the teachers, and the
+other officers. They also composed the voters in the town meeting, where
+secular matters were determined. The union of church and government was
+thus complete, and uniformity of faith and life prescribed by law and
+enforced by civil authorities; but this worked for local autonomy
+instead of imperial unity.
+
+The clergy became a powerful class, dominant through their learning and
+their fearful denunciations of the faithless. They wrote the books for
+the people to read--the famous Cotton Mather having three hundred and
+eighty-three books and pamphlets to his credit. In coöperation with the
+civil officers they enforced a strict observance of the Puritan
+Sabbath--a day of rest that began at six o'clock on Saturday evening and
+lasted until sunset on Sunday. All work, all trading, all amusement, and
+all worldly conversation were absolutely prohibited during those hours.
+A thoughtless maid servant who for some earthly reason smiled in church
+was in danger of being banished as a vagabond. Robert Pike, a devout
+Puritan, thinking the sun had gone to rest, ventured forth on horseback
+one Sunday evening and was luckless enough to have a ray of light strike
+him through a rift in the clouds. The next day he was brought into court
+and fined for "his ungodly conduct." With persons accused of witchcraft
+the Puritans were still more ruthless. When a mania of persecution swept
+over Massachusetts in 1692, eighteen people were hanged, one was pressed
+to death, many suffered imprisonment, and two died in jail.
+
+Just about this time, however, there came a break in the uniformity of
+Puritan rule. The crown and church in England had long looked upon it
+with disfavor, and in 1684 King Charles II annulled the old charter of
+the Massachusetts Bay Company. A new document issued seven years later
+wrested from the Puritans of the colony the right to elect their own
+governor and reserved the power of appointment to the king. It also
+abolished the rule limiting the suffrage to church members, substituting
+for it a simple property qualification. Thus a royal governor and an
+official family, certain to be Episcopalian in faith and monarchist in
+sympathies, were forced upon Massachusetts; and members of all religious
+denominations, if they had the required amount of property, were
+permitted to take part in elections. By this act in the name of the
+crown, the Puritan monopoly was broken down in Massachusetts, and that
+province was brought into line with Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New
+Hampshire, where property, not religious faith, was the test for the
+suffrage.
+
+=Growth of Religious Toleration.=--Though neither the Anglicans of
+Virginia nor the Puritans of Massachusetts believed in toleration for
+other denominations, that principle was strictly applied in Rhode
+Island. There, under the leadership of Roger Williams, liberty in
+matters of conscience was established in the beginning. Maryland, by
+granting in 1649 freedom to those who professed to believe in Jesus
+Christ, opened its gates to all Christians; and Pennsylvania, true to
+the tenets of the Friends, gave freedom of conscience to those "who
+confess and acknowledge the one Almighty and Eternal God to be the
+creator, upholder, and ruler of the World." By one circumstance or
+another, the Middle colonies were thus early characterized by diversity
+rather than uniformity of opinion. Dutch Protestants, Huguenots,
+Quakers, Baptists, Presbyterians, New Lights, Moravians, Lutherans,
+Catholics, and other denominations became too strongly intrenched and
+too widely scattered to permit any one of them to rule, if it had
+desired to do so. There were communities and indeed whole sections where
+one or another church prevailed, but in no colony was a legislature
+steadily controlled by a single group. Toleration encouraged diversity,
+and diversity, in turn, worked for greater toleration.
+
+The government and faith of the dissenting denominations conspired with
+economic and political tendencies to draw America away from the English
+state. Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and Puritans had no hierarchy
+of bishops and archbishops to bind them to the seat of power in London.
+Neither did they look to that metropolis for guidance in interpreting
+articles of faith. Local self-government in matters ecclesiastical
+helped to train them for local self-government in matters political. The
+spirit of independence which led Dissenters to revolt in the Old World,
+nourished as it was amid favorable circumstances in the New World, made
+them all the more zealous in the defense of every right against
+authority imposed from without.
+
+
+SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
+
+=Religion and Local Schools.=--One of the first cares of each Protestant
+denomination was the education of the children in the faith. In this
+work the Bible became the center of interest. The English version was
+indeed the one book of the people. Farmers, shopkeepers, and artisans,
+whose life had once been bounded by the daily routine of labor, found in
+the Scriptures not only an inspiration to religious conduct, but also a
+book of romance, travel, and history. "Legend and annal," says John
+Richard Green, "war-song and psalm, state-roll and biography, the mighty
+voices of prophets, the parables of Evangelists, stories of mission
+journeys, of perils by sea and among the heathen, philosophic arguments,
+apocalyptic visions, all were flung broadcast over minds unoccupied for
+the most part by any rival learning.... As a mere literary monument, the
+English version of the Bible remains the noblest example of the English
+tongue." It was the King James version just from the press that the
+Pilgrims brought across the sea with them.
+
+For the authority of the Established Church was substituted the
+authority of the Scriptures. The Puritans devised a catechism based upon
+their interpretation of the Bible, and, very soon after their arrival in
+America, they ordered all parents and masters of servants to be diligent
+in seeing that their children and wards were taught to read religious
+works and give answers to the religious questions. Massachusetts was
+scarcely twenty years old before education of this character was
+declared to be compulsory, and provision was made for public schools
+where those not taught at home could receive instruction in reading and
+writing.
+
+[Illustration: A PAGE FROM A FAMOUS SCHOOLBOOK
+
+
+     A In ADAM'S Fall
+       We sinned all.
+
+     B Heaven to find,
+       The Bible Mind.
+
+     C Christ crucify'd
+       For sinners dy'd.
+
+     D The Deluge drown'd
+       The Earth around.
+
+     E ELIJAH hid
+       by Ravens fed.
+
+     F The judgment made
+       FELIX afraid.]
+
+
+
+Outside of New England the idea of compulsory education was not regarded
+with the same favor; but the whole land was nevertheless dotted with
+little schools kept by "dames, itinerant teachers, or local parsons."
+Whether we turn to the life of Franklin in the North or Washington in
+the South, we read of tiny schoolhouses, where boys, and sometimes
+girls, were taught to read and write. Where there were no schools,
+fathers and mothers of the better kind gave their children the rudiments
+of learning. Though illiteracy was widespread, there is evidence to show
+that the diffusion of knowledge among the masses was making steady
+progress all through the eighteenth century.
+
+=Religion and Higher Learning.=--Religious motives entered into the
+establishment of colleges as well as local schools. Harvard, founded in
+1636, and Yale, opened in 1718, were intended primarily to train
+"learned and godly ministers" for the Puritan churches of New England.
+To the far North, Dartmouth, chartered in 1769, was designed first as a
+mission to the Indians and then as a college for the sons of New England
+farmers preparing to preach, teach, or practice law. The College of New
+Jersey, organized in 1746 and removed to Princeton eleven years later,
+was sustained by the Presbyterians. Two colleges looked to the
+Established Church as their source of inspiration and support: William
+and Mary, founded in Virginia in 1693, and King's College, now Columbia
+University, chartered by King George II in 1754, on an appeal from the
+New York Anglicans, alarmed at the growth of religious dissent and the
+"republican tendencies" of the age. Two colleges revealed a drift away
+from sectarianism. Brown, established in Rhode Island in 1764, and the
+Philadelphia Academy, forerunner of the University of Pennsylvania,
+organized by Benjamin Franklin, reflected the spirit of toleration by
+giving representation on the board of trustees to several religious
+sects. It was Franklin's idea that his college should prepare young men
+to serve in public office as leaders of the people and ornaments to
+their country.
+
+=Self-education in America.=--Important as were these institutions of
+learning, higher education was by no means confined within their walls.
+Many well-to-do families sent their sons to Oxford or Cambridge in
+England. Private tutoring in the home was common. In still more families
+there were intelligent children who grew up in the great colonial school
+of adversity and who trained themselves until, in every contest of mind
+and wit, they could vie with the sons of Harvard or William and Mary or
+any other college. Such, for example, was Benjamin Franklin, whose
+charming autobiography, in addition to being an American classic, is a
+fine record of self-education. His formal training in the classroom was
+limited to a few years at a local school in Boston; but his
+self-education continued throughout his life. He early manifested a zeal
+for reading, and devoured, he tells us, his father's dry library on
+theology, Bunyan's works, Defoe's writings, Plutarch's _Lives_, Locke's
+_On the Human Understanding_, and innumerable volumes dealing with
+secular subjects. His literary style, perhaps the best of his time,
+Franklin acquired by the diligent and repeated analysis of the
+_Spectator_. In a life crowded with labors, he found time to read widely
+in natural science and to win single-handed recognition at the hands of
+European savants for his discoveries in electricity. By his own efforts
+he "attained an acquaintance" with Latin, Italian, French, and Spanish,
+thus unconsciously preparing himself for the day when he was to speak
+for all America at the court of the king of France.
+
+Lesser lights than Franklin, educated by the same process, were found
+all over colonial America. From this fruitful source of native ability,
+self-educated, the American cause drew great strength in the trials of
+the Revolution.
+
+
+THE COLONIAL PRESS
+
+=The Rise of the Newspaper.=--The evolution of American democracy into a
+government by public opinion, enlightened by the open discussion of
+political questions, was in no small measure aided by a free press. That
+too, like education, was a matter of slow growth. A printing press was
+brought to Massachusetts in 1639, but it was put in charge of an
+official censor and limited to the publication of religious works. Forty
+years elapsed before the first newspaper appeared, bearing the curious
+title, _Public Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestic_, and it had not
+been running very long before the government of Massachusetts suppressed
+it for discussing a political question.
+
+Publishing, indeed, seemed to be a precarious business; but in 1704
+there came a second venture in journalism, _The Boston News-Letter_,
+which proved to be a more lasting enterprise because it refrained from
+criticizing the authorities. Still the public interest languished. When
+Franklin's brother, James, began to issue his _New England Courant_
+about 1720, his friends sought to dissuade him, saying that one
+newspaper was enough for America. Nevertheless he continued it; and his
+confidence in the future was rewarded. In nearly every colony a gazette
+or chronicle appeared within the next thirty years or more. Benjamin
+Franklin was able to record in 1771 that America had twenty-five
+newspapers. Boston led with five. Philadelphia had three: two in English
+and one in German.
+
+=Censorship and Restraints on the Press.=--The idea of printing,
+unlicensed by the government and uncontrolled by the church, was,
+however, slow in taking form. The founders of the American colonies had
+never known what it was to have the free and open publication of books,
+pamphlets, broadsides, and newspapers. When the art of printing was
+first discovered, the control of publishing was vested in clerical
+authorities. After the establishment of the State Church in England in
+the reign of Elizabeth, censorship of the press became a part of royal
+prerogative. Printing was restricted to Oxford, Cambridge, and London;
+and no one could publish anything without previous approval of the
+official censor. When the Puritans were in power, the popular party,
+with a zeal which rivaled that of the crown, sought, in turn, to silence
+royalist and clerical writers by a vigorous censorship. After the
+restoration of the monarchy, control of the press was once more placed
+in royal hands, where it remained until 1695, when Parliament, by
+failing to renew the licensing act, did away entirely with the official
+censorship. By that time political parties were so powerful and so
+active and printing presses were so numerous that official review of all
+published matter became a sheer impossibility.
+
+In America, likewise, some troublesome questions arose in connection
+with freedom of the press. The Puritans of Massachusetts were no less
+anxious than King Charles or the Archbishop of London to shut out from
+the prying eyes of the people all literature "not mete for them to
+read"; and so they established a system of official licensing for
+presses, which lasted until 1755. In the other colonies where there was
+more diversity of opinion and publishers could set up in business with
+impunity, they were nevertheless constantly liable to arrest for
+printing anything displeasing to the colonial governments. In 1721 the
+editor of the _Mercury_ in Philadelphia was called before the
+proprietary council and ordered to apologize for a political article,
+and for a later offense of a similar character he was thrown into jail.
+A still more famous case was that of Peter Zenger, a New York publisher,
+who was arrested in 1735 for criticising the administration. Lawyers who
+ventured to defend the unlucky editor were deprived of their licenses to
+practice, and it became necessary to bring an attorney all the way from
+Philadelphia. By this time the tension of feeling was high, and the
+approbation of the public was forthcoming when the lawyer for the
+defense exclaimed to the jury that the very cause of liberty itself, not
+that of the poor printer, was on trial! The verdict for Zenger, when it
+finally came, was the signal for an outburst of popular rejoicing.
+Already the people of King George's province knew how precious a thing
+is the freedom of the press.
+
+Thanks to the schools, few and scattered as they were, and to the
+vigilance of parents, a very large portion, perhaps nearly one-half, of
+the colonists could read. Through the newspapers, pamphlets, and
+almanacs that streamed from the types, the people could follow the
+course of public events and grasp the significance of political
+arguments. An American opinion was in the process of making--an
+independent opinion nourished by the press and enriched by discussions
+around the fireside and at the taverns. When the day of resistance to
+British rule came, government by opinion was at hand. For every person
+who could hear the voice of Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, there were a
+thousand who could see their appeals on the printed page. Men who had
+spelled out their letters while poring over Franklin's _Poor Richard's
+Almanac_ lived to read Thomas Paine's thrilling call to arms.
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION IN POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
+
+Two very distinct lines of development appeared in colonial politics.
+The one, exalting royal rights and aristocratic privileges, was the
+drift toward provincial government through royal officers appointed in
+England. The other, leading toward democracy and self-government, was
+the growth in the power of the popular legislative assembly. Each
+movement gave impetus to the other, with increasing force during the
+passing years, until at last the final collision between the two ideals
+of government came in the war of independence.
+
+=The Royal Provinces.=--Of the thirteen English colonies eight were
+royal provinces in 1776, with governors appointed by the king. Virginia
+passed under the direct rule of the crown in 1624, when the charter of
+the London Company was annulled. The Massachusetts Bay corporation lost
+its charter in 1684, and the new instrument granted seven years later
+stripped the colonists of the right to choose their chief executive. In
+the early decades of the eighteenth century both the Carolinas were
+given the provincial instead of the proprietary form. New Hampshire,
+severed from Massachusetts in 1679, and Georgia, surrendered by the
+trustees in 1752, went into the hands of the crown. New York,
+transferred to the Duke of York on its capture from the Dutch in 1664,
+became a province when he took the title of James II in 1685. New
+Jersey, after remaining for nearly forty years under proprietors, was
+brought directly under the king in 1702. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
+Delaware, although they retained their proprietary character until the
+Revolution, were in some respects like the royal colonies, for their
+governors were as independent of popular choice as were the appointees
+of King George. Only two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut,
+retained full self-government on the eve of the Revolution. They alone
+had governors and legislatures entirely of their own choosing.
+
+The chief officer of the royal province was the governor, who enjoyed
+high and important powers which he naturally sought to augment at every
+turn. He enforced the laws and, usually with the consent of a council,
+appointed the civil and military officers. He granted pardons and
+reprieves; he was head of the highest court; he was commander-in-chief
+of the militia; he levied troops for defense and enforced martial law in
+time of invasion, war, and rebellion. In all the provinces, except
+Massachusetts, he named the councilors who composed the upper house of
+the legislature and was likely to choose those who favored his claims.
+He summoned, adjourned, and dissolved the popular assembly, or the lower
+house; he laid before it the projects of law desired by the crown; and
+he vetoed measures which he thought objectionable. Here were in America
+all the elements of royal prerogative against which Hampden had
+protested and Cromwell had battled in England.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROYAL GOVERNOR'S PALACE AT NEW BERNE]
+
+The colonial governors were generally surrounded by a body of
+office-seekers and hunters for land grants. Some of them were noblemen
+of broken estates who had come to America to improve their fortunes. The
+pretensions of this circle grated on colonial nerves, and privileges
+granted to them, often at the expense of colonists, did much to deepen
+popular antipathy to the British government. Favors extended to
+adherents of the Established Church displeased Dissenters. The
+reappearance of this formidable union of church and state, from which
+they had fled, stirred anew the ancient wrath against that combination.
+
+=The Colonial Assembly.=--Coincident with the drift toward
+administration through royal governors was the second and opposite
+tendency, namely, a steady growth in the practice of self-government.
+The voters of England had long been accustomed to share in taxation and
+law-making through representatives in Parliament, and the idea was early
+introduced in America. Virginia was only twelve years old (1619) when
+its first representative assembly appeared. As the towns of
+Massachusetts multiplied and it became impossible for all the members of
+the corporation to meet at one place, the representative idea was
+adopted, in 1633. The river towns of Connecticut formed a representative
+system under their "Fundamental Orders" of 1639, and the entire colony
+was given a royal charter in 1662. Generosity, as well as practical
+considerations, induced such proprietors as Lord Baltimore and William
+Penn to invite their colonists to share in the government as soon as any
+considerable settlements were made. Thus by one process or another every
+one of the colonies secured a popular assembly.
+
+It is true that in the provision for popular elections, the suffrage was
+finally restricted to property owners or taxpayers, with a leaning
+toward the freehold qualification. In Virginia, the rural voter had to
+be a freeholder owning at least fifty acres of land, if there was no
+house on it, or twenty-five acres with a house twenty-five feet square.
+In Massachusetts, the voter for member of the assembly under the charter
+of 1691 had to be a freeholder of an estate worth forty shillings a year
+at least or of other property to the value of forty pounds sterling. In
+Pennsylvania, the suffrage was granted to freeholders owning fifty acres
+or more of land well seated, twelve acres cleared, and to other persons
+worth at least fifty pounds in lawful money.
+
+Restrictions like these undoubtedly excluded from the suffrage a very
+considerable number of men, particularly the mechanics and artisans of
+the towns, who were by no means content with their position.
+Nevertheless, it was relatively easy for any man to acquire a small
+freehold, so cheap and abundant was land; and in fact a large proportion
+of the colonists were land owners. Thus the assemblies, in spite of the
+limited suffrage, acquired a democratic tone.
+
+The popular character of the assemblies increased as they became engaged
+in battles with the royal and proprietary governors. When called upon by
+the executive to make provision for the support of the administration,
+the legislature took advantage of the opportunity to make terms in the
+interest of the taxpayers. It made annual, not permanent, grants of
+money to pay official salaries and then insisted upon electing a
+treasurer to dole it out. Thus the colonists learned some of the
+mysteries of public finance, as well as the management of rapacious
+officials. The legislature also used its power over money grants to
+force the governor to sign bills which he would otherwise have vetoed.
+
+=Contests between Legislatures and Governors.=--As may be imagined, many
+and bitter were the contests between the royal and proprietary governors
+and the colonial assemblies. Franklin relates an amusing story of how
+the Pennsylvania assembly held in one hand a bill for the executive to
+sign and, in the other hand, the money to pay his salary. Then, with sly
+humor, Franklin adds: "Do not, my courteous reader, take pet at our
+proprietary constitution for these our bargain and sale proceedings in
+legislation. It is a happy country where justice and what was your own
+before can be had for ready money. It is another addition to the value
+of money and of course another spur to industry. Every land is not so
+blessed."
+
+It must not be thought, however, that every governor got off as easily
+as Franklin's tale implies. On the contrary, the legislatures, like
+Cæsar, fed upon meat that made them great and steadily encroached upon
+executive prerogatives as they tried out and found their strength. If
+we may believe contemporary laments, the power of the crown in America
+was diminishing when it was struck down altogether. In New York, the
+friends of the governor complained in 1747 that "the inhabitants of
+plantations are generally educated in republican principles; upon
+republican principles all is conducted. Little more than a shadow of
+royal authority remains in the Northern colonies." "Here," echoed the
+governor of South Carolina, the following year, "levelling principles
+prevail; the frame of the civil government is unhinged; a governor, if
+he would be idolized, must betray his trust; the people have got their
+whole administration in their hands; the election of the members of the
+assembly is by ballot; not civil posts only, but all ecclesiastical
+preferments, are in the disposal or election of the people."
+
+Though baffled by the "levelling principles" of the colonial assemblies,
+the governors did not give up the case as hopeless. Instead they evolved
+a system of policy and action which they thought could bring the
+obstinate provincials to terms. That system, traceable in their letters
+to the government in London, consisted of three parts: (1) the royal
+officers in the colonies were to be made independent of the legislatures
+by taxes imposed by acts of Parliament; (2) a British standing army was
+to be maintained in America; (3) the remaining colonial charters were to
+be revoked and government by direct royal authority was to be enlarged.
+
+Such a system seemed plausible enough to King George III and to many
+ministers of the crown in London. With governors, courts, and an army
+independent of the colonists, they imagined it would be easy to carry
+out both royal orders and acts of Parliament. This reasoning seemed both
+practical and logical. Nor was it founded on theory, for it came fresh
+from the governors themselves. It was wanting in one respect only. It
+failed to take account of the fact that the American people were growing
+strong in the practice of self-government and could dispense with the
+tutelage of the British ministry, no matter how excellent it might be or
+how benevolent its intentions.
+
+
+=References=
+
+A.M. Earle, _Home Life in Colonial Days_.
+
+A.L. Cross, _The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies_ (Harvard
+Studies).
+
+E.G. Dexter, _History of Education in the United States_.
+
+C.A. Duniway, _Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts_.
+
+Benjamin Franklin, _Autobiography_.
+
+E.B. Greene, _The Provincial Governor_ (Harvard Studies).
+
+A.E. McKinley, _The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English Colonies_
+(Pennsylvania University Studies).
+
+M.C. Tyler, _History of American Literature during the Colonial Times_
+(2 vols.).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Why is leisure necessary for the production of art and literature?
+How may leisure be secured?
+
+2. Explain the position of the church in colonial life.
+
+3. Contrast the political rôles of Puritanism and the Established
+Church.
+
+4. How did diversity of opinion work for toleration?
+
+5. Show the connection between religion and learning in colonial times.
+
+6. Why is a "free press" such an important thing to American democracy?
+
+7. Relate some of the troubles of early American publishers.
+
+8. Give the undemocratic features of provincial government.
+
+9. How did the colonial assemblies help to create an independent
+American spirit, in spite of a restricted suffrage?
+
+10. Explain the nature of the contests between the governors and the
+legislatures.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Religious and Intellectual Life.=--Lodge, _Short History of the English
+Colonies_: (1) in New England, pp. 418-438, 465-475; (2) in Virginia,
+pp. 54-61, 87-89; (3) in Pennsylvania, pp. 232-237, 253-257; (4) in New
+York, pp. 316-321. Interesting source materials in Hart, _American
+History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 255-275, 276-290.
+
+=The Government of a Royal Province, Virginia.=--Lodge, pp. 43-50.
+Special Reference: E.B. Greene, _The Provincial Governor_ (Harvard
+Studies).
+
+=The Government of a Proprietary Colony, Pennsylvania.=--Lodge, pp.
+230-232.
+
+=Government in New England.=--Lodge, pp. 412-417.
+
+=The Colonial Press.=--Special Reference: G.H. Payne, _History of
+Journalism in the United States_ (1920).
+
+=Colonial Life in General.=--John Fiske, _Old Virginia and Her
+Neighbors_, Vol. II, pp. 174-269; Elson, _History of the United States_,
+pp. 197-210.
+
+=Colonial Government in General.=--Elson, pp. 210-216.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM
+
+
+It is one of the well-known facts of history that a people loosely
+united by domestic ties of a political and economic nature, even a
+people torn by domestic strife, may be welded into a solid and compact
+body by an attack from a foreign power. The imperative call to common
+defense, the habit of sharing common burdens, the fusing force of common
+service--these things, induced by the necessity of resisting outside
+interference, act as an amalgam drawing together all elements, except,
+perhaps, the most discordant. The presence of the enemy allays the most
+virulent of quarrels, temporarily at least. "Politics," runs an old
+saying, "stops at the water's edge."
+
+This ancient political principle, so well understood in diplomatic
+circles, applied nearly as well to the original thirteen American
+colonies as to the countries of Europe. The necessity for common
+defense, if not equally great, was certainly always pressing. Though it
+has long been the practice to speak of the early settlements as founded
+in "a wilderness," this was not actually the case. From the earliest
+days of Jamestown on through the years, the American people were
+confronted by dangers from without. All about their tiny settlements
+were Indians, growing more and more hostile as the frontier advanced and
+as sharp conflicts over land aroused angry passions. To the south and
+west was the power of Spain, humiliated, it is true, by the disaster to
+the Armada, but still presenting an imposing front to the British
+empire. To the north and west were the French, ambitious, energetic,
+imperial in temper, and prepared to contest on land and water the
+advance of British dominion in America.
+
+
+RELATIONS WITH THE INDIANS AND THE FRENCH
+
+=Indian Affairs.=--It is difficult to make general statements about the
+relations of the colonists to the Indians. The problem was presented in
+different shape in different sections of America. It was not handled
+according to any coherent or uniform plan by the British government,
+which alone could speak for all the provinces at the same time. Neither
+did the proprietors and the governors who succeeded one another, in an
+irregular train, have the consistent policy or the matured experience
+necessary for dealing wisely with Indian matters. As the difficulties
+arose mainly on the frontiers, where the restless and pushing pioneers
+were making their way with gun and ax, nearly everything that happened
+was the result of chance rather than of calculation. A personal quarrel
+between traders and an Indian, a jug of whisky, a keg of gunpowder, the
+exchange of guns for furs, personal treachery, or a flash of bad temper
+often set in motion destructive forces of the most terrible character.
+
+On one side of the ledger may be set innumerable generous records--of
+Squanto and Samoset teaching the Pilgrims the ways of the wilds; of
+Roger Williams buying his lands from the friendly natives; or of William
+Penn treating with them on his arrival in America. On the other side of
+the ledger must be recorded many a cruel and bloody conflict as the
+frontier rolled westward with deadly precision. The Pequots on the
+Connecticut border, sensing their doom, fell upon the tiny settlements
+with awful fury in 1637 only to meet with equally terrible punishment. A
+generation later, King Philip, son of Massasoit, the friend of the
+Pilgrims, called his tribesmen to a war of extermination which brought
+the strength of all New England to the field and ended in his own
+destruction. In New York, the relations with the Indians, especially
+with the Algonquins and the Mohawks, were marked by periodic and
+desperate wars. Virginia and her Southern neighbors suffered as did New
+England. In 1622 Opecacano, a brother of Powhatan, the friend of the
+Jamestown settlers, launched a general massacre; and in 1644 he
+attempted a war of extermination. In 1675 the whole frontier was ablaze.
+Nathaniel Bacon vainly attempted to stir the colonial governor to put up
+an adequate defense and, failing in that plea, himself headed a revolt
+and a successful expedition against the Indians. As the Virginia
+outposts advanced into the Kentucky country, the strife with the natives
+was transferred to that "dark and bloody ground"; while to the
+southeast, a desperate struggle with the Tuscaroras called forth the
+combined forces of the two Carolinas and Virginia.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+VIRGINIANS DEFENDING THEMSELVES AGAINST THE INDIANS]
+
+From such horrors New Jersey and Delaware were saved on account of their
+geographical location. Pennsylvania, consistently following a policy of
+conciliation, was likewise spared until her western vanguard came into
+full conflict with the allied French and Indians. Georgia, by clever
+negotiations and treaties of alliance, managed to keep on fair terms
+with her belligerent Cherokees and Creeks. But neither diplomacy nor
+generosity could stay the inevitable conflict as the frontier advanced,
+especially after the French soldiers enlisted the Indians in their
+imperial enterprises. It was then that desultory fighting became general
+warfare.
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND SPANISH POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA,
+1750]
+
+=Early Relations with the French.=--During the first decades of French
+exploration and settlement in the St. Lawrence country, the English
+colonies, engrossed with their own problems, gave little or no thought
+to their distant neighbors. Quebec, founded in 1608, and Montreal, in
+1642, were too far away, too small in population, and too slight in
+strength to be much of a menace to Boston, Hartford, or New York. It was
+the statesmen in France and England, rather than the colonists in
+America, who first grasped the significance of the slowly converging
+empires in North America. It was the ambition of Louis XIV of France,
+rather than the labors of Jesuit missionaries and French rangers, that
+sounded the first note of colonial alarm.
+
+Evidence of this lies in the fact that three conflicts between the
+English and the French occurred before their advancing frontiers met on
+the Pennsylvania border. King William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's
+War (1701-1713), and King George's War (1744-1748) owed their origins
+and their endings mainly to the intrigues and rivalries of European
+powers, although they all involved the American colonies in struggles
+with the French and their savage allies.
+
+=The Clash in the Ohio Valley.=--The second of these wars had hardly
+closed, however, before the English colonists themselves began to be
+seriously alarmed about the rapidly expanding French dominion in the
+West. Marquette and Joliet, who opened the Lake region, and La Salle,
+who in 1682 had gone down the Mississippi to the Gulf, had been followed
+by the builders of forts. In 1718, the French founded New Orleans, thus
+taking possession of the gateway to the Mississippi as well as the St.
+Lawrence. A few years later they built Fort Niagara; in 1731 they
+occupied Crown Point; in 1749 they formally announced their dominion
+over all the territory drained by the Ohio River. Having asserted this
+lofty claim, they set out to make it good by constructing in the years
+1752-1754 Fort Le Boeuf near Lake Erie, Fort Venango on the upper
+waters of the Allegheny, and Fort Duquesne at the junction of the
+streams forming the Ohio. Though they were warned by George Washington,
+in the name of the governor of Virginia, to keep out of territory "so
+notoriously known to be property of the crown of Great Britain," the
+French showed no signs of relinquishing their pretensions.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+BRADDOCK'S RETREAT]
+
+=The Final Phase--the French and Indian War.=--Thus it happened that the
+shot which opened the Seven Years' War, known in America as the French
+and Indian War, was fired in the wilds of Pennsylvania. There began the
+conflict that spread to Europe and even Asia and finally involved
+England and Prussia, on the one side, and France, Austria, Spain, and
+minor powers on the other. On American soil, the defeat of Braddock in
+1755 and Wolfe's exploit in capturing Quebec four years later were the
+dramatic features. On the continent of Europe, England subsidized
+Prussian arms to hold France at bay. In India, on the banks of the
+Ganges, as on the banks of the St. Lawrence, British arms were
+triumphant. Well could the historian write: "Conquests equaling in
+rapidity and far surpassing in magnitude those of Cortes and Pizarro had
+been achieved in the East." Well could the merchants of London declare
+that under the administration of William Pitt, the imperial genius of
+this world-wide conflict, commerce had been "united with and made to
+flourish by war."
+
+From the point of view of the British empire, the results of the war
+were momentous. By the peace of 1763, Canada and the territory east of
+the Mississippi, except New Orleans, passed under the British flag. The
+remainder of the Louisiana territory was transferred to Spain and French
+imperial ambitions on the American continent were laid to rest. In
+exchange for Havana, which the British had seized during the war, Spain
+ceded to King George the colony of Florida. Not without warrant did
+Macaulay write in after years that Pitt "was the first Englishman of his
+time; and he had made England the first country in the world."
+
+
+THE EFFECTS OF WARFARE ON THE COLONIES
+
+The various wars with the French and the Indians, trivial in detail as
+they seem to-day, had a profound influence on colonial life and on the
+destiny of America. Circumstances beyond the control of popular
+assemblies, jealous of their individual powers, compelled coöperation
+among them, grudging and stingy no doubt, but still coöperation. The
+American people, more eager to be busy in their fields or at their
+trades, were simply forced to raise and support armies, to learn the
+arts of warfare, and to practice, if in a small theater, the science of
+statecraft. These forces, all cumulative, drove the colonists, so
+tenaciously provincial in their habits, in the direction of nationalism.
+
+=The New England Confederation.=--It was in their efforts to deal with
+the problems presented by the Indian and French menace that the
+Americans took the first steps toward union. Though there were many
+common ties among the settlers of New England, it required a deadly
+fear of the Indians to produce in 1643 the New England Confederation,
+composed of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. The
+colonies so united were bound together in "a firm and perpetual league
+of friendship and amity for offense and defense, mutual service and
+succor, upon all just occasions." They made provision for distributing
+the burdens of wars among the members and provided for a congress of
+commissioners from each colony to determine upon common policies. For
+some twenty years the Confederation was active and it continued to hold
+meetings until after the extinction of the Indian peril on the immediate
+border.
+
+Virginia, no less than Massachusetts, was aware of the importance of
+intercolonial coöperation. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the
+Old Dominion began treaties of commerce and amity with New York and the
+colonies of New England. In 1684 delegates from Virginia met at Albany
+with the agents of New York and Massachusetts to discuss problems of
+mutual defense. A few years later the Old Dominion coöperated loyally
+with the Carolinas in defending their borders against Indian forays.
+
+=The Albany Plan of Union.=--An attempt at a general colonial union was
+made in 1754. On the suggestion of the Lords of Trade in England, a
+conference was held at Albany to consider Indian relations, to devise
+measures of defense against the French, and to enter into "articles of
+union and confederation for the general defense of his Majesty's
+subjects and interests in North America as well in time of peace as of
+war." New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,
+Pennsylvania, and Maryland were represented. After a long discussion, a
+plan of union, drafted mainly, it seems, by Benjamin Franklin, was
+adopted and sent to the colonies and the crown for approval. The
+colonies, jealous of their individual rights, refused to accept the
+scheme and the king disapproved it for the reason, Franklin said, that
+it had "too much weight in the democratic part of the constitution."
+Though the Albany union failed, the document is still worthy of study
+because it forecast many of the perplexing problems that were not solved
+until thirty-three years afterward, when another convention of which
+also Franklin was a member drafted the Constitution of the United
+States.
+
+[Illustration: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN]
+
+=The Military Education of the Colonists.=--The same wars that showed
+the provincials the meaning of union likewise instructed them in the art
+of defending their institutions. Particularly was this true of the last
+French and Indian conflict, which stretched all the way from Maine to
+the Carolinas and made heavy calls upon them all for troops. The answer,
+it is admitted, was far from satisfactory to the British government and
+the conduct of the militiamen was far from professional; but thousands
+of Americans got a taste, a strong taste, of actual fighting in the
+field. Men like George Washington and Daniel Morgan learned lessons that
+were not forgotten in after years. They saw what American militiamen
+could do under favorable circumstances and they watched British regulars
+operating on American soil. "This whole transaction," shrewdly remarked
+Franklin of Braddock's campaign, "gave us Americans the first suspicion
+that our exalted ideas of the prowess of British regular troops had not
+been well founded." It was no mere accident that the Virginia colonel
+who drew his sword under the elm at Cambridge and took command of the
+army of the Revolution was the brave officer who had "spurned the
+whistle of bullets" at the memorable battle in western Pennsylvania.
+
+=Financial Burdens and Commercial Disorder.=--While the provincials were
+learning lessons in warfare they were also paying the bills. All the
+conflicts were costly in treasure as in blood. King Philip's war left
+New England weak and almost bankrupt. The French and Indian struggle was
+especially expensive. The twenty-five thousand men put in the field by
+the colonies were sustained only by huge outlays of money. Paper
+currency streamed from the press and debts were accumulated. Commerce
+was driven from its usual channels and prices were enhanced. When the
+end came, both England and America were staggering under heavy
+liabilities, and to make matters worse there was a fall of prices
+accompanied by a commercial depression which extended over a period of
+ten years. It was in the midst of this crisis that measures of taxation
+had to be devised to pay the cost of the war, precipitating the quarrel
+which led to American independence.
+
+=The Expulsion of French Power from North America.=--The effects of the
+defeat administered to France, as time proved, were difficult to
+estimate. Some British statesmen regarded it as a happy circumstance
+that the colonists, already restive under their administration, had no
+foreign power at hand to aid them in case they struck for independence.
+American leaders, on the other hand, now that the soldiers of King Louis
+were driven from the continent, thought that they had no other country
+to fear if they cast off British sovereignty. At all events, France,
+though defeated, was not out of the sphere of American influence; for,
+as events proved, it was the fortunate French alliance negotiated by
+Franklin that assured the triumph of American arms in the War of the
+Revolution.
+
+
+COLONIAL RELATIONS WITH THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT
+
+It was neither the Indian wars nor the French wars that finally brought
+forth American nationality. That was the product of the long strife
+with the mother country which culminated in union for the war of
+independence. The forces that created this nation did not operate in the
+colonies alone. The character of the English sovereigns, the course of
+events in English domestic politics, and English measures of control
+over the colonies--executive, legislative, and judicial--must all be
+taken into account.
+
+=The Last of the Stuarts.=--The struggles between Charles I (1625-49)
+and the parliamentary party and the turmoil of the Puritan régime
+(1649-60) so engrossed the attention of Englishmen at home that they had
+little time to think of colonial policies or to interfere with colonial
+affairs. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660, accompanied by
+internal peace and the increasing power of the mercantile classes in the
+House of Commons, changed all that. In the reign of Charles II
+(1660-85), himself an easy-going person, the policy of regulating trade
+by act of Parliament was developed into a closely knit system and
+powerful agencies to supervise the colonies were created. At the same
+time a system of stricter control over the dominions was ushered in by
+the annulment of the old charter of Massachusetts which conferred so
+much self-government on the Puritans.
+
+Charles' successor, James II, a man of sterner stuff and jealous of his
+authority in the colonies as well as at home, continued the policy thus
+inaugurated and enlarged upon it. If he could have kept his throne, he
+would have bent the Americans under a harsh rule or brought on in his
+dominions a revolution like that which he precipitated at home in 1688.
+He determined to unite the Northern colonies and introduce a more
+efficient administration based on the pattern of the royal provinces. He
+made a martinet, Sir Edmund Andros, governor of all New England, New
+York, and New Jersey. The charter of Massachusetts, annulled in the last
+days of his brother's reign, he continued to ignore, and that of
+Connecticut would have been seized if it had not been spirited away and
+hidden, according to tradition, in a hollow oak.
+
+For several months, Andros gave the Northern colonies a taste of
+ill-tempered despotism. He wrung quit rents from land owners not
+accustomed to feudal dues; he abrogated titles to land where, in his
+opinion, they were unlawful; he forced the Episcopal service upon the
+Old South Church in Boston; and he denied the writ of _habeas corpus_ to
+a preacher who denounced taxation without representation. In the middle
+of his arbitrary course, however, his hand was stayed. The news came
+that King James had been dethroned by his angry subjects, and the people
+of Boston, kindling a fire on Beacon Hill, summoned the countryside to
+dispose of Andros. The response was prompt and hearty. The hated
+governor was arrested, imprisoned, and sent back across the sea under
+guard.
+
+The overthrow of James, followed by the accession of William and Mary
+and by assured parliamentary supremacy, had an immediate effect in the
+colonies. The new order was greeted with thanksgiving. Massachusetts was
+given another charter which, though not so liberal as the first,
+restored the spirit if not the entire letter of self-government. In the
+other colonies where Andros had been operating, the old course of
+affairs was resumed.
+
+=The Indifference of the First Two Georges.=--On the death in 1714 of
+Queen Anne, the successor of King William, the throne passed to a
+Hanoverian prince who, though grateful for English honors and revenues,
+was more interested in Hanover than in England. George I and George II,
+whose combined reigns extended from 1714 to 1760, never even learned to
+speak the English language, at least without an accent. The necessity of
+taking thought about colonial affairs bored both of them so that the
+stoutest defender of popular privileges in Boston or Charleston had no
+ground to complain of the exercise of personal prerogatives by the king.
+Moreover, during a large part of this period, the direction of affairs
+was in the hands of an astute leader, Sir Robert Walpole, who betrayed
+his somewhat cynical view of politics by adopting as his motto: "Let
+sleeping dogs lie." He revealed his appreciation of popular sentiment
+by exclaiming: "I will not be the minister to enforce taxes at the
+expense of blood." Such kings and such ministers were not likely to
+arouse the slumbering resistance of the thirteen colonies across the
+sea.
+
+=Control of the Crown over the Colonies.=--While no English ruler from
+James II to George III ventured to interfere with colonial matters
+personally, constant control over the colonies was exercised by royal
+officers acting under the authority of the crown. Systematic supervision
+began in 1660, when there was created by royal order a committee of the
+king's council to meet on Mondays and Thursdays of each week to consider
+petitions, memorials, and addresses respecting the plantations. In 1696
+a regular board was established, known as the "Lords of Trade and
+Plantations," which continued, until the American Revolution, to
+scrutinize closely colonial business. The chief duties of the board were
+to examine acts of colonial legislatures, to recommend measures to those
+assemblies for adoption, and to hear memorials and petitions from the
+colonies relative to their affairs.
+
+The methods employed by this board were varied. All laws passed by
+American legislatures came before it for review as a matter of routine.
+If it found an act unsatisfactory, it recommended to the king the
+exercise of his veto power, known as the royal disallowance. Any person
+who believed his personal or property rights injured by a colonial law
+could be heard by the board in person or by attorney; in such cases it
+was the practice to hear at the same time the agent of the colony so
+involved. The royal veto power over colonial legislation was not,
+therefore, a formal affair, but was constantly employed on the
+suggestion of a highly efficient agency of the crown. All this was in
+addition to the powers exercised by the governors in the royal
+provinces.
+
+=Judicial Control.=--Supplementing this administrative control over the
+colonies was a constant supervision by the English courts of law. The
+king, by virtue of his inherent authority, claimed and exercised high
+appellate powers over all judicial tribunals in the empire. The right
+of appeal from local courts, expressly set forth in some charters, was,
+on the eve of the Revolution, maintained in every colony. Any subject in
+England or America, who, in the regular legal course, was aggrieved by
+any act of a colonial legislature or any decision of a colonial court,
+had the right, subject to certain regulations, to carry his case to the
+king in council, forcing his opponent to follow him across the sea. In
+the exercise of appellate power, the king in council acting as a court
+could, and frequently did, declare acts of colonial legislatures duly
+enacted and approved, null and void, on the ground that they were
+contrary to English law.
+
+=Imperial Control in Operation.=--Day after day, week after week, year
+after year, the machinery for political and judicial control over
+colonial affairs was in operation. At one time the British governors in
+the colonies were ordered not to approve any colonial law imposing a
+duty on European goods imported in English vessels. Again, when North
+Carolina laid a tax on peddlers, the council objected to it as
+"restrictive upon the trade and dispersion of English manufactures
+throughout the continent." At other times, Indian trade was regulated in
+the interests of the whole empire or grants of lands by a colonial
+legislature were set aside. Virginia was forbidden to close her ports to
+North Carolina lest there should be retaliation.
+
+In short, foreign and intercolonial trade were subjected to a control
+higher than that of the colony, foreshadowing a day when the
+Constitution of the United States was to commit to Congress the power to
+regulate interstate and foreign commerce and commerce with the Indians.
+A superior judicial power, towering above that of the colonies, as the
+Supreme Court at Washington now towers above the states, kept the
+colonial legislatures within the metes and bounds of established law. In
+the thousands of appeals, memorials, petitions, and complaints, and the
+rulings and decisions upon them, were written the real history of
+British imperial control over the American colonies.
+
+So great was the business before the Lords of Trade that the colonies
+had to keep skilled agents in London to protect their interests. As
+common grievances against the operation of this machinery of control
+arose, there appeared in each colony a considerable body of men, with
+the merchants in the lead, who chafed at the restraints imposed on their
+enterprise. Only a powerful blow was needed to weld these bodies into a
+common mass nourishing the spirit of colonial nationalism. When to the
+repeated minor irritations were added general and sweeping measures of
+Parliament applying to every colony, the rebound came in the Revolution.
+
+=Parliamentary Control over Colonial Affairs.=--As soon as Parliament
+gained in power at the expense of the king, it reached out to bring the
+American colonies under its sway as well. Between the execution of
+Charles I and the accession of George III, there was enacted an immense
+body of legislation regulating the shipping, trade, and manufactures of
+America. All of it, based on the "mercantile" theory then prevalent in
+all countries of Europe, was designed to control the overseas
+plantations in such a way as to foster the commercial and business
+interests of the mother country, where merchants and men of finance had
+got the upper hand. According to this theory, the colonies of the
+British empire should be confined to agriculture and the production of
+raw materials, and forced to buy their manufactured goods of England.
+
+_The Navigation Acts._--In the first rank among these measures of
+British colonial policy must be placed the navigation laws framed for
+the purpose of building up the British merchant marine and navy--arms so
+essential in defending the colonies against the Spanish, Dutch, and
+French. The beginning of this type of legislation was made in 1651 and
+it was worked out into a system early in the reign of Charles II
+(1660-85).
+
+The Navigation Acts, in effect, gave a monopoly of colonial commerce to
+British ships. No trade could be carried on between Great Britain and
+her dominions save in vessels built and manned by British subjects. No
+European goods could be brought to America save in the ships of the
+country that produced them or in English ships. These laws, which were
+almost fatal to Dutch shipping in America, fell with severity upon the
+colonists, compelling them to pay higher freight rates. The adverse
+effect, however, was short-lived, for the measures stimulated
+shipbuilding in the colonies, where the abundance of raw materials gave
+the master builders of America an advantage over those of the mother
+country. Thus the colonists in the end profited from the restrictive
+policy written into the Navigation Acts.
+
+_The Acts against Manufactures._--The second group of laws was
+deliberately aimed to prevent colonial industries from competing too
+sharply with those of England. Among the earliest of these measures may
+be counted the Woolen Act of 1699, forbidding the exportation of woolen
+goods from the colonies and even the woolen trade between towns and
+colonies. When Parliament learned, as the result of an inquiry, that New
+England and New York were making thousands of hats a year and sending
+large numbers annually to the Southern colonies and to Ireland, Spain,
+and Portugal, it enacted in 1732 a law declaring that "no hats or felts,
+dyed or undyed, finished or unfinished" should be "put upon any vessel
+or laden upon any horse or cart with intent to export to any place
+whatever." The effect of this measure upon the hat industry was almost
+ruinous. A few years later a similar blow was given to the iron
+industry. By an act of 1750, pig and bar iron from the colonies were
+given free entry to England to encourage the production of the raw
+material; but at the same time the law provided that "no mill or other
+engine for slitting or rolling of iron, no plating forge to work with a
+tilt hammer, and no furnace for making steel" should be built in the
+colonies. As for those already built, they were declared public
+nuisances and ordered closed. Thus three important economic interests of
+the colonists, the woolen, hat, and iron industries, were laid under the
+ban.
+
+_The Trade Laws._--The third group of restrictive measures passed by the
+British Parliament related to the sale of colonial produce. An act of
+1663 required the colonies to export certain articles to Great Britain
+or to her dominions alone; while sugar, tobacco, and ginger consigned to
+the continent of Europe had to pass through a British port paying custom
+duties and through a British merchant's hands paying the usual
+commission. At first tobacco was the only one of the "enumerated
+articles" which seriously concerned the American colonies, the rest
+coming mainly from the British West Indies. In the course of time,
+however, other commodities were added to the list of enumerated
+articles, until by 1764 it embraced rice, naval stores, copper, furs,
+hides, iron, lumber, and pearl ashes. This was not all. The colonies
+were compelled to bring their European purchases back through English
+ports, paying duties to the government and commissions to merchants
+again.
+
+_The Molasses Act._--Not content with laws enacted in the interest of
+English merchants and manufacturers, Parliament sought to protect the
+British West Indies against competition from their French and Dutch
+neighbors. New England merchants had long carried on a lucrative trade
+with the French islands in the West Indies and Dutch Guiana, where sugar
+and molasses could be obtained in large quantities at low prices. Acting
+on the protests of English planters in the Barbadoes and Jamaica,
+Parliament, in 1733, passed the famous Molasses Act imposing duties on
+sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from foreign
+countries--rates which would have destroyed the American trade with the
+French and Dutch if the law had been enforced. The duties, however, were
+not collected. The molasses and sugar trade with the foreigners went on
+merrily, smuggling taking the place of lawful traffic.
+
+=Effect of the Laws in America.=--As compared with the strict monopoly
+of her colonial trade which Spain consistently sought to maintain, the
+policy of England was both moderate and liberal. Furthermore, the
+restrictive laws were supplemented by many measures intended to be
+favorable to colonial prosperity. The Navigation Acts, for example,
+redounded to the advantage of American shipbuilders and the producers
+of hemp, tar, lumber, and ship stores in general. Favors in British
+ports were granted to colonial producers as against foreign competitors
+and in some instances bounties were paid by England to encourage
+colonial enterprise. Taken all in all, there is much justification in
+the argument advanced by some modern scholars to the effect that the
+colonists gained more than they lost by British trade and industrial
+legislation. Certainly after the establishment of independence, when
+free from these old restrictions, the Americans found themselves
+handicapped by being treated as foreigners rather than favored traders
+and the recipients of bounties in English markets.
+
+Be that as it may, it appears that the colonists felt little irritation
+against the mother country on account of the trade and navigation laws
+enacted previous to the close of the French and Indian war. Relatively
+few were engaged in the hat and iron industries as compared with those
+in farming and planting, so that England's policy of restricting America
+to agriculture did not conflict with the interests of the majority of
+the inhabitants. The woolen industry was largely in the hands of women
+and carried on in connection with their domestic duties, so that it was
+not the sole support of any considerable number of people.
+
+As a matter of fact, moreover, the restrictive laws, especially those
+relating to trade, were not rigidly enforced. Cargoes of tobacco were
+boldly sent to continental ports without even so much as a bow to the
+English government, to which duties should have been paid. Sugar and
+molasses from the French and Dutch colonies were shipped into New
+England in spite of the law. Royal officers sometimes protested against
+smuggling and sometimes connived at it; but at no time did they succeed
+in stopping it. Taken all in all, very little was heard of "the galling
+restraints of trade" until after the French war, when the British
+government suddenly entered upon a new course.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+In the period between the landing of the English at Jamestown, Virginia,
+in 1607, and the close of the French and Indian war in 1763--a period of
+a century and a half--a new nation was being prepared on this continent
+to take its place among the powers of the earth. It was an epoch of
+migration. Western Europe contributed emigrants of many races and
+nationalities. The English led the way. Next to them in numerical
+importance were the Scotch-Irish and the Germans. Into the melting pot
+were also cast Dutch, Swedes, French, Jews, Welsh, and Irish. Thousands
+of negroes were brought from Africa to till Southern fields or labor as
+domestic servants in the North.
+
+Why did they come? The reasons are various. Some of them, the Pilgrims
+and Puritans of New England, the French Huguenots, Scotch-Irish and
+Irish, and the Catholics of Maryland, fled from intolerant governments
+that denied them the right to worship God according to the dictates of
+their consciences. Thousands came to escape the bondage of poverty in
+the Old World and to find free homes in America. Thousands, like the
+negroes from Africa, were dragged here against their will. The lure of
+adventure appealed to the restless and the lure of profits to the
+enterprising merchants.
+
+How did they come? In some cases religious brotherhoods banded together
+and borrowed or furnished the funds necessary to pay the way. In other
+cases great trading companies were organized to found colonies. Again it
+was the wealthy proprietor, like Lord Baltimore or William Penn, who
+undertook to plant settlements. Many immigrants were able to pay their
+own way across the sea. Others bound themselves out for a term of years
+in exchange for the cost of the passage. Negroes were brought on account
+of the profits derived from their sale as slaves.
+
+Whatever the motive for their coming, however, they managed to get
+across the sea. The immigrants set to work with a will. They cut down
+forests, built houses, and laid out fields. They founded churches,
+schools, and colleges. They set up forges and workshops. They spun and
+wove. They fashioned ships and sailed the seas. They bartered and
+traded. Here and there on favorable harbors they established centers of
+commerce--Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and
+Charleston. As soon as a firm foothold was secured on the shore line
+they pressed westward until, by the close of the colonial period, they
+were already on the crest of the Alleghanies.
+
+Though they were widely scattered along a thousand miles of seacoast,
+the colonists were united in spirit by many common ties. The major
+portion of them were Protestants. The language, the law, and the
+literature of England furnished the basis of national unity. Most of the
+colonists were engaged in the same hard task; that of conquering a
+wilderness. To ties of kinship and language were added ties created by
+necessity. They had to unite in defense; first, against the Indians and
+later against the French. They were all subjects of the same
+sovereign--the king of England. The English Parliament made laws for
+them and the English government supervised their local affairs, their
+trade, and their manufactures. Common forces assailed them. Common
+grievances vexed them. Common hopes inspired them.
+
+Many of the things which tended to unite them likewise tended to throw
+them into opposition to the British Crown and Parliament. Most of them
+were freeholders; that is, farmers who owned their own land and tilled
+it with their own hands. A free soil nourished the spirit of freedom.
+The majority of them were Dissenters, critics, not friends, of the
+Church of England, that stanch defender of the British monarchy. Each
+colony in time developed its own legislature elected by the voters; it
+grew accustomed to making laws and laying taxes for itself. Here was a
+people learning self-reliance and self-government. The attempts to
+strengthen the Church of England in America and the transformation of
+colonies into royal provinces only fanned the spirit of independence
+which they were designed to quench.
+
+Nevertheless, the Americans owed much of their prosperity to the
+assistance of the government that irritated them. It was the protection
+of the British navy that prevented Holland, Spain, and France from
+wiping out their settlements. Though their manufacture and trade were
+controlled in the interests of the mother country, they also enjoyed
+great advantages in her markets. Free trade existed nowhere upon the
+earth; but the broad empire of Britain was open to American ships and
+merchandise. It could be said, with good reason, that the disadvantages
+which the colonists suffered through British regulation of their
+industry and trade were more than offset by the privileges they enjoyed.
+Still that is somewhat beside the point, for mere economic advantage is
+not necessarily the determining factor in the fate of peoples. A
+thousand circumstances had helped to develop on this continent a nation,
+to inspire it with a passion for independence, and to prepare it for a
+destiny greater than that of a prosperous dominion of the British
+empire. The economists, who tried to prove by logic unassailable that
+America would be richer under the British flag, could not change the
+spirit of Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, or George
+Washington.
+
+
+=References=
+
+G.L. Beer, _Origin of the British Colonial System_ and _The Old Colonial
+System_.
+
+A. Bradley, _The Fight for Canada in North America_.
+
+C.M. Andrews, _Colonial Self-Government_ (American Nation Series).
+
+H. Egerton, _Short History of British Colonial Policy_.
+
+F. Parkman, _France and England in North America_ (12 vols.).
+
+R. Thwaites, _France in America_ (American Nation Series).
+
+J. Winsor, _The Mississippi Valley_ and _Cartier to Frontenac_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. How would you define "nationalism"?
+
+2. Can you give any illustrations of the way that war promotes
+nationalism?
+
+3. Why was it impossible to establish and maintain a uniform policy in
+dealing with the Indians?
+
+4. What was the outcome of the final clash with the French?
+
+5. Enumerate the five chief results of the wars with the French and the
+Indians. Discuss each in detail.
+
+6. Explain why it was that the character of the English king mattered to
+the colonists.
+
+7. Contrast England under the Stuarts with England under the
+Hanoverians.
+
+8. Explain how the English Crown, Courts, and Parliament controlled the
+colonies.
+
+9. Name the three important classes of English legislation affecting the
+colonies. Explain each.
+
+10. Do you think the English legislation was beneficial or injurious to
+the colonies? Why?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Rise of French Power in North America.=--Special reference: Francis
+Parkman, _Struggle for a Continent_.
+
+=The French and Indian Wars.=--Special reference: W.M. Sloane, _French
+War and the Revolution_, Chaps. VI-IX. Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_,
+Vol. II, pp. 195-299. Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+171-196.
+
+=English Navigation Acts.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp.
+55, 72, 78, 90, 103. Coman, _Industrial History_, pp. 79-85.
+
+=British Colonial Policy.=--Callender, _Economic History of the United
+States_, pp. 102-108.
+
+=The New England Confederation.=--Analyze the document in Macdonald,
+_Source Book_, p. 45. Special reference: Fiske, _Beginnings of New
+England_, pp. 140-198.
+
+=The Administration of Andros.=--Fiske, _Beginnings_, pp. 242-278.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--William Pitt and Sir Robert Walpole. Consult
+Green, _Short History of England_, on their policies, using the index.
+
+
+
+
+PART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY
+
+
+On October 25, 1760, King George II died and the British crown passed to
+his young grandson. The first George, the son of the Elector of Hanover
+and Sophia the granddaughter of James I, was a thorough German who never
+even learned to speak the language of the land over which he reigned.
+The second George never saw England until he was a man. He spoke English
+with an accent and until his death preferred his German home. During
+their reign, the principle had become well established that the king did
+not govern but acted only through ministers representing the majority in
+Parliament.
+
+
+GEORGE III AND HIS SYSTEM
+
+=The Character of the New King.=--The third George rudely broke the
+German tradition of his family. He resented the imputation that he was a
+foreigner and on all occasions made a display of his British sympathies.
+To the draft of his first speech to Parliament, he added the popular
+phrase: "Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of
+Briton." Macaulay, the English historian, certainly of no liking for
+high royal prerogative, said of George: "The young king was a born
+Englishman. All his tastes and habits, good and bad, were English. No
+portion of his subjects had anything to reproach him with.... His age,
+his appearance, and all that was known of his character conciliated
+public favor. He was in the bloom of youth; his person and address were
+pleasing; scandal imputed to him no vice; and flattery might without
+glaring absurdity ascribe to him many princely virtues."
+
+Nevertheless George III had been spoiled by his mother, his tutors, and
+his courtiers. Under their influence he developed high and mighty
+notions about the sacredness of royal authority and his duty to check
+the pretensions of Parliament and the ministers dependent upon it. His
+mother had dinned into his ears the slogan: "George, be king!" Lord
+Bute, his teacher and adviser, had told him that his honor required him
+to take an active part in the shaping of public policy and the making of
+laws. Thus educated, he surrounded himself with courtiers who encouraged
+him in the determination to rule as well as reign, to subdue all
+parties, and to place himself at the head of the nation and empire.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+GEORGE III]
+
+=Political Parties and George III.=--The state of the political parties
+favored the plans of the king to restore some of the ancient luster of
+the crown. The Whigs, who were composed mainly of the smaller
+freeholders, merchants, inhabitants of towns, and Protestant
+non-conformists, had grown haughty and overbearing through long
+continuance in power and had as a consequence raised up many enemies in
+their own ranks. Their opponents, the Tories, had by this time given up
+all hope of restoring to the throne the direct Stuart line; but they
+still cherished their old notions about divine right. With the
+accession of George III the coveted opportunity came to them to rally
+around the throne again. George received his Tory friends with open
+arms, gave them offices, and bought them seats in the House of Commons.
+
+=The British Parliamentary System.=--The peculiarities of the British
+Parliament at the time made smooth the way for the king and his allies
+with their designs for controlling the entire government. In the first
+place, the House of Lords was composed mainly of hereditary nobles whose
+number the king could increase by the appointment of his favorites, as
+of old. Though the members of the House of Commons were elected by
+popular vote, they did not speak for the mass of English people. Great
+towns like Leeds, Manchester, and Birmingham, for example, had no
+representatives at all. While there were about eight million inhabitants
+in Great Britain, there were in 1768 only about 160,000 voters; that is
+to say, only about one in every ten adult males had a voice in the
+government. Many boroughs returned one or more members to the Commons
+although they had merely a handful of voters or in some instances no
+voters at all. Furthermore, these tiny boroughs were often controlled by
+lords who openly sold the right of representation to the highest bidder.
+The "rotten-boroughs," as they were called by reformers, were a public
+scandal, but George III readily made use of them to get his friends into
+the House of Commons.
+
+
+GEORGE III'S MINISTERS AND THEIR COLONIAL POLICIES
+
+=Grenville and the War Debt.=--Within a year after the accession of
+George III, William Pitt was turned out of office, the king treating him
+with "gross incivility" and the crowds shouting "Pitt forever!" The
+direction of affairs was entrusted to men enjoying the king's
+confidence. Leadership in the House of Commons fell to George Grenville,
+a grave and laborious man who for years had groaned over the increasing
+cost of government.
+
+The first task after the conclusion of peace in 1763 was the adjustment
+of the disordered finances of the kingdom. The debt stood at the highest
+point in the history of the country. More revenue was absolutely
+necessary and Grenville began to search for it, turning his attention
+finally to the American colonies. In this quest he had the aid of a
+zealous colleague, Charles Townshend, who had long been in public
+service and was familiar with the difficulties encountered by royal
+governors in America. These two men, with the support of the entire
+ministry, inaugurated in February, 1763, "a new system of colonial
+government. It was announced by authority that there were to be no more
+requisitions from the king to the colonial assemblies for supplies, but
+that the colonies were to be taxed instead by act of Parliament.
+Colonial governors and judges were to be paid by the Crown; they were to
+be supported by a standing army of twenty regiments; and all the
+expenses of this force were to be met by parliamentary taxation."
+
+=Restriction of Paper Money (1763).=--Among the many complaints filed
+before the board of trade were vigorous protests against the issuance of
+paper money by the colonial legislatures. The new ministry provided a
+remedy in the act of 1763, which declared void all colonial laws
+authorizing paper money or extending the life of outstanding bills. This
+law was aimed at the "cheap money" which the Americans were fond of
+making when specie was scarce--money which they tried to force on their
+English creditors in return for goods and in payment of the interest and
+principal of debts. Thus the first chapter was written in the long
+battle over sound money on this continent.
+
+=Limitation on Western Land Sales.=--Later in the same year (1763)
+George III issued a royal proclamation providing, among other things,
+for the government of the territory recently acquired by the treaty of
+Paris from the French. One of the provisions in this royal decree
+touched frontiersmen to the quick. The contests between the king's
+officers and the colonists over the disposition of western lands had
+been long and sharp. The Americans chafed at restrictions on
+settlement. The more adventurous were continually moving west and
+"squatting" on land purchased from the Indians or simply seized without
+authority. To put an end to this, the king forbade all further purchases
+from the Indians, reserving to the crown the right to acquire such lands
+and dispose of them for settlement. A second provision in the same
+proclamation vested the power of licensing trade with the Indians,
+including the lucrative fur business, in the hands of royal officers in
+the colonies. These two limitations on American freedom and enterprise
+were declared to be in the interest of the crown and for the
+preservation of the rights of the Indians against fraud and abuses.
+
+=The Sugar Act of 1764.=--King George's ministers next turned their
+attention to measures of taxation and trade. Since the heavy debt under
+which England was laboring had been largely incurred in the defense of
+America, nothing seemed more reasonable to them than the proposition
+that the colonies should help to bear the burden which fell so heavily
+upon the English taxpayer. The Sugar Act of 1764 was the result of this
+reasoning. There was no doubt about the purpose of this law, for it was
+set forth clearly in the title: "An act for granting certain duties in
+the British colonies and plantations in America ... for applying the
+produce of such duties ... towards defraying the expenses of defending,
+protecting and securing the said colonies and plantations ... and for
+more effectually preventing the clandestine conveyance of goods to and
+from the said colonies and plantations and improving and securing the
+trade between the same and Great Britain." The old Molasses Act had been
+prohibitive; the Sugar Act of 1764 was clearly intended as a revenue
+measure. Specified duties were laid upon sugar, indigo, calico, silks,
+and many other commodities imported into the colonies. The enforcement
+of the Molasses Act had been utterly neglected; but this Sugar Act had
+"teeth in it." Special precautions as to bonds, security, and
+registration of ship masters, accompanied by heavy penalties, promised
+a vigorous execution of the new revenue law.
+
+The strict terms of the Sugar Act were strengthened by administrative
+measures. Under a law of the previous year the commanders of armed
+vessels stationed along the American coast were authorized to stop,
+search, and, on suspicion, seize merchant ships approaching colonial
+ports. By supplementary orders, the entire British official force in
+America was instructed to be diligent in the execution of all trade and
+navigation laws. Revenue collectors, officers of the army and navy, and
+royal governors were curtly ordered to the front to do their full duty
+in the matter of law enforcement. The ordinary motives for the discharge
+of official obligations were sharpened by an appeal to avarice, for
+naval officers who seized offenders against the law were rewarded by
+large prizes out of the forfeitures and penalties.
+
+=The Stamp Act (1765).=--The Grenville-Townshend combination moved
+steadily towards its goal. While the Sugar Act was under consideration
+in Parliament, Grenville announced a plan for a stamp bill. The next
+year it went through both Houses with a speed that must have astounded
+its authors. The vote in the Commons stood 205 in favor to 49 against;
+while in the Lords it was not even necessary to go through the formality
+of a count. As George III was temporarily insane, the measure received
+royal assent by a commission acting as a board of regency. Protests of
+colonial agents in London were futile. "We might as well have hindered
+the sun's progress!" exclaimed Franklin. Protests of a few opponents in
+the Commons were equally vain. The ministry was firm in its course and
+from all appearances the Stamp Act hardly roused as much as a languid
+interest in the city of London. In fact, it is recorded that the fateful
+measure attracted less notice than a bill providing for a commission to
+act for the king when he was incapacitated.
+
+The Stamp Act, like the Sugar Act, declared the purpose of the British
+government to raise revenue in America "towards defraying the expenses
+of defending, protecting, and securing the British colonies and
+plantations in America." It was a long measure of more than fifty
+sections, carefully planned and skillfully drawn. By its provisions
+duties were imposed on practically all papers used in legal
+transactions,--deeds, mortgages, inventories, writs, bail bonds,--on
+licenses to practice law and sell liquor, on college diplomas, playing
+cards, dice, pamphlets, newspapers, almanacs, calendars, and
+advertisements. The drag net was closely knit, for scarcely anything
+escaped.
+
+=The Quartering Act (1765).=--The ministers were aware that the Stamp
+Act would rouse opposition in America--how great they could not
+conjecture. While the measure was being debated, a friend of General
+Wolfe, Colonel Barré, who knew America well, gave them an ominous
+warning in the Commons. "Believe me--remember I this day told you so--"
+he exclaimed, "the same spirit of freedom which actuated that people at
+first will accompany them still ... a people jealous of their liberties
+and who will vindicate them, if ever they should be violated." The
+answer of the ministry to a prophecy of force was a threat of force.
+Preparations were accordingly made to dispatch a larger number of
+soldiers than usual to the colonies, and the ink was hardly dry on the
+Stamp Act when Parliament passed the Quartering Act ordering the
+colonists to provide accommodations for the soldiers who were to enforce
+the new laws. "We have the power to tax them," said one of the ministry,
+"and we will tax them."
+
+
+COLONIAL RESISTANCE FORCES REPEAL
+
+=Popular Opposition.=--The Stamp Act was greeted in America by an
+outburst of denunciation. The merchants of the seaboard cities took the
+lead in making a dignified but unmistakable protest, agreeing not to
+import British goods while the hated law stood upon the books. Lawyers,
+some of them incensed at the heavy taxes on their operations and others
+intimidated by patriots who refused to permit them to use stamped
+papers, joined with the merchants. Aristocratic colonial Whigs, who had
+long grumbled at the administration of royal governors, protested
+against taxation without their consent, as the Whigs had done in old
+England. There were Tories, however, in the colonies as in England--many
+of them of the official class--who denounced the merchants, lawyers, and
+Whig aristocrats as "seditious, factious and republican." Yet the
+opposition to the Stamp Act and its accompanying measure, the Quartering
+Act, grew steadily all through the summer of 1765.
+
+In a little while it was taken up in the streets and along the
+countryside. All through the North and in some of the Southern colonies,
+there sprang up, as if by magic, committees and societies pledged to
+resist the Stamp Act to the bitter end. These popular societies were
+known as Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty: the former including
+artisans, mechanics, and laborers; and the latter, patriotic women. Both
+groups were alike in that they had as yet taken little part in public
+affairs. Many artisans, as well as all the women, were excluded from the
+right to vote for colonial assemblymen.
+
+While the merchants and Whig gentlemen confined their efforts chiefly to
+drafting well-phrased protests against British measures, the Sons of
+Liberty operated in the streets and chose rougher measures. They stirred
+up riots in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston when attempts
+were made to sell the stamps. They sacked and burned the residences of
+high royal officers. They organized committees of inquisition who by
+threats and intimidation curtailed the sale of British goods and the use
+of stamped papers. In fact, the Sons of Liberty carried their operations
+to such excesses that many mild opponents of the stamp tax were
+frightened and drew back in astonishment at the forces they had
+unloosed. The Daughters of Liberty in a quieter way were making a very
+effective resistance to the sale of the hated goods by spurring on
+domestic industries, their own particular province being the manufacture
+of clothing, and devising substitutes for taxed foods. They helped to
+feed and clothe their families without buying British goods.
+
+=Legislative Action against the Stamp Act.=--Leaders in the colonial
+assemblies, accustomed to battle against British policies, supported the
+popular protest. The Stamp Act was signed on March 22, 1765. On May 30,
+the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a set of resolutions declaring
+that the General Assembly of the colony alone had the right to lay taxes
+upon the inhabitants and that attempts to impose them otherwise were
+"illegal, unconstitutional, and unjust." It was in support of these
+resolutions that Patrick Henry uttered the immortal challenge: "Cæsar
+had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III...." Cries of
+"Treason" were calmly met by the orator who finished: "George III may
+profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it."
+
+[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY]
+
+=The Stamp Act Congress.=--The Massachusetts Assembly answered the call
+of Virginia by inviting the colonies to elect delegates to a Congress to
+be held in New York to discuss the situation. Nine colonies responded
+and sent representatives. The delegates, while professing the warmest
+affection for the king's person and government, firmly spread on record
+a series of resolutions that admitted of no double meaning. They
+declared that taxes could not be imposed without their consent, given
+through their respective colonial assemblies; that the Stamp Act showed
+a tendency to subvert their rights and liberties; that the recent trade
+acts were burdensome and grievous; and that the right to petition the
+king and Parliament was their heritage. They thereupon made "humble
+supplication" for the repeal of the Stamp Act.
+
+The Stamp Act Congress was more than an assembly of protest. It marked
+the rise of a new agency of government to express the will of America.
+It was the germ of a government which in time was to supersede the
+government of George III in the colonies. It foreshadowed the Congress
+of the United States under the Constitution. It was a successful attempt
+at union. "There ought to be no New England men," declared Christopher
+Gadsden, in the Stamp Act Congress, "no New Yorkers known on the
+Continent, but all of us Americans."
+
+=The Repeal of the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act.=--The effect of American
+resistance on opinion in England was telling. Commerce with the colonies
+had been effectively boycotted by the Americans; ships lay idly swinging
+at the wharves; bankruptcy threatened hundreds of merchants in London,
+Bristol, and Liverpool. Workingmen in the manufacturing towns of England
+were thrown out of employment. The government had sown folly and was
+reaping, in place of the coveted revenue, rebellion.
+
+Perplexed by the storm they had raised, the ministers summoned to the
+bar of the House of Commons, Benjamin Franklin, the agent for
+Pennsylvania, who was in London. "Do you think it right," asked
+Grenville, "that America should be protected by this country and pay no
+part of the expenses?" The answer was brief: "That is not the case; the
+colonies raised, clothed, and paid during the last war twenty-five
+thousand men and spent many millions." Then came an inquiry whether the
+colonists would accept a modified stamp act. "No, never," replied
+Franklin, "never! They will never submit to it!" It was next suggested
+that military force might compel obedience to law. Franklin had a ready
+answer. "They cannot force a man to take stamps.... They may not find a
+rebellion; they may, indeed, make one."
+
+The repeal of the Stamp Act was moved in the House of Commons a few days
+later. The sponsor for the repeal spoke of commerce interrupted, debts
+due British merchants placed in jeopardy, Manchester industries closed,
+workingmen unemployed, oppression instituted, and the loss of the
+colonies threatened. Pitt and Edmund Burke, the former near the close
+of his career, the latter just beginning his, argued cogently in favor
+of retracing the steps taken the year before. Grenville refused.
+"America must learn," he wailed, "that prayers are not to be brought to
+Cæsar through riot and sedition." His protests were idle. The Commons
+agreed to the repeal on February 22, 1766, amid the cheers of the
+victorious majority. It was carried through the Lords in the face of
+strong opposition and, on March 18, reluctantly signed by the king, now
+restored to his right mind.
+
+In rescinding the Stamp Act, Parliament did not admit the contention of
+the Americans that it was without power to tax them. On the contrary, it
+accompanied the repeal with a Declaratory Act. It announced that the
+colonies were subordinate to the crown and Parliament of Great Britain;
+that the king and Parliament therefore had undoubted authority to make
+laws binding the colonies in all cases whatsoever; and that the
+resolutions and proceedings of the colonists denying such authority were
+null and void.
+
+The repeal was greeted by the colonists with great popular
+demonstrations. Bells were rung; toasts to the king were drunk; and
+trade resumed its normal course. The Declaratory Act, as a mere paper
+resolution, did not disturb the good humor of those who again cheered
+the name of King George. Their confidence was soon strengthened by the
+news that even the Sugar Act had been repealed, thus practically
+restoring the condition of affairs before Grenville and Townshend
+inaugurated their policy of "thoroughness."
+
+
+RESUMPTION OF BRITISH REVENUE AND COMMERCIAL POLICIES
+
+=The Townshend Acts (1767).=--The triumph of the colonists was brief.
+Though Pitt, the friend of America, was once more prime minister, and
+seated in the House of Lords as the Earl of Chatham, his severe illness
+gave to Townshend and the Tory party practical control over Parliament.
+Unconvinced by the experience with the Stamp Act, Townshend brought
+forward and pushed through both Houses of Parliament three measures,
+which to this day are associated with his name. First among his
+restrictive laws was that of June 29, 1767, which placed the enforcement
+of the collection of duties and customs on colonial imports and exports
+in the hands of British commissioners appointed by the king, resident in
+the colonies, paid from the British treasury, and independent of all
+control by the colonists. The second measure of the same date imposed a
+tax on lead, glass, paint, tea, and a few other articles imported into
+the colonies, the revenue derived from the duties to be applied toward
+the payment of the salaries and other expenses of royal colonial
+officials. A third measure was the Tea Act of July 2, 1767, aimed at the
+tea trade which the Americans carried on illegally with foreigners. This
+law abolished the duty which the East India Company had to pay in
+England on tea exported to America, for it was thought that English tea
+merchants might thus find it possible to undersell American tea
+smugglers.
+
+=Writs of Assistance Legalized by Parliament.=--Had Parliament been
+content with laying duties, just as a manifestation of power and right,
+and neglected their collection, perhaps little would have been heard of
+the Townshend Acts. It provided, however, for the strict, even the
+harsh, enforcement of the law. It ordered customs officers to remain at
+their posts and put an end to smuggling. In the revenue act of June 29,
+1767, it expressly authorized the superior courts of the colonies to
+issue "writs of assistance," empowering customs officers to enter "any
+house, warehouse, shop, cellar, or other place in the British colonies
+or plantations in America to search for and seize" prohibited or
+smuggled goods.
+
+The writ of assistance, which was a general search warrant issued to
+revenue officers, was an ancient device hateful to a people who
+cherished the spirit of personal independence and who had made actual
+gains in the practice of civil liberty. To allow a "minion of the law"
+to enter a man's house and search his papers and premises, was too much
+for the emotions of people who had fled to America in a quest for
+self-government and free homes, who had braved such hardships to
+establish them, and who wanted to trade without official interference.
+
+The writ of assistance had been used in Massachusetts in 1755 to prevent
+illicit trade with Canada and had aroused a violent hostility at that
+time. In 1761 it was again the subject of a bitter controversy which
+arose in connection with the application of a customs officer to a
+Massachusetts court for writs of assistance "as usual." This application
+was vainly opposed by James Otis in a speech of five hours' duration--a
+speech of such fire and eloquence that it sent every man who heard it
+away "ready to take up arms against writs of assistance." Otis denounced
+the practice as an exercise of arbitrary power which had cost one king
+his head and another his throne, a tyrant's device which placed the
+liberty of every man in jeopardy, enabling any petty officer to work
+possible malice on any innocent citizen on the merest suspicion, and to
+spread terror and desolation through the land. "What a scene," he
+exclaimed, "does this open! Every man, prompted by revenge, ill-humor,
+or wantonness to inspect the inside of his neighbor's house, may get a
+writ of assistance. Others will ask it from self-defense; one arbitrary
+exertion will provoke another until society is involved in tumult and
+blood." He did more than attack the writ itself. He said that Parliament
+could not establish it because it was against the British constitution.
+This was an assertion resting on slender foundation, but it was quickly
+echoed by the people. Then and there James Otis sounded the call to
+America to resist the exercise of arbitrary power by royal officers.
+"Then and there," wrote John Adams, "the child Independence was born."
+Such was the hated writ that Townshend proposed to put into the hands of
+customs officers in his grim determination to enforce the law.
+
+=The New York Assembly Suspended.=--In the very month that Townshend's
+Acts were signed by the king, Parliament took a still more drastic step.
+The assembly of New York, protesting against the "ruinous and
+insupportable" expense involved, had failed to make provision for the
+care of British troops in accordance with the terms of the Quartering
+Act. Parliament therefore suspended the assembly until it promised to
+obey the law. It was not until a third election was held that compliance
+with the Quartering Act was wrung from the reluctant province. In the
+meantime, all the colonies had learned on how frail a foundation their
+representative bodies rested.
+
+
+RENEWED RESISTANCE IN AMERICA
+
+=The Massachusetts Circular (1768).=--Massachusetts, under the
+leadership of Samuel Adams, resolved to resist the policy of renewed
+intervention in America. At his suggestion the assembly adopted a
+Circular Letter addressed to the assemblies of the other colonies
+informing them of the state of affairs in Massachusetts and roundly
+condemning the whole British program. The Circular Letter declared that
+Parliament had no right to lay taxes on Americans without their consent
+and that the colonists could not, from the nature of the case, be
+represented in Parliament. It went on shrewdly to submit to
+consideration the question as to whether any people could be called free
+who were subjected to governors and judges appointed by the crown and
+paid out of funds raised independently. It invited the other colonies,
+in the most temperate tones, to take thought about the common
+predicament in which they were all placed.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+SAMUEL ADAMS]
+
+=The Dissolution of Assemblies.=--The governor of Massachusetts, hearing
+of the Circular Letter, ordered the assembly to rescind its appeal. On
+meeting refusal, he promptly dissolved it. The Maryland, Georgia, and
+South Carolina assemblies indorsed the Circular Letter and were also
+dissolved at once. The Virginia House of Burgesses, thoroughly aroused,
+passed resolutions on May 16, 1769, declaring that the sole right of
+imposing taxes in Virginia was vested in its legislature, asserting anew
+the right of petition to the crown, condemning the transportation of
+persons accused of crimes or trial beyond the seas, and beseeching the
+king for a redress of the general grievances. The immediate dissolution
+of the Virginia assembly, in its turn, was the answer of the royal
+governor.
+
+=The Boston Massacre.=--American opposition to the British authorities
+kept steadily rising as assemblies were dissolved, the houses of
+citizens searched, and troops distributed in increasing numbers among
+the centers of discontent. Merchants again agreed not to import British
+goods, the Sons of Liberty renewed their agitation, and women set about
+the patronage of home products still more loyally.
+
+On the night of March 5, 1770, a crowd on the streets of Boston began to
+jostle and tease some British regulars stationed in the town. Things
+went from bad to worse until some "boys and young fellows" began to
+throw snowballs and stones. Then the exasperated soldiers fired into the
+crowd, killing five and wounding half a dozen more. The day after the
+"massacre," a mass meeting was held in the town and Samuel Adams was
+sent to demand the withdrawal of the soldiers. The governor hesitated
+and tried to compromise. Finding Adams relentless, the governor yielded
+and ordered the regulars away.
+
+The Boston Massacre stirred the country from New Hampshire to Georgia.
+Popular passions ran high. The guilty soldiers were charged with murder.
+Their defense was undertaken, in spite of the wrath of the populace, by
+John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who as lawyers thought even the worst
+offenders entitled to their full rights in law. In his speech to the
+jury, however, Adams warned the British government against its course,
+saying, that "from the nature of things soldiers quartered in a populous
+town will always occasion two mobs where they will prevent one." Two of
+the soldiers were convicted and lightly punished.
+
+=Resistance in the South.=--The year following the Boston Massacre some
+citizens of North Carolina, goaded by the conduct of the royal governor,
+openly resisted his authority. Many were killed as a result and seven
+who were taken prisoners were hanged as traitors. A little later royal
+troops and local militia met in a pitched battle near Alamance River,
+called the "Lexington of the South."
+
+=The _Gaspee_ Affair and the Virginia Resolutions of 1773.=--On sea as
+well as on land, friction between the royal officers and the colonists
+broke out into overt acts. While patrolling Narragansett Bay looking for
+smugglers one day in 1772, the armed ship, _Gaspee_, ran ashore and was
+caught fast. During the night several men from Providence boarded the
+vessel and, after seizing the crew, set it on fire. A royal commission,
+sent to Rhode Island to discover the offenders and bring them to
+account, failed because it could not find a single informer. The very
+appointment of such a commission aroused the patriots of Virginia to
+action; and in March, 1773, the House of Burgesses passed a resolution
+creating a standing committee of correspondence to develop coöperation
+among the colonies in resistance to British measures.
+
+=The Boston Tea Party.=--Although the British government, finding the
+Townshend revenue act a failure, repealed in 1770 all the duties except
+that on tea, it in no way relaxed its resolve to enforce the other
+commercial regulations it had imposed on the colonies. Moreover,
+Parliament decided to relieve the British East India Company of the
+financial difficulties into which it had fallen partly by reason of the
+Tea Act and the colonial boycott that followed. In 1773 it agreed to
+return to the Company the regular import duties, levied in England, on
+all tea transshipped to America. A small impost of three pence, to be
+collected in America, was left as a reminder of the principle laid down
+in the Declaratory Act that Parliament had the right to tax the
+colonists.
+
+This arrangement with the East India Company was obnoxious to the
+colonists for several reasons. It was an act of favoritism for one
+thing, in the interest of a great monopoly. For another thing, it
+promised to dump on the American market, suddenly, an immense amount of
+cheap tea and so cause heavy losses to American merchants who had large
+stocks on hand. It threatened with ruin the business of all those who
+were engaged in clandestine trade with the Dutch. It carried with it an
+irritating tax of three pence on imports. In Charleston, Annapolis, New
+York, and Boston, captains of ships who brought tea under this act were
+roughly handled. One night in December, 1773, a band of Boston citizens,
+disguised as Indians, boarded the hated tea ships and dumped the cargo
+into the harbor. This was serious business, for it was open, flagrant,
+determined violation of the law. As such the British government viewed
+it.
+
+
+RETALIATION BY THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT
+
+=Reception of the News of the Tea Riot.=--The news of the tea riot in
+Boston confirmed King George in his conviction that there should be no
+soft policy in dealing with his American subjects. "The die is cast," he
+stated with evident satisfaction. "The colonies must either triumph or
+submit.... If we take the resolute part, they will undoubtedly be very
+meek." Lord George Germain characterized the tea party as "the
+proceedings of a tumultuous and riotous rabble who ought, if they had
+the least prudence, to follow their mercantile employments and not
+trouble themselves with politics and government, which they do not
+understand." This expressed, in concise form, exactly the sentiments of
+Lord North, who had then for three years been the king's chief minister.
+Even Pitt, Lord Chatham, was prepared to support the government in
+upholding its authority.
+
+=The Five Intolerable Acts.=--Parliament, beginning on March 31, 1774,
+passed five stringent measures, known in American history as the five
+"intolerable acts." They were aimed at curing the unrest in America. The
+_first_ of them was a bill absolutely shutting the port of Boston to
+commerce with the outside world. The _second_, following closely,
+revoked the Massachusetts charter of 1691 and provided furthermore that
+the councilors should be appointed by the king, that all judges should
+be named by the royal governor, and that town meetings (except to elect
+certain officers) could not be held without the governor's consent. A
+_third_ measure, after denouncing the "utter subversion of all lawful
+government" in the provinces, authorized royal agents to transfer to
+Great Britain or to other colonies the trials of officers or other
+persons accused of murder in connection with the enforcement of the law.
+The _fourth_ act legalized the quartering of troops in Massachusetts
+towns. The _fifth_ of the measures was the Quebec Act, which granted
+religious toleration to the Catholics in Canada, extended the boundaries
+of Quebec southward to the Ohio River, and established, in this western
+region, government by a viceroy.
+
+The intolerable acts went through Parliament with extraordinary
+celerity. There was an opposition, alert and informed; but it was
+ineffective. Burke spoke eloquently against the Boston port bill,
+condemning it roundly for punishing the innocent with the guilty, and
+showing how likely it was to bring grave consequences in its train. He
+was heard with respect and his pleas were rejected. The bill passed both
+houses without a division, the entry "unanimous" being made upon their
+journals although it did not accurately represent the state of opinion.
+The law destroying the charter of Massachusetts passed the Commons by a
+vote of three to one; and the third intolerable act by a vote of four to
+one. The triumph of the ministry was complete. "What passed in Boston,"
+exclaimed the great jurist, Lord Mansfield, "is the overt act of High
+Treason proceeding from our over lenity and want of foresight." The
+crown and Parliament were united in resorting to punitive measures.
+
+In the colonies the laws were received with consternation. To the
+American Protestants, the Quebec Act was the most offensive. That
+project they viewed not as an act of grace or of mercy but as a direct
+attempt to enlist French Canadians on the side of Great Britain. The
+British government did not grant religious toleration to Catholics
+either at home or in Ireland and the Americans could see no good motive
+in granting it in North America. The act was also offensive because
+Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia had, under their charters,
+large claims in the territory thus annexed to Quebec.
+
+To enforce these intolerable acts the military arm of the British
+government was brought into play. The commander-in-chief of the armed
+forces in America, General Gage, was appointed governor of
+Massachusetts. Reinforcements were brought to the colonies, for now King
+George was to give "the rebels," as he called them, a taste of strong
+medicine. The majesty of his law was to be vindicated by force.
+
+
+FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION IN AMERICA
+
+=The Doctrine of Natural Rights.=--The dissolution of assemblies, the
+destruction of charters, and the use of troops produced in the colonies
+a new phase in the struggle. In the early days of the contest with the
+British ministry, the Americans spoke of their "rights as Englishmen"
+and condemned the acts of Parliament as unlawful, as violating the
+principles of the English constitution under which they all lived. When
+they saw that such arguments had no effect on Parliament, they turned
+for support to their "natural rights." The latter doctrine, in the form
+in which it was employed by the colonists, was as English as the
+constitutional argument. John Locke had used it with good effect in
+defense of the English revolution in the seventeenth century. American
+leaders, familiar with the writings of Locke, also took up his thesis in
+the hour of their distress. They openly declared that their rights did
+not rest after all upon the English constitution or a charter from the
+crown. "Old Magna Carta was not the beginning of all things," retorted
+Otis when the constitutional argument failed. "A time may come when
+Parliament shall declare every American charter void, but the natural,
+inherent, and inseparable rights of the colonists as men and as citizens
+would remain and whatever became of charters can never be abolished
+until the general conflagration." Of the same opinion was the young and
+impetuous Alexander Hamilton. "The sacred rights of mankind," he
+exclaimed, "are not to be rummaged for among old parchments or musty
+records. They are written as with a sunbeam in the whole volume of human
+destiny by the hand of divinity itself, and can never be erased or
+obscured by mortal power."
+
+Firm as the American leaders were in the statement and defense of their
+rights, there is every reason for believing that in the beginning they
+hoped to confine the conflict to the realm of opinion. They constantly
+avowed that they were loyal to the king when protesting in the strongest
+language against his policies. Even Otis, regarded by the loyalists as a
+firebrand, was in fact attempting to avert revolution by winning
+concessions from England. "I argue this cause with the greater
+pleasure," he solemnly urged in his speech against the writs of
+assistance, "as it is in favor of British liberty ... and as it is in
+opposition to a kind of power, the exercise of which in former periods
+cost one king of England his head and another his throne."
+
+=Burke Offers the Doctrine of Conciliation.=--The flooding tide of
+American sentiment was correctly measured by one Englishman at least,
+Edmund Burke, who quickly saw that attempts to restrain the rise of
+American democracy were efforts to reverse the processes of nature. He
+saw how fixed and rooted in the nature of things was the American
+spirit--how inevitable, how irresistible. He warned his countrymen that
+there were three ways of handling the delicate situation--and only
+three. One was to remove the cause of friction by changing the spirit of
+the colonists--an utter impossibility because that spirit was grounded
+in the essential circumstances of American life. The second was to
+prosecute American leaders as criminals; of this he begged his
+countrymen to beware lest the colonists declare that "a government
+against which a claim of liberty is tantamount to high treason is a
+government to which submission is equivalent to slavery." The third and
+right way to meet the problem, Burke concluded, was to accept the
+American spirit, repeal the obnoxious measures, and receive the colonies
+into equal partnership.
+
+=Events Produce the Great Decision.=--The right way, indicated by Burke,
+was equally impossible to George III and the majority in Parliament. To
+their narrow minds, American opinion was contemptible and American
+resistance unlawful, riotous, and treasonable. The correct way, in their
+view, was to dispatch more troops to crush the "rebels"; and that very
+act took the contest from the realm of opinion. As John Adams said:
+"Facts are stubborn things." Opinions were unseen, but marching soldiers
+were visible to the veriest street urchin. "Now," said Gouverneur
+Morris, "the sheep, simple as they are, cannot be gulled as heretofore."
+It was too late to talk about the excellence of the British
+constitution. If any one is bewildered by the controversies of modern
+historians as to why the crisis came at last, he can clarify his
+understanding by reading again Edmund Burke's stately oration, _On
+Conciliation with America_.
+
+
+=References=
+
+G.L. Beer, _British Colonial Policy_ (1754-63).
+
+E. Channing, _History of the United States_, Vol. III.
+
+R. Frothingham, _Rise of the Republic_.
+
+G.E. Howard, _Preliminaries of the Revolution_ (American Nation Series).
+
+J.K. Hosmer, _Samuel Adams_.
+
+J.T. Morse, _Benjamin Franklin_.
+
+M.C. Tyler, _Patrick Henry_.
+
+J.A. Woodburn (editor), _The American Revolution_ (Selections from the
+English work by Lecky).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Show how the character of George III made for trouble with the
+colonies.
+
+2. Explain why the party and parliamentary systems of England favored
+the plans of George III.
+
+3. How did the state of English finances affect English policy?
+
+4. Enumerate five important measures of the English government affecting
+the colonies between 1763 and 1765. Explain each in detail.
+
+5. Describe American resistance to the Stamp Act. What was the outcome?
+
+6. Show how England renewed her policy of regulation in 1767.
+
+7. Summarize the events connected with American resistance.
+
+8. With what measures did Great Britain retaliate?
+
+9. Contrast "constitutional" with "natural" rights.
+
+10. What solution did Burke offer? Why was it rejected?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Powers Conferred on Revenue Officers by Writs of Assistance.=--See a
+writ in Macdonald, _Source Book_, p. 109.
+
+=The Acts of Parliament Respecting America.=--Macdonald, pp. 117-146.
+Assign one to each student for report and comment.
+
+=Source Studies on the Stamp Act.=--Hart, _American History Told by
+Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 394-412.
+
+=Source Studies of the Townshend Acts.=--Hart, Vol. II, pp. 413-433.
+
+=American Principles.=--Prepare a table of them from the Resolutions of
+the Stamp Act Congress and the Massachusetts Circular. Macdonald, pp.
+136-146.
+
+=An English Historian's View of the Period.=--Green, _Short History of
+England_, Chap. X.
+
+=English Policy Not Injurious to America.=--Callender, _Economic
+History_, pp. 85-121.
+
+=A Review of English Policy.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History of the American
+People_, Vol. II, pp. 129-170.
+
+=The Opening of the Revolution.=--Elson, _History of the United States_,
+pp. 220-235.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
+
+
+RESISTANCE AND RETALIATION
+
+=The Continental Congress.=--When the news of the "intolerable acts"
+reached America, every one knew what strong medicine Parliament was
+prepared to administer to all those who resisted its authority. The
+cause of Massachusetts became the cause of all the colonies. Opposition
+to British policy, hitherto local and spasmodic, now took on a national
+character. To local committees and provincial conventions was added a
+Continental Congress, appropriately called by Massachusetts on June 17,
+1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams. The response to the summons
+was electric. By hurried and irregular methods delegates were elected
+during the summer, and on September 5 the Congress duly assembled in
+Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia. Many of the greatest men in America
+were there--George Washington and Patrick Henry from Virginia and John
+and Samuel Adams from Massachusetts. Every shade of opinion was
+represented. Some were impatient with mild devices; the majority favored
+moderation.
+
+The Congress drew up a declaration of American rights and stated in
+clear and dignified language the grievances of the colonists. It
+approved the resistance to British measures offered by Massachusetts and
+promised the united support of all sections. It prepared an address to
+King George and another to the people of England, disavowing the idea of
+independence but firmly attacking the policies pursued by the British
+government.
+
+=The Non-Importation Agreement.=--The Congress was not content, however,
+with professions of faith and with petitions. It took one revolutionary
+step. It agreed to stop the importation of British goods into America,
+and the enforcement of this agreement it placed in the hands of local
+"committees of safety and inspection," to be elected by the qualified
+voters. The significance of this action is obvious. Congress threw
+itself athwart British law. It made a rule to bind American citizens and
+to be carried into effect by American officers. It set up a state within
+the British state and laid down a test of allegiance to the new order.
+The colonists, who up to this moment had been wavering, had to choose
+one authority or the other. They were for the enforcement of the
+non-importation agreement or they were against it. They either bought
+English goods or they did not. In the spirit of the toast--"May Britain
+be wise and America be free"--the first Continental Congress adjourned
+in October, having appointed the tenth of May following for the meeting
+of a second Congress, should necessity require.
+
+=Lord North's "Olive Branch."=--When the news of the action of the
+American Congress reached England, Pitt and Burke warmly urged a repeal
+of the obnoxious laws, but in vain. All they could wring from the prime
+minister, Lord North, was a set of "conciliatory resolutions" proposing
+to relieve from taxation any colony that would assume its share of
+imperial defense and make provision for supporting the local officers of
+the crown. This "olive branch" was accompanied by a resolution assuring
+the king of support at all hazards in suppressing the rebellion and by
+the restraining act of March 30, 1775, which in effect destroyed the
+commerce of New England.
+
+=Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775).=--Meanwhile the
+British authorities in Massachusetts relaxed none of their efforts in
+upholding British sovereignty. General Gage, hearing that military
+stores had been collected at Concord, dispatched a small force to seize
+them. By this act he precipitated the conflict he had sought to avoid.
+At Lexington, on the road to Concord, occurred "the little thing" that
+produced "the great event." An unexpected collision beyond the thought
+or purpose of any man had transferred the contest from the forum to the
+battle field.
+
+=The Second Continental Congress.=--Though blood had been shed and war
+was actually at hand, the second Continental Congress, which met at
+Philadelphia in May, 1775, was not yet convinced that conciliation was
+beyond human power. It petitioned the king to interpose on behalf of the
+colonists in order that the empire might avoid the calamities of civil
+war. On the last day of July, it made a temperate but firm answer to
+Lord North's offer of conciliation, stating that the proposal was
+unsatisfactory because it did not renounce the right to tax or repeal
+the offensive acts of Parliament.
+
+=Force, the British Answer.=--Just as the representatives of America
+were about to present the last petition of Congress to the king on
+August 23, 1775, George III issued a proclamation of rebellion. This
+announcement declared that the colonists, "misled by dangerous and
+ill-designing men," were in a state of insurrection; it called on the
+civil and military powers to bring "the traitors to justice"; and it
+threatened with "condign punishment the authors, perpetrators, and
+abettors of such traitorous designs." It closed with the usual prayer:
+"God, save the king." Later in the year, Parliament passed a sweeping
+act destroying all trade and intercourse with America. Congress was
+silent at last. Force was also America's answer.
+
+
+AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
+
+=Drifting into War.=--Although the Congress had not given up all hope of
+reconciliation in the spring and summer of 1775, it had firmly resolved
+to defend American rights by arms if necessary. It transformed the
+militiamen who had assembled near Boston, after the battle of Lexington,
+into a Continental army and selected Washington as commander-in-chief.
+It assumed the powers of a government and prepared to raise money, wage
+war, and carry on diplomatic relations with foreign countries.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+SPIRIT OF 1776]
+
+Events followed thick and fast. On June 17, the American militia, by
+the stubborn defense of Bunker Hill, showed that it could make British
+regulars pay dearly for all they got. On July 3, Washington took command
+of the army at Cambridge. In January, 1776, after bitter disappointments
+in drumming up recruits for its army in England, Scotland, and Ireland,
+the British government concluded a treaty with the Landgrave of
+Hesse-Cassel in Germany contracting, at a handsome figure, for thousands
+of soldiers and many pieces of cannon. This was the crowning insult to
+America. Such was the view of all friends of the colonies on both sides
+of the water. Such was, long afterward, the judgment of the conservative
+historian Lecky: "The conduct of England in hiring German mercenaries to
+subdue the essentially English population beyond the Atlantic made
+reconciliation hopeless and independence inevitable." The news of this
+wretched transaction in German soldiers had hardly reached America
+before there ran all down the coast the thrilling story that Washington
+had taken Boston, on March 17, 1776, compelling Lord Howe to sail with
+his entire army for Halifax.
+
+=The Growth of Public Sentiment in Favor of Independence.=--Events were
+bearing the Americans away from their old position under the British
+constitution toward a final separation. Slowly and against their
+desires, prudent and honorable men, who cherished the ties that united
+them to the old order and dreaded with genuine horror all thought of
+revolution, were drawn into the path that led to the great decision. In
+all parts of the country and among all classes, the question of the hour
+was being debated. "American independence," as the historian Bancroft
+says, "was not an act of sudden passion nor the work of one man or one
+assembly. It had been discussed in every part of the country by farmers
+and merchants, by mechanics and planters, by the fishermen along the
+coast and the backwoodsmen of the West; in town meetings and from the
+pulpit; at social gatherings and around the camp fires; in county
+conventions and conferences or committees; in colonial congresses and
+assemblies."
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+THOMAS PAINE]
+
+=Paine's "Commonsense."=--In the midst of this ferment of American
+opinion, a bold and eloquent pamphleteer broke in upon the hesitating
+public with a program for absolute independence, without fears and
+without apologies. In the early days of 1776, Thomas Paine issued the
+first of his famous tracts, "Commonsense," a passionate attack upon the
+British monarchy and an equally passionate plea for American liberty.
+Casting aside the language of petition with which Americans had hitherto
+addressed George III, Paine went to the other extreme and assailed him
+with many a violent epithet. He condemned monarchy itself as a system
+which had laid the world "in blood and ashes." Instead of praising the
+British constitution under which colonists had been claiming their
+rights, he brushed it aside as ridiculous, protesting that it was "owing
+to the constitution of the people, not to the constitution of the
+government, that the Crown is not as oppressive in England as in
+Turkey."
+
+Having thus summarily swept away the grounds of allegiance to the old
+order, Paine proceeded relentlessly to an argument for immediate
+separation from Great Britain. There was nothing in the sphere of
+practical interest, he insisted, which should bind the colonies to the
+mother country. Allegiance to her had been responsible for the many wars
+in which they had been involved. Reasons of trade were not less weighty
+in behalf of independence. "Our corn will fetch its price in any market
+in Europe and our imported goods must be paid for, buy them where we
+will." As to matters of government, "it is not in the power of Britain
+to do this continent justice; the business of it will soon be too
+weighty and intricate to be managed with any tolerable degree of
+convenience by a power so distant from us and so very ignorant of us."
+
+There is accordingly no alternative to independence for America.
+"Everything that is right or natural pleads for separation. The blood of
+the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries ''tis time to part.' ...
+Arms, the last resort, must decide the contest; the appeal was the
+choice of the king and the continent hath accepted the challenge.... The
+sun never shone on a cause of greater worth. 'Tis not the affair of a
+city, a county, a province or a kingdom, but of a continent.... 'Tis not
+the concern of a day, a year or an age; posterity is involved in the
+contest and will be more or less affected to the end of time by the
+proceedings now. Now is the seed-time of Continental union, faith, and
+honor.... O! ye that love mankind! Ye that dare oppose not only the
+tyranny, but the tyrant, stand forth.... Let names of Whig and Tory be
+extinct. Let none other be heard among us than those of a good citizen,
+an open and resolute friend, and a virtuous supporter of the rights of
+mankind and of the free and independent states of America." As more than
+100,000 copies were scattered broadcast over the country, patriots
+exclaimed with Washington: "Sound doctrine and unanswerable reason!"
+
+=The Drift of Events toward Independence.=--Official support for the
+idea of independence began to come from many quarters. On the tenth of
+February, 1776, Gadsden, in the provincial convention of South Carolina,
+advocated a new constitution for the colony and absolute independence
+for all America. The convention balked at the latter but went half way
+by abolishing the system of royal administration and establishing a
+complete plan of self-government. A month later, on April 12, the
+neighboring state of North Carolina uttered the daring phrase from which
+others shrank. It empowered its representatives in the Congress to
+concur with the delegates of the other colonies in declaring
+independence. Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Virginia quickly
+responded to the challenge. The convention of the Old Dominion, on May
+15, instructed its delegates at Philadelphia to propose the independence
+of the United Colonies and to give the assent of Virginia to the act of
+separation. When the resolution was carried the British flag on the
+state house was lowered for all time.
+
+Meanwhile the Continental Congress was alive to the course of events
+outside. The subject of independence was constantly being raised. "Are
+we rebels?" exclaimed Wyeth of Virginia during a debate in February.
+"No: we must declare ourselves a free people." Others hesitated and
+spoke of waiting for the arrival of commissioners of conciliation. "Is
+not America already independent?" asked Samuel Adams a few weeks later.
+"Why not then declare it?" Still there was uncertainty and delegates
+avoided the direct word. A few more weeks elapsed. At last, on May 10,
+Congress declared that the authority of the British crown in America
+must be suppressed and advised the colonies to set up governments of
+their own.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+THOMAS JEFFERSON READING HIS DRAFT OF THE DECLARATION OF
+INDEPENDENCE TO THE COMMITTEE OF CONGRESS]
+
+=Independence Declared.=--The way was fully prepared, therefore, when,
+on June 7, the Virginia delegation in the Congress moved that "these
+united colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent
+states." A committee was immediately appointed to draft a formal
+document setting forth the reasons for the act, and on July 2 all the
+states save New York went on record in favor of severing their political
+connection with Great Britain. Two days later, July 4, Jefferson's draft
+of the Declaration of Independence, changed in some slight particulars,
+was adopted. The old bell in Independence Hall, as it is now known, rang
+out the glad tidings; couriers swiftly carried the news to the uttermost
+hamlet and farm. A new nation announced its will to have a place among
+the powers of the world.
+
+To some documents is given immortality. The Declaration of Independence
+is one of them. American patriotism is forever associated with it; but
+patriotism alone does not make it immortal. Neither does the vigor of
+its language or the severity of its indictment give it a secure place in
+the records of time. The secret of its greatness lies in the simple fact
+that it is one of the memorable landmarks in the history of a political
+ideal which for three centuries has been taking form and spreading
+throughout the earth, challenging kings and potentates, shaking down
+thrones and aristocracies, breaking the armies of irresponsible power on
+battle fields as far apart as Marston Moor and Château-Thierry. That
+ideal, now so familiar, then so novel, is summed up in the simple
+sentence: "Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the
+governed."
+
+Written in a "decent respect for the opinions of mankind," to set forth
+the causes which impelled the American colonists to separate from
+Britain, the Declaration contained a long list of "abuses and
+usurpations" which had induced them to throw off the government of King
+George. That section of the Declaration has passed into "ancient"
+history and is seldom read. It is the part laying down a new basis for
+government and giving a new dignity to the common man that has become a
+household phrase in the Old World as in the New.
+
+In the more enduring passages there are four fundamental ideas which,
+from the standpoint of the old system of government, were the essence of
+revolution: (1) all men are created equal and are endowed by their
+Creator with certain unalienable rights including life, liberty, and the
+pursuit of happiness; (2) the purpose of government is to secure these
+rights; (3) governments derive their just powers from the consent of the
+governed; (4) whenever any form of government becomes destructive of
+these ends it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it and
+institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and
+organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to
+effect their safety and happiness. Here was the prelude to the historic
+drama of democracy--a challenge to every form of government and every
+privilege not founded on popular assent.
+
+
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF GOVERNMENT AND THE NEW ALLEGIANCE
+
+=The Committees of Correspondence.=--As soon as debate had passed into
+armed resistance, the patriots found it necessary to consolidate their
+forces by organizing civil government. This was readily effected, for
+the means were at hand in town meetings, provincial legislatures, and
+committees of correspondence. The working tools of the Revolution were
+in fact the committees of correspondence--small, local, unofficial
+groups of patriots formed to exchange views and create public sentiment.
+As early as November, 1772, such a committee had been created in Boston
+under the leadership of Samuel Adams. It held regular meetings, sent
+emissaries to neighboring towns, and carried on a campaign of education
+in the doctrines of liberty.
+
+[Illustration: THE COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA AT THE TIME OF THE
+DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE]
+
+Upon local organizations similar in character to the Boston committee
+were built county committees and then the larger colonial committees,
+congresses, and conventions, all unofficial and representing the
+revolutionary elements. Ordinarily the provincial convention was merely
+the old legislative assembly freed from all royalist sympathizers and
+controlled by patriots. Finally, upon these colonial assemblies was
+built the Continental Congress, the precursor of union under the
+Articles of Confederation and ultimately under the Constitution of the
+United States. This was the revolutionary government set up within the
+British empire in America.
+
+=State Constitutions Framed.=--With the rise of these new assemblies of
+the people, the old colonial governments broke down. From the royal
+provinces the governor, the judges, and the high officers fled in haste,
+and it became necessary to substitute patriot authorities. The appeal to
+the colonies advising them to adopt a new form of government for
+themselves, issued by the Congress in May, 1776, was quickly acted upon.
+Before the expiration of a year, Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
+Delaware, Maryland, Georgia, and New York had drafted new constitutions
+as states, not as colonies uncertain of their destinies. Connecticut and
+Rhode Island, holding that their ancient charters were equal to their
+needs, merely renounced their allegiance to the king and went on as
+before so far as the form of government was concerned. South Carolina,
+which had drafted a temporary plan early in 1776, drew up a new and more
+complete constitution in 1778. Two years later Massachusetts with much
+deliberation put into force its fundamental law, which in most of its
+essential features remains unchanged to-day.
+
+The new state constitutions in their broad outlines followed colonial
+models. For the royal governor was substituted a governor or president
+chosen usually by the legislature; but in two instances, New York and
+Massachusetts, by popular vote. For the provincial council there was
+substituted, except in Georgia, a senate; while the lower house, or
+assembly, was continued virtually without change. The old property
+restriction on the suffrage, though lowered slightly in some states, was
+continued in full force to the great discontent of the mechanics thus
+deprived of the ballot. The special qualifications, laid down in several
+constitutions, for governors, senators, and representatives, indicated
+that the revolutionary leaders were not prepared for any radical
+experiments in democracy. The protests of a few women, like Mrs. John
+Adams of Massachusetts and Mrs. Henry Corbin of Virginia, against a
+government which excluded them from political rights were treated as
+mild curiosities of no significance, although in New Jersey women were
+allowed to vote for many years on the same terms as men.
+
+By the new state constitutions the signs and symbols of royal power, of
+authority derived from any source save "the people," were swept aside
+and republican governments on an imposing scale presented for the first
+time to the modern world. Copies of these remarkable documents prepared
+by plain citizens were translated into French and widely circulated in
+Europe. There they were destined to serve as a guide and inspiration to
+a generation of constitution-makers whose mission it was to begin the
+democratic revolution in the Old World.
+
+=The Articles of Confederation.=--The formation of state constitutions
+was an easy task for the revolutionary leaders. They had only to build
+on foundations already laid. The establishment of a national system of
+government was another matter. There had always been, it must be
+remembered, a system of central control over the colonies, but Americans
+had had little experience in its operation. When the supervision of the
+crown of Great Britain was suddenly broken, the patriot leaders,
+accustomed merely to provincial statesmanship, were poorly trained for
+action on a national stage.
+
+Many forces worked against those who, like Franklin, had a vision of
+national destiny. There were differences in economic interest--commerce
+and industry in the North and the planting system of the South. There
+were contests over the apportionment of taxes and the quotas of troops
+for common defense. To these practical difficulties were added local
+pride, the vested rights of state and village politicians in their
+provincial dignity, and the scarcity of men with a large outlook upon
+the common enterprise.
+
+Nevertheless, necessity compelled them to consider some sort of
+federation. The second Continental Congress had hardly opened its work
+before the most sagacious leaders began to urge the desirability of a
+permanent connection. As early as July, 1775, Congress resolved to go
+into a committee of the whole on the state of the union, and Franklin,
+undaunted by the fate of his Albany plan of twenty years before, again
+presented a draft of a constitution. Long and desultory debates followed
+and it was not until late in 1777 that Congress presented to the states
+the Articles of Confederation. Provincial jealousies delayed
+ratification, and it was the spring of 1781, a few months before the
+surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, when Maryland, the last of the
+states, approved the Articles. This plan of union, though it was all
+that could be wrung from the reluctant states, provided for neither a
+chief executive nor a system of federal courts. It created simply a
+Congress of delegates in which each state had an equal voice and gave it
+the right to call upon the state legislatures for the sinews of
+government--money and soldiers.
+
+=The Application of Tests of Allegiance.=--As the successive steps were
+taken in the direction of independent government, the patriots devised
+and applied tests designed to discover who were for and who were against
+the new nation in the process of making. When the first Continental
+Congress agreed not to allow the importation of British goods, it
+provided for the creation of local committees to enforce the rules. Such
+agencies were duly formed by the choice of men favoring the scheme, all
+opponents being excluded from the elections. Before these bodies those
+who persisted in buying British goods were summoned and warned or
+punished according to circumstances. As soon as the new state
+constitutions were put into effect, local committees set to work in the
+same way to ferret out all who were not outspoken in their support of
+the new order of things.
+
+[Illustration: MOBBING THE TORIES]
+
+These patriot agencies, bearing different names in different sections,
+were sometimes ruthless in their methods. They called upon all men to
+sign the test of loyalty, frequently known as the "association test."
+Those who refused were promptly branded as outlaws, while some of the
+more dangerous were thrown into jail. The prison camp in Connecticut at
+one time held the former governor of New Jersey and the mayor of New
+York. Thousands were black-listed and subjected to espionage. The
+black-list of Pennsylvania contained the names of nearly five hundred
+persons of prominence who were under suspicion. Loyalists or Tories who
+were bold enough to speak and write against the Revolution were
+suppressed and their pamphlets burned. In many places, particularly in
+the North, the property of the loyalists was confiscated and the
+proceeds applied to the cause of the Revolution.
+
+The work of the official agencies for suppression of opposition was
+sometimes supplemented by mob violence. A few Tories were hanged without
+trial, and others were tarred and feathered. One was placed upon a cake
+of ice and held there "until his loyalty to King George might cool."
+Whole families were driven out of their homes to find their way as best
+they could within the British lines or into Canada, where the British
+government gave them lands. Such excesses were deplored by Washington,
+but they were defended on the ground that in effect a civil war, as well
+as a war for independence, was being waged.
+
+=The Patriots and Tories.=--Thus, by one process or another, those who
+were to be citizens of the new republic were separated from those who
+preferred to be subjects of King George. Just what proportion of the
+Americans favored independence and what share remained loyal to the
+British monarchy there is no way of knowing. The question of revolution
+was not submitted to popular vote, and on the point of numbers we have
+conflicting evidence. On the patriot side, there is the testimony of a
+careful and informed observer, John Adams, who asserted that two-thirds
+of the people were for the American cause and not more than one-third
+opposed the Revolution at all stages.
+
+On behalf of the loyalists, or Tories as they were popularly known,
+extravagant claims were made. Joseph Galloway, who had been a member of
+the first Continental Congress and had fled to England when he saw its
+temper, testified before a committee of Parliament in 1779 that not
+one-fifth of the American people supported the insurrection and that
+"many more than four-fifths of the people prefer a union with Great
+Britain upon constitutional principles to independence." At the same
+time General Robertson, who had lived in America twenty-four years,
+declared that "more than two-thirds of the people would prefer the
+king's government to the Congress' tyranny." In an address to the king
+in that year a committee of American loyalists asserted that "the number
+of Americans in his Majesty's army exceeded the number of troops
+enlisted by Congress to oppose them."
+
+=The Character of the Loyalists.=--When General Howe evacuated Boston,
+more than a thousand people fled with him. This great company, according
+to a careful historian, "formed the aristocracy of the province by
+virtue of their official rank; of their dignified callings and
+professions; of their hereditary wealth and of their culture." The act
+of banishment passed by Massachusetts in 1778, listing over 300 Tories,
+"reads like the social register of the oldest and noblest families of
+New England," more than one out of five being graduates of Harvard
+College. The same was true of New York and Philadelphia; namely, that
+the leading loyalists were prominent officials of the old order,
+clergymen and wealthy merchants. With passion the loyalists fought
+against the inevitable or with anguish of heart they left as refugees
+for a life of uncertainty in Canada or the mother country.
+
+=Tories Assail the Patriots.=--The Tories who remained in America joined
+the British army by the thousands or in other ways aided the royal
+cause. Those who were skillful with the pen assailed the patriots in
+editorials, rhymes, satires, and political catechisms. They declared
+that the members of Congress were "obscure, pettifogging attorneys,
+bankrupt shopkeepers, outlawed smugglers, etc." The people and their
+leaders they characterized as "wretched banditti ... the refuse and
+dregs of mankind." The generals in the army they sneered at as "men of
+rank and honor nearly on a par with those of the Congress."
+
+=Patriot Writers Arouse the National Spirit.=--Stung by Tory taunts,
+patriot writers devoted themselves to creating and sustaining a public
+opinion favorable to the American cause. Moreover, they had to combat
+the depression that grew out of the misfortunes in the early days of the
+war. A terrible disaster befell Generals Arnold and Montgomery in the
+winter of 1775 as they attempted to bring Canada into the revolution--a
+disaster that cost 5000 men; repeated calamities harassed Washington in
+1776 as he was defeated on Long Island, driven out of New York City, and
+beaten at Harlem Heights and White Plains. These reverses were almost
+too great for the stoutest patriots.
+
+Pamphleteers, preachers, and publicists rose, however, to meet the needs
+of the hour. John Witherspoon, provost of the College of New Jersey,
+forsook the classroom for the field of political controversy. The poet,
+Philip Freneau, flung taunts of cowardice at the Tories and celebrated
+the spirit of liberty in many a stirring poem. Songs, ballads, plays,
+and satires flowed from the press in an unending stream. Fast days,
+battle anniversaries, celebrations of important steps taken by Congress
+afforded to patriotic clergymen abundant opportunities for sermons.
+"Does Mr. Wiberd preach against oppression?" anxiously inquired John
+Adams in a letter to his wife. The answer was decisive. "The clergy of
+every denomination, not excepting the Episcopalian, thunder and lighten
+every Sabbath. They pray for Boston and Massachusetts. They thank God
+most explicitly and fervently for our remarkable successes. They pray
+for the American army."
+
+Thomas Paine never let his pen rest. He had been with the forces of
+Washington when they retreated from Fort Lee and were harried from New
+Jersey into Pennsylvania. He knew the effect of such reverses on the
+army as well as on the public. In December, 1776, he made a second great
+appeal to his countrymen in his pamphlet, "The Crisis," the first part
+of which he had written while defeat and gloom were all about him. This
+tract was a cry for continued support of the Revolution. "These are the
+times that try men's souls," he opened. "The summer soldier and the
+sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his
+country; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of men
+and women." Paine laid his lash fiercely on the Tories, branding every
+one as a coward grounded in "servile, slavish, self-interested fear." He
+deplored the inadequacy of the militia and called for a real army. He
+refuted the charge that the retreat through New Jersey was a disaster
+and he promised victory soon. "By perseverance and fortitude," he
+concluded, "we have the prospect of a glorious issue; by cowardice and
+submission the sad choice of a variety of evils--a ravaged country, a
+depopulated city, habitations without safety and slavery without
+hope.... Look on this picture and weep over it." His ringing call to
+arms was followed by another and another until the long contest was
+over.
+
+
+MILITARY AFFAIRS
+
+=The Two Phases of the War.=--The war which opened with the battle of
+Lexington, on April 19, 1775, and closed with the surrender of
+Cornwallis at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, passed through two distinct
+phases--the first lasting until the treaty of alliance with France, in
+1778, and the second until the end of the struggle. During the first
+phase, the war was confined mainly to the North. The outstanding
+features of the contest were the evacuation of Boston by the British,
+the expulsion of American forces from New York and their retreat through
+New Jersey, the battle of Trenton, the seizure of Philadelphia by the
+British (September, 1777), the invasion of New York by Burgoyne and his
+capture at Saratoga in October, 1777, and the encampment of American
+forces at Valley Forge for the terrible winter of 1777-78.
+
+The final phase of the war, opening with the treaty of alliance with
+France on February 6, 1778, was confined mainly to the Middle states,
+the West, and the South. In the first sphere of action the chief events
+were the withdrawal of the British from Philadelphia, the battle of
+Monmouth, and the inclosure of the British in New York by deploying
+American forces from Morristown, New Jersey, up to West Point. In the
+West, George Rogers Clark, by his famous march into the Illinois
+country, secured Kaskaskia and Vincennes and laid a firm grip on the
+country between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. In the South, the second
+period opened with successes for the British. They captured Savannah,
+conquered Georgia, and restored the royal governor. In 1780 they seized
+Charleston, administered a crushing defeat to the American forces under
+Gates at Camden, and overran South Carolina, though meeting reverses at
+Cowpens and King's Mountain. Then came the closing scenes. Cornwallis
+began the last of his operations. He pursued General Greene far into
+North Carolina, clashed with him at Guilford Court House, retired to the
+coast, took charge of British forces engaged in plundering Virginia, and
+fortified Yorktown, where he was penned up by the French fleet from the
+sea and the combined French and American forces on land.
+
+=The Geographical Aspects of the War.=--For the British the theater of
+the war offered many problems. From first to last it extended from
+Massachusetts to Georgia, a distance of almost a thousand miles. It was
+nearly three thousand miles from the main base of supplies and, though
+the British navy kept the channel open, transports were constantly
+falling prey to daring privateers and fleet American war vessels. The
+sea, on the other hand, offered an easy means of transportation between
+points along the coast and gave ready access to the American centers of
+wealth and population. Of this the British made good use. Though early
+forced to give up Boston, they seized New York and kept it until the end
+of the war; they took Philadelphia and retained it until threatened by
+the approach of the French fleet; and they captured and held both
+Savannah and Charleston. Wars, however, are seldom won by the conquest
+of cities.
+
+Particularly was this true in the case of the Revolution. Only a small
+portion of the American people lived in towns. Countrymen back from the
+coast were in no way dependent upon them for a livelihood. They lived on
+the produce of the soil, not upon the profits of trade. This very fact
+gave strength to them in the contest. Whenever the British ventured far
+from the ports of entry, they encountered reverses. Burgoyne was forced
+to surrender at Saratoga because he was surrounded and cut off from his
+base of supplies. As soon as the British got away from Charleston, they
+were harassed and worried by the guerrilla warriors of Marion, Sumter,
+and Pickens. Cornwallis could technically defeat Greene at Guilford far
+in the interior; but he could not hold the inland region he had invaded.
+Sustained by their own labor, possessing the interior to which their
+armies could readily retreat, supplied mainly from native resources, the
+Americans could not be hemmed in, penned up, and destroyed at one fell
+blow.
+
+=The Sea Power.=--The British made good use of their fleet in cutting
+off American trade, but control of the sea did not seriously affect the
+United States. As an agricultural country, the ruin of its commerce was
+not such a vital matter. All the materials for a comfortable though
+somewhat rude life were right at hand. It made little difference to a
+nation fighting for existence, if silks, fine linens, and chinaware were
+cut off. This was an evil to which submission was necessary.
+
+Nor did the brilliant exploits of John Paul Jones and Captain John Barry
+materially change the situation. They demonstrated the skill of American
+seamen and their courage as fighting men. They raised the rates of
+British marine insurance, but they did not dethrone the mistress of the
+seas. Less spectacular, and more distinctive, were the deeds of the
+hundreds of privateers and minor captains who overhauled British supply
+ships and kept British merchantmen in constant anxiety. Not until the
+French fleet was thrown into the scale, were the British compelled to
+reckon seriously with the enemy on the sea and make plans based upon the
+possibilities of a maritime disaster.
+
+=Commanding Officers.=--On the score of military leadership it is
+difficult to compare the contending forces in the revolutionary contest.
+There is no doubt that all the British commanders were men of experience
+in the art of warfare. Sir William Howe had served in America during the
+French War and was accounted an excellent officer, a strict
+disciplinarian, and a gallant gentleman. Nevertheless he loved ease,
+society, and good living, and his expulsion from Boston, his failure to
+overwhelm Washington by sallies from his comfortable bases at New York
+and Philadelphia, destroyed every shred of his military reputation. John
+Burgoyne, to whom was given the task of penetrating New York from
+Canada, had likewise seen service in the French War both in America and
+Europe. He had, however, a touch of the theatrical in his nature and
+after the collapse of his plans and the surrender of his army in 1777,
+he devoted his time mainly to light literature. Sir Henry Clinton, who
+directed the movement which ended in the capture of Charleston in 1780,
+had "learned his trade on the continent," and was regarded as a man of
+discretion and understanding in military matters. Lord Cornwallis, whose
+achievements at Camden and Guilford were blotted out by his surrender at
+Yorktown, had seen service in the Seven Years' War and had undoubted
+talents which he afterward displayed with great credit to himself in
+India. Though none of them, perhaps, were men of first-rate ability,
+they all had training and experience to guide them.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON]
+
+The Americans had a host in Washington himself. He had long been
+interested in military strategy and had tested his coolness under fire
+during the first clashes with the French nearly twenty years before. He
+had no doubts about the justice of his cause, such as plagued some of
+the British generals. He was a stern but reasonable disciplinarian. He
+was reserved and patient, little given to exaltation at success or
+depression at reverses. In the dark hour of the Revolution, "what held
+the patriot forces together?" asks Beveridge in his _Life of John
+Marshall_. Then he answers: "George Washington and he alone. Had he
+died or been seriously disabled, the Revolution would have ended....
+Washington was the soul of the American cause. Washington was the
+government. Washington was the Revolution." The weakness of Congress in
+furnishing men and supplies, the indolence of civilians, who lived at
+ease while the army starved, the intrigues of army officers against him
+such as the "Conway cabal," the cowardice of Lee at Monmouth, even the
+treason of Benedict Arnold, while they stirred deep emotions in his
+breast and aroused him to make passionate pleas to his countrymen, did
+not shake his iron will or his firm determination to see the war through
+to the bitter end. The weight of Washington's moral force was
+immeasurable.
+
+Of the generals who served under him, none can really be said to have
+been experienced military men when the war opened. Benedict Arnold, the
+unhappy traitor but brave and daring soldier, was a druggist, book
+seller, and ship owner at New Haven when the news of Lexington called
+him to battle. Horatio Gates was looked upon as a "seasoned soldier"
+because he had entered the British army as a youth, had been wounded at
+Braddock's memorable defeat, and had served with credit during the Seven
+Years' War; but he was the most conspicuous failure of the Revolution.
+The triumph over Burgoyne was the work of other men; and his crushing
+defeat at Camden put an end to his military pretensions. Nathanael
+Greene was a Rhode Island farmer and smith without military experience
+who, when convinced that war was coming, read Cæsar's _Commentaries_ and
+took up the sword. Francis Marion was a shy and modest planter of South
+Carolina whose sole passage at arms had been a brief but desperate brush
+with the Indians ten or twelve years earlier. Daniel Morgan, one of the
+heroes of Cowpens, had been a teamster with Braddock's army and had seen
+some fighting during the French and Indian War, but his military
+knowledge, from the point of view of a trained British officer, was
+negligible. John Sullivan was a successful lawyer at Durham, New
+Hampshire, and a major in the local militia when duty summoned him to
+lay down his briefs and take up the sword. Anthony Wayne was a
+Pennsylvania farmer and land surveyor who, on hearing the clash of arms,
+read a few books on war, raised a regiment, and offered himself for
+service. Such is the story of the chief American military leaders, and
+it is typical of them all. Some had seen fighting with the French and
+Indians, but none of them had seen warfare on a large scale with regular
+troops commanded according to the strategy evolved in European
+experience. Courage, native ability, quickness of mind, and knowledge of
+the country they had in abundance, and in battles such as were fought
+during the Revolution all those qualities counted heavily in the
+balance.
+
+=Foreign Officers in American Service.=--To native genius was added
+military talent from beyond the seas. Baron Steuben, well schooled in
+the iron régime of Frederick the Great, came over from Prussia, joined
+Washington at Valley Forge, and day after day drilled and manoeuvered the
+men, laughing and cursing as he turned raw countrymen into regular
+soldiers. From France came young Lafayette and the stern De Kalb, from
+Poland came Pulaski and Kosciusko;--all acquainted with the arts of war
+as waged in Europe and fitted for leadership as well as teaching.
+Lafayette came early, in 1776, in a ship of his own, accompanied by
+several officers of wide experience, and remained loyally throughout the
+war sharing the hardships of American army life. Pulaski fell at the
+siege of Savannah and De Kalb at Camden. Kosciusko survived the American
+war to defend in vain the independence of his native land. To these
+distinguished foreigners, who freely threw in their lot with American
+revolutionary fortunes, was due much of that spirit and discipline which
+fitted raw recruits and temperamental militiamen to cope with a military
+power of the first rank.
+
+=The Soldiers.=--As far as the British soldiers were concerned their
+annals are short and simple. The regulars from the standing army who
+were sent over at the opening of the contest, the recruits drummed up
+by special efforts at home, and the thousands of Hessians bought
+outright by King George presented few problems of management to the
+British officers. These common soldiers were far away from home and
+enlisted for the war. Nearly all of them were well disciplined and many
+of them experienced in actual campaigns. The armies of King George
+fought bravely, as the records of Bunker Hill, Brandywine, and Monmouth
+demonstrate. Many a man and subordinate officer and, for that matter,
+some of the high officers expressed a reluctance at fighting against
+their own kin; but they obeyed orders.
+
+The Americans, on the other hand, while they fought with grim
+determination, as men fighting for their homes, were lacking in
+discipline and in the experience of regular troops. When the war broke
+in upon them, there were no common preparations for it. There was no
+continental army; there were only local bands of militiamen, many of
+them experienced in fighting but few of them "regulars" in the military
+sense. Moreover they were volunteers serving for a short time,
+unaccustomed to severe discipline, and impatient at the restraints
+imposed on them by long and arduous campaigns. They were continually
+leaving the service just at the most critical moments. "The militia,"
+lamented Washington, "come in, you cannot tell how; go, you cannot tell
+where; consume your provisions; exhaust your stores; and leave you at
+last at a critical moment."
+
+Again and again Washington begged Congress to provide for an army of
+regulars enlisted for the war, thoroughly trained and paid according to
+some definite plan. At last he was able to overcome, in part at least,
+the chronic fear of civilians in Congress and to wring from that
+reluctant body an agreement to grant half pay to all officers and a
+bonus to all privates who served until the end of the war. Even this
+scheme, which Washington regarded as far short of justice to the
+soldiers, did not produce quick results. It was near the close of the
+conflict before he had an army of well-disciplined veterans capable of
+meeting British regulars on equal terms.
+
+Though there were times when militiamen and frontiersmen did valiant and
+effective work, it is due to historical accuracy to deny the
+time-honored tradition that a few minutemen overwhelmed more numerous
+forces of regulars in a seven years' war for independence. They did
+nothing of the sort. For the victories of Bennington, Trenton, Saratoga,
+and Yorktown there were the defeats of Bunker Hill, Long Island, White
+Plains, Germantown, and Camden. Not once did an army of militiamen
+overcome an equal number of British regulars in an open trial by battle.
+"To bring men to be well acquainted with the duties of a soldier," wrote
+Washington, "requires time.... To expect the same service from raw and
+undisciplined recruits as from veteran soldiers is to expect what never
+did and perhaps never will happen."
+
+=How the War Was Won.=--Then how did the American army win the war? For
+one thing there were delays and blunders on the part of the British
+generals who, in 1775 and 1776, dallied in Boston and New York with
+large bodies of regular troops when they might have been dealing
+paralyzing blows at the scattered bands that constituted the American
+army. "Nothing but the supineness or folly of the enemy could have saved
+us," solemnly averred Washington in 1780. Still it is fair to say that
+this apparent supineness was not all due to the British generals. The
+ministers behind them believed that a large part of the colonists were
+loyal and that compromise would be promoted by inaction rather than by a
+war vigorously prosecuted. Victory by masterly inactivity was obviously
+better than conquest, and the slighter the wounds the quicker the
+healing. Later in the conflict when the seasoned forces of France were
+thrown into the scale, the Americans themselves had learned many things
+about the practical conduct of campaigns. All along, the British were
+embarrassed by the problem of supplies. Their troops could not forage
+with the skill of militiamen, as they were in unfamiliar territory. The
+long oversea voyages were uncertain at best and doubly so when the
+warships of France joined the American privateers in preying on supply
+boats.
+
+The British were in fact battered and worn down by a guerrilla war and
+outdone on two important occasions by superior forces--at Saratoga and
+Yorktown. Stern facts convinced them finally that an immense army, which
+could be raised only by a supreme effort, would be necessary to subdue
+the colonies if that hazardous enterprise could be accomplished at all.
+They learned also that America would then be alienated, fretful, and the
+scene of endless uprisings calling for an army of occupation. That was a
+price which staggered even Lord North and George III. Moreover, there
+were forces of opposition at home with which they had to reckon.
+
+=Women and the War.=--At no time were the women of America indifferent
+to the struggle for independence. When it was confined to the realm of
+opinion they did their part in creating public sentiment. Mrs. Elizabeth
+Timothee, for example, founded in Charleston, in 1773, a newspaper to
+espouse the cause of the province. Far to the north the sister of James
+Otis, Mrs. Mercy Warren, early begged her countrymen to rest their case
+upon their natural rights, and in influential circles she urged the
+leaders to stand fast by their principles. While John Adams was tossing
+about with uncertainty at the Continental Congress, his wife was writing
+letters to him declaring her faith in "independency."
+
+When the war came down upon the country, women helped in every field. In
+sustaining public sentiment they were active. Mrs. Warren with a
+tireless pen combatted loyalist propaganda in many a drama and satire.
+Almost every revolutionary leader had a wife or daughter who rendered
+service in the "second line of defense." Mrs. Washington managed the
+plantation while the General was at the front and went north to face the
+rigors of the awful winter at Valley Forge--an inspiration to her
+husband and his men. The daughter of Benjamin Franklin, Mrs. Sarah
+Bache, while her father was pleading the American cause in France, set
+the women of Pennsylvania to work sewing and collecting supplies. Even
+near the firing line women were to be found, aiding the wounded, hauling
+powder to the front, and carrying dispatches at the peril of their
+lives.
+
+In the economic sphere, the work of women was invaluable. They harvested
+crops without enjoying the picturesque title of "farmerettes" and they
+canned and preserved for the wounded and the prisoners of war. Of their
+labor in spinning and weaving it is recorded: "Immediately on being cut
+off from the use of English manufactures, the women engaged within their
+own families in manufacturing various kinds of cloth for domestic use.
+They thus kept their households decently clad and the surplus of their
+labors they sold to such as chose to buy rather than make for
+themselves. In this way the female part of families by their industry
+and strict economy frequently supported the whole domestic circle,
+evincing the strength of their attachment and the value of their
+service."
+
+For their war work, women were commended by high authorities on more
+than one occasion. They were given medals and public testimonials even
+as in our own day. Washington thanked them for their labors and paid
+tribute to them for the inspiration and material aid which they had
+given to the cause of independence.
+
+
+THE FINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION
+
+When the Revolution opened, there were thirteen little treasuries in
+America but no common treasury, and from first to last the Congress was
+in the position of a beggar rather than a sovereign. Having no authority
+to lay and collect taxes directly and knowing the hatred of the
+provincials for taxation, it resorted mainly to loans and paper money to
+finance the war. "Do you think," boldly inquired one of the delegates,
+"that I will consent to load my constituents with taxes when we can send
+to the printer and get a wagon load of money, one quire of which will
+pay for the whole?"
+
+=Paper Money and Loans.=--Acting on this curious but appealing political
+economy, Congress issued in June, 1776, two million dollars in bills of
+credit to be redeemed by the states on the basis of their respective
+populations. Other issues followed in quick succession. In all about
+$241,000,000 of continental paper was printed, to which the several
+states added nearly $210,000,000 of their own notes. Then came
+interest-bearing bonds in ever increasing quantities. Several millions
+were also borrowed from France and small sums from Holland and Spain. In
+desperation a national lottery was held, producing meager results. The
+property of Tories was confiscated and sold, bringing in about
+$16,000,000. Begging letters were sent to the states asking them to
+raise revenues for the continental treasury, but the states, burdened
+with their own affairs, gave little heed.
+
+=Inflation and Depreciation.=--As paper money flowed from the press, it
+rapidly declined in purchasing power until in 1779 a dollar was worth
+only two or three cents in gold or silver. Attempts were made by
+Congress and the states to compel people to accept the notes at face
+value; but these were like attempts to make water flow uphill.
+Speculators collected at once to fatten on the calamities of the
+republic. Fortunes were made and lost gambling on the prices of public
+securities while the patriot army, half clothed, was freezing at Valley
+Forge. "Speculation, peculation, engrossing, forestalling," exclaimed
+Washington, "afford too many melancholy proofs of the decay of public
+virtue. Nothing, I am convinced, but the depreciation of our currency
+... aided by stock jobbing and party dissensions has fed the hopes of
+the enemy."
+
+=The Patriot Financiers.=--To the efforts of Congress in financing the
+war were added the labors of private citizens. Hayn Solomon, a merchant
+of Philadelphia, supplied members of Congress, including Madison,
+Jefferson, and Monroe, and army officers, like Lee and Steuben, with
+money for their daily needs. All together he contributed the huge sum of
+half a million dollars to the American cause and died broken in purse,
+if not in spirit, a British prisoner of war. Another Philadelphia
+merchant, Robert Morris, won for himself the name of the "patriot
+financier" because he labored night and day to find the money to meet
+the bills which poured in upon the bankrupt government. When his own
+funds were exhausted, he borrowed from his friends. Experienced in the
+handling of merchandise, he created agencies at important points to
+distribute supplies to the troops, thus displaying administrative as
+well as financial talents.
+
+[Illustration: ROBERT MORRIS]
+
+Women organized "drives" for money, contributed their plate and their
+jewels, and collected from door to door. Farmers took worthless paper in
+return for their produce, and soldiers saw many a pay day pass without
+yielding them a penny. Thus by the labors and sacrifices of citizens,
+the issuance of paper money, lotteries, the floating of loans,
+borrowings in Europe, and the impressment of supplies, the Congress
+staggered through the Revolution like a pauper who knows not how his
+next meal is to be secured but is continuously relieved at a crisis by a
+kindly fate.
+
+
+THE DIPLOMACY OF THE REVOLUTION
+
+When the full measure of honor is given to the soldiers and sailors and
+their commanding officers, the civilians who managed finances and
+supplies, the writers who sustained the American spirit, and the women
+who did well their part, there yet remains the duty of recognizing the
+achievements of diplomacy. The importance of this field of activity was
+keenly appreciated by the leaders in the Continental Congress. They were
+fairly well versed in European history. They knew of the balance of
+power and the sympathies, interests, and prejudices of nations and their
+rulers. All this information they turned to good account, in opening
+relations with continental countries and seeking money, supplies, and
+even military assistance. For the transaction of this delicate business,
+they created a secret committee on foreign correspondence as early as
+1775 and prepared to send agents abroad.
+
+=American Agents Sent Abroad.=--Having heard that France was inclining a
+friendly ear to the American cause, the Congress, in March, 1776, sent a
+commissioner to Paris, Silas Deane of Connecticut, often styled the
+"first American diplomat." Later in the year a form of treaty to be
+presented to foreign powers was drawn up, and Franklin, Arthur Lee, and
+Deane were selected as American representatives at the court of "His
+Most Christian Majesty the King of France." John Jay of New York was
+chosen minister to Spain in 1779; John Adams was sent to Holland the
+same year; and other agents were dispatched to Florence, Vienna, and
+Berlin. The representative selected for St. Petersburg spent two
+fruitless years there, "ignored by the court, living in obscurity and
+experiencing nothing but humiliation and failure." Frederick the Great,
+king of Prussia, expressed a desire to find in America a market for
+Silesian linens and woolens, but, fearing England's command of the sea,
+he refused to give direct aid to the Revolutionary cause.
+
+=Early French Interest.=--The great diplomatic triumph of the Revolution
+was won at Paris, and Benjamin Franklin was the hero of the occasion,
+although many circumstances prepared the way for his success. Louis
+XVI's foreign minister, Count de Vergennes, before the arrival of any
+American representative, had brought to the attention of the king the
+opportunity offered by the outbreak of the war between England and her
+colonies. He showed him how France could redress her grievances and
+"reduce the power and greatness of England"--the empire that in 1763 had
+forced upon her a humiliating peace "at the price of our possessions,
+of our commerce, and our credit in the Indies, at the price of Canada,
+Louisiana, Isle Royale, Acadia, and Senegal." Equally successful in
+gaining the king's interest was a curious French adventurer,
+Beaumarchais, a man of wealth, a lover of music, and the author of two
+popular plays, "Figaro" and "The Barber of Seville." These two men had
+already urged upon the king secret aid for America before Deane appeared
+on the scene. Shortly after his arrival they made confidential
+arrangements to furnish money, clothing, powder, and other supplies to
+the struggling colonies, although official requests for them were
+officially refused by the French government.
+
+=Franklin at Paris.=--When Franklin reached Paris, he was received only
+in private by the king's minister, Vergennes. The French people,
+however, made manifest their affection for the "plain republican" in
+"his full dress suit of spotted Manchester velvet." He was known among
+men of letters as an author, a scientist, and a philosopher of
+extraordinary ability. His "Poor Richard" had thrice been translated
+into French and was scattered in numerous editions throughout the
+kingdom. People of all ranks--ministers, ladies at court, philosophers,
+peasants, and stable boys--knew of Franklin and wished him success in
+his mission. The queen, Marie Antoinette, fated to lose her head in a
+revolution soon to follow, played with fire by encouraging "our dear
+republican."
+
+For the king of France, however, this was more serious business. England
+resented the presence of this "traitor" in Paris, and Louis had to be
+cautious about plunging into another war that might also end
+disastrously. Moreover, the early period of Franklin's sojourn in Paris
+was a dark hour for the American Revolution. Washington's brilliant
+exploit at Trenton on Christmas night, 1776, and the battle with
+Cornwallis at Princeton had been followed by the disaster at Brandywine,
+the loss of Philadelphia, the defeat at Germantown, and the retirement
+to Valley Forge for the winter of 1777-78. New York City and
+Philadelphia--two strategic ports--were in British hands; the Hudson
+and Delaware rivers were blocked; and General Burgoyne with his British
+troops was on his way down through the heart of northern New York,
+cutting New England off from the rest of the colonies. No wonder the
+king was cautious. Then the unexpected happened. Burgoyne, hemmed in
+from all sides by the American forces, his flanks harried, his foraging
+parties beaten back, his supplies cut off, surrendered on October 17,
+1777, to General Gates, who had superseded General Schuyler in time to
+receive the honor.
+
+=Treaties of Alliance and Commerce (1778).=--News of this victory,
+placed by historians among the fifteen decisive battles of the world,
+reached Franklin one night early in December while he and some friends
+sat gloomily at dinner. Beaumarchais, who was with him, grasped at once
+the meaning of the situation and set off to the court at Versailles with
+such haste that he upset his coach and dislocated his arm. The king and
+his ministers were at last convinced that the hour had come to aid the
+Revolution. Treaties of commerce and alliance were drawn up and signed
+in February, 1778. The independence of the United States was recognized
+by France and an alliance was formed to guarantee that independence.
+Combined military action was agreed upon and Louis then formally
+declared war on England. Men who had, a few short years before, fought
+one another in the wilderness of Pennsylvania or on the Plains of
+Abraham, were now ranged side by side in a war on the Empire that Pitt
+had erected and that George III was pulling down.
+
+=Spain and Holland Involved.=--Within a few months, Spain, remembering
+the steady decline of her sea power since the days of the Armada and
+hoping to drive the British out of Gibraltar, once more joined the
+concert of nations against England. Holland, a member of a league of
+armed neutrals formed in protest against British searches on the high
+seas, sent her fleet to unite with the forces of Spain, France, and
+America to prey upon British commerce. To all this trouble for England
+was added the danger of a possible revolt in Ireland, where the spirit
+of independence was flaming up.
+
+=The British Offer Terms to America.=--Seeing the colonists about to be
+joined by France in a common war on the English empire, Lord North
+proposed, in February, 1778, a renewal of negotiations. By solemn
+enactment, Parliament declared its intention not to exercise the right
+of imposing taxes within the colonies; at the same time it authorized
+the opening of negotiations through commissioners to be sent to America.
+A truce was to be established, pardons granted, objectionable laws
+suspended, and the old imperial constitution, as it stood before the
+opening of hostilities, restored to full vigor. It was too late. Events
+had taken the affairs of America out of the hands of British
+commissioners and diplomats.
+
+=Effects of French Aid.=--The French alliance brought ships of war,
+large sums of gold and silver, loads of supplies, and a considerable
+body of trained soldiers to the aid of the Americans. Timely as was this
+help, it meant no sudden change in the fortunes of war. The British
+evacuated Philadelphia in the summer following the alliance, and
+Washington's troops were encouraged to come out of Valley Forge. They
+inflicted a heavy blow on the British at Monmouth, but the treasonable
+conduct of General Charles Lee prevented a triumph. The recovery of
+Philadelphia was offset by the treason of Benedict Arnold, the loss of
+Savannah and Charleston (1780), and the defeat of Gates at Camden.
+
+The full effect of the French alliance was not felt until 1781, when
+Cornwallis went into Virginia and settled at Yorktown. Accompanied by
+French troops Washington swept rapidly southward and penned the British
+to the shore while a powerful French fleet shut off their escape by sea.
+It was this movement, which certainly could not have been executed
+without French aid, that put an end to all chance of restoring British
+dominion in America. It was the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown that
+caused Lord North to pace the floor and cry out: "It is all over! It is
+all over!" What might have been done without the French alliance lies
+hidden from mankind. What was accomplished with the help of French
+soldiers, sailors, officers, money, and supplies, is known to all the
+earth. "All the world agree," exultantly wrote Franklin from Paris to
+General Washington, "that no expedition was ever better planned or
+better executed. It brightens the glory that must accompany your name to
+the latest posterity." Diplomacy as well as martial valor had its
+reward.
+
+
+PEACE AT LAST
+
+=British Opposition to the War.=--In measuring the forces that led to
+the final discomfiture of King George and Lord North, it is necessary to
+remember that from the beginning to the end the British ministry at home
+faced a powerful, informed, and relentless opposition. There were
+vigorous protests, first against the obnoxious acts which precipitated
+the unhappy quarrel, then against the way in which the war was waged,
+and finally against the futile struggle to retain a hold upon the
+American dominions. Among the members of Parliament who thundered
+against the government were the first statesmen and orators of the land.
+William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, though he deplored the idea of American
+independence, denounced the government as the aggressor and rejoiced in
+American resistance. Edmund Burke leveled his heavy batteries against
+every measure of coercion and at last strove for a peace which, while
+giving independence to America, would work for reconciliation rather
+than estrangement. Charles James Fox gave the colonies his generous
+sympathy and warmly championed their rights. Outside of the circle of
+statesmen there were stout friends of the American cause like David
+Hume, the philosopher and historian, and Catherine Macaulay, an author
+of wide fame and a republican bold enough to encourage Washington in
+seeing it through.
+
+Against this powerful opposition, the government enlisted a whole army
+of scribes and journalists to pour out criticism on the Americans and
+their friends. Dr. Samuel Johnson, whom it employed in this business,
+was so savage that even the ministers had to tone down his pamphlets
+before printing them. Far more weighty was Edward Gibbon, who was in
+time to win fame as the historian of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire_. He had at first opposed the government; but, on being given a
+lucrative post, he used his sharp pen in its support, causing his
+friends to ridicule him in these lines:
+
+    "King George, in a fright
+     Lest Gibbon should write
+       The story of England's disgrace,
+     Thought no way so sure
+     His pen to secure
+       As to give the historian a place."
+
+=Lord North Yields.=--As time wore on, events bore heavily on the side
+of the opponents of the government's measures. They had predicted that
+conquest was impossible, and they had urged the advantages of a peace
+which would in some measure restore the affections of the Americans.
+Every day's news confirmed their predictions and lent support to their
+arguments. Moreover, the war, which sprang out of an effort to relieve
+English burdens, made those burdens heavier than ever. Military expenses
+were daily increasing. Trade with the colonies, the greatest single
+outlet for British goods and capital, was paralyzed. The heavy debts due
+British merchants in America were not only unpaid but postponed into an
+indefinite future. Ireland was on the verge of revolution. The French
+had a dangerous fleet on the high seas. In vain did the king assert in
+December, 1781, that no difficulties would ever make him consent to a
+peace that meant American independence. Parliament knew better, and on
+February 27, 1782, in the House of Commons was carried an address to the
+throne against continuing the war. Burke, Fox, the younger Pitt, Barré,
+and other friends of the colonies voted in the affirmative. Lord North
+gave notice then that his ministry was at an end. The king moaned:
+"Necessity made me yield."
+
+In April, 1782, Franklin received word from the English government that
+it was prepared to enter into negotiations leading to a settlement. This
+was embarrassing. In the treaty of alliance with France, the United
+States had promised that peace should be a joint affair agreed to by
+both nations in open conference. Finding France, however, opposed to
+some of their claims respecting boundaries and fisheries, the American
+commissioners conferred with the British agents at Paris without
+consulting the French minister. They actually signed a preliminary peace
+draft before they informed him of their operations. When Vergennes
+reproached him, Franklin replied that they "had been guilty of
+neglecting _bienséance_ [good manners] but hoped that the great work
+would not be ruined by a single indiscretion."
+
+=The Terms of Peace (1783).=--The general settlement at Paris in 1783
+was a triumph for America. England recognized the independence of the
+United States, naming each state specifically, and agreed to boundaries
+extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from the Great Lakes
+to the Floridas. England held Canada, Newfoundland, and the West Indies
+intact, made gains in India, and maintained her supremacy on the seas.
+Spain won Florida and Minorca but not the coveted Gibraltar. France
+gained nothing important save the satisfaction of seeing England humbled
+and the colonies independent.
+
+The generous terms secured by the American commission at Paris called
+forth surprise and gratitude in the United States and smoothed the way
+for a renewal of commercial relations with the mother country. At the
+same time they gave genuine anxiety to European diplomats. "This federal
+republic is born a pigmy," wrote the Spanish ambassador to his royal
+master. "A day will come when it will be a giant; even a colossus
+formidable to these countries. Liberty of conscience and the facility
+for establishing a new population on immense lands, as well as the
+advantages of the new government, will draw thither farmers and artisans
+from all the nations. In a few years we shall watch with grief the
+tyrannical existence of the same colossus."
+
+[Illustration: NORTH AMERICA ACCORDING TO THE TREATY OF 1783]
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
+
+The independence of the American colonies was foreseen by many European
+statesmen as they watched the growth of their population, wealth, and
+power; but no one could fix the hour of the great event. Until 1763 the
+American colonists lived fairly happily under British dominion. There
+were collisions from time to time, of course. Royal governors clashed
+with stiff-necked colonial legislatures. There were protests against the
+exercise of the king's veto power in specific cases. Nevertheless, on
+the whole, the relations between America and the mother country were
+more amicable in 1763 than at any period under the Stuart régime which
+closed in 1688.
+
+The crash, when it came, was not deliberately willed by any one. It was
+the product of a number of forces that happened to converge about 1763.
+Three years before, there had come to the throne George III, a young,
+proud, inexperienced, and stubborn king. For nearly fifty years his
+predecessors, Germans as they were in language and interest, had allowed
+things to drift in England and America. George III decided that he would
+be king in fact as well as in name. About the same time England brought
+to a close the long and costly French and Indian War and was staggering
+under a heavy burden of debt and taxes. The war had been fought partly
+in defense of the American colonies and nothing seemed more reasonable
+to English statesmen than the idea that the colonies should bear part of
+the cost of their own defense. At this juncture there came into
+prominence, in royal councils, two men bent on taxing America and
+controlling her trade, Grenville and Townshend. The king was willing,
+the English taxpayers were thankful for any promise of relief, and
+statesmen were found to undertake the experiment. England therefore set
+out upon a new course. She imposed taxes upon the colonists, regulated
+their trade and set royal officers upon them to enforce the law. This
+action evoked protests from the colonists. They held a Stamp Act
+Congress to declare their rights and petition for a redress of
+grievances. Some of the more restless spirits rioted in the streets,
+sacked the houses of the king's officers, and tore up the stamped paper.
+
+Frightened by uprising, the English government drew back and repealed
+the Stamp Act. Then it veered again and renewed its policy of
+interference. Interference again called forth American protests.
+Protests aroused sharper retaliation. More British regulars were sent
+over to keep order. More irritating laws were passed by Parliament.
+Rioting again appeared: tea was dumped in the harbor of Boston and
+seized in the harbor of Charleston. The British answer was more force.
+The response of the colonists was a Continental Congress for defense. An
+unexpected and unintended clash of arms at Lexington and Concord in the
+spring of 1775 brought forth from the king of England a proclamation:
+"The Americans are rebels!"
+
+The die was cast. The American Revolution had begun. Washington was made
+commander-in-chief. Armies were raised, money was borrowed, a huge
+volume of paper currency was issued, and foreign aid was summoned.
+Franklin plied his diplomatic arts at Paris until in 1778 he induced
+France to throw her sword into the balance. Three years later,
+Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. In 1783, by the formal treaty of
+peace, George III acknowledged the independence of the United States.
+The new nation, endowed with an imperial domain stretching from the
+Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, began its career among the
+sovereign powers of the earth.
+
+In the sphere of civil government, the results of the Revolution were
+equally remarkable. Royal officers and royal authorities were driven
+from the former dominions. All power was declared to be in the people.
+All the colonies became states, each with its own constitution or plan
+of government. The thirteen states were united in common bonds under the
+Articles of Confederation. A republic on a large scale was instituted.
+Thus there was begun an adventure in popular government such as the
+world had never seen. Could it succeed or was it destined to break down
+and be supplanted by a monarchy? The fate of whole continents hung upon
+the answer.
+
+
+=References=
+
+J. Fiske, _The American Revolution_ (2 vols.).
+
+H. Lodge, _Life of Washington_ (2 vols.).
+
+W. Sumner, _The Financier and the Finances of the American Revolution_.
+
+O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_ (4 vols.). A sympathetic account
+by an English historian.
+
+M.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2 vols.).
+
+C.H. Van Tyne, _The American Revolution_ (American Nation Series) and
+_The Loyalists in the American Revolution_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What was the non-importation agreement? By what body was it adopted?
+Why was it revolutionary in character?
+
+2. Contrast the work of the first and second Continental Congresses.
+
+3. Why did efforts at conciliation fail?
+
+4. Trace the growth of American independence from opinion to the sphere
+of action.
+
+5. Why is the Declaration of Independence an "immortal" document?
+
+6. What was the effect of the Revolution on colonial governments? On
+national union?
+
+7. Describe the contest between "Patriots" and "Tories."
+
+8. What topics are considered under "military affairs"? Discuss each in
+detail.
+
+9. Contrast the American forces with the British forces and show how the
+war was won.
+
+10. Compare the work of women in the Revolutionary War with their labors
+in the World War (1917-18).
+
+11. How was the Revolution financed?
+
+12. Why is diplomacy important in war? Describe the diplomatic triumph
+of the Revolution.
+
+13. What was the nature of the opposition in England to the war?
+
+14. Give the events connected with the peace settlement; the terms of
+peace.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Spirit of America.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History of the American
+People_, Vol. II, pp. 98-126.
+
+=American Rights.=--Draw up a table showing all the principles laid down
+by American leaders in (1) the Resolves of the First Continental
+Congress, Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 162-166; (2) the
+Declaration of the Causes and the Necessity of Taking Up Arms,
+Macdonald, pp. 176-183; and (3) the Declaration of Independence.
+
+=The Declaration of Independence.=--Fiske, _The American Revolution_,
+Vol. I, pp. 147-197. Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 250-254.
+
+=Diplomacy and the French Alliance.=--Hart, _American History Told by
+Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 574-590. Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 1-24.
+Callender, _Economic History of the United States_, pp. 159-168; Elson,
+pp. 275-280.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Washington, Franklin, Samuel Adams, Patrick
+Henry, Thomas Jefferson--emphasizing the peculiar services of each.
+
+=The Tories.=--Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 470-480.
+
+=Valley Forge.=--Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 25-49.
+
+=The Battles of the Revolution.=--Elson, pp. 235-317.
+
+=An English View of the Revolution.=--Green, _Short History of England_,
+Chap. X, Sect. 2.
+
+=English Opinion and the Revolution.=--Trevelyan, _The American
+Revolution_, Vol. III (or Part 2, Vol. II), Chaps. XXIV-XXVII.
+
+
+
+
+PART III. THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION
+
+
+THE PROMISE AND THE DIFFICULTIES OF AMERICA
+
+The rise of a young republic composed of thirteen states, each governed
+by officials popularly elected under constitutions drafted by "the plain
+people," was the most significant feature of the eighteenth century. The
+majority of the patriots whose labors and sacrifices had made this
+possible naturally looked upon their work and pronounced it good. Those
+Americans, however, who peered beneath the surface of things, saw that
+the Declaration of Independence, even if splendidly phrased, and paper
+constitutions, drawn by finest enthusiasm "uninstructed by experience,"
+could not alone make the republic great and prosperous or even free. All
+around them they saw chaos in finance and in industry and perils for the
+immediate future.
+
+=The Weakness of the Articles of Confederation.=--The government under
+the Articles of Confederation had neither the strength nor the resources
+necessary to cope with the problems of reconstruction left by the war.
+The sole organ of government was a Congress composed of from two to
+seven members from each state chosen as the legislature might direct and
+paid by the state. In determining all questions, each state had one
+vote--Delaware thus enjoying the same weight as Virginia. There was no
+president to enforce the laws. Congress was given power to select a
+committee of thirteen--one from each state--to act as an executive body
+when it was not in session; but this device, on being tried out, proved
+a failure. There was no system of national courts to which citizens and
+states could appeal for the protection of their rights or through which
+they could compel obedience to law. The two great powers of government,
+military and financial, were withheld. Congress, it is true, could
+authorize expenditures but had to rely upon the states for the payment
+of contributions to meet its bills. It could also order the
+establishment of an army, but it could only request the states to supply
+their respective quotas of soldiers. It could not lay taxes nor bring
+any pressure to bear upon a single citizen in the whole country. It
+could act only through the medium of the state governments.
+
+=Financial and Commercial Disorders.=--In the field of public finance,
+the disorders were pronounced. The huge debt incurred during the war was
+still outstanding. Congress was unable to pay either the interest or the
+principal. Public creditors were in despair, as the market value of
+their bonds sank to twenty-five or even ten cents on the dollar. The
+current bills of Congress were unpaid. As some one complained, there was
+not enough money in the treasury to buy pen and ink with which to record
+the transactions of the shadow legislature. The currency was in utter
+chaos. Millions of dollars in notes issued by Congress had become mere
+trash worth a cent or two on the dollar. There was no other expression
+of contempt so forceful as the popular saying: "not worth a
+Continental." To make matters worse, several of the states were pouring
+new streams of paper money from the press. Almost the only good money in
+circulation consisted of English, French, and Spanish coins, and the
+public was even defrauded by them because money changers were busy
+clipping and filing away the metal. Foreign commerce was unsettled. The
+entire British system of trade discrimination was turned against the
+Americans, and Congress, having no power to regulate foreign commerce,
+was unable to retaliate or to negotiate treaties which it could enforce.
+Domestic commerce was impeded by the jealousies of the states, which
+erected tariff barriers against their neighbors. The condition of the
+currency made the exchange of money and goods extremely difficult, and,
+as if to increase the confusion, backward states enacted laws hindering
+the prompt collection of debts within their borders--an evil which
+nothing but a national system of courts could cure.
+
+=Congress in Disrepute.=--With treaties set at naught by the states, the
+laws unenforced, the treasury empty, and the public credit gone, the
+Congress of the United States fell into utter disrepute. It called upon
+the states to pay their quotas of money into the treasury, only to be
+treated with contempt. Even its own members looked upon it as a solemn
+futility. Some of the ablest men refused to accept election to it, and
+many who did take the doubtful honor failed to attend the sessions.
+Again and again it was impossible to secure a quorum for the transaction
+of business.
+
+=Troubles of the State Governments.=--The state governments, free to
+pursue their own course with no interference from without, had almost as
+many difficulties as the Congress. They too were loaded with
+revolutionary debts calling for heavy taxes upon an already restive
+population. Oppressed by their financial burdens and discouraged by the
+fall in prices which followed the return of peace, the farmers of
+several states joined in a concerted effort and compelled their
+legislatures to issue large sums of paper money. The currency fell in
+value, but nevertheless it was forced on unwilling creditors to square
+old accounts.
+
+In every part of the country legislative action fluctuated violently.
+Laws were made one year only to be repealed the next and reënacted the
+third year. Lands were sold by one legislature and the sales were
+canceled by its successor. Uncertainty and distrust were the natural
+consequences. Men of substance longed for some power that would forbid
+states to issue bills of credit, to make paper money legal tender in
+payment of debts, or to impair the obligation of contracts. Men heavily
+in debt, on the other hand, urged even more drastic action against
+creditors.
+
+So great did the discontent of the farmers in New Hampshire become in
+1786 that a mob surrounded the legislature, demanding a repeal of the
+taxes and the issuance of paper money. It was with difficulty that an
+armed rebellion was avoided. In Massachusetts the malcontents, under the
+leadership of Daniel Shays, a captain in the Revolutionary army,
+organized that same year open resistance to the government of the state.
+Shays and his followers protested against the conduct of creditors in
+foreclosing mortgages upon the debt-burdened farmers, against the
+lawyers for increasing the costs of legal proceedings, against the
+senate of the state the members of which were apportioned among the
+towns on the basis of the amount of taxes paid, against heavy taxes, and
+against the refusal of the legislature to issue paper money. They seized
+the towns of Worcester and Springfield and broke up the courts of
+justice. All through the western part of the state the revolt spread,
+sending a shock of alarm to every center and section of the young
+republic. Only by the most vigorous action was Governor Bowdoin able to
+quell the uprising; and when that task was accomplished, the state
+government did not dare to execute any of the prisoners because they had
+so many sympathizers. Moreover, Bowdoin and several members of the
+legislature who had been most zealous in their attacks on the insurgents
+were defeated at the ensuing election. The need of national assistance
+for state governments in times of domestic violence was everywhere
+emphasized by men who were opposed to revolutionary acts.
+
+=Alarm over Dangers to the Republic.=--Leading American citizens,
+watching the drift of affairs, were slowly driven to the conclusion that
+the new ship of state so proudly launched a few years before was
+careening into anarchy. "The facts of our peace and independence," wrote
+a friend of Washington, "do not at present wear so promising an
+appearance as I had fondly painted in my mind. The prejudices,
+jealousies, and turbulence of the people at times almost stagger my
+confidence in our political establishments; and almost occasion me to
+think that they will show themselves unworthy of the noble prize for
+which we have contended."
+
+Washington himself was profoundly discouraged. On hearing of Shays's
+rebellion, he exclaimed: "What, gracious God, is man that there should
+be such inconsistency and perfidiousness in his conduct! It is but the
+other day that we were shedding our blood to obtain the constitutions
+under which we now live--constitutions of our own choice and making--and
+now we are unsheathing our sword to overturn them." The same year he
+burst out in a lament over rumors of restoring royal government. "I am
+told that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical government
+without horror. From thinking proceeds speaking. Hence to acting is
+often but a single step. But how irresistible and tremendous! What a
+triumph for our enemies to verify their predictions! What a triumph for
+the advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable of governing
+ourselves!"
+
+=Congress Attempts Some Reforms.=--The Congress was not indifferent to
+the events that disturbed Washington. On the contrary it put forth many
+efforts to check tendencies so dangerous to finance, commerce,
+industries, and the Confederation itself. In 1781, even before the
+treaty of peace was signed, the Congress, having found out how futile
+were its taxing powers, carried a resolution of amendment to the
+Articles of Confederation, authorizing the levy of a moderate duty on
+imports. Yet this mild measure was rejected by the states. Two years
+later the Congress prepared another amendment sanctioning the levy of
+duties on imports, to be collected this time by state officers and
+applied to the payment of the public debt. This more limited proposal,
+designed to save public credit, likewise failed. In 1786, the Congress
+made a third appeal to the states for help, declaring that they had been
+so irregular and so negligent in paying their quotas that further
+reliance upon that mode of raising revenues was dishonorable and
+dangerous.
+
+
+THE CALLING OF A CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION
+
+=Hamilton and Washington Urge Reform.=--The attempts at reform by the
+Congress were accompanied by demand for, both within and without that
+body, a convention to frame a new plan of government. In 1780, the
+youthful Alexander Hamilton, realizing the weakness of the Articles, so
+widely discussed, proposed a general convention for the purpose of
+drafting a new constitution on entirely different principles. With
+tireless energy he strove to bring his countrymen to his view.
+Washington, agreeing with him on every point, declared, in a circular
+letter to the governors, that the duration of the union would be short
+unless there was lodged somewhere a supreme power "to regulate and
+govern the general concerns of the confederated republic." The governor
+of Massachusetts, disturbed by the growth of discontent all about him,
+suggested to the state legislature in 1785 the advisability of a
+national convention to enlarge the powers of the Congress. The
+legislature approved the plan, but did not press it to a conclusion.
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDER HAMILTON]
+
+=The Annapolis Convention.=--Action finally came from the South. The
+Virginia legislature, taking things into its own hands, called a
+conference of delegates at Annapolis to consider matters of taxation and
+commerce. When the convention assembled in 1786, it was found that only
+five states had taken the trouble to send representatives. The leaders
+were deeply discouraged, but the resourceful Hamilton, a delegate from
+New York, turned the affair to good account. He secured the adoption of
+a resolution, calling upon the Congress itself to summon another
+convention, to meet at Philadelphia.
+
+=A National Convention Called (1787).=--The Congress, as tardy as ever,
+at last decided in February, 1787, to issue the call. Fearing drastic
+changes, however, it restricted the convention to "the sole and express
+purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." Jealous of its own
+powers, it added that any alterations proposed should be referred to the
+Congress and the states for their approval.
+
+Every state in the union, except Rhode Island, responded to this call.
+Indeed some of the states, having the Annapolis resolution before them,
+had already anticipated the Congress by selecting delegates before the
+formal summons came. Thus, by the persistence of governors,
+legislatures, and private citizens, there was brought about the
+long-desired national convention. In May, 1787, it assembled in
+Philadelphia.
+
+=The Eminent Men of the Convention.=--On the roll of that memorable
+convention were fifty-five men, at least half of whom were acknowledged
+to be among the foremost statesmen and thinkers in America. Every field
+of statecraft was represented by them: war and practical management in
+Washington, who was chosen president of the convention; diplomacy in
+Franklin, now old and full of honor in his own land as well as abroad;
+finance in Alexander Hamilton and Robert Morris; law in James Wilson of
+Pennsylvania; the philosophy of government in James Madison, called the
+"father of the Constitution." They were not theorists but practical men,
+rich in political experience and endowed with deep insight into the
+springs of human action. Three of them had served in the Stamp Act
+Congress: Dickinson of Delaware, William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut,
+and John Rutledge of South Carolina. Eight had been signers of the
+Declaration of Independence: Read of Delaware, Sherman of Connecticut,
+Wythe of Virginia, Gerry of Massachusetts, Franklin, Robert Morris,
+George Clymer, and James Wilson of Pennsylvania. All but twelve had at
+some time served in the Continental Congress and eighteen were members
+of that body in the spring of 1787. Washington, Hamilton, Mifflin, and
+Charles Pinckney had been officers in the Revolutionary army. Seven of
+the delegates had gained political experience as governors of states.
+"The convention as a whole," according to the historian Hildreth,
+"represented in a marked manner the talent, intelligence, and
+especially the conservative sentiment of the country."
+
+
+THE FRAMING OF THE CONSTITUTION
+
+=Problems Involved.=--The great problems before the convention were nine
+in number: (1) Shall the Articles of Confederation be revised or a new
+system of government constructed? (2) Shall the government be founded on
+states equal in power as under the Articles or on the broader and deeper
+foundation of population? (3) What direct share shall the people have in
+the election of national officers? (4) What shall be the qualifications
+for the suffrage? (5) How shall the conflicting interests of the
+commercial and the planting states be balanced so as to safeguard the
+essential rights of each? (6) What shall be the form of the new
+government? (7) What powers shall be conferred on it? (8) How shall the
+state legislatures be restrained from their attacks on property rights
+such as the issuance of paper money? (9) Shall the approval of all the
+states be necessary, as under the Articles, for the adoption and
+amendment of the Constitution?
+
+=Revision of the Articles or a New Government?=--The moment the first
+problem was raised, representatives of the small states, led by William
+Paterson of New Jersey, were on their feet. They feared that, if the
+Articles were overthrown, the equality and rights of the states would be
+put in jeopardy. Their protest was therefore vigorous. They cited the
+call issued by the Congress in summoning the convention which
+specifically stated that they were assembled for "the sole and express
+purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." They cited also
+their instructions from their state legislatures, which authorized them
+to "revise and amend" the existing scheme of government, not to make a
+revolution in it. To depart from the authorization laid down by the
+Congress and the legislatures would be to exceed their powers, they
+argued, and to betray the trust reposed in them by their countrymen.
+
+To their contentions, Randolph of Virginia replied: "When the salvation
+of the republic is at stake, it would be treason to our trust not to
+propose what we find necessary." Hamilton, reminding the delegates that
+their work was still subject to the approval of the states, frankly said
+that on the point of their powers he had no scruples. With the issue
+clear, the convention cast aside the Articles as if they did not exist
+and proceeded to the work of drawing up a new constitution, "laying its
+foundations on such principles and organizing its powers in such form"
+as to the delegates seemed "most likely to affect their safety and
+happiness."
+
+=A Government Founded on States or on People?--The
+Compromise.=--Defeated in their attempt to limit the convention to a
+mere revision of the Articles, the spokesmen of the smaller states
+redoubled their efforts to preserve the equality of the states. The
+signal for a radical departure from the Articles on this point was given
+early in the sessions when Randolph presented "the Virginia plan." He
+proposed that the new national legislature consist of two houses, the
+members of which were to be apportioned among the states according to
+their wealth or free white population, as the convention might decide.
+This plan was vehemently challenged. Paterson of New Jersey flatly
+avowed that neither he nor his state would ever bow to such tyranny. As
+an alternative, he presented "the New Jersey plan" calling for a
+national legislature of one house representing states as such, not
+wealth or people--a legislature in which all states, large or small,
+would have equal voice. Wilson of Pennsylvania, on behalf of the more
+populous states, took up the gauntlet which Paterson had thrown down. It
+was absurd, he urged, for 180,000 men in one state to have the same
+weight in national counsels as 750,000 men in another state. "The
+gentleman from New Jersey," he said, "is candid. He declares his opinion
+boldly.... I will be equally candid.... I will never confederate on his
+principles." So the bitter controversy ran on through many exciting
+sessions.
+
+Greek had met Greek. The convention was hopelessly deadlocked and on the
+verge of dissolution, "scarce held together by the strength of a hair,"
+as one of the delegates remarked. A crash was averted only by a
+compromise. Instead of a Congress of one house as provided by the
+Articles, the convention agreed upon a legislature of two houses. In the
+Senate, the aspirations of the small states were to be satisfied, for
+each state was given two members in that body. In the formation of the
+House of Representatives, the larger states were placated, for it was
+agreed that the members of that chamber were to be apportioned among the
+states on the basis of population, counting three-fifths of the slaves.
+
+=The Question of Popular Election.=--The method of selecting federal
+officers and members of Congress also produced an acrimonious debate
+which revealed how deep-seated was the distrust of the capacity of the
+people to govern themselves. Few there were who believed that no branch
+of the government should be elected directly by the voters; still fewer
+were there, however, who desired to see all branches so chosen. One or
+two even expressed a desire for a monarchy. The dangers of democracy
+were stressed by Gerry of Massachusetts: "All the evils we experience
+flow from an excess of democracy. The people do not want virtue but are
+the dupes of pretended patriots.... I have been too republican
+heretofore but have been taught by experience the danger of a leveling
+spirit." To the "democratic licentiousness of the state legislatures,"
+Randolph sought to oppose a "firm senate." To check the excesses of
+popular government Charles Pinckney of South Carolina declared that no
+one should be elected President who was not worth $100,000 and that high
+property qualifications should be placed on members of Congress and
+judges. Other members of the convention were stoutly opposed to such
+"high-toned notions of government." Franklin and Wilson, both from
+Pennsylvania, vigorously championed popular election; while men like
+Madison insisted that at least one part of the government should rest on
+the broad foundation of the people.
+
+Out of this clash of opinion also came compromise. One branch, the House
+of Representatives, it was agreed, was to be elected directly by the
+voters, while the Senators were to be elected indirectly by the state
+legislatures. The President was to be chosen by electors selected as the
+legislatures of the states might determine, and the judges of the
+federal courts, supreme and inferior, by the President and the Senate.
+
+=The Question of the Suffrage.=--The battle over the suffrage was sharp
+but brief. Gouverneur Morris proposed that only land owners should be
+permitted to vote. Madison replied that the state legislatures, which
+had made so much trouble with radical laws, were elected by freeholders.
+After the debate, the delegates, unable to agree on any property
+limitations on the suffrage, decided that the House of Representatives
+should be elected by voters having the "qualifications requisite for
+electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature." Thus
+they accepted the suffrage provisions of the states.
+
+=The Balance between the Planting and the Commercial States.=--After the
+debates had gone on for a few weeks, Madison came to the conclusion that
+the real division in the convention was not between the large and the
+small states but between the planting section founded on slave labor and
+the commercial North. Thus he anticipated by nearly three-quarters of a
+century "the irrepressible conflict." The planting states had neither
+the free white population nor the wealth of the North. There were,
+counting Delaware, six of them as against seven commercial states.
+Dependent for their prosperity mainly upon the sale of tobacco, rice,
+and other staples abroad, they feared that Congress might impose
+restraints upon their enterprise. Being weaker in numbers, they were
+afraid that the majority might lay an unfair burden of taxes upon them.
+
+_Representation and Taxation._--The Southern members of the convention
+were therefore very anxious to secure for their section the largest
+possible representation in Congress, and at the same time to restrain
+the taxing power of that body. Two devices were thought adapted to these
+ends. One was to count the slaves as people when apportioning
+representatives among the states according to their respective
+populations; the other was to provide that direct taxes should be
+apportioned among the states, in proportion not to their wealth but to
+the number of their free white inhabitants. For obvious reasons the
+Northern delegates objected to these proposals. Once more a compromise
+proved to be the solution. It was agreed that not all the slaves but
+three-fifths of them should be counted for both purposes--representation
+and direct taxation.
+
+_Commerce and the Slave Trade._--Southern interests were also involved
+in the project to confer upon Congress the power to regulate interstate
+and foreign commerce. To the manufacturing and trading states this was
+essential. It would prevent interstate tariffs and trade jealousies; it
+would enable Congress to protect American manufactures and to break
+down, by appropriate retaliations, foreign discriminations against
+American commerce. To the South the proposal was menacing because
+tariffs might interfere with the free exchange of the produce of
+plantations in European markets, and navigation acts might confine the
+carrying trade to American, that is Northern, ships. The importation of
+slaves, moreover, it was feared might be heavily taxed or immediately
+prohibited altogether.
+
+The result of this and related controversies was a debate on the merits
+of slavery. Gouverneur Morris delivered his mind and heart on that
+subject, denouncing slavery as a nefarious institution and the curse of
+heaven on the states in which it prevailed. Mason of Virginia, a
+slaveholder himself, was hardly less outspoken, saying: "Slavery
+discourages arts and manufactures. The poor despise labor when performed
+by slaves. They prevent the migration of whites who really strengthen
+and enrich a country."
+
+The system, however, had its defenders. Representatives from South
+Carolina argued that their entire economic life rested on slave labor
+and that the high death rate in the rice swamps made continuous
+importation necessary. Ellsworth of Connecticut took the ground that
+the convention should not meddle with slavery. "The morality or wisdom
+of slavery," he said, "are considerations belonging to the states. What
+enriches a part enriches the whole." To the future he turned an
+untroubled face: "As population increases, poor laborers will be so
+plenty as to render slaves useless. Slavery in time will not be a speck
+in our country." Virginia and North Carolina, already overstocked with
+slaves, favored prohibiting the traffic in them; but South Carolina was
+adamant. She must have fresh supplies of slaves or she would not
+federate.
+
+So it was agreed that, while Congress might regulate foreign trade by
+majority vote, the importation of slaves should not be forbidden before
+the lapse of twenty years, and that any import tax should not exceed $10
+a head. At the same time, in connection with the regulation of foreign
+trade, it was stipulated that a two-thirds vote in the Senate should be
+necessary in the ratification of treaties. A further concession to the
+South was made in the provision for the return of runaway slaves--a
+provision also useful in the North, where indentured servants were about
+as troublesome as slaves in escaping from their masters.
+
+=The Form of the Government.=--As to the details of the frame of
+government and the grand principles involved, the opinion of the
+convention ebbed and flowed, decisions being taken in the heat of
+debate, only to be revoked and taken again.
+
+_The Executive._--There was general agreement that there should be an
+executive branch; for reliance upon Congress to enforce its own laws and
+treaties had been a broken reed. On the character and functions of the
+executive, however, there were many views. The New Jersey plan called
+for a council selected by the Congress; the Virginia plan provided that
+the executive branch should be chosen by the Congress but did not state
+whether it should be composed of one or several persons. On this matter
+the convention voted first one way and then another; finally it agreed
+on a single executive chosen indirectly by electors selected as the
+state legislatures might decide, serving for four years, subject to
+impeachment, and endowed with regal powers in the command of the army
+and the navy and in the enforcement of the laws.
+
+_The Legislative Branch--Congress._--After the convention had made the
+great compromise between the large and small commonwealths by giving
+representation to states in the Senate and to population in the House,
+the question of methods of election had to be decided. As to the House
+of Representatives it was readily agreed that the members should be
+elected by direct popular vote. There was also easy agreement on the
+proposition that a strong Senate was needed to check the "turbulence" of
+the lower house. Four devices were finally selected to accomplish this
+purpose. In the first place, the Senators were not to be chosen directly
+by the voters but by the legislatures of the states, thus removing their
+election one degree from the populace. In the second place, their term
+was fixed at six years instead of two, as in the case of the House. In
+the third place, provision was made for continuity by having only
+one-third of the members go out at a time while two-thirds remained in
+service. Finally, it was provided that Senators must be at least thirty
+years old while Representatives need be only twenty-five.
+
+_The Judiciary._--The need for federal courts to carry out the law was
+hardly open to debate. The feebleness of the Articles of Confederation
+was, in a large measure, attributed to the want of a judiciary to hold
+states and individuals in obedience to the laws and treaties of the
+union. Nevertheless on this point the advocates of states' rights were
+extremely sensitive. They looked with distrust upon judges appointed at
+the national capital and emancipated from local interests and
+traditions; they remembered with what insistence they had claimed
+against Britain the right of local trial by jury and with what
+consternation they had viewed the proposal to make colonial judges
+independent of the assemblies in the matter of their salaries.
+Reluctantly they yielded to the demand for federal courts, consenting at
+first only to a supreme court to review cases heard in lower state
+courts and finally to such additional inferior courts as Congress might
+deem necessary.
+
+_The System of Checks and Balances._--It is thus apparent that the
+framers of the Constitution, in shaping the form of government, arranged
+for a distribution of power among three branches, executive,
+legislative, and judicial. Strictly speaking we might say four branches,
+for the legislature, or Congress, was composed of two houses, elected in
+different ways, and one of them, the Senate, was made a check on the
+President through its power of ratifying treaties and appointments. "The
+accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judicial, in the
+same hands," wrote Madison, "whether of one, a few, or many, and whether
+hereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the
+very definition of tyranny." The devices which the convention adopted to
+prevent such a centralization of authority were exceedingly ingenious
+and well calculated to accomplish the purposes of the authors.
+
+The legislature consisted of two houses, the members of which were to be
+apportioned on a different basis, elected in different ways, and to
+serve for different terms. A veto on all its acts was vested in a
+President elected in a manner not employed in the choice of either
+branch of the legislature, serving for four years, and subject to
+removal only by the difficult process of impeachment. After a law had
+run the gantlet of both houses and the executive, it was subject to
+interpretation and annulment by the judiciary, appointed by the
+President with the consent of the Senate and serving for life. Thus it
+was made almost impossible for any political party to get possession of
+all branches of the government at a single popular election. As Hamilton
+remarked, the friends of good government considered "every institution
+calculated to restrain the excess of law making and to keep things in
+the same state in which they happen to be at any given period as more
+likely to do good than harm."
+
+=The Powers of the Federal Government.=--On the question of the powers
+to be conferred upon the new government there was less occasion for a
+serious dispute. Even the delegates from the small states agreed with
+those from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia that new powers
+should be added to those intrusted to Congress by the Articles of
+Confederation. The New Jersey plan as well as the Virginia plan
+recognized this fact. Some of the delegates, like Hamilton and Madison,
+even proposed to give Congress a general legislative authority covering
+all national matters; but others, frightened by the specter of
+nationalism, insisted on specifying each power to be conferred and
+finally carried the day.
+
+_Taxation and Commerce._--There were none bold enough to dissent from
+the proposition that revenue must be provided to pay current expenses
+and discharge the public debt. When once the dispute over the
+apportionment of direct taxes among the slave states was settled, it was
+an easy matter to decide that Congress should have power to lay and
+collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises. In this way the national
+government was freed from dependence upon stubborn and tardy
+legislatures and enabled to collect funds directly from citizens. There
+were likewise none bold enough to contend that the anarchy of state
+tariffs and trade discriminations should be longer endured. When the
+fears of the planting states were allayed and the "bargain" over the
+importation of slaves was reached, the convention vested in Congress the
+power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.
+
+_National Defense._--The necessity for national defense was realized,
+though the fear of huge military establishments was equally present. The
+old practice of relying on quotas furnished by the state legislatures
+was completely discredited. As in the case of taxes a direct authority
+over citizens was demanded. Congress was therefore given full power to
+raise and support armies and a navy. It could employ the state militia
+when desirable; but it could at the same time maintain a regular army
+and call directly upon all able-bodied males if the nature of a crisis
+was thought to require it.
+
+_The "Necessary and Proper" Clause._--To the specified power vested in
+Congress by the Constitution, the advocates of a strong national
+government added a general clause authorizing it to make all laws
+"necessary and proper" for carrying into effect any and all of the
+enumerated powers. This clause, interpreted by that master mind, Chief
+Justice Marshall, was later construed to confer powers as wide as the
+requirements of a vast country spanning a continent and taking its place
+among the mighty nations of the earth.
+
+=Restraints on the States.=--Framing a government and endowing it with
+large powers were by no means the sole concern of the convention. Its
+very existence had been due quite as much to the conduct of the state
+legislatures as to the futilities of a paralyzed Continental Congress.
+In every state, explains Marshall in his _Life of Washington_, there was
+a party of men who had "marked out for themselves a more indulgent
+course. Viewing with extreme tenderness the case of the debtor, their
+efforts were unceasingly directed to his relief. To exact a faithful
+compliance with contracts was, in their opinion, a harsh measure which
+the people could not bear. They were uniformly in favor of relaxing the
+administration of justice, of affording facilities for the payment of
+debts, or of suspending their collection, and remitting taxes."
+
+The legislatures under the dominance of these men had enacted paper
+money laws enabling debtors to discharge their obligations more easily.
+The convention put an end to such practices by providing that no state
+should emit bills of credit or make anything but gold or silver legal
+tender in the payment of debts. The state legislatures had enacted laws
+allowing men to pay their debts by turning over to creditors land or
+personal property; they had repealed the charter of an endowed college
+and taken the management from the hands of the lawful trustees; and they
+had otherwise interfered with the enforcement of private agreements. The
+convention, taking notice of such matters, inserted a clause forbidding
+states "to impair the obligation of contracts." The more venturous of
+the radicals had in Massachusetts raised the standard of revolt against
+the authorities of the state. The convention answered by a brief
+sentence to the effect that the President of the United States, to be
+equipped with a regular army, would send troops to suppress domestic
+insurrections whenever called upon by the legislature or, if it was not
+in session, by the governor of the state. To make sure that the
+restrictions on the states would not be dead letters, the federal
+Constitution, laws, and treaties were made the supreme law of the land,
+to be enforced whenever necessary by a national judiciary and executive
+against violations on the part of any state authorities.
+
+=Provisions for Ratification and Amendment.=--When the frame of
+government had been determined, the powers to be vested in it had been
+enumerated, and the restrictions upon the states had been written into
+the bond, there remained three final questions. How shall the
+Constitution be ratified? What number of states shall be necessary to
+put it into effect? How shall it be amended in the future?
+
+On the first point, the mandate under which the convention was sitting
+seemed positive. The Articles of Confederation were still in effect.
+They provided that amendments could be made only by unanimous adoption
+in Congress and the approval of all the states. As if to give force to
+this provision of law, the call for the convention had expressly stated
+that all alterations and revisions should be reported to Congress for
+adoption or rejection, Congress itself to transmit the document
+thereafter to the states for their review.
+
+To have observed the strict letter of the law would have defeated the
+purposes of the delegates, because Congress and the state legislatures
+were openly hostile to such drastic changes as had been made. Unanimous
+ratification, as events proved, would have been impossible. Therefore
+the delegates decided that the Constitution should be sent to Congress
+with the recommendation that it, in turn, transmit the document, not to
+the state legislatures, but to conventions held in the states for the
+special object of deciding upon ratification. This process was followed.
+It was their belief that special conventions would be more friendly than
+the state legislatures.
+
+The convention was equally positive in dealing with the problem of the
+number of states necessary to establish the new Constitution. Attempts
+to change the Articles had failed because amendment required the
+approval of every state and there was always at least one recalcitrant
+member of the union. The opposition to a new Constitution was
+undoubtedly formidable. Rhode Island had even refused to take part in
+framing it, and her hostility was deep and open. So the convention cast
+aside the provision of the Articles of Confederation which required
+unanimous approval for any change in the plan of government; it decreed
+that the new Constitution should go into effect when ratified by nine
+states.
+
+In providing for future changes in the Constitution itself the
+convention also thrust aside the old rule of unanimous approval, and
+decided that an amendment could be made on a two-thirds vote in both
+houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states. This
+change was of profound significance. Every state agreed to be bound in
+the future by amendments duly adopted even in case it did not approve
+them itself. America in this way set out upon the high road that led
+from a league of states to a nation.
+
+
+THE STRUGGLE OVER RATIFICATION
+
+On September 17, 1787, the Constitution, having been finally drafted in
+clear and simple language, a model to all makers of fundamental law, was
+adopted. The convention, after nearly four months of debate in secret
+session, flung open the doors and presented to the Americans the
+finished plan for the new government. Then the great debate passed to
+the people.
+
+=The Opposition.=--Storms of criticism at once descended upon the
+Constitution. "Fraudulent usurpation!" exclaimed Gerry, who had refused
+to sign it. "A monster" out of the "thick veil of secrecy," declaimed a
+Pennsylvania newspaper. "An iron-handed despotism will be the result,"
+protested a third. "We, 'the low-born,'" sarcastically wrote a fourth,
+"will now admit the 'six hundred well-born' immediately to establish
+this most noble, most excellent, and truly divine constitution." The
+President will become a king; Congress will be as tyrannical as
+Parliament in the old days; the states will be swallowed up; the rights
+of the people will be trampled upon; the poor man's justice will be lost
+in the endless delays of the federal courts--such was the strain of the
+protests against ratification.
+
+[Illustration: AN ADVERTISEMENT OF _The Federalist_]
+
+=Defense of the Constitution.=--Moved by the tempest of opposition,
+Hamilton, Madison, and Jay took up their pens in defense of the
+Constitution. In a series of newspaper articles they discussed and
+expounded with eloquence, learning, and dignity every important clause
+and provision of the proposed plan. These papers, afterwards collected
+and published in a volume known as _The Federalist_, form the finest
+textbook on the Constitution that has ever been printed. It takes its
+place, moreover, among the wisest and weightiest treatises on government
+ever written in any language in any time. Other men, not so gifted, were
+no less earnest in their support of ratification. In private
+correspondence, editorials, pamphlets, and letters to the newspapers,
+they urged their countrymen to forget their partisanship and accept a
+Constitution which, in spite of any defects great or small, was the
+only guarantee against dissolution and warfare at home and dishonor and
+weakness abroad.
+
+[Illustration: CELEBRATING THE RATIFICATION]
+
+=The Action of the State Conventions.=--Before the end of the year,
+1787, three states had ratified the Constitution: Delaware and New
+Jersey unanimously and Pennsylvania after a short, though savage,
+contest. Connecticut and Georgia followed early the next year. Then came
+the battle royal in Massachusetts, ending in ratification in February by
+the narrow margin of 187 votes to 168. In the spring came the news that
+Maryland and South Carolina were "under the new roof." On June 21, New
+Hampshire, where the sentiment was at first strong enough to defeat the
+Constitution, joined the new republic, influenced by the favorable
+decision in Massachusetts. Swift couriers were sent to carry the news to
+New York and Virginia, where the question of ratification was still
+undecided. Nine states had accepted it and were united, whether more saw
+fit to join or not.
+
+Meanwhile, however, Virginia, after a long and searching debate, had
+given her approval by a narrow margin, leaving New York as the next seat
+of anxiety. In that state the popular vote for the delegates to the
+convention had been clearly and heavily against ratification. Events
+finally demonstrated the futility of resistance, and Hamilton by good
+judgment and masterly arguments was at last able to marshal a majority
+of thirty to twenty-seven votes in favor of ratification.
+
+The great contest was over. All the states, except North Carolina and
+Rhode Island, had ratified. "The sloop Anarchy," wrote an ebullient
+journalist, "when last heard from was ashore on Union rocks."
+
+=The First Election.=--In the autumn of 1788, elections were held to
+fill the places in the new government. Public opinion was overwhelmingly
+in favor of Washington as the first President. Yielding to the
+importunities of friends, he accepted the post in the spirit of public
+service. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office at Federal Hall
+in New York City. "Long live George Washington, President of the United
+States!" cried Chancellor Livingston as soon as the General had kissed
+the Bible. The cry was caught by the assembled multitude and given back.
+A new experiment in popular government was launched.
+
+
+=References=
+
+M. Farrand, _The Framing of the Constitution of the United States_.
+
+P.L. Ford, _Essays on the Constitution of the United States_.
+
+_The Federalist_ (in many editions).
+
+G. Hunt, _Life of James Madison_.
+
+A.C. McLaughlin, _The Confederation and the Constitution_ (American
+Nation Series).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Account for the failure of the Articles of Confederation.
+
+2. Explain the domestic difficulties of the individual states.
+
+3. Why did efforts at reform by the Congress come to naught?
+
+4. Narrate the events leading up to the constitutional convention.
+
+5. Who were some of the leading men in the convention? What had been
+their previous training?
+
+6. State the great problems before the convention.
+
+7. In what respects were the planting and commercial states opposed?
+What compromises were reached?
+
+8. Show how the "check and balance" system is embodied in our form of
+government.
+
+9. How did the powers conferred upon the federal government help cure
+the defects of the Articles of Confederation?
+
+10. In what way did the provisions for ratifying and amending the
+Constitution depart from the old system?
+
+11. What was the nature of the conflict over ratification?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=English Treatment of American Commerce.=--Callender, _Economic History
+of the United States_, pp. 210-220.
+
+=Financial Condition of the United States.=--Fiske, _Critical Period of
+American History_, pp. 163-186.
+
+=Disordered Commerce.=--Fiske, pp. 134-162.
+
+=Selfish Conduct of the States.=--Callender, pp. 185-191.
+
+=The Failure of the Confederation.=--Elson, _History of the United
+States_, pp. 318-326.
+
+=Formation of the Constitution.=--(1) The plans before the convention,
+Fiske, pp. 236-249; (2) the great compromise, Fiske, pp. 250-255; (3)
+slavery and the convention, Fiske, pp. 256-266; and (4) the frame of
+government, Fiske, pp. 275-301; Elson, pp. 328-334.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Look up the history and services of the leaders
+in the convention in any good encyclopedia.
+
+=Ratification of the Constitution.=--Hart, _History Told by
+Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 233-254; Elson, pp. 334-340.
+
+=Source Study.=--Compare the Constitution and Articles of Confederation
+under the following heads: (1) frame of government; (2) powers of
+Congress; (3) limits on states; and (4) methods of amendment. Every line
+of the Constitution should be read and re-read in the light of the
+historical circumstances set forth in this chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES
+
+
+THE MEN AND MEASURES OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT
+
+=Friends of the Constitution in Power.=--In the first Congress that
+assembled after the adoption of the Constitution, there were eleven
+Senators, led by Robert Morris, the financier, who had been delegates to
+the national convention. Several members of the House of
+Representatives, headed by James Madison, had also been at Philadelphia
+in 1787. In making his appointments, Washington strengthened the new
+system of government still further by a judicious selection of
+officials. He chose as Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton,
+who had been the most zealous for its success; General Knox, head of the
+War Department, and Edmund Randolph, the Attorney-General, were likewise
+conspicuous friends of the experiment. Every member of the federal
+judiciary whom Washington appointed, from the Chief Justice, John Jay,
+down to the justices of the district courts, had favored the
+ratification of the Constitution; and a majority of them had served as
+members of the national convention that framed the document or of the
+state ratifying conventions. Only one man of influence in the new
+government, Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, was reckoned as a
+doubter in the house of the faithful. He had expressed opinions both for
+and against the Constitution; but he had been out of the country acting
+as the minister at Paris when the Constitution was drafted and ratified.
+
+=An Opposition to Conciliate.=--The inauguration of Washington amid the
+plaudits of his countrymen did not set at rest all the political turmoil
+which had been aroused by the angry contest over ratification. "The
+interesting nature of the question," wrote John Marshall, "the equality
+of the parties, the animation produced inevitably by ardent debate had a
+necessary tendency to embitter the dispositions of the vanquished and to
+fix more deeply in many bosoms their prejudices against a plan of
+government in opposition to which all their passions were enlisted." The
+leaders gathered around Washington were well aware of the excited state
+of the country. They saw Rhode Island and North Carolina still outside
+of the union.[1] They knew by what small margins the Constitution had
+been approved in the great states of Massachusetts, Virginia, and New
+York. They were equally aware that a majority of the state conventions,
+in yielding reluctant approval to the Constitution, had drawn a number
+of amendments for immediate submission to the states.
+
+=The First Amendments--a Bill of Rights.=--To meet the opposition,
+Madison proposed, and the first Congress adopted, a series of amendments
+to the Constitution. Ten of them were soon ratified and became in 1791 a
+part of the law of the land. These amendments provided, among other
+things, that Congress could make no law respecting the establishment of
+religion, abridging the freedom of speech or of the press or the right
+of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for a
+redress of grievances. They also guaranteed indictment by grand jury and
+trial by jury for all persons charged by federal officers with serious
+crimes. To reassure those who still feared that local rights might be
+invaded by the federal government, the tenth amendment expressly
+provided that the powers not delegated to the United States by the
+Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the
+states respectively or to the people. Seven years later, the eleventh
+amendment was written in the same spirit as the first ten, after a
+heated debate over the action of the Supreme Court in permitting a
+citizen to bring a suit against "the sovereign state" of Georgia. The
+new amendment was designed to protect states against the federal
+judiciary by forbidding it to hear any case in which a state was sued by
+a citizen.
+
+=Funding the National Debt.=--Paper declarations of rights, however,
+paid no bills. To this task Hamilton turned all his splendid genius. At
+the very outset he addressed himself to the problem of the huge public
+debt, daily mounting as the unpaid interest accumulated. In a _Report on
+Public Credit_ under date of January 9, 1790, one of the first and
+greatest of American state papers, he laid before Congress the outlines
+of his plan. He proposed that the federal government should call in all
+the old bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and other promises to pay
+which had been issued by the Congress since the beginning of the
+Revolution. These national obligations, he urged, should be put into one
+consolidated debt resting on the credit of the United States; to the
+holders of the old paper should be issued new bonds drawing interest at
+fixed rates. This process was called "funding the debt." Such a
+provision for the support of public credit, Hamilton insisted, would
+satisfy creditors, restore landed property to its former value, and
+furnish new resources to agriculture and commerce in the form of credit
+and capital.
+
+=Assumption and Funding of State Debts.=--Hamilton then turned to the
+obligations incurred by the several states in support of the Revolution.
+These debts he proposed to add to the national debt. They were to be
+"assumed" by the United States government and placed on the same secure
+foundation as the continental debt. This measure he defended not merely
+on grounds of national honor. It would, as he foresaw, give strength to
+the new national government by making all public creditors, men of
+substance in their several communities, look to the federal, rather than
+the state government, for the satisfaction of their claims.
+
+=Funding at Face Value.=--On the question of the terms of consolidation,
+assumption, and funding, Hamilton had a firm conviction. That millions
+of dollars' worth of the continental and state bonds had passed out of
+the hands of those who had originally subscribed their funds to the
+support of the government or had sold supplies for the Revolutionary
+army was well known. It was also a matter of common knowledge that a
+very large part of these bonds had been bought by speculators at ruinous
+figures--ten, twenty, and thirty cents on the dollar. Accordingly, it
+had been suggested, even in very respectable quarters, that a
+discrimination should be made between original holders and speculative
+purchasers. Some who held this opinion urged that the speculators who
+had paid nominal sums for their bonds should be reimbursed for their
+outlays and the original holders paid the difference; others said that
+the government should "scale the debt" by redeeming, not at full value
+but at a figure reasonably above the market price. Against the
+proposition Hamilton set his face like flint. He maintained that the
+government was honestly bound to redeem every bond at its face value,
+although the difficulty of securing revenue made necessary a lower rate
+of interest on a part of the bonds and the deferring of interest on
+another part.
+
+=Funding and Assumption Carried.=--There was little difficulty in
+securing the approval of both houses of Congress for the funding of the
+national debt at full value. The bill for the assumption of state debts,
+however, brought the sharpest division of opinions. To the Southern
+members of Congress assumption was a gross violation of states' rights,
+without any warrant in the Constitution and devised in the interest of
+Northern speculators who, anticipating assumption and funding, had
+bought up at low prices the Southern bonds and other promises to pay.
+New England, on the other hand, was strongly in favor of assumption;
+several representatives from that section were rash enough to threaten a
+dissolution of the union if the bill was defeated. To this dispute was
+added an equally bitter quarrel over the location of the national
+capital, then temporarily at New York City.
+
+[Illustration: FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA]
+
+A deadlock, accompanied by the most surly feelings on both sides,
+threatened the very existence of the young government. Washington and
+Hamilton were thoroughly alarmed. Hearing of the extremity to which the
+contest had been carried and acting on the appeal from the Secretary of
+the Treasury, Jefferson intervened at this point. By skillful management
+at a good dinner he brought the opposing leaders together; and thus once
+more, as on many other occasions, peace was purchased and the union
+saved by compromise. The bargain this time consisted of an exchange of
+votes for assumption in return for votes for the capital. Enough
+Southern members voted for assumption to pass the bill, and a majority
+was mustered in favor of building the capital on the banks of the
+Potomac, after locating it for a ten-year period at Philadelphia to
+satisfy Pennsylvania members.
+
+=The United States Bank.=--Encouraged by the success of his funding and
+assumption measures, Hamilton laid before Congress a project for a great
+United States Bank. He proposed that a private corporation be chartered
+by Congress, authorized to raise a capital stock of $10,000,000
+(three-fourths in new six per cent federal bonds and one-fourth in
+specie) and empowered to issue paper currency under proper safeguards.
+Many advantages, Hamilton contended, would accrue to the government from
+this institution. The price of the government bonds would be increased,
+thus enhancing public credit. A national currency would be created of
+uniform value from one end of the land to the other. The branches of the
+bank in various cities would make easy the exchange of funds so vital to
+commercial transactions on a national scale. Finally, through the issue
+of bank notes, the money capital available for agriculture and industry
+would be increased, thus stimulating business enterprise. Jefferson
+hotly attacked the bank on the ground that Congress had no power
+whatever under the Constitution to charter such a private corporation.
+Hamilton defended it with great cogency. Washington, after weighing all
+opinions, decided in favor of the proposal. In 1791 the bill
+establishing the first United States Bank for a period of twenty years
+became a law.
+
+=The Protective Tariff.=--A third part of Hamilton's program was the
+protection of American industries. The first revenue act of 1789, though
+designed primarily to bring money into the empty treasury, declared in
+favor of the principle. The following year Washington referred to the
+subject in his address to Congress. Thereupon Hamilton was instructed to
+prepare recommendations for legislative action. The result, after a
+delay of more than a year, was his _Report on Manufactures_, another
+state paper worthy, in closeness of reasoning and keenness of
+understanding, of a place beside his report on public credit. Hamilton
+based his argument on the broadest national grounds: the protective
+tariff would, by encouraging the building of factories, create a home
+market for the produce of farms and plantations; by making the United
+States independent of other countries in times of peace, it would double
+its security in time of war; by making use of the labor of women and
+children, it would turn to the production of goods persons otherwise
+idle or only partly employed; by increasing the trade between the North
+and South it would strengthen the links of union and add to political
+ties those of commerce and intercourse. The revenue measure of 1792 bore
+the impress of these arguments.
+
+
+THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES
+
+=Dissensions over Hamilton's Measures.=--Hamilton's plans, touching
+deeply as they did the resources of individuals and the interests of the
+states, awakened alarm and opposition. Funding at face value, said his
+critics, was a government favor to speculators; the assumption of state
+debts was a deep design to undermine the state governments; Congress had
+no constitutional power to create a bank; the law creating the bank
+merely allowed a private corporation to make paper money and lend it at
+a high rate of interest; and the tariff was a tax on land and labor for
+the benefit of manufacturers.
+
+Hamilton's reply to this bill of indictment was simple and
+straightforward. Some rascally speculators had profited from the funding
+of the debt at face value, but that was only an incident in the
+restoration of public credit. In view of the jealousies of the states it
+was a good thing to reduce their powers and pretensions. The
+Constitution was not to be interpreted narrowly but in the full light of
+national needs. The bank would enlarge the amount of capital so sorely
+needed to start up American industries, giving markets to farmers and
+planters. The tariff by creating a home market and increasing
+opportunities for employment would benefit both land and labor. Out of
+such wise policies firmly pursued by the government, he concluded, were
+bound to come strength and prosperity for the new government at home,
+credit and power abroad. This view Washington fully indorsed, adding
+the weight of his great name to the inherent merits of the measures
+adopted under his administration.
+
+=The Sharpness of the Partisan Conflict.=--As a result of the clash of
+opinion, the people of the country gradually divided into two parties:
+Federalists and Anti-Federalists, the former led by Hamilton, the latter
+by Jefferson. The strength of the Federalists lay in the cities--Boston,
+Providence, Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston--among the
+manufacturing, financial, and commercial groups of the population who
+were eager to extend their business operations. The strength of the
+Anti-Federalists lay mainly among the debt-burdened farmers who feared
+the growth of what they called "a money power" and planters in all
+sections who feared the dominance of commercial and manufacturing
+interests. The farming and planting South, outside of the few towns,
+finally presented an almost solid front against assumption, the bank,
+and the tariff. The conflict between the parties grew steadily in
+bitterness, despite the conciliatory and engaging manner in which
+Hamilton presented his cause in his state papers and despite the
+constant efforts of Washington to soften the asperity of the
+contestants.
+
+=The Leadership and Doctrines of Jefferson.=--The party dispute had not
+gone far before the opponents of the administration began to look to
+Jefferson as their leader. Some of Hamilton's measures he had approved,
+declaring afterward that he did not at the time understand their
+significance. Others, particularly the bank, he fiercely assailed. More
+than once, he and Hamilton, shaking violently with anger, attacked each
+other at cabinet meetings, and nothing short of the grave and dignified
+pleas of Washington prevented an early and open break between them. In
+1794 it finally came. Jefferson resigned as Secretary of State and
+retired to his home in Virginia to assume, through correspondence and
+negotiation, the leadership of the steadily growing party of opposition.
+
+Shy and modest in manner, halting in speech, disliking the turmoil of
+public debate, and deeply interested in science and philosophy,
+Jefferson was not very well fitted for the strenuous life of political
+contest. Nevertheless, he was an ambitious and shrewd negotiator. He was
+also by honest opinion and matured conviction the exact opposite of
+Hamilton. The latter believed in a strong, active, "high-toned"
+government, vigorously compelling in all its branches. Jefferson looked
+upon such government as dangerous to the liberties of citizens and
+openly avowed his faith in the desirability of occasional popular
+uprisings. Hamilton distrusted the people. "Your people is a great
+beast," he is reported to have said. Jefferson professed his faith in
+the people with an abandon that was considered reckless in his time.
+
+On economic matters, the opinions of the two leaders were also
+hopelessly at variance. Hamilton, while cherishing agriculture, desired
+to see America a great commercial and industrial nation. Jefferson was
+equally set against this course for his country. He feared the
+accumulation of riches and the growth of a large urban working class.
+The mobs of great cities, he said, are sores on the body politic;
+artisans are usually the dangerous element that make revolutions;
+workshops should be kept in Europe and with them the artisans with their
+insidious morals and manners. The only substantial foundation for a
+republic, Jefferson believed to be agriculture. The spirit of
+independence could be kept alive only by free farmers, owning the land
+they tilled and looking to the sun in heaven and the labor of their
+hands for their sustenance. Trusting as he did in the innate goodness of
+human nature when nourished on a free soil, Jefferson advocated those
+measures calculated to favor agriculture and to enlarge the rights of
+persons rather than the powers of government. Thus he became the
+champion of the individual against the interference of the government,
+and an ardent advocate of freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and
+freedom of scientific inquiry. It was, accordingly, no mere factious
+spirit that drove him into opposition to Hamilton.
+
+=The Whisky Rebellion.=--The political agitation of the Anti-Federalists
+was accompanied by an armed revolt against the government in 1794. The
+occasion for this uprising was another of Hamilton's measures, a law
+laying an excise tax on distilled spirits, for the purpose of increasing
+the revenue needed to pay the interest on the funded debt. It so
+happened that a very considerable part of the whisky manufactured in the
+country was made by the farmers, especially on the frontier, in their
+own stills. The new revenue law meant that federal officers would now
+come into the homes of the people, measure their liquor, and take the
+tax out of their pockets. All the bitterness which farmers felt against
+the fiscal measures of the government was redoubled. In the western
+districts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, they refused to
+pay the tax. In Pennsylvania, some of them sacked and burned the houses
+of the tax collectors, as the Revolutionists thirty years before had
+mobbed the agents of King George sent over to sell stamps. They were in
+a fair way to nullify the law in whole districts when Washington called
+out the troops to suppress "the Whisky Rebellion." Then the movement
+collapsed; but it left behind a deep-seated resentment which flared up
+in the election of several obdurate Anti-Federalist Congressmen from the
+disaffected regions.
+
+
+FOREIGN INFLUENCES AND DOMESTIC POLITICS
+
+=The French Revolution.=--In this exciting period, when all America was
+distracted by partisan disputes, a storm broke in Europe--the
+epoch-making French Revolution--which not only shook the thrones of the
+Old World but stirred to its depths the young republic of the New World.
+The first scene in this dramatic affair occurred in the spring of 1789,
+a few days after Washington was inaugurated. The king of France, Louis
+XVI, driven into bankruptcy by extravagance and costly wars, was forced
+to resort to his people for financial help. Accordingly he called, for
+the first time in more than one hundred fifty years, a meeting of the
+national parliament, the "Estates General," composed of representatives
+of the "three estates"--the clergy, nobility, and commoners. Acting
+under powerful leaders, the commoners, or "third estate," swept aside
+the clergy and nobility and resolved themselves into a national
+assembly. This stirred the country to its depths.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+LOUIS XVI IN THE HANDS OF THE MOB]
+
+Great events followed in swift succession. On July 14, 1789, the
+Bastille, an old royal prison, symbol of the king's absolutism, was
+stormed by a Paris crowd and destroyed. On the night of August 4, the
+feudal privileges of the nobility were abolished by the national
+assembly amid great excitement. A few days later came the famous
+Declaration of the Rights of Man, proclaiming the sovereignty of the
+people and the privileges of citizens. In the autumn of 1791, Louis XVI
+was forced to accept a new constitution for France vesting the
+legislative power in a popular assembly. Little disorder accompanied
+these startling changes. To all appearances a peaceful revolution had
+stripped the French king of his royal prerogatives and based the
+government of his country on the consent of the governed.
+
+=American Influence in France.=--In undertaking their great political
+revolt the French had been encouraged by the outcome of the American
+Revolution. Officers and soldiers, who had served in the American war,
+reported to their French countrymen marvelous tales. At the frugal table
+of General Washington, in council with the unpretentious Franklin, or at
+conferences over the strategy of war, French noblemen of ancient lineage
+learned to respect both the talents and the simple character of the
+leaders in the great republican commonwealth beyond the seas. Travelers,
+who had gone to see the experiment in republicanism with their own eyes,
+carried home to the king and ruling class stories of an astounding
+system of popular government.
+
+On the other hand the dalliance with American democracy was regarded by
+French conservatives as playing with fire. "When we think of the false
+ideas of government and philanthropy," wrote one of Lafayette's aides,
+"which these youths acquired in America and propagated in France with so
+much enthusiasm and such deplorable success--for this mania of imitation
+powerfully aided the Revolution, though it was not the sole cause of
+it--we are bound to confess that it would have been better, both for
+themselves and for us, if these young philosophers in red-heeled shoes
+had stayed at home in attendance on the court."
+
+=Early American Opinion of the French Revolution.=--So close were the
+ties between the two nations that it is not surprising to find every
+step in the first stages of the French Revolution greeted with applause
+in the United States. "Liberty will have another feather in her cap,"
+exultantly wrote a Boston editor. "In no part of the globe," soberly
+wrote John Marshall, "was this revolution hailed with more joy than in
+America.... But one sentiment existed." The main key to the Bastille,
+sent to Washington as a memento, was accepted as "a token of the
+victory gained by liberty." Thomas Paine saw in the great event "the
+first ripe fruits of American principles transplanted into Europe."
+Federalists and Anti-Federalists regarded the new constitution of France
+as another vindication of American ideals.
+
+=The Reign of Terror.=--While profuse congratulations were being
+exchanged, rumors began to come that all was not well in France. Many
+noblemen, enraged at the loss of their special privileges, fled into
+Germany and plotted an invasion of France to overthrow the new system of
+government. Louis XVI entered into negotiations with his brother
+monarchs on the continent to secure their help in the same enterprise,
+and he finally betrayed to the French people his true sentiments by
+attempting to escape from his kingdom, only to be captured and taken
+back to Paris in disgrace.
+
+A new phase of the revolution now opened. The working people, excluded
+from all share in the government by the first French constitution,
+became restless, especially in Paris. Assembling on the Champs de Mars,
+a great open field, they signed a petition calling for another
+constitution giving them the suffrage. When told to disperse, they
+refused and were fired upon by the national guard. This "massacre," as
+it was called, enraged the populace. A radical party, known as
+"Jacobins," then sprang up, taking its name from a Jacobin monastery in
+which it held its sessions. In a little while it became the master of
+the popular convention convoked in September, 1792. The monarchy was
+immediately abolished and a republic established. On January 21, 1793,
+Louis was sent to the scaffold. To the war on Austria, already raging,
+was added a war on England. Then came the Reign of Terror, during which
+radicals in possession of the convention executed in large numbers
+counter-revolutionists and those suspected of sympathy with the
+monarchy. They shot down peasants who rose in insurrection against their
+rule and established a relentless dictatorship. Civil war followed.
+Terrible atrocities were committed on both sides in the name of liberty,
+and in the name of monarchy. To Americans of conservative temper it now
+seemed that the Revolution, so auspiciously begun, had degenerated into
+anarchy and mere bloodthirsty strife.
+
+=Burke Summons the World to War on France.=--In England, Edmund Burke
+led the fight against the new French principles which he feared might
+spread to all Europe. In his _Reflections on the French Revolution_,
+written in 1790, he attacked with terrible wrath the whole program of
+popular government; he called for war, relentless war, upon the French
+as monsters and outlaws; he demanded that they be reduced to order by
+the restoration of the king to full power under the protection of the
+arms of European nations.
+
+=Paine's Defense of the French Revolution.=--To counteract the campaign
+of hate against the French, Thomas Paine replied to Burke in another of
+his famous tracts, _The Rights of Man_, which was given to the American
+public in an edition containing a letter of approval from Jefferson.
+Burke, said Paine, had been mourning about the glories of the French
+monarchy and aristocracy but had forgotten the starving peasants and the
+oppressed people; had wept over the plumage and neglected the dying
+bird. Burke had denied the right of the French people to choose their
+own governors, blandly forgetting that the English government in which
+he saw final perfection itself rested on two revolutions. He had boasted
+that the king of England held his crown in contempt of the democratic
+societies. Paine answered: "If I ask a man in America if he wants a
+king, he retorts and asks me if I take him for an idiot." To the charge
+that the doctrines of the rights of man were "new fangled," Paine
+replied that the question was not whether they were new or old but
+whether they were right or wrong. As to the French disorders and
+difficulties, he bade the world wait to see what would be brought forth
+in due time.
+
+=The Effect of the French Revolution on American Politics.=--The course
+of the French Revolution and the controversies accompanying it,
+exercised a profound influence on the formation of the first political
+parties in America. The followers of Hamilton, now proud of the name
+"Federalists," drew back in fright as they heard of the cruel deeds
+committed during the Reign of Terror. They turned savagely upon the
+revolutionists and their friends in America, denouncing as "Jacobin"
+everybody who did not condemn loudly enough the proceedings of the
+French Republic. A Massachusetts preacher roundly assailed "the
+atheistical, anarchical, and in other respects immoral principles of the
+French Republicans"; he then proceeded with equal passion to attack
+Jefferson and the Anti-Federalists, whom he charged with spreading false
+French propaganda and betraying America. "The editors, patrons, and
+abettors of these vehicles of slander," he exclaimed, "ought to be
+considered and treated as enemies to their country.... Of all traitors
+they are the most aggravatedly criminal; of all villains, they are the
+most infamous and detestable."
+
+The Anti-Federalists, as a matter of fact, were generally favorable to
+the Revolution although they deplored many of the events associated with
+it. Paine's pamphlet, indorsed by Jefferson, was widely read. Democratic
+societies, after the fashion of French political clubs, arose in the
+cities; the coalition of European monarchs against France was denounced
+as a coalition against the very principles of republicanism; and the
+execution of Louis XVI was openly celebrated at a banquet in
+Philadelphia. Harmless titles, such as "Sir," "the Honorable," and "His
+Excellency," were decried as aristocratic and some of the more excited
+insisted on adopting the French title, "Citizen," speaking, for example,
+of "Citizen Judge" and "Citizen Toastmaster." Pamphlets in defense of
+the French streamed from the press, while subsidized newspapers kept the
+propaganda in full swing.
+
+=The European War Disturbs American Commerce.=--This battle of wits, or
+rather contest in calumny, might have gone on indefinitely in America
+without producing any serious results, had it not been for the war
+between England and France, then raging. The English, having command of
+the seas, claimed the right to seize American produce bound for French
+ports and to confiscate American ships engaged in carrying French goods.
+Adding fuel to a fire already hot enough, they began to search American
+ships and to carry off British-born sailors found on board American
+vessels.
+
+=The French Appeal for Help.=--At the same time the French Republic
+turned to the United States for aid in its war on England and sent over
+as its diplomatic representative "Citizen" Genêt, an ardent supporter of
+the new order. On his arrival at Charleston, he was greeted with fervor
+by the Anti-Federalists. As he made his way North, he was wined and
+dined and given popular ovations that turned his head. He thought the
+whole country was ready to join the French Republic in its contest with
+England. Genêt therefore attempted to use the American ports as the base
+of operations for French privateers preying on British merchant ships;
+and he insisted that the United States was in honor bound to help France
+under the treaty of 1778.
+
+=The Proclamation of Neutrality and the Jay Treaty.=--Unmoved by the
+rising tide of popular sympathy for France, Washington took a firm
+course. He received Genêt coldly. The demand that the United States aid
+France under the old treaty of alliance he answered by proclaiming the
+neutrality of America and warning American citizens against hostile acts
+toward either France or England. When Genêt continued to hold meetings,
+issue manifestoes, and stir up the people against England, Washington
+asked the French government to recall him. This act he followed up by
+sending the Chief Justice, John Jay, on a pacific mission to England.
+
+The result was the celebrated Jay treaty of 1794. By its terms Great
+Britain agreed to withdraw her troops from the western forts where they
+had been since the war for independence and to grant certain slight
+trade concessions. The chief sources of bitterness--the failure of the
+British to return slaves carried off during the Revolution, the seizure
+of American ships, and the impressment of sailors--were not touched,
+much to the distress of everybody in America, including loyal
+Federalists. Nevertheless, Washington, dreading an armed conflict with
+England, urged the Senate to ratify the treaty. The weight of his
+influence carried the day.
+
+At this, the hostility of the Anti-Federalists knew no bounds. Jefferson
+declared the Jay treaty "an infamous act which is really nothing more
+than an alliance between England and the Anglo-men of this country,
+against the legislature and the people of the United States." Hamilton,
+defending it with his usual courage, was stoned by a mob in New York and
+driven from the platform with blood streaming from his face. Jay was
+burned in effigy. Even Washington was not spared. The House of
+Representatives was openly hostile. To display its feelings, it called
+upon the President for the papers relative to the treaty negotiations,
+only to be more highly incensed by his flat refusal to present them, on
+the ground that the House did not share in the treaty-making power.
+
+=Washington Retires from Politics.=--Such angry contests confirmed the
+President in his slowly maturing determination to retire at the end of
+his second term in office. He did not believe that a third term was
+unconstitutional or improper; but, worn out by his long and arduous
+labors in war and in peace and wounded by harsh attacks from former
+friends, he longed for the quiet of his beautiful estate at Mount
+Vernon.
+
+In September, 1796, on the eve of the presidential election, Washington
+issued his Farewell Address, another state paper to be treasured and
+read by generations of Americans to come. In this address he directed
+the attention of the people to three subjects of lasting interest. He
+warned them against sectional jealousies. He remonstrated against the
+spirit of partisanship, saying that in government "of the popular
+character, in government purely elective, it is a spirit not to be
+encouraged." He likewise cautioned the people against "the insidious
+wiles of foreign influence," saying: "Europe has a set of primary
+interests which to us have none or a very remote relation. Hence she
+must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are
+essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it would be
+unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary
+vicissitudes of her politics or the ordinary combinations and collisions
+of her friendships or enmities.... Why forego the advantages of so
+peculiar a situation?... It is our true policy to steer clear of
+permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.... Taking
+care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a
+respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary
+alliances for extraordinary emergencies."
+
+=The Campaign of 1796--Adams Elected.=--On hearing of the retirement of
+Washington, the Anti-Federalists cast off all restraints. In honor of
+France and in opposition to what they were pleased to call the
+monarchical tendencies of the Federalists, they boldly assumed the name
+"Republican"; the term "Democrat," then applied only to obscure and
+despised radicals, had not come into general use. They selected
+Jefferson as their candidate for President against John Adams, the
+Federalist nominee, and carried on such a spirited campaign that they
+came within four votes of electing him.
+
+The successful candidate, Adams, was not fitted by training or opinion
+for conciliating a determined opposition. He was a reserved and studious
+man. He was neither a good speaker nor a skillful negotiator. In one of
+his books he had declared himself in favor of "government by an
+aristocracy of talents and wealth"--an offense which the Republicans
+never forgave. While John Marshall found him "a sensible, plain, candid,
+good-tempered man," Jefferson could see in him nothing but a "monocrat"
+and "Anglo-man." Had it not been for the conduct of the French
+government, Adams would hardly have enjoyed a moment's genuine
+popularity during his administration.
+
+=The Quarrel with France.=--The French Directory, the executive
+department established under the constitution of 1795, managed, however,
+to stir the anger of Republicans and Federalists alike. It regarded the
+Jay treaty as a rebuke to France and a flagrant violation of obligations
+solemnly registered in the treaty of 1778. Accordingly it refused to
+receive the American minister, treated him in a humiliating way, and
+finally told him to leave the country. Overlooking this affront in his
+anxiety to maintain peace, Adams dispatched to France a commission of
+eminent men with instructions to reach an understanding with the French
+Republic. On their arrival, they were chagrined to find, instead of a
+decent reception, an indirect demand for an apology respecting the past
+conduct of the American government, a payment in cash, and an annual
+tribute as the price of continued friendship. When the news of this
+affair reached President Adams, he promptly laid it before Congress,
+referring to the Frenchmen who had made the demands as "Mr. X, Mr. Y,
+and Mr. Z."
+
+This insult, coupled with the fact that French privateers, like the
+British, were preying upon American commerce, enraged even the
+Republicans who had been loudest in the profession of their French
+sympathies. They forgot their wrath over the Jay treaty and joined with
+the Federalists in shouting: "Millions for defense, not a cent for
+tribute!" Preparations for war were made on every hand. Washington was
+once more called from Mount Vernon to take his old position at the head
+of the army. Indeed, fighting actually began upon the high seas and went
+on without a formal declaration of war until the year 1800. By that time
+the Directory had been overthrown. A treaty was readily made with
+Napoleon, the First Consul, who was beginning his remarkable career as
+chief of the French Republic, soon to be turned into an empire.
+
+=Alien and Sedition Laws.=--Flushed with success, the Federalists
+determined, if possible, to put an end to radical French influence in
+America and to silence Republican opposition. They therefore passed two
+drastic laws in the summer of 1798: the Alien and Sedition Acts.
+
+The first of these measures empowered the President to expel from the
+country or to imprison any alien whom he regarded as "dangerous" or "had
+reasonable grounds to suspect" of "any treasonable or secret
+machinations against the government."
+
+The second of the measures, the Sedition Act, penalized not only those
+who attempted to stir up unlawful combinations against the government
+but also every one who wrote, uttered, or published "any false,
+scandalous, and malicious writing ... against the government of the
+United States or either House of Congress, or the President of the
+United States, with intent to defame said government ... or to bring
+them or either of them into contempt or disrepute." This measure was
+hurried through Congress in spite of the opposition and the clear
+provision in the Constitution that Congress shall make no law abridging
+the freedom of speech or of the press. Even many Federalists feared the
+consequences of the action. Hamilton was alarmed when he read the bill,
+exclaiming: "Let us not establish a tyranny. Energy is a very different
+thing from violence." John Marshall told his friends in Virginia that,
+had he been in Congress, he would have opposed the two bills because he
+thought them "useless" and "calculated to create unnecessary discontents
+and jealousies."
+
+The Alien law was not enforced; but it gave great offense to the Irish
+and French whose activities against the American government's policy
+respecting Great Britain put them in danger of prison. The Sedition law,
+on the other hand, was vigorously applied. Several editors of Republican
+newspapers soon found themselves in jail or broken by ruinous fines for
+their caustic criticisms of the Federalist President and his policies.
+Bystanders at political meetings, who uttered sentiments which, though
+ungenerous and severe, seem harmless enough now, were hurried before
+Federalist judges and promptly fined and imprisoned. Although the
+prosecutions were not numerous, they aroused a keen resentment. The
+Republicans were convinced that their political opponents, having
+saddled upon the country Hamilton's fiscal system and the British
+treaty, were bent on silencing all censure. The measures therefore had
+exactly the opposite effect from that which their authors intended.
+Instead of helping the Federalist party, they made criticism of it more
+bitter than ever.
+
+=The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.=--Jefferson was quick to take
+advantage of the discontent. He drafted a set of resolutions declaring
+the Sedition law null and void, as violating the federal Constitution.
+His resolutions were passed by the Kentucky legislature late in 1798,
+signed by the governor, and transmitted to the other states for their
+consideration. Though receiving unfavorable replies from a number of
+Northern states, Kentucky the following year reaffirmed its position and
+declared that the nullification of all unconstitutional acts of Congress
+was the rightful remedy to be used by the states in the redress of
+grievances. It thus defied the federal government and announced a
+doctrine hostile to nationality and fraught with terrible meaning for
+the future. In the neighboring state of Virginia, Madison led a movement
+against the Alien and Sedition laws. He induced the legislature to pass
+resolutions condemning the acts as unconstitutional and calling upon the
+other states to take proper means to preserve their rights and the
+rights of the people.
+
+=The Republican Triumph in 1800.=--Thus the way was prepared for the
+election of 1800. The Republicans left no stone unturned in their
+efforts to place on the Federalist candidate, President Adams, all the
+odium of the Alien and Sedition laws, in addition to responsibility for
+approving Hamilton's measures and policies. The Federalists, divided in
+councils and cold in their affection for Adams, made a poor campaign.
+They tried to discredit their opponents with epithets of "Jacobins" and
+"Anarchists"--terms which had been weakened by excessive use. When the
+vote was counted, it was found that Adams had been defeated; while the
+Republicans had carried the entire South and New York also and secured
+eight of the fifteen electoral votes cast by Pennsylvania. "Our beloved
+Adams will now close his bright career," lamented a Federalist
+newspaper. "Sons of faction, demagogues and high priests of anarchy, now
+you have cause to triumph!"
+
+[Illustration: _An old cartoon_
+
+A QUARREL BETWEEN A FEDERALIST AND A REPUBLICAN IN THE HOUSE OF
+REPRESENTATIVES]
+
+Jefferson's election, however, was still uncertain. By a curious
+provision in the Constitution, presidential electors were required to
+vote for two persons without indicating which office each was to fill,
+the one receiving the highest number of votes to be President and the
+candidate standing next to be Vice President. It so happened that Aaron
+Burr, the Republican candidate for Vice President, had received the same
+number of votes as Jefferson; as neither had a majority the election was
+thrown into the House of Representatives, where the Federalists held the
+balance of power. Although it was well known that Burr was not even a
+candidate for President, his friends and many Federalists began
+intriguing for his election to that high office. Had it not been for the
+vigorous action of Hamilton the prize might have been snatched out of
+Jefferson's hands. Not until the thirty-sixth ballot on February 17,
+1801, was the great issue decided in his favor.[2]
+
+
+=References=
+
+J.S. Bassett, _The Federalist System_ (American Nation Series).
+
+C.A. Beard, _Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy_.
+
+H. Lodge, _Alexander Hamilton_.
+
+J.T. Morse, _Thomas Jefferson_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Who were the leaders in the first administration under the
+Constitution?
+
+2. What step was taken to appease the opposition?
+
+3. Enumerate Hamilton's great measures and explain each in detail.
+
+4. Show the connection between the parts of Hamilton's system.
+
+5. Contrast the general political views of Hamilton and Jefferson.
+
+6. What were the important results of the "peaceful" French Revolution
+(1789-92)?
+
+7. Explain the interaction of opinion between France and the United
+States.
+
+8. How did the "Reign of Terror" change American opinion?
+
+9. What was the Burke-Paine controversy?
+
+10. Show how the war in Europe affected American commerce and involved
+America with England and France.
+
+11. What were American policies with regard to each of those countries?
+
+12. What was the outcome of the Alien and Sedition Acts?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Early Federal Legislation.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United
+States_, pp. 133-156; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+341-348.
+
+=Hamilton's Report on Public Credit.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source
+Book_, pp. 233-243.
+
+=The French Revolution.=--Robinson and Beard, _Development of Modern
+Europe_, Vol. I, pp. 224-282; Elson, pp. 351-354.
+
+=The Burke-Paine Controversy.=--Make an analysis of Burke's _Reflections
+on the French Revolution_ and Paine's _Rights of Man_.
+
+=The Alien and Sedition Acts.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_,
+pp. 259-267; Elson, pp. 367-375.
+
+=Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.=--Macdonald, pp. 267-278.
+
+=Source Studies.=--Materials in Hart, _American History Told by
+Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 255-343.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, Thomas
+Jefferson, and Albert Gallatin.
+
+=The Twelfth Amendment.=--Contrast the provision in the original
+Constitution with the terms of the Amendment. _See_ Appendix.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] North Carolina ratified in November, 1789, and Rhode Island in May,
+1790.
+
+[2] To prevent a repetition of such an unfortunate affair, the twelfth
+amendment of the Constitution was adopted in 1804, changing slightly the
+method of electing the President.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER
+
+
+REPUBLICAN PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES
+
+=Opposition to Strong Central Government.=--Cherishing especially the
+agricultural interest, as Jefferson said, the Republicans were in the
+beginning provincial in their concern and outlook. Their attachment to
+America was, certainly, as strong as that of Hamilton; but they regarded
+the state, rather than the national government, as the proper center of
+power and affection. Indeed, a large part of the rank and file had been
+among the opponents of the Constitution in the days of its adoption.
+Jefferson had entertained doubts about it and Monroe, destined to be the
+fifth President, had been one of the bitter foes of ratification. The
+former went so far in the direction of local autonomy that he exalted
+the state above the nation in the Kentucky resolutions of 1798,
+declaring the Constitution to be a mere compact and the states competent
+to interpret and nullify federal law. This was provincialism with a
+vengeance. "It is jealousy, not confidence, which prescribes limited
+constitutions," wrote Jefferson for the Kentucky legislature. Jealousy
+of the national government, not confidence in it--this is the ideal that
+reflected the provincial and agricultural interest.
+
+=Republican Simplicity.=--Every act of the Jeffersonian party during its
+early days of power was in accord with the ideals of government which it
+professed. It had opposed all pomp and ceremony, calculated to give
+weight and dignity to the chief executive of the nation, as symbols of
+monarchy and high prerogative. Appropriately, therefore, Jefferson's
+inauguration on March 4, 1801, the first at the new capital at
+Washington, was marked by extreme simplicity. In keeping with this
+procedure he quit the practice, followed by Washington and Adams, of
+reading presidential addresses to Congress in joint assembly and adopted
+in its stead the plan of sending his messages in writing--a custom that
+was continued unbroken until 1913 when President Wilson returned to the
+example set by the first chief magistrate.
+
+=Republican Measures.=--The Republicans had complained of a great
+national debt as the source of a dangerous "money power," giving
+strength to the federal government; accordingly they began to pay it off
+as rapidly as possible. They had held commerce in low esteem and looked
+upon a large navy as a mere device to protect it; consequently they
+reduced the number of warships. They had objected to excise taxes,
+particularly on whisky; these they quickly abolished, to the intense
+satisfaction of the farmers. They had protested against the heavy cost
+of the federal government; they reduced expenses by discharging hundreds
+of men from the army and abolishing many offices.
+
+They had savagely criticized the Sedition law and Jefferson refused to
+enforce it. They had been deeply offended by the assault on freedom of
+speech and press and they promptly impeached Samuel Chase, a justice of
+the Supreme Court, who had been especially severe in his attacks upon
+offenders under the Sedition Act. Their failure to convict Justice Chase
+by a narrow margin was due to no lack of zeal on their part but to the
+Federalist strength in the Senate where the trial was held. They had
+regarded the appointment of a large number of federal judges during the
+last hours of Adams' administration as an attempt to intrench
+Federalists in the judiciary and to enlarge the sphere of the national
+government. Accordingly, they at once repealed the act creating the new
+judgeships, thus depriving the "midnight appointees" of their posts.
+They had considered the federal offices, civil and military, as sources
+of great strength to the Federalists and Jefferson, though committed to
+the principle that offices should be open to all and distributed
+according to merit, was careful to fill most of the vacancies as they
+occurred with trusted Republicans. To his credit, however, it must be
+said that he did not make wholesale removals to find room for party
+workers.
+
+The Republicans thus hewed to the line of their general policy of
+restricting the weight, dignity, and activity of the national
+government. Yet there were no Republicans, as the Federalists asserted,
+prepared to urge serious modifications in the Constitution. "If there be
+any among us who wish to dissolve this union or to change its republican
+form," wrote Jefferson in his first inaugural, "let them stand
+undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may
+be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it." After reciting the
+fortunate circumstances of climate, soil, and isolation which made the
+future of America so full of promise, Jefferson concluded: "A wise and
+frugal government which shall restrain men from injuring one another,
+shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of
+industry and improvement and shall not take from the mouth of labour the
+bread it has earned. This is the sum of good government; and this is
+necessary to close the circle of our felicities."
+
+In all this the Republicans had not reckoned with destiny. In a few
+short years that lay ahead it was their fate to double the territory of
+the country, making inevitable a continental nation; to give the
+Constitution a generous interpretation that shocked many a Federalist;
+to wage war on behalf of American commerce; to reëstablish the hated
+United States Bank; to enact a high protective tariff; to see their
+Federalist opponents in their turn discredited as nullifiers and
+provincials; to announce high national doctrines in foreign affairs; and
+to behold the Constitution exalted and defended against the pretensions
+of states by a son of old Virginia, John Marshall, Chief Justice of the
+Supreme Court of the United States.
+
+
+THE REPUBLICANS AND THE GREAT WEST
+
+=Expansion and Land Hunger.=--The first of the great measures which
+drove the Republicans out upon this new national course--the purchase
+of the Louisiana territory--was the product of circumstances rather than
+of their deliberate choosing. It was not the lack of land for his
+cherished farmers that led Jefferson to add such an immense domain to
+the original possessions of the United States. In the Northwest
+territory, now embracing Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin,
+and a portion of Minnesota, settlements were mainly confined to the
+north bank of the Ohio River. To the south, in Kentucky and Tennessee,
+where there were more than one hundred thousand white people who had
+pushed over the mountains from Virginia and the Carolinas, there were
+still wide reaches of untilled soil. The Alabama and Mississippi regions
+were vast Indian frontiers of the state of Georgia, unsettled and almost
+unexplored. Even to the wildest imagination there seemed to be territory
+enough to satisfy the land hunger of the American people for a century
+to come.
+
+=The Significance of the Mississippi River.=--At all events the East,
+then the center of power, saw no good reason for expansion. The planters
+of the Carolinas, the manufacturers of Pennsylvania, the importers of
+New York, the shipbuilders of New England, looking to the seaboard and
+to Europe for trade, refinements, and sometimes their ideas of
+government, were slow to appreciate the place of the West in national
+economy. The better educated the Easterners were, the less, it seems,
+they comprehended the destiny of the nation. Sons of Federalist fathers
+at Williams College, after a long debate decided by a vote of fifteen to
+one that the purchase of Louisiana was undesirable.
+
+On the other hand, the pioneers of Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee,
+unlearned in books, saw with their own eyes the resources of the
+wilderness. Many of them had been across the Mississippi and had beheld
+the rich lands awaiting the plow of the white man. Down the great river
+they floated their wheat, corn, and bacon to ocean-going ships bound for
+the ports of the seaboard or for Europe. The land journeys over the
+mountain barriers with bulky farm produce, they knew from experience,
+were almost impossible, and costly at best. Nails, bolts of cloth, tea,
+and coffee could go or come that way, but not corn and bacon. A free
+outlet to the sea by the Mississippi was as essential to the pioneers of
+the Kentucky region as the harbor of Boston to the merchant princes of
+that metropolis.
+
+=Louisiana under Spanish Rule.=--For this reason they watched with deep
+solicitude the fortunes of the Spanish king to whom, at the close of the
+Seven Years' War, had fallen the Louisiana territory stretching from New
+Orleans to the Rocky Mountains. While he controlled the mouth of the
+Mississippi there was little to fear, for he had neither the army nor
+the navy necessary to resist any invasion of American trade. Moreover,
+Washington had been able, by the exercise of great tact, to secure from
+Spain in 1795 a trading privilege through New Orleans which satisfied
+the present requirements of the frontiersmen even if it did not allay
+their fears for the future. So things stood when a swift succession of
+events altered the whole situation.
+
+=Louisiana Transferred to France.=--In July, 1802, a royal order from
+Spain instructed the officials at New Orleans to close the port to
+American produce. About the same time a disturbing rumor, long current,
+was confirmed--Napoleon had coerced Spain into returning Louisiana to
+France by a secret treaty signed in 1800. "The scalers of the Alps and
+conquerors of Venice" now looked across the sea for new scenes of
+adventure. The West was ablaze with excitement. A call for war ran
+through the frontier; expeditions were organized to prevent the landing
+of the French; and petitions for instant action flooded in upon
+Jefferson.
+
+=Jefferson Sees the Danger.=--Jefferson, the friend of France and sworn
+enemy of England, compelled to choose in the interest of America, never
+winced. "The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France,"
+he wrote to Livingston, the American minister in Paris, "works sorely on
+the United States. It completely reverses all the political relations of
+the United States and will form a new epoch in our political course....
+There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our
+natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans through which the produce
+of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market.... France,
+placing herself in that door, assumes to us an attitude of defiance.
+Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific
+dispositions, her feeble state would induce her to increase our
+facilities there.... Not so can it ever be in the hands of France....
+The day that France takes possession of New Orleans fixes the sentence
+which is to restrain her forever within her low water mark.... It seals
+the union of the two nations who in conjunction can maintain exclusive
+possession of the ocean. From that moment we must marry ourselves to the
+British fleet and nation.... This is not a state of things we seek or
+desire. It is one which this measure, if adopted by France, forces on us
+as necessarily as any other cause by the laws of nature brings on its
+necessary effect."
+
+=Louisiana Purchased.=--Acting on this belief, but apparently seeing
+only the Mississippi outlet at stake, Jefferson sent his friend, James
+Monroe, to France with the power to buy New Orleans and West Florida.
+Before Monroe arrived, the regular minister, Livingston, had already
+convinced Napoleon that it would be well to sell territory which might
+be wrested from him at any moment by the British sea power, especially
+as the war, temporarily stopped by the peace of Amiens, was once more
+raging in Europe. Wise as he was in his day, Livingston had at first no
+thought of buying the whole Louisiana country. He was simply dazed when
+Napoleon offered to sell the entire domain and get rid of the business
+altogether. Though staggered by the proposal, he and Monroe decided to
+accept. On April 30, they signed the treaty of cession, agreeing to pay
+$11,250,000 in six per cent bonds and to discharge certain debts due
+French citizens, making in all approximately fifteen millions. Spain
+protested, Napoleon's brother fumed, French newspapers objected; but the
+deed was done.
+
+=Jefferson and His Constitutional Scruples.=--When the news of this
+extraordinary event reached the United States, the people were filled
+with astonishment, and no one was more surprised than Jefferson himself.
+He had thought of buying New Orleans and West Florida for a small sum,
+and now a vast domain had been dumped into the lap of the nation. He was
+puzzled. On looking into the Constitution he found not a line
+authorizing the purchase of more territory and so he drafted an
+amendment declaring "Louisiana, as ceded by France,--a part of the
+United States." He had belabored the Federalists for piling up a big
+national debt and he could hardly endure the thought of issuing more
+bonds himself.
+
+In the midst of his doubts came the news that Napoleon might withdraw
+from the bargain. Thoroughly alarmed by that, Jefferson pressed the
+Senate for a ratification of the treaty. He still clung to his original
+idea that the Constitution did not warrant the purchase; but he lamely
+concluded: "If our friends shall think differently, I shall certainly
+acquiesce with satisfaction; confident that the good sense of our
+country will correct the evil of construction when it shall produce ill
+effects." Thus the stanch advocate of "strict interpretation" cut loose
+from his own doctrine and intrusted the construction of the Constitution
+to "the good sense" of his countrymen.
+
+=The Treaty Ratified.=--This unusual transaction, so favorable to the
+West, aroused the ire of the seaboard Federalists. Some denounced it as
+unconstitutional, easily forgetting Hamilton's masterly defense of the
+bank, also not mentioned in the Constitution. Others urged that, if "the
+howling wilderness" ever should be settled, it would turn against the
+East, form new commercial connections, and escape from federal control.
+Still others protested that the purchase would lead inevitably to the
+dominance of a "hotch potch of wild men from the Far West." Federalists,
+who thought "the broad back of America" could readily bear Hamilton's
+consolidated debt, now went into agonies over a bond issue of less than
+one-sixth of that amount. But in vain. Jefferson's party with a high
+hand carried the day. The Senate, after hearing the Federalist protest,
+ratified the treaty. In December, 1803, the French flag was hauled down
+from the old government buildings in New Orleans and the Stars and
+Stripes were hoisted as a sign that the land of Coronado, De Soto,
+Marquette, and La Salle had passed forever to the United States.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1805]
+
+By a single stroke, the original territory of the United States was more
+than doubled. While the boundaries of the purchase were uncertain, it is
+safe to say that the Louisiana territory included what is now Arkansas,
+Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and large
+portions of Louisiana, Minnesota, North Dakota, Colorado, Montana, and
+Wyoming. The farm lands that the friends of "a little America" on the
+seacoast declared a hopeless wilderness were, within a hundred years,
+fully occupied and valued at nearly seven billion dollars--almost five
+hundred times the price paid to Napoleon.
+
+=Western Explorations.=--Having taken the fateful step, Jefferson wisely
+began to make the most of it. He prepared for the opening of the new
+country by sending the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore it,
+discover its resources, and lay out an overland route through the
+Missouri Valley and across the Great Divide to the Pacific. The story of
+this mighty exploit, which began in the spring of 1804 and ended in the
+autumn of 1806, was set down with skill and pains in the journal of
+Lewis and Clark; when published even in a short form, it invited the
+forward-looking men of the East to take thought about the western
+empire. At the same time Zebulon Pike, in a series of journeys, explored
+the sources of the Mississippi River and penetrated the Spanish
+territories of the far Southwest. Thus scouts and pioneers continued the
+work of diplomats.
+
+
+THE REPUBLICAN WAR FOR COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE
+
+=The English and French Blockades.=--In addition to bringing Louisiana
+to the United States, the reopening of the European War in 1803, after a
+short lull, renewed in an acute form the commercial difficulties that
+had plagued the country all during the administrations of Washington and
+Adams. The Republicans were now plunged into the hornets' nest. The
+party whose ardent spirits had burned Jay in effigy, stoned Hamilton for
+defending his treaty, jeered Washington's proclamation of neutrality,
+and spoken bitterly of "timid traders," could no longer take refuge in
+criticism. It had to act.
+
+Its troubles took a serious turn in 1806. England, in a determined
+effort to bring France to her knees by starvation, declared the coast of
+Europe blockaded from Brest to the mouth of the Elbe River. Napoleon
+retaliated by his Berlin Decree of November, 1806, blockading the
+British Isles--a measure terrifying to American ship owners whose
+vessels were liable to seizure by any French rover, though Napoleon had
+no navy to make good his proclamation. Great Britain countered with a
+still more irritating decree--the Orders in Council of 1807. It modified
+its blockade, but in so doing merely authorized American ships not
+carrying munitions of war to complete their voyage to the Continent, on
+condition of their stopping at a British port, securing a license, and
+paying a tax. This, responded Napoleon, was the height of insolence, and
+he denounced it as a gross violation of international law. He then
+closed the circle of American troubles by issuing his Milan Decree of
+December, 1807. This order declared that any ship which complied with
+the British rules would be subject to seizure and confiscation by French
+authorities.
+
+=The Impressment of Seamen.=--That was not all. Great Britain, in dire
+need of men for her navy, adopted the practice of stopping American
+ships, searching them, and carrying away British-born sailors found on
+board. British sailors were so badly treated, so cruelly flogged for
+trivial causes, and so meanly fed that they fled in crowds to the
+American marine. In many cases it was difficult to tell whether seamen
+were English or American. They spoke the same language, so that language
+was no test. Rovers on the deep and stragglers in the ports of both
+countries, they frequently had no papers to show their nativity.
+Moreover, Great Britain held to the old rule--"Once an Englishman,
+always an Englishman"--a doctrine rejected by the United States in
+favor of the principle that a man could choose the nation to which he
+would give allegiance. British sea captains, sometimes by mistake, and
+often enough with reckless indifference, carried away into servitude in
+their own navy genuine American citizens. The process itself, even when
+executed with all the civilities of law, was painful enough, for it
+meant that American ships were forced to "come to," and compelled to
+rest submissively under British guns until the searching party had pried
+into records, questioned seamen, seized and handcuffed victims. Saints
+could not have done this work without raising angry passions, and only
+saints could have endured it with patience and fortitude.
+
+Had the enactment of the scenes been confined to the high seas and
+knowledge of them to rumors and newspaper stories, American resentment
+might not have been so intense; but many a search and seizure was made
+in sight of land. British and French vessels patrolled the coasts,
+firing on one another and chasing one another in American waters within
+the three-mile limit. When, in the summer of 1807, the American frigate
+_Chesapeake_ refused to surrender men alleged to be deserters from King
+George's navy, the British warship _Leopard_ opened fire, killing three
+men and wounding eighteen more--an act which even the British ministry
+could hardly excuse. If the French were less frequently the offenders,
+it was not because of their tenderness about American rights but because
+so few of their ships escaped the hawk-eyed British navy to operate in
+American waters.
+
+=The Losses in American Commerce.=--This high-handed conduct on the part
+of European belligerents was very injurious to American trade. By their
+enterprise, American shippers had become the foremost carriers on the
+Atlantic Ocean. In a decade they had doubled the tonnage of American
+merchant ships under the American flag, taking the place of the French
+marine when Britain swept that from the seas, and supplying Britain with
+the sinews of war for the contest with the Napoleonic empire. The
+American shipping engaged in foreign trade embraced 363,110 tons in
+1791; 669,921 tons in 1800; and almost 1,000,000 tons in 1810. Such was
+the enterprise attacked by the British and French decrees. American
+ships bound for Great Britain were liable to be captured by French
+privateers which, in spite of the disasters of the Nile and Trafalgar,
+ranged the seas. American ships destined for the Continent, if they
+failed to stop at British ports and pay tribute, were in great danger of
+capture by the sleepless British navy and its swarm of auxiliaries.
+American sea captains who, in fear of British vengeance, heeded the
+Orders in Council and paid the tax were almost certain to fall a prey to
+French vengeance, for the French were vigorous in executing the Milan
+Decree.
+
+=Jefferson's Policy.=--The President's dilemma was distressing. Both the
+belligerents in Europe were guilty of depredations on American commerce.
+War on both of them was out of the question. War on France was
+impossible because she had no territory on this side of the water which
+could be reached by American troops and her naval forces had been
+shattered at the battles of the Nile and Trafalgar. War on Great
+Britain, a power which Jefferson's followers feared and distrusted, was
+possible but not inviting. Jefferson shrank from it. A man of peace, he
+disliked war's brazen clamor; a man of kindly spirit, he was startled at
+the death and destruction which it brought in its train. So for the
+eight years Jefferson steered an even course, suggesting measure after
+measure with a view to avoiding bloodshed. He sent, it is true,
+Commodore Preble in 1803 to punish Mediterranean pirates preying upon
+American commerce; but a great war he evaded with passionate
+earnestness, trying in its place every other expedient to protect
+American rights.
+
+=The Embargo and Non-intercourse Acts.=--In 1806, Congress passed and
+Jefferson approved a non-importation act closing American ports to
+certain products from British dominions--a measure intended as a club
+over the British government's head. This law, failing in its purpose,
+Jefferson proposed and Congress adopted in December, 1807, the Embargo
+Act forbidding all vessels to leave American harbors for foreign ports.
+France and England were to be brought to terms by cutting off their
+supplies.
+
+The result of the embargo was pathetic. England and France refused to
+give up search and seizure. American ship owners who, lured by huge
+profits, had formerly been willing to take the risk were now restrained
+by law to their home ports. Every section suffered. The South and West
+found their markets for cotton, rice, tobacco, corn, and bacon
+curtailed. Thus they learned by bitter experience the national
+significance of commerce. Ship masters, ship builders, longshoremen, and
+sailors were thrown out of employment while the prices of foreign goods
+doubled. Those who obeyed the law were ruined; violators of the law
+smuggled goods into Canada and Florida for shipment abroad.
+
+Jefferson's friends accepted the medicine with a wry face as the only
+alternative to supine submission or open war. His opponents, without
+offering any solution of their own, denounced it as a contemptible plan
+that brought neither relief nor honor. Beset by the clamor that arose on
+all sides, Congress, in the closing days of Jefferson's administration,
+repealed the Embargo law and substituted a Non-intercourse act
+forbidding trade with England and France while permitting it with other
+countries--a measure equally futile in staying the depredations on
+American shipping.
+
+=Jefferson Retires in Favor of Madison.=--Jefferson, exhausted by
+endless wrangling and wounded, as Washington had been, by savage
+criticism, welcomed March 4, 1809. His friends urged him to "stay by the
+ship" and accept a third term. He declined, saying that election for
+life might result from repeated reëlection. In following Washington's
+course and defending it on principle, he set an example to all his
+successors, making the "third term doctrine" a part of American
+unwritten law.
+
+His intimate friend, James Madison, to whom he turned over the burdens
+of his high office was, like himself, a man of peace. Madison had been a
+leader since the days of the Revolution, but in legislative halls and
+council chambers, not on the field of battle. Small in stature,
+sensitive in feelings, studious in habits, he was no man for the rough
+and tumble of practical politics. He had taken a prominent and
+distinguished part in the framing and the adoption of the Constitution.
+He had served in the first Congress as a friend of Hamilton's measures.
+Later he attached himself to Jefferson's fortunes and served for eight
+years as his first counselor, the Secretary of State. The principles of
+the Constitution, which he had helped to make and interpret, he was now
+as President called upon to apply in one of the most perplexing moments
+in all American history. In keeping with his own traditions and
+following in the footsteps of Jefferson, he vainly tried to solve the
+foreign problem by negotiation.
+
+=The Trend of Events.=--Whatever difficulties Madison had in making up
+his mind on war and peace were settled by events beyond his own control.
+In the spring of 1811, a British frigate held up an American ship near
+the harbor of New York and impressed a seaman alleged to be an American
+citizen. Burning with resentment, the captain of the _President_, an
+American warship, acting under orders, poured several broadsides into
+the _Little Belt_, a British sloop, suspected of being the guilty party.
+The British also encouraged the Indian chief Tecumseh, who welded
+together the Indians of the Northwest under British protection and gave
+signs of restlessness presaging a revolt. This sent a note of alarm
+along the frontier that was not checked even when, in November,
+Tecumseh's men were badly beaten at Tippecanoe by William Henry
+Harrison. The Indians stood in the way of the advancing frontier, and it
+seemed to the pioneers that, without support from the British in Canada,
+the Red Men would soon be subdued.
+
+=Clay and Calhoun.=--While events were moving swiftly and rumors were
+flying thick and fast, the mastery of the government passed from the
+uncertain hands of Madison to a party of ardent young men in Congress,
+dubbed "Young Republicans," under the leadership of two members destined
+to be mighty figures in American history: Henry Clay of Kentucky and
+John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The former contended, in a flair of
+folly, that "the militia of Kentucky alone are competent to place
+Montreal and Upper Canada at your feet." The latter with a light heart
+spoke of conquering Canada in a four weeks' campaign. "It must not be
+inferred," says Channing, "that in advocating conquest, the Westerners
+were actuated merely by desire for land; they welcomed war because they
+thought it would be the easiest way to abate Indian troubles. The
+savages were supported by the fur-trading interests that centred at
+Quebec and London.... The Southerners on their part wished for Florida
+and they thought that the conquest of Canada would obviate some Northern
+opposition to this acquisition of slave territory." While Clay and
+Calhoun, spokesmen of the West and South, were not unmindful of what
+Napoleon had done to American commerce, they knew that their followers
+still remembered with deep gratitude the aid of the French in the war
+for independence and that the embers of the old hatred for George III,
+still on the throne, could be readily blown into flame.
+
+=Madison Accepts War as Inevitable.=--The conduct of the British
+ministers with whom Madison had to deal did little to encourage him in
+adhering to the policy of "watchful waiting." One of them, a high Tory,
+believed that all Americans were alike "except that a few are less
+knaves than others" and his methods were colored by his belief. On the
+recall of this minister the British government selected another no less
+high and mighty in his principles and opinions. So Madison became
+thoroughly discouraged about the outcome of pacific measures. When the
+pressure from Congress upon him became too heavy, he gave way, signing
+on June 18, 1812, the declaration of war on Great Britain. In
+proclaiming hostilities, the administration set forth the causes which
+justified the declaration; namely, the British had been encouraging the
+Indians to attack American citizens on the frontier; they had ruined
+American trade by blockades; they had insulted the American flag by
+stopping and searching our ships; they had illegally seized American
+sailors and driven them into the British navy.
+
+=The Course of the War.=--The war lasted for nearly three years without
+bringing victory to either side. The surrender of Detroit by General
+Hull to the British and the failure of the American invasion of Canada
+were offset by Perry's victory on Lake Erie and a decisive blow
+administered to British designs for an invasion of New York by way of
+Plattsburgh. The triumph of Jackson at New Orleans helped to atone for
+the humiliation suffered in the burning of the Capitol by the British.
+The stirring deeds of the _Constitution_, the _United States_, and the
+_Argus_ on the seas, the heroic death of Lawrence and the victories of a
+hundred privateers furnished consolation for those who suffered from the
+iron blockade finally established by the British government when it came
+to appreciate the gravity of the situation. While men love the annals of
+the sea, they will turn to the running battles, the narrow escapes, and
+the reckless daring of American sailors in that naval contest with Great
+Britain.
+
+All this was exciting but it was inconclusive. In fact, never was a
+government less prepared than was that of the United States in 1812. It
+had neither the disciplined troops, the ships of war, nor the supplies
+required by the magnitude of the military task. It was fortune that
+favored the American cause. Great Britain, harassed, worn, and
+financially embarrassed by nearly twenty years of fighting in Europe,
+was in no mood to gather her forces for a titanic effort in America even
+after Napoleon was overthrown and sent into exile at Elba in the spring
+of 1814. War clouds still hung on the European horizon and the conflict
+temporarily halted did again break out. To be rid of American anxieties
+and free for European eventualities, England was ready to settle with
+the United States, especially as that could be done without conceding
+anything or surrendering any claims.
+
+=The Treaty of Peace.=--Both countries were in truth sick of a war that
+offered neither glory nor profit. Having indulged in the usual
+diplomatic skirmishing, they sent representatives to Ghent to discuss
+terms of peace. After long negotiations an agreement was reached on
+Christmas eve, 1814, a few days before Jackson's victory at New Orleans.
+When the treaty reached America the people were surprised to find that
+it said nothing about the seizure of American sailors, the destruction
+of American trade, the searching of American ships, or the support of
+Indians on the frontier. Nevertheless, we are told, the people "passed
+from gloom to glory" when the news of peace arrived. The bells were
+rung; schools were closed; flags were displayed; and many a rousing
+toast was drunk in tavern and private home. The rejoicing could
+continue. With Napoleon definitely beaten at Waterloo in June, 1815,
+Great Britain had no need to impress sailors, search ships, and
+confiscate American goods bound to the Continent. Once more the terrible
+sea power sank into the background and the ocean was again white with
+the sails of merchantmen.
+
+
+THE REPUBLICANS NATIONALIZED
+
+=The Federalists Discredited.=--By a strange turn of fortune's wheel,
+the party of Hamilton, Washington, Adams, the party of the grand nation,
+became the party of provincialism and nullification. New England,
+finding its shipping interests crippled in the European conflict and
+then penalized by embargoes, opposed the declaration of war on Great
+Britain, which meant the completion of the ruin already begun. In the
+course of the struggle, the Federalist leaders came perilously near to
+treason in their efforts to hamper the government of the United States;
+and in their desperation they fell back upon the doctrine of
+nullification so recently condemned by them when it came from Kentucky.
+The Senate of Massachusetts, while the war was in progress, resolved
+that it was waged "without justifiable cause," and refused to approve
+military and naval projects not connected with "the defense of our
+seacoast and soil." A Boston newspaper declared that the union was
+nothing but a treaty among sovereign states, that states could decide
+for themselves the question of obeying federal law, and that armed
+resistance under the banner of a state would not be rebellion or
+treason. The general assembly of Connecticut reminded the administration
+at Washington that "the state of Connecticut is a free, sovereign, and
+independent state." Gouverneur Morris, a member of the convention which
+had drafted the Constitution, suggested the holding of another
+conference to consider whether the Northern states should remain in the
+union.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old cartoon_
+
+NEW ENGLAND JUMPING INTO THE HANDS OF GEORGE III]
+
+In October, 1814, a convention of delegates from Connecticut,
+Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and certain counties of New Hampshire and
+Vermont was held at Hartford, on the call of Massachusetts. The counsels
+of the extremists were rejected but the convention solemnly went on
+record to the effect that acts of Congress in violation of the
+Constitution are void; that in cases of deliberate, dangerous, and
+palpable infractions the state is duty bound to interpose its authority
+for the protection of its citizens; and that when emergencies occur the
+states must be their own judges and execute their own decisions. Thus
+New England answered the challenge of Calhoun and Clay. Fortunately its
+actions were not as rash as its words. The Hartford convention merely
+proposed certain amendments to the Constitution and adjourned. At the
+close of the war, its proposals vanished harmlessly; but the men who
+made them were hopelessly discredited.
+
+=The Second United States Bank.=--In driving the Federalists towards
+nullification and waging a national war themselves, the Republicans lost
+all their old taint of provincialism. Moreover, in turning to measures
+of reconstruction called forth by the war, they resorted to the national
+devices of the Federalists. In 1816, they chartered for a period of
+twenty years a second United States Bank--the institution which
+Jefferson and Madison once had condemned as unsound and
+unconstitutional. The Constitution remained unchanged; times and
+circumstances had changed. Calhoun dismissed the vexed question of
+constitutionality with a scant reference to an ancient dispute, while
+Madison set aside his scruples and signed the bill.
+
+=The Protective Tariff of 1816.=--The Republicans supplemented the Bank
+by another Federalist measure--a high protective tariff. Clay viewed it
+as the beginning of his "American system" of protection. Calhoun
+defended it on national principles. For this sudden reversal of policy
+the young Republicans were taunted by some of their older party
+colleagues with betraying the "agricultural interest" that Jefferson had
+fostered; but Calhoun refused to listen to their criticisms. "When the
+seas are open," he said, "the produce of the South may pour anywhere
+into the markets of the Old World.... What are the effects of a war with
+a maritime power--with England? Our commerce annihilated ... our
+agriculture cut off from its accustomed markets, the surplus of the
+farmer perishes on his hands.... The recent war fell with peculiar
+pressure on the growers of cotton and tobacco and the other great
+staples of the country; and the same state of things will recur in the
+event of another war unless prevented by the foresight of this body....
+When our manufactures are grown to a certain perfection, as they soon
+will be under the fostering care of the government, we shall no longer
+experience these evils." With the Republicans nationalized, the
+Federalist party, as an organization, disappeared after a crushing
+defeat in the presidential campaign of 1816.
+
+=Monroe and the Florida Purchase.=--To the victor in that political
+contest, James Monroe of Virginia, fell two tasks of national
+importance, adding to the prestige of the whole country and deepening
+the sense of patriotism that weaned men away from mere allegiance to
+states. The first of these was the purchase of Florida from Spain. The
+acquisition of Louisiana let the Mississippi flow "unvexed to the sea";
+but it left all the states east of the river cut off from the Gulf,
+affording them ground for discontent akin to that which had moved the
+pioneers of Kentucky to action a generation earlier. The uncertainty as
+to the boundaries of Louisiana gave the United States a claim to West
+Florida, setting on foot a movement for occupation. The Florida swamps
+were a basis for Indian marauders who periodically swept into the
+frontier settlements, and hiding places for runaway slaves. Thus the
+sanction of international law was given to punitive expeditions into
+alien territory.
+
+The pioneer leaders stood waiting for the signal. It came. President
+Monroe, on the occasion of an Indian outbreak, ordered General Jackson
+to seize the offenders, in the Floridas, if necessary. The high-spirited
+warrior, taking this as a hint that he was to occupy the coveted region,
+replied that, if possession was the object of the invasion, he could
+occupy the Floridas within sixty days. Without waiting for an answer to
+this letter, he launched his expedition, and in the spring of 1818 was
+master of the Spanish king's domain to the south.
+
+There was nothing for the king to do but to make the best of the
+inevitable by ceding the Floridas to the United States in return for
+five million dollars to be paid to American citizens having claims
+against Spain. On Washington's birthday, 1819, the treaty was signed. It
+ceded the Floridas to the United States and defined the boundary between
+Mexico and the United States by drawing a line from the mouth of the
+Sabine River in a northwesterly direction to the Pacific. On this
+occasion even Monroe, former opponent of the Constitution, forgot to
+inquire whether new territory could be constitutionally acquired and
+incorporated into the American union. The Republicans seemed far away
+from the days of "strict construction." And Jefferson still lived!
+
+=The Monroe Doctrine.=--Even more effective in fashioning the national
+idea was Monroe's enunciation of the famous doctrine that bears his
+name. The occasion was another European crisis. During the Napoleonic
+upheaval and the years of dissolution that ensued, the Spanish colonies
+in America, following the example set by their English neighbors in
+1776, declared their independence. Unable to conquer them alone, the
+king of Spain turned for help to the friendly powers of Europe that
+looked upon revolution and republics with undisguised horror.
+
+_The Holy Alliance._--He found them prepared to view his case with
+sympathy. Three of them, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, under the
+leadership of the Czar, Alexander I, in the autumn of 1815, had entered
+into a Holy Alliance to sustain by reciprocal service the autocratic
+principle in government. Although the effusive, almost maudlin, language
+of the treaty did not express their purpose explicitly, the Alliance was
+later regarded as a mere union of monarchs to prevent the rise and
+growth of popular government.
+
+The American people thought their worst fears confirmed when, in 1822, a
+conference of delegates from Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France met at
+Verona to consider, among other things, revolutions that had just broken
+out in Spain and Italy. The spirit of the conference is reflected in the
+first article of the agreement reached by the delegates: "The high
+contracting powers, being convinced that the system of representative
+government is equally incompatible with the monarchical principle and
+the maxim of the sovereignty of the people with the divine right,
+mutually engage in the most solemn manner to use all their efforts to
+put an end to the system of representative government in whatever
+country it may exist in Europe and to prevent its being introduced in
+those countries where it is not yet known." The Czar, who incidentally
+coveted the west coast of North America, proposed to send an army to aid
+the king of Spain in his troubles at home, thus preparing the way for
+intervention in Spanish America. It was material weakness not want of
+spirit, that prevented the grand union of monarchs from making open war
+on popular government.
+
+_The Position of England._--Unfortunately, too, for the Holy Alliance,
+England refused to coöperate. English merchants had built up a large
+trade with the independent Latin-American colonies and they protested
+against the restoration of Spanish sovereignty, which meant a renewal of
+Spain's former trade monopoly. Moreover, divine right doctrines had been
+laid to rest in England and the representative principle thoroughly
+established. Already there were signs of the coming democratic flood
+which was soon to carry the first reform bill of 1832, extending the
+suffrage, and sweep on to even greater achievements. British statesmen,
+therefore, had to be cautious. In such circumstances, instead of
+coöperating with the autocrats of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, they
+turned to the minister of the United States in London. The British prime
+minister, Canning, proposed that the two countries join in declaring
+their unwillingness to see the Spanish colonies transferred to any other
+power.
+
+_Jefferson's Advice._--The proposal was rejected; but President Monroe
+took up the suggestion with Madison and Jefferson as well as with his
+Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams. They favored the plan. Jefferson
+said: "One nation, most of all, could disturb us in this pursuit [of
+freedom]; she now offers to lead, aid, and accompany us in it. By
+acceding to her proposition we detach her from the bands, bring her
+mighty weight into the scale of free government and emancipate a
+continent at one stroke.... With her on our side we need not fear the
+whole world. With her then we should most sedulously cherish a cordial
+friendship."
+
+_Monroe's Statement of the Doctrine._--Acting on the advice of trusted
+friends, President Monroe embodied in his message to Congress, on
+December 2, 1823, a statement of principles now famous throughout the
+world as the Monroe Doctrine. To the autocrats of Europe he announced
+that he would regard "any attempt on their part to extend their system
+to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety."
+While he did not propose to interfere with existing colonies dependent
+on European powers, he ranged himself squarely on the side of those that
+had declared their independence. Any attempt by a European power to
+oppress them or control their destiny in any manner he characterized as
+"a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States."
+Referring in another part of his message to a recent claim which the
+Czar had made to the Pacific coast, President Monroe warned the Old
+World that "the American continents, by the free and independent
+condition which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to
+be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European
+powers." The effect of this declaration was immediate and profound. Men
+whose political horizon had been limited to a community or state were
+led to consider their nation as a great power among the sovereignties of
+the earth, taking its part in shaping their international relations.
+
+=The Missouri Compromise.=--Respecting one other important measure of
+this period, the Republicans also took a broad view of their obligations
+under the Constitution; namely, the Missouri Compromise. It is true,
+they insisted on the admission of Missouri as a slave state, balanced
+against the free state of Maine; but at the same time they assented to
+the prohibition of slavery in the Louisiana territory north of the line
+36° 30'. During the debate on the subject an extreme view had been
+presented, to the effect that Congress had no constitutional warrant for
+abolishing slavery in the territories. The precedent of the Northwest
+Ordinance, ratified by Congress in 1789, seemed a conclusive answer from
+practice to this contention; but Monroe submitted the issue to his
+cabinet, which included Calhoun of South Carolina, Crawford of Georgia,
+and Wirt of Virginia, all presumably adherents to the Jeffersonian
+principle of strict construction. He received in reply a unanimous
+verdict to the effect that Congress did have the power to prohibit
+slavery in the territories governed by it. Acting on this advice he
+approved, on March 6, 1820, the bill establishing freedom north of the
+compromise line. This generous interpretation of the powers of Congress
+stood for nearly forty years, until repudiated by the Supreme Court in
+the Dred Scott case.
+
+
+THE NATIONAL DECISIONS OF CHIEF JUSTICE MARSHALL
+
+=John Marshall, the Nationalist.=--The Republicans in the lower ranges
+of state politics, who did not catch the grand national style of their
+leaders charged with responsibilities in the national field, were
+assisted in their education by a Federalist from the Old Dominion, John
+Marshall, who, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United
+States from 1801 to 1835, lost no occasion to exalt the Constitution
+above the claims of the provinces. No differences of opinion as to his
+political views have ever led even his warmest opponents to deny his
+superb abilities or his sincere devotion to the national idea. All will
+likewise agree that for talents, native and acquired, he was an ornament
+to the humble democracy that brought him forth. His whole career was
+American. Born on the frontier of Virginia, reared in a log cabin,
+granted only the barest rudiments of education, inured to hardship and
+rough life, he rose by masterly efforts to the highest judicial honor
+America can bestow.
+
+On him the bitter experience of the Revolution and of later days made a
+lasting impression. He was no "summer patriot." He had been a soldier in
+the Revolutionary army. He had suffered with Washington at Valley Forge.
+He had seen his comrades in arms starving and freezing because the
+Continental Congress had neither the power nor the inclination to force
+the states to do their full duty. To him the Articles of Confederation
+were the symbol of futility. Into the struggle for the formation of the
+Constitution and its ratification in Virginia he had thrown himself with
+the ardor of a soldier. Later, as a member of Congress, a representative
+to France, and Secretary of State, he had aided the Federalists in
+establishing the new government. When at length they were driven from
+power in the executive and legislative branches of the government, he
+was chosen for their last stronghold, the Supreme Court. By historic
+irony he administered the oath of office to his bitterest enemy, Thomas
+Jefferson; and, long after the author of the Declaration of Independence
+had retired to private life, the stern Chief Justice continued to
+announce the old Federalist principles from the Supreme Bench.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN MARSHALL]
+
+=Marbury _vs._ Madison--An Act of Congress Annulled.=--He had been in
+his high office only two years when he laid down for the first time in
+the name of the entire Court the doctrine that the judges have the power
+to declare an act of Congress null and void when in their opinion it
+violates the Constitution. This power was not expressly conferred on the
+Court. Though many able men held that the judicial branch of the
+government enjoyed it, the principle was not positively established
+until 1803 when the case of Marbury _vs._ Madison was decided. In
+rendering the opinion of the Court, Marshall cited no precedents. He
+sought no foundations for his argument in ancient history. He rested it
+on the general nature of the American system. The Constitution, ran his
+reasoning, is the supreme law of the land; it limits and binds all who
+act in the name of the United States; it limits the powers of Congress
+and defines the rights of citizens. If Congress can ignore its
+limitations and trespass upon the rights of citizens, Marshall argued,
+then the Constitution disappears and Congress is supreme. Since,
+however, the Constitution is supreme and superior to Congress, it is the
+duty of judges, under their oath of office, to sustain it against
+measures which violate it. Therefore, from the nature of the American
+constitutional system the courts must declare null and void all acts
+which are not authorized. "A law repugnant to the Constitution," he
+closed, "is void and the courts as well as other departments are bound
+by that instrument." From that day to this the practice of federal and
+state courts in passing upon the constitutionality of laws has remained
+unshaken.
+
+This doctrine was received by Jefferson and many of his followers with
+consternation. If the idea was sound, he exclaimed, "then indeed is our
+Constitution a complete _felo de se_ [legally, a suicide]. For,
+intending to establish three departments, coördinate and independent
+that they might check and balance one another, it has given, according
+to this opinion, to one of them alone the right to prescribe rules for
+the government of the others, and to that one, too, which is unelected
+by and independent of the nation.... The Constitution, on this
+hypothesis, is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the judiciary which
+they may twist and shape into any form they please. It should be
+remembered, as an axiom of eternal truth in politics, that whatever
+power in any government is independent, is absolute also.... A judiciary
+independent of a king or executive alone is a good thing; but
+independence of the will of the nation is a solecism, at least in a
+republican government." But Marshall was mighty and his view prevailed,
+though from time to time other men, clinging to Jefferson's opinion,
+likewise opposed the exercise by the Courts of the high power of passing
+upon the constitutionality of acts of Congress.
+
+=Acts of State Legislatures Declared Unconstitutional.=--Had Marshall
+stopped with annulling an act of Congress, he would have heard less
+criticism from Republican quarters; but, with the same firmness, he set
+aside acts of state legislatures as well, whenever, in his opinion, they
+violated the federal Constitution. In 1810, in the case of Fletcher
+_vs._ Peck, he annulled an act of the Georgia legislature, informing the
+state that it was not sovereign, but "a part of a large empire, ... a
+member of the American union; and that union has a constitution ...
+which imposes limits to the legislatures of the several states." In the
+case of McCulloch _vs._ Maryland, decided in 1819, he declared void an
+act of the Maryland legislature designed to paralyze the branches of the
+United States Bank established in that state. In the same year, in the
+still more memorable Dartmouth College case, he annulled an act of the
+New Hampshire legislature which infringed upon the charter received by
+the college from King George long before. That charter, he declared, was
+a contract between the state and the college, which the legislature
+under the federal Constitution could not impair. Two years later he
+stirred the wrath of Virginia by summoning her to the bar of the Supreme
+Court to answer in a case in which the validity of one of her laws was
+involved and then justified his action in a powerful opinion rendered in
+the case of Cohens _vs._ Virginia.
+
+All these decisions aroused the legislatures of the states. They passed
+sheaves of resolutions protesting and condemning; but Marshall never
+turned and never stayed. The Constitution of the United States, he
+fairly thundered at them, is the supreme law of the land; the Supreme
+Court is the proper tribunal to pass finally upon the validity of the
+laws of the states; and "those sovereignties," far from possessing the
+right of review and nullification, are irrevocably bound by the
+decisions of that Court. This was strong medicine for the authors of the
+Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions and for the members of the Hartford
+convention; but they had to take it.
+
+=The Doctrine of Implied Powers.=--While restraining Congress in the
+Marbury case and the state legislatures in a score of cases, Marshall
+also laid the judicial foundation for a broad and liberal view of the
+Constitution as opposed to narrow and strict construction. In McCulloch
+_vs._ Maryland, he construed generously the words "necessary and proper"
+in such a way as to confer upon Congress a wide range of "implied
+powers" in addition to their express powers. That case involved, among
+other things, the question whether the act establishing the second
+United States Bank was authorized by the Constitution. Marshall answered
+in the affirmative. Congress, ran his reasoning, has large powers over
+taxation and the currency; a bank is of appropriate use in the exercise
+of these enumerated powers; and therefore, though not absolutely
+necessary, a bank is entirely proper and constitutional. "With respect
+to the means by which the powers that the Constitution confers are to be
+carried into execution," he said, Congress must be allowed the
+discretion which "will enable that body to perform the high duties
+assigned to it, in the manner most beneficial to the people." In short,
+the Constitution of the United States is not a strait jacket but a
+flexible instrument vesting in Congress the powers necessary to meet
+national problems as they arise. In delivering this opinion Marshall
+used language almost identical with that employed by Lincoln when,
+standing on the battle field of a war waged to preserve the nation, he
+said that "a government of the people, by the people, for the people
+shall not perish from the earth."
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+During the strenuous period between the establishment of American
+independence and the advent of Jacksonian democracy the great American
+experiment was under the direction of the men who had launched it. All
+the Presidents in that period, except John Quincy Adams, had taken part
+in the Revolution. James Madison, the chief author of the Constitution,
+lived until 1836. This age, therefore, was the "age of the fathers." It
+saw the threatened ruin of the country under the Articles of
+Confederation, the formation of the Constitution, the rise of political
+parties, the growth of the West, the second war with England, and the
+apparent triumph of the national spirit over sectionalism.
+
+The new republic had hardly been started in 1783 before its troubles
+began. The government could not raise money to pay its debts or running
+expenses; it could not protect American commerce and manufactures
+against European competition; it could not stop the continual issues of
+paper money by the states; it could not intervene to put down domestic
+uprisings that threatened the existence of the state governments.
+Without money, without an army, without courts of law, the union under
+the Articles of Confederation was drifting into dissolution. Patriots,
+who had risked their lives for independence, began to talk of monarchy
+again. Washington, Hamilton, and Madison insisted that a new
+constitution alone could save America from disaster.
+
+By dint of much labor the friends of a new form of government induced
+the Congress to call a national convention to take into account the
+state of America. In May, 1787, it assembled at Philadelphia and for
+months it debated and wrangled over plans for a constitution. The small
+states clamored for equal rights in the union. The large states vowed
+that they would never grant it. A spirit of conciliation, fair play, and
+compromise saved the convention from breaking up. In addition, there
+were jealousies between the planting states and the commercial states.
+Here, too, compromises had to be worked out. Some of the delegates
+feared the growth of democracy and others cherished it. These factions
+also had to be placated. At last a plan of government was drafted--the
+Constitution of the United States--and submitted to the states for
+approval. Only after a long and acrimonious debate did enough states
+ratify the instrument to put it into effect. On April 30, 1789, George
+Washington was inaugurated first President.
+
+The new government proceeded to fund the old debt of the nation, assume
+the debts of the states, found a national bank, lay heavy taxes to pay
+the bills, and enact laws protecting American industry and commerce.
+Hamilton led the way, but he had not gone far before he encountered
+opposition. He found a formidable antagonist in Jefferson. In time two
+political parties appeared full armed upon the scene: the Federalists
+and the Republicans. For ten years they filled the country with
+political debate. In 1800 the Federalists were utterly vanquished by the
+Republicans with Jefferson in the lead.
+
+By their proclamations of faith the Republicans favored the states
+rather than the new national government, but in practice they added
+immensely to the prestige and power of the nation. They purchased
+Louisiana from France, they waged a war for commercial independence
+against England, they created a second United States Bank, they enacted
+the protective tariff of 1816, they declared that Congress had power to
+abolish slavery north of the Missouri Compromise line, and they spread
+the shield of the Monroe Doctrine between the Western Hemisphere and
+Europe.
+
+Still America was a part of European civilization. Currents of opinion
+flowed to and fro across the Atlantic. Friends of popular government in
+Europe looked to America as the great exemplar of their ideals. Events
+in Europe reacted upon thought in the United States. The French
+Revolution exerted a profound influence on the course of political
+debate. While it was in the stage of mere reform all Americans favored
+it. When the king was executed and a radical democracy set up, American
+opinion was divided. When France fell under the military dominion of
+Napoleon and preyed upon American commerce, the United States made ready
+for war.
+
+The conduct of England likewise affected American affairs. In 1793 war
+broke out between England and France and raged with only a slight
+intermission until 1815. England and France both ravaged American
+commerce, but England was the more serious offender because she had
+command of the seas. Though Jefferson and Madison strove for peace, the
+country was swept into war by the vehemence of the "Young Republicans,"
+headed by Clay and Calhoun.
+
+When the armed conflict was closed, one in diplomacy opened. The
+autocratic powers of Europe threatened to intervene on behalf of Spain
+in her attempt to recover possession of her Latin-American colonies.
+Their challenge to America brought forth the Monroe Doctrine. The powers
+of Europe were warned not to interfere with the independence or the
+republican policies of this hemisphere or to attempt any new
+colonization in it. It seemed that nationalism was to have a peaceful
+triumph over sectionalism.
+
+
+=References=
+
+H. Adams, _History of the United States, 1800-1817_ (9 vols.).
+
+K.C. Babcock, _Rise of American Nationality_ (American Nation Series).
+
+E. Channing, _The Jeffersonian System_ (Same Series).
+
+D.C. Gilman, _James Monroe_.
+
+W. Reddaway, _The Monroe Doctrine_.
+
+T. Roosevelt, _Naval War of 1812_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What was the leading feature of Jefferson's political theory?
+
+2. Enumerate the chief measures of his administration.
+
+3. Were the Jeffersonians able to apply their theories? Give the
+reasons.
+
+4. Explain the importance of the Mississippi River to Western farmers.
+
+5. Show how events in Europe forced the Louisiana Purchase.
+
+6. State the constitutional question involved in the Louisiana Purchase.
+
+7. Show how American trade was affected by the European war.
+
+8. Compare the policies of Jefferson and Madison.
+
+9. Why did the United States become involved with England rather than
+with France?
+
+10. Contrast the causes of the War of 1812 with the results.
+
+11. Give the economic reasons for the attitude of New England.
+
+12. Give five "nationalist" measures of the Republicans. Discuss each in
+detail.
+
+13. Sketch the career of John Marshall.
+
+14. Discuss the case of Marbury _vs._ Madison.
+
+15. Summarize Marshall's views on: (_a_) states' rights; and (_b_) a
+liberal interpretation of the Constitution.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Louisiana Purchase.=--Text of Treaty in Macdonald, _Documentary
+Source Book_, pp. 279-282. Source materials in Hart, _American History
+Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 363-384. Narrative, Henry Adams,
+_History of the United States_, Vol. II, pp. 25-115; Elson, _History of
+the United States_, pp. 383-388.
+
+=The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts.=--Macdonald, pp. 282-288; Adams,
+Vol. IV, pp. 152-177; Elson, pp. 394-405.
+
+=Congress and the War of 1812.=--Adams, Vol. VI, pp. 113-198; Elson, pp.
+408-450.
+
+=Proposals of the Hartford Convention.=--Macdonald, pp. 293-302.
+
+=Manufactures and the Tariff of 1816.=--Coman, _Industrial History of
+the United States_, pp. 184-194.
+
+=The Second United States Bank.=--Macdonald, pp. 302-306.
+
+=Effect of European War on American Trade.=--Callender, _Economic
+History of the United States_, pp. 240-250.
+
+=The Monroe Message.=--Macdonald, pp. 318-320.
+
+=Lewis and Clark Expedition.=--R.G. Thwaites, _Rocky Mountain
+Explorations_, pp. 92-187. Schafer, _A History of the Pacific Northwest_
+(rev. ed.), pp. 29-61.
+
+
+
+
+PART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS
+
+
+The nationalism of Hamilton was undemocratic. The democracy of Jefferson
+was, in the beginning, provincial. The historic mission of uniting
+nationalism and democracy was in the course of time given to new leaders
+from a region beyond the mountains, peopled by men and women from all
+sections and free from those state traditions which ran back to the
+early days of colonization. The voice of the democratic nationalism
+nourished in the West was heard when Clay of Kentucky advocated his
+American system of protection for industries; when Jackson of Tennessee
+condemned nullification in a ringing proclamation that has taken its
+place among the great American state papers; and when Lincoln of
+Illinois, in a fateful hour, called upon a bewildered people to meet the
+supreme test whether this was a nation destined to survive or to perish.
+And it will be remembered that Lincoln's party chose for its banner that
+earlier device--Republican--which Jefferson had made a sign of power.
+The "rail splitter" from Illinois united the nationalism of Hamilton
+with the democracy of Jefferson, and his appeal was clothed in the
+simple language of the people, not in the sonorous rhetoric which
+Webster learned in the schools.
+
+
+PREPARATION FOR WESTERN SETTLEMENT
+
+=The West and the American Revolution.=--The excessive attention devoted
+by historians to the military operations along the coast has obscured
+the rôle played by the frontier in the American Revolution. The action
+of Great Britain in closing western land to easy settlement in 1763 was
+more than an incident in precipitating the war for independence.
+Americans on the frontier did not forget it; when Indians were employed
+by England to defend that land, zeal for the patriot cause set the
+interior aflame. It was the members of the western vanguard, like Daniel
+Boone, John Sevier, and George Rogers Clark, who first understood the
+value of the far-away country under the guns of the English forts, where
+the Red Men still wielded the tomahawk and the scalping knife. It was
+they who gave the East no rest until their vision was seen by the
+leaders on the seaboard who directed the course of national policy. It
+was one of their number, a seasoned Indian fighter, George Rogers Clark,
+who with aid from Virginia seized Kaskaskia and Vincennes and secured
+the whole Northwest to the union while the fate of Washington's army was
+still hanging in the balance.
+
+=Western Problems at the End of the Revolution.=--The treaty of peace,
+signed with Great Britain in 1783, brought the definite cession of the
+coveted territory west to the Mississippi River, but it left unsolved
+many problems. In the first place, tribes of resentful Indians in the
+Ohio region, even though British support was withdrawn at last, had to
+be reckoned with; and it was not until after the establishment of the
+federal Constitution that a well-equipped army could be provided to
+guarantee peace on the border. In the second place, British garrisons
+still occupied forts on Lake Erie pending the execution of the terms of
+the treaty of 1783--terms which were not fulfilled until after the
+ratification of the Jay treaty twelve years later. In the third place,
+Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts had conflicting claims to the
+land in the Northwest based on old English charters and Indian treaties.
+It was only after a bitter contest that the states reached an agreement
+to transfer their rights to the government of the United States,
+Virginia executing her deed of cession on March 1, 1784. In the fourth
+place, titles to lands bought by individuals remained uncertain in the
+absence of official maps and records. To meet this last situation,
+Congress instituted a systematic survey of the Ohio country, laying it
+out into townships, sections of 640 acres each, and quarter sections. In
+every township one section of land was set aside for the support of
+public schools.
+
+=The Northwest Ordinance.=--The final problem which had to be solved
+before settlement on a large scale could be begun was that of governing
+the territory. Pioneers who looked with hungry eyes on the fertile
+valley of the Ohio could hardly restrain their impatience. Soldiers of
+the Revolution, who had been paid for their services in land warrants
+entitling them to make entries in the West, called for action.
+
+Congress answered by passing in 1787 the famous Northwest Ordinance
+providing for temporary territorial government to be followed by the
+creation of a popular assembly as soon as there were five thousand free
+males in any district. Eventual admission to the union on an equal
+footing with the original states was promised to the new territories.
+Religious freedom was guaranteed. The safeguards of trial by jury,
+regular judicial procedure, and _habeas corpus_ were established, in order
+that the methods of civilized life might take the place of the
+rough-and-ready justice of lynch law. During the course of the debate on
+the Ordinance, Congress added the sixth article forbidding slavery and
+involuntary servitude.
+
+This Charter of the Northwest, so well planned by the Congress under the
+Articles of Confederation, was continued in force by the first Congress
+under the Constitution in 1789. The following year its essential
+provisions, except the ban on slavery, were applied to the territory
+south of the Ohio, ceded by North Carolina to the national government,
+and in 1798 to the Mississippi territory, once held by Georgia. Thus it
+was settled for all time that "the new colonies were not to be exploited
+for the benefit of the parent states (any more than for the benefit of
+England) but were to be autonomous and coördinate commonwealths." This
+outcome, bitterly opposed by some Eastern leaders who feared the triumph
+of Western states over the seaboard, completed the legal steps necessary
+by way of preparation for the flood of settlers.
+
+=The Land Companies, Speculators, and Western Land Tenure.=--As in the
+original settlement of America, so in the opening of the West, great
+companies and single proprietors of large grants early figured. In 1787
+the Ohio Land Company, a New England concern, acquired a million and a
+half acres on the Ohio and began operations by planting the town of
+Marietta. A professional land speculator, J.C. Symmes, secured a million
+acres lower down where the city of Cincinnati was founded. Other
+individuals bought up soldiers' claims and so acquired enormous holdings
+for speculative purposes. Indeed, there was such a rush to make fortunes
+quickly through the rise in land values that Washington was moved to cry
+out against the "rage for speculating in and forestalling of land on the
+North West of the Ohio," protesting that "scarce a valuable spot within
+any tolerable distance of it is left without a claimant." He therefore
+urged Congress to fix a reasonable price for the land, not "too
+exorbitant and burdensome for real occupiers, but high enough to
+discourage monopolizers."
+
+Congress, however, was not prepared to use the public domain for the
+sole purpose of developing a body of small freeholders in the West. It
+still looked upon the sale of public lands as an important source of
+revenue with which to pay off the public debt; consequently it thought
+more of instant income than of ultimate results. It placed no limit on
+the amount which could be bought when it fixed the price at $2 an acre
+in 1796, and it encouraged the professional land operator by making the
+first installment only twenty cents an acre in addition to the small
+registration and survey fee. On such terms a speculator with a few
+thousand dollars could get possession of an enormous plot of land. If he
+was fortunate in disposing of it, he could meet the installments, which
+were spread over a period of four years, and make a handsome profit for
+himself. Even when the credit or installment feature was abolished in
+1821 and the price of the land lowered to a cash price of $1.75 an acre,
+the opportunity for large speculative purchases continued to attract
+capital to land ventures.
+
+=The Development of the Small Freehold.=--The cheapness of land and the
+scarcity of labor, nevertheless, made impossible the triumph of the huge
+estate with its semi-servile tenantry. For about $45 a man could get a
+farm of 160 acres on the installment plan; another payment of $80 was
+due in forty days; but a four-year term was allowed for the discharge of
+the balance. With a capital of from two to three hundred dollars a
+family could embark on a land venture. If it had good crops, it could
+meet the deferred payments. It was, however, a hard battle at best. Many
+a man forfeited his land through failure to pay the final installment;
+yet in the end, in spite of all the handicaps, the small freehold of a
+few hundred acres at most became the typical unit of Western
+agriculture, except in the planting states of the Gulf. Even the lands
+of the great companies were generally broken up and sold in small lots.
+
+The tendency toward moderate holdings, so favored by Western conditions,
+was also promoted by a clause in the Northwest Ordinance declaring that
+the land of any person dying intestate--that is, without any will
+disposing of it--should be divided equally among his descendants.
+Hildreth says of this provision: "It established the important
+republican principle, not then introduced into all the states, of the
+equal distribution of landed as well as personal property." All these
+forces combined made the wide dispersion of wealth, in the early days of
+the nineteenth century, an American characteristic, in marked contrast
+with the European system of family prestige and vast estates based on
+the law of primogeniture.
+
+
+THE WESTERN MIGRATION AND NEW STATES
+
+=The People.=--With government established, federal arms victorious over
+the Indians, and the lands surveyed for sale, the way was prepared for
+the immigrants. They came with a rush. Young New Englanders, weary of
+tilling the stony soil of their native states, poured through New York
+and Pennsylvania, some settling on the northern bank of the Ohio but
+most of them in the Lake region. Sons and daughters of German farmers in
+Pennsylvania and many a redemptioner who had discharged his bond of
+servitude pressed out into Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, or beyond. From
+the exhausted fields and the clay hills of the Southern states came
+pioneers of English and Scotch-Irish descent, the latter in great
+numbers. Indeed one historian of high authority has ventured to say that
+"the rapid expansion of the United States from a coast strip to a
+continental area is largely a Scotch-Irish achievement." While native
+Americans of mixed stocks led the way into the West, it was not long
+before immigrants direct from Europe, under the stimulus of company
+enterprise, began to filter into the new settlements in increasing
+numbers.
+
+The types of people were as various as the nations they represented.
+Timothy Flint, who published his entertaining _Recollections_ in 1826,
+found the West a strange mixture of all sorts and conditions of people.
+Some of them, he relates, had been hunters in the upper world of the
+Mississippi, above the falls of St. Anthony. Some had been still farther
+north, in Canada. Still others had wandered from the South--the Gulf of
+Mexico, the Red River, and the Spanish country. French boatmen and
+trappers, Spanish traders from the Southwest, Virginia planters with
+their droves of slaves mingled with English, German, and Scotch-Irish
+farmers. Hunters, forest rangers, restless bordermen, and squatters,
+like the foaming combers of an advancing tide, went first. Then followed
+the farmers, masters of the ax and plow, with their wives who shared
+every burden and hardship and introduced some of the features of
+civilized life. The hunters and rangers passed on to new scenes; the
+home makers built for all time.
+
+=The Number of Immigrants.=--There were no official stations on the
+frontier to record the number of immigrants who entered the West during
+the decades following the American Revolution. But travelers of the time
+record that every road was "crowded" with pioneers and their families,
+their wagons and cattle; and that they were seldom out of the sound of
+the snapping whip of the teamster urging forward his horses or the crack
+of the hunter's rifle as he brought down his evening meal. "During the
+latter half of 1787," says Coman, "more than nine hundred boats floated
+down the Ohio carrying eighteen thousand men, women, and children, and
+twelve thousand horses, sheep, and cattle, and six hundred and fifty
+wagons." Other lines of travel were also crowded and with the passing
+years the flooding tide of home seekers rose higher and higher.
+
+=The Western Routes.=--Four main routes led into the country beyond the
+Appalachians. The Genesee road, beginning at Albany, ran almost due west
+to the present site of Buffalo on Lake Erie, through a level country. In
+the dry season, wagons laden with goods could easily pass along it into
+northern Ohio. A second route, through Pittsburgh, was fed by three
+eastern branches, one starting at Philadelphia, one at Baltimore, and
+another at Alexandria. A third main route wound through the mountains
+from Alexandria to Boonesboro in Kentucky and then westward across the
+Ohio to St. Louis. A fourth, the most famous of them all, passed through
+the Cumberland Gap and by branches extended into the Cumberland valley
+and the Kentucky country.
+
+Of these four lines of travel, the Pittsburgh route offered the most
+advantages. Pioneers, no matter from what section they came, when once
+they were on the headwaters of the Ohio and in possession of a flatboat,
+could find a quick and easy passage into all parts of the West and
+Southwest. Whether they wanted to settle in Ohio, Kentucky, or western
+Tennessee they could find their way down the drifting flood to their
+destination or at least to some spot near it. Many people from the South
+as well as the Northern and Middle states chose this route; so it came
+about that the sons and daughters of Virginia and the Carolinas mingled
+with those of New York, Pennsylvania, and New England in the settlement
+of the Northwest territory.
+
+=The Methods of Travel into the West.=--Many stories giving exact
+descriptions of methods of travel into the West in the early days have
+been preserved. The country was hardly opened before visitors from the
+Old World and from the Eastern states, impelled by curiosity, made their
+way to the very frontier of civilization and wrote books to inform or
+amuse the public. One of them, Gilbert Imlay, an English traveler, has
+given us an account of the Pittsburgh route as he found it in 1791. "If
+a man ... " he writes, "has a family or goods of any sort to remove, his
+best way, then, would be to purchase a waggon and team of horses to
+carry his property to Redstone Old Fort or to Pittsburgh, according as
+he may come from the Northern or Southern states. A good waggon will
+cost, at Philadelphia, about £10 ... and the horses about £12 each; they
+would cost something more both at Baltimore and Alexandria. The waggon
+may be covered with canvass, and if it is the choice of the people, they
+may sleep in it of nights with the greatest safety. But if they dislike
+that, there are inns of accommodation the whole distance on the
+different roads.... The provisions I would purchase in the same manner
+[that is, from the farmers along the road]; and by having two or three
+camp kettles and stopping every evening when the weather is fine upon
+the brink of some rivulet and by kindling a fire they may soon dress
+their own food.... This manner of journeying is so far from being
+disagreeable that in a fine season it is extremely pleasant." The
+immigrant once at Pittsburgh or Wheeling could then buy a flatboat of a
+size required for his goods and stock, and drift down the current to his
+journey's end.
+
+[Illustration: ROADS AND TRAILS INTO THE WESTERN TERRITORY]
+
+=The Admission of Kentucky and Tennessee.=--When the eighteenth century
+drew to a close, Kentucky had a population larger than Delaware, Rhode
+Island, or New Hampshire. Tennessee claimed 60,000 inhabitants. In 1792
+Kentucky took her place as a state beside her none too kindly parent,
+Virginia. The Eastern Federalists resented her intrusion; but they took
+some consolation in the admission of Vermont because the balance of
+Eastern power was still retained.
+
+As if to assert their independence of old homes and conservative ideas
+the makers of Kentucky's first constitution swept aside the landed
+qualification on the suffrage and gave the vote to all free white males.
+Four years later, Kentucky's neighbor to the south, Tennessee, followed
+this step toward a wider democracy. After encountering fierce opposition
+from the Federalists, Tennessee was accepted as the sixteenth state.
+
+=Ohio.=--The door of the union had hardly opened for Tennessee when
+another appeal was made to Congress, this time from the pioneers in
+Ohio. The little posts founded at Marietta and Cincinnati had grown into
+flourishing centers of trade. The stream of immigrants, flowing down the
+river, added daily to their numbers and the growing settlements all
+around poured produce into their markets to be exchanged for "store
+goods." After the Indians were disposed of in 1794 and the last British
+soldier left the frontier forts under the terms of the Jay treaty of
+1795, tiny settlements of families appeared on Lake Erie in the "Western
+Reserve," a region that had been retained by Connecticut when she
+surrendered her other rights in the Northwest.
+
+At the close of the century, Ohio, claiming a population of more than
+50,000, grew discontented with its territorial status. Indeed, two years
+before the enactment of the Northwest Ordinance, squatters in that
+region had been invited by one John Emerson to hold a convention after
+the fashion of the men of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield in old
+Connecticut and draft a frame of government for themselves. This true
+son of New England declared that men "have an undoubted right to pass
+into every vacant country and there to form their constitution and that
+from the confederation of the whole United States Congress is not
+empowered to forbid them." This grand convention was never held because
+the heavy hand of the government fell upon the leaders; but the spirit
+of John Emerson did not perish. In November, 1802, a convention chosen
+by voters, assembled under the authority of Congress at Chillicothe,
+drew up a constitution. It went into force after a popular ratification.
+The roll of the convention bore such names as Abbot, Baldwin, Cutler,
+Huntington, Putnam, and Sargent, and the list of counties from which
+they came included Adams, Fairfield, Hamilton, Jefferson, Trumbull, and
+Washington, showing that the new America in the West was peopled and led
+by the old stock. In 1803 Ohio was admitted to the union.
+
+=Indiana and Illinois.=--As in the neighboring state, the frontier in
+Indiana advanced northward from the Ohio, mainly under the leadership,
+however, of settlers from the South--restless Kentuckians hoping for
+better luck in a newer country and pioneers from the far frontiers of
+Virginia and North Carolina. As soon as a tier of counties swinging
+upward like the horns of the moon against Ohio on the east and in the
+Wabash Valley on the west was fairly settled, a clamor went up for
+statehood. Under the authority of an act of Congress in 1816 the
+Indianians drafted a constitution and inaugurated their government at
+Corydon. "The majority of the members of the convention," we are told by
+a local historian, "were frontier farmers who had a general idea of what
+they wanted and had sense enough to let their more erudite colleagues
+put it into shape."
+
+Two years later, the pioneers of Illinois, also settled upward from the
+Ohio, like Indiana, elected their delegates to draft a constitution.
+Leadership in the convention, quite properly, was taken by a man born in
+New York and reared in Tennessee; and the constitution as finally
+drafted "was in its principal provisions a copy of the then existing
+constitutions of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana.... Many of the articles
+are exact copies in wording although differently arranged and
+numbered."
+
+=Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.=--Across the Mississippi to the
+far south, clearing and planting had gone on with much bustle and
+enterprise. The cotton and sugar lands of Louisiana, opened by French
+and Spanish settlers, were widened in every direction by planters with
+their armies of slaves from the older states. New Orleans, a good market
+and a center of culture not despised even by the pioneer, grew apace. In
+1810 the population of lower Louisiana was over 75,000. The time had
+come, said the leaders of the people, to fulfill the promise made to
+France in the treaty of cession; namely, to grant to the inhabitants of
+the territory statehood and the rights of American citizens. Federalists
+from New England still having a voice in Congress, if somewhat weaker,
+still protested in tones of horror. "I am compelled to declare it as my
+deliberate opinion," pronounced Josiah Quincy in the House of
+Representatives, "that if this bill [to admit Louisiana] passes, the
+bonds of this Union are virtually dissolved ... that as it will be the
+right of all, so it will be the duty of some [states] to prepare
+definitely for a separation; amicably if they can, violently if they
+must.... It is a death blow to the Constitution. It may afterwards
+linger; but lingering, its fate will, at no very distant period, be
+consummated." Federalists from New York like those from New England had
+their doubts about the wisdom of admitting Western states; but the party
+of Jefferson and Madison, having the necessary majority, granted the
+coveted statehood to Louisiana in 1812.
+
+When, a few years later, Mississippi and Alabama knocked at the doors of
+the union, the Federalists had so little influence, on account of their
+conduct during the second war with England, that spokesmen from the
+Southwest met a kindlier reception at Washington. Mississippi, in 1817,
+and Alabama, in 1819, took their places among the United States of
+America. Both of them, while granting white manhood suffrage, gave their
+constitutions the tone of the old East by providing landed
+qualifications for the governor and members of the legislature.
+
+=Missouri.=--Far to the north in the Louisiana purchase, a new
+commonwealth was rising to power. It was peopled by immigrants who came
+down the Ohio in fleets of boats or crossed the Mississippi from
+Kentucky and Tennessee. Thrifty Germans from Pennsylvania, hardy farmers
+from Virginia ready to work with their own hands, freemen seeking
+freemen's homes, planters with their slaves moving on from worn-out
+fields on the seaboard, came together in the widening settlements of the
+Missouri country. Peoples from the North and South flowed together,
+small farmers and big planters mingling in one community. When their
+numbers had reached sixty thousand or more, they precipitated a contest
+over their admission to the union, "ringing an alarm bell in the night,"
+as Jefferson phrased it. The favorite expedient of compromise with
+slavery was brought forth in Congress once more. Maine consequently was
+brought into the union without slavery and Missouri with slavery. At the
+same time there was drawn westward through the rest of the Louisiana
+territory a line separating servitude from slavery.
+
+
+THE SPIRIT OF THE FRONTIER
+
+=Land Tenure and Liberty.=--Over an immense western area there developed
+an unbroken system of freehold farms. In the Gulf states and the lower
+Mississippi Valley, it is true, the planter with his many slaves even
+led in the pioneer movement; but through large sections of Tennessee and
+Kentucky, as well as upper Georgia and Alabama, and all throughout the
+Northwest territory the small farmer reigned supreme. In this immense
+dominion there sprang up a civilization without caste or class--a body
+of people all having about the same amount of this world's goods and
+deriving their livelihood from one source: the labor of their own hands
+on the soil. The Northwest territory alone almost equaled in area all
+the original thirteen states combined, except Georgia, and its system of
+agricultural economy was unbroken by plantations and feudal estates. "In
+the subdivision of the soil and the great equality of condition," as
+Webster said on more than one occasion, "lay the true basis, most
+certainly, of popular government." There was the undoubted source of
+Jacksonian democracy.
+
+[Illustration: A LOG CABIN--LINCOLN'S BIRTHPLACE]
+
+=The Characteristics of the Western People.=--Travelers into the
+Northwest during the early years of the nineteenth century were agreed
+that the people of that region were almost uniformly marked by the
+characteristics common to an independent yeomanry. A close observer thus
+recorded his impressions: "A spirit of adventurous enterprise, a
+willingness to go through any hardship to accomplish an object....
+Independence of thought and action. They have felt the influence of
+these principles from their childhood. Men who can endure anything; that
+have lived almost without restraint, free as the mountain air or as the
+deer and the buffalo of their forests, and who know they are Americans
+all.... An apparent roughness which some would deem rudeness of
+manner.... Where there is perfect equality in a neighborhood of people
+who know little about each other's previous history or ancestry but
+where each is lord of the soil he cultivates. Where a log cabin is all
+that the best of families can expect to have for years and of course can
+possess few of the external decorations which have so much influence in
+creating a diversity of rank in society. These circumstances have laid
+the foundation for that equality of intercourse, simplicity of manners,
+want of deference, want of reserve, great readiness to make
+acquaintances, freedom of speech, indisposition to brook real or
+imaginary insults which one witnesses among people of the West."
+
+This equality, this independence, this rudeness so often described by
+the traveler as marking a new country, were all accentuated by the
+character of the settlers themselves. Traces of the fierce, unsociable,
+eagle-eyed, hard-drinking hunter remained. The settlers who followed the
+hunter were, with some exceptions, soldiers of the Revolutionary army,
+farmers of the "middling order," and mechanics from the towns,--English,
+Scotch-Irish, Germans,--poor in possessions and thrown upon the labor of
+their own hands for support. Sons and daughters from well-to-do Eastern
+homes sometimes brought softer manners; but the equality of life and the
+leveling force of labor in forest and field soon made them one in spirit
+with their struggling neighbors. Even the preachers and teachers, who
+came when the cabins were raised in the clearings and rude churches and
+schoolhouses were built, preached sermons and taught lessons that
+savored of the frontier, as any one may know who reads Peter
+Cartwright's _A Muscular Christian_ or Eggleston's _The Hoosier
+Schoolmaster_.
+
+
+THE WEST AND THE EAST MEET
+
+=The East Alarmed.=--A people so independent as the Westerners and so
+attached to local self-government gave the conservative East many a rude
+shock, setting gentlemen in powdered wigs and knee breeches agog with
+the idea that terrible things might happen in the Mississippi Valley.
+Not without good grounds did Washington fear that "a touch of a feather
+would turn" the Western settlers away from the seaboard to the
+Spaniards; and seriously did he urge the East not to neglect them, lest
+they be "drawn into the arms of, or be dependent upon foreigners."
+Taking advantage of the restless spirit in the Southwest, Aaron Burr,
+having disgraced himself by killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, laid
+wild plans, if not to bring about a secession in that region, at least
+to build a state of some kind out of the Spanish dominions adjoining
+Louisiana. Frightened at such enterprises and fearing the dominance of
+the West, the Federalists, with a few conspicuous exceptions, opposed
+equality between the sections. Had their narrow views prevailed, the
+West, with its new democracy, would have been held in perpetual tutelage
+to the seaboard or perhaps been driven into independence as the thirteen
+colonies had been not long before.
+
+=Eastern Friends of the West.=--Fortunately for the nation, there were
+many Eastern leaders, particularly from the South, who understood the
+West, approved its spirit, and sought to bring the two sections together
+by common bonds. Washington kept alive and keen the zeal for Western
+advancement which he acquired in his youth as a surveyor. He never grew
+tired of urging upon his Eastern friends the importance of the lands
+beyond the mountains. He pressed upon the governor of Virginia a project
+for a wagon road connecting the seaboard with the Ohio country and was
+active in a movement to improve the navigation of the Potomac. He
+advocated strengthening the ties of commerce. "Smooth the roads," he
+said, "and make easy the way for them, and then see what an influx of
+articles will be poured upon us; how amazingly our exports will be
+increased by them; and how amply we shall be compensated for any trouble
+and expense we may encounter to effect it." Jefferson, too, was
+interested in every phase of Western development--the survey of lands,
+the exploration of waterways, the opening of trade, and even the
+discovery of the bones of prehistoric animals. Robert Fulton, the
+inventor of the steamboat, was another man of vision who for many years
+pressed upon his countrymen the necessity of uniting East and West by a
+canal which would cement the union, raise the value of the public lands,
+and extend the principles of confederate and republican government.
+
+=The Difficulties of Early Transportation.=--Means of communication
+played an important part in the strategy of all those who sought to
+bring together the seaboard and the frontier. The produce of the
+West--wheat, corn, bacon, hemp, cattle, and tobacco--was bulky and the
+cost of overland transportation was prohibitive. In the Eastern market,
+"a cow and her calf were given for a bushel of salt, while a suit of
+'store clothes' cost as much as a farm." In such circumstances, the
+inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley were forced to ship their produce
+over a long route by way of New Orleans and to pay high freight rates
+for everything that was brought across the mountains. Scows of from five
+to fifty tons were built at the towns along the rivers and piloted down
+the stream to the Crescent City. In a few cases small ocean-going
+vessels were built to transport goods to the West Indies or to the
+Eastern coast towns. Salt, iron, guns, powder, and the absolute
+essentials which the pioneers had to buy mainly in Eastern markets were
+carried over narrow wagon trails that were almost impassable in the
+rainy season.
+
+=The National Road.=--To far-sighted men, like Albert Gallatin, "the
+father of internal improvements," the solution of this problem was the
+construction of roads and canals. Early in Jefferson's administration,
+Congress dedicated a part of the proceeds from the sale of lands to
+building highways from the headwaters of the navigable waters emptying
+into the Atlantic to the Ohio River and beyond into the Northwest
+territory. In 1806, after many misgivings, it authorized a great
+national highway binding the East and the West. The Cumberland Road, as
+it was called, began in northwestern Maryland, wound through southern
+Pennsylvania, crossed the narrow neck of Virginia at Wheeling, and then
+shot almost straight across Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, into Missouri.
+By 1817, stagecoaches were running between Washington and Wheeling; by
+1833 contractors had carried their work to Columbus, Ohio, and by 1852,
+to Vandalia, Illinois. Over this ballasted road mail and passenger
+coaches could go at high speed, and heavy freight wagons proceed in
+safety at a steady pace.
+
+[Illustration: THE CUMBERLAND ROAD]
+
+=Canals and Steamboats.=--A second epoch in the economic union of the
+East and West was reached with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825,
+offering an all-water route from New York City to the Great Lakes and
+the Mississippi Valley. Pennsylvania, alarmed by the advantages
+conferred on New York by this enterprise, began her system of canals and
+portages from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, completing the last link in
+1834. In the South, the Chesapeake and Ohio Company, chartered in 1825,
+was busy with a project to connect Georgetown and Cumberland when
+railways broke in upon the undertaking before it was half finished.
+About the same time, Ohio built a canal across the state, affording
+water communication between Lake Erie and the Ohio River through a rich
+wheat belt. Passengers could now travel by canal boat into the West with
+comparative ease and comfort, if not at a rapid speed, and the bulkiest
+of freight could be easily handled. Moreover, the rate charged for
+carrying goods was cut by the Erie Canal from $32 a ton per hundred
+miles to $1. New Orleans was destined to lose her primacy in the
+Mississippi Valley.
+
+The diversion of traffic to Eastern markets was also stimulated by
+steamboats which appeared on the Ohio about 1810, three years after
+Fulton had made his famous trip on the Hudson. It took twenty men to
+sail and row a five-ton scow up the river at a speed of from ten to
+twenty miles a day. In 1825, Timothy Flint traveled a hundred miles a
+day on the new steamer _Grecian_ "against the whole weight of the
+Mississippi current." Three years later the round trip from Louisville
+to New Orleans was cut to eight days. Heavy produce that once had to
+float down to New Orleans could be carried upstream and sent to the East
+by way of the canal systems.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+AN EARLY MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT]
+
+Thus the far country was brought near. The timid no longer hesitated at
+the thought of the perilous journey. All routes were crowded with
+Western immigrants. The forests fell before the ax like grain before the
+sickle. Clearings scattered through the woods spread out into a great
+mosaic of farms stretching from the Southern Appalachians to Lake
+Michigan. The national census of 1830 gave 937,000 inhabitants to Ohio;
+343,000 to Indiana; 157,000 to Illinois; 687,000 to Kentucky; and
+681,000 to Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1830]
+
+With the increase in population and the growth of agriculture came
+political influence. People who had once petitioned Congress now sent
+their own representatives. Men who had hitherto accepted without
+protests Presidents from the seaboard expressed a new spirit of dissent
+in 1824 by giving only three electoral votes for John Quincy Adams; and
+four years later they sent a son of the soil from Tennessee, Andrew
+Jackson, to take Washington's chair as chief executive of the
+nation--the first of a long line of Presidents from the Mississippi
+basin.
+
+
+=References=
+
+W.G. Brown, _The Lower South in American History_.
+
+B.A. Hinsdale, _The Old North West_ (2 vols.).
+
+A.B. Hulbert, _Great American Canals_ and _The Cumberland Road_.
+
+T. Roosevelt, _Thomas H. Benton_.
+
+P.J. Treat, _The National Land System_ (1785-1820).
+
+F.J. Turner, _Rise of the New West_ (American Nation Series).
+
+J. Winsor, _The Westward Movement_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. How did the West come to play a rôle in the Revolution?
+
+2. What preparations were necessary to settlement?
+
+3. Give the principal provisions of the Northwest Ordinance.
+
+4. Explain how freehold land tenure happened to predominate in the West.
+
+5. Who were the early settlers in the West? What routes did they take?
+How did they travel?
+
+6. Explain the Eastern opposition to the admission of new Western
+states. Show how it was overcome.
+
+7. Trace a connection between the economic system of the West and the
+spirit of the people.
+
+8. Who were among the early friends of Western development?
+
+9. Describe the difficulties of trade between the East and the West.
+
+10. Show how trade was promoted.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Northwest Ordinance.=--Analysis of text in Macdonald, _Documentary
+Source Book_. Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_, Vol. V, pp. 5-57.
+
+=The West before the Revolution.=--Roosevelt, Vol. I.
+
+=The West during the Revolution.=--Roosevelt, Vols. II and III.
+
+=Tennessee.=--Roosevelt, Vol. V, pp. 95-119 and Vol. VI, pp. 9-87.
+
+=The Cumberland Road.=--A.B. Hulbert, _The Cumberland Road_.
+
+=Early Life in the Middle West.=--Callender, _Economic History of the
+United States_, pp. 617-633; 636-641.
+
+=Slavery in the Southwest.=--Callender, pp. 641-652.
+
+=Early Land Policy.=--Callender, pp. 668-680.
+
+=Westward Movement of Peoples.=--Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 7-39.
+
+Lists of books dealing with the early history of Western states are
+given in Hart, Channing, and Turner, _Guide to the Study and Reading of
+American History_ (rev. ed.), pp. 62-89.
+
+=Kentucky.=--Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 176-263.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+The New England Federalists, at the Hartford convention, prophesied that
+in time the West would dominate the East. "At the adoption of the
+Constitution," they said, "a certain balance of power among the original
+states was considered to exist, and there was at that time and yet is
+among those parties a strong affinity between their great and general
+interests. By the admission of these [new] states that balance has been
+materially affected and unless the practice be modified must ultimately
+be destroyed. The Southern states will first avail themselves of their
+new confederates to govern the East, and finally the Western states,
+multiplied in number, and augmented in population, will control the
+interests of the whole." Strangely enough the fulfillment of this
+prophecy was being prepared even in Federalist strongholds by the rise
+of a new urban democracy that was to make common cause with the farmers
+beyond the mountains.
+
+
+THE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT IN THE EAST
+
+=The Aristocratic Features of the Old Order.=--The Revolutionary
+fathers, in setting up their first state constitutions, although they
+often spoke of government as founded on the consent of the governed, did
+not think that consistency required giving the vote to all adult males.
+On the contrary they looked upon property owners as the only safe
+"depositary" of political power. They went back to the colonial
+tradition that related taxation and representation. This, they argued,
+was not only just but a safeguard against the "excesses of democracy."
+
+In carrying their theory into execution they placed taxpaying or
+property qualifications on the right to vote. Broadly speaking, these
+limitations fell into three classes. Three states, Pennsylvania (1776),
+New Hampshire (1784), and Georgia (1798), gave the ballot to all who
+paid taxes, without reference to the value of their property. Three,
+Virginia, Delaware, and Rhode Island, clung firmly to the ancient
+principles that only freeholders could be intrusted with electoral
+rights. Still other states, while closely restricting the suffrage,
+accepted the ownership of other things as well as land in fulfillment of
+the requirements. In Massachusetts, for instance, the vote was granted
+to all men who held land yielding an annual income of three pounds or
+possessed other property worth sixty pounds.
+
+The electors thus enfranchised, numerous as they were, owing to the wide
+distribution of land, often suffered from a very onerous disability. In
+many states they were able to vote only for persons of wealth because
+heavy property qualifications were imposed on public officers. In New
+Hampshire, the governor had to be worth five hundred pounds, one-half in
+land; in Massachusetts, one thousand pounds, all freehold; in Maryland,
+five thousand pounds, one thousand of which was freehold; in North
+Carolina, one thousand pounds freehold; and in South Carolina, ten
+thousand pounds freehold. A state senator in Massachusetts had to be the
+owner of a freehold worth three hundred pounds or personal property
+worth six hundred pounds; in New Jersey, one thousand pounds' worth of
+property; in North Carolina, three hundred acres of land; in South
+Carolina, two thousand pounds freehold. For members of the lower house
+of the legislature lower qualifications were required.
+
+In most of the states the suffrage or office holding or both were
+further restricted by religious provisions. No single sect was powerful
+enough to dominate after the Revolution, but, for the most part,
+Catholics and Jews were either disfranchised or excluded from office.
+North Carolina and Georgia denied the ballot to any one who was not a
+Protestant. Delaware withheld it from all who did not believe in the
+Trinity and the inspiration of the Scriptures. Massachusetts and
+Maryland limited it to Christians. Virginia and New York, advanced for
+their day, made no discrimination in government on account of religious
+opinion.
+
+=The Defense of the Old Order.=--It must not be supposed that property
+qualifications were thoughtlessly imposed at the outset or considered of
+little consequence in practice. In the beginning they were viewed as
+fundamental. As towns grew in size and the number of landless citizens
+increased, the restrictions were defended with even more vigor. In
+Massachusetts, the great Webster upheld the rights of property in
+government, saying: "It is entirely just that property should have its
+due weight and consideration in political arrangements.... The
+disastrous revolutions which the world has witnessed, those political
+thunderstorms and earthquakes which have shaken the pillars of society
+to their deepest foundations, have been revolutions against property."
+In Pennsylvania, a leader in local affairs cried out against a plan to
+remove the taxpaying limitation on the suffrage: "What does the delegate
+propose? To place the vicious vagrant, the wandering Arabs, the Tartar
+hordes of our large cities on the level with the virtuous and good man?"
+In Virginia, Jefferson himself had first believed in property
+qualifications and had feared with genuine alarm the "mobs of the great
+cities." It was near the end of the eighteenth century before he
+accepted the idea of manhood suffrage. Even then he was unable to
+convince the constitution-makers of his own state. "It is not an idle
+chimera of the brain," urged one of them, "that the possession of land
+furnishes the strongest evidence of permanent, common interest with, and
+attachment to, the community.... It is upon this foundation I wish to
+place the right of suffrage. This is the best general standard which can
+be resorted to for the purpose of determining whether the persons to be
+invested with the right of suffrage are such persons as could be,
+consistently with the safety and well-being of the community, intrusted
+with the exercise of that right."
+
+=Attacks on the Restricted Suffrage.=--The changing circumstances of
+American life, however, soon challenged the rule of those with property.
+Prominent among the new forces were the rising mercantile and business
+interests. Where the freehold qualification was applied, business men
+who did not own land were deprived of the vote and excluded from office.
+In New York, for example, the most illiterate farmer who had one hundred
+pounds' worth of land could vote for state senator and governor, while
+the landless banker or merchant could not. It is not surprising,
+therefore, to find business men taking the lead in breaking down
+freehold limitations on the suffrage. The professional classes also were
+interested in removing the barriers which excluded many of them from
+public affairs. It was a schoolmaster, Thomas Dorr, who led the popular
+uprising in Rhode Island which brought the exclusive rule by freeholders
+to an end.
+
+In addition to the business and professional classes, the mechanics of
+the towns showed a growing hostility to a system of government that
+generally barred them from voting or holding office. Though not
+numerous, they had early begun to exercise an influence on the course of
+public affairs. They had led the riots against the Stamp Act, overturned
+King George's statue, and "crammed stamps down the throats of
+collectors." When the state constitutions were framed they took a lively
+interest, particularly in New York City and Philadelphia. In June, 1776,
+the "mechanicks in union" in New York protested against putting the new
+state constitution into effect without their approval, declaring that
+the right to vote on the acceptance or rejection of a fundamental law
+"is the birthright of every man to whatever state he may belong." Though
+their petition was rejected, their spirit remained. When, a few years
+later, the federal Constitution was being framed, the mechanics watched
+the process with deep concern; they knew that one of its main objects
+was to promote trade and commerce, affecting directly their daily bread.
+During the struggle over ratification, they passed resolutions approving
+its provisions and they often joined in parades organized to stir up
+sentiment for the Constitution, even though they could not vote for
+members of the state conventions and so express their will directly.
+After the organization of trade unions they collided with the courts of
+law and thus became interested in the election of judges and lawmakers.
+
+Those who attacked the old system of class rule found a strong moral
+support in the Declaration of Independence. Was it not said that all men
+are created equal? Whoever runs may read. Was it not declared that
+governments derive their just power from the consent of the governed?
+That doctrine was applied with effect to George III and seemed
+appropriate for use against the privileged classes of Massachusetts or
+Virginia. "How do the principles thus proclaimed," asked the
+non-freeholders of Richmond, in petitioning for the ballot, "accord with
+the existing regulation of the suffrage? A regulation which, instead of
+the equality nature ordains, creates an odious distinction between
+members of the same community ... and vests in a favored class, not in
+consideration of their public services but of their private possessions,
+the highest of all privileges."
+
+=Abolition of Property Qualifications.=--By many minor victories rather
+than by any spectacular triumphs did the advocates of manhood suffrage
+carry the day. Slight gains were made even during the Revolution or
+shortly afterward. In Pennsylvania, the mechanics, by taking an active
+part in the contest over the Constitution of 1776, were able to force
+the qualification down to the payment of a small tax. Vermont came into
+the union in 1792 without any property restrictions. In the same year
+Delaware gave the vote to all men who paid taxes. Maryland, reckoned one
+of the most conservative of states, embarked on the experiment of
+manhood suffrage in 1809; and nine years later, Connecticut, equally
+conservative, decided that all taxpayers were worthy of the ballot.
+
+Five states, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, Rhode Island, and North
+Carolina, remained obdurate while these changes were going on around
+them; finally they had to yield themselves. The last struggle in
+Massachusetts took place in the constitutional convention of 1820. There
+Webster, in the prime of his manhood, and John Adams, in the closing
+years of his old age, alike protested against such radical innovations
+as manhood suffrage. Their protests were futile. The property test was
+abolished and a small tax-paying qualification was substituted. New York
+surrendered the next year and, after trying some minor restrictions for
+five years, went completely over to white manhood suffrage in 1826.
+Rhode Island clung to her freehold qualification through thirty years of
+agitation. Then Dorr's Rebellion, almost culminating in bloodshed,
+brought about a reform in 1843 which introduced a slight tax-paying
+qualification as an alternative to the freehold. Virginia and North
+Carolina were still unconvinced. The former refused to abandon ownership
+of land as the test for political rights until 1850 and the latter until
+1856. Although religious discriminations and property qualifications for
+office holders were sometimes retained after the establishment of
+manhood suffrage, they were usually abolished along with the monopoly of
+government enjoyed by property owners and taxpayers.
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS DORR AROUSING HIS FOLLOWERS]
+
+At the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the white
+male industrial workers and the mechanics of the Northern cities, at
+least, could lay aside the petition for the ballot and enjoy with the
+free farmer a voice in the government of their common country.
+"Universal democracy," sighed Carlyle, who was widely read in the United
+States, "whatever we may think of it has declared itself the inevitable
+fact of the days in which we live; and he who has any chance to instruct
+or lead in these days must begin by admitting that ... Where no
+government is wanted, save that of the parish constable, as in America
+with its boundless soil, every man being able to find work and
+recompense for himself, democracy may subsist; not elsewhere." Amid the
+grave misgivings of the first generation of statesmen, America was
+committed to the great adventure, in the populous towns of the East as
+well as in the forests and fields of the West.
+
+
+THE NEW DEMOCRACY ENTERS THE ARENA
+
+The spirit of the new order soon had a pronounced effect on the
+machinery of government and the practice of politics. The enfranchised
+electors were not long in demanding for themselves a larger share in
+administration.
+
+=The Spoils System and Rotation in Office.=--First of all they wanted
+office for themselves, regardless of their fitness. They therefore
+extended the system of rewarding party workers with government
+positions--a system early established in several states, notably New
+York and Pennsylvania. Closely connected with it was the practice of
+fixing short terms for officers and making frequent changes in
+personnel. "Long continuance in office," explained a champion of this
+idea in Pennsylvania in 1837, "unfits a man for the discharge of its
+duties, by rendering him arbitrary and aristocratic, and tends to beget,
+first life office, and then hereditary office, which leads to the
+destruction of free government." The solution offered was the historic
+doctrine of "rotation in office." At the same time the principle of
+popular election was extended to an increasing number of officials who
+had once been appointed either by the governor or the legislature. Even
+geologists, veterinarians, surveyors, and other technical officers were
+declared elective on the theory that their appointment "smacked of
+monarchy."
+
+=Popular Election of Presidential Electors.=--In a short time the spirit
+of democracy, while playing havoc with the old order in state
+government, made its way upward into the federal system. The framers of
+the Constitution, bewildered by many proposals and unable to agree on
+any single plan, had committed the choice of presidential electors to
+the discretion of the state legislatures. The legislatures, in turn,
+greedy of power, early adopted the practice of choosing the electors
+themselves; but they did not enjoy it long undisturbed. Democracy,
+thundering at their doors, demanded that they surrender the privilege to
+the people. Reluctantly they yielded, sometimes granting popular
+election and then withdrawing it. The drift was inevitable, and the
+climax came with the advent of Jacksonian democracy. In 1824, Vermont,
+New York, Delaware, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, though some
+had experimented with popular election, still left the choice of
+electors with the legislature. Eight years later South Carolina alone
+held to the old practice. Popular election had become the final word.
+The fanciful idea of an electoral college of "good and wise men,"
+selected without passion or partisanship by state legislatures acting as
+deliberative bodies, was exploded for all time; the election of the
+nation's chief magistrate was committed to the tempestuous methods of
+democracy.
+
+=The Nominating Convention.=--As the suffrage was widened and the
+popular choice of presidential electors extended, there arose a violent
+protest against the methods used by the political parties in nominating
+candidates. After the retirement of Washington, both the Republicans and
+the Federalists found it necessary to agree upon their favorites before
+the election, and they adopted a colonial device--the pre-election
+caucus. The Federalist members of Congress held a conference and
+selected their candidate, and the Republicans followed the example. In
+a short time the practice of nominating by a "congressional caucus"
+became a recognized institution. The election still remained with the
+people; but the power of picking candidates for their approval passed
+into the hands of a small body of Senators and Representatives.
+
+A reaction against this was unavoidable. To friends of "the plain
+people," like Andrew Jackson, it was intolerable, all the more so
+because the caucus never favored him with the nomination. More
+conservative men also found grave objections to it. They pointed out
+that, whereas the Constitution intended the President to be an
+independent officer, he had now fallen under the control of a caucus of
+congressmen. The supremacy of the legislative branch had been obtained
+by an extra-legal political device. To such objections were added
+practical considerations. In 1824, when personal rivalry had taken the
+place of party conflicts, the congressional caucus selected as the
+candidate, William H. Crawford, of Georgia, a man of distinction but no
+great popularity, passing by such an obvious hero as General Jackson.
+The followers of the General were enraged and demanded nothing short of
+the death of "King Caucus." Their clamor was effective. Under their
+attacks, the caucus came to an ignominious end.
+
+In place of it there arose in 1831 a new device, the national nominating
+convention, composed of delegates elected by party voters for the sole
+purpose of nominating candidates. Senators and Representatives were
+still prominent in the party councils, but they were swamped by hundreds
+of delegates "fresh from the people," as Jackson was wont to say. In
+fact, each convention was made up mainly of office holders and office
+seekers, and the new institution was soon denounced as vigorously as
+King Caucus had been, particularly by statesmen who failed to obtain a
+nomination. Still it grew in strength and by 1840 was firmly
+established.
+
+=The End of the Old Generation.=--In the election of 1824, the
+representatives of the "aristocracy" made their last successful stand.
+Until then the leadership by men of "wealth and talents" had been
+undisputed. There had been five Presidents--Washington, John Adams,
+Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe--all Eastern men brought up in prosperous
+families with the advantages of culture which come from leisure and the
+possession of life's refinements. None of them had ever been compelled
+to work with his hands for a livelihood. Four of them had been
+slaveholders. Jefferson was a philosopher, learned in natural science, a
+master of foreign languages, a gentleman of dignity and grace of manner,
+notwithstanding his studied simplicity. Madison, it was said, was armed
+"with all the culture of his century." Monroe was a graduate of William
+and Mary, a gentleman of the old school. Jefferson and his three
+successors called themselves Republicans and professed a genuine faith
+in the people but they were not "of the people" themselves; they were
+not sons of the soil or the workshop. They were all men of "the grand
+old order of society" who gave finish and style even to popular
+government.
+
+Monroe was the last of the Presidents belonging to the heroic epoch of
+the Revolution. He had served in the war for independence, in the
+Congress under the Articles of Confederation, and in official capacity
+after the adoption of the Constitution. In short, he was of the age that
+had wrought American independence and set the government afloat. With
+his passing, leadership went to a new generation; but his successor,
+John Quincy Adams, formed a bridge between the old and the new in that
+he combined a high degree of culture with democratic sympathies.
+Washington had died in 1799, preceded but a few months by Patrick Henry
+and followed in four years by Samuel Adams. Hamilton had been killed in
+a duel with Burr in 1804. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were yet alive
+in 1824 but they were soon to pass from the scene, reconciled at last,
+full of years and honors. Madison was in dignified retirement, destined
+to live long enough to protest against the doctrine of nullification
+proclaimed by South Carolina before death carried him away at the ripe
+old age of eighty-five.
+
+=The Election of John Quincy Adams (1824).=--The campaign of 1824 marked
+the end of the "era of good feeling" inaugurated by the collapse of the
+Federalist party after the election of 1816. There were four leading
+candidates, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and W.H.
+Crawford. The result of the election was a division of the electoral
+votes into four parts and no one received a majority. Under the
+Constitution, therefore, the selection of President passed to the House
+of Representatives. Clay, who stood at the bottom of the poll, threw his
+weight to Adams and assured his triumph, much to the chagrin of
+Jackson's friends. They thought, with a certain justification, that
+inasmuch as the hero of New Orleans had received the largest electoral
+vote, the House was morally bound to accept the popular judgment and
+make him President. Jackson shook hands cordially with Adams on the day
+of the inauguration, but never forgave him for being elected.
+
+While Adams called himself a Republican in politics and often spoke of
+"the rule of the people," he was regarded by Jackson's followers as "an
+aristocrat." He was not a son of the soil. Neither was he acquainted at
+first hand with the labor of farmers and mechanics. He had been educated
+at Harvard and in Europe. Like his illustrious father, John Adams, he
+was a stern and reserved man, little given to seeking popularity.
+Moreover, he was from the East and the frontiersmen of the West regarded
+him as a man "born with a silver spoon in his mouth." Jackson's
+supporters especially disliked him because they thought their hero
+entitled to the presidency. Their anger was deepened when Adams
+appointed Clay to the office of Secretary of State; and they set up a
+cry that there had been a "deal" by which Clay had helped to elect Adams
+to get office for himself.
+
+Though Adams conducted his administration with great dignity and in a
+fine spirit of public service, he was unable to overcome the opposition
+which he encountered on his election to office or to win popularity in
+the West and South. On the contrary, by advocating government assistance
+in building roads and canals and public grants in aid of education,
+arts, and sciences, he ran counter to the current which had set in
+against appropriations of federal funds for internal improvements. By
+signing the Tariff Bill of 1828, soon known as the "Tariff of
+Abominations," he made new enemies without adding to his friends in New
+York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio where he sorely needed them. Handicapped by
+the false charge that he had been a party to a "corrupt bargain" with
+Clay to secure his first election; attacked for his advocacy of a high
+protective tariff; charged with favoring an "aristocracy of
+office-holders" in Washington on account of his refusal to discharge
+government clerks by the wholesale, Adams was retired from the White
+House after he had served four years.
+
+=The Triumph of Jackson in 1828.=--Probably no candidate for the
+presidency ever had such passionate popular support as Andrew Jackson
+had in 1828. He was truly a man of the people. Born of poor parents in
+the upland region of South Carolina, schooled in poverty and adversity,
+without the advantages of education or the refinements of cultivated
+leisure, he seemed the embodiment of the spirit of the new American
+democracy. Early in his youth he had gone into the frontier of Tennessee
+where he soon won a name as a fearless and intrepid Indian fighter. On
+the march and in camp, he endeared himself to his men by sharing their
+hardships, sleeping on the ground with them, and eating parched corn
+when nothing better could be found for the privates. From local
+prominence he sprang into national fame by his exploit at the battle of
+New Orleans. His reputation as a military hero was enhanced by the
+feeling that he had been a martyr to political treachery in 1824. The
+farmers of the West and South claimed him as their own. The mechanics of
+the Eastern cities, newly enfranchised, also looked upon him as their
+friend. Though his views on the tariff, internal improvements, and other
+issues before the country were either vague or unknown, he was readily
+elected President.
+
+The returns of the electoral vote in 1828 revealed the sources of
+Jackson's power. In New England, he received but one ballot, from
+Maine; he had a majority of the electors in New York and all of them in
+Pennsylvania; and he carried every state south of Maryland and beyond
+the Appalachians. Adams did not get a single electoral vote in the South
+and West. The prophecy of the Hartford convention had been fulfilled.
+
+[Illustration: ANDREW JACKSON]
+
+When Jackson took the oath of office on March 4, 1829, the government of
+the United States entered into a new era. Until this time the
+inauguration of a President--even that of Jefferson, the apostle of
+simplicity--had brought no rude shock to the course of affairs at the
+capital. Hitherto the installation of a President meant that an
+old-fashioned gentleman, accompanied by a few servants, had driven to
+the White House in his own coach, taken the oath with quiet dignity,
+appointed a few new men to the higher posts, continued in office the
+long list of regular civil employees, and begun his administration with
+respectable decorum. Jackson changed all this. When he was inaugurated,
+men and women journeyed hundreds of miles to witness the ceremony. Great
+throngs pressed into the White House, "upset the bowls of punch, broke
+the glasses, and stood with their muddy boots on the satin-covered
+chairs to see the people's President." If Jefferson's inauguration was,
+as he called it, the "great revolution," Jackson's inauguration was a
+cataclysm.
+
+
+THE NEW DEMOCRACY AT WASHINGTON
+
+=The Spoils System.=--The staid and respectable society of Washington
+was disturbed by this influx of farmers and frontiersmen. To speak of
+politics became "bad form" among fashionable women. The clerks and
+civil servants of the government who had enjoyed long and secure tenure
+of office became alarmed at the clamor of new men for their positions.
+Doubtless the major portion of them had opposed the election of Jackson
+and looked with feelings akin to contempt upon him and his followers.
+With a hunter's instinct, Jackson scented his prey. Determined to have
+none but his friends in office, he made a clean sweep, expelling old
+employees to make room for men "fresh from the people." This was a new
+custom. Other Presidents had discharged a few officers for engaging in
+opposition politics. They had been careful in making appointments not to
+choose inveterate enemies; but they discharged relatively few men on
+account of their political views and partisan activities.
+
+By wholesale removals and the frank selection of officers on party
+grounds--a practice already well intrenched in New York--Jackson
+established the "spoils system" at Washington. The famous slogan, "to
+the victor belong the spoils of victory," became the avowed principle of
+the national government. Statesmen like Calhoun denounced it; poets like
+James Russell Lowell ridiculed it; faithful servants of the government
+suffered under it; but it held undisturbed sway for half a century
+thereafter, each succeeding generation outdoing, if possible, its
+predecessor in the use of public office for political purposes. If any
+one remarked that training and experience were necessary qualifications
+for important public positions, he met Jackson's own profession of
+faith: "The duties of any public office are so simple or admit of being
+made so simple that any man can in a short time become master of them."
+
+=The Tariff and Nullification.=--Jackson had not been installed in power
+very long before he was compelled to choose between states' rights and
+nationalism. The immediate occasion of the trouble was the tariff--a
+matter on which Jackson did not have any very decided views. His mind
+did not run naturally to abstruse economic questions; and owing to the
+divided opinion of the country it was "good politics" to be vague and
+ambiguous in the controversy. Especially was this true, because the
+tariff issue was threatening to split the country into parties again.
+
+_The Development of the Policy of "Protection."_--The war of 1812 and
+the commercial policies of England which followed it had accentuated the
+need for American economic independence. During that conflict, the
+United States, cut off from English manufactures as during the
+Revolution, built up home industries to meet the unusual call for iron,
+steel, cloth, and other military and naval supplies as well as the
+demands from ordinary markets. Iron foundries and textile mills sprang
+up as in the night; hundreds of business men invested fortunes in
+industrial enterprises so essential to the military needs of the
+government; and the people at large fell into the habit of buying
+American-made goods again. As the London _Times_ tersely observed of the
+Americans, "their first war with England made them independent; their
+second war made them formidable."
+
+In recognition of this state of affairs, the tariff of 1816 was
+designed: _first_, to prevent England from ruining these "infant
+industries" by dumping the accumulated stores of years suddenly upon
+American markets; and, _secondly_, to enlarge in the manufacturing
+centers the demand for American agricultural produce. It accomplished
+the purposes of its framers. It kept in operation the mills and furnaces
+so recently built. It multiplied the number of industrial workers and
+enhanced the demand for the produce of the soil. It brought about
+another very important result. It turned the capital and enterprise of
+New England from shipping to manufacturing, and converted her statesmen,
+once friends of low tariffs, into ardent advocates of protection.
+
+In the early years of the nineteenth century, the Yankees had bent their
+energies toward building and operating ships to carry produce from
+America to Europe and manufactures from Europe to America. For this
+reason, they had opposed the tariff of 1816 calculated to increase
+domestic production and cut down the carrying trade. Defeated in their
+efforts, they accepted the inevitable and turned to manufacturing. Soon
+they were powerful friends of protection for American enterprise. As the
+money invested and the labor employed in the favored industries
+increased, the demand for continued and heavier protection grew apace.
+Even the farmers who furnished raw materials, like wool, flax, and hemp,
+began to see eye to eye with the manufacturers. So the textile interests
+of New England, the iron masters of Connecticut, New Jersey, and
+Pennsylvania, the wool, hemp, and flax growers of Ohio, Kentucky, and
+Tennessee, and the sugar planters of Louisiana developed into a
+formidable combination in support of a high protective tariff.
+
+_The Planting States Oppose the Tariff._--In the meantime, the cotton
+states on the seaboard had forgotten about the havoc wrought during the
+Napoleonic wars when their produce rotted because there were no ships to
+carry it to Europe. The seas were now open. The area devoted to cotton
+had swiftly expanded as Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana were opened
+up. Cotton had in fact become "king" and the planters depended for their
+prosperity, as they thought, upon the sale of their staple to English
+manufacturers whose spinning and weaving mills were the wonder of the
+world. Manufacturing nothing and having to buy nearly everything except
+farm produce and even much of that for slaves, the planters naturally
+wanted to purchase manufactures in the cheapest market, England, where
+they sold most of their cotton. The tariff, they contended, raised the
+price of the goods they had to buy and was thus in fact a tribute laid
+on them for the benefit of the Northern mill owners.
+
+_The Tariff of Abominations._--They were overborne, however, in 1824 and
+again in 1828 when Northern manufacturers and Western farmers forced
+Congress to make an upward revision of the tariff. The Act of 1828 known
+as "the Tariff of Abominations," though slightly modified in 1832, was
+"the straw which broke the camel's back." Southern leaders turned in
+rage against the whole system. The legislatures of Virginia, North
+Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama denounced it; a general
+convention of delegates held at Augusta issued a protest of defiance
+against it; and South Carolina, weary of verbal battles, decided to
+prevent its enforcement.
+
+_South Carolina Nullifies the Tariff._--The legislature of that state,
+on October 26, 1832, passed a bill calling for a state convention which
+duly assembled in the following month. In no mood for compromise, it
+adopted the famous Ordinance of Nullification after a few days' debate.
+Every line of this document was clear and firm. The tariff, it opened,
+gives "bounties to classes and individuals ... at the expense and to the
+injury and oppression of other classes and individuals"; it is a
+violation of the Constitution of the United States and therefore null
+and void; its enforcement in South Carolina is unlawful; if the federal
+government attempts to coerce the state into obeying the law, "the
+people of this state will thenceforth hold themselves absolved from all
+further obligations to maintain or preserve their political connection
+with the people of the other states and will forthwith proceed to
+organize a separate government and do all other acts and things which
+sovereign and independent states may of right do."
+
+_Southern States Condemn Nullification._--The answer of the country to
+this note of defiance, couched in the language used in the Kentucky
+resolutions and by the New England Federalists during the war of 1812,
+was quick and positive. The legislatures of the Southern states, while
+condemning the tariff, repudiated the step which South Carolina had
+taken. Georgia responded: "We abhor the doctrine of nullification as
+neither a peaceful nor a constitutional remedy." Alabama found it
+"unsound in theory and dangerous in practice." North Carolina replied
+that it was "revolutionary in character, subversive of the Constitution
+of the United States." Mississippi answered: "It is disunion by
+force--it is civil war." Virginia spoke more softly, condemning the
+tariff and sustaining the principle of the Virginia resolutions but
+denying that South Carolina could find in them any sanction for her
+proceedings.
+
+_Jackson Firmly Upholds the Union._--The eyes of the country were turned
+upon Andrew Jackson. It was known that he looked with no friendly
+feelings upon nullification, for, at a Jefferson dinner in the spring of
+1830 while the subject was in the air, he had with laconic firmness
+announced a toast: "Our federal union; it must be preserved." When two
+years later the open challenge came from South Carolina, he replied that
+he would enforce the law, saying with his frontier directness: "If a
+single drop of blood shall be shed there in opposition to the laws of
+the United States, I will hang the first man I can lay my hands on
+engaged in such conduct upon the first tree that I can reach." He made
+ready to keep his word by preparing for the use of military and naval
+forces in sustaining the authority of the federal government. Then in a
+long and impassioned proclamation to the people of South Carolina he
+pointed out the national character of the union, and announced his
+solemn resolve to preserve it by all constitutional means. Nullification
+he branded as "incompatible with the existence of the union,
+contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized
+by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was
+founded, and destructive of the great objects for which it was formed."
+
+_A Compromise._--In his messages to Congress, however, Jackson spoke the
+language of conciliation. A few days before issuing his proclamation he
+suggested that protection should be limited to the articles of domestic
+manufacture indispensable to safety in war time, and shortly afterward
+he asked for new legislation to aid him in enforcing the laws. With two
+propositions before it, one to remove the chief grounds for South
+Carolina's resistance and the other to apply force if it was continued,
+Congress bent its efforts to avoid a crisis. On February 12, 1833,
+Henry Clay laid before the Senate a compromise tariff bill providing for
+the gradual reduction of the duties until by 1842 they would reach the
+level of the law which Calhoun had supported in 1816. About the same
+time the "force bill," designed to give the President ample authority in
+executing the law in South Carolina, was taken up. After a short but
+acrimonious debate, both measures were passed and signed by President
+Jackson on the same day, March 2. Looking upon the reduction of the
+tariff as a complete vindication of her policy and an undoubted victory,
+South Carolina rescinded her ordinance and enacted another nullifying
+the force bill.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+DANIEL WEBSTER]
+
+_The Webster-Hayne Debate._--Where the actual victory lay in this
+quarrel, long the subject of high dispute, need not concern us to-day.
+Perhaps the chief result of the whole affair was a clarification of the
+issue between the North and the South--a definite statement of the
+principles for which men on both sides were years afterward to lay down
+their lives. On behalf of nationalism and a perpetual union, the stanch
+old Democrat from Tennessee had, in his proclamation on nullification,
+spoken a language that admitted of only one meaning. On behalf of
+nullification, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, a skilled lawyer and
+courtly orator, had in a great speech delivered in the Senate in
+January, 1830, set forth clearly and cogently the doctrine that the
+union is a compact among sovereign states from which the parties may
+lawfully withdraw. It was this address that called into the arena
+Daniel Webster, Senator from Massachusetts, who, spreading the mantle
+of oblivion over the Hartford convention, delivered a reply to Hayne
+that has been reckoned among the powerful orations of all time--a plea
+for the supremacy of the Constitution and the national character of the
+union.
+
+=The War on the United States Bank.=--If events forced the issue of
+nationalism and nullification upon Jackson, the same could not be said
+of his attack on the bank. That institution, once denounced by every
+true Jeffersonian, had been reëstablished in 1816 under the
+administration of Jefferson's disciple, James Madison. It had not been
+in operation very long, however, before it aroused bitter opposition,
+especially in the South and the West. Its notes drove out of circulation
+the paper currency of unsound banks chartered by the states, to the
+great anger of local financiers. It was accused of favoritism in making
+loans, of conferring special privileges upon politicians in return for
+their support at Washington. To all Jackson's followers it was "an
+insidious money power." One of them openly denounced it as an
+institution designed "to strengthen the arm of wealth and counterpoise
+the influence of extended suffrage in the disposition of public
+affairs."
+
+This sentiment President Jackson fully shared. In his first message to
+Congress he assailed the bank in vigorous language. He declared that its
+constitutionality was in doubt and alleged that it had failed to
+establish a sound and uniform currency. If such an institution was
+necessary, he continued, it should be a public bank, owned and managed
+by the government, not a private concern endowed with special privileges
+by it. In his second and third messages, Jackson came back to the
+subject, leaving the decision, however, to "an enlightened people and
+their representatives."
+
+Moved by this frank hostility and anxious for the future, the bank
+applied to Congress for a renewal of its charter in 1832, four years
+before the expiration of its life. Clay, with his eye upon the
+presidency and an issue for the campaign, warmly supported the
+application. Congress, deeply impressed by his leadership, passed the
+bill granting the new charter, and sent the open defiance to Jackson.
+His response was an instant veto. The battle was on and it raged with
+fury until the close of his second administration, ending in the
+destruction of the bank, a disordered currency, and a national panic.
+
+In his veto message, Jackson attacked the bank as unconstitutional and
+even hinted at corruption. He refused to assent to the proposition that
+the Supreme Court had settled the question of constitutionality by the
+decision in the McCulloch case. "Each public officer," he argued, "who
+takes an oath to support the Constitution, swears that he will support
+it as he understands it, not as it is understood by others."
+
+Not satisfied with his veto and his declaration against the bank,
+Jackson ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to withdraw the government
+deposits which formed a large part of the institution's funds. This
+action he followed up by an open charge that the bank had used money
+shamefully to secure the return of its supporters to Congress. The
+Senate, stung by this charge, solemnly resolved that Jackson had
+"assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the
+Constitution and laws, but in derogation of both."
+
+The effects of the destruction of the bank were widespread. When its
+charter expired in 1836, banking was once more committed to the control
+of the states. The state legislatures, under a decision rendered by the
+Supreme Court after the death of Marshall, began to charter banks under
+state ownership and control, with full power to issue paper money--this
+in spite of the provision in the Constitution that states shall not
+issue bills of credit or make anything but gold and silver coin legal
+tender in the payment of debts. Once more the country was flooded by
+paper currency of uncertain value. To make matters worse, Jackson
+adopted the practice of depositing huge amounts of government funds in
+these banks, not forgetting to render favors to those institutions which
+supported him in politics--"pet banks," as they were styled at the
+time. In 1837, partially, though by no means entirely, as a result of
+the abolition of the bank, the country was plunged into one of the most
+disastrous panics which it ever experienced.
+
+=Internal Improvements Checked.=--The bank had presented to Jackson a
+very clear problem--one of destruction. Other questions were not so
+simple, particularly the subject of federal appropriations in aid of
+roads and other internal improvements. Jefferson had strongly favored
+government assistance in such matters, but his administration was
+followed by a reaction. Both Madison and Monroe vetoed acts of Congress
+appropriating public funds for public roads, advancing as their reason
+the argument that the Constitution authorized no such laws. Jackson,
+puzzled by the clamor on both sides, followed their example without
+making the constitutional bar absolute. Congress, he thought, might
+lawfully build highways of a national and military value, but he
+strongly deprecated attacks by local interests on the federal treasury.
+
+=The Triumph of the Executive Branch.=--Jackson's reëlection in 1832
+served to confirm his opinion that he was the chosen leader of the
+people, freed and instructed to ride rough shod over Congress and even
+the courts. No President before or since ever entertained in times of
+peace such lofty notions of executive prerogative. The entire body of
+federal employees he transformed into obedient servants of his wishes, a
+sign or a nod from him making and undoing the fortunes of the humble and
+the mighty. His lawful cabinet of advisers, filling all of the high
+posts in the government, he treated with scant courtesy, preferring
+rather to secure his counsel and advice from an unofficial body of
+friends and dependents who, owing to their secret methods and back
+stairs arrangements, became known as "the kitchen cabinet." Under the
+leadership of a silent, astute, and resourceful politician, Amos
+Kendall, this informal gathering of the faithful both gave and carried
+out decrees and orders, communicating the President's lightest wish or
+strictest command to the uttermost part of the country. Resolutely and
+in the face of bitter opposition Jackson had removed the deposits from
+the United States Bank. When the Senate protested against this arbitrary
+conduct, he did not rest until it was forced to expunge the resolution
+of condemnation; in time one of his lieutenants with his own hands was
+able to tear the censure from the records. When Chief Justice Marshall
+issued a decree against Georgia which did not suit him, Jackson,
+according to tradition, blurted out that Marshall could go ahead and
+enforce his own orders. To the end he pursued his willful way, finally
+even choosing his own successor.
+
+
+THE RISE OF THE WHIGS
+
+=Jackson's Measures Arouse Opposition.=--Measures so decided, policies
+so radical, and conduct so high-handed could not fail to arouse against
+Jackson a deep and exasperated opposition. The truth is the conduct of
+his entire administration profoundly disturbed the business and finances
+of the country. It was accompanied by conditions similar to those which
+existed under the Articles of Confederation. A paper currency, almost as
+unstable and irritating as the worthless notes of revolutionary days,
+flooded the country, hindering the easy transaction of business. The use
+of federal funds for internal improvements, so vital to the exchange of
+commodities which is the very life of industry, was blocked by executive
+vetoes. The Supreme Court, which, under Marshall, had held refractory
+states to their obligations under the Constitution, was flouted; states'
+rights judges, deliberately selected by Jackson for the bench, began to
+sap and undermine the rulings of Marshall. The protective tariff, under
+which the textile industry of New England, the iron mills of
+Pennsylvania, and the wool, flax, and hemp farms of the West had
+flourished, had received a severe blow in the compromise of 1833 which
+promised a steady reduction of duties. To cap the climax, Jackson's
+party, casting aside the old and reputable name of Republican, boldly
+chose for its title the term "Democrat," throwing down the gauntlet to
+every conservative who doubted the omniscience of the people. All these
+things worked together to evoke an opposition that was sharp and
+determined.
+
+[Illustration: AN OLD CARTOON RIDICULING CLAY'S TARIFF AND INTERNAL
+IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM]
+
+=Clay and the National Republicans.=--In this opposition movement,
+leadership fell to Henry Clay, a son of Kentucky, rather than to Daniel
+Webster of Massachusetts. Like Jackson, Clay was born in a home haunted
+by poverty. Left fatherless early and thrown upon his own resources, he
+went from Virginia into Kentucky where by sheer force of intellect he
+rose to eminence in the profession of law. Without the martial gifts or
+the martial spirit of Jackson, he slipped more easily into the social
+habits of the East at the same time that he retained his hold on the
+affections of the boisterous West. Farmers of Ohio, Indiana, and
+Kentucky loved him; financiers of New York and Philadelphia trusted him.
+He was thus a leader well fitted to gather the forces of opposition
+into union against Jackson.
+
+Around Clay's standard assembled a motley collection, representing every
+species of political opinion, united by one tie only--hatred for "Old
+Hickory." Nullifiers and less strenuous advocates of states' rights were
+yoked with nationalists of Webster's school; ardent protectionists were
+bound together with equally ardent free traders, all fraternizing in one
+grand confusion of ideas under the title of "National Republicans." Thus
+the ancient and honorable term selected by Jefferson and his party, now
+abandoned by Jacksonian Democracy, was adroitly adopted to cover the
+supporters of Clay. The platform of the party, however, embraced all the
+old Federalist principles: protection for American industry; internal
+improvements; respect for the Supreme Court; resistance to executive
+tyranny; and denunciation of the spoils system. Though Jackson was
+easily victorious in 1832, the popular vote cast for Clay should have
+given him some doubts about the faith of "the whole people" in the
+wisdom of his "reign."
+
+=Van Buren and the Panic of 1837.=--Nothing could shake the General's
+superb confidence. At the end of his second term he insisted on
+selecting his own successor; at a national convention, chosen by party
+voters, but packed with his office holders and friends, he nominated
+Martin Van Buren of New York. Once more he proved his strength by
+carrying the country for the Democrats. With a fine flourish, he
+attended the inauguration of Van Buren and then retired, amid the
+applause and tears of his devotees, to the Hermitage, his home in
+Tennessee.
+
+Fortunately for him, Jackson escaped the odium of a disastrous panic
+which struck the country with terrible force in the following summer.
+Among the contributory causes of this crisis, no doubt, were the
+destruction of the bank and the issuance of the "specie circular" of
+1836 which required the purchasers of public lands to pay for them in
+coin, instead of the paper notes of state banks. Whatever the dominating
+cause, the ruin was widespread. Bank after bank went under; boom towns
+in the West collapsed; Eastern mills shut down; and working people in
+the industrial centers, starving from unemployment, begged for relief.
+Van Buren braved the storm, offering no measure of reform or assistance
+to the distracted people. He did seek security for government funds by
+suggesting the removal of deposits from private banks and the
+establishment of an independent treasury system, with government
+depositaries for public funds, in several leading cities. This plan was
+finally accepted by Congress in 1840.
+
+Had Van Buren been a captivating figure he might have lived down the
+discredit of the panic unjustly laid at his door; but he was far from
+being a favorite with the populace. Though a man of many talents, he
+owed his position to the quiet and adept management of Jackson rather
+than to his own personal qualities. The men of the frontier did not care
+for him. They suspected that he ate from "gold plate" and they could not
+forgive him for being an astute politician from New York. Still the
+Democratic party, remembering Jackson's wishes, renominated him
+unanimously in 1840 and saw him go down to utter defeat.
+
+=The Whigs and General Harrison.=--By this time, the National
+Republicans, now known as Whigs--a title taken from the party of
+opposition to the Crown in England, had learned many lessons. Taking a
+leaf out of the Democratic book, they nominated, not Clay of Kentucky,
+well known for his views on the bank, the tariff, and internal
+improvements, but a military hero, General William Henry Harrison, a man
+of uncertain political opinions. Harrison, a son of a Virginia signer of
+the Declaration of Independence, sprang into public view by winning a
+battle more famous than important, "Tippecanoe"--a brush with the
+Indians in Indiana. He added to his laurels by rendering praiseworthy
+services during the war of 1812. When days of peace returned he was
+rewarded by a grateful people with a seat in Congress. Then he retired
+to quiet life in a little village near Cincinnati. Like Jackson he was
+held to be a son of the South and the West. Like Jackson he was a
+military hero, a lesser light, but still a light. Like Old Hickory he
+rode into office on a tide of popular feeling against an Eastern man
+accused of being something of an aristocrat. His personal popularity was
+sufficient. The Whigs who nominated him shrewdly refused to adopt a
+platform or declare their belief in anything. When some Democrat
+asserted that Harrison was a backwoodsman whose sole wants were a jug of
+hard cider and a log cabin, the Whigs treated the remark not as an
+insult but as proof positive that Harrison deserved the votes of Jackson
+men. The jug and the cabin they proudly transformed into symbols of the
+campaign, and won for their chieftain 234 electoral votes, while Van
+Buren got only sixty.
+
+=Harrison and Tyler.=--The Hero of Tippecanoe was not long to enjoy the
+fruits of his victory. The hungry horde of Whig office seekers descended
+upon him like wolves upon the fold. If he went out they waylaid him; if
+he stayed indoors, he was besieged; not even his bed chamber was spared.
+He was none too strong at best and he took a deep cold on the day of his
+inauguration. Between driving out Democrats and appeasing Whigs, he fell
+mortally ill. Before the end of a month he lay dead at the capitol.
+
+Harrison's successor, John Tyler, the Vice President, whom the Whigs had
+nominated to catch votes in Virginia, was more of a Democrat than
+anything else, though he was not partisan enough to please anybody. The
+Whigs railed at him because he would not approve the founding of another
+United States Bank. The Democrats stormed at him for refusing, until
+near the end of his term, to sanction the annexation of Texas, which had
+declared its independence of Mexico in 1836. His entire administration,
+marked by unseemly wrangling, produced only two measures of importance.
+The Whigs, flushed by victory, with the aid of a few protectionist
+Democrats, enacted, in 1842, a new tariff law destroying the compromise
+which had brought about the truce between the North and the South, in
+the days of nullification. The distinguished leader of the Whigs, Daniel
+Webster, as Secretary of State, in negotiation with Lord Ashburton
+representing Great Britain, settled the long-standing dispute between
+the two countries over the Maine boundary. A year after closing this
+chapter in American diplomacy, Webster withdrew to private life, leaving
+the President to endure alone the buffets of political fortune.
+
+To the end, the Whigs regarded Tyler as a traitor to their cause; but
+the judgment of history is that it was a case of the biter bitten. They
+had nominated him for the vice presidency as a man of views acceptable
+to Southern Democrats in order to catch their votes, little reckoning
+with the chances of his becoming President. Tyler had not deceived them
+and, thoroughly soured, he left the White House in 1845 not to appear in
+public life again until the days of secession, when he espoused the
+Southern confederacy. Jacksonian Democracy, with new leadership, serving
+a new cause--slavery--was returned to power under James K. Polk, a
+friend of the General from Tennessee. A few grains of sand were to run
+through the hour glass before the Whig party was to be broken and
+scattered as the Federalists had been more than a generation before.
+
+
+THE INTERACTION OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN OPINION
+
+=Democracy in England and France.=--During the period of Jacksonian
+Democracy, as in all epochs of ferment, there was a close relation
+between the thought of the New World and the Old. In England, the
+successes of the American experiment were used as arguments in favor of
+overthrowing the aristocracy which George III had manipulated with such
+effect against America half a century before. In the United States, on
+the other hand, conservatives like Chancellor Kent, the stout opponent
+of manhood suffrage in New York, cited the riots of the British working
+classes as a warning against admitting the same classes to a share in
+the government of the United States. Along with the agitation of opinion
+went epoch-making events. In 1832, the year of Jackson's second
+triumph, the British Parliament passed its first reform bill, which
+conferred the ballot--not on workingmen as yet--but on mill owners and
+shopkeepers whom the landlords regarded with genuine horror. The initial
+step was thus taken in breaking down the privileges of the landed
+aristocracy and the rich merchants of England.
+
+About the same time a popular revolution occurred in France. The Bourbon
+family, restored to the throne of France by the allied powers after
+their victory over Napoleon in 1815, had embarked upon a policy of
+arbitrary government. To use the familiar phrase, they had learned
+nothing and forgotten nothing. Charles X, who came to the throne in
+1824, set to work with zeal to undo the results of the French
+Revolution, to stifle the press, restrict the suffrage, and restore the
+clergy and the nobility to their ancient rights. His policy encountered
+equally zealous opposition and in 1830 he was overthrown. The popular
+party, under the leadership of Lafayette, established, not a republic as
+some of the radicals had hoped, but a "liberal" middle-class monarchy
+under Louis Philippe. This second French Revolution made a profound
+impression on Americans, convincing them that the whole world was moving
+toward democracy. The mayor, aldermen, and citizens of New York City
+joined in a great parade to celebrate the fall of the Bourbons. Mingled
+with cheers for the new order in France were hurrahs for "the people's
+own, Andrew Jackson, the Hero of New Orleans and President of the United
+States!"
+
+=European Interest in America.=--To the older and more settled
+Europeans, the democratic experiment in America was either a menace or
+an inspiration. Conservatives viewed it with anxiety; liberals with
+optimism. Far-sighted leaders could see that the tide of democracy was
+rising all over the world and could not be stayed. Naturally the country
+that had advanced furthest along the new course was the place in which
+to find arguments for and against proposals that Europe should make
+experiments of the same character.
+
+=De Tocqueville's _Democracy in America_.=--In addition to the casual
+traveler there began to visit the United States the thoughtful observer
+bent on finding out what manner of nation this was springing up in the
+wilderness. Those who looked with sympathy upon the growing popular
+forces of England and France found in the United States, in spite of
+many blemishes and defects, a guarantee for the future of the people's
+rule in the Old World. One of these, Alexis de Tocqueville, a French
+liberal of mildly democratic sympathies, made a journey to this country
+in 1831; he described in a very remarkable volume, _Democracy in
+America_, the grand experiment as he saw it. On the whole he was
+convinced. After examining with a critical eye the life and labor of the
+American people, as well as the constitutions of the states and the
+nation, he came to the conclusion that democracy with all its faults was
+both inevitable and successful. Slavery he thought was a painful
+contrast to the other features of American life, and he foresaw what
+proved to be the irrepressible conflict over it. He believed that
+through blundering the people were destined to learn the highest of all
+arts, self-government on a grand scale. The absence of a leisure class,
+devoted to no calling or profession, merely enjoying the refinements of
+life and adding to its graces--the flaw in American culture that gave
+deep distress to many a European leader--de Tocqueville thought a
+necessary virtue in the republic. "Amongst a democratic people where
+there is no hereditary wealth, every man works to earn a living, or has
+worked, or is born of parents who have worked. A notion of labor is
+therefore presented to the mind on every side as the necessary, natural,
+and honest condition of human existence." It was this notion of a
+government in the hands of people who labored that struck the French
+publicist as the most significant fact in the modern world.
+
+=Harriet Martineau's Visit to America.=--This phase of American life
+also profoundly impressed the brilliant English writer, Harriet
+Martineau. She saw all parts of the country, the homes of the rich and
+the log cabins of the frontier; she traveled in stagecoaches, canal
+boats, and on horseback; and visited sessions of Congress and auctions
+at slave markets. She tried to view the country impartially and the
+thing that left the deepest mark on her mind was the solidarity of the
+people in one great political body. "However various may be the tribes
+of inhabitants in those states, whatever part of the world may have been
+their birthplace, or that of their fathers, however broken may be their
+language, however servile or noble their employments, however exalted or
+despised their state, all are declared to be bound together by equal
+political obligations.... In that self-governing country all are held to
+have an equal interest in the principles of its institutions and to be
+bound in equal duty to watch their workings." Miss Martineau was also
+impressed with the passion of Americans for land ownership and
+contrasted the United States favorably with England where the tillers of
+the soil were either tenants or laborers for wages.
+
+=Adverse Criticism.=--By no means all observers and writers were
+convinced that America was a success. The fastidious traveler, Mrs.
+Trollope, who thought the English system of church and state was ideal,
+saw in the United States only roughness and ignorance. She lamented the
+"total and universal want of manners both in males and females," adding
+that while "they appear to have clear heads and active intellects,"
+there was "no charm, no grace in their conversation." She found
+everywhere a lack of reverence for kings, learning, and rank. Other
+critics were even more savage. The editor of the _Foreign Quarterly_
+petulantly exclaimed that the United States was "a brigand
+confederation." Charles Dickens declared the country to be "so maimed
+and lame, so full of sores and ulcers that her best friends turn from
+the loathsome creature in disgust." Sydney Smith, editor of the
+_Edinburgh Review_, was never tired of trying his caustic wit at the
+expense of America. "Their Franklins and Washingtons and all the other
+sages and heroes of their revolution were born and bred subjects of the
+king of England," he observed in 1820. "During the thirty or forty
+years of their independence they have done absolutely nothing for the
+sciences, for the arts, for literature, or even for the statesmanlike
+studies of politics or political economy.... In the four quarters of the
+globe who reads an American book? Or goes to an American play? Or looks
+at an American picture or statue?" To put a sharp sting into his taunt
+he added, forgetting by whose authority slavery was introduced and
+fostered: "Under which of the old tyrannical governments of Europe is
+every sixth man a slave whom his fellow creatures may buy and sell?"
+
+Some Americans, while resenting the hasty and often superficial
+judgments of European writers, winced under their satire and took
+thought about certain particulars in the indictments brought against
+them. The mass of the people, however, bent on the great experiment,
+gave little heed to carping critics who saw the flaws and not the
+achievements of our country--critics who were in fact less interested in
+America than in preventing the rise and growth of democracy in Europe.
+
+
+=References=
+
+J.S. Bassett, _Life of Andrew Jackson_.
+
+J.W. Burgess, _The Middle Period_.
+
+H. Lodge, _Daniel Webster_.
+
+W. Macdonald, _Jacksonian Democracy_ (American Nation Series).
+
+Ostrogorski, _Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties_, Vol.
+II.
+
+C.H. Peck, _The Jacksonian Epoch_.
+
+C. Schurz, _Henry Clay_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. By what devices was democracy limited in the first days of our
+Republic?
+
+2. On what grounds were the limitations defended? Attacked?
+
+3. Outline the rise of political democracy in the United States.
+
+4. Describe three important changes in our political system.
+
+5. Contrast the Presidents of the old and the new generations.
+
+6. Account for the unpopularity of John Adams' administration.
+
+7. What had been the career of Andrew Jackson before 1829?
+
+8. Sketch the history of the protective tariff and explain the theory
+underlying it.
+
+9. Explain the growth of Southern opposition to the tariff.
+
+10. Relate the leading events connected with nullification in South
+Carolina.
+
+11. State Jackson's views and tell the outcome of the controversy.
+
+12. Why was Jackson opposed to the bank? How did he finally destroy it?
+
+13. The Whigs complained of Jackson's "executive tyranny." What did they
+mean?
+
+14. Give some of the leading events in Clay's career.
+
+15. How do you account for the triumph of Harrison in 1840?
+
+16. Why was Europe especially interested in America at this period? Who
+were some of the European writers on American affairs?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Jackson's Criticisms of the Bank.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source
+Book_, pp. 320-329.
+
+=Financial Aspects of the Bank Controversy.=--Dewey, _Financial History
+of the United States_, Sections 86-87; Elson, _History of the United
+States_, pp. 492-496.
+
+=Jackson's View of the Union.=--See his proclamation on nullification in
+Macdonald, pp. 333-340.
+
+=Nullification.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the United
+States_, Vol. VI, pp. 153-182; Elson, pp. 487-492.
+
+=The Webster-Hayne Debate.=--Analyze the arguments. Extensive extracts
+are given in Macdonald's larger three-volume work, _Select Documents of
+United States History, 1776-1761_, pp. 239-260.
+
+=The Character of Jackson's Administration.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History
+of the American People_, Vol. IV, pp. 1-87; Elson, pp. 498-501.
+
+=The People in 1830.=--From contemporary writings in Hart, _American
+History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 509-530.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Andrew Jackson, J.Q. Adams, Henry Clay, Daniel
+Webster, J.C. Calhoun, and W.H. Harrison.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST
+
+
+"We shall not send an emigrant beyond the Mississippi in a hundred
+years," exclaimed Livingston, the principal author of the Louisiana
+purchase. When he made this astounding declaration, he doubtless had
+before his mind's eye the great stretches of unoccupied lands between
+the Appalachians and the Mississippi. He also had before him the history
+of the English colonies, which told him of the two centuries required to
+settle the seaboard region. To practical men, his prophecy did not seem
+far wrong; but before the lapse of half that time there appeared beyond
+the Mississippi a tier of new states, reaching from the Gulf of Mexico
+to the southern boundary of Minnesota, and a new commonwealth on the
+Pacific Ocean where American emigrants had raised the Bear flag of
+California.
+
+
+THE ADVANCE OF THE MIDDLE BORDER
+
+=Missouri.=--When the middle of the nineteenth century had been reached,
+the Mississippi River, which Daniel Boone, the intrepid hunter, had
+crossed during Washington's administration "to escape from civilization"
+in Kentucky, had become the waterway for a vast empire. The center of
+population of the United States had passed to the Ohio Valley. Missouri,
+with its wide reaches of rich lands, low-lying, level, and fertile, well
+adapted to hemp raising, had drawn to its borders thousands of planters
+from the old Southern states--from Virginia and the Carolinas as well as
+from Kentucky and Tennessee. When the great compromise of 1820-21
+admitted her to the union, wearing "every jewel of sovereignty," as a
+florid orator announced, migratory slave owners were assured that their
+property would be safe in Missouri. Along the western shore of the
+Mississippi and on both banks of the Missouri to the uttermost limits of
+the state, plantations tilled by bondmen spread out in broad expanses.
+In the neighborhood of Jefferson City the slaves numbered more than a
+fourth of the population.
+
+Into this stream of migration from the planting South flowed another
+current of land-tilling farmers; some from Kentucky, Tennessee, and
+Mississippi, driven out by the onrush of the planters buying and
+consolidating small farms into vast estates; and still more from the
+East and the Old World. To the northwest over against Iowa and to the
+southwest against Arkansas, these yeomen laid out farms to be tilled by
+their own labor. In those regions the number of slaves seldom rose above
+five or six per cent of the population. The old French post, St. Louis,
+enriched by the fur trade of the Far West and the steamboat traffic of
+the river, grew into a thriving commercial city, including among its
+seventy-five thousand inhabitants in 1850 nearly forty thousand
+foreigners, German immigrants from Pennsylvania and Europe being the
+largest single element.
+
+=Arkansas.=--Below Missouri lay the territory of Arkansas, which had
+long been the paradise of the swarthy hunter and the restless
+frontiersman fleeing from the advancing borders of farm and town. In
+search of the life, wild and free, where the rifle supplied the game and
+a few acres of ground the corn and potatoes, they had filtered into the
+territory in an unending drift, "squatting" on the land. Without so much
+as asking the leave of any government, territorial or national, they
+claimed as their own the soil on which they first planted their feet.
+Like the Cherokee Indians, whom they had as neighbors, whose very
+customs and dress they sometimes adopted, the squatters spent their days
+in the midst of rough plenty, beset by chills, fevers, and the ills of
+the flesh, but for many years unvexed by political troubles or the
+restrictions of civilized life.
+
+Unfortunately for them, however, the fertile valleys of the Mississippi
+and Arkansas were well adapted to the cultivation of cotton and tobacco
+and their sylvan peace was soon broken by an invasion of planters. The
+newcomers, with their servile workers, spread upward in the valley
+toward Missouri and along the southern border westward to the Red River.
+In time the slaves in the tier of counties against Louisiana ranged from
+thirty to seventy per cent of the population. This marked the doom of
+the small farmer, swept Arkansas into the main current of planting
+politics, and led to a powerful lobby at Washington in favor of
+admission to the union, a boon granted in 1836.
+
+=Michigan.=--In accordance with a well-established custom, a free state
+was admitted to the union to balance a slave state. In 1833, the people
+of Michigan, a territory ten times the size of Connecticut, announced
+that the time had come for them to enjoy the privileges of a
+commonwealth. All along the southern border the land had been occupied
+largely by pioneers from New England, who built prim farmhouses and
+adopted the town-meeting plan of self-government after the fashion of
+the old home. The famous post of Detroit was growing into a flourishing
+city as the boats plying on the Great Lakes carried travelers, settlers,
+and freight through the narrows. In all, according to the census, there
+were more than ninety thousand inhabitants in the territory; so it was
+not without warrant that they clamored for statehood. Congress, busy as
+ever with politics, delayed; and the inhabitants of Michigan, unable to
+restrain their impatience, called a convention, drew up a constitution,
+and started a lively quarrel with Ohio over the southern boundary. The
+hand of Congress was now forced. Objections were made to the new
+constitution on the ground that it gave the ballot to all free white
+males, including aliens not yet naturalized; but the protests were
+overborne in a long debate. The boundary was fixed, and Michigan, though
+shorn of some of the land she claimed, came into the union in 1837.
+
+=Wisconsin.=--Across Lake Michigan to the west lay the territory of
+Wisconsin, which shared with Michigan the interesting history of the
+Northwest, running back into the heroic days when French hunters and
+missionaries were planning a French empire for the great monarch, Louis
+XIV. It will not be forgotten that the French rangers of the woods, the
+black-robed priests, prepared for sacrifice, even to death, the trappers
+of the French agencies, and the French explorers--Marquette, Joliet, and
+Menard--were the first white men to paddle their frail barks through the
+northern waters. They first blazed their trails into the black forests
+and left traces of their work in the names of portages and little
+villages. It was from these forests that Red Men in full war paint
+journeyed far to fight under the _fleur-de-lis_ of France when the
+soldiers of King Louis made their last stand at Quebec and Montreal
+against the imperial arms of Britain. It was here that the British flag
+was planted in 1761 and that the great Pontiac conspiracy was formed two
+years later to overthrow British dominion.
+
+When, a generation afterward, the Stars and Stripes supplanted the Union
+Jack, the French were still almost the only white men in the region.
+They were soon joined by hustling Yankee fur traders who did battle
+royal against British interlopers. The traders cut their way through
+forest trails and laid out the routes through lake and stream and over
+portages for the settlers and their families from the states "back
+East." It was the forest ranger who discovered the water power later
+used to turn the busy mills grinding the grain from the spreading farm
+lands. In the wake of the fur hunters, forest men, and farmers came
+miners from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri crowding in to exploit the
+lead ores of the northwest, some of them bringing slaves to work their
+claims. Had it not been for the gold fever of 1849 that drew the
+wielders of pick and shovel to the Far West, Wisconsin would early have
+taken high rank among the mining regions of the country.
+
+From a favorable point of vantage on Lake Michigan, the village of
+Milwaukee, a center for lumber and grain transport and a place of entry
+for Eastern goods, grew into a thriving city. It claimed twenty thousand
+inhabitants, when in 1848 Congress admitted Wisconsin to the union.
+Already the Germans, Irish, and Scandinavians had found their way into
+the territory. They joined Americans from the older states in clearing
+forests, building roads, transforming trails into highways, erecting
+mills, and connecting streams with canals to make a network of routes
+for the traffic that poured to and from the Great Lakes.
+
+=Iowa and Minnesota.=--To the southwest of Wisconsin beyond the
+Mississippi, where the tall grass of the prairies waved like the sea,
+farmers from New England, New York, and Ohio had prepared Iowa for
+statehood. A tide of immigration that might have flowed into Missouri
+went northward; for freemen, unaccustomed to slavery and slave markets,
+preferred the open country above the compromise line. With incredible
+swiftness, they spread farms westward from the Mississippi. With Yankee
+ingenuity they turned to trading on the river, building before 1836
+three prosperous centers of traffic: Dubuque, Davenport, and Burlington.
+True to their old traditions, they founded colleges and academies that
+religion and learning might be cherished on the frontier as in the
+states from which they came. Prepared for self-government, the Iowans
+laid siege to the door of Congress and were admitted to the union in
+1846.
+
+Above Iowa, on the Mississippi, lay the territory of Minnesota--the home
+of the Dakotas, the Ojibways, and the Sioux. Like Michigan and
+Wisconsin, it had been explored early by the French scouts, and the
+first white settlement was the little French village of Mendota. To the
+people of the United States, the resources of the country were first
+revealed by the historic journey of Zebulon Pike in 1805 and by American
+fur traders who were quick to take advantage of the opportunity to ply
+their arts of hunting and bartering in fresh fields. In 1839 an
+American settlement was planted at Marina on the St. Croix, the outpost
+of advancing civilization. Within twenty years, the territory, boasting
+a population of 150,000, asked for admission to the union. In 1858 the
+plea was granted and Minnesota showed her gratitude three years later by
+being first among the states to offer troops to Lincoln in the hour of
+peril.
+
+
+ON TO THE PACIFIC--TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR
+
+=The Uniformity of the Middle West.=--There was a certain monotony about
+pioneering in the Northwest and on the middle border. As the long
+stretches of land were cleared or prepared for the plow, they were laid
+out like checkerboards into squares of forty, eighty, one hundred sixty,
+or more acres, each the seat of a homestead. There was a striking
+uniformity also about the endless succession of fertile fields spreading
+far and wide under the hot summer sun. No majestic mountains relieved
+the sweep of the prairie. Few monuments of other races and antiquity
+were there to awaken curiosity about the region. No sonorous bells in
+old missions rang out the time of day. The chaffering Red Man bartering
+blankets and furs for powder and whisky had passed farther on. The
+population was made up of plain farmers and their families engaged in
+severe and unbroken labor, chopping down trees, draining fever-breeding
+swamps, breaking new ground, and planting from year to year the same
+rotation of crops. Nearly all the settlers were of native American stock
+into whose frugal and industrious lives the later Irish and German
+immigrants fitted, on the whole, with little friction. Even the Dutch
+oven fell before the cast-iron cooking stove. Happiness and sorrow,
+despair and hope were there, but all encompassed by the heavy tedium of
+prosaic sameness.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA BARBARA MISSION]
+
+=A Contrast in the Far West and Southwest.=--As George Rogers Clark and
+Daniel Boone had stirred the snug Americans of the seaboard to seek
+their fortunes beyond the Appalachians, so now Kit Carson, James Bowie,
+Sam Houston, Davy Crockett, and John C. Frémont were to lead the way
+into a new land, only a part of which was under the American flag. The
+setting for this new scene in the westward movement was thrown out in a
+wide sweep from the headwaters of the Mississippi to the banks of the
+Rio Grande; from the valleys of the Sabine and Red rivers to Montana and
+the Pacific slope. In comparison with the middle border, this region
+presented such startling diversities that only the eye of faith could
+foresee the unifying power of nationalism binding its communities with
+the older sections of the country. What contrasts indeed! The blue grass
+region of Kentucky or the rich, black soil of Illinois--the painted
+desert, the home of the sage brush and the coyote! The level prairies of
+Iowa--the mighty Rockies shouldering themselves high against the
+horizon! The long bleak winters of Wisconsin--California of endless
+summer! The log churches of Indiana or Illinois--the quaint missions of
+San Antonio, Tucson, and Santa Barbara! The little state of
+Delaware--the empire of Texas, one hundred and twenty times its area!
+And scattered about through the Southwest were signs of an ancient
+civilization--fragments of four-and five-story dwellings, ruined dams,
+aqueducts, and broken canals, which told of once prosperous peoples
+who, by art and science, had conquered the aridity of the desert and
+lifted themselves in the scale of culture above the savages of the
+plain.
+
+The settlers of this vast empire were to be as diverse in their origins
+and habits as those of the colonies on the coast had been. Americans of
+English, Irish, and Scotch-Irish descent came as usual from the Eastern
+states. To them were added the migratory Germans as well. Now for the
+first time came throngs of Scandinavians. Some were to make their homes
+on quiet farms as the border advanced against the setting sun. Others
+were to be Indian scouts, trappers, fur hunters, miners, cowboys, Texas
+planters, keepers of lonely posts on the plain and the desert, stage
+drivers, pilots of wagon trains, pony riders, fruit growers, "lumber
+jacks," and smelter workers. One common bond united them--a passion for
+the self-government accorded to states. As soon as a few thousand
+settlers came together in a single territory, there arose a mighty shout
+for a position beside the staid commonwealths of the East and the South.
+Statehood meant to the pioneers self-government, dignity, and the right
+to dispose of land, minerals, and timber in their own way. In the quest
+for this local autonomy there arose many a wordy contest in Congress,
+each of the political parties lending a helping hand in the admission of
+a state when it gave promise of adding new congressmen of the "right
+political persuasion," to use the current phrase.
+
+=Southern Planters and Texas.=--While the farmers of the North found the
+broad acres of the Western prairies stretching on before them apparently
+in endless expanse, it was far different with the Southern planters.
+Ever active in their search for new fields as they exhausted the virgin
+soil of the older states, the restless subjects of King Cotton quickly
+reached the frontier of Louisiana. There they paused; but only for a
+moment. The fertile land of Texas just across the boundary lured them on
+and the Mexican republic to which it belonged extended to them a more
+than generous welcome. Little realizing the perils lurking in a
+"peaceful penetration," the authorities at Mexico City opened wide the
+doors and made large grants of land to American contractors, who agreed
+to bring a number of families into Texas. The omnipresent Yankee, in the
+person of Moses Austin of Connecticut, hearing of this good news in the
+Southwest, obtained a grant in 1820 to settle three hundred Americans
+near Bexar--a commission finally carried out to the letter by his son
+and celebrated in the name given to the present capital of the state of
+Texas. Within a decade some twenty thousand Americans had crossed the
+border.
+
+=Mexico Closes the Door.=--The government of Mexico, unaccustomed to
+such enterprise and thoroughly frightened by its extent, drew back in
+dismay. Its fears were increased as quarrels broke out between the
+Americans and the natives in Texas. Fear grew into consternation when
+efforts were made by President Jackson to buy the territory for the
+United States. Mexico then sought to close the flood gates. It stopped
+all American colonization schemes, canceled many of the land grants, put
+a tariff on farming implements, and abolished slavery. These barriers
+were raised too late. A call for help ran through the western border of
+the United States. The sentinels of the frontier answered. Davy
+Crockett, the noted frontiersman, bear hunter, and backwoods politician;
+James Bowie, the dexterous wielder of the knife that to this day bears
+his name; and Sam Houston, warrior and pioneer, rushed to the aid of
+their countrymen in Texas. Unacquainted with the niceties of diplomacy,
+impatient at the formalities of international law, they soon made it
+known that in spite of Mexican sovereignty they would be their own
+masters.
+
+=The Independence of Texas Declared.=--Numbering only about one-fourth
+of the population in Texas, they raised the standard of revolt in 1836
+and summoned a convention. Following in the footsteps of their
+ancestors, they issued a declaration of independence signed mainly by
+Americans from the slave states. Anticipating that the government of
+Mexico would not quietly accept their word of defiance as final, they
+dispatched a force to repel "the invading army," as General Houston
+called the troops advancing under the command of Santa Ana, the Mexican
+president. A portion of the Texan soldiers took their stand in the
+Alamo, an old Spanish mission in the cottonwood trees in the town of San
+Antonio. Instead of obeying the order to blow up the mission and retire,
+they held their ground until they were completely surrounded and cut off
+from all help. Refusing to surrender, they fought to the bitter end, the
+last man falling a victim to the sword. Vengeance was swift. Within
+three months General Houston overwhelmed Santa Ana at the San Jacinto,
+taking him prisoner of war and putting an end to all hopes for the
+restoration of Mexican sovereignty over Texas.
+
+The Lone Star Republic, with Houston at the head, then sought admission
+to the United States. This seemed at first an easy matter. All that was
+required to bring it about appeared to be a treaty annexing Texas to the
+union. Moreover, President Jackson, at the height of his popularity, had
+a warm regard for General Houston and, with his usual sympathy for rough
+and ready ways of doing things, approved the transaction. Through an
+American representative in Mexico, Jackson had long and anxiously
+labored, by means none too nice, to wring from the Mexican republic the
+cession of the coveted territory. When the Texans took matters into
+their own hands, he was more than pleased; but he could not marshal the
+approval of two-thirds of the Senators required for a treaty of
+annexation. Cautious as well as impetuous, Jackson did not press the
+issue; he went out of office in 1837 with Texas uncertain as to her
+future.
+
+=Northern Opposition to Annexation.=--All through the North the
+opposition to annexation was clear and strong. Anti-slavery agitators
+could hardly find words savage enough to express their feelings.
+"Texas," exclaimed Channing in a letter to Clay, "is but the first step
+of aggression. I trust indeed that Providence will beat back and humble
+our cupidity and ambition. I now ask whether as a people we are
+prepared to seize on a neighboring territory for the end of extending
+slavery? I ask whether as a people we can stand forth in the sight of
+God, in the sight of nations, and adopt this atrocious policy? Sooner
+perish! Sooner be our name blotted out from the record of nations!"
+William Lloyd Garrison called for the secession of the Northern states
+if Texas was brought into the union with slavery. John Quincy Adams
+warned his countrymen that they were treading in the path of the
+imperialism that had brought the nations of antiquity to judgment and
+destruction. Henry Clay, the Whig candidate for President, taking into
+account changing public sentiment, blew hot and cold, losing the state
+of New York and the election of 1844 by giving a qualified approval of
+annexation. In the same campaign, the Democrats boldly demanded the
+"Reannexation of Texas," based on claims which the United States once
+had to Spanish territory beyond the Sabine River.
+
+=Annexation.=--The politicians were disposed to walk very warily. Van
+Buren, at heart opposed to slavery extension, refused to press the issue
+of annexation. Tyler, a pro-slavery Democrat from Virginia, by a strange
+fling of fortune carried into office as a nominal Whig, kept his mind
+firmly fixed on the idea of reëlection and let the troublesome matter
+rest until the end of his administration was in sight. He then listened
+with favor to the voice of the South. Calhoun stated what seemed to be a
+convincing argument: All good Americans have their hearts set on the
+Constitution; the admission of Texas is absolutely essential to the
+preservation of the union; it will give a balance of power to the South
+as against the North growing with incredible swiftness in wealth and
+population. Tyler, impressed by the plea, appointed Calhoun to the
+office of Secretary of State in 1844, authorizing him to negotiate the
+treaty of annexation--a commission at once executed. This scheme was
+blocked in the Senate where the necessary two-thirds vote could not be
+secured. Balked but not defeated, the advocates of annexation drew up a
+joint resolution which required only a majority vote in both houses,
+and in February of the next year, just before Tyler gave way to Polk,
+they pushed it through Congress. So Texas, amid the groans of Boston and
+the hurrahs of Charleston, folded up her flag and came into the union.
+
+[Illustration: TEXAS AND THE TERRITORY IN DISPUTE]
+
+=The Mexican War.=--The inevitable war with Mexico, foretold by the
+abolitionists and feared by Henry Clay, ensued, the ostensible cause
+being a dispute over the boundaries of the new state. The Texans claimed
+all the lands down to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans placed the border of
+Texas at the Nueces River and a line drawn thence in a northerly
+direction. President Polk, accepting the Texan view of the controversy,
+ordered General Zachary Taylor to move beyond the Nueces in defense of
+American sovereignty. This act of power, deemed by the Mexicans an
+invasion of their territory, was followed by an attack on our troops.
+
+President Polk, not displeased with the turn of events, announced that
+American blood had been "spilled on American soil" and that war existed
+"by the act of Mexico." Congress, in a burst of patriotic fervor,
+brushed aside the protests of those who deplored the conduct of the
+government as wanton aggression on a weaker nation and granted money and
+supplies to prosecute the war. The few Whigs in the House of
+Representatives, who refused to vote in favor of taking up arms,
+accepted the inevitable with such good grace as they could command. All
+through the South and the West the war was popular. New England
+grumbled, but gave loyal, if not enthusiastic, support to a conflict
+precipitated by policies not of its own choosing. Only a handful of firm
+objectors held out. James Russell Lowell, in his _Biglow Papers_, flung
+scorn and sarcasm to the bitter end.
+
+=The Outcome of the War.=--The foregone conclusion was soon reached.
+General Taylor might have delivered the fatal thrust from northern
+Mexico if politics had not intervened. Polk, anxious to avoid raising up
+another military hero for the Whigs to nominate for President, decided
+to divide the honors by sending General Scott to strike a blow at the
+capital, Mexico City. The deed was done with speed and pomp and two
+heroes were lifted into presidential possibilities. In the Far West a
+third candidate was made, John C. Frémont, who, in coöperation with
+Commodores Sloat and Stockton and General Kearney, planted the Stars and
+Stripes on the Pacific slope.
+
+In February, 1848, the Mexicans came to terms, ceding to the victor
+California, Arizona, New Mexico, and more--a domain greater in extent
+than the combined areas of France and Germany. As a salve to the wound,
+the vanquished received fifteen million dollars in cash and the
+cancellation of many claims held by American citizens. Five years later,
+through the negotiations of James Gadsden, a further cession of lands
+along the southern border of Arizona and New Mexico was secured on
+payment of ten million dollars.
+
+=General Taylor Elected President.=--The ink was hardly dry upon the
+treaty that closed the war before "rough and ready" General Taylor, a
+slave owner from Louisiana, "a Whig," as he said, "but not an ultra
+Whig," was put forward as the Whig candidate for President. He himself
+had not voted for years and he was fairly innocent in matters political.
+The tariff, the currency, and internal improvements, with a magnificent
+gesture he referred to the people's representatives in Congress,
+offering to enforce the laws as made, if elected. Clay's followers
+mourned. Polk stormed but could not win even a renomination at the hands
+of the Democrats. So it came about that the hero of Buena Vista,
+celebrated for his laconic order, "Give 'em a little more grape, Captain
+Bragg," became President of the United States.
+
+
+THE PACIFIC COAST AND UTAH
+
+=Oregon.=--Closely associated in the popular mind with the contest about
+the affairs of Texas was a dispute with Great Britain over the
+possession of territory in Oregon. In their presidential campaign of
+1844, the Democrats had coupled with the slogan, "The Reannexation of
+Texas," two other cries, "The Reoccupation of Oregon," and "Fifty-four
+Forty or Fight." The last two slogans were founded on American
+discoveries and explorations in the Far Northwest. Their appearance in
+politics showed that the distant Oregon country, larger in area than New
+England, New York, and Pennsylvania combined, was at last receiving from
+the nation the attention which its importance warranted.
+
+_Joint Occupation and Settlement._--Both England and the United States
+had long laid claim to Oregon and in 1818 they had agreed to occupy the
+territory jointly--a contract which was renewed ten years later for an
+indefinite period. Under this plan, citizens of both countries were free
+to hunt and settle anywhere in the region. The vanguard of British fur
+traders and Canadian priests was enlarged by many new recruits, with
+Americans not far behind them. John Jacob Astor, the resourceful New
+York merchant, sent out trappers and hunters who established a trading
+post at Astoria in 1811. Some twenty years later, American
+missionaries--among them two very remarkable men, Jason Lee and Marcus
+Whitman--were preaching the gospel to the Indians.
+
+Through news from the fur traders and missionaries, Eastern farmers
+heard of the fertile lands awaiting their plows on the Pacific slope;
+those with the pioneering spirit made ready to take possession of the
+new country. In 1839 a band went around by Cape Horn. Four years later a
+great expedition went overland. The way once broken, others followed
+rapidly. As soon as a few settlements were well established, the
+pioneers held a mass meeting and agreed upon a plan of government. "We,
+the people of Oregon territory," runs the preamble to their compact,
+"for the purposes of mutual protection and to secure peace and
+prosperity among ourselves, agree to adopt the following laws and
+regulations until such time as the United States of America extend their
+jurisdiction over us." Thus self-government made its way across the
+Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: THE OREGON COUNTRY AND THE DISPUTED BOUNDARY]
+
+_The Boundary Dispute with England Adjusted._--By this time it was
+evident that the boundaries of Oregon must be fixed. Having made the
+question an issue in his campaign, Polk, after his election in 1844,
+pressed it upon the attention of the country. In his inaugural address
+and his first message to Congress he reiterated the claim of the
+Democratic platform that "our title to the whole territory of Oregon is
+clear and unquestionable." This pretension Great Britain firmly
+rejected, leaving the President a choice between war and compromise.
+
+Polk, already having the contest with Mexico on his hands, sought and
+obtained a compromise. The British government, moved by a hint from the
+American minister, offered a settlement which would fix the boundary at
+the forty-ninth parallel instead of "fifty-four forty," and give it
+Vancouver Island. Polk speedily chose this way out of the dilemma.
+Instead of making the decision himself, however, and drawing up a
+treaty, he turned to the Senate for "counsel." As prearranged with party
+leaders, the advice was favorable to the plan. The treaty, duly drawn in
+1846, was ratified by the Senate after an acrimonious debate. "Oh!
+mountain that was delivered of a mouse," exclaimed Senator Benton, "thy
+name shall be fifty-four forty!" Thirteen years later, the southern part
+of the territory was admitted to the union as the state of Oregon,
+leaving the northern and eastern sections in the status of a territory.
+
+=California.=--With the growth of the northwestern empire, dedicated by
+nature to freedom, the planting interests might have been content, had
+fortune not wrested from them the fair country of California. Upon this
+huge territory they had set their hearts. The mild climate and fertile
+soil seemed well suited to slavery and the planters expected to extend
+their sway to the entire domain. California was a state of more than
+155,000 square miles--about seventy times the size of the state of
+Delaware. It could readily be divided into five or six large states, if
+that became necessary to preserve the Southern balance of power.
+
+_Early American Relations with California._--Time and tide, it seems,
+were not on the side of the planters. Already Americans of a far
+different type were invading the Pacific slope. Long before Polk ever
+dreamed of California, the Yankee with his cargo of notions had been
+around the Horn. Daring skippers had sailed out of New England harbors
+with a variety of goods, bent their course around South America to
+California, on to China and around the world, trading as they went and
+leaving pots, pans, woolen cloth, guns, boots, shoes, salt fish, naval
+stores, and rum in their wake. "Home from Californy!" rang the cry in
+many a New England port as a good captain let go his anchor on his
+return from the long trading voyage in the Pacific.
+
+[Illustration: THE OVERLAND TRAILS]
+
+_The Overland Trails._--Not to be outdone by the mariners of the deep,
+western scouts searched for overland routes to the Pacific. Zebulon
+Pike, explorer and pathfinder, by his expedition into the Southwest
+during Jefferson's administration, had discovered the resources of New
+Spain and had shown his countrymen how easy it was to reach Santa Fé
+from the upper waters of the Arkansas River. Not long afterward, traders
+laid open the route, making Franklin, Missouri, and later Fort
+Leavenworth the starting point. Along the trail, once surveyed, poured
+caravans heavily guarded by armed men against marauding Indians. Sand
+storms often wiped out all signs of the route; hunger and thirst did
+many a band of wagoners to death; but the lure of the game and the
+profits at the end kept the business thriving. Huge stocks of cottons,
+glass, hardware, and ammunition were drawn almost across the continent
+to be exchanged at Santa Fé for furs, Indian blankets, silver, and
+mules; and many a fortune was made out of the traffic.
+
+_Americans in California._--Why stop at Santa Fé? The question did not
+long remain unanswered. In 1829, Ewing Young broke the path to Los
+Angeles. Thirteen years later Frémont made the first of his celebrated
+expeditions across plain, desert, and mountain, arousing the interest of
+the entire country in the Far West. In the wake of the pathfinders went
+adventurers, settlers, and artisans. By 1847, more than one-fifth of the
+inhabitants in the little post of two thousand on San Francisco Bay were
+from the United States. The Mexican War, therefore, was not the
+beginning but the end of the American conquest of California--a conquest
+initiated by Americans who went to till the soil, to trade, or to follow
+some mechanical pursuit.
+
+_The Discovery of Gold._--As if to clinch the hold on California already
+secured by the friends of free soil, there came in 1848 the sudden
+discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in the Sacramento Valley. When this
+exciting news reached the East, a mighty rush began to California, over
+the trails, across the Isthmus of Panama, and around Cape Horn. Before
+two years had passed, it is estimated that a hundred thousand people, in
+search of fortunes, had arrived in California--mechanics, teachers,
+doctors, lawyers, farmers, miners, and laborers from the four corners of
+the earth.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+SAN FRANCISCO IN 1849]
+
+_California a Free State._--With this increase in population there
+naturally resulted the usual demand for admission to the union. Instead
+of waiting for authority from Washington, the Californians held a
+convention in 1849 and framed their constitution. With impatience, the
+delegates brushed aside the plea that "the balance of power between the
+North and South" required the admission of their state as a slave
+commonwealth. Without a dissenting voice, they voted in favor of freedom
+and boldly made their request for inclusion among the United States.
+President Taylor, though a Southern man, advised Congress to admit the
+applicant. Robert Toombs of Georgia vowed to God that he preferred
+secession. Henry Clay, the great compromiser, came to the rescue and in
+1850 California was admitted as a free state.
+
+=Utah.=--On the long road to California, in the midst of forbidding and
+barren wastes, a religious sect, the Mormons, had planted a colony
+destined to a stormy career. Founded in 1830 under the leadership of
+Joseph Smith of New York, the sect had suffered from many cruel buffets
+of fortune. From Ohio they had migrated into Missouri where they were
+set upon and beaten. Some of them were murdered by indignant neighbors.
+Harried out of Missouri, they went into Illinois only to see their
+director and prophet, Smith, first imprisoned by the authorities and
+then shot by a mob. Having raised up a cloud of enemies on account of
+both their religious faith and their practice of allowing a man to have
+more than one wife, they fell in heartily with the suggestion of a new
+leader, Brigham Young, that they go into the Far West beyond the plains
+of Kansas--into the forlorn desert where the wicked would cease from
+troubling and the weary could be at rest, as they read in the Bible. In
+1847, Young, with a company of picked men, searched far and wide until
+he found a suitable spot overlooking the Salt Lake Valley. Returning to
+Illinois, he gathered up his followers, now numbering several thousand,
+and in one mighty wagon caravan they all went to their distant haven.
+
+_Brigham Young and His Economic System._--In Brigham Young the Mormons
+had a leader of remarkable power who gave direction to the redemption of
+the arid soil, the management of property, and the upbuilding of
+industry. He promised them to make the desert blossom as the rose, and
+verily he did it. He firmly shaped the enterprise of the colony along
+co-operative lines, holding down the speculator and profiteer with one
+hand and giving encouragement to the industrious poor with the other.
+With the shrewdness befitting a good business man, he knew how to draw
+the line between public and private interest. Land was given outright to
+each family, but great care was exercised in the distribution so that
+none should have great advantage over another. The purchase of supplies
+and the sale of produce were carried on through a coöperative store, the
+profits of which went to the common good. Encountering for the first
+time in the history of the Anglo-Saxon race the problem of aridity, the
+Mormons surmounted the most perplexing obstacles with astounding skill.
+They built irrigation works by coöperative labor and granted water
+rights to all families on equitable terms.
+
+_The Growth of Industries._--Though farming long remained the major
+interest of the colony, the Mormons, eager to be self-supporting in
+every possible way, bent their efforts also to manufacturing and later
+to mining. Their missionaries, who hunted in the highways and byways of
+Europe for converts, never failed to stress the economic advantages of
+the sect. "We want," proclaimed President Young to all the earth, "a
+company of woolen manufacturers to come with machinery and take the wool
+from the sheep and convert it into the best clothes. We want a company
+of potters; we need them; the clay is ready and the dishes wanted.... We
+want some men to start a furnace forthwith; the iron, coal, and molders
+are waiting.... We have a printing press and any one who can take good
+printing and writing paper to the Valley will be a blessing to
+themselves and the church." Roads and bridges were built; millions were
+spent in experiments in agriculture and manufacturing; missionaries at a
+huge cost were maintained in the East and in Europe; an army was kept
+for defense against the Indians; and colonies were planted in the
+outlying regions. A historian of Deseret, as the colony was called by
+the Mormons, estimated in 1895 that by the labor of their hands the
+people had produced nearly half a billion dollars in wealth since the
+coming of the vanguard.
+
+_Polygamy Forbidden._--The hope of the Mormons that they might forever
+remain undisturbed by outsiders was soon dashed to earth, for hundreds
+of farmers and artisans belonging to other religious sects came to
+settle among them. In 1850 the colony was so populous and prosperous
+that it was organized into a territory of the United States and brought
+under the supervision of the federal government. Protests against
+polygamy were raised in the colony and at the seat of authority three
+thousand miles away at Washington. The new Republican party in 1856
+proclaimed it "the right and duty of Congress to prohibit in the
+Territories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery." In
+due time the Mormons had to give up their marriage practices which were
+condemned by the common opinion of all western civilization; but they
+kept their religious faith. Monuments to their early enterprise are seen
+in the Temple and the Tabernacle, the irrigation works, and the great
+wealth of the Church.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF WESTERN DEVELOPMENT AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+While the statesmen of the old generation were solving the problems of
+their age, hunters, pioneers, and home seekers were preparing new
+problems beyond the Alleghanies. The West was rising in population and
+wealth. Between 1783 and 1829, eleven states were added to the original
+thirteen. All but two were in the West. Two of them were in the
+Louisiana territory beyond the Mississippi. Here the process of
+colonization was repeated. Hardy frontier people cut down the forests,
+built log cabins, laid out farms, and cut roads through the wilderness.
+They began a new civilization just as the immigrants to Virginia or
+Massachusetts had done two centuries earlier.
+
+Like the seaboard colonists before them, they too cherished the spirit
+of independence and power. They had not gone far upon their course
+before they resented the monopoly of the presidency by the East. In 1829
+they actually sent one of their own cherished leaders, Andrew Jackson,
+to the White House. Again in 1840, in 1844, in 1848, and in 1860, the
+Mississippi Valley could boast that one of its sons had been chosen for
+the seat of power at Washington. Its democratic temper evoked a cordial
+response in the towns of the East where the old aristocracy had been put
+aside and artisans had been given the ballot.
+
+For three decades the West occupied the interest of the nation. Under
+Jackson's leadership, it destroyed the second United States Bank. When
+he smote nullification in South Carolina, it gave him cordial support.
+It approved his policy of parceling out government offices among party
+workers--"the spoils system" in all its fullness. On only one point did
+it really dissent. The West heartily favored internal improvements, the
+appropriation of federal funds for highways, canals, and railways.
+Jackson had misgivings on this question and awakened sharp criticism by
+vetoing a road improvement bill.
+
+From their point of vantage on the frontier, the pioneers pressed on
+westward. They pushed into Texas, created a state, declared their
+independence, demanded a place in the union, and precipitated a war with
+Mexico. They crossed the trackless plain and desert, laying out trails
+to Santa Fé, to Oregon, and to California. They were upon the scene when
+the Mexican War brought California under the Stars and Stripes. They had
+laid out their farms in the Willamette Valley when the slogan
+"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" forced a settlement of the Oregon boundary.
+California and Oregon were already in the union when there arose the
+Great Civil War testing whether this nation or any nation so conceived
+and so dedicated could long endure.
+
+
+=References=
+
+G.P. Brown, _Westward Expansion_ (American Nation Series).
+
+K. Coman, _Economic Beginnings of the Far West_ (2 vols.).
+
+F. Parkman, _California and the Oregon Trail_.
+
+R.S. Ripley, _The War with Mexico_.
+
+W.C. Rives, _The United States and Mexico, 1821-48_ (2 vols.).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Give some of the special features in the history of Missouri,
+Arkansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota.
+
+2. Contrast the climate and soil of the Middle West and the Far West.
+
+3. How did Mexico at first encourage American immigration?
+
+4. What produced the revolution in Texas? Who led in it?
+
+5. Narrate some of the leading events in the struggle over annexation to
+the United States.
+
+6. What action by President Polk precipitated war?
+
+7. Give the details of the peace settlement with Mexico.
+
+8. What is meant by the "joint occupation" of Oregon?
+
+9. How was the Oregon boundary dispute finally settled?
+
+10. Compare the American "invasion" of California with the migration
+into Texas.
+
+11. Explain how California became a free state.
+
+12. Describe the early economic policy of the Mormons.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Independence of Texas.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the
+United States_, Vol. VI, pp. 251-270. Woodrow Wilson, _History of the
+American People_, Vol. IV, pp. 102-126.
+
+=The Annexation of Texas.=--McMaster, Vol. VII. The passages on
+annexation are scattered through this volume and it is an exercise in
+ingenuity to make a connected story of them. Source materials in Hart,
+_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 637-655; Elson,
+_History of the United States_, pp. 516-521, 526-527.
+
+=The War with Mexico.=--Elson, pp. 526-538.
+
+=The Oregon Boundary Dispute.=--Schafer, _History of the Pacific
+Northwest_ (rev. ed.), pp. 88-104; 173-185.
+
+=The Migration to Oregon.=--Schafer, pp. 105-172. Coman, _Economic
+Beginnings of the Far West_, Vol. II, pp. 113-166.
+
+=The Santa Fé Trail.=--Coman, _Economic Beginnings_, Vol. II, pp. 75-93.
+
+=The Conquest of California.=--Coman, Vol. II, pp. 297-319.
+
+=Gold in California.=--McMaster, Vol. VII, pp. 585-614.
+
+=The Mormon Migration.=--Coman, Vol. II, pp. 167-206.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Frémont, Generals Scott and Taylor, Sam
+Houston, and David Crockett.
+
+=The Romance of Western Exploration.=--J.G. Neihardt, _The Splendid
+Wayfaring_. J.G. Neihardt, _The Song of Hugh Glass_.
+
+
+
+
+PART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM
+
+
+If Jefferson could have lived to see the Stars and Stripes planted on
+the Pacific Coast, the broad empire of Texas added to the planting
+states, and the valley of the Willamette waving with wheat sown by
+farmers from New England, he would have been more than fortified in his
+faith that the future of America lay in agriculture. Even a stanch old
+Federalist like Gouverneur Morris or Josiah Quincy would have mournfully
+conceded both the prophecy and the claim. Manifest destiny never seemed
+more clearly written in the stars.
+
+As the farmers from the Northwest and planters from the Southwest poured
+in upon the floor of Congress, the party of Jefferson, christened anew
+by Jackson, grew stronger year by year. Opponents there were, no doubt,
+disgruntled critics and Whigs by conviction; but in 1852 Franklin
+Pierce, the Democratic candidate for President, carried every state in
+the union except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. This
+victory, a triumph under ordinary circumstances, was all the more
+significant in that Pierce was pitted against a hero of the Mexican War,
+General Scott, whom the Whigs, hoping to win by rousing the martial
+ardor of the voters, had nominated. On looking at the election returns,
+the new President calmly assured the planters that "the general
+principle of reduction of duties with a view to revenue may now be
+regarded as the settled policy of the country." With equal confidence,
+he waved aside those agitators who devoted themselves "to the supposed
+interests of the relatively few Africans in the United States." Like a
+watchman in the night he called to the country: "All's well."
+
+The party of Hamilton and Clay lay in the dust.
+
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
+
+As pride often goeth before a fall, so sanguine expectation is sometimes
+the symbol of defeat. Jackson destroyed the bank. Polk signed the tariff
+bill of 1846 striking an effective blow at the principle of protection
+for manufactures. Pierce promised to silence the abolitionists. His
+successor was to approve a drastic step in the direction of free trade.
+Nevertheless all these things left untouched the springs of power that
+were in due time to make America the greatest industrial nation on the
+earth; namely, vast national resources, business enterprise, inventive
+genius, and the free labor supply of Europe. Unseen by the thoughtless,
+unrecorded in the diaries of wiseacres, rarely mentioned in the speeches
+of statesmen, there was swiftly rising such a tide in the affairs of
+America as Jefferson and Hamilton never dreamed of in their little
+philosophies.
+
+=The Inventors.=--Watt and Boulton experimenting with steam in England,
+Whitney combining wood and steel into a cotton gin, Fulton and Fitch
+applying the steam engine to navigation, Stevens and Peter Cooper trying
+out the "iron horse" on "iron highways," Slater building spinning mills
+in Pawtucket, Howe attaching the needle to the flying wheel, Morse
+spanning a continent with the telegraph, Cyrus Field linking the markets
+of the new world with the old along the bed of the Atlantic, McCormick
+breaking the sickle under the reaper--these men and a thousand more were
+destroying in a mighty revolution of industry the world of the
+stagecoach and the tallow candle which Washington and Franklin had
+inherited little changed from the age of Cæsar. Whitney was to make
+cotton king. Watt and Fulton were to make steel and steam masters of the
+world. Agriculture was to fall behind in the race for supremacy.
+
+=Industry Outstrips Planting.=--The story of invention, that tribute to
+the triumph of mind over matter, fascinating as a romance, need not be
+treated in detail here. The effects of invention on social and political
+life, multitudinous and never-ending, form the very warp and woof of
+American progress from the days of Andrew Jackson to the latest hour.
+Neither the great civil conflict--the clash of two systems--nor the
+problems of the modern age can be approached without an understanding of
+the striking phases of industrialism.
+
+[Illustration: A NEW ENGLAND MILL BUILT IN 1793]
+
+First and foremost among them was the uprush of mills managed by
+captains of industry and manned by labor drawn from farms, cities, and
+foreign lands. For every planter who cleared a domain in the Southwest
+and gathered his army of bondmen about him, there rose in the North a
+magician of steam and steel who collected under his roof an army of free
+workers.
+
+In seven league boots this new giant strode ahead of the Southern giant.
+Between 1850 and 1859, to use dollars and cents as the measure of
+progress, the value of domestic manufactures including mines and
+fisheries rose from $1,019,106,616 to $1,900,000,000, an increase of
+eighty-six per cent in ten years. In this same period the total
+production of naval stores, rice, sugar, tobacco, and cotton, the
+staples of the South, went only from $165,000,000, in round figures, to
+$204,000,000. At the halfway point of the century, the capital invested
+in industry, commerce, and cities far exceeded the value of all the farm
+land between the Atlantic and the Pacific; thus the course of economy
+had been reversed in fifty years. Tested by figures of production, King
+Cotton had shriveled by 1860 to a petty prince in comparison, for each
+year the captains of industry turned out goods worth nearly twenty times
+all the bales of cotton picked on Southern plantations. Iron, boots and
+shoes, and leather goods pouring from Northern mills surpassed in value
+the entire cotton output.
+
+=The Agrarian West Turns to Industry.=--Nor was this vast enterprise
+confined to the old Northeast where, as Madison had sagely remarked,
+commerce was early dominant. "Cincinnati," runs an official report in
+1854, "appears to be a great central depot for ready-made clothing and
+its manufacture for the Western markets may be said to be one of the
+great trades of that city." There, wrote another traveler, "I heard the
+crack of the cattle driver's whip and the hum of the factory: the West
+and the East meeting." Louisville and St. Louis were already famous for
+their clothing trades and the manufacture of cotton bagging. Five
+hundred of the two thousand woolen mills in the country in 1860 were in
+the Western states. Of the output of flour and grist mills, which almost
+reached in value the cotton crop of 1850, the Ohio Valley furnished a
+rapidly growing share. The old home of Jacksonian democracy, where
+Federalists had been almost as scarce as monarchists, turned slowly
+backward, as the needle to the pole, toward the principle of protection
+for domestic industry, espoused by Hamilton and defended by Clay.
+
+=The Extension of Canals and Railways.=--As necessary to mechanical
+industry as steel and steam power was the great market, spread over a
+wide and diversified area and knit together by efficient means of
+transportation. This service was supplied to industry by the steamship,
+which began its career on the Hudson in 1807; by the canals, of which
+the Erie opened in 1825 was the most noteworthy; and by the railways,
+which came into practical operation about 1830.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+AN EARLY RAILWAY]
+
+With sure instinct the Eastern manufacturer reached out for the markets
+of the Northwest territory where free farmers were producing annually
+staggering crops of corn, wheat, bacon, and wool. The two great canal
+systems--the Erie connecting New York City with the waterways of the
+Great Lakes and the Pennsylvania chain linking Philadelphia with the
+headwaters of the Ohio--gradually turned the tide of trade from New
+Orleans to the Eastern seaboard. The railways followed the same paths.
+By 1860, New York had rail connections with Chicago and St. Louis, one
+of the routes running through the Hudson and Mohawk valleys and along
+the Great Lakes, the other through Philadelphia and Pennsylvania and
+across the rich wheat fields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Baltimore,
+not to be outdone by her two rivals, reached out over the mountains for
+the Western trade and in 1857 had trains running into St. Louis.
+
+In railway enterprise the South took more interest than in canals, and
+the friends of that section came to its aid. To offset the magnet
+drawing trade away from the Mississippi Valley, lines were built from
+the Gulf to Chicago, the Illinois Central part of the project being a
+monument to the zeal and industry of a Democrat, better known in
+politics than in business, Stephen A. Douglas. The swift movement of
+cotton and tobacco to the North or to seaports was of common concern to
+planters and manufacturers. Accordingly lines were flung down along the
+Southern coast, linking Richmond, Charleston, and Savannah with the
+Northern markets. Other lines struck inland from the coast, giving a
+rail outlet to the sea for Raleigh, Columbia, Atlanta, Chattanooga,
+Nashville, and Montgomery. Nevertheless, in spite of this enterprise,
+the mileage of all the Southern states in 1860 did not equal that of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois combined.
+
+=Banking and Finance.=--Out of commerce and manufactures and the
+construction and operation of railways came such an accumulation of
+capital in the Northern states as merchants of old never imagined. The
+banks of the four industrial states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New
+York, and Pennsylvania in 1860 had funds greater than the banks in all
+the other states combined. New York City had become the money market of
+America, the center to which industrial companies, railway promoters,
+farmers, and planters turned for capital to initiate and carry on their
+operations. The banks of Louisiana, South Carolina, Georgia, and
+Virginia, it is true, had capital far in excess of the banks of the
+Northwest; but still they were relatively small compared with the
+financial institutions of the East.
+
+=The Growth of the Industrial Population.=--A revolution of such
+magnitude in industry, transport, and finance, overturning as it did the
+agrarian civilization of the old Northwest and reaching out to the very
+borders of the country, could not fail to bring in its train
+consequences of a striking character. Some were immediate and obvious.
+Others require a fullness of time not yet reached to reveal their
+complete significance. Outstanding among them was the growth of an
+industrial population, detached from the land, concentrated in cities,
+and, to use Jefferson's phrase, dependent upon "the caprices and
+casualties of trade" for a livelihood. This was a result, as the great
+Virginian had foreseen, which flowed inevitably from public and private
+efforts to stimulate industry as against agriculture.
+
+[Illustration: LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS, IN 1838, AN EARLY INDUSTRIAL
+TOWN]
+
+It was estimated in 1860, on the basis of the census figures, that
+mechanical production gave employment to 1,100,000 men and 285,000
+women, making, if the average number of dependents upon them be
+reckoned, nearly six million people or about one-sixth of the population
+of the country sustained from manufactures. "This," runs the official
+record, "was exclusive of the number engaged in the production of many
+of the raw materials and of the food for manufacturers; in the
+distribution of their products, such as merchants, clerks, draymen,
+mariners, the employees of railroads, expresses, and steamboats; of
+capitalists, various artistic and professional classes, as well as
+carpenters, bricklayers, painters, and the members of other mechanical
+trades not classed as manufactures. It is safe to assume, then, that
+one-third of the whole population is supported, directly, or indirectly,
+by manufacturing industry." Taking, however, the number of persons
+directly supported by manufactures, namely about six millions, reveals
+the astounding fact that the white laboring population, divorced from
+the soil, already exceeded the number of slaves on Southern farms and
+plantations.
+
+_Immigration._--The more carefully the rapid growth of the industrial
+population is examined, the more surprising is the fact that such an
+immense body of free laborers could be found, particularly when it is
+recalled to what desperate straits the colonial leaders were put in
+securing immigrants,--slavery, indentured servitude, and kidnapping
+being the fruits of their necessities. The answer to the enigma is to be
+found partly in European conditions and partly in the cheapness of
+transportation after the opening of the era of steam navigation. Shrewd
+observers of the course of events had long foreseen that a flood of
+cheap labor was bound to come when the way was made easy. Some, among
+them Chief Justice Ellsworth, went so far as to prophesy that white
+labor would in time be so abundant that slavery would disappear as the
+more costly of the two labor systems. The processes of nature were aided
+by the policies of government in England and Germany.
+
+_The Coming of the Irish._--The opposition of the Irish people to the
+English government, ever furious and irrepressible, was increased in the
+mid forties by an almost total failure of the potato crop, the main
+support of the peasants. Catholic in religion, they had been compelled
+to support a Protestant church. Tillers of the soil by necessity, they
+were forced to pay enormous tributes to absentee landlords in England
+whose claim to their estates rested upon the title of conquest and
+confiscation. Intensely loyal to their race, the Irish were subjected in
+all things to the Parliament at London, in which their small minority of
+representatives had little influence save in holding a balance of power
+between the two contending English parties. To the constant political
+irritation, the potato famine added physical distress beyond
+description. In cottages and fields and along the highways the victims
+of starvation lay dead by the hundreds, the relief which charity
+afforded only bringing misery more sharply to the foreground. Those who
+were fortunate enough to secure passage money sought escape to America.
+In 1844 the total immigration into the United States was less than
+eighty thousand; in 1850 it had risen by leaps and bounds to more than
+three hundred thousand. Between 1820 and 1860 the immigrants from the
+United Kingdom numbered 2,750,000, of whom more than one-half were
+Irish. It has been said with a touch of exaggeration that the American
+canals and railways of those days were built by the labor of Irishmen.
+
+_The German Migration._--To political discontent and economic distress,
+such as was responsible for the coming of the Irish, may likewise be
+traced the source of the Germanic migration. The potato blight that fell
+upon Ireland visited the Rhine Valley and Southern Germany at the same
+time with results as pitiful, if less extensive. The calamity inflicted
+by nature was followed shortly by another inflicted by the despotic
+conduct of German kings and princes. In 1848 there had occurred
+throughout Europe a popular uprising in behalf of republics and
+democratic government. For a time it rode on a full tide of success.
+Kings were overthrown, or compelled to promise constitutional
+government, and tyrannical ministers fled from their palaces. Then came
+reaction. Those who had championed the popular cause were imprisoned,
+shot, or driven out of the land. Men of attainments and distinction,
+whose sole offense was opposition to the government of kings and
+princes, sought an asylum in America, carrying with them to the land of
+their adoption the spirit of liberty and democracy. In 1847 over fifty
+thousand Germans came to America, the forerunners of a migration that
+increased, almost steadily, for many years. The record of 1860 showed
+that in the previous twenty years nearly a million and a half had found
+homes in the United States. Far and wide they scattered, from the mills
+and shops of the seacoast towns to the uttermost frontiers of Wisconsin
+and Minnesota.
+
+_The Labor of Women and Children._--If the industries, canals, and
+railways of the country were largely manned by foreign labor, still
+important native sources must not be overlooked; above all, the women
+and children of the New England textile districts. Spinning and weaving,
+by a tradition that runs far beyond the written records of mankind,
+belonged to women. Indeed it was the dexterous housewives, spinsters,
+and boys and girls that laid the foundations of the textile industry in
+America, foundations upon which the mechanical revolution was built. As
+the wheel and loom were taken out of the homes to the factories operated
+by water power or the steam engine, the women and, to use Hamilton's
+phrase, "the children of tender years," followed as a matter of course.
+"The cotton manufacture alone employs six thousand persons in Lowell,"
+wrote a French observer in 1836; "of this number nearly five thousand
+are young women from seventeen to twenty-four years of age, the
+daughters of farmers from the different New England states." It was not
+until after the middle of the century that foreign lands proved to be
+the chief source from which workers were recruited for the factories of
+New England. It was then that the daughters of the Puritans, outdone by
+the competition of foreign labor, both of men and women, left the
+spinning jenny and the loom to other hands.
+
+=The Rise of Organized Labor.=--The changing conditions of American
+life, marked by the spreading mill towns of New England, New York, and
+Pennsylvania and the growth of cities like Buffalo, Cincinnati,
+Louisville, St. Louis, Detroit, and Chicago in the West, naturally
+brought changes, as Jefferson had prophesied, in "manners and morals." A
+few mechanics, smiths, carpenters, and masons, widely scattered through
+farming regions and rural villages, raise no such problems as tens of
+thousands of workers collected in one center in daily intercourse,
+learning the power of coöperation and union.
+
+Even before the coming of steam and machinery, in the "good old days" of
+handicrafts, laborers in many trades--printers, shoemakers, carpenters,
+for example--had begun to draw together in the towns for the advancement
+of their interests in the form of higher wages, shorter days, and
+milder laws. The shoemakers of Philadelphia, organized in 1794,
+conducted a strike in 1799 and held together until indicted seven years
+later for conspiracy. During the twenties and thirties, local labor
+unions sprang up in all industrial centers and they led almost
+immediately to city federations of the several crafts.
+
+As the thousands who were dependent upon their daily labor for their
+livelihood mounted into the millions and industries spread across the
+continent, the local unions of craftsmen grew into national craft
+organizations bound together by the newspapers, the telegraph, and the
+railways. Before 1860 there were several such national trade unions,
+including the plumbers, printers, mule spinners, iron molders, and stone
+cutters. All over the North labor leaders arose--men unknown to general
+history but forceful and resourceful characters who forged links binding
+scattered and individual workers into a common brotherhood. An attempt
+was even made in 1834 to federate all the crafts into a permanent
+national organization; but it perished within three years through lack
+of support. Half a century had to elapse before the American Federation
+of Labor was to accomplish this task.
+
+All the manifestations of the modern labor movement had appeared, in
+germ at least, by the time the mid-century was reached: unions, labor
+leaders, strikes, a labor press, a labor political program, and a labor
+political party. In every great city industrial disputes were a common
+occurrence. The papers recorded about four hundred in two years,
+1853-54, local affairs but forecasting economic struggles in a larger
+field. The labor press seems to have begun with the founding of the
+_Mechanics' Free Press_ in Philadelphia in 1828 and the establishment of
+the New York _Workingman's Advocate_ shortly afterward. These
+semi-political papers were in later years followed by regular trade
+papers designed to weld together and advance the interests of particular
+crafts. Edited by able leaders, these little sheets with limited
+circulation wielded an enormous influence in the ranks of the workers.
+
+=Labor and Politics.=--As for the political program of labor, the main
+planks were clear and specific: the abolition of imprisonment for debt,
+manhood suffrage in states where property qualifications still
+prevailed, free and universal education, laws protecting the safety and
+health of workers in mills and factories, abolition of lotteries, repeal
+of laws requiring militia service, and free land in the West.
+
+Into the labor papers and platforms there sometimes crept a note of
+hostility to the masters of industry, a sign of bitterness that excited
+little alarm while cheap land in the West was open to the discontented.
+The Philadelphia workmen, in issuing a call for a local convention,
+invited "all those of our fellow citizens who live by their own labor
+and none other." In Newcastle county, Delaware, the association of
+working people complained in 1830: "The poor have no laws; the laws are
+made by the rich and of course for the rich." Here and there an
+extremist went to the length of advocating an equal division of wealth
+among all the people--the crudest kind of communism.
+
+Agitation of this character produced in labor circles profound distrust
+of both Whigs and Democrats who talked principally about tariffs and
+banks; it resulted in attempts to found independent labor parties. In
+Philadelphia, Albany, New York City, and New England, labor candidates
+were put up for elections in the early thirties and in a few cases were
+victorious at the polls. "The balance of power has at length got into
+the hands of the working people, where it properly belongs,"
+triumphantly exclaimed the _Mechanics' Free Press_ of Philadelphia in
+1829. But the triumph was illusory. Dissensions appeared in the labor
+ranks. The old party leaders, particularly of Tammany Hall, the
+Democratic party organization in New York City, offered concessions to
+labor in return for votes. Newspapers unsparingly denounced "trade union
+politicians" as "demagogues," "levellers," and "rag, tag, and bobtail";
+and some of them, deeming labor unrest the sour fruit of manhood
+suffrage, suggested disfranchisement as a remedy. Under the influence
+of concessions and attacks the political fever quickly died away, and
+the end of the decade left no remnant of the labor political parties.
+Labor leaders turned to a task which seemed more substantial and
+practical, that of organizing workingmen into craft unions for the
+definite purpose of raising wages and reducing hours.
+
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+=Southern Plans for Union with the West.=--It was long the design of
+Southern statesmen like Calhoun to hold the West and the South together
+in one political party. The theory on which they based their hope was
+simple. Both sections were agricultural--the producers of raw materials
+and the buyers of manufactured goods. The planters were heavy purchasers
+of Western bacon, pork, mules, and grain. The Mississippi River and its
+tributaries formed the natural channel for the transportation of heavy
+produce southward to the plantations and outward to Europe. Therefore,
+ran their political reasoning, the interests of the two sections were
+one. By standing together in favor of low tariffs, they could buy their
+manufactures cheaply in Europe and pay for them in cotton, tobacco, and
+grain. The union of the two sections under Jackson's management seemed
+perfect.
+
+=The East Forms Ties with the West.=--Eastern leaders were not blind to
+the ambitions of Southern statesmen. On the contrary, they also
+recognized the importance of forming strong ties with the agrarian West
+and drawing the produce of the Ohio Valley to Philadelphia and New York.
+The canals and railways were the physical signs of this economic union,
+and the results, commercial and political, were soon evident. By the
+middle of the century, Southern economists noted the change, one of
+them, De Bow, lamenting that "the great cities of the North have
+severally penetrated the interior with artificial lines until they have
+taken from the open and untaxed current of the Mississippi the commerce
+produced on its borders." To this writer it was an astounding thing to
+behold "the number of steamers that now descend the upper Mississippi
+River, loaded to the guards with produce, as far as the mouth of the
+Illinois River and then turn up that stream with their cargoes to be
+shipped to New York _via_ Chicago. The Illinois canal has not only swept
+the whole produce along the line of the Illinois River to the East, but
+it is drawing the products of the upper Mississippi through the same
+channel; thus depriving New Orleans and St. Louis of a rich portion of
+their former trade."
+
+If to any shippers the broad current of the great river sweeping down to
+New Orleans offered easier means of physical communication to the sea
+than the canals and railways, the difference could be overcome by the
+credit which Eastern bankers were able to extend to the grain and
+produce buyers, in the first instance, and through them to the farmers
+on the soil. The acute Southern observer just quoted, De Bow, admitted
+with evident regret, in 1852, that "last autumn, the rich regions of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were flooded with the local bank notes of
+the Eastern States, advanced by the New York houses on produce to be
+shipped by way of the canals in the spring.... These moneyed facilities
+enable the packer, miller, and speculator to hold on to their produce
+until the opening of navigation in the spring and they are no longer
+obliged, as formerly, to hurry off their shipments during the winter by
+the way of New Orleans in order to realize funds by drafts on their
+shipments. The banking facilities at the East are doing as much to draw
+trade from us as the canals and railways which Eastern capital is
+constructing." Thus canals, railways, and financial credit were swiftly
+forging bonds of union between the old home of Jacksonian Democracy in
+the West and the older home of Federalism in the East. The nationalism
+to which Webster paid eloquent tribute became more and more real with
+the passing of time. The self-sufficiency of the pioneer was broken down
+as he began to watch the produce markets of New York and Philadelphia
+where the prices of corn and hogs fixed his earnings for the year.
+
+=The West and Manufactures.=--In addition to the commercial bonds
+between the East and the West there was growing up a common interest in
+manufactures. As skilled white labor increased in the Ohio Valley, the
+industries springing up in the new cities made Western life more like
+that of the industrial East than like that of the planting South.
+Moreover, the Western states produced some important raw materials for
+American factories, which called for protection against foreign
+competition, notably, wool, hemp, and flax. As the South had little or
+no foreign competition in cotton and tobacco, the East could not offer
+protection for her raw materials in exchange for protection for
+industries. With the West, however, it became possible to establish
+reciprocity in tariffs; that is, for example, to trade a high rate on
+wool for a high rate on textiles or iron.
+
+=The South Dependent on the North.=--While East and West were drawing
+together, the distinctions between North and South were becoming more
+marked; the latter, having few industries and producing little save raw
+materials, was being forced into the position of a dependent section. As
+a result of the protective tariff, Southern planters were compelled to
+turn more and more to Northern mills for their cloth, shoes, hats, hoes,
+plows, and machinery. Nearly all the goods which they bought in Europe
+in exchange for their produce came overseas to Northern ports, whence
+transshipments were made by rail and water to Southern points of
+distribution. Their rice, cotton, and tobacco, in as far as they were
+not carried to Europe in British bottoms, were transported by Northern
+masters. In these ways, a large part of the financial operations
+connected with the sale of Southern produce and the purchase of goods in
+exchange passed into the hands of Northern merchants and bankers who,
+naturally, made profits from their transactions. Finally, Southern
+planters who wanted to buy more land and more slaves on credit borrowed
+heavily in the North where huge accumulations made the rates of interest
+lower than the smaller banks of the South could afford.
+
+=The South Reckons the Cost of Economic Dependence.=--As Southern
+dependence upon Northern capital became more and more marked, Southern
+leaders began to chafe at what they regarded as restraints laid upon
+their enterprise. In a word, they came to look upon the planter as a
+tribute-bearer to the manufacturer and financier. "The South,"
+expostulated De Bow, "stands in the attitude of feeding ... a vast
+population of [Northern] merchants, shipowners, capitalists, and others
+who, without claims on her progeny, drink up the life blood of her
+trade.... Where goes the value of our labor but to those who, taking
+advantage of our folly, ship for us, buy for us, sell to us, and, after
+turning our own capital to their profitable account, return laden with
+our money to enjoy their easily earned opulence at home."
+
+Southern statisticians, not satisfied with generalities, attempted to
+figure out how great was this tribute in dollars and cents. They
+estimated that the planters annually lent to Northern merchants the full
+value of their exports, a hundred millions or more, "to be used in the
+manipulation of foreign imports." They calculated that no less than
+forty millions all told had been paid to shipowners in profits. They
+reckoned that, if the South were to work up her own cotton, she would
+realize from seventy to one hundred millions a year that otherwise went
+North. Finally, to cap the climax, they regretted that planters spent
+some fifteen millions a year pleasure-seeking in the alluring cities and
+summer resorts of the North.
+
+=Southern Opposition to Northern Policies.=--Proceeding from these
+premises, Southern leaders drew the logical conclusion that the entire
+program of economic measures demanded in the North was without exception
+adverse to Southern interests and, by a similar chain of reasoning,
+injurious to the corn and wheat producers of the West. Cheap labor
+afforded by free immigration, a protective tariff raising prices of
+manufactures for the tiller of the soil, ship subsidies increasing the
+tonnage of carrying trade in Northern hands, internal improvements
+forging new economic bonds between the East and the West, a national
+banking system giving strict national control over the currency as a
+safeguard against paper inflation--all these devices were regarded in
+the South as contrary to the planting interest. They were constantly
+compared with the restrictive measures by which Great Britain more than
+half a century before had sought to bind American interests.
+
+As oppression justified a war for independence once, statesmen argued,
+so it can justify it again. "It is curious as it is melancholy and
+distressing," came a broad hint from South Carolina, "to see how
+striking is the analogy between the colonial vassalage to which the
+manufacturing states have reduced the planting states and that which
+formerly bound the Anglo-American colonies to the British empire....
+England said to her American colonies: 'You shall not trade with the
+rest of the world for such manufactures as are produced in the mother
+country.' The manufacturing states say to their Southern colonies: 'You
+shall not trade with the rest of the world for such manufactures as we
+produce.'" The conclusion was inexorable: either the South must control
+the national government and its economic measures, or it must declare,
+as America had done four score years before, its political and economic
+independence. As Northern mills multiplied, as railways spun their
+mighty web over the face of the North, and as accumulated capital rose
+into the hundreds of millions, the conviction of the planters and their
+statesmen deepened into desperation.
+
+=Efforts to Start Southern Industries Fail.=--A few of them, seeing the
+predominance of the North, made determined efforts to introduce
+manufactures into the South. To the leaders who were averse to secession
+and nullification this seemed the only remedy for the growing disparity
+in the power of the two sections. Societies for the encouragement of
+mechanical industries were formed, the investment of capital was sought,
+and indeed a few mills were built on Southern soil. The results were
+meager. The natural resources, coal and water power, were abundant; but
+the enterprise for direction and the skilled labor were wanting. The
+stream of European immigration flowed North and West, not South. The
+Irish or German laborer, even if he finally made his home in a city, had
+before him, while in the North, the alternative of a homestead on
+Western land. To him slavery was a strange, if not a repelling,
+institution. He did not take to it kindly nor care to fix his home where
+it flourished. While slavery lasted, the economy of the South was
+inevitably agricultural. While agriculture predominated, leadership with
+equal necessity fell to the planting interest. While the planting
+interest ruled, political opposition to Northern economy was destined to
+grow in strength.
+
+=The Southern Theory of Sectionalism.=--In the opinion of the statesmen
+who frankly represented the planting interest, the industrial system was
+its deadly enemy. Their entire philosophy of American politics was
+summed up in a single paragraph by McDuffie, a spokesman for South
+Carolina: "Owing to the federative character of our government, the
+great geographical extent of our territory, and the diversity of the
+pursuits of our citizens in different parts of the union, it has so
+happened that two great interests have sprung up, standing directly
+opposed to each other. One of these consists of those manufactures which
+the Northern and Middle states are capable of producing but which, owing
+to the high price of labor and the high profits of capital in those
+states, cannot hold competition with foreign manufactures without the
+aid of bounties, directly or indirectly given, either by the general
+government or by the state governments. The other of these interests
+consists of the great agricultural staples of the Southern states which
+can find a market only in foreign countries and which can be
+advantageously sold only in exchange for foreign manufactures which come
+in competition with those of the Northern and Middle states.... These
+interests then stand diametrically and irreconcilably opposed to each
+other. The interest, the pecuniary interest of the Northern
+manufacturer, is directly promoted by every increase of the taxes
+imposed upon Southern commerce; and it is unnecessary to add that the
+interest of the Southern planter is promoted by every diminution of
+taxes imposed upon the productions of their industry. If, under these
+circumstances, the manufacturers were clothed with the power of imposing
+taxes, at their pleasure, upon the foreign imports of the planter, no
+doubt would exist in the mind of any man that it would have all the
+characteristics of an absolute and unqualified despotism." The economic
+soundness of this reasoning, a subject of interesting speculation for
+the economist, is of little concern to the historian. The historical
+point is that this opinion was widely held in the South and with the
+progress of time became the prevailing doctrine of the planting
+statesmen.
+
+Their antagonism was deepened because they also became convinced, on
+what grounds it is not necessary to inquire, that the leaders of the
+industrial interest thus opposed to planting formed a consolidated
+"aristocracy of wealth," bent upon the pursuit and attainment of
+political power at Washington. "By the aid of various associated
+interests," continued McDuffie, "the manufacturing capitalists have
+obtained a complete and permanent control over the legislation of
+Congress on this subject [the tariff].... Men confederated together upon
+selfish and interested principles, whether in pursuit of the offices or
+the bounties of the government, are ever more active and vigilant than
+the great majority who act from disinterested and patriotic impulses.
+Have we not witnessed it on this floor, sir? Who ever knew the tariff
+men to divide on any question affecting their confederated interests?...
+The watchword is, stick together, right or wrong upon every question
+affecting the common cause. Such, sir, is the concert and vigilance and
+such the combinations by which the manufacturing party, acting upon the
+interests of some and the prejudices of others, have obtained a decided
+and permanent control over public opinion in all the tariff states."
+Thus, as the Southern statesman would have it, the North, in matters
+affecting national policies, was ruled by a "confederated interest"
+which menaced the planting interest. As the former grew in magnitude and
+attached to itself the free farmers of the West through channels of
+trade and credit, it followed as night the day that in time the planters
+would be overshadowed and at length overborne in the struggle of giants.
+Whether the theory was sound or not, Southern statesmen believed it and
+acted upon it.
+
+
+=References=
+
+M. Beard, _Short History of the American Labor Movement_.
+
+E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_.
+
+J.R. Commons, _History of Labour in the United States_ (2 vols.).
+
+E.R. Johnson, _American Railway Transportation_.
+
+C.D. Wright, _Industrial Evolution of the United States_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What signs pointed to a complete Democratic triumph in 1852?
+
+2. What is the explanation of the extraordinary industrial progress of
+America?
+
+3. Compare the planting system with the factory system.
+
+4. In what sections did industry flourish before the Civil War? Why?
+
+5. Show why transportation is so vital to modern industry and
+agriculture.
+
+6. Explain how it was possible to secure so many people to labor in
+American industries.
+
+7. Trace the steps in the rise of organized labor before 1860.
+
+8. What political and economic reforms did labor demand?
+
+9. Why did the East and the South seek closer ties with the West?
+
+10. Describe the economic forces which were drawing the East and the
+West together.
+
+11. In what way was the South economically dependent upon the North?
+
+12 State the national policies generally favored in the North and
+condemned in the South.
+
+13. Show how economic conditions in the South were unfavorable to
+industry.
+
+14. Give the Southern explanation of the antagonism between the North
+and the South.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Inventions.=--Assign one to each student. Satisfactory accounts are
+to be found in any good encyclopedia, especially the Britannica.
+
+=River and Lake Commerce.=--Callender, _Economic History of the United
+States_, pp. 313-326.
+
+=Railways and Canals.=--Callender, pp. 326-344; 359-387. Coman,
+_Industrial History of the United States_, pp. 216-225.
+
+=The Growth of Industry, 1815-1840.=--Callender, pp. 459-471. From 1850
+to 1860, Callender, pp. 471-486.
+
+=Early Labor Conditions.=--Callender, pp. 701-718.
+
+=Early Immigration.=--Callender, pp. 719-732.
+
+=Clay's Home Market Theory of the Tariff.=--Callender, pp. 498-503.
+
+=The New England View of the Tariff.=--Callender, pp. 503-514.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+
+James Madison, the father of the federal Constitution, after he had
+watched for many days the battle royal in the national convention of
+1787, exclaimed that the contest was not between the large and the small
+states, but between the commercial North and the planting South. From
+the inauguration of Washington to the election of Lincoln the sectional
+conflict, discerned by this penetrating thinker, exercised a profound
+influence on the course of American politics. It was latent during the
+"era of good feeling" when the Jeffersonian Republicans adopted
+Federalist policies; it flamed up in the contest between the Democrats
+and Whigs. Finally it raged in the angry political quarrel which
+culminated in the Civil War.
+
+
+SLAVERY--NORTH AND SOUTH
+
+=The Decline of Slavery in the North.=--At the time of the adoption of
+the Constitution, slavery was lawful in all the Northern states except
+Massachusetts. There were almost as many bondmen in New York as in
+Georgia. New Jersey had more than Delaware or Tennessee, indeed nearly
+as many as both combined. All told, however, there were only about forty
+thousand in the North as against nearly seven hundred thousand in the
+South. Moreover, most of the Northern slaves were domestic servants, not
+laborers necessary to keep mills going or fields under cultivation.
+
+There was, in the North, a steadily growing moral sentiment against the
+system. Massachusetts abandoned it in 1780. In the same year,
+Pennsylvania provided for gradual emancipation. New Hampshire, where
+there had been only a handful, Connecticut with a few thousand
+domestics, and New Jersey early followed these examples. New York, in
+1799, declared that all children born of slaves after July 4 of that
+year should be free, though held for a term as apprentices; and in 1827
+it swept away the last vestiges of slavery. So with the passing of the
+generation that had framed the Constitution, chattel servitude
+disappeared in the commercial states, leaving behind only such
+discriminations as disfranchisement or high property qualifications on
+colored voters.
+
+=The Growth of Northern Sentiment against Slavery.=--In both sections of
+the country there early existed, among those more or less
+philosophically inclined, a strong opposition to slavery on moral as
+well as economic grounds. In the constitutional convention of 1787,
+Gouverneur Morris had vigorously condemned it and proposed that the
+whole country should bear the cost of abolishing it. About the same time
+a society for promoting the abolition of slavery, under the presidency
+of Benjamin Franklin, laid before Congress a petition that serious
+attention be given to the emancipation of "those unhappy men who alone
+in this land of freedom are degraded into perpetual bondage." When
+Congress, acting on the recommendations of President Jefferson, provided
+for the abolition of the foreign slave trade on January 1, 1808, several
+Northern members joined with Southern members in condemning the system
+as well as the trade. Later, colonization societies were formed to
+encourage the emancipation of slaves and their return to Africa. James
+Madison was president and Henry Clay vice president of such an
+organization.
+
+The anti-slavery sentiment of which these were the signs was
+nevertheless confined to narrow circles and bore no trace of bitterness.
+"We consider slavery your calamity, not your crime," wrote a
+distinguished Boston clergyman to his Southern brethren, "and we will
+share with you the burden of putting an end to it. We will consent that
+the public lands shall be appropriated to this object.... I deprecate
+everything which sows discord and exasperating sectional animosities."
+
+=Uncompromising Abolition.=--In a little while the spirit of generosity
+was gone. Just as Jacksonian Democracy rose to power there appeared a
+new kind of anti-slavery doctrine--the dogmatism of the abolition
+agitator. For mild speculation on the evils of the system was
+substituted an imperious and belligerent demand for instant
+emancipation. If a date must be fixed for its appearance, the year 1831
+may be taken when William Lloyd Garrison founded in Boston his
+anti-slavery paper, _The Liberator_. With singleness of purpose and
+utter contempt for all opposing opinions and arguments, he pursued his
+course of passionate denunciation. He apologized for having ever
+"assented to the popular but pernicious doctrine of gradual abolition."
+He chose for his motto: "Immediate and unconditional emancipation!" He
+promised his readers that he would be "harsh as truth and uncompromising
+as justice"; that he would not "think or speak or write with
+moderation." Then he flung out his defiant call: "I am in earnest--I
+will not equivocate--I will not excuse--I will not retreat a single
+inch--and I will be heard....
+
+     'Such is the vow I take, so help me God.'"
+
+Though Garrison complained that "the apathy of the people is enough to
+make every statue leap from its pedestal," he soon learned how alive the
+masses were to the meaning of his propaganda. Abolition orators were
+stoned in the street and hissed from the platform. Their meeting places
+were often attacked and sometimes burned to the ground. Garrison himself
+was assaulted in the streets of Boston, finding refuge from the angry
+mob behind prison bars. Lovejoy, a publisher in Alton, Illinois, for his
+willingness to give abolition a fair hearing, was brutally murdered; his
+printing press was broken to pieces as a warning to all those who
+disturbed the nation's peace of mind. The South, doubly frightened by a
+slave revolt in 1831 which ended in the murder of a number of men,
+women, and children, closed all discussion of slavery in that section.
+"Now," exclaimed Calhoun, "it is a question which admits of neither
+concession nor compromise."
+
+As the opposition hardened, the anti-slavery agitation gathered in force
+and intensity. Whittier blew his blast from the New England hills:
+
+    "No slave-hunt in our borders--no pirate on our strand;
+     No fetters in the Bay State--no slave upon our land."
+
+Lowell, looking upon the espousal of a great cause as the noblest aim of
+his art, ridiculed and excoriated bondage in the South. Those
+abolitionists, not gifted as speakers or writers, signed petitions
+against slavery and poured them in upon Congress. The flood of them was
+so continuous that the House of Representatives, forgetting its
+traditions, adopted in 1836 a "gag rule" which prevented the reading of
+appeals and consigned them to the waste basket. Not until the Whigs were
+in power nearly ten years later was John Quincy Adams able, after a
+relentless campaign, to carry a motion rescinding the rule.
+
+How deep was the impression made upon the country by this agitation for
+immediate and unconditional emancipation cannot be measured. If the
+popular vote for those candidates who opposed not slavery, but its
+extension to the territories, be taken as a standard, it was slight
+indeed. In 1844, the Free Soil candidate, Birney, polled 62,000 votes
+out of over a million and a half; the Free Soil vote of the next
+campaign went beyond a quarter of a million, but the increase was due to
+the strength of the leader, Martin Van Buren; four years afterward it
+receded to 156,000, affording all the outward signs for the belief that
+the pleas of the abolitionist found no widespread response among the
+people. Yet the agitation undoubtedly ran deeper than the ballot box.
+Young statesmen of the North, in whose hands the destiny of frightful
+years was to lie, found their indifference to slavery broken and their
+consciences stirred by the unending appeal and the tireless reiteration.
+Charles Sumner afterward boasted that he read the _Liberator_ two years
+before Wendell Phillips, the young Boston lawyer who cast aside his
+profession to take up the dangerous cause.
+
+=Early Southern Opposition to Slavery.=--In the South, the sentiment
+against slavery was strong; it led some to believe that it would also
+come to an end there in due time. Washington disliked it and directed in
+his will that his own slaves should be set free after the death of his
+wife. Jefferson, looking into the future, condemned the system by which
+he also lived, saying: "Can the liberties of a nation be thought secure
+when we have removed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of
+the people that their liberties are the gift of God? Are they not to be
+violated but with His wrath? Indeed I tremble for my country when I
+reflect that God is just; that His justice cannot sleep forever." Nor
+did Southern men confine their sentiments to expressions of academic
+opinion. They accepted in 1787 the Ordinance which excluded slavery from
+the Northwest territory forever and also the Missouri Compromise, which
+shut it out of a vast section of the Louisiana territory.
+
+=The Revolution in the Slave System.=--Among the representatives of
+South Carolina and Georgia, however, the anti-slavery views of
+Washington and Jefferson were by no means approved; and the drift of
+Southern economy was decidedly in favor of extending and perpetuating,
+rather than abolishing, the system of chattel servitude. The invention
+of the cotton gin and textile machinery created a market for cotton
+which the planters, with all their skill and energy, could hardly
+supply. Almost every available acre was brought under cotton culture as
+the small farmers were driven steadily from the seaboard into the
+uplands or to the Northwest.
+
+The demand for slaves to till the swiftly expanding fields was enormous.
+The number of bondmen rose from 700,000 in Washington's day to more than
+three millions in 1850. At the same time slavery itself was transformed.
+Instead of the homestead where the same family of masters kept the same
+families of slaves from generation to generation, came the plantation
+system of the Far South and Southwest where masters were ever moving and
+ever extending their holdings of lands and slaves. This in turn reacted
+on the older South where the raising of slaves for the market became a
+regular and highly profitable business.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+JOHN C. CALHOUN]
+
+=Slavery Defended as a Positive Good.=--As the abolition agitation
+increased and the planting system expanded, apologies for slavery became
+fainter and fainter in the South. Then apologies were superseded by
+claims that slavery was a beneficial scheme of labor control. Calhoun,
+in a famous speech in the Senate in 1837, sounded the new note by
+declaring slavery "instead of an evil, a good--a positive good." His
+reasoning was as follows: in every civilized society one portion of the
+community must live on the labor of another; learning, science, and the
+arts are built upon leisure; the African slave, kindly treated by his
+master and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than
+the free laborers of Europe; and under the slave system conflicts
+between capital and labor are avoided. The advantages of slavery in this
+respect, he concluded, "will become more and more manifest, if left
+undisturbed by interference from without, as the country advances in
+wealth and numbers."
+
+=Slave Owners Dominate Politics.=--The new doctrine of Calhoun was
+eagerly seized by the planters as they came more and more to overshadow
+the small farmers of the South and as they beheld the menace of
+abolition growing upon the horizon. It formed, as they viewed matters, a
+moral defense for their labor system--sound, logical, invincible. It
+warranted them in drawing together for the protection of an institution
+so necessary, so inevitable, so beneficent.
+
+Though in 1850 the slave owners were only about three hundred and fifty
+thousand in a national population of nearly twenty million whites, they
+had an influence all out of proportion to their numbers. They were knit
+together by the bonds of a common interest. They had leisure and wealth.
+They could travel and attend conferences and conventions. Throughout the
+South and largely in the North, they had the press, the schools, and the
+pulpits on their side. They formed, as it were, a mighty union for the
+protection and advancement of their common cause. Aided by those
+mechanics and farmers of the North who stuck by Jacksonian Democracy
+through thick and thin, the planters became a power in the federal
+government. "We nominate Presidents," exultantly boasted a Richmond
+newspaper; "the North elects them."
+
+This jubilant Southern claim was conceded by William H. Seward, a
+Republican Senator from New York, in a speech describing the power of
+slavery in the national government. "A party," he said, "is in one sense
+a joint stock association, in which those who contribute most direct the
+action and management of the concern.... The slaveholders, contributing
+in an overwhelming proportion to the strength of the Democratic party,
+necessarily dictate and prescribe its policy." He went on: "The
+slaveholding class has become the governing power in each of the
+slaveholding states and it practically chooses thirty of the sixty-two
+members of the Senate, ninety of the two hundred and thirty-three
+members of the House of Representatives, and one hundred and five of the
+two hundred and ninety-five electors of President and Vice-President of
+the United States." Then he considered the slave power in the Supreme
+Court. "That tribunal," he exclaimed, "consists of a chief justice and
+eight associate justices. Of these, five were called from slave states
+and four from free states. The opinions and bias of each of them were
+carefully considered by the President and Senate when he was appointed.
+Not one of them was found wanting in soundness of politics, according to
+the slaveholder's exposition of the Constitution." Such was the Northern
+view of the planting interest that, from the arena of national politics,
+challenged the whole country in 1860.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF SLAVES IN THE SOUTHERN STATES]
+
+
+SLAVERY IN NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+=National Aspects of Slavery.=--It may be asked why it was that slavery,
+founded originally on state law and subject to state government, was
+drawn into the current of national affairs. The answer is simple. There
+were, in the first place, constitutional reasons. The Congress of the
+United States had to make all needful rules for the government of the
+territories, the District of Columbia, the forts and other property
+under national authority; so it was compelled to determine whether
+slavery should exist in the places subject to its jurisdiction. Upon
+Congress was also conferred the power of admitting new states; whenever
+a territory asked for admission, the issue could be raised as to whether
+slavery should be sanctioned or excluded. Under the Constitution,
+provision was made for the return of runaway slaves; Congress had the
+power to enforce this clause by appropriate legislation. Since the
+control of the post office was vested in the federal government, it had
+to face the problem raised by the transmission of abolition literature
+through the mails. Finally citizens had the right of petition; it
+inheres in all free government and it is expressly guaranteed by the
+first amendment to the Constitution. It was therefore legal for
+abolitionists to present to Congress their petitions, even if they asked
+for something which it had no right to grant. It was thus impossible,
+constitutionally, to draw a cordon around the slavery issue and confine
+the discussion of it to state politics.
+
+There were, in the second place, economic reasons why slavery was
+inevitably drawn into the national sphere. It was the basis of the
+planting system which had direct commercial relations with the North and
+European countries; it was affected by federal laws respecting tariffs,
+bounties, ship subsidies, banking, and kindred matters. The planters of
+the South, almost without exception, looked upon the protective tariff
+as a tribute laid upon them for the benefit of Northern industries. As
+heavy borrowers of money in the North, they were generally in favor of
+"easy money," if not paper currency, as an aid in the repayment of their
+debts. This threw most of them into opposition to the Whig program for a
+United States Bank. All financial aids to American shipping they stoutly
+resisted, preferring to rely upon the cheaper service rendered by
+English shippers. Internal improvements, those substantial ties that
+were binding the West to the East and turning the traffic from New
+Orleans to Philadelphia and New York, they viewed with alarm. Free
+homesteads from the public lands, which tended to overbalance the South
+by building free states, became to them a measure dangerous to their
+interests. Thus national economic policies, which could not by any twist
+or turn be confined to state control, drew the slave system and its
+defenders into the political conflict that centered at Washington.
+
+=Slavery and the Territories--the Missouri Compromise (1820).=--Though
+men continually talked about "taking slavery out of politics," it could
+not be done. By 1818 slavery had become so entrenched and the
+anti-slavery sentiment so strong, that Missouri's quest for admission
+brought both houses of Congress into a deadlock that was broken only by
+compromise. The South, having half the Senators, could prevent the
+admission of Missouri stripped of slavery; and the North, powerful in
+the House of Representatives, could keep Missouri with slavery out of
+the union indefinitely. An adjustment of pretensions was the last
+resort. Maine, separated from the parent state of Massachusetts, was
+brought into the union with freedom and Missouri with bondage. At the
+same time it was agreed that the remainder of the vast Louisiana
+territory north of the parallel of 36° 30' should be, like the old
+Northwest, forever free; while the southern portion was left to slavery.
+In reality this was an immense gain for liberty. The area dedicated to
+free farmers was many times greater than that left to the planters. The
+principle was once more asserted that Congress had full power to prevent
+slavery in the territories.
+
+[Illustration: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE]
+
+=The Territorial Question Reopened by the Wilmot Proviso.=--To the
+Southern leaders, the annexation of Texas and the conquest of Mexico
+meant renewed security to the planting interest against the increasing
+wealth and population of the North. Texas, it was said, could be divided
+into four slave states. The new territories secured by the treaty of
+peace with Mexico contained the promise of at least three more. Thus, as
+each new free soil state knocked for admission into the union, the
+South could demand as the price of its consent a new slave state. No
+wonder Southern statesmen saw, in the annexation of Texas and the
+conquest of Mexico, slavery and King Cotton triumphant--secure for all
+time against adverse legislation. Northern leaders were equally
+convinced that the Southern prophecy was true. Abolitionists and
+moderate opponents of slavery alike were in despair. Texas, they
+lamented, would fasten slavery upon the country forevermore. "No living
+man," cried one, "will see the end of slavery in the United States!"
+
+It so happened, however, that the events which, it was thought, would
+secure slavery let loose a storm against it. A sign appeared first on
+August 6, 1846, only a few months after war was declared on Mexico. On
+that day, David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, introduced into
+the House of Representatives a resolution to the effect that, as an
+express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory
+from the republic of Mexico, slavery should be forever excluded from
+every part of it. "The Wilmot Proviso," as the resolution was popularly
+called, though defeated on that occasion, was a challenge to the South.
+
+The South answered the challenge. Speaking in the House of
+Representatives, Robert Toombs of Georgia boldly declared: "In the
+presence of the living God, if by your legislation you seek to drive us
+from the territories of California and New Mexico ... I am for
+disunion." South Carolina announced that the day for talk had passed and
+the time had come to join her sister states "in resisting the
+application of the Wilmot Proviso at any and all hazards." A conference,
+assembled at Jackson, Mississippi, in the autumn of 1849, called a
+general convention of Southern states to meet at Nashville the following
+summer. The avowed purpose was to arrest "the course of aggression" and,
+if that was not possible, to provide "in the last resort for their
+separate welfare by the formation of a compact and union that will
+afford protection to their liberties and rights." States that had
+spurned South Carolina's plea for nullification in 1832 responded to
+this new appeal with alacrity--an augury of the secession to come.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+HENRY CLAY]
+
+=The Great Debate of 1850.=--The temper of the country was white hot
+when Congress convened in December, 1849. It was a memorable session,
+memorable for the great men who took part in the debates and memorable
+for the grand Compromise of 1850 which it produced. In the Senate sat
+for the last time three heroic figures: Webster from the North, Calhoun
+from the South, and Clay from a border state. For nearly forty years
+these three had been leaders of men. All had grown old and gray in
+service. Calhoun was already broken in health and in a few months was to
+be borne from the political arena forever. Clay and Webster had but two
+more years in their allotted span.
+
+Experience, learning, statecraft--all these things they now marshaled in
+a mighty effort to solve the slavery problem. On January 29, 1850, Clay
+offered to the Senate a compromise granting concessions to both sides;
+and a few days later, in a powerful oration, he made a passionate appeal
+for a union of hearts through mutual sacrifices. Calhoun relentlessly
+demanded the full measure of justice for the South: equal rights in the
+territories bought by common blood; the return of runaway slaves as
+required by the Constitution; the suppression of the abolitionists; and
+the restoration of the balance of power between the North and the South.
+Webster, in his notable "Seventh of March speech," condemned the Wilmot
+Proviso, advocated a strict enforcement of the fugitive slave law,
+denounced the abolitionists, and made a final plea for the Constitution,
+union, and liberty. This was the address which called forth from
+Whittier the poem, "Ichabod," deploring the fall of the mighty one whom
+he thought lost to all sense of faith and honor.
+
+=The Terms of the Compromise of 1850.=--When the debates were closed,
+the results were totaled in a series of compromise measures, all of
+which were signed in September, 1850, by the new President, Millard
+Fillmore, who had taken office two months before on the death of Zachary
+Taylor. By these acts the boundaries of Texas were adjusted and the
+territory of New Mexico created, subject to the provision that all or
+any part of it might be admitted to the union "with or without slavery
+as their constitution may provide at the time of their admission." The
+Territory of Utah was similarly organized with the same conditions as to
+slavery, thus repudiating the Wilmot Proviso without guaranteeing
+slavery to the planters. California was admitted as a free state under a
+constitution in which the people of the territory had themselves
+prohibited slavery.
+
+The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, but slavery
+itself existed as before at the capital of the nation. This concession
+to anti-slavery sentiment was more than offset by a fugitive slave law,
+drastic in spirit and in letter. It placed the enforcement of its terms
+in the hands of federal officers appointed from Washington and so
+removed it from the control of authorities locally elected. It provided
+that masters or their agents, on filing claims in due form, might
+summarily remove their escaped slaves without affording their "alleged
+fugitives" the right of trial by jury, the right to witness, the right
+to offer any testimony in evidence. Finally, to "put teeth" into the
+act, heavy penalties were prescribed for all who obstructed or assisted
+in obstructing the enforcement of the law. Such was the Great Compromise
+of 1850.
+
+[Illustration: AN OLD CARTOON REPRESENTING WEBSTER "STEALING CLAY'S
+THUNDER"]
+
+=The Pro-slavery Triumph in the Election of 1852.=--The results of the
+election of 1852 seemed to show conclusively that the nation was weary
+of slavery agitation and wanted peace. Both parties, Whigs and
+Democrats, endorsed the fugitive slave law and approved the Great
+Compromise. The Democrats, with Franklin Pierce as their leader, swept
+the country against the war hero, General Winfield Scott, on whom the
+Whigs had staked their hopes. Even Webster, broken with grief at his
+failure to receive the nomination, advised his friends to vote for
+Pierce and turned away from politics to meditate upon approaching death.
+The verdict of the voters would seem to indicate that for the time
+everybody, save a handful of disgruntled agitators, looked upon Clay's
+settlement as the last word. "The people, especially the business men of
+the country," says Elson, "were utterly weary of the agitation and they
+gave their suffrages to the party that promised them rest." The Free
+Soil party, condemning slavery as "a sin against God and a crime against
+man," and advocating freedom for the territories, failed to carry a
+single state. In fact it polled fewer votes than it had four years
+earlier--156,000 as against nearly 3,000,000, the combined vote of the
+Whigs and Democrats. It is not surprising, therefore, that President
+Pierce, surrounded in his cabinet by strong Southern sympathizers, could
+promise to put an end to slavery agitation and to crush the abolition
+movement in the bud.
+
+=Anti-slavery Agitation Continued.=--The promise was more difficult to
+fulfill than to utter. In fact, the vigorous execution of one measure
+included in the Compromise--the fugitive slave law--only made matters
+worse. Designed as security for the planters, it proved a powerful
+instrument in their undoing. Slavery five hundred miles away on a
+Louisiana plantation was so remote from the North that only the
+strongest imagination could maintain a constant rage against it. "Slave
+catching," "man hunting" by federal officers on the streets of
+Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Chicago, or Milwaukee and in the hamlets
+and villages of the wide-stretching farm lands of the North was another
+matter. It brought the most odious aspects of slavery home to thousands
+of men and women who would otherwise have been indifferent to the
+system. Law-abiding business men, mechanics, farmers, and women, when
+they saw peaceful negroes, who had resided in their neighborhoods
+perhaps for years, torn away by federal officers and carried back to
+bondage, were transformed into enemies of the law. They helped slaves to
+escape; they snatched them away from officers who had captured them;
+they broke open jails and carried fugitives off to Canada.
+
+Assistance to runaway slaves, always more or less common in the North,
+was by this time organized into a system. Regular routes, known as
+"underground railways," were laid out across the free states into
+Canada, and trusted friends of freedom maintained "underground stations"
+where fugitives were concealed in the daytime between their long night
+journeys. Funds were raised and secret agents sent into the South to
+help negroes to flee. One negro woman, Harriet Tubman, "the Moses of her
+people," with headquarters at Philadelphia, is accredited with nineteen
+invasions into slave territory and the emancipation of three hundred
+negroes. Those who worked at this business were in constant peril. One
+underground operator, Calvin Fairbank, spent nearly twenty years in
+prison for aiding fugitives from justice. Yet perils and prisons did not
+stay those determined men and women who, in obedience to their
+consciences, set themselves to this lawless work.
+
+[Illustration: HARRIET BEECHER STOWE]
+
+From thrilling stories of adventure along the underground railways came
+some of the scenes and themes of the novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe,
+"Uncle Tom's Cabin," published two years after the Compromise of 1850.
+Her stirring tale set forth the worst features of slavery in vivid word
+pictures that caught and held the attention of millions of readers.
+Though the book was unfair to the South and was denounced as a hideous
+distortion of the truth, it was quickly dramatized and played in every
+city and town throughout the North. Topsy, Little Eva, Uncle Tom, the
+fleeing slave, Eliza Harris, and the cruel slave driver, Simon Legree,
+with his baying blood hounds, became living specters in many a home that
+sought to bar the door to the "unpleasant and irritating business of
+slavery agitation."
+
+
+THE DRIFT OF EVENTS TOWARD THE IRREPRESSIBLE CONFLICT
+
+=Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.=--To practical men, after all, the
+"rub-a-dub" agitation of a few abolitionists, an occasional riot over
+fugitive slaves, and the vogue of a popular novel seemed of slight or
+transient importance. They could point with satisfaction to the election
+returns of 1852; but their very security was founded upon shifting
+sands. The magnificent triumph of the pro-slavery Democrats in 1852
+brought a turn in affairs that destroyed the foundations under their
+feet. Emboldened by their own strength and the weakness of their
+opponents, they now dared to repeal the Missouri Compromise. The leader
+in this fateful enterprise was Stephen A. Douglas, Senator from
+Illinois, and the occasion for the deed was the demand for the
+organization of territorial government in the regions west of Iowa and
+Missouri.
+
+Douglas, like Clay and Webster before him, was consumed by a strong
+passion for the presidency, and, to reach his goal, it was necessary to
+win the support of the South. This he undoubtedly sought to do when he
+introduced on January 4, 1854, a bill organizing the Nebraska territory
+on the principle of the Compromise of 1850; namely, that the people in
+the territory might themselves decide whether they would have slavery or
+not. Unwittingly the avalanche was started.
+
+After a stormy debate, in which important amendments were forced on
+Douglas, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill became a law on May 30, 1854. The
+measure created two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and provided that
+they, or territories organized out of them, could come into the union as
+states "with or without slavery as their constitutions may prescribe at
+the time of their admission." Not content with this, the law went on to
+declare the Missouri Compromise null and void as being inconsistent with
+the principle of non-intervention by Congress with slavery in the states
+and territories. Thus by a single blow the very heart of the continent,
+dedicated to freedom by solemn agreement, was thrown open to slavery. A
+desperate struggle between slave owners and the advocates of freedom was
+the outcome in Kansas.
+
+If Douglas fancied that the North would receive the overthrow of the
+Missouri Compromise in the same temper that it greeted Clay's
+settlement, he was rapidly disillusioned. A blast of rage, terrific in
+its fury, swept from Maine to Iowa. Staid old Boston hanged him in
+effigy with an inscription--"Stephen A. Douglas, author of the infamous
+Nebraska bill: the Benedict Arnold of 1854." City after city burned him
+in effigy until, as he himself said, he could travel from the Atlantic
+coast to Chicago in the light of the fires. Thousands of Whigs and
+Free-soil Democrats deserted their parties which had sanctioned or at
+least tolerated the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, declaring that the startling
+measure showed an evident resolve on the part of the planters to rule
+the whole country. A gage of defiance was thrown down to the
+abolitionists. An issue was set even for the moderate and timid who had
+been unmoved by the agitation over slavery in the Far South. That issue
+was whether slavery was to be confined within its existing boundaries or
+be allowed to spread without interference, thereby placing the free
+states in the minority and surrendering the federal government wholly to
+the slave power.
+
+=The Rise of the Republican Party.=--Events of terrible significance,
+swiftly following, drove the country like a ship before a gale straight
+into civil war. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill rent the old parties asunder
+and called into being the Republican party. While that bill was pending
+in Congress, many Northern Whigs and Democrats had come to the
+conclusion that a new party dedicated to freedom in the territories must
+follow the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Several places claim to be
+the original home of the Republican party; but historians generally
+yield it to Wisconsin. At Ripon in that state, a mass meeting of Whigs
+and Democrats assembled in February, 1854, and resolved to form a new
+party if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass. At a second meeting a
+fusion committee representing Whigs, Free Soilers, and Democrats was
+formed and the name Republican--the name of Jefferson's old party--was
+selected. All over the country similar meetings were held and political
+committees were organized.
+
+When the presidential campaign of 1856 began the Republicans entered the
+contest. After a preliminary conference in Pittsburgh in February, they
+held a convention in Philadelphia at which was drawn up a platform
+opposing the extension of slavery to the territories. John C. Frémont,
+the distinguished explorer, was named for the presidency. The results
+of the election were astounding as compared with the Free-soil failure
+of the preceding election. Prominent men like Longfellow, Washington
+Irving, William Cullen Bryant, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and George William
+Curtis went over to the new party and 1,341,264 votes were rolled up for
+"free labor, free speech, free men, free Kansas, and Frémont."
+Nevertheless the victory of the Democrats was decisive. Their candidate,
+James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, was elected by a majority of 174 to 114
+electoral votes.
+
+[Illustration: SLAVE AND FREE SOIL ON EVE OF CIVIL WAR]
+
+=The Dred Scott Decision (1857).=--In his inaugural, Buchanan vaguely
+hinted that in a forthcoming decision the Supreme Court would settle one
+of the vital questions of the day. This was a reference to the Dred
+Scott case then pending. Scott was a slave who had been taken by his
+master into the upper Louisiana territory, where freedom had been
+established by the Missouri Compromise, and then carried back into his
+old state of Missouri. He brought suit for his liberty on the ground
+that his residence in the free territory made him free. This raised the
+question whether the law of Congress prohibiting slavery north of 36°
+30' was authorized by the federal Constitution or not. The Court might
+have avoided answering it by saying that even though Scott was free in
+the territory, he became a slave again in Missouri by virtue of the law
+of that state. The Court, however, faced the issue squarely. It held
+that Scott had not been free anywhere and that, besides, the Missouri
+Compromise violated the Constitution and was null and void.
+
+The decision was a triumph for the South. It meant that Congress after
+all had no power to abolish slavery in the territories. Under the decree
+of the highest court in the land, that could be done only by an
+amendment to the Constitution which required a two-thirds vote in
+Congress and the approval of three-fourths of the states. Such an
+amendment was obviously impossible--the Southern states were too
+numerous; but the Republicans were not daunted. "We know," said Lincoln,
+"the Court that made it has often overruled its own decisions and we
+shall do what we can to have it overrule this." Legislatures of Northern
+states passed resolutions condemning the decision and the Republican
+platform of 1860 characterized the dogma that the Constitution carried
+slavery into the territories as "a dangerous political heresy at
+variance with the explicit provisions of that instrument itself ... with
+legislative and judicial precedent ... revolutionary in tendency and
+subversive of the peace and harmony of the country."
+
+=The Panic of 1857.=--In the midst of the acrimonious dispute over the
+Dred Scott decision, came one of the worst business panics which ever
+afflicted the country. In the spring and summer of 1857, fourteen
+railroad corporations, including the Erie, Michigan Central, and the
+Illinois Central, failed to meet their obligations; banks and insurance
+companies, some of them the largest and strongest institutions in the
+North, closed their doors; stocks and bonds came down in a crash on the
+markets; manufacturing was paralyzed; tens of thousands of working
+people were thrown out of employment; "hunger meetings" of idle men were
+held in the cities and banners bearing the inscription, "We want
+bread," were flung out. In New York, working men threatened to invade
+the Council Chamber to demand "work or bread," and the frightened mayor
+called for the police and soldiers. For this distressing state of
+affairs many remedies were offered; none with more zeal and persistence
+than the proposal for a higher tariff to take the place of the law of
+March, 1857, a Democratic measure making drastic reductions in the rates
+of duty. In the manufacturing districts of the North, the panic was
+ascribed to the "Democratic assault on business." So an old issue was
+again vigorously advanced, preparatory to the next presidential
+campaign.
+
+=The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.=--The following year the interest of the
+whole country was drawn to a series of debates held in Illinois by
+Lincoln and Douglas, both candidates for the United States Senate. In
+the course of his campaign Lincoln had uttered his trenchant saying that
+"a house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government
+cannot endure permanently half slave and half free." At the same time he
+had accused Douglas, Buchanan, and the Supreme Court of acting in
+concert to make slavery national. This daring statement arrested the
+attention of Douglas, who was making his campaign on the doctrine of
+"squatter sovereignty;" that is, the right of the people of each
+territory "to vote slavery up or down." After a few long-distance shots
+at each other, the candidates agreed to meet face to face and discuss
+the issues of the day. Never had such crowds been seen at political
+meetings in Illinois. Farmers deserted their plows, smiths their forges,
+and housewives their baking to hear "Honest Abe" and "the Little Giant."
+
+The results of the series of debates were momentous. Lincoln clearly
+defined his position. The South, he admitted, was entitled under the
+Constitution to a fair, fugitive slave law. He hoped that there might be
+no new slave states; but he did not see how Congress could exclude the
+people of a territory from admission as a state if they saw fit to adopt
+a constitution legalizing the ownership of slaves. He favored the
+gradual abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and the total
+exclusion of it from the territories of the United States by act of
+Congress.
+
+Moreover, he drove Douglas into a hole by asking how he squared
+"squatter sovereignty" with the Dred Scott decision; how, in other
+words, the people of a territory could abolish slavery when the Court
+had declared that Congress, the superior power, could not do it under
+the Constitution? To this baffling question Douglas lamely replied that
+the inhabitants of a territory, by "unfriendly legislation," might make
+property in slaves insecure and thus destroy the institution. This
+answer to Lincoln's query alienated many Southern Democrats who believed
+that the Dred Scott decision settled the question of slavery in the
+territories for all time. Douglas won the election to the Senate; but
+Lincoln, lifted into national fame by the debates, beat him in the
+campaign for President two years later.
+
+=John Brown's Raid.=--To the abolitionists the line of argument pursued
+by Lincoln, including his proposal to leave slavery untouched in the
+states where it existed, was wholly unsatisfactory. One of them, a grim
+and resolute man, inflamed by a hatred for slavery in itself, turned
+from agitation to violence. "These men are all talk; what is needed is
+action--action!" So spoke John Brown of New York. During the sanguinary
+struggle in Kansas he hurried to the frontier, gun and dagger in hand,
+to help drive slave owners from the free soil of the West. There he
+committed deeds of such daring and cruelty that he was outlawed and a
+price put upon his head. Still he kept on the path of "action." Aided by
+funds from Northern friends, he gathered a small band of his followers
+around him, saying to them: "If God be for us, who can be against us?"
+He went into Virginia in the autumn of 1859, hoping, as he explained,
+"to effect a mighty conquest even though it be like the last victory of
+Samson." He seized the government armory at Harper's Ferry, declared
+free the slaves whom he found, and called upon them to take up arms in
+defense of their liberty. His was a hope as forlorn as it was desperate.
+Armed forces came down upon him and, after a hard battle, captured him.
+Tried for treason, Brown was condemned to death. The governor of
+Virginia turned a deaf ear to pleas for clemency based on the ground
+that the prisoner was simply a lunatic. "This is a beautiful country,"
+said the stern old Brown glancing upward to the eternal hills on his way
+to the gallows, as calmly as if he were returning home from a long
+journey. "So perish all such enemies of Virginia. All such enemies of
+the Union. All such foes of the human race," solemnly announced the
+executioner as he fulfilled the judgment of the law.
+
+The raid and its grim ending deeply moved the country. Abolitionists
+looked upon Brown as a martyr and tolled funeral bells on the day of his
+execution. Longfellow wrote in his diary: "This will be a great day in
+our history; the date of a new revolution as much needed as the old
+one." Jefferson Davis saw in the affair "the invasion of a state by a
+murderous gang of abolitionists bent on inciting slaves to murder
+helpless women and children"--a crime for which the leader had met a
+felon's death. Lincoln spoke of the raid as absurd, the deed of an
+enthusiast who had brooded over the oppression of a people until he
+fancied himself commissioned by heaven to liberate them--an attempt
+which ended in "little else than his own execution." To Republican
+leaders as a whole, the event was very embarrassing. They were taunted
+by the Democrats with responsibility for the deed. Douglas declared his
+"firm and deliberate conviction that the Harper's Ferry crime was the
+natural, logical, inevitable result of the doctrines and teachings of
+the Republican party." So persistent were such attacks that the
+Republicans felt called upon in 1860 to denounce Brown's raid "as among
+the gravest of crimes."
+
+=The Democrats Divided.=--When the Democratic convention met at
+Charleston in the spring of 1860, a few months after Brown's execution,
+it soon became clear that there was danger ahead. Between the extreme
+slavery advocates of the Far South and the so-called pro-slavery
+Democrats of the Douglas type, there was a chasm which no appeals to
+party loyalty could bridge. As the spokesman of the West, Douglas knew
+that, while the North was not abolitionist, it was passionately set
+against an extension of slavery into the territories by act of Congress;
+that squatter sovereignty was the mildest kind of compromise acceptable
+to the farmers whose votes would determine the fate of the election.
+Southern leaders would not accept his opinion. Yancey, speaking for
+Alabama, refused to palter with any plan not built on the proposition
+that slavery was in itself right. He taunted the Northern Democrats with
+taking the view that slavery was wrong, but that they could not do
+anything about it. That, he said, was the fatal error--the cause of all
+discord, the source of "Black Republicanism," as well as squatter
+sovereignty. The gauntlet was thus thrown down at the feet of the
+Northern delegates: "You must not apologize for slavery; you must
+declare it right; you must advocate its extension." The challenge, so
+bluntly put, was as bluntly answered. "Gentlemen of the South,"
+responded a delegate from Ohio, "you mistake us. You mistake us. We will
+not do it."
+
+For ten days the Charleston convention wrangled over the platform and
+balloted for the nomination of a candidate. Douglas, though in the lead,
+could not get the two-thirds vote required for victory. For more than
+fifty times the roll of the convention was called without a decision.
+Then in sheer desperation the convention adjourned to meet later at
+Baltimore. When the delegates again assembled, their passions ran as
+high as ever. The division into two irreconcilable factions was
+unchanged. Uncompromising delegates from the South withdrew to Richmond,
+nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for President, and put forth
+a platform asserting the rights of slave owners in the territories and
+the duty of the federal government to protect them. The delegates who
+remained at Baltimore nominated Douglas and endorsed his doctrine of
+squatter sovereignty.
+
+=The Constitutional Union Party.=--While the Democratic party was being
+disrupted, a fragment of the former Whig party, known as the
+Constitutional Unionists, held a convention at Baltimore and selected
+national candidates: John Bell from Tennessee and Edward Everett from
+Massachusetts. A melancholy interest attached to this assembly. It was
+mainly composed of old men whose political views were those of Clay and
+Webster, cherished leaders now dead and gone. In their platform they
+sought to exorcise the evil spirit of partisanship by inviting their
+fellow citizens to "support the Constitution of the country, the union
+of the states, and the enforcement of the laws." The party that
+campaigned on this grand sentiment only drew laughter from the Democrats
+and derision from the Republicans and polled less than one-fourth the
+votes.
+
+=The Republican Convention.=--With the Whigs definitely forced into a
+separate group, the Republican convention at Chicago was fated to be
+sectional in character, although five slave states did send delegates.
+As the Democrats were split, the party that had led a forlorn hope four
+years before was on the high road to success at last. New and powerful
+recruits were found. The advocates of a high protective tariff and the
+friends of free homesteads for farmers and workingmen mingled with
+enthusiastic foes of slavery. While still firm in their opposition to
+slavery in the territories, the Republicans went on record in favor of a
+homestead law granting free lands to settlers and approved customs
+duties designed "to encourage the development of the industrial
+interests of the whole country." The platform was greeted with cheers
+which, according to the stenographic report of the convention, became
+loud and prolonged as the protective tariff and homestead planks were
+read.
+
+Having skillfully drawn a platform to unite the North in opposition to
+slavery and the planting system, the Republicans were also adroit in
+their selection of a candidate. The tariff plank might carry
+Pennsylvania, a Democratic state; but Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were
+equally essential to success at the polls. The southern counties of
+these states were filled with settlers from Virginia, North Carolina,
+and Kentucky who, even if they had no love for slavery, were no friends
+of abolition. Moreover, remembering the old fight on the United States
+Bank in Andrew Jackson's day, they were suspicious of men from the East.
+Accordingly, they did not favor the candidacy of Seward, the leading
+Republican statesman and "favorite son" of New York.
+
+After much trading and discussing, the convention came to the conclusion
+that Abraham Lincoln of Illinois was the most "available" candidate. He
+was of Southern origin, born in Kentucky in 1809, a fact that told
+heavily in the campaign in the Ohio Valley. He was a man of the soil,
+the son of poor frontier parents, a pioneer who in his youth had labored
+in the fields and forests, celebrated far and wide as "honest Abe, the
+rail-splitter." It was well-known that he disliked slavery, but was no
+abolitionist. He had come dangerously near to Seward's radicalism in his
+"house-divided-against-itself" speech but he had never committed himself
+to the reckless doctrine that there was a "higher law" than the
+Constitution. Slavery in the South he tolerated as a bitter fact;
+slavery in the territories he opposed with all his strength. Of his
+sincerity there could be no doubt. He was a speaker and writer of
+singular power, commanding, by the use of simple and homely language,
+the hearts and minds of those who heard him speak or read his printed
+words. He had gone far enough in his opposition to slavery; but not too
+far. He was the man of the hour! Amid lusty cheers from ten thousand
+throats, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency by the Republicans. In
+the ensuing election, he carried all the free states except New Jersey.
+
+
+=References=
+
+P.E. Chadwick, _Causes of the Civil War_ (American Nation Series).
+
+W.E. Dodd, _Statesmen of the Old South_.
+
+E. Engle, _Southern Sidelights_ (Sympathetic account of the Old South).
+
+A.B. Hart, _Slavery and Abolition_ (American Nation Series).
+
+J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vols. I and II.
+
+T.C. Smith, _Parties and Slavery_ (American Nation Series).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Trace the decline of slavery in the North and explain it.
+
+2. Describe the character of early opposition to slavery.
+
+3. What was the effect of abolition agitation?
+
+4. Why did anti-slavery sentiment practically disappear in the South?
+
+5. On what grounds did Calhoun defend slavery?
+
+6. Explain how slave owners became powerful in politics.
+
+7. Why was it impossible to keep the slavery issue out of national
+politics?
+
+8. Give the leading steps in the long controversy over slavery in the
+territories.
+
+9. State the terms of the Compromise of 1850 and explain its failure.
+
+10. What were the startling events between 1850 and 1860?
+
+11. Account for the rise of the Republican party. What party had used
+the title before?
+
+12. How did the Dred Scott decision become a political issue?
+
+13. What were some of the points brought out in the Lincoln-Douglas
+debates?
+
+14. Describe the party division in 1860.
+
+15. What were the main planks in the Republican platform?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Extension of Cotton Planting.=--Callender, _Economic History of the
+United States_, pp. 760-768.
+
+=Abolition Agitation.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the United
+States_, Vol. VI, pp. 271-298.
+
+=Calhoun's Defense of Slavery.=--Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating
+American History_, pp. 247-257.
+
+=The Compromise of 1850.=--Clay's speech in Harding, _Select Orations_,
+pp. 267-289. The compromise laws in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book
+of American History_, pp. 383-394. Narrative account in McMaster, Vol.
+VIII, pp. 1-55; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 540-548.
+
+=The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.=--McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp.
+192-231; Elson, pp. 571-582.
+
+=The Dred Scott Case.=--McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp. 278-282. Compare the
+opinion of Taney and the dissent of Curtis in Macdonald, _Documentary
+Source Book_, pp. 405-420; Elson, pp. 595-598.
+
+=The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.=--Analysis of original speeches in
+Harding, _Select Orations_ pp. 309-341; Elson, pp. 598-604.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Calhoun, Clay, Webster, A.H. Stephens, Douglas,
+W.H. Seward, William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Harriet
+Beecher Stowe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION
+
+
+"The irrepressible conflict is about to be visited upon us through the
+Black Republican nominee and his fanatical, diabolical Republican
+party," ran an appeal to the voters of South Carolina during the
+campaign of 1860. If that calamity comes to pass, responded the governor
+of the state, the answer should be a declaration of independence. In a
+few days the suspense was over. The news of Lincoln's election came
+speeding along the wires. Prepared for the event, the editor of the
+Charleston _Mercury_ unfurled the flag of his state amid wild cheers
+from an excited throng in the streets. Then he seized his pen and wrote:
+"The tea has been thrown overboard; the revolution of 1860 has been
+initiated." The issue was submitted to the voters in the choice of
+delegates to a state convention called to cast off the yoke of the
+Constitution.
+
+
+THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY
+
+=Secession.=--As arranged, the convention of South Carolina assembled in
+December and without a dissenting voice passed the ordinance of
+secession withdrawing from the union. Bells were rung exultantly, the
+roar of cannon carried the news to outlying counties, fireworks lighted
+up the heavens, and champagne flowed. The crisis so long expected had
+come at last; even the conservatives who had prayed that they might
+escape the dreadful crash greeted it with a sigh of relief.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1861
+
+The border states (in purple) remained loyal.]
+
+South Carolina now sent forth an appeal to her sister states--states
+that had in Jackson's day repudiated nullification as leading to "the
+dissolution of the union." The answer that came this time was in a
+different vein. A month had hardly elapsed before five other
+states--Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana--had
+withdrawn from the union. In February, Texas followed. Virginia,
+hesitating until the bombardment of Fort Sumter forced a conclusion,
+seceded in April; but fifty-five of the one hundred and forty-three
+delegates dissented, foreshadowing the creation of the new state of West
+Virginia which Congress admitted to the union in 1863. In May, North
+Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee announced their independence.
+
+=Secession and the Theories of the Union.=--In severing their relations
+with the union, the seceding states denied every point in the Northern
+theory of the Constitution. That theory, as every one knows, was
+carefully formulated by Webster and elaborated by Lincoln. According to
+it, the union was older than the states; it was created before the
+Declaration of Independence for the purpose of common defense. The
+Articles of Confederation did but strengthen this national bond and the
+Constitution sealed it forever. The federal government was not a
+creature of state governments. It was erected by the people and derived
+its powers directly from them. "It is," said Webster, "the people's
+Constitution, the people's government; made for the people; made by the
+people; and answerable to the people. The people of the United States
+have declared that this Constitution shall be the supreme law." When a
+state questions the lawfulness of any act of the federal government, it
+cannot nullify that act or withdraw from the union; it must abide by the
+decision of the Supreme Court of the United States. The union of these
+states is perpetual, ran Lincoln's simple argument in the first
+inaugural; the federal Constitution has no provision for its own
+termination; it can be destroyed only by some action not provided for in
+the instrument itself; even if it is a compact among all the states the
+consent of all must be necessary to its dissolution; therefore no state
+can lawfully get out of the union and acts of violence against the
+United States are insurrectionary or revolutionary. This was the system
+which he believed himself bound to defend by his oath of office
+"registered in heaven."
+
+All this reasoning Southern statesmen utterly rejected. In their opinion
+the thirteen original states won their independence as separate and
+sovereign powers. The treaty of peace with Great Britain named them all
+and acknowledged them "to be free, sovereign, and independent states."
+The Articles of Confederation very explicitly declared that "each state
+retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence." The Constitution
+was a "league of nations" formed by an alliance of thirteen separate
+powers, each one of which ratified the instrument before it was put into
+effect. They voluntarily entered the union under the Constitution and
+voluntarily they could leave it. Such was the constitutional doctrine of
+Hayne, Calhoun, and Jefferson Davis. In seceding, the Southern states
+had only to follow legal methods, and the transaction would be correct
+in every particular. So conventions were summoned, elections were held,
+and "sovereign assemblies of the people" set aside the Constitution in
+the same manner as it had been ratified nearly four score years before.
+Thus, said the Southern people, the moral judgment was fulfilled and the
+letter of the law carried into effect.
+
+[Illustration: JEFFERSON DAVIS]
+
+=The Formation of the Confederacy.=--Acting on the call of Mississippi,
+a congress of delegates from the seceded states met at Montgomery,
+Alabama, and on February 8, 1861, adopted a temporary plan of union. It
+selected, as provisional president, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, a
+man well fitted by experience and moderation for leadership, a graduate
+of West Point, who had rendered distinguished service on the field of
+battle in the Mexican War, in public office, and as a member of
+Congress.
+
+In March, a permanent constitution of the Confederate states was
+drafted. It was quickly ratified by the states; elections were held in
+November; and the government under it went into effect the next year.
+This new constitution, in form, was very much like the famous instrument
+drafted at Philadelphia in 1787. It provided for a President, a Senate,
+and a House of Representatives along almost identical lines. In the
+powers conferred upon them, however, there were striking differences.
+The right to appropriate money for internal improvements was expressly
+withheld; bounties were not to be granted from the treasury nor import
+duties so laid as to promote or foster any branch of industry. The
+dignity of the state, if any might be bold enough to question it, was
+safeguarded in the opening line by the declaration that each acted "in
+its sovereign and independent character" in forming the Southern union.
+
+=Financing the Confederacy.=--No government ever set out upon its career
+with more perplexing tasks in front of it. The North had a monetary
+system; the South had to create one. The North had a scheme of taxation
+that produced large revenues from numerous sources; the South had to
+formulate and carry out a financial plan. Like the North, the
+Confederacy expected to secure a large revenue from customs duties,
+easily collected and little felt among the masses. To this expectation
+the blockade of Southern ports inaugurated by Lincoln in April, 1861,
+soon put an end. Following the precedent set by Congress under the
+Articles of Confederation, the Southern Congress resorted to a direct
+property tax apportioned among the states, only to meet the failure that
+might have been foretold.
+
+The Confederacy also sold bonds, the first issue bringing into the
+treasury nearly all the specie available in the Southern banks. This
+specie by unhappy management was early sent abroad to pay for supplies,
+sapping the foundations of a sound currency system. Large amounts of
+bonds were sold overseas, commanding at first better terms than those
+of the North in the markets of London, Paris, and Amsterdam, many an
+English lord and statesman buying with enthusiasm and confidence to
+lament within a few years the proofs of his folly. The difficulties of
+bringing through the blockade any supplies purchased by foreign bond
+issues, however, nullified the effect of foreign credit and forced the
+Confederacy back upon the device of paper money. In all approximately
+one billion dollars streamed from the printing presses, to fall in value
+at an alarming rate, reaching in January, 1863, the astounding figure of
+fifty dollars in paper money for one in gold. Every known device was
+used to prevent its depreciation, without result. To the issues of the
+Confederate Congress were added untold millions poured out by the states
+and by private banks.
+
+=Human and Material Resources.=--When we measure strength for strength
+in those signs of power--men, money, and supplies--it is difficult to
+see how the South was able to embark on secession and war with such
+confidence in the outcome. In the Confederacy at the final reckoning
+there were eleven states in all, to be pitted against twenty-two; a
+population of nine millions, nearly one-half servile, to be pitted
+against twenty-two millions; a land without great industries to produce
+war supplies and without vast capital to furnish war finances, joined in
+battle with a nation already industrial and fortified by property worth
+eleven billion dollars. Even after the Confederate Congress authorized
+conscription in 1862, Southern man power, measured in numbers, was
+wholly inadequate to uphold the independence which had been declared.
+How, therefore, could the Confederacy hope to sustain itself against
+such a combination of men, money, and materials as the North could
+marshal?
+
+=Southern Expectations.=--The answer to this question is to be found in
+the ideas that prevailed among Southern leaders. First of all, they
+hoped, in vain, to carry the Confederacy up to the Ohio River; and, with
+the aid of Missouri, to gain possession of the Mississippi Valley, the
+granary of the nation. In the second place, they reckoned upon a large
+and continuous trade with Great Britain--the exchange of cotton for war
+materials. They likewise expected to receive recognition and open aid
+from European powers that looked with satisfaction upon the breakup of
+the great American republic. In the third place, they believed that
+their control over several staples so essential to Northern industry
+would enable them to bring on an industrial crisis in the manufacturing
+states. "I firmly believe," wrote Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, in
+1860, "that the slave-holding South is now the controlling power of the
+world; that no other power would face us in hostility. Cotton, rice,
+tobacco, and naval stores command the world; and we have the sense to
+know it and are sufficiently Teutonic to carry it out successfully. The
+North without us would be a motherless calf, bleating about, and die of
+mange and starvation."
+
+There were other grounds for confidence. Having seized all of the
+federal military and naval supplies in the South, and having left the
+national government weak in armed power during their possession of the
+presidency, Southern leaders looked to a swift war, if it came at all,
+to put the finishing stroke to independence. "The greasy mechanics of
+the North," it was repeatedly said, "will not fight." As to disparity in
+numbers they drew historic parallels. "Our fathers, a mere handful,
+overcame the enormous power of Great Britain," a saying of ex-President
+Tyler, ran current to reassure the doubtful. Finally, and this point
+cannot be too strongly emphasized, the South expected to see a weakened
+and divided North. It knew that the abolitionists and the Southern
+sympathizers were ready to let the Confederate states go in peace; that
+Lincoln represented only a little more than one-third the voters of the
+country; and that the vote for Douglas, Bell, and Breckinridge meant a
+decided opposition to the Republicans and their policies.
+
+=Efforts at Compromise.=--Republican leaders, on reviewing the same
+facts, were themselves uncertain as to the outcome of a civil war and
+made many efforts to avoid a crisis. Thurlow Weed, an Albany journalist
+and politician who had done much to carry New York for Lincoln, proposed
+a plan for extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific.
+Jefferson Davis, warning his followers that a war if it came would be
+terrible, was prepared to accept the offer; but Lincoln, remembering his
+campaign pledges, stood firm as a rock against it. His followers in
+Congress took the same position with regard to a similar settlement
+suggested by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky.
+
+Though unwilling to surrender his solemn promises respecting slavery in
+the territories, Lincoln was prepared to give to Southern leaders a
+strong guarantee that his administration would not interfere directly or
+indirectly with slavery in the states. Anxious to reassure the South on
+this point, the Republicans in Congress proposed to write into the
+Constitution a declaration that no amendment should ever be made
+authorizing the abolition of or interference with slavery in any state.
+The resolution, duly passed, was sent forth on March 4, 1861, with the
+approval of Lincoln; it was actually ratified by three states before the
+storm of war destroyed it. By the irony of fate the thirteenth amendment
+was to abolish, not guarantee, slavery.
+
+
+THE WAR MEASURES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
+
+=Raising the Armies.=--The crisis at Fort Sumter, on April 12-14, 1861,
+forced the President and Congress to turn from negotiations to problems
+of warfare. Little did they realize the magnitude of the task before
+them. Lincoln's first call for volunteers, issued on April 15, 1861,
+limited the number to 75,000, put their term of service at three months,
+and prescribed their duty as the enforcement of the law against
+combinations too powerful to be overcome by ordinary judicial process.
+Disillusionment swiftly followed. The terrible defeat of the Federals at
+Bull Run on July 21 revealed the serious character of the task before
+them; and by a series of measures Congress put the entire man power of
+the country at the President's command. Under these acts, he issued new
+calls for volunteers. Early in August, 1862, he ordered a draft of
+militiamen numbering 300,000 for nine months' service. The results were
+disappointing--ominous--for only about 87,000 soldiers were added to the
+army. Something more drastic was clearly necessary.
+
+In March, 1863, Lincoln signed the inevitable draft law; it enrolled in
+the national forces liable to military duty all able-bodied male
+citizens and persons of foreign birth who had declared their intention
+to become citizens, between the ages of twenty and forty-five
+years--with exemptions on grounds of physical weakness and dependency.
+From the men enrolled were drawn by lot those destined to active
+service. Unhappily the measure struck a mortal blow at the principle of
+universal liability by excusing any person who found a substitute for
+himself or paid into the war office a sum, not exceeding three hundred
+dollars, to be fixed by general order. This provision, so crass and so
+obviously favoring the well-to-do, sowed seeds of bitterness which
+sprang up a hundredfold in the North.
+
+[Illustration: THE DRAFT RIOTS IN NEW YORK CITY]
+
+The beginning of the drawings under the draft act in New York City, on
+Monday, July 13, 1863, was the signal for four days of rioting. In the
+course of this uprising, draft headquarters were destroyed; the office
+of the _Tribune_ was gutted; negroes were seized, hanged, and shot; the
+homes of obnoxious Unionists were burned down; the residence of the
+mayor of the city was attacked; and regular battles were fought in the
+streets between the rioters and the police. Business stopped and a large
+part of the city passed absolutely into the control of the mob. Not
+until late the following Wednesday did enough troops arrive to restore
+order and enable the residents of the city to resume their daily
+activities. At least a thousand people had been killed or wounded and
+more than a million dollars' worth of damage done to property. The draft
+temporarily interrupted by this outbreak was then resumed and carried
+out without further trouble.
+
+The results of the draft were in the end distinctly disappointing to the
+government. The exemptions were numerous and the number who preferred
+and were able to pay $300 rather than serve exceeded all expectations.
+Volunteering, it is true, was stimulated, but even that resource could
+hardly keep the thinning ranks of the army filled. With reluctance
+Congress struck out the $300 exemption clause, but still favored the
+well-to-do by allowing them to hire substitutes if they could find them.
+With all this power in its hands the administration was able by January,
+1865, to construct a union army that outnumbered the Confederates two to
+one.
+
+=War Finance.=--In the financial sphere the North faced immense
+difficulties. The surplus in the treasury had been dissipated by 1861
+and the tariff of 1857 had failed to produce an income sufficient to
+meet the ordinary expenses of the government. Confronted by military and
+naval expenditures of appalling magnitude, rising from $35,000,000 in
+the first year of the war to $1,153,000,000 in the last year, the
+administration had to tap every available source of income. The duties
+on imports were increased, not once but many times, producing huge
+revenues and also meeting the most extravagant demands of the
+manufacturers for protection. Direct taxes were imposed on the states
+according to their respective populations, but the returns were
+meager--all out of proportion to the irritation involved. Stamp taxes
+and taxes on luxuries, occupations, and the earnings of corporations
+were laid with a weight that, in ordinary times, would have drawn forth
+opposition of ominous strength. The whole gamut of taxation was run.
+Even a tax on incomes and gains by the year, the first in the history of
+the federal government, was included in the long list.
+
+Revenues were supplemented by bond issues, mounting in size and interest
+rate, until in October, at the end of the war, the debt stood at
+$2,208,000,000. The total cost of the war was many times the money value
+of all the slaves in the Southern states. To the debt must be added
+nearly half a billion dollars in "greenbacks"--paper money issued by
+Congress in desperation as bond sales and revenues from taxes failed to
+meet the rising expenditures. This currency issued at par on
+questionable warrant from the Constitution, like all such paper, quickly
+began to decline until in the worst fortunes of 1864 one dollar in gold
+was worth nearly three in greenbacks.
+
+=The Blockade of Southern Ports.=--Four days after his call for
+volunteers, April 19, 1861, President Lincoln issued a proclamation
+blockading the ports of the Southern Confederacy. Later the blockade was
+extended to Virginia and North Carolina, as they withdrew from the
+union. Vessels attempting to enter or leave these ports, if they
+disregarded the warnings of a blockading ship, were to be captured and
+brought as prizes to the nearest convenient port. To make the order
+effective, immediate steps were taken to increase the naval forces,
+depleted by neglect, until the entire coast line was patrolled with such
+a number of ships that it was a rare captain who ventured to run the
+gantlet. The collision between the _Merrimac_ and the _Monitor_ in
+March, 1862, sealed the fate of the Confederacy. The exploits of the
+union navy are recorded in the falling export of cotton: $202,000,000 in
+1860; $42,000,000 in 1861; and $4,000,000 in 1862.
+
+The deadly effect of this paralysis of trade upon Southern war power may
+be readily imagined. Foreign loans, payable in cotton, could be
+negotiated but not paid off. Supplies could be purchased on credit but
+not brought through the drag net. With extreme difficulty could the
+Confederate government secure even paper for the issue of money and
+bonds. Publishers, in despair at the loss of supplies, were finally
+driven to the use of brown wrapping paper and wall paper. As the
+railways and rolling stock wore out, it became impossible to renew them
+from England or France. Unable to export their cotton, planters on the
+seaboard burned it in what were called "fires of patriotism." In their
+lurid light the fatal weakness of Southern economy stood revealed.
+
+[Illustration: A BLOCKADE RUNNER]
+
+=Diplomacy.=--The war had not advanced far before the federal government
+became involved in many perplexing problems of diplomacy in Europe. The
+Confederacy early turned to England and France for financial aid and for
+recognition as an independent power. Davis believed that the industrial
+crisis created by the cotton blockade would in time literally compel
+Europe to intervene in order to get this essential staple. The crisis
+came as he expected but not the result. Thousands of English textile
+workers were thrown out of employment; and yet, while on the point of
+starvation, they adopted resolutions favoring the North instead of
+petitioning their government to aid the South by breaking the blockade.
+
+With the ruling classes it was far otherwise. Napoleon III, the Emperor
+of the French, was eager to help in disrupting the American republic; if
+he could have won England's support, he would have carried out his
+designs. As it turned out he found plenty of sympathy across the Channel
+but not open and official coöperation. According to the eminent
+historian, Rhodes, "four-fifths of the British House of Lords and most
+members of the House of Commons were favorable to the Confederacy and
+anxious for its triumph." Late in 1862 the British ministers, thus
+sustained, were on the point of recognizing the independence of the
+Confederacy. Had it not been for their extreme caution, for the constant
+and harassing criticism by English friends of the United States--like
+John Bright--and for the victories of Vicksburg and Gettysburg, both
+England and France would have doubtless declared the Confederacy to be
+one of the independent powers of the earth.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN BRIGHT]
+
+While stopping short of recognizing its independence, England and France
+took several steps that were in favor of the South. In proclaiming
+neutrality, they early accepted the Confederates as "belligerents" and
+accorded them the rights of people at war--a measure which aroused anger
+in the North at first but was later admitted to be sound. Otherwise
+Confederates taken in battle would have been regarded as "rebels" or
+"traitors" to be hanged or shot. Napoleon III proposed to Russia in 1861
+a coalition of powers against the North, only to meet a firm refusal.
+The next year he suggested intervention to Great Britain, encountering
+this time a conditional rejection of his plans. In 1863, not daunted by
+rebuffs, he offered his services to Lincoln as a mediator, receiving in
+reply a polite letter declining his proposal and a sharp resolution from
+Congress suggesting that he attend to his own affairs.
+
+In both England and France the governments pursued a policy of
+friendliness to the Confederate agents. The British ministry, with
+indifference if not connivance, permitted rams and ships to be built in
+British docks and allowed them to escape to play havoc under the
+Confederate flag with American commerce. One of them, the _Alabama_,
+built in Liverpool by a British firm and paid for by bonds sold in
+England, ran an extraordinary career and threatened to break the
+blockade. The course followed by the British government, against the
+protests of the American minister in London, was later regretted. By an
+award of a tribunal of arbitration at Geneva in 1872, Great Britain was
+required to pay the huge sum of $15,500,000 to cover the damages wrought
+by Confederate cruisers fitted out in England.
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM H. SEWARD]
+
+In all fairness it should be said that the conduct of the North
+contributed to the irritation between the two countries. Seward, the
+Secretary of State, was vindictive in dealing with Great Britain; had it
+not been for the moderation of Lincoln, he would have pursued a course
+verging in the direction of open war. The New York and Boston papers
+were severe in their attacks on England. Words were, on one occasion at
+least, accompanied by an act savoring of open hostility. In November,
+1861, Captain Wilkes, commanding a union vessel, overhauled the British
+steamer _Trent_, and carried off by force two Confederate agents, Mason
+and Slidell, sent by President Davis to represent the Confederacy at
+London and Paris respectively. This was a clear violation of the right
+of merchant vessels to be immune from search and impressment; and, in
+answer to the demand of Great Britain for the release of the two men,
+the United States conceded that it was in the wrong. It surrendered the
+two Confederate agents to a British vessel for safe conduct abroad, and
+made appropriate apologies.
+
+=Emancipation.=--Among the extreme war measures adopted by the Northern
+government must be counted the emancipation of the slaves in the states
+in arms against the union. This step was early and repeatedly suggested
+to Lincoln by the abolitionists; but was steadily put aside. He knew
+that the abolitionists were a mere handful, that emancipation might
+drive the border states into secession, and that the Northern soldiers
+had enlisted to save the union. Moreover, he had before him a solemn
+resolution passed by Congress on July 22, 1861, declaring the sole
+purpose of the war to be the salvation of the union and disavowing any
+intention of interfering with slavery.
+
+The federal government, though pledged to the preservation of slavery,
+soon found itself beaten back upon its course and out upon a new tack.
+Before a year had elapsed, namely on April 10, 1862, Congress resolved
+that financial aid should be given to any state that might adopt gradual
+emancipation. Six days later it abolished slavery in the District of
+Columbia. Two short months elapsed. On June 19, 1862, it swept slavery
+forever from the territories of the United States. Chief Justice Taney
+still lived, the Dred Scott decision stood as written in the book, but
+the Constitution had been re-read in the light of the Civil War. The
+drift of public sentiment in the North was being revealed.
+
+While these measures were pending in Congress, Lincoln was slowly making
+up his mind. By July of that year he had come to his great decision.
+Near the end of that month he read to his cabinet the draft of a
+proclamation of emancipation; but he laid it aside until a military
+achievement would make it something more than an idle gesture. In
+September, the severe check administered to Lee at Antietam seemed to
+offer the golden opportunity. On the 22d, the immortal document was
+given to the world announcing that, unless the states in arms returned
+to the union by January 1, 1863, the fatal blow at their "peculiar
+institution" would be delivered. Southern leaders treated it with slight
+regard, and so on the date set the promise was fulfilled. The
+proclamation was issued as a war measure, adopted by the President as
+commander-in-chief of the armed forces, on grounds of military
+necessity. It did not abolish slavery. It simply emancipated slaves in
+places then in arms against federal authority. Everywhere else slavery,
+as far as the Proclamation was concerned, remained lawful.
+
+[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN]
+
+To seal forever the proclamation of emancipation, and to extend freedom
+to the whole country, Congress, in January, 1865, on the urgent
+recommendation of Lincoln, transmitted to the states the thirteenth
+amendment, abolishing slavery throughout the United States. By the end
+of 1865 the amendment was ratified. The house was not divided against
+itself; it did not fall; it was all free.
+
+=The Restraint of Civil Liberty.=--As in all great wars, particularly
+those in the nature of a civil strife, it was found necessary to use
+strong measures to sustain opinion favorable to the administration's
+military policies and to frustrate the designs of those who sought to
+hamper its action. Within two weeks of his first call for volunteers,
+Lincoln empowered General Scott to suspend the writ of _habeas corpus_
+along the line of march between Philadelphia and Washington and thus to
+arrest and hold without interference from civil courts any one whom he
+deemed a menace to the union. At a later date the area thus ruled by
+military officers was extended by executive proclamation. By an act of
+March 3, 1863, Congress, desiring to lay all doubts about the
+President's power, authorized him to suspend the writ throughout the
+United States or in any part thereof. It also freed military officers
+from the necessity of surrendering to civil courts persons arrested
+under their orders, or even making answers to writs issued from such
+courts. In the autumn of that year the President, acting under the terms
+of this law, declared this ancient and honorable instrument for the
+protection of civil liberties, the _habeas corpus_, suspended throughout
+the length and breadth of the land. The power of the government was also
+strengthened by an act defining and punishing certain conspiracies,
+passed on July 31, 1861--a measure which imposed heavy penalties on
+those who by force, intimidation, or threat interfered with the
+execution of the law.
+
+Thus doubly armed, the military authorities spared no one suspected of
+active sympathy with the Southern cause. Editors were arrested and
+imprisoned, their papers suspended, and their newsboys locked up. Those
+who organized "peace meetings" soon found themselves in the toils of the
+law. Members of the Maryland legislature, the mayor of Baltimore, and
+local editors suspected of entertaining secessionist opinions, were
+imprisoned on military orders although charged with no offense, and were
+denied the privilege of examination before a civil magistrate. A Vermont
+farmer, too outspoken in his criticism of the government, found himself
+behind the bars until the government, in its good pleasure, saw fit to
+release him. These measures were not confined to the theater of war nor
+to the border states where the spirit of secession was strong enough to
+endanger the cause of union. They were applied all through the Northern
+states up to the very boundaries of Canada. Zeal for the national cause,
+too often supplemented by a zeal for persecution, spread terror among
+those who wavered in the singleness of their devotion to the union.
+
+These drastic operations on the part of military authorities, so foreign
+to the normal course of civilized life, naturally aroused intense and
+bitter hostility. Meetings of protest were held throughout the country.
+Thirty-six members of the House of Representatives sought to put on
+record their condemnation of the suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act,
+only to meet a firm denial by the supporters of the act. Chief Justice
+Taney, before whom the case of a man arrested under the President's
+military authority was brought, emphatically declared, in a long and
+learned opinion bristling with historical examples, that the President
+had no power to suspend the writ of _habeas corpus_. In Congress and
+out, Democrats, abolitionists, and champions of civil liberty denounced
+Lincoln and his Cabinet in unsparing terms. Vallandigham, a Democratic
+leader of Ohio, afterward banished to the South for his opposition to
+the war, constantly applied to Lincoln the epithet of "Cæsar." Wendell
+Phillips saw in him "a more unlimited despot than the world knows this
+side of China."
+
+Sensitive to such stinging thrusts and no friend of wanton persecution,
+Lincoln attempted to mitigate the rigors of the law by paroling many
+political prisoners. The general policy, however, he defended in homely
+language, very different in tone and meaning from the involved reasoning
+of the lawyers. "Must I shoot a simple-minded soldier boy who deserts,
+while I must not touch a hair of the wily agitator who induces him to
+desert?" he asked in a quiet way of some spokesmen for those who
+protested against arresting people for "talking against the war." This
+summed up his philosophy. He was engaged in a war to save the union, and
+all measures necessary and proper to accomplish that purpose were
+warranted by the Constitution which he had sworn to uphold.
+
+=Military Strategy--North and South.=--The broad outlines of military
+strategy followed by the commanders of the opposing forces are clear
+even to the layman who cannot be expected to master the details of a
+campaign or, for that matter, the maneuvers of a single great battle.
+The problem for the South was one of defense mainly, though even for
+defense swift and paralyzing strokes at the North were later deemed
+imperative measures. The problem of the North was, to put it baldly, one
+of invasion and conquest. Southern territory had to be invaded and
+Southern armies beaten on their own ground or worn down to exhaustion
+there.
+
+In the execution of this undertaking, geography, as usual, played a
+significant part in the disposition of forces. The Appalachian ranges,
+stretching through the Confederacy to Northern Alabama, divided the
+campaigns into Eastern and Western enterprises. Both were of signal
+importance. Victory in the East promised the capture of the Confederate
+capital of Richmond, a stroke of moral worth, hardly to be
+overestimated. Victory in the West meant severing the Confederacy and
+opening the Mississippi Valley down to the Gulf.
+
+As it turned out, the Western forces accomplished their task first,
+vindicating the military powers of union soldiers and shaking the
+confidence of opposing commanders. In February, 1862, Grant captured
+Fort Donelson on the Tennessee River, rallied wavering unionists in
+Kentucky, forced the evacuation of Nashville, and opened the way for two
+hundred miles into the Confederacy. At Shiloh, Murfreesboro, Vicksburg,
+Chickamauga, Chattanooga, desperate fighting followed and, in spite of
+varying fortunes, it resulted in the discomfiture and retirement of
+Confederate forces to the Southeast into Georgia. By the middle of 1863,
+the Mississippi Valley was open to the Gulf, the initiative taken out of
+the hands of Southern commanders in the West, and the way prepared for
+Sherman's final stroke--the march from Atlanta to the sea--a maneuver
+executed with needless severity in the autumn of 1864.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL ULYSSES S. GRANT]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE]
+
+For the almost unbroken succession of achievements in the West by
+Generals Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Hooker against Albert Sidney
+Johnston, Bragg, Pemberton, and Hood, the union forces in the East
+offered at first an almost equally unbroken series of misfortunes and
+disasters. Far from capturing Richmond, they had been thrown on the
+defensive. General after general--McClellan, Pope, Burnside, Hooker, and
+Meade--was tried and found wanting. None of them could administer a
+crushing defeat to the Confederate troops and more than once the union
+soldiers were beaten in a fair battle. They did succeed, however, in
+delivering a severe check to advancing Confederates under General Robert
+E. Lee, first at Antietam in September, 1862, and then at Gettysburg in
+July, 1863--checks reckoned as victories though in each instance the
+Confederates escaped without demoralization. Not until the beginning of
+the next year, when General Grant, supplied with almost unlimited men
+and munitions, began his irresistible hammering at Lee's army, did the
+final phase of the war commence. The pitiless drive told at last.
+General Lee, on April 9, 1865, seeing the futility of further conflict,
+surrendered an army still capable of hard fighting, at Appomattox, not
+far from the capital of the Confederacy.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+THE FEDERAL MILITARY HOSPITAL AT GETTYSBURG]
+
+=Abraham Lincoln.=--The services of Lincoln to the cause of union defy
+description. A judicial scrutiny of the war reveals his thought and
+planning in every part of the varied activity that finally crowned
+Northern arms with victory. Is it in the field of diplomacy? Does
+Seward, the Secretary of State, propose harsh and caustic measures
+likely to draw England's sword into the scale? Lincoln counsels
+moderation. He takes the irritating message and with his own hand
+strikes out, erases, tones down, and interlines, exchanging for words
+that sting and burn the language of prudence and caution. Is it a matter
+of compromise with the South, so often proposed by men on both sides
+sick of carnage? Lincoln is always ready to listen and turns away only
+when he is invited to surrender principles essential to the safety of
+the union. Is it high strategy of war, a question of the general best
+fitted to win Gettysburg--Hooker, Sedgwick, or Meade? Lincoln goes in
+person to the War Department in the dead of night to take counsel with
+his Secretary and to make the fateful choice.
+
+Is it a complaint from a citizen, deprived, as he believes, of his civil
+liberties unjustly or in violation of the Constitution? Lincoln is ready
+to hear it and anxious to afford relief, if warrant can be found for it.
+Is a mother begging for the life of a son sentenced to be shot as a
+deserter? Lincoln hears her petition, and grants it even against the
+protests made by his generals in the name of military discipline. Do
+politicians sow dissensions in the army and among civilians? Lincoln
+grandly waves aside their petty personalities and invites them to think
+of the greater cause. Is it a question of securing votes to ratify the
+thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery? Lincoln thinks it not beneath
+his dignity to traffic and huckster with politicians over the trifling
+jobs asked in return by the members who hold out against him. Does a New
+York newspaper call him an ignorant Western boor? Lincoln's reply is a
+letter to a mother who has given her all--her sons on the field of
+battle--and an address at Gettysburg, both of which will live as long as
+the tongue in which they were written. These are tributes not only to
+his mastery of the English language but also to his mastery of all those
+sentiments of sweetness and strength which are the finest flowers of
+culture.
+
+Throughout the entire span of service, however, Lincoln was beset by
+merciless critics. The fiery apostles of abolition accused him of
+cowardice when he delayed the bold stroke at slavery. Anti-war Democrats
+lashed out at every step he took. Even in his own party he found no
+peace. Charles Sumner complained: "Our President is now dictator,
+_imperator_--whichever you like; but how vain to have the power of a
+god and not to use it godlike." Leaders among the Republicans sought to
+put him aside in 1864 and place Chase in his chair. "I hope we may never
+have a worse man," was Lincoln's quiet answer.
+
+Wide were the dissensions in the North during that year and the
+Republicans, while selecting Lincoln as their candidate again, cast off
+their old name and chose the simple title of the "Union party."
+Moreover, they selected a Southern man, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, to
+be associated with him as candidate for Vice President. This combination
+the Northern Democrats boldly confronted with a platform declaring that
+"after four years of failure to restore the union by the experiment of
+war, during which, under the pretence of military necessity or war power
+higher than the Constitution, the Constitution itself has been
+disregarded in every part and public liberty and private right alike
+trodden down ... justice, humanity, liberty, and public welfare demand
+that immediate efforts be made for a cessation of hostilities, to the
+end that peace may be restored on the basis of the federal union of the
+states." It is true that the Democratic candidate, General McClellan,
+sought to break the yoke imposed upon him by the platform, saying that
+he could not look his old comrades in the face and pronounce their
+efforts vain; but the party call to the nation to repudiate Lincoln and
+his works had gone forth. The response came, giving Lincoln 2,200,000
+votes against 1,800,000 for his opponent. The bitter things said about
+him during the campaign, he forgot and forgave. When in April, 1865, he
+was struck down by the assassin's hand, he above all others in
+Washington was planning measures of moderation and healing.
+
+
+THE RESULTS OF THE CIVIL WAR
+
+There is a strong and natural tendency on the part of writers to stress
+the dramatic and heroic aspects of war; but the long judgment of history
+requires us to include all other significant phases as well. Like every
+great armed conflict, the Civil War outran the purposes of those who
+took part in it. Waged over the nature of the union, it made a
+revolution in the union, changing public policies and constitutional
+principles and giving a new direction to agriculture and industry.
+
+=The Supremacy of the Union.=--First and foremost, the war settled for
+all time the long dispute as to the nature of the federal system. The
+doctrine of state sovereignty was laid to rest. Men might still speak of
+the rights of states and think of their commonwealths with affection,
+but nullification and secession were destroyed. The nation was supreme.
+
+=The Destruction of the Slave Power.=--Next to the vindication of
+national supremacy was the destruction of the planting aristocracy of
+the South--that great power which had furnished leadership of undoubted
+ability and had so long contested with the industrial and commercial
+interests of the North. The first paralyzing blow at the planters was
+struck by the abolition of slavery. The second and third came with the
+fourteenth (1868) and fifteenth (1870) amendments, giving the ballot to
+freedmen and excluding from public office the Confederate
+leaders--driving from the work of reconstruction the finest talents of
+the South. As if to add bitterness to gall and wormwood, the fourteenth
+amendment forbade the United States or any state to pay any debts
+incurred in aid of the Confederacy or in the emancipation of the
+slaves--plunging into utter bankruptcy the Southern financiers who had
+stripped their section of capital to support their cause. So the
+Southern planters found themselves excluded from public office and ruled
+over by their former bondmen under the tutelage of Republican leaders.
+Their labor system was wrecked and their money and bonds were as
+worthless as waste paper. The South was subject to the North. That which
+neither the Federalists nor the Whigs had been able to accomplish in the
+realm of statecraft was accomplished on the field of battle.
+
+=The Triumph of Industry.=--The wreck of the planting system was
+accompanied by a mighty upswing of Northern industry which made the old
+Whigs of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania stare in wonderment. The demands
+of the federal government for manufactured goods at unrestricted prices
+gave a stimulus to business which more than replaced the lost markets of
+the South. Between 1860 and 1870 the number of manufacturing
+establishments increased 79.6 per cent as against 14.2 for the previous
+decade; while the number of persons employed almost doubled. There was
+no doubt about the future of American industry.
+
+=The Victory for the Protective Tariff.=--Moreover, it was henceforth to
+be well protected. For many years before the war the friends of
+protection had been on the defensive. The tariff act of 1857 imposed
+duties so low as to presage a tariff for revenue only. The war changed
+all that. The extraordinary military expenditures, requiring heavy taxes
+on all sources, justified tariffs so high that a follower of Clay or
+Webster might well have gasped with astonishment. After the war was over
+the debt remained and both interest and principal had to be paid.
+Protective arguments based on economic reasoning were supported by a
+plain necessity for revenue which admitted no dispute.
+
+=A Liberal Immigration Policy.=--Linked with industry was the labor
+supply. The problem of manning industries became a pressing matter, and
+Republican leaders grappled with it. In the platform of the Union party
+adopted in 1864 it was declared "that foreign immigration, which in the
+past has added so much to the wealth, the development of resources, and
+the increase of power to this nation--the asylum of the oppressed of all
+nations--should be fostered and encouraged by a liberal and just
+policy." In that very year Congress, recognizing the importance of the
+problem, passed a measure of high significance, creating a bureau of
+immigration, and authorizing a modified form of indentured labor, by
+making it legal for immigrants to pledge their wages in advance to pay
+their passage over. Though the bill was soon repealed, the practice
+authorized by it was long continued. The cheapness of the passage
+shortened the term of service; but the principle was older than the
+days of William Penn.
+
+=The Homestead Act of 1862.=--In the immigration measure guaranteeing a
+continuous and adequate labor supply, the manufacturers saw an offset to
+the Homestead Act of 1862 granting free lands to settlers. The Homestead
+law they had resisted in a long and bitter congressional battle.
+Naturally, they had not taken kindly to a scheme which lured men away
+from the factories or enabled them to make unlimited demands for higher
+wages as the price of remaining. Southern planters likewise had feared
+free homesteads for the very good reason that they only promised to add
+to the overbalancing power of the North.
+
+In spite of the opposition, supporters of a liberal land policy made
+steady gains. Free-soil Democrats,--Jacksonian farmers and
+mechanics,--labor reformers, and political leaders, like Stephen A.
+Douglas of Illinois and Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, kept up the
+agitation in season and out. More than once were they able to force a
+homestead bill through the House of Representatives only to have it
+blocked in the Senate where Southern interests were intrenched. Then,
+after the Senate was won over, a Democratic President, James Buchanan,
+vetoed the bill. Still the issue lived. The Republicans, strong among
+the farmers of the Northwest, favored it from the beginning and pressed
+it upon the attention of the country. Finally the manufacturers yielded;
+they received their compensation in the contract labor law. In 1862
+Congress provided for the free distribution of land in 160-acre lots
+among men and women of strong arms and willing hearts ready to build
+their serried lines of homesteads to the Rockies and beyond.
+
+=Internal Improvements.=--If farmers and manufacturers were early
+divided on the matter of free homesteads, the same could hardly be said
+of internal improvements. The Western tiller of the soil was as eager
+for some easy way of sending his produce to market as the manufacturer
+was for the same means to transport his goods to the consumer on the
+farm. While the Confederate leaders were writing into their
+constitution a clause forbidding all appropriations for internal
+improvements, the Republican leaders at Washington were planning such
+expenditures from the treasury in the form of public land grants to
+railways as would have dazed the authors of the national road bill half
+a century earlier.
+
+=Sound Finance--National Banking.=--From Hamilton's day to Lincoln's,
+business men in the East had contended for a sound system of national
+currency. The experience of the states with paper money, painfully
+impressive in the years before the framing of the Constitution, had been
+convincing to those who understood the economy of business. The
+Constitution, as we have seen, bore the signs of this experience. States
+were forbidden to emit bills of credit: paper money, in short. This
+provision stood clear in the document; but judicial ingenuity had
+circumvented it in the age of Jacksonian Democracy. The states had
+enacted and the Supreme Court, after the death of John Marshall, had
+sustained laws chartering banking companies and authorizing them to
+issue paper money. So the country was beset by the old curse, the banks
+of Western and Southern states issuing reams of paper notes to help
+borrowers pay their debts.
+
+In dealing with war finances, the Republicans attacked this ancient
+evil. By act of Congress in 1864, they authorized a series of national
+banks founded on the credit of government bonds and empowered to issue
+notes. The next year they stopped all bank paper sent forth under the
+authority of the states by means of a prohibitive tax. In this way, by
+two measures Congress restored federal control over the monetary system
+although it did not reëstablish the United States Bank so hated by
+Jacksonian Democracy.
+
+=Destruction of States' Rights by Fourteenth Amendment.=--These acts and
+others not cited here were measures of centralization and consolidation
+at the expense of the powers and dignity of the states. They were all of
+high import, but the crowning act of nationalism was the fourteenth
+amendment which, among other things, forbade states to "deprive any
+person of life, liberty or property without due process of law." The
+immediate occasion, though not the actual cause of this provision, was
+the need for protecting the rights of freedmen against hostile
+legislatures in the South. The result of the amendment, as was
+prophesied in protests loud and long from every quarter of the
+Democratic party, was the subjection of every act of state, municipal,
+and county authorities to possible annulment by the Supreme Court at
+Washington. The expected happened.
+
+Few negroes ever brought cases under the fourteenth amendment to the
+attention of the courts; but thousands of state laws, municipal
+ordinances, and acts of local authorities were set aside as null and
+void under it. Laws of states regulating railway rates, fixing hours of
+labor in bakeshops, and taxing corporations were in due time to be
+annulled as conflicting with an amendment erroneously supposed to be
+designed solely for the protection of negroes. As centralized power over
+tariffs, railways, public lands, and other national concerns went to
+Congress, so centralized power over the acts of state and local
+authorities involving an infringement of personal and property rights
+was conferred on the federal judiciary, the apex of which was the
+Supreme Court at Washington. Thus the old federation of "independent
+states," all equal in rights and dignity, each wearing the "jewel of
+sovereignty" so celebrated in Southern oratory, had gone the way of all
+flesh under the withering blasts of Civil War.
+
+
+RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH
+
+=Theories about the Position of the Seceded States.=--On the morning of
+April 9, 1865, when General Lee surrendered his army to General Grant,
+eleven states stood in a peculiar relation to the union now declared
+perpetual. Lawyers and political philosophers were much perturbed and
+had been for some time as to what should be done with the members of the
+former Confederacy. Radical Republicans held that they were "conquered
+provinces" at the mercy of Congress, to be governed under such laws as
+it saw fit to enact and until in its wisdom it decided to readmit any or
+all of them to the union. Men of more conservative views held that, as
+the war had been waged by the North on the theory that no state could
+secede from the union, the Confederate states had merely attempted to
+withdraw and had failed. The corollary of this latter line of argument
+was simple: "The Southern states are still in the union and it is the
+duty of the President, as commander-in-chief, to remove the federal
+troops as soon as order is restored and the state governments ready to
+function once more as usual."
+
+=Lincoln's Proposal.=--Some such simple and conservative form of
+reconstruction had been suggested by Lincoln in a proclamation of
+December 8, 1863. He proposed pardon and a restoration of property,
+except in slaves, to nearly all who had "directly or by implication
+participated in the existing rebellion," on condition that they take an
+oath of loyalty to the union. He then announced that when, in any of the
+states named, a body of voters, qualified under the law as it stood
+before secession and equal in number to one-tenth the votes cast in
+1860, took the oath of allegiance, they should be permitted to
+reëstablish a state government. Such a government, he added, should be
+recognized as a lawful authority and entitled to protection under the
+federal Constitution. With reference to the status of the former slaves
+Lincoln made it clear that, while their freedom must be recognized, he
+would not object to any legislation "which may yet be consistent as a
+temporary arrangement with their present condition as a laboring,
+landless, and homeless class."
+
+=Andrew Johnson's Plan--His Impeachment.=--Lincoln's successor, Andrew
+Johnson, the Vice President, soon after taking office, proposed to
+pursue a somewhat similar course. In a number of states he appointed
+military governors, instructing them at the earliest possible moment to
+assemble conventions, chosen "by that portion of the people of the said
+states who are loyal to the United States," and proceed to the
+organization of regular civil government. Johnson, a Southern man and a
+Democrat, was immediately charged by the Republicans with being too
+ready to restore the Southern states. As the months went by, the
+opposition to his measures and policies in Congress grew in size and
+bitterness. The contest resulted in the impeachment of Johnson by the
+House of Representatives in March, 1868, and his acquittal by the Senate
+merely because his opponents lacked one vote of the two-thirds required
+for conviction.
+
+=Congress Enacts "Reconstruction Laws."=--In fact, Congress was in a
+strategic position. It was the law-making body, and it could, moreover,
+determine the conditions under which Senators and Representatives from
+the South were to be readmitted. It therefore proceeded to pass a series
+of reconstruction acts--carrying all of them over Johnson's veto. These
+measures, the first of which became a law on March 2, 1867, betrayed an
+animus not found anywhere in Lincoln's plans or Johnson's proclamations.
+
+They laid off the ten states--the whole Confederacy with the exception
+of Tennessee--still outside the pale, into five military districts, each
+commanded by a military officer appointed by the President. They ordered
+the commanding general to prepare a register of voters for the election
+of delegates to conventions chosen for the purpose of drafting new
+constitutions. Such voters, however, were not to be, as Lincoln had
+suggested, loyal persons duly qualified under the law existing before
+secession but "the male citizens of said state, twenty-one years old and
+upward, of whatever race, color, or previous condition, ... except such
+as may be disfranchised for participation in the rebellion or for felony
+at common law." This was the death knell to the idea that the leaders of
+the Confederacy and their white supporters might be permitted to share
+in the establishment of the new order. Power was thus arbitrarily thrust
+into the hands of the newly emancipated male negroes and the handful of
+whites who could show a record of loyalty. That was not all. Each state
+was, under the reconstruction acts, compelled to ratify the fourteenth
+amendment to the federal Constitution as a price of restoration to the
+union.
+
+The composition of the conventions thus authorized may be imagined.
+Bondmen without the asking and without preparation found themselves the
+governing power. An army of adventurers from the North, "carpet baggers"
+as they were called, poured in upon the scene to aid in
+"reconstruction." Undoubtedly many men of honor and fine intentions gave
+unstinted service, but the results of their deliberations only
+aggravated the open wound left by the war. Any number of political
+doctors offered their prescriptions; but no effective remedy could be
+found. Under measures admittedly open to grave objections, the Southern
+states were one after another restored to the union by the grace of
+Congress, the last one in 1870. Even this grudging concession of the
+formalities of statehood did not mean a full restoration of honors and
+privileges. The last soldier was not withdrawn from the last Southern
+capital until 1877, and federal control over elections long remained as
+a sign of congressional supremacy.
+
+=The Status of the Freedmen.=--Even more intricate than the issues
+involved in restoring the seceded states to the union was the question
+of what to do with the newly emancipated slaves. That problem, often put
+to abolitionists before the war, had become at last a real concern. The
+thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery had not touched it at all. It
+declared bondmen free, but did nothing to provide them with work or
+homes and did not mention the subject of political rights. All these
+matters were left to the states, and the legislatures of some of them,
+by their famous "black codes," restored a form of servitude under the
+guise of vagrancy and apprentice laws. Such methods were in fact partly
+responsible for the reaction that led Congress to abandon Lincoln's
+policies and undertake its own program of reconstruction.
+
+Still no extensive effort was made to solve by law the economic problems
+of the bondmen. Radical abolitionists had advocated that the slaves when
+emancipated should be given outright the fields of their former
+masters; but Congress steadily rejected the very idea of confiscation.
+The necessity of immediate assistance it recognized by creating in 1865
+the Freedmen's Bureau to take care of refugees. It authorized the issue
+of food and clothing to the destitute and the renting of abandoned and
+certain other lands under federal control to former slaves at reasonable
+rates. But the larger problem of the relation of the freedmen to the
+land, it left to the slow working of time.
+
+Against sharp protests from conservative men, particularly among the
+Democrats, Congress did insist, however, on conferring upon the freedmen
+certain rights by national law. These rights fell into broad divisions,
+civil and political. By an act passed in 1866, Congress gave to former
+slaves the rights of white citizens in the matter of making contracts,
+giving testimony in courts, and purchasing, selling, and leasing
+property. As it was doubtful whether Congress had the power to enact
+this law, there was passed and submitted to the states the fourteenth
+amendment which gave citizenship to the freedmen, assured them of the
+privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, and declared
+that no state should deprive any person of his life, liberty, or
+property without due process of law. Not yet satisfied, Congress
+attempted to give social equality to negroes by the second civil rights
+bill of 1875 which promised to them, among other things, the full and
+equal enjoyment of inns, theaters, public conveyances, and places of
+amusement--a law later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
+
+The matter of political rights was even more hotly contested; but the
+radical Republicans, like Charles Sumner, asserted that civil rights
+were not secure unless supported by the suffrage. In this same
+fourteenth amendment they attempted to guarantee the ballot to all negro
+men, leaving the women to take care of themselves. The amendment
+declared in effect that when any state deprived adult male citizens of
+the right to vote, its representation in Congress should be reduced in
+the proportion such persons bore to the voting population.
+
+This provision having failed to accomplish its purpose, the fifteenth
+amendment was passed and ratified, expressly declaring that no citizen
+should be deprived of the right to vote "on account of race, color, or
+previous condition of servitude." To make assurance doubly secure,
+Congress enacted in 1870, 1872, and 1873 three drastic laws, sometimes
+known as "force bills," providing for the use of federal authorities,
+civil and military, in supervising elections in all parts of the Union.
+So the federal government, having destroyed chattel slavery, sought by
+legal decree to sweep away all its signs and badges, civil, social, and
+political. Never, save perhaps in some of the civil conflicts of Greece
+or Rome, had there occurred in the affairs of a nation a social
+revolution so complete, so drastic, and far-reaching in its results.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THE SECTIONAL CONFLICT
+
+Just as the United States, under the impetus of Western enterprise,
+rounded out the continental domain, its very existence as a nation was
+challenged by a fratricidal conflict between two sections. This storm
+had been long gathering upon the horizon. From the very beginning in
+colonial times there had been a marked difference between the South and
+the North. The former by climate and soil was dedicated to a planting
+system--the cultivation of tobacco, rice, cotton, and sugar cane--and in
+the course of time slave labor became the foundation of the system. The
+North, on the other hand, supplemented agriculture by commerce, trade,
+and manufacturing. Slavery, though lawful, did not flourish there. An
+abundant supply of free labor kept the Northern wheels turning.
+
+This difference between the two sections, early noted by close
+observers, was increased with the advent of the steam engine and the
+factory system. Between 1815 and 1860 an industrial revolution took
+place in the North. Its signs were gigantic factories, huge aggregations
+of industrial workers, immense cities, a flourishing commerce, and
+prosperous banks. Finding an unfavorable reception in the South, the new
+industrial system was confined mainly to the North. By canals and
+railways New York, Boston, and Philadelphia were linked with the
+wheatfields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. A steel net wove North and
+Northwest together. A commercial net supplemented it. Western trade was
+diverted from New Orleans to the East and Eastern credit sustained
+Western enterprise.
+
+In time, the industrial North and the planting South evolved different
+ideas of political policy. The former looked with favor on protective
+tariffs, ship subsidies, a sound national banking system, and internal
+improvements. The farmers of the West demanded that the public domain be
+divided up into free homesteads for farmers. The South steadily swung
+around to the opposite view. Its spokesmen came to regard most of these
+policies as injurious to the planting interests.
+
+The economic questions were all involved in a moral issue. The Northern
+states, in which slavery was of slight consequence, had early abolished
+the institution. In the course of a few years there appeared
+uncompromising advocates of universal emancipation. Far and wide the
+agitation spread. The South was thoroughly frightened. It demanded
+protection against the agitators, the enforcement of its rights in the
+case of runaway slaves, and equal privileges for slavery in the new
+territories.
+
+With the passing years the conflict between the two sections increased
+in bitterness. It flamed up in 1820 and was allayed by the Missouri
+compromise. It took on the form of a tariff controversy and
+nullification in 1832. It appeared again after the Mexican war when the
+question of slavery in the new territories was raised. Again
+compromise--the great settlement of 1850--seemed to restore peace, only
+to prove an illusion. A series of startling events swept the country
+into war: the repeal of the Missouri compromise in 1854, the rise of the
+Republican party pledged to the prohibition of slavery in the
+territories, the Dred Scott decision of 1857, the Lincoln-Douglas
+debates, John Brown's raid, the election of Lincoln, and secession.
+
+The Civil War, lasting for four years, tested the strength of both North
+and South, in leadership, in finance, in diplomatic skill, in material
+resources, in industry, and in armed forces. By the blockade of Southern
+ports, by an overwhelming weight of men and materials, and by relentless
+hammering on the field of battle, the North was victorious.
+
+The results of the war were revolutionary in character. Slavery was
+abolished and the freedmen given the ballot. The Southern planters who
+had been the leaders of their section were ruined financially and almost
+to a man excluded from taking part in political affairs. The union was
+declared to be perpetual and the right of a state to secede settled by
+the judgment of battle. Federal control over the affairs of states,
+counties, and cities was established by the fourteenth amendment. The
+power and prestige of the federal government were enhanced beyond
+imagination. The North was now free to pursue its economic policies: a
+protective tariff, a national banking system, land grants for railways,
+free lands for farmers. Planting had dominated the country for nearly a
+generation. Business enterprise was to take its place.
+
+
+=References=
+
+NORTHERN ACCOUNTS
+
+J.K. Hosmer, _The Appeal to Arms_ and _The Outcome of the Civil War_
+(American Nation Series).
+
+J. Ropes, _History of the Civil War_ (best account of military
+campaigns).
+
+J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vols. III, IV, and V.
+
+J.T. Morse, _Abraham Lincoln_ (2 vols.).
+
+
+SOUTHERN ACCOUNTS
+
+W.E. Dodd, _Jefferson Davis_.
+
+Jefferson Davis, _Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government_.
+
+E. Pollard, _The Lost Cause_.
+
+A.H. Stephens, _The War between the States_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Contrast the reception of secession in 1860 with that given to
+nullification in 1832.
+
+2. Compare the Northern and Southern views of the union.
+
+3. What were the peculiar features of the Confederate constitution?
+
+4. How was the Confederacy financed?
+
+5. Compare the resources of the two sections.
+
+6. On what foundations did Southern hopes rest?
+
+7. Describe the attempts at a peaceful settlement.
+
+8. Compare the raising of armies for the Civil War with the methods
+employed in the World War. (See below, chapter XXV.)
+
+9. Compare the financial methods of the government in the two wars.
+
+10. Explain why the blockade was such a deadly weapon.
+
+11. Give the leading diplomatic events of the war.
+
+12. Trace the growth of anti-slavery sentiment.
+
+13. What measures were taken to restrain criticism of the government?
+
+14. What part did Lincoln play in all phases of the war?
+
+15. State the principal results of the war.
+
+16. Compare Lincoln's plan of reconstruction with that adopted by
+Congress.
+
+17. What rights did Congress attempt to confer upon the former slaves?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Was Secession Lawful?=--The Southern view by Jefferson Davis in
+Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating American History_, pp. 364-369.
+Lincoln's view, Harding, pp. 371-381.
+
+=The Confederate Constitution.=--Compare with the federal Constitution
+in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 424-433 and pp. 271-279.
+
+=Federal Legislative Measures.=--Prepare a table and brief digest of the
+important laws relating to the war. Macdonald, pp. 433-482.
+
+=Economic Aspects of the War.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United
+States_, pp. 279-301. Dewey, _Financial History of the United States_,
+Chaps. XII and XIII. Tabulate the economic measures of Congress in
+Macdonald.
+
+=Military Campaigns.=--The great battles are fully treated in Rhodes,
+_History of the Civil War_, and teachers desiring to emphasize military
+affairs may assign campaigns to members of the class for study and
+report. A briefer treatment in Elson, _History of the United States_,
+pp. 641-785.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Lincoln, Davis, Lee, Grant, Sherman, and other
+leaders in civil and military affairs, with reference to local "war
+governors."
+
+=English and French Opinion of the War.=--Rhodes, _History of the United
+States_, Vol. IV, pp. 337-394.
+
+=The South during the War.=--Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. 343-382.
+
+=The North during the War.=--Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. 189-342.
+
+=Reconstruction Measures.=--Macdonald, _Source Book_, pp. 500-511;
+514-518; 529-530; Elson, pp. 786-799.
+
+=The Force Bills.=--Macdonald, pp. 547-551; 554-564.
+
+
+
+
+PART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH
+
+
+The outcome of the Civil War in the South was nothing short of a
+revolution. The ruling class, the law, and the government of the old
+order had been subverted. To political chaos was added the havoc wrought
+in agriculture, business, and transportation by military operations. And
+as if to fill the cup to the brim, the task of reconstruction was
+committed to political leaders from another section of the country,
+strangers to the life and traditions of the South.
+
+
+THE SOUTH AT THE CLOSE OF THE WAR
+
+=A Ruling Class Disfranchised.=--As the sovereignty of the planters had
+been the striking feature of the old régime, so their ruin was the
+outstanding fact of the new. The situation was extraordinary. The
+American Revolution was carried out by people experienced in the arts of
+self-government, and at its close they were free to follow the general
+course to which they had long been accustomed. The French Revolution
+witnessed the overthrow of the clergy and the nobility; but middle
+classes who took their places had been steadily rising in intelligence
+and wealth.
+
+The Southern Revolution was unlike either of these cataclysms. It was
+not brought about by a social upheaval, but by an external crisis. It
+did not enfranchise a class that sought and understood power, but
+bondmen who had played no part in the struggle. Moreover it struck down
+a class equipped to rule. The leading planters were almost to a man
+excluded from state and federal offices, and the fourteenth amendment
+was a bar to their return. All civil and military places under the
+authority of the United States and of the states were closed to every
+man who had taken an oath to support the Constitution as a member of
+Congress, as a state legislator, or as a state or federal officer, and
+afterward engaged in "insurrection or rebellion," or "given aid and
+comfort to the enemies" of the United States. This sweeping provision,
+supplemented by the reconstruction acts, laid under the ban most of the
+talent, energy, and spirit of the South.
+
+=The Condition of the State Governments.=--The legislative, executive,
+and judicial branches of the state governments thus passed into the
+control of former slaves, led principally by Northern adventurers or
+Southern novices, known as "Scalawags." The result was a carnival of
+waste, folly, and corruption. The "reconstruction" assembly of South
+Carolina bought clocks at $480 apiece and chandeliers at $650. To
+purchase land for former bondmen the sum of $800,000 was appropriated;
+and swamps bought at seventy-five cents an acre were sold to the state
+at five times the cost. In the years between 1868 and 1873, the debt of
+the state rose from about $5,800,000 to $24,000,000, and millions of the
+increase could not be accounted for by the authorities responsible for
+it.
+
+=Economic Ruin--Urban and Rural.=--No matter where Southern men turned
+in 1865 they found devastation--in the towns, in the country, and along
+the highways. Atlanta, the city to which Sherman applied the torch, lay
+in ashes; Nashville and Chattanooga had been partially wrecked; Richmond
+and Augusta had suffered severely from fires. Charleston was described
+by a visitor as "a city of ruins, of desolation, of vacant houses, of
+rotten wharves, of deserted warehouses, of weed gardens, of miles of
+grass-grown streets.... How few young men there are, how generally the
+young women are dressed in black! The flower of their proud aristocracy
+is buried on scores of battle fields."
+
+Those who journeyed through the country about the same time reported
+desolation equally widespread and equally pathetic. An English traveler
+who made his way along the course of the Tennessee River in 1870 wrote:
+"The trail of war is visible throughout the valley in burnt-up gin
+houses, ruined bridges, mills, and factories ... and large tracts of
+once cultivated land are stripped of every vestige of fencing. The
+roads, long neglected, are in disorder and, having in many places become
+impassable, new tracks have been made through the woods and fields
+without much respect to boundaries." Many a great plantation had been
+confiscated by the federal authorities while the owner was in
+Confederate service. Many more lay in waste. In the wake of the armies
+the homes of rich and poor alike, if spared the torch, had been
+despoiled of the stock and seeds necessary to renew agriculture.
+
+=Railways Dilapidated.=--Transportation was still more demoralized. This
+is revealed in the pages of congressional reports based upon first-hand
+investigations. One eloquent passage illustrates all the rest. From
+Pocahontas to Decatur, Alabama, a distance of 114 miles, we are told,
+the railroad was "almost entirely destroyed, except the road bed and
+iron rails, and they were in a very bad condition--every bridge and
+trestle destroyed, cross-ties rotten, buildings burned, water tanks
+gone, tracks grown up in weeds and bushes, not a saw mill near the line
+and the labor system of the country gone. About forty miles of the track
+were burned, the cross-ties entirely destroyed, and the rails bent and
+twisted in such a manner as to require great labor to straighten and a
+large portion of them requiring renewal."
+
+=Capital and Credit Destroyed.=--The fluid capital of the South, money
+and credit, was in the same prostrate condition as the material capital.
+The Confederate currency, inflated to the bursting point, had utterly
+collapsed and was as worthless as waste paper. The bonds of the
+Confederate government were equally valueless. Specie had nearly
+disappeared from circulation. The fourteenth amendment to the federal
+Constitution had made all "debts, obligations, and claims" incurred in
+aid of the Confederate cause "illegal and void." Millions of dollars
+owed to Northern creditors before the war were overdue and payment was
+pressed upon the debtors. Where such debts were secured by mortgages on
+land, executions against the property could be obtained in federal
+courts.
+
+
+THE RESTORATION OF WHITE SUPREMACY
+
+=Intimidation.=--In both politics and economics, the process of
+reconstruction in the South was slow and arduous. The first battle in
+the political contest for white supremacy was won outside the halls of
+legislatures and the courts of law. It was waged, in the main, by secret
+organizations, among which the Ku Klux Klan and the White Camelia were
+the most prominent. The first of these societies appeared in Tennessee
+in 1866 and held its first national convention the following year. It
+was in origin a social club. According to its announcement, its objects
+were "to protect the weak, the innocent, and the defenceless from the
+indignities, wrongs, and outrages of the lawless, the violent, and the
+brutal; and to succor the suffering, especially the widows and orphans
+of the Confederate soldiers." The whole South was called "the Empire"
+and was ruled by a "Grand Wizard." Each state was a realm and each
+county a province. In the secret orders there were enrolled over half a
+million men.
+
+The methods of the Ku Klux and the White Camelia were similar. Solemn
+parades of masked men on horses decked in long robes were held,
+sometimes in the daytime and sometimes at the dead of night. Notices
+were sent to obnoxious persons warning them to stop certain practices.
+If warning failed, something more convincing was tried. Fright was the
+emotion most commonly stirred. A horseman, at the witching hour of
+midnight, would ride up to the house of some offender, lift his head
+gear, take off a skull, and hand it to the trembling victim with the
+request that he hold it for a few minutes. Frequently violence was
+employed either officially or unofficially by members of the Klan. Tar
+and feathers were freely applied; the whip was sometimes laid on
+unmercifully, and occasionally a brutal murder was committed. Often the
+members were fired upon from bushes or behind trees, and swift
+retaliation followed. So alarming did the clashes become that in 1870
+Congress forbade interference with electors or going in disguise for the
+purpose of obstructing the exercise of the rights enjoyed under federal
+law.
+
+In anticipation of such a step on the part of the federal government,
+the Ku Klux was officially dissolved by the "Grand Wizard" in 1869.
+Nevertheless, the local societies continued their organization and
+methods. The spirit survived the national association. "On the whole,"
+says a Southern writer, "it is not easy to see what other course was
+open to the South.... Armed resistance was out of the question. And yet
+there must be some control had of the situation.... If force was denied,
+craft was inevitable."
+
+=The Struggle for the Ballot Box.=--The effects of intimidation were
+soon seen at elections. The freedman, into whose inexperienced hand the
+ballot had been thrust, was ordinarily loath to risk his head by the
+exercise of his new rights. He had not attained them by a long and
+laborious contest of his own and he saw no urgent reason why he should
+battle for the privilege of using them. The mere show of force, the mere
+existence of a threat, deterred thousands of ex-slaves from appearing at
+the polls. Thus the whites steadily recovered their dominance. Nothing
+could prevent it. Congress enacted force bills establishing federal
+supervision of elections and the Northern politicians protested against
+the return of former Confederates to practical, if not official, power;
+but all such opposition was like resistance to the course of nature.
+
+=Amnesty for Southerners.=--The recovery of white supremacy in this way
+was quickly felt in national councils. The Democratic party in the North
+welcomed it as a sign of its return to power. The more moderate
+Republicans, anxious to heal the breach in American unity, sought to
+encourage rather than to repress it. So it came about that amnesty for
+Confederates was widely advocated. Yet it must be said that the struggle
+for the removal of disabilities was stubborn and bitter. Lincoln, with
+characteristic generosity, in the midst of the war had issued a general
+proclamation of amnesty to nearly all who had been in arms against the
+Union, on condition that they take an oath of loyalty; but Johnson,
+vindictive toward Southern leaders and determined to make "treason
+infamous," had extended the list of exceptions. Congress, even more
+relentless in its pursuit of Confederates, pushed through the fourteenth
+amendment which worked the sweeping disabilities we have just described.
+
+To appeals for comprehensive clemency, Congress was at first adamant. In
+vain did men like Carl Schurz exhort their colleagues to crown their
+victory in battle with a noble act of universal pardon and oblivion.
+Congress would not yield. It would grant amnesty in individual cases;
+for the principle of proscription it stood fast. When finally in 1872,
+seven years after the surrender at Appomattox, it did pass the general
+amnesty bill, it insisted on certain exceptions. Confederates who had
+been members of Congress just before the war, or had served in other
+high posts, civil or military, under the federal government, were still
+excluded from important offices. Not until the summer of 1898, when the
+war with Spain produced once more a union of hearts, did Congress relent
+and abolish the last of the disabilities imposed on the Confederates.
+
+=The Force Bills Attacked and Nullified.=--The granting of amnesty
+encouraged the Democrats to redouble their efforts all along the line.
+In 1874 they captured the House of Representatives and declared war on
+the "force bills." As a Republican Senate blocked immediate repeal, they
+resorted to an ingenious parliamentary trick. To the appropriation bill
+for the support of the army they attached a "rider," or condition, to
+the effect that no troops should be used to sustain the Republican
+government in Louisiana. The Senate rejected the proposal. A deadlock
+ensued and Congress adjourned without making provision for the army.
+Satisfied with the technical victory, the Democrats let the army bill
+pass the next session, but kept up their fight on the force laws until
+they wrung from President Hayes a measure forbidding the use of United
+States troops in supervising elections. The following year they again
+had recourse to a rider on the army bill and carried it through, putting
+an end to the use of money for military control of elections. The
+reconstruction program was clearly going to pieces, and the Supreme
+Court helped along the process of dissolution by declaring parts of the
+laws invalid. In 1878 the Democrats even won a majority in the Senate
+and returned to power a large number of men once prominent in the
+Confederate cause.
+
+The passions of the war by this time were evidently cooling. A new
+generation of men was coming on the scene. The supremacy of the whites
+in the South, if not yet complete, was at least assured. Federal
+marshals, their deputies, and supervisors of elections still possessed
+authority over the polls, but their strength had been shorn by the
+withdrawal of United States troops. The war on the remaining remnants of
+the "force bills" lapsed into desultory skirmishing. When in 1894 the
+last fragment was swept away, the country took little note of the fact.
+The only task that lay before the Southern leaders was to write in the
+constitutions of their respective states the provisions of law which
+would clinch the gains so far secured and establish white supremacy
+beyond the reach of outside intervention.
+
+=White Supremacy Sealed by New State Constitutions.=--The impetus to
+this final step was given by the rise of the Populist movement in the
+South, which sharply divided the whites and in many communities threw
+the balance of power into the hands of the few colored voters who
+survived the process of intimidation. Southern leaders now devised new
+constitutions so constructed as to deprive negroes of the ballot by law.
+Mississippi took the lead in 1890; South Carolina followed five years
+later; Louisiana, in 1898; North Carolina, in 1900; Alabama and
+Maryland, in 1901; and Virginia, in 1902.
+
+The authors of these measures made no attempt to conceal their purposes.
+"The intelligent white men of the South," said Governor Tillman, "intend
+to govern here." The fifteenth amendment to the federal Constitution,
+however, forbade them to deprive any citizen of the right to vote on
+account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. This made
+necessary the devices of indirection. They were few, simple, and
+effective. The first and most easily administered was the ingenious
+provision requiring each prospective voter to read a section of the
+state constitution or "understand and explain it" when read to him by
+the election officers. As an alternative, the payment of taxes or the
+ownership of a small amount of property was accepted as a qualification
+for voting. Southern leaders, unwilling to disfranchise any of the poor
+white men who had stood side by side with them "in the dark days of
+reconstruction," also resorted to a famous provision known as "the
+grandfather clause." This plan admitted to the suffrage any man who did
+not have either property or educational qualifications, provided he had
+voted on or before 1867 or was the son or grandson of any such person.
+
+The devices worked effectively. Of the 147,000 negroes in Mississippi
+above the age of twenty-one, only about 8600 registered under the
+constitution of 1890. Louisiana had 127,000 colored voters enrolled in
+1896; under the constitution drafted two years later the registration
+fell to 5300. An analysis of the figures for South Carolina in 1900
+indicates that only about one negro out of every hundred adult males of
+that race took part in elections. Thus was closed this chapter of
+reconstruction.
+
+=The Supreme Court Refuses to Intervene.=--Numerous efforts were made to
+prevail upon the Supreme Court of the United States to declare such laws
+unconstitutional; but the Court, usually on technical grounds, avoided
+coming to a direct decision on the merits of the matter. In one case
+the Court remarked that it could not take charge of and operate the
+election machinery of Alabama; it concluded that "relief from a great
+political wrong, if done as alleged, by the people of a state and by the
+state itself, must be given by them, or by the legislative and executive
+departments of the government of the United States." Only one of the
+several schemes employed, namely, the "grandfather clause," was held to
+be a violation of the federal Constitution. This blow, effected in 1915
+by the decision in the Oklahoma and Maryland cases, left, however, the
+main structure of disfranchisement unimpaired.
+
+=Proposals to Reduce Southern Representation in Congress.=--These
+provisions excluding thousands of male citizens from the ballot did not,
+in express terms, deprive any one of the vote on account of race or
+color. They did not, therefore, run counter to the letter of the
+fifteenth amendment; but they did unquestionably make the states which
+adopted them liable to the operations of the fourteenth amendment. The
+latter very explicitly provides that whenever any state deprives adult
+male citizens of the right to vote (except in certain minor cases) the
+representation of the state in Congress shall be reduced in the
+proportion which such number of disfranchised citizens bears to the
+whole number of male citizens over twenty-one years of age.
+
+Mindful of this provision, those who protested against disfranchisement
+in the South turned to the Republican party for relief, asking for
+action by the political branches of the federal government as the
+Supreme Court had suggested. The Republicans responded in their platform
+of 1908 by condemning all devices designed to deprive any one of the
+ballot for reasons of color alone; they demanded the enforcement in
+letter and spirit of the fourteenth as well as all other amendments.
+Though victorious in the election, the Republicans refrained from
+reopening the ancient contest; they made no attempt to reduce Southern
+representation in the House. Southern leaders, while protesting against
+the declarations of their opponents, were able to view them as idle
+threats in no way endangering the security of the measures by which
+political reconstruction had been undone.
+
+=The Solid South.=--Out of the thirty-year conflict against "carpet-bag
+rule" there emerged what was long known as the "solid South"--a South
+that, except occasionally in the border states, never gave an electoral
+vote to a Republican candidate for President. Before the Civil War, the
+Southern people had been divided on political questions. Take, for
+example, the election of 1860. In all the fifteen slave states the
+variety of opinion was marked. In nine of them--Delaware, Virginia,
+Tennessee, Missouri, Maryland, Louisiana, Kentucky, Georgia, and
+Arkansas--the combined vote against the representative of the extreme
+Southern point of view, Breckinridge, constituted a safe majority. In
+each of the six states which were carried by Breckinridge, there was a
+large and powerful minority. In North Carolina Breckinridge's majority
+over Bell and Douglas was only 849 votes. Equally astounding to those
+who imagine the South united in defense of extreme views in 1860 was the
+vote for Bell, the Unionist candidate, who stood firmly for the
+Constitution and silence on slavery. In every Southern state Bell's vote
+was large. In Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee it was greater
+than that received by Breckinridge; in Georgia, it was 42,000 against
+51,000; in Louisiana, 20,000 against 22,000; in Mississippi, 25,000
+against 40,000.
+
+The effect of the Civil War upon these divisions was immediate and
+decisive, save in the border states where thousands of men continued to
+adhere to the cause of Union. In the Confederacy itself nearly all
+dissent was silenced by war. Men who had been bitter opponents joined
+hands in defense of their homes; when the armed conflict was over they
+remained side by side working against "Republican misrule and negro
+domination." By 1890, after Northern supremacy was definitely broken,
+they boasted that there were at least twelve Southern states in which no
+Republican candidate for President could win a single electoral vote.
+
+=Dissent in the Solid South.=--Though every one grew accustomed to speak
+of the South as "solid," it did not escape close observers that in a
+number of Southern states there appeared from time to time a fairly
+large body of dissenters. In 1892 the Populists made heavy inroads upon
+the Democratic ranks. On other occasions, the contests between factions
+within the Democratic party over the nomination of candidates revealed
+sharp differences of opinion. In some places, moreover, there grew up a
+Republican minority of respectable size. For example, in Georgia, Mr.
+Taft in 1908 polled 41,000 votes against 72,000 for Mr. Bryan; in North
+Carolina, 114,000 against 136,000; in Tennessee, 118,000 against
+135,000; in Kentucky, 235,000 against 244,000. In 1920, Senator Harding,
+the Republican candidate, broke the record by carrying Tennessee as well
+as Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Maryland.
+
+
+THE ECONOMIC ADVANCE OF THE SOUTH
+
+=The Break-up of the Great Estates.=--In the dissolution of chattel
+slavery it was inevitable that the great estate should give way before
+the small farm. The plantation was in fact founded on slavery. It was
+continued and expanded by slavery. Before the war the prosperous
+planter, either by inclination or necessity, invested his surplus in
+more land to add to his original domain. As his slaves increased in
+number, he was forced to increase his acreage or sell them, and he
+usually preferred the former, especially in the Far South. Still another
+element favored the large estate. Slave labor quickly exhausted the soil
+and of its own force compelled the cutting of the forests and the
+extension of the area under cultivation. Finally, the planter took a
+natural pride in his great estate; it was a sign of his prowess and his
+social prestige.
+
+In 1865 the foundations of the planting system were gone. It was
+difficult to get efficient labor to till the vast plantations. The
+planters themselves were burdened with debts and handicapped by lack of
+capital. Negroes commonly preferred tilling plots of their own, rented
+or bought under mortgage, to the more irksome wage labor under white
+supervision. The land hunger of the white farmer, once checked by the
+planting system, reasserted itself. Before these forces the plantation
+broke up. The small farm became the unit of cultivation in the South as
+in the North. Between 1870 and 1900 the number of farms doubled in every
+state south of the line of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, except in
+Arkansas and Louisiana. From year to year the process of breaking up
+continued, with all that it implied in the creation of land-owning
+farmers.
+
+=The Diversification of Crops.=--No less significant was the concurrent
+diversification of crops. Under slavery, tobacco, rice, and sugar were
+staples and "cotton was king." These were standard crops. The methods of
+cultivation were simple and easily learned. They tested neither the
+skill nor the ingenuity of the slaves. As the returns were quick, they
+did not call for long-time investments of capital. After slavery was
+abolished, they still remained the staples, but far-sighted
+agriculturists saw the dangers of depending upon a few crops. The mild
+climate all the way around the coast from Virginia to Texas and the
+character of the alluvial soil invited the exercise of more imagination.
+Peaches, oranges, peanuts, and other fruits and vegetables were found to
+grow luxuriantly. Refrigeration for steamships and freight cars put the
+markets of great cities at the doors of Southern fruit and vegetable
+gardeners. The South, which in planting days had relied so heavily upon
+the Northwest for its foodstuffs, began to battle for independence.
+Between 1880 and the close of the century the value of its farm crops
+increased from $660,000,000 to $1,270,000,000.
+
+=The Industrial and Commercial Revolution.=--On top of the radical
+changes in agriculture came an industrial and commercial revolution. The
+South had long been rich in natural resources, but the slave system had
+been unfavorable to their development. Rivers that would have turned
+millions of spindles tumbled unheeded to the seas. Coal and iron beds
+lay unopened. Timber was largely sacrificed in clearing lands for
+planting, or fell to earth in decay. Southern enterprise was consumed in
+planting. Slavery kept out the white immigrants who might have supplied
+the skilled labor for industry.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+STEEL MILLS--BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA]
+
+After 1865, achievement and fortune no longer lay on the land alone. As
+soon as the paralysis of the war was over, the South caught the
+industrial spirit that had conquered feudal Europe and the agricultural
+North. In the development of mineral wealth, enormous strides were
+taken. Iron ore of every quality was found, the chief beds being in
+Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, Georgia,
+Alabama, Arkansas, and Texas. Five important coal basins were uncovered:
+in Virginia, North Carolina, the Appalachian chain from Maryland to
+Northern Alabama, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Texas. Oil pools were found
+in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Texas. Within two decades, 1880 to 1900, the
+output of mineral wealth multiplied tenfold: from ten millions a year to
+one hundred millions. The iron industries of West Virginia and Alabama
+began to rival those of Pennsylvania. Birmingham became the Pittsburgh
+and Atlanta the Chicago of the South.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A SOUTHERN COTTON MILL IN A COTTON FIELD]
+
+In other lines of industry, lumbering and cotton manufacturing took a
+high rank. The development of Southern timber resources was in every
+respect remarkable, particularly in Louisiana, Arkansas, and
+Mississippi. At the end of the first decade of the twentieth century,
+primacy in lumber had passed from the Great Lakes region to the South.
+In 1913 eight Southern states produced nearly four times as much lumber
+as the Lake states and twice as much as the vast forests of Washington
+and Oregon.
+
+The development of the cotton industry, in the meantime, was similarly
+astounding. In 1865 cotton spinning was a negligible matter in the
+Southern states. In 1880 they had one-fourth of the mills of the
+country. At the end of the century they had one-half the mills, the two
+Carolinas taking the lead by consuming more than one-third of their
+entire cotton crop. Having both the raw materials and the power at hand,
+they enjoyed many advantages over the New England rivals, and at the
+opening of the new century were outstripping the latter in the
+proportion of spindles annually put into operation. Moreover, the cotton
+planters, finding a market at the neighboring mills, began to look
+forward to a day when they would be somewhat emancipated from absolute
+dependence upon the cotton exchanges of New York, New Orleans, and
+Liverpool.
+
+Transportation kept pace with industry. In 1860, the South had about ten
+thousand miles of railway. By 1880 the figure had doubled. During the
+next twenty years over thirty thousand miles were added, most of the
+increase being in Texas. About 1898 there opened a period of
+consolidation in which scores of short lines were united, mainly under
+the leadership of Northern capitalists, and new through service opened
+to the North and West. Thus Southern industries were given easy outlets
+to the markets of the nation and brought within the main currents of
+national business enterprise.
+
+=The Social Effects of the Economic Changes.=--As long as the slave
+system lasted and planting was the major interest, the South was bound
+to be sectional in character. With slavery gone, crops diversified,
+natural resources developed, and industries promoted, the social order
+of the ante-bellum days inevitably dissolved; the South became more and
+more assimilated to the system of the North. In this process several
+lines of development are evident.
+
+In the first place we see the steady rise of the small farmer. Even in
+the old days there had been a large class of white yeomen who owned no
+slaves and tilled the soil with their own hands, but they labored under
+severe handicaps. They found the fertile lands of the coast and river
+valleys nearly all monopolized by planters, and they were by the force
+of circumstances driven into the uplands where the soil was thin and the
+crops were light. Still they increased in numbers and zealously worked
+their freeholds.
+
+The war proved to be their opportunity. With the break-up of the
+plantations, they managed to buy land more worthy of their plows. By
+intelligent labor and intensive cultivation they were able to restore
+much of the worn-out soil to its original fertility. In the meantime
+they rose with their prosperity in the social and political scale. It
+became common for the sons of white farmers to enter the professions,
+while their daughters went away to college and prepared for teaching.
+Thus a more democratic tone was given to the white society of the South.
+Moreover the migration to the North and West, which had formerly carried
+thousands of energetic sons and daughters to search for new homesteads,
+was materially reduced. The energy of the agricultural population went
+into rehabilitation.
+
+The increase in the number of independent farmers was accompanied by the
+rise of small towns and villages which gave diversity to the life of the
+South. Before 1860 it was possible to travel through endless stretches
+of cotton and tobacco. The social affairs of the planter's family
+centered in the homestead even if they were occasionally interrupted by
+trips to distant cities or abroad. Carpentry, bricklaying, and
+blacksmithing were usually done by slaves skilled in simple handicrafts.
+Supplies were bought wholesale. In this way there was little place in
+plantation economy for villages and towns with their stores and
+mechanics.
+
+The abolition of slavery altered this. Small farms spread out where
+plantations had once stood. The skilled freedmen turned to agriculture
+rather than to handicrafts; white men of a business or mechanical bent
+found an opportunity to serve the needs of their communities. So local
+merchants and mechanics became an important element in the social
+system. In the county seats, once dominated by the planters, business
+and professional men assumed the leadership.
+
+Another vital outcome of this revolution was the transference of a large
+part of planting enterprise to business. Mr. Bruce, a Southern historian
+of fine scholarship, has summed up this process in a single telling
+paragraph: "The higher planting class that under the old system gave so
+much distinction to rural life has, so far as it has survived at all,
+been concentrated in the cities. The families that in the time of
+slavery would have been found only in the country are now found, with a
+few exceptions, in the towns. The transplantation has been practically
+universal. The talent, the energy, the ambition that formerly sought
+expression in the management of great estates and the control of hosts
+of slaves, now seek a field of action in trade, in manufacturing
+enterprises, or in the general enterprises of development. This was for
+the ruling class of the South the natural outcome of the great economic
+revolution that followed the war."
+
+As in all other parts of the world, the mechanical revolution was
+attended by the growth of a population of industrial workers dependent
+not upon the soil but upon wages for their livelihood. When Jefferson
+Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern Confederacy, there were
+approximately only one hundred thousand persons employed in Southern
+manufactures as against more than a million in Northern mills. Fifty
+years later, Georgia and Alabama alone had more than one hundred and
+fifty thousand wage-earners. Necessarily this meant also a material
+increase in urban population, although the wide dispersion of cotton
+spinning among small centers prevented the congestion that had
+accompanied the rise of the textile industry in New England. In 1910,
+New Orleans, Atlanta, Memphis, Nashville, and Houston stood in the same
+relation to the New South that Cincinnati, Chicago, Cleveland, and
+Detroit had stood to the New West fifty years before. The problems of
+labor and capital and municipal administration, which the earlier
+writers boasted would never perplex the planting South, had come in full
+force.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A GLIMPSE OF MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE]
+
+=The Revolution in the Status of the Slaves.=--No part of Southern
+society was so profoundly affected by the Civil War and economic
+reconstruction as the former slaves. On the day of emancipation, they
+stood free, but empty-handed, the owners of no tools or property, the
+masters of no trade and wholly inexperienced in the arts of self-help
+that characterized the whites in general. They had never been accustomed
+to looking out for themselves. The plantation bell had called them to
+labor and released them. Doles of food and clothing had been regularly
+made in given quantities. They did not understand wages, ownership,
+renting, contracts, mortgages, leases, bills, or accounts.
+
+When they were emancipated, four courses were open to them. They could
+flee from the plantation to the nearest town or city, or to the distant
+North, to seek a livelihood. Thousands of them chose this way,
+overcrowding cities where disease mowed them down. They could remain
+where they, were in their cabins and work for daily wages instead of
+food, clothing, and shelter. This second course the major portion of
+them chose; but, as few masters had cash to dispense, the new relation
+was much like the old, in fact. It was still one of barter. The planter
+offered food, clothing, and shelter; the former slaves gave their labor
+in return. That was the best that many of them could do.
+
+A third course open to freedmen was that of renting from the former
+master, paying him usually with a share of the produce of the land. This
+way a large number of them chose. It offered them a chance to become
+land owners in time and it afforded an easier life, the renter being, to
+a certain extent at least, master of his own hours of labor. The final
+and most difficult path was that to ownership of land. Many a master
+helped his former slaves to acquire small holdings by offering easy
+terms. The more enterprising and the more fortunate who started life as
+renters or wage-earners made their way upward to ownership in so many
+cases that by the end of the century, one-fourth of the colored laborers
+on the land owned the soil they tilled.
+
+In the meantime, the South, though relatively poor, made relatively
+large expenditures for the education of the colored population. By the
+opening of the twentieth century, facilities were provided for more than
+one-half of the colored children of school age. While in many respects
+this progress was disappointing, its significance, to be appreciated,
+must be derived from a comparison with the total illiteracy which
+prevailed under slavery.
+
+In spite of all that happened, however, the status of the negroes in the
+South continued to give a peculiar character to that section of the
+country. They were almost entirely excluded from the exercise of the
+suffrage, especially in the Far South. Special rooms were set aside for
+them at the railway stations and special cars on the railway lines. In
+the field of industry calling for technical skill, it appears, from the
+census figures, that they lost ground between 1890 and 1900--a condition
+which their friends ascribed to discriminations against them in law and
+in labor organizations and their critics ascribed to their lack of
+aptitude. Whatever may be the truth, the fact remained that at the
+opening of the twentieth century neither the hopes of the emancipators
+nor the fears of their opponents were realized. The marks of the
+"peculiar institution" were still largely impressed upon Southern
+society.
+
+The situation, however, was by no means unchanging. On the contrary
+there was a decided drift in affairs. For one thing, the proportion of
+negroes in the South had slowly declined. By 1900 they were in a
+majority in only two states, South Carolina and Mississippi. In
+Arkansas, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina the proportion of
+the white population was steadily growing. The colored migration
+northward increased while the westward movement of white farmers which
+characterized pioneer days declined. At the same time a part of the
+foreign immigration into the United States was diverted southward. As
+the years passed these tendencies gained momentum. The already huge
+colored quarters in some Northern cities were widely expanded, as whole
+counties in the South were stripped of their colored laborers. The race
+question, in its political and economic aspects, became less and less
+sectional, more and more national. The South was drawn into the main
+stream of national life. The separatist forces which produced the
+cataclysm of 1861 sank irresistibly into the background.
+
+
+=References=
+
+H.W. Grady, _The New South_ (1890).
+
+H.A. Herbert, _Why the Solid South_.
+
+W.G. Brown, _The Lower South_.
+
+E.G. Murphy, _Problems of the Present South_.
+
+B.T. Washington, _The Negro Problem_; _The Story of the Negro_; _The
+Future of the Negro_.
+
+A.B. Hart, _The Southern South_ and R.S. Baker, _Following the Color
+Line_ (two works by Northern writers).
+
+T.N. Page, _The Negro, the Southerner's Problem_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Give the three main subdivisions of the chapter.
+
+2. Compare the condition of the South in 1865 with that of the North.
+Compare with the condition of the United States at the close of the
+Revolutionary War. At the close of the World War in 1918.
+
+3. Contrast the enfranchisement of the slaves with the enfranchisement
+of white men fifty years earlier.
+
+4. What was the condition of the planters as compared with that of the
+Northern manufacturers?
+
+5. How does money capital contribute to prosperity? Describe the plight
+of Southern finance.
+
+6. Give the chief steps in the restoration of white supremacy.
+
+7. Do you know of any other societies to compare with the Ku Klux Klan?
+
+8. Give Lincoln's plan for amnesty. What principles do you think should
+govern the granting of amnesty?
+
+9. How were the "Force bills" overcome?
+
+10. Compare the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments with regard to the
+suffrage provisions.
+
+11. Explain how they may be circumvented.
+
+12. Account for the Solid South. What was the situation before 1860?
+
+13. In what ways did Southern agriculture tend to become like that of
+the North? What were the social results?
+
+14. Name the chief results of an "industrial revolution" in general. In
+the South, in particular.
+
+15. What courses were open to freedmen in 1865?
+
+16. Give the main features in the economic and social status of the
+colored population in the South.
+
+17. Explain why the race question is national now, rather than
+sectional.
+
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Amnesty for Confederates.=--Study carefully the provisions of the
+fourteenth amendment in the Appendix. Macdonald, _Documentary Source
+Book of American History_, pp. 470 and 564. A plea for amnesty in
+Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating American History_, pp. 467-488.
+
+=Political Conditions in the South in 1868.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction,
+Political and Economic_ (American Nation Series), pp. 109-123; Hart,
+_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 445-458,
+497-500; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 799-805.
+
+=Movement for White Supremacy.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction_, pp. 266-280;
+Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp. 39-58; Beard, _American
+Government and Politics_, pp. 454-457.
+
+=The Withdrawal of Federal Troops from the South.=--Sparks, _National
+Development_ (American Nation Series), pp. 84-102; Rhodes, _History of
+the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 1-12.
+
+=Southern Industry.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_, pp. 192-207; T.M. Young,
+_The American Cotton Industry_, pp. 54-99.
+
+=The Race Question.=--B.T. Washington, _Up From Slavery_ (sympathetic
+presentation); A.H. Stone, _Studies in the American Race Problem_
+(coldly analytical); Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 647-649,
+652-654, 663-669.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+BUSINESS ENTERPRISE AND THE REPUBLICAN PARTY
+
+
+If a single phrase be chosen to characterize American life during the
+generation that followed the age of Douglas and Lincoln, it must be
+"business enterprise"--the tremendous, irresistible energy of a virile
+people, mounting in numbers toward a hundred million and applied without
+let or hindrance to the developing of natural resources of unparalleled
+richness. The chief goal of this effort was high profits for the
+captains of industry, on the one hand; and high wages for the workers,
+on the other. Its signs, to use the language of a Republican orator in
+1876, were golden harvest fields, whirling spindles, turning wheels,
+open furnace doors, flaming forges, and chimneys filled with eager fire.
+The device blazoned on its shield and written over its factory doors was
+"prosperity." A Republican President was its "advance agent." Released
+from the hampering interference of the Southern planters and the
+confusing issues of the slavery controversy, business enterprise sprang
+forward to the task of winning the entire country. Then it flung its
+outposts to the uttermost parts of the earth--Europe, Africa, and the
+Orient--where were to be found markets for American goods and natural
+resources for American capital to develop.
+
+
+RAILWAYS AND INDUSTRY
+
+=The Outward Signs of Enterprise.=--It is difficult to comprehend all
+the multitudinous activities of American business energy or to appraise
+its effects upon the life and destiny of the American people; for beyond
+the horizon of the twentieth century lie consequences as yet undreamed
+of in our poor philosophy. Statisticians attempt to record its
+achievements in terms of miles of railways built, factories opened, men
+and women employed, fortunes made, wages paid, cities founded, rivers
+spanned, boxes, bales, and tons produced. Historians apply standards of
+comparison with the past. Against the slow and leisurely stagecoach,
+they set the swift express, rushing from New York to San Francisco in
+less time than Washington consumed in his triumphal tour from Mt. Vernon
+to New York for his first inaugural. Against the lazy sailing vessel
+drifting before a genial breeze, they place the turbine steamer crossing
+the Atlantic in five days or the still swifter airplane, in fifteen
+hours. For the old workshop where a master and a dozen workmen and
+apprentices wrought by hand, they offer the giant factory where ten
+thousand persons attend the whirling wheels driven by steam. They write
+of the "romance of invention" and the "captains of industry."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A CORNER IN THE BETHLEHEM STEEL WORKS]
+
+=The Service of the Railway.=--All this is fitting in its way. Figures
+and contrasts cannot, however, tell the whole story. Take, for example,
+the extension of railways. It is easy to relate that there were 30,000
+miles in 1860; 166,000 in 1890; and 242,000 in 1910. It is easy to show
+upon the map how a few straggling lines became a perfect mesh of closely
+knitted railways; or how, like the tentacles of a great monster, the few
+roads ending in the Mississippi Valley in 1860 were extended and
+multiplied until they tapped every wheat field, mine, and forest beyond
+the valley. All this, eloquent of enterprise as it truly is, does not
+reveal the significance of railways for American life. It does not
+indicate how railways made a continental market for American goods; nor
+how they standardized the whole country, giving to cities on the
+advancing frontier the leading features of cities in the old East; nor
+how they carried to the pioneer the comforts of civilization; nor yet
+how in the West they were the forerunners of civilization, the makers of
+homesteads, the builders of states.
+
+=Government Aid for Railways.=--Still the story is not ended. The
+significant relation between railways and politics must not be
+overlooked. The bounty of a lavish government, for example, made
+possible the work of railway promoters. By the year 1872 the Federal
+government had granted in aid of railways 155,000,000 acres of land--an
+area estimated as almost equal to Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut,
+Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The
+Union Pacific Company alone secured from the federal government a free
+right of way through the public domain, twenty sections of land with
+each mile of railway, and a loan up to fifty millions of dollars secured
+by a second mortgage on the company's property. More than half of the
+northern tier of states lying against Canada from Lake Michigan to the
+Pacific was granted to private companies in aid of railways and wagon
+roads. About half of New Mexico, Arizona, and California was also given
+outright to railway companies. These vast grants from the federal
+government were supplemented by gifts from the states in land and by
+subscriptions amounting to more than two hundred million dollars. The
+history of these gifts and their relation to the political leaders that
+engineered them would alone fill a large and interesting volume.
+
+=Railway Fortunes and Capital.=--Out of this gigantic railway promotion,
+the first really immense American fortunes were made. Henry Adams, the
+grandson of John Quincy Adams, related that his grandfather on his
+mother's side, Peter Brooks, on his death in 1849, left a fortune of two
+million dollars, "supposed to be the largest estate in Boston," then one
+of the few centers of great riches. Compared with the opulence that
+sprang out of the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, the Southern
+Pacific, with their subsidiary and component lines, the estate of Peter
+Brooks was a poor man's heritage.
+
+The capital invested in these railways was enormous beyond the
+imagination of the men of the stagecoach generation. The total debt of
+the United States incurred in the Revolutionary War--a debt which those
+of little faith thought the country could never pay--was reckoned at a
+figure well under $75,000,000. When the Union Pacific Railroad was
+completed, there were outstanding against it $27,000,000 in first
+mortgage bonds, $27,000,000 in second mortgage bonds held by the
+government, $10,000,000 in income bonds, $10,000,000 in land grant
+bonds, and, on top of that huge bonded indebtedness, $36,000,000 in
+stock--making $110,000,000 in all. If the amount due the United States
+government be subtracted, still there remained, in private hands, stocks
+and bonds exceeding in value the whole national debt of Hamilton's
+day--a debt that strained all the resources of the Federal government in
+1790. Such was the financial significance of the railways.
+
+[Illustration: RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1918]
+
+=Growth and Extension of Industry.=--In the field of manufacturing,
+mining, and metal working, the results of business enterprise far
+outstripped, if measured in mere dollars, the results of railway
+construction. By the end of the century there were about ten billion
+dollars invested in factories alone and five million wage-earners
+employed in them; while the total value of the output, fourteen billion
+dollars, was fifteen times the figure for 1860. In the Eastern states
+industries multiplied. In the Northwest territory, the old home of
+Jacksonian Democracy, they overtopped agriculture. By the end of the
+century, Ohio had almost reached and Illinois had surpassed
+Massachusetts in the annual value of manufacturing output.
+
+That was not all. Untold wealth in the form of natural resources was
+discovered in the South and West. Coal deposits were found in the
+Appalachians stretching from Pennsylvania down to Alabama, in Michigan,
+in the Mississippi Valley, and in the Western mountains from North
+Dakota to New Mexico. In nearly every coal-bearing region, iron was also
+discovered and the great fields of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota
+soon rivaled those of the Appalachian area. Copper, lead, gold, and
+silver in fabulous quantities were unearthed by the restless prospectors
+who left no plain or mountain fastness unexplored. Petroleum, first
+pumped from the wells of Pennsylvania in the summer of 1859, made new
+fortunes equaling those of trade, railways, and land speculation. It
+scattered its riches with an especially lavish hand through Oklahoma,
+Texas, and California.
+
+=The Trust--an Instrument of Industrial Progress.=--Business enterprise,
+under the direction of powerful men working single-handed, or of small
+groups of men pooling their capital for one or more undertakings, had
+not advanced far before there appeared upon the scene still mightier
+leaders of even greater imagination. New constructive genius now brought
+together and combined under one management hundreds of concerns or
+thousands of miles of railways, revealing the magic strength of
+coöperation on a national scale. Price-cutting in oil, threatening ruin
+to those engaged in the industry, as early as 1879, led a number of
+companies in Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia to unite in
+price-fixing. Three years later a group of oil interests formed a close
+organization, placing all their stocks in the hands of trustees, among
+whom was John D. Rockefeller. The trustees, in turn, issued
+certificates representing the share to which each participant was
+entitled; and took over the management of the entire business. Such was
+the nature of the "trust," which was to play such an unique rôle in the
+progress of America.
+
+The idea of combination was applied in time to iron and steel, copper,
+lead, sugar, cordage, coal, and other commodities, until in each field
+there loomed a giant trust or corporation, controlling, if not most of
+the output, at least enough to determine in a large measure the prices
+charged to consumers. With the passing years, the railways, mills,
+mines, and other business concerns were transferred from individual
+owners to corporations. At the end of the nineteenth century, the whole
+face of American business was changed. Three-fourths of the output from
+industries came from factories under corporate management and only
+one-fourth from individual and partnership undertakings.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER]
+
+=The Banking Corporation.=--Very closely related to the growth of
+business enterprise on a large scale was the system of banking. In the
+old days before banks, a person with savings either employed them in his
+own undertakings, lent them to a neighbor, or hid them away where they
+set no industry in motion. Even in the early stages of modern business,
+it was common for a manufacturer to rise from small beginnings by
+financing extensions out of his own earnings and profits. This state of
+affairs was profoundly altered by the growth of the huge corporations
+requiring millions and even billions of capital. The banks, once an
+adjunct to business, became the leaders in business.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+WALL STREET, NEW YORK CITY]
+
+It was the banks that undertook to sell the stocks and bonds issued by
+new corporations and trusts and to supply them with credit to carry on
+their operations. Indeed, many of the great mergers or combinations in
+business were initiated by magnates in the banking world with millions
+and billions under their control. Through their connections with one
+another, the banks formed a perfect network of agencies gathering up the
+pennies and dollars of the masses as well as the thousands of the rich
+and pouring them all into the channels of business and manufacturing.
+In this growth of banking on a national scale, it was inevitable that a
+few great centers, like Wall Street in New York or State Street in
+Boston, should rise to a position of dominance both in concentrating the
+savings and profits of the nation and in financing new as well as old
+corporations.
+
+=The Significance of the Corporation.=--The corporation, in fact, became
+the striking feature of American business life, one of the most
+marvelous institutions of all time, comparable in wealth and power and
+the number of its servants with kingdoms and states of old. The effect
+of its rise and growth cannot be summarily estimated; but some special
+facts are obvious. It made possible gigantic enterprises once entirely
+beyond the reach of any individual, no matter how rich. It eliminated
+many of the futile and costly wastes of competition in connection with
+manufacture, advertising, and selling. It studied the cheapest methods
+of production and shut down mills that were poorly equipped or
+disadvantageously located. It established laboratories for research in
+industry, chemistry, and mechanical inventions. Through the sale of
+stocks and bonds, it enabled tens of thousands of people to become
+capitalists, if only in a small way. The corporation made it possible
+for one person to own, for instance, a $50 share in a million dollar
+business concern--a thing entirely impossible under a régime of
+individual owners and partnerships.
+
+There was, of course, another side to the picture. Many of the
+corporations sought to become monopolies and to make profits, not by
+economies and good management, but by extortion from purchasers.
+Sometimes they mercilessly crushed small business men, their
+competitors, bribed members of legislatures to secure favorable laws,
+and contributed to the campaign funds of both leading parties. Wherever
+a trust approached the position of a monopoly, it acquired a dominion
+over the labor market which enabled it to break even the strongest trade
+unions. In short, the power of the trust in finance, in manufacturing,
+in politics, and in the field of labor control can hardly be measured.
+
+=The Corporation and Labor.=--In the development of the corporation
+there was to be observed a distinct severing of the old ties between
+master and workmen, which existed in the days of small industries. For
+the personal bond between the owner and the employees was substituted a
+new relation. "In most parts of our country," as President Wilson once
+said, "men work, not for themselves, not as partners in the old way in
+which they used to work, but generally as employees--in a higher or
+lower grade--of great corporations." The owner disappeared from the
+factory and in his place came the manager, representing the usually
+invisible stockholders and dependent for his success upon his ability to
+make profits for the owners. Hence the term "soulless corporation,"
+which was to exert such a deep influence on American thinking about
+industrial relations.
+
+=Cities and Immigration.=--Expressed in terms of human life, this era of
+unprecedented enterprise meant huge industrial cities and an immense
+labor supply, derived mainly from European immigration. Here, too,
+figures tell only a part of the story. In Washington's day nine-tenths
+of the American people were engaged in agriculture and lived in the
+country; in 1890 more than one-third of the population dwelt in towns of
+2500 and over; in 1920 more than half of the population lived in towns
+of over 2500. In forty years, between 1860 and 1900, Greater New York
+had grown from 1,174,000 to 3,437,000; San Francisco from 56,000 to
+342,000; Chicago from 109,000 to 1,698,000. The miles of city tenements
+began to rival, in the number of their residents, the farm homesteads of
+the West. The time so dreaded by Jefferson had arrived. People were
+"piled upon one another in great cities" and the republic of small
+farmers had passed away.
+
+To these industrial centers flowed annually an ever-increasing tide of
+immigration, reaching the half million point in 1880; rising to
+three-quarters of a million three years later; and passing the million
+mark in a single year at the opening of the new century. Immigration was
+as old as America but new elements now entered the situation. In the
+first place, there were radical changes in the nationality of the
+newcomers. The migration from Northern Europe--England, Ireland,
+Germany, and Scandinavia--diminished; that from Italy, Russia, and
+Austria-Hungary increased, more than three-fourths of the entire number
+coming from these three lands between the years 1900 and 1910. These
+later immigrants were Italians, Poles, Magyars, Czechs, Slovaks,
+Russians, and Jews, who came from countries far removed from the
+language and the traditions of England whence came the founders of
+America.
+
+In the second place, the reception accorded the newcomers differed from
+that given to the immigrants in the early days. By 1890 all the free
+land was gone. They could not, therefore, be dispersed widely among the
+native Americans to assimilate quickly and unconsciously the habits and
+ideas of American life. On the contrary, they were diverted mainly to
+the industrial centers. There they crowded--nay, overcrowded--into
+colonies of their own where they preserved their languages, their
+newspapers, and their old-world customs and views.
+
+So eager were American business men to get an enormous labor supply that
+they asked few questions about the effect of this "alien invasion" upon
+the old America inherited from the fathers. They even stimulated the
+invasion artificially by importing huge armies of foreigners under
+contract to work in specified mines and mills. There seemed to be no
+limit to the factories, forges, refineries, and railways that could be
+built, to the multitudes that could be employed in conquering a
+continent. As for the future, that was in the hands of Providence!
+
+=Business Theories of Politics.=--As the statesmen of Hamilton's school
+and the planters of Calhoun's had their theories of government and
+politics, so the leaders in business enterprise had theirs. It was
+simple and easily stated. "It is the duty of the government," they
+urged, "to protect American industry against foreign competition by
+means of high tariffs on imported goods, to aid railways by generous
+grants of land, to sell mineral and timber lands at low prices to
+energetic men ready to develop them, and then to leave the rest to the
+initiative and drive of individuals and companies." All government
+interference with the management, prices, rates, charges, and conduct of
+private business they held to be either wholly pernicious or intolerably
+impertinent. Judging from their speeches and writings, they conceived
+the nation as a great collection of individuals, companies, and labor
+unions all struggling for profits or high wages and held together by a
+government whose principal duty was to keep the peace among them and
+protect industry against the foreign manufacturer. Such was the
+political theory of business during the generation that followed the
+Civil War.
+
+
+THE SUPREMACY OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY (1861-85)
+
+=Business Men and Republican Policies.=--Most of the leaders in industry
+gravitated to the Republican ranks. They worked in the North and the
+Republican party was essentially Northern. It was moreover--at least so
+far as the majority of its members were concerned--committed to
+protective tariffs, a sound monetary and banking system, the promotion
+of railways and industry by land grants, and the development of internal
+improvements. It was furthermore generous in its immigration policy. It
+proclaimed America to be an asylum for the oppressed of all countries
+and flung wide the doors for immigrants eager to fill the factories, man
+the mines, and settle upon Western lands. In a word the Republicans
+stood for all those specific measures which favored the enlargement and
+prosperity of business. At the same time they resisted government
+interference with private enterprise. They did not regulate railway
+rates, prosecute trusts for forming combinations, or prevent railway
+companies from giving lower rates to some shippers than to others. To
+sum it up, the political theories of the Republican party for three
+decades after the Civil War were the theories of American
+business--prosperous and profitable industries for the owners and "the
+full dinner pail" for the workmen. Naturally a large portion of those
+who flourished under its policies gave their support to it, voted for
+its candidates, and subscribed to its campaign funds.
+
+=Sources of Republican Strength in the North.=--The Republican party was
+in fact a political organization of singular power. It originated in a
+wave of moral enthusiasm, having attracted to itself, if not the
+abolitionists, certainly all those idealists, like James Russell Lowell
+and George William Curtis, who had opposed slavery when opposition was
+neither safe nor popular. To moral principles it added practical
+considerations. Business men had confidence in it. Workingmen, who
+longed for the independence of the farmer, owed to its indulgent land
+policy the opportunity of securing free homesteads in the West. The
+immigrant, landing penniless on these shores, as a result of the same
+beneficent system, often found himself in a little while with an estate
+as large as many a baronial domain in the Old World. Under a Republican
+administration, the union had been saved. To it the veterans of the war
+could turn with confidence for those rewards of service which the
+government could bestow: pensions surpassing in liberality anything that
+the world had ever seen. Under a Republican administration also the
+great debt had been created in the defense of the union, and to the
+Republican party every investor in government bonds could look for the
+full and honorable discharge of the interest and principal. The spoils
+system, inaugurated by Jacksonian Democracy, in turn placed all the
+federal offices in Republican hands, furnishing an army of party workers
+to be counted on for loyal service in every campaign.
+
+Of all these things Republican leaders made full and vigorous use,
+sometimes ascribing to the party, in accordance with ancient political
+usage, merits and achievements not wholly its own. Particularly was this
+true in the case of saving the union. "When in the economy of
+Providence, this land was to be purged of human slavery ... the
+Republican party came into power," ran a declaration in one platform.
+"The Republican party suppressed a gigantic rebellion, emancipated four
+million slaves, decreed the equal citizenship of all, and established
+universal suffrage," ran another. As for the aid rendered by the
+millions of Northern Democrats who stood by the union and the tens of
+thousands of them who actually fought in the union army, the Republicans
+in their zeal were inclined to be oblivious. They repeatedly charged the
+Democratic party "with being the same in character and spirit as when it
+sympathized with treason."
+
+=Republican Control of the South.=--To the strength enjoyed in the
+North, the Republicans for a long time added the advantages that came
+from control over the former Confederate states where the newly
+enfranchised negroes, under white leadership, gave a grateful support to
+the party responsible for their freedom. In this branch of politics,
+motives were so mixed that no historian can hope to appraise them all at
+their proper values. On the one side of the ledger must be set the
+vigorous efforts of the honest and sincere friends of the freedmen to
+win for them complete civil and political equality, wiping out not only
+slavery but all its badges of misery and servitude. On the same side
+must be placed the labor of those who had valiantly fought in forum and
+field to save the union and who regarded continued Republican supremacy
+after the war as absolutely necessary to prevent the former leaders in
+secession from coming back to power. At the same time there were
+undoubtedly some men of the baser sort who looked on politics as a game
+and who made use of "carpet-bagging" in the South to win the spoils that
+might result from it. At all events, both by laws and presidential acts,
+the Republicans for many years kept a keen eye upon the maintenance of
+their dominion in the South. Their declaration that neither the law nor
+its administration should admit any discrimination in respect of
+citizens by reason of race, color, or previous condition of servitude
+appealed to idealists and brought results in elections. Even South
+Carolina, where reposed the ashes of John C. Calhoun, went Republican in
+1872 by a vote of three to one!
+
+Republican control was made easy by the force bills described in a
+previous chapter--measures which vested the supervision of elections in
+federal officers appointed by Republican Presidents. These drastic
+measures, departing from American tradition, the Republican authors
+urged, were necessary to safeguard the purity of the ballot, not merely
+in the South where the timid freedman might readily be frightened from
+using it; but also in the North, particularly in New York City, where it
+was claimed that fraud was regularly practiced by Democratic leaders.
+
+The Democrats, on their side, indignantly denied the charges, replying
+that the force bills were nothing but devices created by the Republicans
+for the purpose of securing their continued rule through systematic
+interference with elections. Even the measures of reconstruction were
+deemed by Democratic leaders as thinly veiled schemes to establish
+Republican power throughout the country. "Nor is there the slightest
+doubt," exclaimed Samuel J. Tilden, spokesman of the Democrats in New
+York and candidate for President in 1876, "that the paramount object and
+motive of the Republican party is by these means to secure itself
+against a reaction of opinion adverse to it in our great populous
+Northern commonwealths.... When the Republican party resolved to
+establish negro supremacy in the ten states in order to gain to itself
+the representation of those states in Congress, it had to begin by
+governing the people of those states by the sword.... The next was the
+creation of new electoral bodies for those ten states, in which, by
+exclusions, by disfranchisements and proscriptions, by control over
+registration, by applying test oaths ... by intimidation and by every
+form of influence, three million negroes are made to predominate over
+four and a half million whites."
+
+=The War as a Campaign Issue.=--Even the repeal of force bills could not
+allay the sectional feelings engendered by the war. The Republicans
+could not forgive the men who had so recently been in arms against the
+union and insisted on calling them "traitors" and "rebels." The
+Southerners, smarting under the reconstruction acts, could regard the
+Republicans only as political oppressors. The passions of the war had
+been too strong; the distress too deep to be soon forgotten. The
+generation that went through it all remembered it all. For twenty
+years, the Republicans, in their speeches and platforms, made "a
+straight appeal to the patriotism of the Northern voters." They
+maintained that their party, which had saved the union and emancipated
+the slaves, was alone worthy of protecting the union and uplifting the
+freedmen.
+
+Though the Democrats, especially in the North, resented this policy and
+dubbed it with the expressive but inelegant phrase, "waving the bloody
+shirt," the Republicans refused to surrender a slogan which made such a
+ready popular appeal. As late as 1884, a leader expressed the hope that
+they might "wring one more President from the bloody shirt." They
+refused to let the country forget that the Democratic candidate, Grover
+Cleveland, had escaped military service by hiring a substitute; and they
+made political capital out of the fact that he had "insulted the
+veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic" by going fishing on
+Decoration Day.
+
+=Three Republican Presidents.=--Fortified by all these elements of
+strength, the Republicans held the presidency from 1869 to 1885. The
+three Presidents elected in this period, Grant, Hayes, and Garfield, had
+certain striking characteristics in common. They were all of origin
+humble enough to please the most exacting Jacksonian Democrat. They had
+been generals in the union army. Grant, next to Lincoln, was regarded as
+the savior of the Constitution. Hayes and Garfield, though lesser lights
+in the military firmament, had honorable records duly appreciated by
+veterans of the war, now thoroughly organized into the Grand Army of the
+Republic. It is true that Grant was not a politician and had never voted
+the Republican ticket; but this was readily overlooked. Hayes and
+Garfield on the other hand were loyal party men. The former had served
+in Congress and for three terms as governor of his state. The latter had
+long been a member of the House of Representatives and was Senator-elect
+when he received the nomination for President.
+
+All of them possessed, moreover, another important asset, which was not
+forgotten by the astute managers who led in selecting candidates. All
+of them were from Ohio--though Grant had been in Illinois when the
+summons to military duties came--and Ohio was a strategic state. It lay
+between the manufacturing East and the agrarian country to the West.
+Having growing industries and wool to sell it benefited from the
+protective tariff. Yet being mainly agricultural still, it was not
+without sympathy for the farmers who showed low tariff or free trade
+tendencies. Whatever share the East had in shaping laws and framing
+policies, it was clear that the West was to have the candidates. This
+division in privileges--not uncommon in political management--was always
+accompanied by a judicious selection of the candidate for Vice
+President. With Garfield, for example, was associated a prominent New
+York politician, Chester A. Arthur, who, as fate decreed, was destined
+to more than three years' service as chief magistrate, on the
+assassination of his superior in office.
+
+=The Disputed Election of 1876.=--While taking note of the long years of
+Republican supremacy, it must be recorded that grave doubts exist in the
+minds of many historians as to whether one of the three Presidents,
+Hayes, was actually the victor in 1876 or not. His Democratic opponent,
+Samuel J. Tilden, received a popular plurality of a quarter of a million
+and had a plausible claim to a majority of the electoral vote. At all
+events, four states sent in double returns, one set for Tilden and
+another for Hayes; and a deadlock ensued. Both parties vehemently
+claimed the election and the passions ran so high that sober men did not
+shrink from speaking of civil war again. Fortunately, in the end, the
+counsels of peace prevailed. Congress provided for an electoral
+commission of fifteen men to review the contested returns. The
+Democrats, inspired by Tilden's moderation, accepted the judgment in
+favor of Hayes even though they were not convinced that he was really
+entitled to the office.
+
+
+THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO REPUBLICAN RULE
+
+=Abuses in American Political Life.=--During their long tenure of
+office, the Republicans could not escape the inevitable consequences of
+power; that is, evil practices and corrupt conduct on the part of some
+who found shelter within the party. For that matter neither did the
+Democrats manage to avoid such difficulties in those states and cities
+where they had the majority. In New York City, for instance, the local
+Democratic organization, known as Tammany Hall, passed under the sway of
+a group of politicians headed by "Boss" Tweed. He plundered the city
+treasury until public-spirited citizens, supported by Samuel J. Tilden,
+the Democratic leader of the state, rose in revolt, drove the ringleader
+from power, and sent him to jail. In Philadelphia, the local Republican
+bosses were guilty of offenses as odious as those committed by New York
+politicians. Indeed, the decade that followed the Civil War was marred
+by so many scandals in public life that one acute editor was moved to
+inquire: "Are not all the great communities of the Western World growing
+more corrupt as they grow in wealth?"
+
+In the sphere of national politics, where the opportunities were
+greater, betrayals of public trust were even more flagrant. One
+revelation after another showed officers, high and low, possessed with
+the spirit of peculation. Members of Congress, it was found, accepted
+railway stock in exchange for votes in favor of land grants and other
+concessions to the companies. In the administration as well as the
+legislature the disease was rife. Revenue officers permitted whisky
+distillers to evade their taxes and received heavy bribes in return. A
+probe into the post-office department revealed the malodorous "star
+route frauds"--the deliberate overpayment of certain mail carriers whose
+lines were indicated in the official record by asterisks or stars. Even
+cabinet officers did not escape suspicion, for the trail of the serpent
+led straight to the door of one of them.
+
+In the lower ranges of official life, the spoils system became more
+virulent as the number of federal employees increased. The holders of
+offices and the seekers after them constituted a veritable political
+army. They crowded into Republican councils, for the Republicans, being
+in power, could alone dispense federal favors. They filled positions in
+the party ranging from the lowest township committee to the national
+convention. They helped to nominate candidates and draft platforms and
+elbowed to one side the busy citizen, not conversant with party
+intrigues, who could only give an occasional day to political matters.
+Even the Civil Service Act of 1883, wrung from a reluctant Congress two
+years after the assassination of Garfield, made little change for a long
+time. It took away from the spoilsmen a few thousand government
+positions, but it formed no check on the practice of rewarding party
+workers from the public treasury.
+
+On viewing this state of affairs, many a distinguished citizen became
+profoundly discouraged. James Russell Lowell, for example, thought he
+saw a steady decline in public morals. In 1865, hearing of Lee's
+surrender, he had exclaimed: "There is something magnificent in having a
+country to love!" Ten years later, when asked to write an ode for the
+centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, he could think only of a biting
+satire on the nation:
+
+    "Show your state legislatures; show your Rings;
+     And challenge Europe to produce such things
+     As high officials sitting half in sight
+     To share the plunder and fix things right.
+     If that don't fetch her, why, you need only
+     To show your latest style in martyrs,--Tweed:
+     She'll find it hard to hide her spiteful tears
+     At such advance in one poor hundred years."
+
+When his critics condemned him for this "attack upon his native land,"
+Lowell replied in sadness: "These fellows have no notion of what love of
+country means. It was in my very blood and bones. If I am not an
+American who ever was?... What fills me with doubt and dismay is the
+degradation of the moral tone. Is it or is it not a result of democracy?
+Is ours a 'government of the people, by the people, for the people,' or
+a Kakistocracy [a government of the worst], rather for the benefit of
+knaves at the cost of fools?"
+
+=The Reform Movement in Republican Ranks.=--The sentiments expressed by
+Lowell, himself a Republican and for a time American ambassador to
+England, were shared by many men in his party. Very soon after the close
+of the Civil War some of them began to protest vigorously against the
+policies and conduct of their leaders. In 1872, the dissenters, calling
+themselves Liberal Republicans, broke away altogether, nominated a
+candidate of their own, Horace Greeley, and put forward a platform
+indicting the Republican President fiercely enough to please the most
+uncompromising Democrat. They accused Grant of using "the powers and
+opportunities of his high office for the promotion of personal ends."
+They charged him with retaining "notoriously corrupt and unworthy men in
+places of power and responsibility." They alleged that the Republican
+party kept "alive the passions and resentments of the late civil war to
+use them for their own advantages," and employed the "public service of
+the government as a machinery of corruption and personal influence."
+
+It was not apparent, however, from the ensuing election that any
+considerable number of Republicans accepted the views of the Liberals.
+Greeley, though indorsed by the Democrats, was utterly routed and died
+of a broken heart. The lesson of his discomfiture seemed to be that
+independent action was futile. So, at least, it was regarded by most men
+of the rising generation like Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts, and
+Theodore Roosevelt, of New York. Profiting by the experience of Greeley
+they insisted in season and out that reformers who desired to rid the
+party of abuses should remain loyal to it and do their work "on the
+inside."
+
+=The Mugwumps and Cleveland Democracy in 1884.=--Though aided by
+Republican dissensions, the Democrats were slow in making headway
+against the political current. They were deprived of the energetic and
+capable leadership once afforded by the planters, like Calhoun, Davis,
+and Toombs; they were saddled by their opponents with responsibility for
+secession; and they were stripped of the support of the prostrate
+South. Not until the last Southern state was restored to the union, not
+until a general amnesty was wrung from Congress, not until white
+supremacy was established at the polls, and the last federal soldier
+withdrawn from Southern capitals did they succeed in capturing the
+presidency.
+
+The opportune moment for them came in 1884 when a number of
+circumstances favored their aspirations. The Republicans, leaving the
+Ohio Valley in their search for a candidate, nominated James G. Blaine
+of Maine, a vigorous and popular leader but a man under fire from the
+reformers in his own party. The Democrats on their side were able to
+find at this juncture an able candidate who had no political enemies in
+the sphere of national politics, Grover Cleveland, then governor of New
+York and widely celebrated as a man of "sterling honesty." At the same
+time a number of dissatisfied Republicans openly espoused the Democratic
+cause,--among them Carl Schurz, George William Curtis, Henry Ward
+Beecher, and William Everett, men of fine ideals and undoubted
+integrity. Though the "regular" Republicans called them "Mugwumps" and
+laughed at them as the "men milliners, the dilettanti, and carpet
+knights of politics," they had a following that was not to be despised.
+
+The campaign which took place that year was one of the most savage in
+American history. Issues were thrust into the background. The tariff,
+though mentioned, was not taken seriously. Abuse of the opposition was
+the favorite resource of party orators. The Democrats insisted that "the
+Republican party so far as principle is concerned is a reminiscence. In
+practice it is an organization for enriching those who control its
+machinery." For the Republican candidate, Blaine, they could hardly find
+words to express their contempt. The Republicans retaliated in kind.
+They praised their own good works, as of old, in saving the union, and
+denounced the "fraud and violence practiced by the Democracy in the
+Southern states." Seeing little objectionable in the public record of
+Cleveland as mayor of Buffalo and governor of New York, they attacked
+his personal character. Perhaps never in the history of political
+campaigns did the discussions on the platform and in the press sink to
+so low a level. Decent people were sickened. Even hot partisans shrank
+from their own words when, after the election, they had time to reflect
+on their heedless passions. Moreover, nothing was decided by the
+balloting. Cleveland was elected, but his victory was a narrow one. A
+change of a few hundred votes in New York would have sent his opponent
+to the White House instead.
+
+=Changing Political Fortunes (1888-96).=--After the Democrats had
+settled down to the enjoyment of their hard-earned victory, President
+Cleveland in his message of 1887 attacked the tariff as "vicious,
+inequitable, and illogical"; as a system of taxation that laid a burden
+upon "every consumer in the land for the benefit of our manufacturers."
+Business enterprise was thoroughly alarmed. The Republicans
+characterized the tariff message as a free-trade assault upon the
+industries of the country. Mainly on that issue they elected in 1888
+Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, a shrewd lawyer, a reticent politician, a
+descendant of the hero of Tippecanoe, and a son of the old Northwest.
+Accepting the outcome of the election as a vindication of their
+principles, the Republicans, under the leadership of William McKinley in
+the House of Representatives, enacted in 1890 a tariff law imposing the
+highest duties yet laid in our history. To their utter surprise,
+however, they were instantly informed by the country that their program
+was not approved. That very autumn they lost in the congressional
+elections, and two years later they were decisively beaten in the
+presidential campaign, Cleveland once more leading his party to victory.
+
+
+=References=
+
+L.H. Haney, _Congressional History of Railways_ (2 vols.).
+
+J.P. Davis, _Union Pacific Railway_.
+
+J.M. Swank, _History of the Manufacture of Iron_.
+
+M.T. Copeland, _The Cotton Manufacturing Industry in the United States_
+(Harvard Studies).
+
+E.W. Bryce, _Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century_.
+
+Ida Tarbell, _History of the Standard Oil Company_ (Critical).
+
+G.H. Montague, _Rise and Progress of the Standard Oil Company_
+(Friendly).
+
+H.P. Fairchild, _Immigration_, and F.J. Warne, _The Immigrant Invasion_
+(Both works favor exclusion).
+
+I.A. Hourwich, _Immigration_ (Against exclusionist policies).
+
+J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States, 1877-1896_, Vol. VIII.
+
+Edward Stanwood, _A History of the Presidency_, Vol. I, for the
+presidential elections of the period.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Contrast the state of industry and commerce at the close of the Civil
+War with its condition at the close of the Revolutionary War.
+
+2. Enumerate the services rendered to the nation by the railways.
+
+3. Explain the peculiar relation of railways to government.
+
+4. What sections of the country have been industrialized?
+
+5. How do you account for the rise and growth of the trusts? Explain
+some of the economic advantages of the trust.
+
+6. Are the people in cities more or less independent than the farmers?
+What was Jefferson's view?
+
+7. State some of the problems raised by unrestricted immigration.
+
+8. What was the theory of the relation of government to business in this
+period? Has it changed in recent times?
+
+9. State the leading economic policies sponsored by the Republican
+party.
+
+10. Why were the Republicans especially strong immediately after the
+Civil War?
+
+11. What illustrations can you give showing the influence of war in
+American political campaigns?
+
+12. Account for the strength of middle-western candidates.
+
+13. Enumerate some of the abuses that appeared in American political
+life after 1865.
+
+14. Sketch the rise and growth of the reform movement.
+
+15. How is the fluctuating state of public opinion reflected in the
+elections from 1880 to 1896?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Invention, Discovery, and Transportation.=--Sparks, _National
+Development_ (American Nation Series), pp. 37-67; Bogart, _Economic
+History of the United States_, Chaps. XXI, XXII, and XXIII.
+
+=Business and Politics.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series),
+pp. 92-107; Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VII, pp. 1-29,
+64-73, 175-206; Wilson, _History of the American People_, Vol. IV, pp.
+78-96.
+
+=Immigration.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United States_ (2d
+ed.), pp. 369-374; E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_,
+pp. 420-422, 434-437; Jenks and Lauck, _Immigration Problems_, Commons,
+_Races and Immigrants_.
+
+=The Disputed Election of 1876.=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own
+Time_, pp. 82-94; Dunning, _Reconstruction, Political and Economic_
+(American Nation Series), pp. 294-341; Elson, _History of the United
+States_, pp. 835-841.
+
+=Abuses in Political Life.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction_, pp. 281-293; see
+criticisms in party platforms in Stanwood, _History of the Presidency_,
+Vol. I; Bryce, _American Commonwealth_ (1910 ed.), Vol. II, pp. 379-448;
+136-167.
+
+=Studies of Presidential Administrations.=--(_a_) Grant, (_b_) Hayes,
+(_c_) Garfield-Arthur, (_d_) Cleveland, and (_e_) Harrison, in Haworth,
+_The United States in Our Own Time_, or in Paxson, _The New Nation_
+(Riverside Series), or still more briefly in Elson.
+
+=Cleveland Democracy.=--Haworth, _The United States_, pp. 164-183;
+Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 240-327; Elson,
+pp. 857-887.
+
+=Analysis of Modern Immigration Problems.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New
+York State, 1919), pp. 110-112.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT WEST
+
+
+At the close of the Civil War, Kansas and Texas were sentinel states on
+the middle border. Beyond the Rockies, California, Oregon, and Nevada
+stood guard, the last of them having been just admitted to furnish
+another vote for the fifteenth amendment abolishing slavery. Between the
+near and far frontiers lay a vast reach of plain, desert, plateau, and
+mountain, almost wholly undeveloped. A broad domain, extending from
+Canada to Mexico, and embracing the regions now included in Washington,
+Idaho, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, the Dakotas, and
+Oklahoma, had fewer than half a million inhabitants. It was laid out
+into territories, each administered under a governor appointed by the
+President and Senate and, as soon as there was the requisite number of
+inhabitants, a legislature elected by the voters. No railway line
+stretched across the desert. St. Joseph on the Missouri was the terminus
+of the Eastern lines. It required twenty-five days for a passenger to
+make the overland journey to California by the stagecoach system,
+established in 1858, and more than ten days for the swift pony express,
+organized in 1860, to carry a letter to San Francisco. Indians still
+roamed the plain and desert and more than one powerful tribe disputed
+the white man's title to the soil.
+
+
+THE RAILWAYS AS TRAIL BLAZERS
+
+=Opening Railways to the Pacific.=--A decade before the Civil War the
+importance of rail connection between the East and the Pacific Coast had
+been recognized. Pressure had already been brought to bear on Congress
+to authorize the construction of a line and to grant land and money in
+its aid. Both the Democrats and Republicans approved the idea, but it
+was involved in the slavery controversy. Indeed it was submerged in it.
+Southern statesmen wanted connections between the Gulf and the Pacific
+through Texas, while Northerners stood out for a central route.
+
+The North had its way during the war. Congress, by legislation initiated
+in 1862, provided for the immediate organization of companies to build a
+line from the Missouri River to California and made grants of land and
+loans of money to aid in the enterprise. The Western end, the Central
+Pacific, was laid out under the supervision of Leland Stanford. It was
+heavily financed by the Mormons of Utah and also by the state
+government, the ranchmen, miners, and business men of California; and it
+was built principally by Chinese labor. The Eastern end, the Union
+Pacific, starting at Omaha, was constructed mainly by veterans of the
+Civil War and immigrants from Ireland and Germany. In 1869 the two
+companies met near Ogden in Utah and the driving of the last spike,
+uniting the Atlantic and the Pacific, was the occasion of a great
+demonstration.
+
+Other lines to the Pacific were projected at the same time; but the
+panic of 1873 checked railway enterprise for a while. With the revival
+of prosperity at the end of that decade, construction was renewed with
+vigor and the year 1883 marked a series of railway triumphs. In February
+trains were running from New Orleans through Houston, San Antonio, and
+Yuma to San Francisco, as a result of a union of the Texas Pacific with
+the Southern Pacific and its subsidiary corporations. In September the
+last spike was driven in the Northern Pacific at Helena, Montana. Lake
+Superior was connected with Puget Sound. The waters explored by Joliet
+and Marquette were joined to the waters plowed by Sir Francis Drake
+while he was searching for a route around the world. That same year also
+a third line was opened to the Pacific by way of the Atchison, Topeka
+and Santa Fé, making connections through Albuquerque and Needles with
+San Francisco. The fondest hopes of railway promoters seemed to be
+realized.
+
+[Illustration: UNITED STATES IN 1870]
+
+=Western Railways Precede Settlement.=--In the Old World and on our
+Atlantic seaboard, railways followed population and markets. In the Far
+West, railways usually preceded the people. Railway builders planned
+cities on paper before they laid tracks connecting them. They sent
+missionaries to spread the gospel of "Western opportunity" to people in
+the Middle West, in the Eastern cities, and in Southern states. Then
+they carried their enthusiastic converts bag and baggage in long trains
+to the distant Dakotas and still farther afield. So the development of
+the Far West was not left to the tedious processes of time. It was
+pushed by men of imagination--adventurers who made a romance of
+money-making and who had dreams of empire unequaled by many kings of the
+past.
+
+These empire builders bought railway lands in huge tracts; they got more
+from the government; they overcame every obstacle of cañon, mountain,
+and stream with the aid of science; they built cities according to the
+plans made by the engineers. Having the towns ready and railway and
+steamboat connections formed with the rest of the world, they carried
+out the people to use the railways, the steamships, the houses, and the
+land. It was in this way that "the frontier speculator paved the way for
+the frontier agriculturalist who had to be near a market before he could
+farm." The spirit of this imaginative enterprise, which laid out
+railways and towns in advance of the people, is seen in an advertisement
+of that day: "This extension will run 42 miles from York, northeast
+through the Island Lake country, and will have five good North Dakota
+towns. The stations on the line will be well equipped with elevators and
+will be constructed and ready for operation at the commencement of the
+grain season. Prospective merchants have been active in securing
+desirable locations at the different towns on the line. There are still
+opportunities for hotels, general merchandise, hardware, furniture, and
+drug stores, etc."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A TOWN ON THE PRAIRIE]
+
+Among the railway promoters and builders in the West, James J. Hill,
+of the Great Northern and allied lines, was one of the most forceful
+figures. He knew that tracks and trains were useless without passengers
+and freight; without a population of farmers and town dwellers. He
+therefore organized publicity in the Virginias, Iowa, Ohio, Indiana,
+Illinois, Wisconsin, and Nebraska especially. He sent out agents to tell
+the story of Western opportunity in this vein: "You see your children
+come out of school with no chance to get farms of their own because the
+cost of land in your older part of the country is so high that you can't
+afford to buy land to start your sons out in life around you. They have
+to go to the cities to make a living or become laborers in the mills or
+hire out as farm hands. There is no future for them there. If you are
+doing well where you are and can safeguard the future of your children
+and see them prosper around you, don't leave here. But if you want
+independence, if you are renting your land, if the money-lender is
+carrying you along and you are running behind year after year, you can
+do no worse by moving.... You farmers talk of free trade and protection
+and what this or that political party will do for you. Why don't you
+vote a homestead for yourself? That is the only thing Uncle Sam will
+ever give you. Jim Hill hasn't an acre of land to sell you. We are not
+in the real estate business. We don't want you to go out West and make a
+failure of it because the rates at which we haul you and your goods make
+the first transaction a loss.... We must have landless men for a manless
+land."
+
+Unlike steamship companies stimulating immigration to get the fares,
+Hill was seeking permanent settlers who would produce, manufacture, and
+use the railways as the means of exchange. Consequently he fixed low
+rates and let his passengers take a good deal of live stock and
+household furniture free. By doing this he made an appeal that was
+answered by eager families. In 1894 the vanguard of home seekers left
+Indiana in fourteen passenger coaches, filled with men, women, and
+children, and forty-eight freight cars carrying their household goods
+and live stock. In the ten years that followed, 100,000 people from the
+Middle West and the South, responding to his call, went to the Western
+country where they brought eight million acres of prairie land under
+cultivation.
+
+When Hill got his people on the land, he took an interest in everything
+that increased the productivity of their labor. Was the output of food
+for his freight cars limited by bad drainage on the farms? Hill then
+interested himself in practical ways of ditching and tiling. Were
+farmers hampered in hauling their goods to his trains by bad roads? In
+that case, he urged upon the states the improvement of highways. Did the
+traffic slacken because the food shipped was not of the best quality?
+Then live stock must be improved and scientific farming promoted. Did
+the farmers need credit? Banks must be established close at hand to
+advance it. In all conferences on scientific farm management,
+conservation of natural resources, banking and credit in relation to
+agriculture and industry, Hill was an active participant. His was the
+long vision, seeing in conservation and permanent improvements the
+foundation of prosperity for the railways and the people.
+
+Indeed, he neglected no opportunity to increase the traffic on the
+lines. He wanted no empty cars running in either direction and no wheat
+stored in warehouses for the lack of markets. So he looked to the Orient
+as well as to Europe as an outlet for the surplus of the farms. He sent
+agents to China and Japan to discover what American goods and produce
+those countries would consume and what manufactures they had to offer to
+Americans in exchange. To open the Pacific trade he bought two ocean
+monsters, the _Minnesota_ and the _Dakota_, thus preparing for
+emergencies West as well as East. When some Japanese came to the United
+States on their way to Europe to buy steel rails, Hill showed them how
+easy it was for them to make their purchase in this country and ship by
+way of American railways and American vessels. So the railway builder
+and promoter, who helped to break the virgin soil of the prairies, lived
+through the pioneer epoch and into the age of great finance. Before he
+died he saw the wheat fields of North Dakota linked with the spinning
+jennies of Manchester and the docks of Yokohama.
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF GRAZING AND AGRICULTURE
+
+=The Removal of the Indians.=--Unlike the frontier of New England in
+colonial days or that of Kentucky later, the advancing lines of home
+builders in the Far West had little difficulty with warlike natives.
+Indian attacks were made on the railway construction gangs; General
+Custer had his fatal battle with the Sioux in 1876 and there were minor
+brushes; but they were all of relatively slight consequence. The former
+practice of treating with the Indians as independent nations was
+abandoned in 1871 and most of them were concentrated in reservations
+where they were mainly supported by the government. The supervision of
+their affairs was vested in a board of commissioners created in 1869 and
+instructed to treat them as wards of the nation--a trust which
+unfortunately was often betrayed. A further step in Indian policy was
+taken in 1887 when provision was made for issuing lands to individual
+Indians, thus permitting them to become citizens and settle down among
+their white neighbors as farmers or cattle raisers. The disappearance of
+the buffalo, the main food supply of the wild Indians, had made them
+more tractable and more willing to surrender the freedom of the hunter
+for the routine of the reservation, ranch, or wheat field.
+
+=The Cowboy and Cattle Ranger.=--Between the frontier of farms and the
+mountains were plains and semi-arid regions in vast reaches suitable for
+grazing. As soon as the railways were open into the Missouri Valley,
+affording an outlet for stock, there sprang up to the westward cattle
+and sheep raising on an immense scale. The far-famed American cowboy was
+the hero in this scene. Great herds of cattle were bred in Texas; with
+the advancing spring and summer seasons, they were driven northward
+across the plains and over the buffalo trails. In a single year, 1884,
+it is estimated that nearly one million head of cattle were moved out of
+Texas to the North by four thousand cowboys, supplied with 30,000
+horses and ponies.
+
+During the two decades from 1870 to 1890 both the cattle men and the
+sheep raisers had an almost free run of the plains, using public lands
+without paying for the privilege and waging war on one another over the
+possession of ranges. At length, however, both had to go, as the
+homesteaders and land companies came and fenced in the plain and desert
+with endless lines of barbed wire. Already in 1893 a writer familiar
+with the frontier lamented the passing of the picturesque days: "The
+unique position of the cowboys among the Americans is jeopardized in a
+thousand ways. Towns are growing up on their pasture lands; irrigation
+schemes of a dozen sorts threaten to turn bunch-grass scenery into
+farm-land views; farmers are pre-empting valleys and the sides of
+waterways; and the day is not far distant when stock-raising must be
+done mainly in small herds, with winter corrals, and then the cowboy's
+days will end. Even now his condition disappoints those who knew him
+only half a dozen years ago. His breed seems to have deteriorated and
+his ranks are filling with men who work for wages rather than for the
+love of the free life and bold companionship that once tempted men into
+that calling. Splendid Cheyenne saddles are less and less numerous in
+the outfits; the distinctive hat that made its way up from Mexico may or
+may not be worn; all the civil authorities in nearly all towns in the
+grazing country forbid the wearing of side arms; nobody shoots up these
+towns any more. The fact is the old simon-pure cowboy days are gone
+already."
+
+=Settlement under the Homestead Act of 1862.=--Two factors gave a
+special stimulus to the rapid settlement of Western lands which swept
+away the Indians and the cattle rangers. The first was the policy of the
+railway companies in selling large blocks of land received from the
+government at low prices to induce immigration. The second was the
+operation of the Homestead law passed in 1862. This measure practically
+closed the long controversy over the disposition of the public domain
+that was suitable for agriculture. It provided for granting, without any
+cost save a small registration fee, public lands in lots of 160 acres
+each to citizens and aliens who declared their intention of becoming
+citizens. The one important condition attached was that the settler
+should occupy the farm for five years before his title was finally
+confirmed. Even this stipulation was waived in the case of the Civil War
+veterans who were allowed to count their term of military service as a
+part of the five years' occupancy required. As the soldiers of the
+Revolutionary and Mexican wars had advanced in great numbers to the
+frontier in earlier days, so now veterans led in the settlement of the
+middle border. Along with them went thousands of German, Irish, and
+Scandinavian immigrants, fresh from the Old World. Between 1867 and
+1874, 27,000,000 acres were staked out in quarter-section farms. In
+twenty years (1860-80), the population of Nebraska leaped from 28,000 to
+almost half a million; Kansas from 100,000 to a million; Iowa from
+600,000 to 1,600,000; and the Dakotas from 5000 to 140,000.
+
+=The Diversity of Western Agriculture.=--In soil, produce, and
+management, Western agriculture presented many contrasts to that of the
+East and South. In the region of arable and watered lands the typical
+American unit--the small farm tilled by the owner--appeared as usual;
+but by the side of it many a huge domain owned by foreign or Eastern
+companies and tilled by hired labor. Sometimes the great estate took the
+shape of the "bonanza farm" devoted mainly to wheat and corn and
+cultivated on a large scale by machinery. Again it assumed the form of
+the cattle ranch embracing tens of thousands of acres. Again it was a
+vast holding of diversified interest, such as the Santa Anita ranch near
+Los Angeles, a domain of 60,000 acres "cultivated in a glorious sweep of
+vineyards and orange and olive orchards, rich sheep and cattle pastures
+and horse ranches, their life and customs handed down from the Spanish
+owners of the various ranches which were swept into one estate."
+
+=Irrigation.=--In one respect agriculture in the Far West was unique. In
+a large area spreading through eight states, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming,
+Utah, Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of adjoining
+states, the rainfall was so slight that the ordinary crops to which the
+American farmer was accustomed could not be grown at all. The Mormons
+were the first Anglo-Saxons to encounter aridity, and they were baffled
+at first; but they studied it and mastered it by magnificent irrigation
+systems. As other settlers poured into the West the problem of the
+desert was attacked with a will, some of them replying to the
+commiseration of Eastern farmers by saying that it was easier to scoop
+out an irrigation ditch than to cut forests and wrestle with stumps and
+stones. Private companies bought immense areas at low prices, built
+irrigation works, and disposed of their lands in small plots. Some
+ranchers with an instinct for water, like that of the miner for metal,
+sank wells into the dry sand and were rewarded with gushers that "soused
+the thirsty desert and turned its good-for-nothing sand into
+good-for-anything loam." The federal government came to the aid of the
+arid regions in 1894 by granting lands to the states to be used for
+irrigation purposes. In this work Wyoming took the lead with a law which
+induced capitalists to invest in irrigation and at the same time
+provided for the sale of the redeemed lands to actual settlers. Finally
+in 1902 the federal government by its liberal Reclamation Act added its
+strength to that of individuals, companies, and states in conquering
+"arid America."
+
+"Nowhere," writes Powell, a historian of the West, in his picturesque
+_End of the Trail_, "has the white man fought a more courageous fight or
+won a more brilliant victory than in Arizona. His weapons have been the
+transit and the level, the drill and the dredge, the pick and the spade;
+and the enemy which he has conquered has been the most stubborn of all
+foes--the hostile forces of Nature.... The story of how the white man
+within the space of less than thirty years penetrated, explored, and
+mapped this almost unknown region; of how he carried law, order, and
+justice into a section which had never had so much as a speaking
+acquaintance with any one of the three before; of how, realizing the
+necessity for means of communication, he built highways of steel across
+this territory from east to west and from north to south; of how,
+undismayed by the savageness of the countenance which the desert turned
+upon him, he laughed and rolled up his sleeves, and spat upon his hands,
+and slashed the face of the desert with canals and irrigating ditches,
+and filled those ditches with water brought from deep in the earth or
+high in the mountains; and of how, in the conquered and submissive soil,
+he replaced the aloe with alfalfa, the mesquite with maize, the cactus
+with cotton, forms one of the most inspiring chapters in our history. It
+is one of the epics of civilization, this reclamation of the Southwest,
+and its heroes, thank God, are Americans.
+
+"Other desert regions have been redeemed by irrigation--Egypt, for
+example, and Mesopotamia and parts of the Sudan--but the people of all
+those regions lay stretched out in the shade of a convenient palm,
+metaphorically speaking, and waited for some one with more energy than
+themselves to come along and do the work. But the Arizonians, mindful of
+the fact that God, the government, and Carnegie help those who help
+themselves, spent their days wielding the pick and shovel, and their
+evenings in writing letters to Washington with toil-hardened hands.
+After a time the government was prodded into action and the great dams
+at Laguna and Roosevelt are the result. Then the people, organizing
+themselves into coöperative leagues and water-users' associations, took
+up the work of reclamation where the government left off; it is to these
+energetic, persevering men who have drilled wells, plowed fields, and
+dug ditches through the length and breadth of that great region which
+stretches from Yuma to Tucson, that the metamorphosis of Arizona is
+due."
+
+The effect of irrigation wherever introduced was amazing. Stretches of
+sand and sagebrush gave way to fertile fields bearing crops of wheat,
+corn, fruits, vegetables, and grass. Huge ranches grazed by browsing
+sheep were broken up into small plots. The cowboy and ranchman vanished.
+In their place rose the prosperous community--a community unlike the
+township of Iowa or the industrial center of the East. Its intensive
+tillage left little room for hired labor. Its small holdings drew
+families together in village life rather than dispersing them on the
+lonely plain. Often the development of water power in connection with
+irrigation afforded electricity for labor-saving devices and lifted many
+a burden that in other days fell heavily upon the shoulders of the
+farmer and his family.
+
+
+MINING AND MANUFACTURING IN THE WEST
+
+=Mineral Resources.=--In another important particular the Far West
+differed from the Mississippi Valley states. That was in the
+predominance of mining over agriculture throughout a vast section.
+Indeed it was the minerals rather than the land that attracted the
+pioneers who first opened the country. The discovery of gold in
+California in 1848 was the signal for the great rush of prospectors,
+miners, and promoters who explored the valleys, climbed the hills,
+washed the sands, and dug up the soil in their feverish search for gold,
+silver, copper, coal, and other minerals. In Nevada and Montana the
+development of mineral resources went on all during the Civil War. Alder
+Gulch became Virginia City in 1863; Last Chance Gulch was named Helena
+in 1864; and Confederate Gulch was christened Diamond City in 1865. At
+Butte the miners began operations in 1864 and within five years had
+washed out eight million dollars' worth of gold. Under the gold they
+found silver; under silver they found copper.
+
+Even at the end of the nineteenth century, after agriculture was well
+advanced and stock and sheep raising introduced on a large scale,
+minerals continued to be the chief source of wealth in a number of
+states. This was revealed by the figures for 1910. The gold, silver,
+iron, and copper of Colorado were worth more than the wheat, corn, and
+oats combined; the copper of Montana sold for more than all the cereals
+and four times the price of the wheat. The interest of Nevada was also
+mainly mining, the receipts from the mineral output being $43,000,000 or
+more than one-half the national debt of Hamilton's day. The yield of the
+mines of Utah was worth four or five times the wheat crop; the coal of
+Wyoming brought twice as much as the great wool clip; the minerals of
+Arizona were totaled at $43,000,000 as against a wool clip reckoned at
+$1,200,000; while in Idaho alone of this group of states did the wheat
+crop exceed in value the output of the mines.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph from Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+LOGGING]
+
+=Timber Resources.=--The forests of the great West, unlike those of the
+Ohio Valley, proved a boon to the pioneers rather than a foe to be
+attacked. In Ohio and Indiana, for example, the frontier line of
+homemakers had to cut, roll, and burn thousands of trees before they
+could put out a crop of any size. Beyond the Mississippi, however,
+there were all ready for the breaking plow great reaches of almost
+treeless prairie, where every stick of timber was precious. In the other
+parts, often rough and mountainous, where stood primeval forests of the
+finest woods, the railroads made good use of the timber. They consumed
+acres of forests themselves in making ties, bridge timbers, and
+telegraph poles, and they laid a heavy tribute upon the forests for
+their annual upkeep. The surplus trees, such as had burdened the
+pioneers of the Northwest Territory a hundred years before, they carried
+off to markets on the east and west coasts.
+
+=Western Industries.=--The peculiar conditions of the Far West
+stimulated a rise of industries more rapid than is usual in new country.
+The mining activities which in many sections preceded agriculture called
+for sawmills to furnish timber for the mines and smelters to reduce and
+refine ores. The ranches supplied sheep and cattle for the packing
+houses of Kansas City as well as Chicago. The waters of the Northwest
+afforded salmon for 4000 cases in 1866 and for 1,400,000 cases in 1916.
+The fruits and vegetables of California brought into existence
+innumerable canneries. The lumber industry, starting with crude sawmills
+to furnish rough timbers for railways and mines, ended in specialized
+factories for paper, boxes, and furniture. As the railways preceded
+settlement and furnished a ready outlet for local manufactures, so they
+encouraged the early establishment of varied industries, thus creating a
+state of affairs quite unlike that which obtained in the Ohio Valley in
+the early days before the opening of the Erie Canal.
+
+=Social Effects of Economic Activities.=--In many respects the social
+life of the Far West also differed from that of the Ohio Valley. The
+treeless prairies, though open to homesteads, favored the great estate
+tilled in part by tenant labor and in part by migratory seasonal labor,
+summoned from all sections of the country for the harvests. The mineral
+resources created hundreds of huge fortunes which made the accumulations
+of eastern mercantile families look trivial by comparison. Other
+millionaires won their fortunes in the railway business and still more
+from the cattle and sheep ranges. In many sections the "cattle king," as
+he was called, was as dominant as the planter had been in the old South.
+Everywhere in the grazing country he was a conspicuous and important
+person. He "sometimes invested money in banks, in railroad stocks, or in
+city property.... He had his rating in the commercial reviews and could
+hobnob with bankers, railroad presidents, and metropolitan merchants....
+He attended party caucuses and conventions, ran for the state
+legislature, and sometimes defeated a lawyer or metropolitan 'business
+man' in the race for a seat in Congress. In proportion to their numbers,
+the ranchers ... have constituted a highly impressive class."
+
+Although many of the early capitalists of the great West, especially
+from Nevada, spent their money principally in the East, others took
+leadership in promoting the sections in which they had made their
+fortunes. A railroad pioneer, General Palmer, built his home at Colorado
+Springs, founded the town, and encouraged local improvements. Denver
+owed its first impressive buildings to the civic patriotism of Horace
+Tabor, a wealthy mine owner. Leland Stanford paid his tribute to
+California in the endowment of a large university. Colonel W.F. Cody,
+better known as "Buffalo Bill," started his career by building a "boom
+town" which collapsed, and made a large sum of money supplying buffalo
+meat to construction hands (hence his popular name). By his famous Wild
+West Show, he increased it to a fortune which he devoted mainly to the
+promotion of a western reclamation scheme.
+
+While the Far West was developing this vigorous, aggressive leadership
+in business, a considerable industrial population was springing up. Even
+the cattle ranges and hundreds of farms were conducted like factories in
+that they were managed through overseers who hired plowmen, harvesters,
+and cattlemen at regular wages. At the same time there appeared other
+peculiar features which made a lasting impression on western economic
+life. Mining, lumbering, and fruit growing, for instance, employed
+thousands of workers during the rush months and turned them out at other
+times. The inevitable result was an army of migratory laborers wandering
+from camp to camp, from town to town, and from ranch to ranch, without
+fixed homes or established habits of life. From this extraordinary
+condition there issued many a long and lawless conflict between capital
+and labor, giving a distinct color to the labor movement in whole
+sections of the mountain and coast states.
+
+
+THE ADMISSION OF NEW STATES
+
+=The Spirit of Self-Government.=--The instinct of self-government was
+strong in the western communities. In the very beginning, it led to the
+organization of volunteer committees, known as "vigilantes," to suppress
+crime and punish criminals. As soon as enough people were settled
+permanently in a region, they took care to form a more stable kind of
+government. An illustration of this process is found in the Oregon
+compact made by the pioneers in 1843, the spirit of which is reflected
+in an editorial in an old copy of the _Rocky Mountain News_: "We claim
+that any body or community of American citizens which from any cause or
+under any circumstances is cut off from or from isolation is so situated
+as not to be under any active and protecting branch of the central
+government, have a right, if on American soil, to frame a government and
+enact such laws and regulations as may be necessary for their own
+safety, protection, and happiness, always with the condition precedent,
+that they shall, at the earliest moment when the central government
+shall extend an effective organization and laws over them, give it their
+unqualified support and obedience."
+
+People who turned so naturally to the organization of local
+administration were equally eager for admission to the union as soon as
+any shadow of a claim to statehood could be advanced. As long as a
+region was merely one of the territories of the United States, the
+appointment of the governor and other officers was controlled by
+politics at Washington. Moreover the disposition of land, mineral
+rights, forests, and water power was also in the hands of national
+leaders. Thus practical considerations were united with the spirit of
+independence in the quest for local autonomy.
+
+=Nebraska and Colorado.=--Two states, Nebraska and Colorado, had little
+difficulty in securing admission to the union. The first, Nebraska, had
+been organized as a territory by the famous Kansas-Nebraska bill which
+did so much to precipitate the Civil War. Lying to the north of Kansas,
+which had been admitted in 1861, it escaped the invasion of slave owners
+from Missouri and was settled mainly by farmers from the North. Though
+it claimed a population of only 67,000, it was regarded with kindly
+interest by the Republican Congress at Washington and, reduced to its
+present boundaries, it received the coveted statehood in 1867.
+
+This was hardly accomplished before the people of Colorado to the
+southwest began to make known their demands. They had been organized
+under territorial government in 1861 when they numbered only a handful;
+but within ten years the aspect of their affairs had completely changed.
+The silver and gold deposits of the Leadville and Cripple Creek regions
+had attracted an army of miners and prospectors. The city of Denver,
+founded in 1858 and named after the governor of Kansas whence came many
+of the early settlers, had grown from a straggling camp of log huts into
+a prosperous center of trade. By 1875 it was reckoned that the
+population of the territory was not less than one hundred thousand; the
+following year Congress, yielding to the popular appeal, made Colorado a
+member of the American union.
+
+=Six New States (1889-1890).=--For many years there was a deadlock in
+Congress over the admission of new states. The spell was broken in 1889
+under the leadership of the Dakotas. For a long time the Dakota
+territory, organized in 1861, had been looked upon as the home of the
+powerful Sioux Indians whose enormous reservation blocked the advance of
+the frontier. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills, however, marked
+their doom. Even before Congress could open their lands to prospectors,
+pioneers were swarming over the country. Farmers from the adjoining
+Minnesota and the Eastern states, Scandinavians, Germans, and Canadians,
+came in swelling waves to occupy the fertile Dakota lands, now famous
+even as far away as the fjords of Norway. Seldom had the plow of man cut
+through richer soil than was found in the bottoms of the Red River
+Valley, and it became all the more precious when the opening of the
+Northern Pacific in 1883 afforded a means of transportation east and
+west. The population, which had numbered 135,000 in 1880, passed the
+half million mark before ten years had elapsed.
+
+Remembering that Nebraska had been admitted with only 67,000
+inhabitants, the Dakotans could not see why they should be kept under
+federal tutelage. At the same time Washington, far away on the Pacific
+Coast, Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming, boasting of their populations and
+their riches, put in their own eloquent pleas. But the members of
+Congress were busy with politics. The Democrats saw no good reason for
+admitting new Republican states until after their defeat in 1888. Near
+the end of their term the next year they opened the door for North and
+South Dakota, Washington, and Montana. In 1890, a Republican Congress
+brought Idaho and Wyoming into the union, the latter with woman
+suffrage, which had been granted twenty-one years before.
+
+=Utah.=--Although Utah had long presented all the elements of a
+well-settled and industrious community, its admission to the union was
+delayed on account of popular hostility to the practice of polygamy. The
+custom, it is true, had been prohibited by act of Congress in 1862; but
+the law had been systematically evaded. In 1882 Congress made another
+and more effective effort to stamp out polygamy. Five years later it
+even went so far as to authorize the confiscation of the property of the
+Mormon Church in case the practice of plural marriages was not stopped.
+Meanwhile the Gentile or non-Mormon population was steadily increasing
+and the leaders in the Church became convinced that the battle
+against the sentiment of the country was futile. At last in 1896 Utah
+was admitted as a state under a constitution which forbade plural
+marriages absolutely and forever. Horace Greeley, who visited Utah in
+1859, had prophesied that the Pacific Railroad would work a revolution
+in the land of Brigham Young. His prophecy had come true.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1912]
+
+=Rounding out the Continent.=--Three more territories now remained out
+of the Union. Oklahoma, long an Indian reservation, had been opened for
+settlement to white men in 1889. The rush upon the fertile lands of this
+region, the last in the history of America, was marked by all the frenzy
+of the final, desperate chance. At a signal from a bugle an army of men
+with families in wagons, men and women on horseback and on foot, burst
+into the territory. During the first night a city of tents was raised at
+Guthrie and Oklahoma City. In ten days wooden houses rose on the plains.
+In a single year there were schools, churches, business blocks, and
+newspapers. Within fifteen years there was a population of more than
+half a million. To the west, Arizona with a population of about 125,000
+and New Mexico with 200,000 inhabitants joined Oklahoma in asking for
+statehood. Congress, then Republican, looked with reluctance upon the
+addition of more Democratic states; but in 1907 it was literally
+compelled by public sentiment and a sense of justice to admit Oklahoma.
+In 1910 the House of Representatives went to the Democrats and within
+two years Arizona and New Mexico were "under the roof." So the
+continental domain was rounded out.
+
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF THE FAR WEST ON NATIONAL LIFE
+
+=The Last of the Frontier.=--When Horace Greeley made his trip west in
+1859 he thus recorded the progress of civilization in his journal:
+
+     "May 12th, Chicago.--Chocolate and morning journals last
+     seen on the hotel breakfast table.
+
+     23rd, Leavenworth (Kansas).--Room bells and bath tubs make
+     their final appearance.
+
+     26th, Manhattan.--Potatoes and eggs last recognized among
+     the blessings that 'brighten as they take their flight.'
+
+     27th, Junction City.--Last visitation of a boot-black, with
+     dissolving views of a board bedroom. Beds bid us good-by."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Panama-California Exposition_
+
+THE CANADIAN BUILDING AT THE PANAMA-CALIFORNIA INTERNATIONAL
+EXPOSITION, SAN DIEGO, 1915]
+
+Within thirty years travelers were riding across that country in Pullman
+cars and enjoying at the hotels all the comforts of a standardized
+civilization. The "wild west" was gone, and with it that frontier of
+pioneers and settlers who had long given such a bent and tone to
+American life and had "poured in upon the floor of Congress" such a long
+line of "backwoods politicians," as they were scornfully styled.
+
+=Free Land and Eastern Labor.=--It was not only the picturesque features
+of the frontier that were gone. Of far more consequence was the
+disappearance of free lands with all that meant for American labor. For
+more than a hundred years, any man of even moderate means had been able
+to secure a homestead of his own and an independent livelihood. For a
+hundred years America had been able to supply farms to as many
+immigrants as cared to till the soil. Every new pair of strong arms
+meant more farms and more wealth. Workmen in Eastern factories, mines,
+or mills who did not like their hours, wages, or conditions of labor,
+could readily find an outlet to the land. Now all that was over. By
+about 1890 most of the desirable land available under the Homestead act
+had disappeared. American industrial workers confronted a new situation.
+
+=Grain Supplants King Cotton.=--In the meantime a revolution was taking
+place in agriculture. Until 1860 the chief staples sold by America were
+cotton and tobacco. With the advance of the frontier, corn and wheat
+supplanted them both in agrarian economy. The West became the granary of
+the East and of Western Europe. The scoop shovel once used to handle
+grain was superseded by the towering elevator, loading and unloading
+thousands of bushels every hour. The refrigerator car and ship made the
+packing industry as stable as the production of cotton or corn, and gave
+an immense impetus to cattle raising and sheep farming. So the meat of
+the West took its place on the English dinner table by the side of bread
+baked from Dakotan wheat.
+
+=Aid in American Economic Independence.=--The effects of this economic
+movement were manifold and striking. Billions of dollars' worth of
+American grain, dairy produce, and meat were poured into European
+markets where they paid off debts due money lenders and acquired
+capital to develop American resources. Thus they accelerated the
+progress of American financiers toward national independence. The
+country, which had timidly turned to the Old World for capital in
+Hamilton's day and had borrowed at high rates of interest in London in
+Lincoln's day, moved swiftly toward the time when it would be among the
+world's first bankers and money lenders itself. Every grain of wheat and
+corn pulled the balance down on the American side of the scale.
+
+=Eastern Agriculture Affected.=--In the East as well as abroad the
+opening of the western granary produced momentous results. The
+agricultural economy of that part of the country was changed in many
+respects. Whole sections of the poorest land went almost out of
+cultivation, the abandoned farms of the New England hills bearing solemn
+witness to the competing power of western wheat fields. Sheep and cattle
+raising, as well as wheat and corn production, suffered at least a
+relative decline. Thousands of farmers cultivating land of the lower
+grade were forced to go West or were driven to the margin of
+subsistence. Even the herds that supplied Eastern cities with milk were
+fed upon grain brought halfway across the continent.
+
+=The Expansion of the American Market.=--Upon industry as well as
+agriculture, the opening of vast food-producing regions told in a
+thousand ways. The demand for farm machinery, clothing, boots, shoes,
+and other manufactures gave to American industries such a market as even
+Hamilton had never foreseen. Moreover it helped to expand far into the
+Mississippi Valley the industrial area once confined to the Northern
+seaboard states and to transform the region of the Great Lakes into an
+industrial empire. Herein lies the explanation of the growth of
+mid-western cities after 1865. Chicago, with its thirty-five railways,
+tapped every locality of the West and South. To the railways were added
+the water routes of the Lakes, thus creating a strategic center for
+industries. Long foresight carried the McCormick reaper works to
+Chicago before 1860. From Troy, New York, went a large stove plant. That
+was followed by a shoe factory from Massachusetts. The packing industry
+rose as a matter of course at a point so advantageous for cattle raisers
+and shippers and so well connected with Eastern markets.
+
+To the opening of the Far West also the Lake region was indebted for a
+large part of that water-borne traffic which made it "the Mediterranean
+basin of North America." The produce of the West and the manufactures of
+the East poured through it in an endless stream. The swift growth of
+shipbuilding on the Great Lakes helped to compensate for the decline of
+the American marine on the high seas. In response to this stimulus
+Detroit could boast that her shipwrights were able to turn out a ten
+thousand ton Leviathan for ore or grain about "as quickly as carpenters
+could put up an eight-room house." Thus in relation to the Far West the
+old Northwest territory--the wilderness of Jefferson's time--had taken
+the position formerly occupied by New England alone. It was supplying
+capital and manufactures for a vast agricultural empire West and South.
+
+=America on the Pacific.=--It has been said that the Mediterranean Sea
+was the center of ancient civilization; that modern civilization has
+developed on the shores of the Atlantic; and that the future belongs to
+the Pacific. At any rate, the sweep of the United States to the shores
+of the Pacific quickly exercised a powerful influence on world affairs
+and it undoubtedly has a still greater significance for the future.
+
+Very early regular traffic sprang up between the Pacific ports and the
+Hawaiian Islands, China, and Japan. Two years before the adjustment of
+the Oregon controversy with England, namely in 1844, the United States
+had established official and trading relations with China. Ten years
+later, four years after the admission of California to the union, the
+barred door of Japan was forced open by Commodore Perry. The commerce
+which had long before developed between the Pacific ports and Hawaii,
+China, and Japan now flourished under official care. In 1865 a ship
+from Honolulu carried sugar, molasses, and fruits from Hawaii to the
+Oregon port of Astoria. The next year a vessel from Hongkong brought
+rice, mats, and tea from China. An era of lucrative trade was opened.
+The annexation of Hawaii in 1898, the addition of the Philippines at the
+same time, and the participation of American troops in the suppression
+of the Boxer rebellion in Peking in 1900, were but signs and symbols of
+American power on the Pacific.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+COMMODORE PERRY'S MEN MAKING PRESENTS TO THE JAPANESE]
+
+=Conservation and the Land Problem.=--The disappearance of the frontier
+also brought new and serious problems to the governments of the states
+and the nation. The people of the whole United States suddenly were
+forced to realize that there was a limit to the rich, new land to
+exploit and to the forests and minerals awaiting the ax and the pick.
+Then arose in America the questions which had long perplexed the
+countries of the Old World--the scientific use of the soils and
+conservation of natural resources. Hitherto the government had followed
+the easy path of giving away arable land and selling forest and mineral
+lands at low prices. Now it had to face far more difficult and complex
+problems. It also had to consider questions of land tenure again,
+especially if the ideal of a nation of home-owning farmers was to be
+maintained. While there was plenty of land for every man or woman who
+wanted a home on the soil, it made little difference if single landlords
+or companies got possession of millions of acres, if a hundred men in
+one western river valley owned 17,000,000 acres; but when the good land
+for small homesteads was all gone, then was raised the real issue. At
+the opening of the twentieth century the nation, which a hundred years
+before had land and natural resources apparently without limit, was
+compelled to enact law after law conserving its forests and minerals.
+Then it was that the great state of California, on the very border of
+the continent, felt constrained to enact a land settlement measure
+providing government assistance in an effort to break up large holdings
+into small lots and to make it easy for actual settlers to acquire small
+farms. America was passing into a new epoch.
+
+
+=References=
+
+Henry Inman, _The Old Santa Fé Trail_.
+
+R.I. Dodge, _The Plains of the Great West_ (1877).
+
+C.H. Shinn, _The Story of the Mine_.
+
+Cy Warman, _The Story of the Railroad_.
+
+Emerson Hough, _The Story of the Cowboy_.
+
+H.H. Bancroft is the author of many works on the West but his writings
+will be found only in the larger libraries.
+
+Joseph Schafer, _History of the Pacific Northwest_ (ed. 1918).
+
+T.H. Hittel, _History of California_ (4 vols.).
+
+W.H. Olin, _American Irrigation Farming_.
+
+W.E. Smythe, _The Conquest of Arid America_.
+
+H.A. Millis, _The American-Japanese Problem_.
+
+E.S. Meany, _History of the State of Washington_.
+
+H.K. Norton, _The Story of California_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Name the states west of the Mississippi in 1865.
+
+2. In what manner was the rest of the western region governed?
+
+3. How far had settlement been carried?
+
+4. What were the striking physical features of the West?
+
+5. How was settlement promoted after 1865?
+
+6. Why was admission to the union so eagerly sought?
+
+7. Explain how politics became involved in the creation of new states.
+
+8. Did the West rapidly become like the older sections of the country?
+
+9. What economic peculiarities did it retain or develop?
+
+10. How did the federal government aid in western agriculture?
+
+11. How did the development of the West affect the East? The South?
+
+12. What relation did the opening of the great grain areas of the West
+bear to the growth of America's commercial and financial power?
+
+13. State some of the new problems of the West.
+
+14. Discuss the significance of American expansion to the Pacific Ocean.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Passing of the Wild West.=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own
+Times_, pp. 100-124.
+
+=The Indian Question.=--Sparks, _National Development_ (American Nation
+Series), pp. 265-281.
+
+=The Chinese Question.=--Sparks, _National Development_, pp. 229-250;
+Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 180-196.
+
+=The Railway Age.=--Schafer, _History of the Pacific Northwest_, pp.
+230-245; E.V. Smalley, _The Northern Pacific Railroad_; Paxson, _The New
+Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp. 20-26, especially the map on p. 23, and
+pp. 142-148.
+
+=Agriculture and Business.=--Schafer, _Pacific Northwest_, pp. 246-289.
+
+=Ranching in the Northwest.=--Theodore Roosevelt, _Ranch Life_, and
+_Autobiography_, pp. 103-143.
+
+=The Conquest of the Desert.=--W.E. Smythe, _The Conquest of Arid
+America_.
+
+=Studies of Individual Western States.=--Consult any good encyclopedia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+DOMESTIC ISSUES BEFORE THE COUNTRY (1865-1897)
+
+
+For thirty years after the Civil War the leading political parties,
+although they engaged in heated presidential campaigns, were not sharply
+and clearly opposed on many matters of vital significance. During none
+of that time was there a clash of opinion over specific issues such as
+rent the country in 1800 when Jefferson rode a popular wave to victory,
+or again in 1828 when Jackson's western hordes came sweeping into power.
+The Democrats, who before 1860 definitely opposed protective tariffs,
+federal banking, internal improvements, and heavy taxes, now spoke
+cautiously on all these points. The Republicans, conscious of the fact
+that they had been a minority of the voters in 1860 and warned by the
+early loss of the House of Representatives in 1874, also moved with
+considerable prudence among the perplexing problems of the day. Again
+and again the votes in Congress showed that no clear line separated all
+the Democrats from all the Republicans. There were Republicans who
+favored tariff reductions and "cheap money." There were Democrats who
+looked with partiality upon high protection or with indulgence upon the
+contraction of the currency. Only on matters relating to the coercion of
+the South was the division between the parties fairly definite; this
+could be readily accounted for on practical as well as sentimental
+grounds.
+
+After all, the vague criticisms and proposals that found their way into
+the political platforms did but reflect the confusion of mind prevailing
+in the country. The fact that, out of the eighteen years between 1875
+and 1893, the Democrats held the House of Representatives for fourteen
+years while the Republicans had every President but one showed that the
+voters, like the politicians, were in a state of indecision. Hayes had a
+Democratic House during his entire term and a Democratic Senate for two
+years of the four. Cleveland was confronted by a belligerent Republican
+majority in the Senate during his first administration; and at the same
+time was supported by a Democratic majority in the House. Harrison was
+sustained by continuous Republican successes in Senatorial elections;
+but in the House he had the barest majority from 1889 to 1891 and lost
+that altogether at the election held in the middle of his term. The
+opinion of the country was evidently unsettled and fluctuating. It was
+still distracted by memories of the dead past and uncertain as to the
+trend of the future.
+
+
+THE CURRENCY QUESTION
+
+Nevertheless these years of muddled politics and nebulous issues proved
+to be a period in which social forces were gathering for the great
+campaign of 1896. Except for three new features--the railways, the
+trusts, and the trade unions--the subjects of debate among the people
+were the same as those that had engaged their attention since the
+foundation of the republic: the currency, the national debt, banking,
+the tariff, and taxation.
+
+=Debtors and the Fall in Prices.=--For many reasons the currency
+question occupied the center of interest. As of old, the farmers and
+planters of the West and South were heavily in debt to the East for
+borrowed money secured by farm mortgages; and they counted upon the sale
+of cotton, corn, wheat, and hogs to meet interest and principal when
+due. During the war, the Western farmers had been able to dispose of
+their produce at high prices and thus discharge their debts with
+comparative ease; but after the war prices declined. Wheat that sold at
+two dollars a bushel in 1865 brought sixty-four cents twenty years
+later. The meaning of this for the farmers in debt--and nearly
+three-fourths of them were in that class--can be shown by a single
+illustration. A thousand-dollar mortgage on a Western farm could be paid
+off by five hundred bushels of wheat when prices were high; whereas it
+took about fifteen hundred bushels to pay the same debt when wheat was
+at the bottom of the scale. For the farmer, it must be remembered, wheat
+was the measure of his labor, the product of his toil under the summer
+sun; and in its price he found the test of his prosperity.
+
+=Creditors and Falling Prices.=--To the bondholders or creditors, on the
+other hand, falling prices were clear gain. If a fifty-dollar coupon on
+a bond bought seventy or eighty bushels of wheat instead of twenty or
+thirty, the advantage to the owner of the coupon was obvious. Moreover
+the advantage seemed to him entirely just. Creditors had suffered heavy
+losses when the Civil War carried prices skyward while the interest
+rates on their old bonds remained stationary. For example, if a man had
+a $1000 bond issued before 1860 and paying interest at five per cent, he
+received fifty dollars a year from it. Before the war each dollar would
+buy a bushel of wheat; in 1865 it would only buy half a bushel. When
+prices--that is, the cost of living--began to go down, creditors
+therefore generally regarded the change with satisfaction as a return to
+normal conditions.
+
+=The Cause of Falling Prices.=--The fall in prices was due, no doubt, to
+many factors. Among them must be reckoned the discontinuance of
+government buying for war purposes, labor-saving farm machinery,
+immigration, and the opening of new wheat-growing regions. The currency,
+too, was an element in the situation. Whatever the cause, the
+discontented farmers believed that the way to raise prices was to issue
+more money. They viewed it as a case of supply and demand. If there was
+a small volume of currency in circulation, prices would be low; if there
+was a large volume, prices would be high. Hence they looked with favor
+upon all plans to increase the amount of money in circulation. First
+they advocated more paper notes--greenbacks--and then they turned to
+silver as the remedy. The creditors, on the other hand, naturally
+approved the reduction of the volume of currency. They wished to see the
+greenbacks withdrawn from circulation and gold--a metal more limited in
+volume than silver--made the sole basis of the national monetary system.
+
+=The Battle over the Greenbacks.=--The contest between these factions
+began as early as 1866. In that year, Congress enacted a law authorizing
+the Treasury to withdraw the greenbacks from circulation. The paper
+money party set up a shrill cry of protest, and kept up the fight until,
+in 1878, it forced Congress to provide for the continuous re-issue of
+the legal tender notes as they came into the Treasury in payment of
+taxes and other dues. Then could the friends of easy money rejoice:
+
+    "Thou, Greenback, 'tis of thee
+     Fair money of the free,
+      Of thee we sing."
+
+=Resumption of Specie Payment.=--There was, however, another side to
+this victory. The opponents of the greenbacks, unable to stop the
+circulation of paper, induced Congress to pass a law in 1875 providing
+that on and after January 1, 1879, "the Secretary of the Treasury shall
+redeem in coin the United States legal tender notes then outstanding on
+their presentation at the office of the Assistant Treasurer of the
+United States in the City of New York in sums of not less than fifty
+dollars." "The way to resume," John Sherman had said, "is to resume."
+When the hour for redemption arrived, the Treasury was prepared with a
+large hoard of gold. "On the appointed day," wrote the assistant
+secretary, "anxiety reigned in the office of the Treasury. Hour after
+hour passed; no news from New York. Inquiry by wire showed that all was
+quiet. At the close of the day this message came: '$135,000 of notes
+presented for coin--$400,000 of gold for notes.' That was all.
+Resumption was accomplished with no disturbance. By five o'clock the
+news was all over the land, and the New York bankers were sipping their
+tea in absolute safety."
+
+=The Specie Problem--the Parity of Gold and Silver.=--Defeated in their
+efforts to stop "the present suicidal and destructive policy of
+contraction," the advocates of an abundant currency demanded an increase
+in the volume of silver in circulation. This precipitated one of the
+sharpest political battles in American history. The issue turned on
+legal as well as economic points. The Constitution gave Congress the
+power to coin money and it forbade the states to make anything but gold
+and silver legal tender in the payment of debts. It evidently
+contemplated the use of both metals in the currency system. Such, at
+least, was the view of many eminent statesmen, including no less a
+personage than James G. Blaine. The difficulty, however, lay in
+maintaining gold and silver coins on a level which would permit them to
+circulate with equal facility. Obviously, if the gold in a gold dollar
+exceeds the value of the silver in a silver dollar on the open market,
+men will hoard gold money and leave silver money in circulation. When,
+for example, Congress in 1792 fixed the ratio of the two metals at one
+to fifteen--one ounce of gold declared worth fifteen of silver--it was
+soon found that gold had been undervalued. When again in 1834 the ratio
+was put at one to sixteen, it was found that silver was undervalued.
+Consequently the latter metal was not brought in for coinage and silver
+almost dropped out of circulation. Many a silver dollar was melted down
+by silverware factories.
+
+=Silver Demonetized in 1873.=--So things stood in 1873. At that time,
+Congress, in enacting a mintage law, discontinued the coinage of the
+standard silver dollar, then practically out of circulation. This act
+was denounced later by the friends of silver as "the crime of '73," a
+conspiracy devised by the money power and secretly carried out. This
+contention the debates in Congress do not seem to sustain. In the course
+of the argument on the mint law it was distinctly said by one speaker at
+least: "This bill provides for the making of changes in the legal tender
+coin of the country and for substituting as legal tender, coin of only
+one metal instead of two as heretofore."
+
+=The Decline in the Value of Silver.=--Absorbed in the greenback
+controversy, the people apparently did not appreciate, at the time, the
+significance of the "demonetization" of silver; but within a few years
+several events united in making it the center of a political storm.
+Germany, having abandoned silver in 1871, steadily increased her demand
+for gold. Three years later, the countries of the Latin Union followed
+this example, thus helping to enhance the price of the yellow metal. All
+the while, new silver lodes, discovered in the Far West, were pouring
+into the market great streams of the white metal, bearing down the
+price. Then came the resumption of specie payment, which, in effect,
+placed the paper money on a gold basis. Within twenty years silver was
+worth in gold only about half the price of 1870.
+
+That there had been a real decline in silver was denied by the friends
+of that metal. They alleged that gold had gone up because it had been
+given a monopoly in the coinage markets of civilized governments. This
+monopoly, they continued, was the fruit of a conspiracy against the
+people conceived by the bankers of the world. Moreover, they went on,
+the placing of the greenbacks on a gold basis had itself worked a
+contraction of the currency; it lowered the prices of labor and produce
+to the advantage of the holders of long-term investments bearing a fixed
+rate of interest. When wheat sold at sixty-four cents a bushel, their
+search for relief became desperate, and they at last concentrated their
+efforts on opening the mints of the government for the free coinage of
+silver at the ratio of sixteen to one.
+
+=Republicans and Democrats Divided.=--On this question both Republicans
+and Democrats were divided, the line being drawn between the East on the
+one hand and the South and West on the other, rather than between the
+two leading parties. So trusted a leader as James G. Blaine avowed, in a
+speech delivered in the Senate in 1878, that, as the Constitution
+required Congress to make both gold and silver the money of the land,
+the only question left was that of fixing the ratio between them. He
+affirmed, moreover, the main contention of the silver faction that a
+reopening of the government mints of the world to silver would bring it
+up to its old relation with gold. He admitted also that their most
+ominous warnings were well founded, saying: "I believe the struggle now
+going on in this country and in other countries for a single gold
+standard would, if successful, produce widespread disaster throughout
+the commercial world. The destruction of silver as money and the
+establishment of gold as the sole unit of value must have a ruinous
+effect on all forms of property, except those investments which yield a
+fixed return."
+
+This was exactly the concession that the silver party wanted.
+"Three-fourths of the business enterprises of this country are conducted
+on borrowed capital," said Senator Jones, of Nevada. "Three-fourths of
+the homes and farms that stand in the names of the actual occupants have
+been bought on time and a very large proportion of them are mortgaged
+for the payment of some part of the purchase money. Under the operation
+of a shrinkage in the volume of money, this enormous mass of borrowers,
+at the maturity of their respective debts, though nominally paying no
+more than the amount borrowed, with interest, are in reality, in the
+amount of the principal alone, returning a percentage of value greater
+than they received--more in equity than they contracted to pay.... In
+all discussions of the subject the creditors attempt to brush aside the
+equities involved by sneering at the debtors."
+
+=The Silver Purchase Act (1878).=--Even before the actual resumption of
+specie payment, the advocates of free silver were a power to be reckoned
+with, particularly in the Democratic party. They had a majority in the
+House of Representatives in 1878 and they carried a silver bill through
+that chamber. Blocked by the Republican Senate they accepted a
+compromise in the Bland-Allison bill, which provided for huge monthly
+purchases of silver by the government for coinage into dollars. So
+strong was the sentiment that a two-thirds majority was mustered after
+President Hayes vetoed the measure.
+
+The effect of this act, as some had anticipated, was disappointing. It
+did not stay silver on its downward course. Thereupon the silver faction
+pressed through Congress in 1886 a bill providing for the issue of paper
+certificates based on the silver accumulated in the Treasury. Still
+silver continued to fall. Then the advocates of inflation declared that
+they would be content with nothing short of free coinage at the ratio of
+sixteen to one. If the issue had been squarely presented in 1890, there
+is good reason for believing that free silver would have received a
+majority in both houses of Congress; but it was not presented.
+
+=The Sherman Silver Purchase Act and the Bond Sales.=--Republican
+leaders, particularly from the East, stemmed the silver tide by a
+diversion of forces. They passed the Sherman Act of 1890 providing for
+large monthly purchases of silver and for the issue of notes redeemable
+in gold or silver at the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury. In
+a clause of superb ambiguity they announced that it was "the established
+policy of the United States to maintain the two metals on a parity with
+each other upon the present legal ratio or such other ratio as may be
+provided by law." For a while silver was buoyed up. Then it turned once
+more on its downward course. In the meantime the Treasury was in a sad
+plight. To maintain the gold reserve, President Cleveland felt compelled
+to sell government bonds; and to his dismay he found that as soon as the
+gold was brought in at the front door of the Treasury, notes were
+presented for redemption and the gold was quickly carried out at the
+back door. Alarmed at the vicious circle thus created, he urged upon
+Congress the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. For this he was
+roundly condemned by many of his own followers who branded his conduct
+as "treason to the party"; but the Republicans, especially from the
+East, came to his rescue and in 1893 swept the troublesome sections of
+the law from the statute book. The anger of the silver faction knew no
+bounds, and the leaders made ready for the approaching presidential
+campaign.
+
+
+THE PROTECTIVE TARIFF AND TAXATION
+
+=Fluctuation in Tariff Policy.=--As each of the old parties was divided
+on the currency question, it is not surprising that there was some
+confusion in their ranks over the tariff. Like the silver issue, the
+tariff tended to align the manufacturing East against the agricultural
+West and South rather than to cut directly between the two parties.
+Still the Republicans on the whole stood firmly by the rates imposed
+during the Civil War. If we except the reductions of 1872 which were
+soon offset by increases, we may say that those rates were substantially
+unchanged for nearly twenty years. When a revision was brought about,
+however, it was initiated by Republican leaders. Seeing a huge surplus
+of revenue in the Treasury in 1883, they anticipated popular clamor by
+revising the tariff on the theory that it ought to be reformed by its
+friends rather than by its enemies. On the other hand, it was the
+Republicans also who enacted the McKinley tariff bill of 1890, which
+carried protection to its highest point up to that time.
+
+The Democrats on their part were not all confirmed free traders or even
+advocates of tariff for revenue only. In Cleveland's first
+administration they did attack the protective system in the House, where
+they had a majority, and in this they were vigorously supported by the
+President. The assault, however, proved to be a futile gesture for it
+was blocked by the Republicans in the Senate. When, after the sweeping
+victory of 1892, the Democrats in the House again attempted to bring
+down the tariff by the Wilson bill of 1894, they were checkmated by
+their own party colleagues in the upper chamber. In the end they were
+driven into a compromise that looked more like a McKinley than a Calhoun
+tariff. The Republicans taunted them with being "babes in the woods."
+President Cleveland was so dissatisfied with the bill that he refused to
+sign it, allowing it to become a law, on the lapse of ten days, without
+his approval.
+
+=The Income Tax of 1894.=--The advocates of tariff reduction usually
+associated with their proposal a tax on incomes. The argument which
+they advanced in support of their program was simple. Most of the
+industries, they said, are in the East and the protective tariff which
+taxes consumers for the benefit of manufacturers is, in effect, a
+tribute laid upon the rest of the country. As an offset they offered a
+tax on large incomes; this owing to the heavy concentration of rich
+people in the East, would fall mainly upon the beneficiaries of
+protection. "We propose," said one of them, "to place a part of the
+burden upon the accumulated wealth of the country instead of placing it
+all upon the consumption of the people." In this spirit the sponsors of
+the Wilson tariff bill laid a tax upon all incomes of $4000 a year or
+more.
+
+In taking this step, the Democrats encountered opposition in their own
+party. Senator Hill, of New York, turned fiercely upon them, exclaiming:
+"The professors with their books, the socialists with their schemes, the
+anarchists with their bombs are all instructing the people in the ...
+principles of taxation." Even the Eastern Republicans were hardly as
+savage in their denunciation of the tax. But all this labor was wasted.
+The next year the Supreme Court of the United States declared the income
+tax to be a direct tax, and therefore null and void because it was laid
+on incomes wherever found and not apportioned among the states according
+to population. The fact that four of the nine judges dissented from this
+decision was also an index to the diversity of opinion that divided both
+parties.
+
+
+THE RAILWAYS AND TRUSTS
+
+=The Grangers and State Regulation.=--The same uncertainty about the
+railways and trusts pervaded the ranks of the Republicans and Democrats.
+As to the railways, the first firm and consistent demand for their
+regulation came from the West. There the farmers, in the early
+seventies, having got control in state legislatures, particularly in
+Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois, enacted drastic laws prescribing the
+maximum charges which companies could make for carrying freight and
+passengers. The application of these measures, however, was limited
+because the state could not fix the rates for transporting goods and
+passengers beyond its own borders. The power of regulating interstate
+commerce, under the Constitution, belonged to Congress.
+
+=The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.=--Within a few years, the movement
+which had been so effective in western legislatures appeared at
+Washington in the form of demands for the federal regulation of
+interstate rates. In 1887, the pressure became so strong that Congress
+created the interstate commerce commission and forbade many abuses on
+the part of railways; such as discriminating in charges between one
+shipper and another and granting secret rebates to favored persons. This
+law was a significant beginning; but it left the main question of
+rate-fixing untouched, much to the discontent of farmers and shippers.
+
+=The Sherman Anti-Trust Law of 1890.=--As in the case of the railways,
+attacks upon the trusts were first made in state legislatures, where it
+became the fashion to provide severe penalties for those who formed
+monopolies and "conspired to enhance prices." Republicans and Democrats
+united in the promotion of measures of this kind. As in the case of the
+railways also, the movement to curb the trusts soon had spokesmen at
+Washington. Though Blaine had declared that "trusts were largely a
+private affair with which neither the President nor any private citizen
+had any particular right to interfere," it was a Republican Congress
+that enacted in 1890 the first measure--the Sherman Anti-Trust
+Law--directed against great combinations in business. This act declared
+illegal "every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise,
+or conspiracy in restraint of trade and commerce among the several
+states or with foreign nations."
+
+=The Futility of the Anti-Trust Law.=--Whether the Sherman law was
+directed against all combinations or merely those which placed an
+"unreasonable restraint" on trade and competition was not apparent.
+Senator Platt of Connecticut, a careful statesman of the old school,
+averred: "The questions of whether the bill would be operative, of how
+it would operate, or whether it was within the power of Congress to
+enact it, have been whistled down the wind in this Senate as idle talk
+and the whole effort has been to get some bill headed: 'A bill to punish
+trusts,' with which to go to the country." Whatever its purpose, its
+effect upon existing trusts and upon the formation of new combinations
+was negligible. It was practically unenforced by President Harrison and
+President Cleveland, in spite of the constant demand for harsh action
+against "monopolies." It was patent that neither the Republicans nor the
+Democrats were prepared for a war on the trusts to the bitter end.
+
+
+THE MINOR PARTIES AND UNREST
+
+=The Demands of Dissenting Parties.=--From the election of 1872, when
+Horace Greeley made his ill-fated excursion into politics, onward, there
+appeared in each presidential campaign one, and sometimes two or more
+parties, stressing issues that appealed mainly to wage-earners and
+farmers. Whether they chose to call themselves Labor Reformers,
+Greenbackers, or Anti-monopolists, their slogans and their platforms all
+pointed in one direction. Even the Prohibitionists, who in 1872 started
+on their career with a single issue, the abolition of the liquor
+traffic, found themselves making declarations of faith on other matters
+and hopelessly split over the money question in 1896.
+
+A composite view of the platforms put forth by the dissenting parties
+from the administration of Grant to the close of Cleveland's second term
+reveals certain notions common to them all. These included among many
+others: the earliest possible payment of the national debt; regulation
+of the rates of railways and telegraph companies; repeal of the specie
+resumption act of 1875; the issue of legal tender notes by the
+government convertible into interest-bearing obligations on demand;
+unlimited coinage of silver as well as gold; a graduated inheritance
+tax; legislation to take from "land, railroad, money, and other gigantic
+corporate monopolies ... the powers they have so corruptly and unjustly
+usurped"; popular or direct election of United States Senators; woman
+suffrage; and a graduated income tax, "placing the burden of government
+on those who can best afford to pay instead of laying it on the farmers
+and producers."
+
+=Criticism of the Old Parties.=--To this long program of measures the
+reformers added harsh and acrid criticism of the old parties and
+sometimes, it must be said, of established institutions of government.
+"We denounce," exclaimed the Labor party in 1888, "the Democratic and
+Republican parties as hopelessly and shamelessly corrupt and by reason
+of their affiliation with monopolies equally unworthy of the suffrages
+of those who do not live upon public plunder." "The United States
+Senate," insisted the Greenbackers, "is a body composed largely of
+aristocratic millionaires who according to their own party papers
+generally purchased their elections in order to protect the great
+monopolies which they represent." Indeed, if their platforms are to be
+accepted at face value, the Greenbackers believed that the entire
+government had passed out of the hands of the people.
+
+=The Grangers.=--This unsparing, not to say revolutionary, criticism of
+American political life, appealed, it seems, mainly to farmers in the
+Middle West. Always active in politics, they had, before the Civil War,
+cast their lot as a rule with one or the other of the leading parties.
+In 1867, however, there grew up among them an association known as the
+"Patrons of Husbandry," which was destined to play a large rôle in the
+partisan contests of the succeeding decades. This society, which
+organized local lodges or "granges" on principles of secrecy and
+fraternity, was originally designed to promote in a general way the
+interests of the farmers. Its political bearings were apparently not
+grasped at first by its promoters. Yet, appealing as it did to the most
+active and independent spirits among the farmers and gathering to itself
+the strength that always comes from organization, it soon found itself
+in the hands of leaders more or less involved in politics. Where a few
+votes are marshaled together in a democracy, there is power.
+
+=The Greenback Party.=--The first extensive activity of the Grangers was
+connected with the attack on the railways in the Middle West which
+forced several state legislatures to reduce freight and passenger rates
+by law. At the same time, some leaders in the movement, no doubt
+emboldened by this success, launched in 1876 a new political party,
+popularly known as the Greenbackers, favoring a continued re-issue of
+the legal tenders. The beginnings were disappointing; but two years
+later, in the congressional elections, the Greenbackers swept whole
+sections of the country. Their candidates polled more than a million
+votes and fourteen of them were returned to the House of
+Representatives. To all outward signs a new and formidable party had
+entered the lists.
+
+The sanguine hopes of the leaders proved to be illusory. The quiet
+operations of the resumption act the following year, a revival of
+industry from a severe panic which had set in during 1873, the Silver
+Purchase Act, and the re-issue of Greenbacks cut away some of the
+grounds of agitation. There was also a diversion of forces to the silver
+faction which had a substantial support in the silver mine owners of the
+West. At all events the Greenback vote fell to about 300,000 in the
+election of 1880. A still greater drop came four years later and the
+party gave up the ghost, its sponsors returning to their former
+allegiance or sulking in their tents.
+
+=The Rise of the Populist Party.=--Those leaders of the old parties who
+now looked for a happy future unvexed by new factions were doomed to
+disappointment. The funeral of the Greenback party was hardly over
+before there arose two other political specters in the agrarian
+sections: the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union,
+particularly strong in the South and West; and the Farmers' Alliance,
+operating in the North. By 1890 the two orders claimed over three
+million members. As in the case of the Grangers many years before, the
+leaders among them found an easy way into politics. In 1892 they held a
+convention, nominated a candidate for President, and adopted the name of
+"People's Party," from which they were known as Populists. Their
+platform, in every line, breathed a spirit of radicalism. They declared
+that "the newspapers are largely subsidized or muzzled; public opinion
+silenced; business prostrate; our homes covered with mortgages; and the
+land concentrating in the hands of capitalists.... The fruits of the
+toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a
+few." Having delivered this sweeping indictment, the Populists put
+forward their remedies: the free coinage of silver, a graduated income
+tax, postal savings banks, and government ownership of railways and
+telegraphs. At the same time they approved the initiative, referendum,
+and popular election of Senators, and condemned the use of federal
+troops in labor disputes. On this platform, the Populists polled over a
+million votes, captured twenty-two presidential electors, and sent a
+powerful delegation to Congress.
+
+=Industrial Distress Augments Unrest.=--The four years intervening
+between the campaign of 1892 and the next presidential election brought
+forth many events which aggravated the ill-feeling expressed in the
+portentous platform of Populism. Cleveland, a consistent enemy of free
+silver, gave his powerful support to the gold standard and insisted on
+the repeal of the Silver Purchase Act, thus alienating an increasing
+number of his own party. In 1893 a grave industrial crisis fell upon the
+land: banks and business houses went into bankruptcy with startling
+rapidity; factories were closed; idle men thronged the streets hunting
+for work; and the prices of wheat and corn dropped to a ruinous level.
+Labor disputes also filled the crowded record. A strike at the Pullman
+car works in Chicago spread to the railways. Disorders ensued. President
+Cleveland, against the protests of the governor of Illinois, John P.
+Altgeld, dispatched troops to the scene of action. The United States
+district court at Chicago issued an injunction forbidding the president
+of the Railway Union, Eugene V. Debs, or his assistants to interfere
+with the transmission of the mails or interstate commerce in any form.
+For refusing to obey the order, Debs was arrested and imprisoned. With
+federal troops in possession of the field, with their leader in jail,
+the strikers gave up the battle, defeated but not subdued. To cap the
+climax the Supreme Court of the United States, the following year (1895)
+declared null and void the income tax law just enacted by Congress, thus
+fanning the flames of Populist discontent all over the West and South.
+
+
+THE SOUND MONEY BATTLE OF 1896
+
+=Conservative Men Alarmed.=--Men of conservative thought and leaning in
+both parties were by this time thoroughly disturbed. They looked upon
+the rise of Populism and the growth of labor disputes as the signs of a
+revolutionary spirit, indeed nothing short of a menace to American
+institutions and ideals. The income tax law of 1894, exclaimed the
+distinguished New York advocate, Joseph H. Choate, in an impassioned
+speech before the Supreme Court, "is communistic in its purposes and
+tendencies and is defended here upon principles as communistic,
+socialistic--what shall I call them--populistic as ever have been
+addressed to any political assembly in the world." Mr. Justice Field in
+the name of the Court replied: "The present assault upon capital is but
+the beginning. It will be but the stepping stone to others larger and
+more sweeping till our political conditions will become a war of the
+poor against the rich." In declaring the income tax unconstitutional, he
+believed that he was but averting greater evils lurking under its guise.
+As for free silver, nearly all conservative men were united in calling
+it a measure of confiscation and repudiation; an effort of the debtors
+to pay their obligations with money worth fifty cents on the dollar; the
+climax of villainies openly defended; a challenge to law, order, and
+honor.
+
+=The Republicans Come Out for the Gold Standard.=--It was among the
+Republicans that this opinion was most widely shared and firmly held. It
+was they who picked up the gauge thrown down by the Populists, though a
+host of Democrats, like Cleveland and Hill of New York, also battled
+against the growing Populist defection in Democratic ranks. When the
+Republican national convention assembled in 1896, the die was soon
+cast; a declaration of opposition to free silver save by international
+agreement was carried by a vote of eight to one. The Republican party,
+to use the vigorous language of Mr. Lodge, arrayed itself against "not
+only that organized failure, the Democratic party, but all the wandering
+forces of political chaos and social disorder ... in these bitter times
+when the forces of disorder are loose and the wreckers with their false
+lights gather at the shore to lure the ship of state upon the rocks."
+Yet it is due to historic truth to state that McKinley, whom the
+Republicans nominated, had voted in Congress for the free coinage of
+silver, was widely known as a bimetallist, and was only with difficulty
+persuaded to accept the unequivocal indorsement of the gold standard
+which was pressed upon him by his counselors. Having accepted it,
+however, he proved to be a valiant champion, though his major interest
+was undoubtedly in the protective tariff. To him nothing was more
+reprehensible than attempts "to array class against class, 'the classes
+against the masses,' section against section, labor against capital,
+'the poor against the rich,' or interest against interest." Such was the
+language of his acceptance speech. The whole program of Populism he now
+viewed as a "sudden, dangerous, and revolutionary assault upon law and
+order."
+
+=The Democratic Convention at Chicago.=--Never, save at the great
+disruption on the eve of the Civil War, did a Democratic national
+convention display more feeling than at Chicago in 1896. From the
+opening prayer to the last motion before the house, every act, every
+speech, every scene, every resolution evoked passions and sowed
+dissensions. Departing from long party custom, it voted down in anger a
+proposal to praise the administration of the Democratic President,
+Cleveland. When the platform with its radical planks, including free
+silver, was reported, a veritable storm broke. Senator Hill, trembling
+with emotion, protested against the departure from old tests of
+Democratic allegiance; against principles that must drive out of the
+party men who had grown gray in its service; against revolutionary,
+unwise, and unprecedented steps in the history of the party. Senator
+Vilas of Wisconsin, in great fervor, avowed that there was no difference
+in principle between the free coinage of silver--"the confiscation of
+one-half of the credits of the nation for the benefit of debtors"--and
+communism itself--"a universal distribution of property." In the triumph
+of that cause he saw the beginning of "the overthrow of all law, all
+justice, all security and repose in the social order."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+WILLIAM J. BRYAN IN 1898]
+
+=The Crown of Thorns Speech.=--The champions of free silver replied in
+strident tones. They accused the gold advocates of being the aggressors
+who had assailed the labor and the homes of the people. William Jennings
+Bryan, of Nebraska, voiced their sentiments in a memorable oration. He
+declared that their cause "was as holy as the cause of liberty--the
+cause of humanity." He exclaimed that the contest was between the idle
+holders of idle capital and the toiling millions. Then he named those
+for whom he spoke--the wage-earner, the country lawyer, the small
+merchant, the farmer, and the miner. "The man who is employed for wages
+is as much a business man as his employer. The attorney in a country
+town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great
+metropolis. The merchant at the cross roads store is as much a business
+man as the merchant of New York. The farmer ... is as much a business
+man as the man who goes upon the board of trade and bets upon the price
+of grain. The miners who go a thousand feet into the earth or climb two
+thousand feet upon the cliffs ... are as much business men as the few
+financial magnates who in a back room corner the money of the world....
+It is for these that we speak. We do not come as aggressors. Ours is not
+a war of conquest. We are fighting in defense of our homes, our
+families, and our posterity. We have petitioned and our petitions have
+been scorned. We have entreated and our entreaties have been
+disregarded. We have begged and they have mocked when our calamity came.
+We beg no longer; we entreat no more; we petition no more. We defy
+them.... We shall answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to
+them, 'You shall not press upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns.
+You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.'"
+
+=Bryan Nominated.=--In all the history of national conventions never had
+an orator so completely swayed a multitude; not even Yancey in his
+memorable plea in the Charleston convention of 1860 when, with grave and
+moving eloquence, he espoused the Southern cause against the impending
+fates. The delegates, after cheering Mr. Bryan until they could cheer no
+more, tore the standards from the floor and gathered around the Nebraska
+delegation to renew the deafening applause. The platform as reported was
+carried by a vote of two to one and the young orator from the West,
+hailed as America's Tiberius Gracchus, was nominated as the Democratic
+candidate for President. The South and West had triumphed over the East.
+The division was sectional, admittedly sectional--the old combination of
+power which Calhoun had so anxiously labored to build up a century
+earlier. The Gold Democrats were repudiated in terms which were clear to
+all. A few, unable to endure the thought of voting the Republican
+ticket, held a convention at Indianapolis where, with the sanction of
+Cleveland, they nominated candidates of their own and endorsed the gold
+standard in a forlorn hope.
+
+=The Democratic Platform.=--It was to the call from Chicago that the
+Democrats gave heed and the Republicans made answer. The platform on
+which Mr. Bryan stood, unlike most party manifestoes, was explicit in
+its language and its appeal. It denounced the practice of allowing
+national banks to issue notes intended to circulate as money on the
+ground that it was "in derogation of the Constitution," recalling
+Jackson's famous attack on the Bank in 1832. It declared that tariff
+duties should be laid "for the purpose of revenue"--Calhoun's doctrine.
+In demanding the free coinage of silver, it recurred to the practice
+abandoned in 1873. The income tax came next on the program. The platform
+alleged that the law of 1894, passed by a Democratic Congress, was "in
+strict pursuance of the uniform decisions of the Supreme Court for
+nearly a hundred years," and then hinted that the decision annulling the
+law might be reversed by the same body "as it may hereafter be
+constituted."
+
+The appeal to labor voiced by Mr. Bryan in his "crown of thorns" speech
+was reinforced in the platform. "As labor creates the wealth of the
+country," ran one plank, "we demand the passage of such laws as may be
+necessary to protect it in all its rights." Referring to the recent
+Pullman strike, the passions of which had not yet died away, the
+platform denounced "arbitrary interference by federal authorities in
+local affairs as a violation of the Constitution of the United States
+and a crime against free institutions." A special objection was lodged
+against "government by injunction as a new and highly dangerous form of
+oppression by which federal judges, in contempt of the laws of states
+and rights of citizens, become at once legislators, judges, and
+executioners." The remedy advanced was a federal law assuring trial by
+jury in all cases of contempt in labor disputes. Having made this
+declaration of faith, the Democrats, with Mr. Bryan at the head, raised
+their standard of battle.
+
+=The Heated Campaign.=--The campaign which ensued outrivaled in the
+range of its educational activities and the bitterness of its tone all
+other political conflicts in American history, not excepting the fateful
+struggle of 1860. Immense sums of money were contributed to the funds of
+both parties. Railway, banking, and other corporations gave generously
+to the Republicans; the silver miners, less lavishly but with the same
+anxiety, supported the Democrats. The country was flooded with
+pamphlets, posters, and handbills. Every public forum, from the great
+auditoriums of the cities to the "red schoolhouses" on the countryside,
+was occupied by the opposing forces.
+
+Mr. Bryan took the stump himself, visiting all parts of the country in
+special trains and addressing literally millions of people in the open
+air. Mr. McKinley chose the older and more formal plan. He received
+delegations at his home in Canton and discussed the issues of the
+campaign from his front porch, leaving to an army of well-organized
+orators the task of reaching the people in their home towns. Parades,
+processions, and monster demonstrations filled the land with politics.
+Whole states were polled in advance by the Republicans and the doubtful
+voters personally visited by men equipped with arguments and literature.
+Manufacturers, frightened at the possibility of disordered public
+credit, announced that they would close their doors if the Democrats won
+the election. Men were dismissed from public and private places on
+account of their political views, one eminent college president being
+forced out for advocating free silver. The language employed by
+impassioned and embittered speakers on both sides roused the public to a
+state of frenzy, once more showing the lengths to which men could go in
+personal and political abuse.
+
+=The Republican Victory.=--The verdict of the nation was decisive.
+McKinley received 271 of the 447 electoral votes, and 7,111,000 popular
+votes as against Bryan's 6,509,000. The congressional elections were
+equally positive although, on account of the composition of the Senate,
+the "hold-over" Democrats and Populists still enjoyed a power out of
+proportion to their strength as measured at the polls. Even as it was,
+the Republicans got full control of both houses--a dominion of the
+entire government which they were to hold for fourteen years--until the
+second half of Mr. Taft's administration, when they lost possession of
+the House of Representatives. The yoke of indecision was broken. The
+party of sound finance and protective tariffs set out upon its lease of
+power with untroubled assurance.
+
+
+REPUBLICAN MEASURES AND RESULTS
+
+=The Gold Standard and the Tariff.=--Yet strange as it may seem, the
+Republicans did not at once enact legislation making the gold dollar the
+standard for the national currency. Not until 1900 did they take that
+positive step. In his first inaugural President McKinley, as if still
+uncertain in his own mind or fearing a revival of the contest just
+closed, placed the tariff, not the money question, in the forefront.
+"The people have decided," he said, "that such legislation should be had
+as will give ample protection and encouragement to the industries and
+development of our country." Protection for American industries,
+therefore, he urged, is the task before Congress. "With adequate revenue
+secured, but not until then, we can enter upon changes in our fiscal
+laws." As the Republicans had only forty-six of the ninety Senators, and
+at least four of them were known advocates of free silver, the
+discretion exercised by the President in selecting the tariff for
+congressional debate was the better part of valor.
+
+Congress gave heed to the warning. Under the direction of Nelson P.
+Dingley, whose name was given to the bill, a tariff measure levying the
+highest rates yet laid in the history of American imposts was prepared
+and driven through the House of Representatives. The opposition
+encountered in the Senate, especially from the West, was overcome by
+concessions in favor of that section; but the duties on sugar, tin,
+steel, lumber, hemp, and in fact all of the essential commodities
+handled by combinations and trusts, were materially raised.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+PRESIDENT MCKINLEY AND HIS CABINET]
+
+=Growth of Combinations.=--The years that followed the enactment of the
+Dingley law were, whatever the cause, the most prosperous the country
+had witnessed for many a decade. Industries of every kind were soon
+running full blast; labor was employed; commerce spread more swiftly
+than ever to the markets of the world. Coincident with this progress was
+the organization of the greatest combinations and trusts the world had
+yet seen. In 1899 the smelters formed a trust with a capital of
+$65,000,000; in the same year the Standard Oil Company with a capital of
+over one hundred millions took the place of the old trust; and the
+Copper Trust was incorporated under the laws of New Jersey, its par
+value capital being fixed shortly afterward at $175,000,000. A year
+later the National Sugar Refining Company, of New Jersey, started with a
+capital of $90,000,000, adopting the policy of issuing to the
+stockholders no public statement of its earnings or financial condition.
+Before another twelvemonth had elapsed all previous corporate financing
+was reduced to small proportions by the flotation of the United States
+Steel Corporation with a capital of more than a billion dollars, an
+enterprise set in motion by the famous Morgan banking house of New York.
+
+In nearly all these gigantic undertakings, the same great leaders in
+finance were more or less intimately associated. To use the language of
+an eminent authority: "They are all allied and intertwined by their
+various mutual interests. For instance, the Pennsylvania Railroad
+interests are on the one hand allied with the Vanderbilts and on the
+other with the Rockefellers. The Vanderbilts are closely allied with the
+Morgan group.... Viewed as a whole we find the dominating influences in
+the trusts to be made up of a network of large and small capitalists,
+many allied to one another by ties of more or less importance, but all
+being appendages to or parts of the greater groups which are themselves
+dependent on and allied with the two mammoth or Rockefeller and Morgan
+groups. These two mammoth groups jointly ... constitute the heart of the
+business and commercial life of the nation." Such was the picture of
+triumphant business enterprise drawn by a financier within a few years
+after the memorable campaign of 1896.
+
+America had become one of the first workshops of the world. It was, by
+virtue of the closely knit organization of its business and finance, one
+of the most powerful and energetic leaders in the struggle of the giants
+for the business of the earth. The capital of the Steel Corporation
+alone was more than ten times the total national debt which the apostles
+of calamity in the days of Washington and Hamilton declared the nation
+could never pay. American industry, filling domestic markets to
+overflowing, was ready for new worlds to conquer.
+
+
+=References=
+
+F.W. Taussig, _Tariff History of the United States_.
+
+J.L. Laughlin, _Bimetallism in the United States_.
+
+A.B. Hepburn, _History of Coinage and Currency in the United States_.
+
+E.R.A. Seligman, _The Income Tax_.
+
+S.J. Buck, _The Granger Movement_ (Harvard Studies).
+
+F.H. Dixon, _State Railroad Control_.
+
+H.R. Meyer, _Government Regulation of Railway Rates_.
+
+W.Z. Ripley (editor), _Trusts, Pools, and Corporations_.
+
+R.T. Ely, _Monopolies and Trusts_.
+
+J.B. Clark, _The Control of Trusts_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What proof have we that the political parties were not clearly
+divided over issues between 1865 and 1896?
+
+2. Why is a fall in prices a loss to farmers and a gain to holders of
+fixed investments?
+
+3. Explain the theory that the quantity of money determines the prices
+of commodities.
+
+4. Why was it difficult, if not impossible, to keep gold and silver at a
+parity?
+
+5. What special conditions favored a fall in silver between 1870 and
+1896?
+
+6. Describe some of the measures taken to raise the value of silver.
+
+7. Explain the relation between the tariff and the income tax in 1894.
+
+8. How did it happen that the farmers led in regulating railway rates?
+
+9. Give the terms of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. What was its immediate
+effect?
+
+10. Name some of the minor parties. Enumerate the reforms they
+advocated.
+
+11. Describe briefly the experiments of the farmers in politics.
+
+12. How did industrial conditions increase unrest?
+
+13. Why were conservative men disturbed in the early nineties?
+
+14. Explain the Republican position in 1896.
+
+15. Give Mr. Bryan's doctrines in 1896. Enumerate the chief features of
+the Democratic platform.
+
+16. What were the leading measures adopted by the Republicans after
+their victory in 1896?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Greenbacks and Resumption.=--Dewey, _Financial History of the United
+States_ (6th ed.), Sections 122-125, 154, and 378; MacDonald,
+_Documentary Source Book of American History_, pp. 446, 566; Hart,
+_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 531-533; Rhodes,
+_History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 97-101.
+
+=Demonetization and Coinage of Silver.=--Dewey, _Financial History_,
+Sections 170-173, 186, 189, 194; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_,
+pp. 174, 573, 593, 595; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 529-531;
+Rhodes, _History_, Vol. VIII, pp. 93-97.
+
+=Free Silver and the Campaign of 1896.=--Dewey, _National Problems_
+(American Nation Series), pp. 220-237, 314-328; Hart, _Contemporaries_,
+Vol. IV, pp. 533-538.
+
+=Tariff Revision.=--Dewey, _Financial History_, Sections 167, 180, 181,
+187, 192, 196; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 518-525; Rhodes,
+_History_, Vol. VIII, pp. 168-179, 346-351, 418-422.
+
+=Federal Regulation of Railways.=--Dewey, _National Problems_, pp.
+91-111; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 581-590; Hart,
+_Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 521-523; Rhodes, _History_, Vol. VIII,
+pp. 288-292.
+
+=The Rise and Regulation of Trusts.=--Dewey, _National Problems_, pp.
+188-202; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 591-593.
+
+=The Grangers and Populism.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside
+Series), pp. 20-37, 177-191, 208-223.
+
+=General Analysis of Domestic Problems.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New
+York State, 1920), pp. 137-142.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+AMERICA A WORLD POWER (1865-1900)
+
+
+It has now become a fashion, sanctioned by wide usage and by eminent
+historians, to speak of America, triumphant over Spain and possessed of
+new colonies, as entering the twentieth century in the rôle of "a world
+power," for the first time. Perhaps at this late day, it is useless to
+protest against the currency of the idea. Nevertheless, the truth is
+that from the fateful moment in March, 1775, when Edmund Burke unfolded
+to his colleagues in the British Parliament the resources of an
+invincible America, down to the settlement at Versailles in 1919 closing
+the drama of the World War, this nation has been a world power,
+influencing by its example, by its institutions, by its wealth, trade,
+and arms the course of international affairs. And it should be said also
+that neither in the field of commercial enterprise nor in that of
+diplomacy has it been wanting in spirit or ingenuity.
+
+When John Hay, Secretary of State, heard that an American citizen,
+Perdicaris, had been seized by Raisuli, a Moroccan bandit, in 1904, he
+wired his brusque message: "We want Perdicaris alive or Raisuli dead."
+This was but an echo of Commodore Decatur's equally characteristic
+answer, "Not a minute," given nearly a hundred years before to the
+pirates of Algiers begging for time to consider whether they would cease
+preying upon American merchantmen. Was it not as early as 1844 that the
+American commissioner, Caleb Cushing, taking advantage of the British
+Opium War on China, negotiated with the Celestial Empire a successful
+commercial treaty? Did he not then exultantly exclaim: "The laws of the
+Union follow its citizens and its banner protects them even within the
+domain of the Chinese Empire"? Was it not almost half a century before
+the battle of Manila Bay in 1898, that Commodore Perry with an adequate
+naval force "gently coerced Japan into friendship with us," leading all
+the nations of the earth in the opening of that empire to the trade of
+the Occident? Nor is it inappropriate in this connection to recall the
+fact that the Monroe Doctrine celebrates in 1923 its hundredth
+anniversary.
+
+
+AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS (1865-98)
+
+=French Intrigues in Mexico Blocked.=--Between the war for the union and
+the war with Spain, the Department of State had many an occasion to
+present the rights of America among the powers of the world. Only a
+little while after the civil conflict came to a close, it was called
+upon to deal with a dangerous situation created in Mexico by the
+ambitions of Napoleon III. During the administration of Buchanan, Mexico
+had fallen into disorder through the strife of the Liberal and the
+Clerical parties; the President asked for authority to use American
+troops to bring to a peaceful haven "a wreck upon the ocean, drifting
+about as she is impelled by different factions." Our own domestic crisis
+then intervened.
+
+Observing the United States heavily involved in its own problems, the
+great powers, England, France, and Spain, decided in the autumn of 1861
+to take a hand themselves in restoring order in Mexico. They entered
+into an agreement to enforce the claims of their citizens against Mexico
+and to protect their subjects residing in that republic. They invited
+the United States to join them, and, on meeting a polite refusal, they
+prepared for a combined military and naval demonstration on their own
+account. In the midst of this action England and Spain, discovering the
+sinister purposes of Napoleon, withdrew their troops and left the field
+to him.
+
+The French Emperor, it was well known, looked with jealousy upon the
+growth of the United States and dreamed of establishing in the Western
+hemisphere an imperial power to offset the American republic.
+Intervention to collect debts was only a cloak for his deeper designs.
+Throwing off that guise in due time, he made the Archduke Maximilian, a
+brother of the ruler of Austria, emperor in Mexico, and surrounded his
+throne by French soldiers, in spite of all protests.
+
+This insolent attack upon the Mexican republic, deeply resented in the
+United States, was allowed to drift in its course until 1865. At that
+juncture General Sheridan was dispatched to the Mexican border with a
+large armed force; General Grant urged the use of the American army to
+expel the French from this continent. The Secretary of State, Seward,
+counseled negotiation first, and, applying the Monroe Doctrine, was able
+to prevail upon Napoleon III to withdraw his troops. Without the support
+of French arms, the sham empire in Mexico collapsed like a house of
+cards and the unhappy Maximilian, the victim of French ambition and
+intrigue, met his death at the hands of a Mexican firing squad.
+
+=Alaska Purchased.=--The Mexican affair had not been brought to a close
+before the Department of State was busy with negotiations which resulted
+in the purchase of Alaska from Russia. The treaty of cession, signed on
+March 30, 1867, added to the United States a domain of nearly six
+hundred thousand square miles, a territory larger than Texas and nearly
+three-fourths the size of the Louisiana purchase. Though it was a
+distant colony separated from our continental domain by a thousand miles
+of water, no question of "imperialism" or "colonization foreign to
+American doctrines" seems to have been raised at the time. The treaty
+was ratified promptly by the Senate. The purchase price, $7,200,000, was
+voted by the House of Representatives after the display of some
+resentment against a system that compelled it to appropriate money to
+fulfill an obligation which it had no part in making. Seward, who
+formulated the treaty, rejoiced, as he afterwards said, that he had kept
+Alaska out of the hands of England.
+
+=American Interest in the Caribbean.=--Having achieved this diplomatic
+triumph, Seward turned to the increase of American power in another
+direction. He negotiated, with Denmark, a treaty providing for the
+purchase of the islands of St. John and St. Thomas in the West Indies,
+strategic points in the Caribbean for sea power. This project, long
+afterward brought to fruition by other men, was defeated on this
+occasion by the refusal of the Senate to ratify the treaty. Evidently it
+was not yet prepared to exercise colonial dominion over other races.
+
+Undaunted by the misadventure in Caribbean policies, President Grant
+warmly advocated the acquisition of Santo Domingo. This little republic
+had long been in a state of general disorder. In 1869 a treaty of
+annexation was concluded with its president. The document Grant
+transmitted to the Senate with his cordial approval, only to have it
+rejected. Not at all changed in his opinion by the outcome of his
+effort, he continued to urge the subject of annexation. Even in his last
+message to Congress he referred to it, saying that time had only proved
+the wisdom of his early course. The addition of Santo Domingo to the
+American sphere of protection was the work of a later generation. The
+State Department, temporarily checked, had to bide its time.
+
+=The _Alabama_ Claims Arbitrated.=--Indeed, it had in hand a far more
+serious matter, a vexing issue that grew out of Civil War diplomacy. The
+British government, as already pointed out in other connections, had
+permitted Confederate cruisers, including the famous _Alabama_, built in
+British ports, to escape and prey upon the commerce of the Northern
+states. This action, denounced at the time by our government as a grave
+breach of neutrality as well as a grievous injury to American citizens,
+led first to remonstrances and finally to repeated claims for damages
+done to American ships and goods. For a long time Great Britain was
+firm. Her foreign secretary denied all obligations in the premises,
+adding somewhat curtly that "he wished to say once for all that Her
+Majesty's government disclaimed any responsibility for the losses and
+hoped that they had made their position perfectly clear." Still
+President Grant was not persuaded that the door of diplomacy, though
+closed, was barred. Hamilton Fish, his Secretary of State, renewed the
+demand. Finally he secured from the British government in 1871 the
+treaty of Washington providing for the arbitration not merely of the
+_Alabama_ and other claims but also all points of serious controversy
+between the two countries.
+
+The tribunal of arbitration thus authorized sat at Geneva in
+Switzerland, and after a long and careful review of the arguments on
+both sides awarded to the United States the lump sum of $15,500,000 to
+be distributed among the American claimants. The damages thus allowed
+were large, unquestionably larger than strict justice required and it is
+not surprising that the decision excited much adverse comment in
+England. Nevertheless, the prompt payment by the British government
+swept away at once a great cloud of ill-feeling in America. Moreover,
+the spectacle of two powerful nations choosing the way of peaceful
+arbitration to settle an angry dispute seemed a happy, if illusory, omen
+of a modern method for avoiding the arbitrament of war.
+
+=Samoa.=--If the Senate had its doubts at first about the wisdom of
+acquiring strategic points for naval power in distant seas, the same
+could not be said of the State Department or naval officers. In 1872
+Commander Meade, of the United States navy, alive to the importance of
+coaling stations even in mid-ocean, made a commercial agreement with the
+chief of Tutuila, one of the Samoan Islands, far below the equator, in
+the southern Pacific, nearer to Australia than to California. This
+agreement, providing among other things for our use of the harbor of
+Pago Pago as a naval base, was six years later changed into a formal
+treaty ratified by the Senate.
+
+Such enterprise could not escape the vigilant eyes of England and
+Germany, both mindful of the course of the sea power in history. The
+German emperor, seizing as a pretext a quarrel between his consul in the
+islands and a native king, laid claim to an interest in the Samoan
+group. England, aware of the dangers arising from German outposts in the
+southern seas so near to Australia, was not content to stand aside. So
+it happened that all three countries sent battleships to the Samoan
+waters, threatening a crisis that was fortunately averted by friendly
+settlement. If, as is alleged, Germany entertained a notion of
+challenging American sea power then and there, the presence of British
+ships must have dispelled that dream.
+
+The result of the affair was a tripartite agreement by which the three
+powers in 1889 undertook a protectorate over the islands. But joint
+control proved unsatisfactory. There was constant friction between the
+Germans and the English. The spheres of authority being vague and open
+to dispute, the plan had to be abandoned at the end of ten years.
+England withdrew altogether, leaving to Germany all the islands except
+Tutuila, which was ceded outright to the United States. Thus one of the
+finest harbors in the Pacific, to the intense delight of the American
+navy, passed permanently under American dominion. Another triumph in
+diplomacy was set down to the credit of the State Department.
+
+=Cleveland and the Venezuela Affair.=--In the relations with South
+America, as well as in those with the distant Pacific, the diplomacy of
+the government at Washington was put to the test. For some time it had
+been watching a dispute between England and Venezuela over the western
+boundary of British Guiana and, on an appeal from Venezuela, it had
+taken a lively interest in the contest. In 1895 President Cleveland saw
+that Great Britain would yield none of her claims. After hearing the
+arguments of Venezuela, his Secretary of State, Richard T. Olney, in a
+note none too conciliatory, asked the British government whether it was
+willing to arbitrate the points in controversy. This inquiry he
+accompanied by a warning to the effect that the United States could not
+permit any European power to contest its mastery in this hemisphere.
+"The United States," said the Secretary, "is practically sovereign on
+this continent and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it
+confines its interposition.... Its infinite resources, combined with its
+isolated position, render it master of the situation and practically
+invulnerable against any or all other powers."
+
+The reply evoked from the British government by this strong statement
+was firm and clear. The Monroe Doctrine, it said, even if not so widely
+stretched by interpretation, was not binding in international law; the
+dispute with Venezuela was a matter of interest merely to the parties
+involved; and arbitration of the question was impossible. This response
+called forth President Cleveland's startling message of 1895. He asked
+Congress to create a commission authorized to ascertain by researches
+the true boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. He added that it
+would be the duty of this country "to resist by every means in its
+power, as a willful aggression upon its rights and interests, the
+appropriation by Great Britain of any lands or the exercise of
+governmental jurisdiction over any territory which, after investigation,
+we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela." The serious character
+of this statement he thoroughly understood. He declared that he was
+conscious of his responsibilities, intimating that war, much as it was
+to be deplored, was not comparable to "a supine submission to wrong and
+injustice and the consequent loss of national self-respect and honor."
+
+[Illustration: GROVER CLEVELAND]
+
+The note of defiance which ran through this message, greeted by shrill
+cries of enthusiasm in many circles, was viewed in other quarters as a
+portent of war. Responsible newspapers in both countries spoke of an
+armed settlement of the dispute as inevitable. Congress created the
+commission and appropriated money for the investigation; a body of
+learned men was appointed to determine the merits of the conflicting
+boundary claims. The British government, deaf to the clamor of the
+bellicose section of the London press, deplored the incident,
+courteously replied in the affirmative to a request for assistance in
+the search for evidence, and finally agreed to the proposition that the
+issue be submitted to arbitration. The outcome of this somewhat perilous
+dispute contributed not a little to Cleveland's reputation as "a
+sterling representative of the true American spirit." This was not
+diminished when the tribunal of arbitration found that Great Britain was
+on the whole right in her territorial claims against Venezuela.
+
+=The Annexation of Hawaii.=--While engaged in the dangerous Venezuela
+controversy, President Cleveland was compelled by a strange turn in
+events to consider the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands in the
+mid-Pacific. For more than half a century American missionaries had been
+active in converting the natives to the Christian faith and enterprising
+American business men had been developing the fertile sugar plantations.
+Both the Department of State and the Navy Department were fully
+conscious of the strategic relation of the islands to the growth of sea
+power and watched with anxiety any developments likely to bring them
+under some other Dominion.
+
+The country at large was indifferent, however, until 1893, when a
+revolution, headed by Americans, broke out, ending in the overthrow of
+the native government, the abolition of the primitive monarchy, and the
+retirement of Queen Liliuokalani to private life. This crisis, a
+repetition of the Texas affair in a small theater, was immediately
+followed by a demand from the new Hawaiian government for annexation to
+the United States. President Harrison looked with favor on the proposal,
+negotiated the treaty of annexation, and laid it before the Senate for
+approval. There it still rested when his term of office was brought to a
+close.
+
+Harrison's successor, Cleveland, it was well known, had doubts about the
+propriety of American action in Hawaii. For the purpose of making an
+inquiry into the matter, he sent a special commissioner to the islands.
+On the basis of the report of his agent, Cleveland came to the
+conclusion that "the revolution in the island kingdom had been
+accomplished by the improper use of the armed forces of the United
+States and that the wrong should be righted by a restoration of the
+queen to her throne." Such being his matured conviction, though the
+facts upon which he rested it were warmly controverted, he could do
+nothing but withdraw the treaty from the Senate and close the incident.
+
+To the Republicans this sharp and cavalier disposal of their plans,
+carried out in a way that impugned the motives of a Republican
+President, was nothing less than "a betrayal of American interests." In
+their platform of 1896 they made clear their position: "Our foreign
+policy should be at all times firm, vigorous, and dignified and all our
+interests in the Western hemisphere carefully watched and guarded. The
+Hawaiian Islands should be controlled by the United States and no
+foreign power should be permitted to interfere with them." There was no
+mistaking this view of the issue. As the vote in the election gave
+popular sanction to Republican policies, Congress by a joint resolution,
+passed on July 6, 1898, annexed the islands to the United States and
+later conferred upon them the ordinary territorial form of government.
+
+
+CUBA AND THE SPANISH WAR
+
+=Early American Relations with Cuba.=--The year that brought Hawaii
+finally under the American flag likewise drew to a conclusion another
+long controversy over a similar outpost in the Atlantic, one of the last
+remnants of the once glorious Spanish empire--the island of Cuba.
+
+For a century the Department of State had kept an anxious eye upon this
+base of power, knowing full well that both France and England, already
+well established in the West Indies, had their attention also fixed upon
+Cuba. In the administration of President Fillmore they had united in
+proposing to the United States a tripartite treaty guaranteeing Spain in
+her none too certain ownership. This proposal, squarely rejected,
+furnished the occasion for a statement of American policy which stood
+the test of all the years that followed; namely, that the affair was one
+between Spain and the United States alone.
+
+In that long contest in the United States for the balance of power
+between the North and South, leaders in the latter section often thought
+of bringing Cuba into the union to offset the free states. An
+opportunity to announce their purposes publicly was afforded in 1854 by
+a controversy over the seizure of an American ship by Cuban authorities.
+On that occasion three American ministers abroad, stationed at Madrid,
+Paris, and London respectively, held a conference and issued the
+celebrated "Ostend Manifesto." They united in declaring that Cuba, by
+her geographical position, formed a part of the United States, that
+possession by a foreign power was inimical to American interests, and
+that an effort should be made to purchase the island from Spain. In case
+the owner refused to sell, they concluded, with a menacing flourish, "by
+every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting it from
+Spain if we possess the power." This startling proclamation to the world
+was promptly disowned by the United States government.
+
+[Illustration: _=An old cartoon.=_
+
+A SIGHT TOO BAD
+
+_Struggling Cuba._ "You must be awfully near-sighted, Mr. President, not
+to recognize me." _U.S.G._ "No, I am far-sighted: for I can recognize
+France."]
+
+=Revolutions in Cuba.=--For nearly twenty years afterwards the Cuban
+question rested. Then it was revived in another form during President
+Grant's administrations, when the natives became engaged in a
+destructive revolt against Spanish officials. For ten years--1868-78--a
+guerrilla warfare raged in the island. American citizens, by virtue of
+their ancient traditions of democracy, naturally sympathized with a war
+for independence and self-government. Expeditions to help the insurgents
+were fitted out secretly in American ports. Arms and supplies were
+smuggled into Cuba. American soldiers of fortune joined their ranks. The
+enforcement of neutrality against the friends of Cuban independence, no
+pleasing task for a sympathetic President, the protection of American
+lives and property in the revolutionary area, and similar matters kept
+our government busy with Cuba for a whole decade.
+
+A brief lull in Cuban disorders was followed in 1895 by a renewal of the
+revolutionary movement. The contest between the rebels and the Spanish
+troops, marked by extreme cruelty and a total disregard for life and
+property, exceeded all bounds of decency, and once more raised the old
+questions that had tormented Grant's administration. Gomez, the leader
+of the revolt, intent upon provoking American interference, laid waste
+the land with fire and sword. By a proclamation of November 6, 1895, he
+ordered the destruction of sugar plantations and railway connections and
+the closure of all sugar factories. The work of ruin was completed by
+the ruthless Spanish general, Weyler, who concentrated the inhabitants
+from rural regions into military camps, where they died by the hundreds
+of disease and starvation. Stories of the atrocities, bad enough in
+simple form, became lurid when transmuted into American news and deeply
+moved the sympathies of the American people. Sermons were preached about
+Spanish misdeeds; orators demanded that the Cubans be sustained "in
+their heroic struggle for independence"; newspapers, scouting the
+ordinary forms of diplomatic negotiation, spurned mediation and demanded
+intervention and war if necessary.
+
+[Illustration: _Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+CUBAN REVOLUTIONISTS]
+
+=President Cleveland's Policy.=--Cleveland chose the way of peace. He
+ordered the observance of the rule of neutrality. He declined to act on
+a resolution of Congress in favor of giving to the Cubans the rights of
+belligerents. Anxious to bring order to the distracted island, he
+tendered to Spain the good offices of the United States as mediator in
+the contest--a tender rejected by the Spanish government with the broad
+hint that President Cleveland might be more vigorous in putting a stop
+to the unlawful aid in money, arms, and supplies, afforded to the
+insurgents by American sympathizers. Thereupon the President returned to
+the course he had marked out for himself, leaving "the public nuisance"
+to his successor, President McKinley.
+
+=Republican Policies.=--The Republicans in 1897 found themselves in a
+position to employ that "firm, vigorous, and dignified" foreign policy
+which they had approved in their platform. They had declared: "The
+government of Spain having lost control of Cuba and being unable to
+protect the property or lives of resident American citizens or to comply
+with its treaty obligations, we believe that the government of the
+United States should actively use its influence and good offices to
+restore peace and give independence to the island." The American
+property in Cuba to which the Republicans referred in their platform
+amounted by this time to more than fifty million dollars; the commerce
+with the island reached more than one hundred millions annually; and the
+claims of American citizens against Spain for property destroyed totaled
+sixteen millions. To the pleas of humanity which made such an effective
+appeal to the hearts of the American people, there were thus added
+practical considerations of great weight.
+
+=President McKinley Negotiates.=--In the face of the swelling tide of
+popular opinion in favor of quick, drastic, and positive action,
+McKinley chose first the way of diplomacy. A short time after his
+inauguration he lodged with the Spanish government a dignified protest
+against its policies in Cuba, thus opening a game of thrust and parry
+with the suave ministers at Madrid. The results of the exchange of
+notes were the recall of the obnoxious General Weyler, the appointment
+of a governor-general less bloodthirsty in his methods, a change in the
+policy of concentrating civilians in military camps, and finally a
+promise of "home rule" for Cuba. There is no doubt that the Spanish
+government was eager to avoid a war that could have but one outcome. The
+American minister at Madrid, General Woodford, was convinced that firm
+and patient pressure would have resulted in the final surrender of Cuba
+by the Spanish government.
+
+=The De Lome and the _Maine_ Incidents.=--Such a policy was defeated by
+events. In February, 1898, a private letter written by Señor de Lome,
+the Spanish ambassador at Washington, expressing contempt for the
+President of the United States, was filched from the mails and passed
+into the hands of a journalist, William R. Hearst, who published it to
+the world. In the excited state of American opinion, few gave heed to
+the grave breach of diplomatic courtesy committed by breaking open
+private correspondence. The Spanish government was compelled to recall
+De Lome, thus officially condemning his conduct.
+
+At this point a far more serious crisis put the pacific relations of the
+two negotiating countries in dire peril. On February 15, the battleship
+_Maine_, riding in the harbor of Havana, was blown up and sunk, carrying
+to death two officers and two hundred and fifty-eight members of the
+crew. This tragedy, ascribed by the American public to the malevolence
+of Spanish officials, profoundly stirred an already furious nation.
+When, on March 21, a commission of inquiry reported that the ill-fated
+ship had been blown up by a submarine mine which had in turn set off
+some of the ship's magazines, the worst suspicions seemed confirmed. If
+any one was inclined to be indifferent to the Cuban war for
+independence, he was now met by the vehement cry: "Remember the
+_Maine_!"
+
+=Spanish Concessions.=--Still the State Department, under McKinley's
+steady hand, pursued the path of negotiation, Spain proving more pliable
+and more ready with promises of reform in the island. Early in April,
+however, there came a decided change in the tenor of American diplomacy.
+On the 4th, McKinley, evidently convinced that promises did not mean
+performances, instructed our minister at Madrid to warn the Spanish
+government that as no effective armistice had been offered to the
+Cubans, he would lay the whole matter before Congress. This decision,
+every one knew, from the temper of Congress, meant war--a prospect which
+excited all the European powers. The Pope took an active interest in the
+crisis. France and Germany, foreseeing from long experience in world
+politics an increase of American power and prestige through war, sought
+to prevent it. Spain, hopeless and conscious of her weakness, at last
+dispatched to the President a note promising to suspend hostilities, to
+call a Cuban parliament, and to grant all the autonomy that could be
+reasonably asked.
+
+=President McKinley Calls for War.=--For reasons of his own--reasons
+which have never yet been fully explained--McKinley ignored the final
+program of concessions presented by Spain. At the very moment when his
+patient negotiations seemed to bear full fruit, he veered sharply from
+his course and launched the country into the war by sending to Congress
+his militant message of April 11, 1898. Without making public the last
+note he had received from Spain, he declared that he was brought to the
+end of his effort and the cause was in the hands of Congress. Humanity,
+the protection of American citizens and property, the injuries to
+American commerce and business, the inability of Spain to bring about
+permanent peace in the island--these were the grounds for action that
+induced him to ask for authority to employ military and naval forces in
+establishing a stable government in Cuba. They were sufficient for a
+public already straining at the leash.
+
+=The Resolution of Congress.=--There was no doubt of the outcome when
+the issue was withdrawn from diplomacy and placed in charge of Congress.
+Resolutions were soon introduced into the House of Representatives
+authorizing the President to employ armed force in securing peace and
+order in the island and "establishing by the free action of the people
+thereof a stable and independent government of their own." To the form
+and spirit of this proposal the Democrats and Populists took exception.
+In the Senate, where they were stronger, their position had to be
+reckoned with by the narrow Republican majority. As the resolution
+finally read, the independence of Cuba was recognized; Spain was called
+upon to relinquish her authority and withdraw from the island; and the
+President was empowered to use force to the extent necessary to carry
+the resolutions into effect. Furthermore the United States disclaimed
+"any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or
+control over said island except for the pacification thereof." Final
+action was taken by Congress on April 19, 1898, and approved by the
+President on the following day.
+
+=War and Victory.=--Startling events then followed in swift succession.
+The navy, as a result in no small measure of the alertness of Theodore
+Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Department, was ready for the
+trial by battle. On May 1, Commodore Dewey at Manila Bay shattered the
+Spanish fleet, marking the doom of Spanish dominion in the Philippines.
+On July 3, the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, in attempting to
+escape from Havana, was utterly destroyed by American forces under
+Commodore Schley. On July 17, Santiago, invested by American troops
+under General Shafter and shelled by the American ships, gave up the
+struggle. On July 25 General Miles landed in Porto Rico. On August 13,
+General Merritt and Admiral Dewey carried Manila by storm. The war was
+over.
+
+=The Peace Protocol.=--Spain had already taken cognizance of stern
+facts. As early as July 26, 1898, acting through the French ambassador,
+M. Cambon, the Madrid government approached President McKinley for a
+statement of the terms on which hostilities could be brought to a close.
+After some skirmishing Spain yielded reluctantly to the ultimatum. On
+August 12, the preliminary peace protocol was signed, stipulating that
+Cuba should be free, Porto Rico ceded to the United States, and Manila
+occupied by American troops pending the formal treaty of peace. On
+October 1, the commissioners of the two countries met at Paris to bring
+about the final settlement.
+
+=Peace Negotiations.=--When the day for the first session of the
+conference arrived, the government at Washington apparently had not made
+up its mind on the final disposition of the Philippines. Perhaps, before
+the battle of Manila Bay, not ten thousand people in the United States
+knew or cared where the Philippines were. Certainly there was in the
+autumn of 1898 no decided opinion as to what should be done with the
+fruits of Dewey's victory. President McKinley doubtless voiced the
+sentiment of the people when he stated to the peace commissioners on the
+eve of their departure that there had originally been no thought of
+conquest in the Pacific.
+
+The march of events, he added, had imposed new duties on the country.
+"Incidental to our tenure in the Philippines," he said, "is the
+commercial opportunity to which American statesmanship cannot be
+indifferent. It is just to use every legitimate means for the
+enlargement of American trade." On this ground he directed the
+commissioners to accept not less than the cession of the island of
+Luzon, the chief of the Philippine group, with its harbor of Manila. It
+was not until the latter part of October that he definitely instructed
+them to demand the entire archipelago, on the theory that the occupation
+of Luzon alone could not be justified "on political, commercial, or
+humanitarian grounds." This departure from the letter of the peace
+protocol was bitterly resented by the Spanish agents. It was with
+heaviness of heart that they surrendered the last sign of Spain's
+ancient dominion in the far Pacific.
+
+=The Final Terms of Peace.=--The treaty of peace, as finally agreed
+upon, embraced the following terms: the independence of Cuba; the
+cession of Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States;
+the settlement of claims filed by the citizens of both countries; the
+payment of twenty million dollars to Spain by the United States for the
+Philippines; and the determination of the status of the inhabitants of
+the ceded territories by Congress. The great decision had been made. Its
+issue was in the hands of the Senate where the Democrats and the
+Populists held the balance of power under the requirement of the
+two-thirds vote for ratification.
+
+=The Contest in America over the Treaty of Peace.=--The publication of
+the treaty committing the United States to the administration of distant
+colonies directed the shifting tides of public opinion into two distinct
+channels: support of the policy and opposition to it. The trend in
+Republican leadership, long in the direction marked out by the treaty,
+now came into the open. Perhaps a majority of the men highest in the
+councils of that party had undergone the change of heart reflected in
+the letters of John Hay, Secretary of State. In August of 1898 he had
+hinted, in a friendly letter to Andrew Carnegie, that he sympathized
+with the latter's opposition to "imperialism"; but he had added quickly:
+"The only question in my mind is how far it is now possible for us to
+withdraw from the Philippines." In November of the same year he wrote to
+Whitelaw Reid, one of the peace commissioners at Paris: "There is a wild
+and frantic attack now going on in the press against the whole
+Philippine transaction. Andrew Carnegie really seems to be off his
+head.... But all this confusion of tongues will go its way. The country
+will applaud the resolution that has been reached and you will return in
+the rôle of conquering heroes with your 'brows bound with oak.'"
+
+Senator Beveridge of Indiana and Senator Platt of Connecticut, accepting
+the verdict of history as the proof of manifest destiny, called for
+unquestioning support of the administration in its final step. "Every
+expansion of our territory," said the latter, "has been in accordance
+with the irresistible law of growth. We could no more resist the
+successive expansions by which we have grown to be the strongest nation
+on earth than a tree can resist its growth. The history of territorial
+expansion is the history of our nation's progress and glory. It is a
+matter to be proud of, not to lament. We should rejoice that Providence
+has given us the opportunity to extend our influence, our institutions,
+and our civilization into regions hitherto closed to us, rather than
+contrive how we can thwart its designs."
+
+This doctrine was savagely attacked by opponents of McKinley's policy,
+many a stanch Republican joining with the majority of Democrats in
+denouncing the treaty as a departure from the ideals of the republic.
+Senator Vest introduced in the Senate a resolution that "under the
+Constitution of the United States, no power is given to the federal
+Government to acquire territory to be held and governed permanently as
+colonies." Senator Hoar, of Massachusetts, whose long and honorable
+career gave weight to his lightest words, inveighed against the whole
+procedure and to the end of his days believed that the new drift into
+rivalry with European nations as a colonial power was fraught with
+genuine danger. "Our imperialistic friends," he said, "seem to have
+forgotten the use of the vocabulary of liberty. They talk about giving
+good government. 'We shall give them such a government as we think they
+are fitted for.' 'We shall give them a better government than they had
+before.' Why, Mr. President, that one phrase conveys to a free man and a
+free people the most stinging of insults. In that little phrase, as in a
+seed, is contained the germ of all despotism and of all tyranny.
+Government is not a gift. Free government is not to be given by all the
+blended powers of earth and heaven. It is a birthright. It belongs, as
+our fathers said, and as their children said, as Jefferson said, and as
+President McKinley said, to human nature itself."
+
+The Senate, more conservative on the question of annexation than the
+House of Representatives composed of men freshly elected in the stirring
+campaign of 1896, was deliberate about ratification of the treaty. The
+Democrats and Populists were especially recalcitrant. Mr. Bryan hurried
+to Washington and brought his personal influence to bear in favor of
+speedy action. Patriotism required ratification, it was said in one
+quarter. The country desires peace and the Senate ought not to delay, it
+was urged in another. Finally, on February 6, 1899, the requisite
+majority of two-thirds was mustered, many a Senator who voted for the
+treaty, however, sharing the misgivings of Senator Hoar as to the
+"dangers of imperialism." Indeed at the time, the Senators passed a
+resolution declaring that the policy to be adopted in the Philippines
+was still an open question, leaving to the future, in this way, the
+possibility of retracing their steps.
+
+=The Attitude of England.=--The Spanish war, while accomplishing the
+simple objects of those who launched the nation on that course, like all
+other wars, produced results wholly unforeseen. In the first place, it
+exercised a profound influence on the drift of opinion among European
+powers. In England, sympathy with the United States was from the first
+positive and outspoken. "The state of feeling here," wrote Mr. Hay, then
+ambassador in London, "is the best I have ever known. From every quarter
+the evidences of it come to me. The royal family by habit and tradition
+are most careful not to break the rules of strict neutrality, but even
+among them I find nothing but hearty kindness and--so far as is
+consistent with propriety--sympathy. Among the political leaders on both
+sides I find not only sympathy but a somewhat eager desire that 'the
+other fellows' shall not seem more friendly."
+
+Joseph Chamberlain, the distinguished Liberal statesman, thinking no
+doubt of the continental situation, said in a political address at the
+very opening of the war that the next duty of Englishmen "is to
+establish and maintain bonds of permanent unity with our kinsmen across
+the Atlantic.... I even go so far as to say that, terrible as war may
+be, even war would be cheaply purchased if, in a great and noble cause,
+the Stars and Stripes and the Union Jack should wave together over an
+Anglo-Saxon alliance." To the American ambassador he added
+significantly that he did not "care a hang what they say about it on the
+continent," which was another way of expressing the hope that the
+warning to Germany and France was sufficient. This friendly English
+opinion, so useful to the United States when a combination of powers to
+support Spain was more than possible, removed all fears as to the
+consequences of the war. Henry Adams, recalling days of humiliation in
+London during the Civil War, when his father was the American
+ambassador, coolly remarked that it was "the sudden appearance of
+Germany as the grizzly terror" that "frightened England into America's
+arms"; but the net result in keeping the field free for an easy triumph
+of American arms was none the less appreciated in Washington where,
+despite outward calm, fears of European complications were never absent.
+
+
+AMERICAN POLICIES IN THE PHILIPPINES AND THE ORIENT
+
+=The Filipino Revolt against American Rule.=--In the sphere of domestic
+politics, as well as in the field of foreign relations, the outcome of
+the Spanish war exercised a marked influence. It introduced at once
+problems of colonial administration and difficulties in adjusting trade
+relations with the outlying dominions. These were furthermore
+complicated in the very beginning by the outbreak of an insurrection
+against American sovereignty in the Philippines. The leader of the
+revolt, Aguinaldo, had been invited to join the American forces in
+overthrowing Spanish dominion, and he had assumed, apparently without
+warrant, that independence would be the result of the joint operations.
+When the news reached him that the American flag had been substituted
+for the Spanish flag, his resentment was keen. In February, 1899, there
+occurred a slight collision between his men and some American soldiers.
+The conflict thus begun was followed by serious fighting which finally
+dwindled into a vexatious guerrilla warfare lasting three years and
+costing heavily in men and money. Atrocities were committed by the
+native insurrectionists and, sad to relate, they were repaid in kind;
+it was argued in defense of the army that the ordinary rules of warfare
+were without terror to men accustomed to fighting like savages. In vain
+did McKinley assure the Filipinos that the institutions and laws
+established in the islands would be designed "not for our satisfaction
+or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness,
+peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands." Nothing
+short of military pressure could bring the warring revolutionists to
+terms.
+
+=Attacks on Republican "Imperialism."=--The Filipino insurrection,
+following so quickly upon the ratification of the treaty with Spain,
+moved the American opponents of McKinley's colonial policies to redouble
+their denunciation of what they were pleased to call "imperialism."
+Senator Hoar was more than usually caustic in his indictment of the new
+course. The revolt against American rule did but convince him of the
+folly hidden in the first fateful measures. Everywhere he saw a
+conspiracy of silence and injustice. "I have failed to discover in the
+speeches, public or private, of the advocates of this war," he contended
+in the Senate, "or in the press which supports it and them, a single
+expression anywhere of a desire to do justice to the people of the
+Philippine Islands, or of a desire to make known to the people of the
+United States the truth of the case.... The catchwords, the cries, the
+pithy and pregnant phrases of which their speech is full, all mean
+dominion. They mean perpetual dominion.... There is not one of these
+gentlemen who will rise in his place and affirm that if he were a
+Filipino he would not do exactly as the Filipinos are doing; that he
+would not despise them if they were to do otherwise. So much at least
+they owe of respect to the dead and buried history--the dead and buried
+history so far as they can slay and bury it--of their country." In the
+way of practical suggestions, the Senator offered as a solution of the
+problem: the recognition of independence, assistance in establishing
+self-government, and an invitation to all powers to join in a guarantee
+of freedom to the islands.
+
+=The Republican Answer.=--To McKinley and his supporters, engaged in a
+sanguinary struggle to maintain American supremacy, such talk was more
+than quixotic; it was scarcely short of treasonable. They pointed out
+the practical obstacles in the way of uniform self-government for a
+collection of seven million people ranging in civilization from the most
+ignorant hill men to the highly cultivated inhabitants of Manila. The
+incidents of the revolt and its repression, they admitted, were painful
+enough; but still nothing as compared with the chaos that would follow
+the attempt of a people who had never had experience in such matters to
+set up and sustain democratic institutions. They preferred rather the
+gradual process of fitting the inhabitants of the islands for
+self-government. This course, in their eyes, though less poetic, was
+more in harmony with the ideals of humanity. Having set out upon it,
+they pursued it steadfastly to the end. First, they applied force
+without stint to the suppression of the revolt. Then they devoted such
+genius for colonial administration as they could command to the
+development of civil government, commerce, and industry.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A PHILIPPINE HOME]
+
+=The Boxer Rebellion in China.=--For a nation with a world-wide trade,
+steadily growing, as the progress of home industries redoubled the zeal
+for new markets, isolation was obviously impossible. Never was this
+clearer than in 1900 when a native revolt against foreigners in China,
+known as the Boxer uprising, compelled the United States to join with
+the powers of Europe in a military expedition and a diplomatic
+settlement. The Boxers, a Chinese association, had for some time carried
+on a campaign of hatred against all aliens in the Celestial empire,
+calling upon the natives to rise in patriotic wrath and drive out the
+foreigners who, they said, "were lacerating China like tigers." In the
+summer of 1900 the revolt flamed up in deeds of cruelty. Missionaries
+and traders were murdered in the provinces; foreign legations were
+stoned; the German ambassador, one of the most cordially despised
+foreigners, was killed in the streets of Peking; and to all appearances
+a frightful war of extermination had begun. In the month of June nearly
+five hundred men, women, and children, representing all nations, were
+besieged in the British quarters in Peking under constant fire of
+Chinese guns and in peril of a terrible death.
+
+=Intervention in China.=--Nothing but the arrival of armed forces, made
+up of Japanese, Russian, British, American, French, and German soldiers
+and marines, prevented the destruction of the beleaguered aliens. When
+once the foreign troops were in possession of the Chinese capital,
+diplomatic questions of the most delicate character arose. For more than
+half a century, the imperial powers of Europe had been carving up the
+Chinese empire, taking to themselves territory, railway concessions,
+mining rights, ports, and commercial privileges at the expense of the
+huge but helpless victim. The United States alone among the great
+nations, while as zealous as any in the pursuit of peaceful trade, had
+refrained from seizing Chinese territory or ports. Moreover, the
+Department of State had been urging European countries to treat China
+with fairness, to respect her territorial integrity, and to give her
+equal trading privileges with all nations.
+
+=The American Policy of the "Open Door."=--In the autumn of 1899,
+Secretary Hay had addressed to London, Berlin, Rome, Paris, Tokyo, and
+St. Petersburg his famous note on the "open door" policy in China. In
+this document he proposed that existing treaty ports and vested
+interests of the several foreign countries should be respected; that
+the Chinese government should be permitted to extend its tariffs to all
+ports held by alien powers except the few free ports; and that there
+should be no discrimination in railway and port charges among the
+citizens of foreign countries operating in the empire. To these
+principles the governments addressed by Mr. Hay, finally acceded with
+evident reluctance.
+
+[Illustration: AMERICAN DOMINIONS IN THE PACIFIC]
+
+On this basis he then proposed the settlement that had to follow the
+Boxer uprising. "The policy of the Government of the United States," he
+said to the great powers, in the summer of 1900, "is to seek a solution
+which may bring about permanent safety and peace to China, preserve
+Chinese territorial and administrative entity, protect all rights
+guaranteed to friendly powers by treaty and international law, and
+safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impartial trade with
+all parts of the Chinese empire." This was a friendly warning to the
+world that the United States would not join in a scramble to punish the
+Chinese by carving out more territory. "The moment we acted," said Mr.
+Hay, "the rest of the world paused and finally came over to our ground;
+and the German government, which is generally brutal but seldom silly,
+recovered its senses, and climbed down off its perch."
+
+In taking this position, the Secretary of State did but reflect the
+common sense of America. "We are, of course," he explained, "opposed to
+the dismemberment of that empire and we do not think that the public
+opinion of the United States would justify this government in taking
+part in the great game of spoliation now going on." Heavy damages were
+collected by the European powers from China for the injuries inflicted
+upon their citizens by the Boxers; but the United States, finding the
+sum awarded in excess of the legitimate claims, returned the balance in
+the form of a fund to be applied to the education of Chinese students in
+American universities. "I would rather be, I think," said Mr. Hay, "the
+dupe of China than the chum of the Kaiser." By pursuing a liberal
+policy, he strengthened the hold of the United States upon the
+affections of the Chinese people and, in the long run, as he remarked
+himself, safeguarded "our great commercial interests in that Empire."
+
+=Imperialism in the Presidential Campaign of 1900.=--It is not strange
+that the policy pursued by the Republican administration in disposing of
+the questions raised by the Spanish War became one of the first issues
+in the presidential campaign of 1900. Anticipating attacks from every
+quarter, the Republicans, in renominating McKinley, set forth their
+position in clear and ringing phrases: "In accepting by the treaty of
+Paris the just responsibility of our victories in the Spanish War the
+President and Senate won the undoubted approval of the American people.
+No other course was possible than to destroy Spain's sovereignty
+throughout the West Indies and in the Philippine Islands. That course
+created our responsibility, before the world and with the unorganized
+population whom our intervention had freed from Spain, to provide for
+the maintenance of law and order, and for the establishment of good
+government and for the performance of international obligations. Our
+authority could not be less than our responsibility, and wherever
+sovereign rights were extended it became the high duty of the government
+to maintain its authority, to put down armed insurrection, and to confer
+the blessings of liberty and civilization upon all the rescued peoples.
+The largest measure of self-government consistent with their welfare and
+our duties shall be secured to them by law." To give more strength to
+their ticket, the Republican convention, in a whirlwind of enthusiasm,
+nominated for the vice presidency, against his protest, Theodore
+Roosevelt, the governor of New York and the hero of the Rough Riders, so
+popular on account of their Cuban campaign.
+
+The Democrats, as expected, picked up the gauntlet thrown down with such
+defiance by the Republicans. Mr. Bryan, whom they selected as their
+candidate, still clung to the currency issue; but the main emphasis,
+both of the platform and the appeal for votes, was on the "imperialistic
+program" of the Republican administration. The Democrats denounced the
+treatment of Cuba and Porto Rico and condemned the Philippine policy in
+sharp and vigorous terms. "As we are not willing," ran the platform, "to
+surrender our civilization or to convert the Republic into an empire, we
+favor an immediate declaration of the Nation's purpose to give to the
+Filipinos, first, a stable form of government; second, independence;
+third, protection from outside interference.... The greedy commercialism
+which dictated the Philippine policy of the Republican administration
+attempts to justify it with the plea that it will pay, but even this
+sordid and unworthy plea fails when brought to the test of facts. The
+war of 'criminal aggression' against the Filipinos entailing an annual
+expense of many millions has already cost more than any possible profit
+that could accrue from the entire Philippine trade for years to come....
+We oppose militarism. It means conquest abroad and intimidation and
+oppression at home. It means the strong arm which has ever been fatal to
+free institutions. It is what millions of our citizens have fled from in
+Europe. It will impose upon our peace-loving people a large standing
+army, an unnecessary burden of taxation, and would be a constant menace
+to their liberties." Such was the tenor of their appeal to the voters.
+
+With the issues clearly joined, the country rejected the Democratic
+candidate even more positively than four years before. The popular vote
+cast for McKinley was larger and that cast for Bryan smaller than in the
+silver election. Thus vindicated at the polls, McKinley turned with
+renewed confidence to the development of the policies he had so far
+advanced. But fate cut short his designs. In the September following his
+second inauguration, he was shot by an anarchist while attending the
+Buffalo exposition. "What a strange and tragic fate it has been of
+mine," wrote the Secretary of State, John Hay, on the day of the
+President's death, "to stand by the bier of three of my dearest friends,
+Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley, three of the gentlest of men, all risen
+to the head of the state and all done to death by assassins." On
+September 14, 1901, the Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, took up the
+lines of power that had fallen from the hands of his distinguished
+chief, promising to continue "absolutely unbroken" the policies he had
+inherited.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS
+
+The economic aspects of the period between 1865 and 1900 may be readily
+summed up: the recovery of the South from the ruin of the Civil War, the
+extension of the railways, the development of the Great West, and the
+triumph of industry and business enterprise. In the South many of the
+great plantations were broken up and sold in small farms, crops were
+diversified, the small farming class was raised in the scale of social
+importance, the cotton industry was launched, and the coal, iron,
+timber, and other resources were brought into use. In the West the free
+arable land was practically exhausted by 1890 under the terms of the
+Homestead Act; gold, silver, copper, coal and other minerals were
+discovered in abundance; numerous rail connections were formed with the
+Atlantic seaboard; the cowboy and the Indian were swept away before a
+standardized civilization of electric lights and bathtubs. By the end of
+the century the American frontier had disappeared. The wild, primitive
+life so long associated with America was gone. The unity of the nation
+was established.
+
+In the field of business enterprise, progress was most marked. The
+industrial system, which had risen and flourished before the Civil War,
+grew into immense proportions and the industrial area was extended from
+the Northeast into all parts of the country. Small business concerns
+were transformed into huge corporations. Individual plants were merged
+under the management of gigantic trusts. Short railway lines were
+consolidated into national systems. The industrial population of
+wage-earners rose into the tens of millions. The immigration of aliens
+increased by leaps and bounds. The cities overshadowed the country. The
+nation that had once depended upon Europe for most of its manufactured
+goods became a competitor of Europe in the markets of the earth.
+
+In the sphere of politics, the period witnessed the recovery of white
+supremacy in the South; the continued discussion of the old questions,
+such as the currency, the tariff, and national banking; and the
+injection of new issues like the trusts and labor problems. As of old,
+foreign affairs were kept well at the front. Alaska was purchased from
+Russia; attempts were made to extend American influence in the Caribbean
+region; a Samoan island was brought under the flag; and the Hawaiian
+islands were annexed. The Monroe Doctrine was applied with vigor in the
+dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain.
+
+Assistance was given to the Cubans in their revolutionary struggle
+against Spain and thus there was precipitated a war which ended in the
+annexation of Porto Rico and the Philippines. American influence in the
+Pacific and the Orient was so enlarged as to be a factor of great weight
+in world affairs. Thus questions connected with foreign and "imperial"
+policies were united with domestic issues to make up the warp and woof
+of politics. In the direction of affairs, the Republicans took the
+leadership, for they held the presidency during all the years, except
+eight, between 1865 and 1900.
+
+
+=References=
+
+J.W. Foster, _A Century of American Diplomacy_; _American Diplomacy in
+the Orient_.
+
+W.F. Reddaway, _The Monroe Doctrine_.
+
+J.H. Latané, _The United States and Spanish America_.
+
+A.C. Coolidge, _United States as a World Power_.
+
+A.T. Mahan, _Interest of the United States in the Sea Power_.
+
+F.E. Chadwick, _Spanish-American War_.
+
+D.C. Worcester, _The Philippine Islands and Their People_.
+
+M.M. Kalaw, _Self-Government in the Philippines_.
+
+L.S. Rowe, _The United States and Porto Rico_.
+
+F.E. Chadwick, _The Relations of the United States and Spain_.
+
+W.R. Shepherd, _Latin America_; _Central and South America_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Tell the story of the international crisis that developed soon after
+the Civil War with regard to Mexico.
+
+2. Give the essential facts relating to the purchase of Alaska.
+
+3. Review the early history of our interest in the Caribbean.
+
+4. Amid what circumstances was the Monroe Doctrine applied in
+Cleveland's administration?
+
+5. Give the causes that led to the war with Spain.
+
+6. Tell the leading events in that war.
+
+7. What was the outcome as far as Cuba was concerned? The outcome for
+the United States?
+
+8. Discuss the attitude of the Filipinos toward American sovereignty in
+the islands.
+
+9. Describe McKinley's colonial policy.
+
+10. How was the Spanish War viewed in England? On the Continent?
+
+11. Was there a unified American opinion on American expansion?
+
+12. Was this expansion a departure from our traditions?
+
+13. What events led to foreign intervention in China?
+
+14. Explain the policy of the "open door."
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Hawaii and Venezuela.=--Dewey, _National Problems_ (American Nation
+Series), pp. 279-313; Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 600-602;
+Hart, _American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 612-616.
+
+=Intervention in Cuba.=--Latané, _America as a World Power_ (American
+Nation Series), pp. 3-28; Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp.
+597-598; Roosevelt, _Autobiography_, pp. 223-277; Haworth, _The United
+States in Our Own Time_, pp. 232-256; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV,
+pp. 573-578.
+
+=The War with Spain.=--Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+889-896.
+
+=Terms of Peace with Spain.=--Latané, pp. 63-81; Macdonald, pp. 602-608;
+Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 588-590.
+
+=The Philippine Insurrection.=--Latané, pp. 82-99.
+
+=Imperialism as a Campaign Issue.=--Latané, pp. 120-132; Haworth, pp.
+257-277; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 604-611.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--William McKinley, M.A. Hanna, John Hay;
+Admirals, George Dewey, W.T. Sampson, and W.S. Schley; and Generals,
+W.R. Shafter, Joseph Wheeler, and H.W. Lawton.
+
+=General Analysis of American Expansion.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New
+York State, 1920), pp. 142-147.
+
+
+
+
+PART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF REPUBLICAN POLICIES (1901-13)
+
+
+=The Personality and Early Career of Roosevelt.=--On September 14, 1901,
+when Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office, the presidency passed
+to a new generation and a leader of a new type recalling, if comparisons
+must be made, Andrew Jackson rather than any Republican predecessor.
+Roosevelt was brusque, hearty, restless, and fond of action--"a young
+fellow of infinite dash and originality," as John Hay remarked of him;
+combining the spirit of his old college, Harvard, with the breezy
+freedom of the plains; interested in everything--a new species of game,
+a new book, a diplomatic riddle, or a novel theory of history or
+biology. Though only forty-three years old he was well versed in the art
+of practical politics. Coming upon the political scene in the early
+eighties, he had associated himself with the reformers in the Republican
+party; but he was no Mugwump. From the first he vehemently preached the
+doctrine of party loyalty; if beaten in the convention, he voted the
+straight ticket in the election. For twenty years he adhered to this
+rule and during a considerable portion of that period he held office as
+a spokesman of his party. He served in the New York legislature, as head
+of the metropolitan police force, as federal civil service commissioner
+under President Harrison, as assistant secretary of the navy under
+President McKinley, and as governor of the Empire state. Political
+managers of the old school spoke of him as "brilliant but erratic"; they
+soon found him equal to the shrewdest in negotiation and action.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+ROOSEVELT TALKING TO THE ENGINEER OF A RAILROAD TRAIN]
+
+
+FOREIGN AFFAIRS
+
+=The Panama Canal.=--The most important foreign question confronting
+President Roosevelt on the day of his inauguration, that of the Panama
+Canal, was a heritage from his predecessor. The idea of a water route
+across the isthmus, long a dream of navigators, had become a living
+issue after the historic voyage of the battleship _Oregon_ around South
+America during the Spanish War. But before the United States could act
+it had to undo the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, made with Great Britain in
+1850, providing for the construction of the canal under joint
+supervision. This was finally effected by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty of
+1901 authorizing the United States to proceed alone, on condition that
+there should be no discriminations against other nations in the matter
+of rates and charges.
+
+This accomplished, it was necessary to decide just where the canal
+should be built. One group in Congress favored the route through
+Nicaragua; in fact, two official commissions had already approved that
+location. Another group favored cutting the way through Panama after
+purchasing the rights of the old French company which, under the
+direction of De Lesseps, the hero of the Suez Canal, had made a costly
+failure some twenty years before. After a heated argument over the
+merits of the two plans, preference was given to the Panama route. As
+the isthmus was then a part of Colombia, President Roosevelt proceeded
+to negotiate with the government at Bogota a treaty authorizing the
+United States to cut a canal through its territory. The treaty was
+easily framed, but it was rejected by the Colombian senate, much to the
+President's exasperation. "You could no more make an agreement with the
+Colombian rulers," he exclaimed, "than you could nail jelly to a wall."
+He was spared the necessity by a timely revolution. On November 3, 1903,
+Panama renounced its allegiance to Colombia and three days later the
+United States recognized its independence.
+
+[Illustration: _Courtesy of Panama Canal, Washington, D.C._
+
+DEEPEST EXCAVATED PORTION OF PANAMA CANAL, SHOWING GOLD HILL ON
+RIGHT AND CONTRACTOR'S HILL ON LEFT. JUNE, 1913]
+
+This amazing incident was followed shortly by the signature of a treaty
+between Panama and the United States in which the latter secured the
+right to construct the long-discussed canal, in return for a guarantee
+of independence and certain cash payments. The rights and property of
+the French concern were then bought, and the final details settled. A
+lock rather than a sea-level canal was agreed upon. Construction by the
+government directly instead of by private contractors was adopted.
+Scientific medicine was summoned to stamp out the tropical diseases
+that had made Panama a plague spot. Finally, in 1904, as the President
+said, "the dirt began to fly." After surmounting formidable
+difficulties--engineering, labor, and sanitary--the American forces in
+1913 joined the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific. Nearly eight
+thousand miles were cut off the sea voyage from New York to San
+Francisco. If any were inclined to criticize President Roosevelt for
+the way in which he snapped off negotiations with Colombia and
+recognized the Panama revolutionists, their attention was drawn to the
+magnificent outcome of the affair. Notwithstanding the treaty with Great
+Britain, Congress passed a tolls bill discriminating in rates in favor
+of American ships. It was only on the urgent insistence of President
+Wilson that the measure was later repealed.
+
+=The Conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War.=--The applause which greeted
+the President's next diplomatic stroke was unmarred by censure of any
+kind. In the winter of 1904 there broke out between Japan and Russia a
+terrible conflict over the division of spoils in Manchuria. The fortunes
+of war were with the agile forces of Nippon. In this struggle, it seems,
+President Roosevelt's sympathies were mainly with the Japanese, although
+he observed the proprieties of neutrality. At all events, Secretary Hay
+wrote in his diary on New Year's Day, 1905, that the President was
+"quite firm in his view that we cannot permit Japan to be robbed a
+second time of her victory," referring to the fact that Japan, ten years
+before, after defeating China on the field of battle, had been forced by
+Russia, Germany, and France to forego the fruits of conquest.
+
+Whatever the President's personal feelings may have been, he was aware
+that Japan, despite her triumphs over Russia, was staggering under a
+heavy burden of debt. At a suggestion from Tokyo, he invited both
+belligerents in the summer of 1905 to join in a peace conference. The
+celerity of their reply was aided by the pressure of European bankers,
+who had already come to a substantial agreement that the war must stop.
+After some delay, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, was chosen as the meeting
+place for the spokesmen of the two warring powers. Roosevelt presided
+over the opening ceremonies with fine urbanity, thoroughly enjoying the
+justly earned honor of being for the moment at the center of the world's
+interest. He had the satisfaction of seeing the conference end in a
+treaty of peace and amity.
+
+=The Monroe Doctrine Applied to Germany.=--Less spectacular than the
+Russo-Japanese settlement but not less important was a diplomatic
+passage-at-arms with Germany over the Monroe Doctrine. This clash grew
+out of the inability or unwillingness of the Venezuelan government to
+pay debts due foreign creditors. Having exhausted their patience in
+negotiations, England and Germany, in December 1901, sent battleships to
+establish what they characterized as "a peaceful blockade" of Venezuelan
+ports. Their action was followed by the rupture of diplomatic relations;
+there was a possibility that war and the occupation of Venezuelan
+territory might result.
+
+While unwilling to stand between a Latin-American country and its
+creditors, President Roosevelt was determined that debt collecting
+should not be made an excuse for European countries to seize territory.
+He therefore urged arbitration of the dispute, winning the assent of
+England and Italy. Germany, with a somewhat haughty air, refused to take
+the milder course. The President, learning of this refusal, called the
+German ambassador to the White House and informed him in very precise
+terms that, unless the Imperial German Government consented to
+arbitrate, Admiral Dewey would be ordered to the scene with instructions
+to prevent Germany from seizing any Venezuelan territory. A week passed
+and no answer came from Berlin. Not baffled, the President again took
+the matter up with the ambassador, this time with even more firmness; he
+stated in language admitting of but one meaning that, unless within
+forty-eight hours the Emperor consented to arbitration, American
+battleships, already coaled and cleared, would sail for Venezuelan
+waters. The hint was sufficient. The Kaiser accepted the proposal and
+the President, with the fine irony of diplomacy, complimented him
+publicly on "being so stanch an advocate of arbitration." In terms of
+the Monroe Doctrine this action meant that the United States, while not
+denying the obligations of debtors, would not permit any move on the
+part of European powers that might easily lead to the temporary or
+permanent occupation of Latin-American territory.
+
+=The Santo Domingo Affair.=--The same issue was involved in a
+controversy over Santo Domingo which arose in 1904. The Dominican
+republic, like Venezuela, was heavily in debt, and certain European
+countries declared that, unless the United States undertook to look
+after the finances of the embarrassed debtor, they would resort to armed
+coercion. What was the United States to do? The danger of having some
+European power strongly intrenched in Santo Domingo was too imminent to
+be denied. President Roosevelt acted with characteristic speed, and
+notwithstanding strong opposition in the Senate was able, in 1907, to
+effect a treaty arrangement which placed Dominican finances under
+American supervision.
+
+In the course of the debate over this settlement, a number of
+interesting questions arose. It was pertinently asked whether the
+American navy should be used to help creditors collect their debts
+anywhere in Latin-America. It was suggested also that no sanction should
+be given to the practice among European governments of using armed force
+to collect private claims. Opponents of President Roosevelt's policy,
+and they were neither few nor insignificant, urged that such matters
+should be referred to the Hague Court or to special international
+commissions for arbitration. To this the answer was made that the United
+States could not surrender any question coming under the terms of the
+Monroe Doctrine to the decision of an international tribunal. The
+position of the administration was very clearly stated by President
+Roosevelt himself. "The country," he said, "would certainly decline to
+go to war to prevent a foreign government from collecting a just debt;
+on the other hand, it is very inadvisable to permit any foreign power to
+take possession, even temporarily, of the customs houses of an American
+republic in order to enforce the payment of its obligations; for such a
+temporary occupation might turn into a permanent occupation. The only
+escape from these alternatives may at any time be that we must
+ourselves undertake to bring about some arrangement by which so much as
+possible of a just obligation shall be paid." The Monroe Doctrine was
+negative. It denied to European powers a certain liberty of operation in
+this hemisphere. The positive obligations resulting from its application
+by the United States were points now emphasized and developed.
+
+=The Hague Conference.=--The controversies over Latin-American relations
+and his part in bringing the Russo-Japanese War to a close naturally
+made a deep impression upon Roosevelt, turning his mind in the direction
+of the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The subject was
+moreover in the air. As if conscious of impending calamity, the
+statesmen of the Old World, to all outward signs at least, seemed
+searching for a way to reduce armaments and avoid the bloody and costly
+trial of international causes by the ancient process of battle. It was
+the Czar, Nicholas II, fated to die in one of the terrible holocausts
+which he helped to bring upon mankind, who summoned the delegates of the
+nations in the first Hague Peace Conference in 1899. The conference did
+nothing to reduce military burdens or avoid wars but it did recognize
+the right of friendly nations to offer the services of mediation to
+countries at war and did establish a Court at the Hague for the
+arbitration of international disputes.
+
+Encouraged by this experiment, feeble as it was, President Roosevelt in
+1904 proposed a second conference, yielding to the Czar the honor of
+issuing the call. At this great international assembly, held at the
+Hague in 1907, the representatives of the United States proposed a plan
+for the compulsory arbitration of certain matters of international
+dispute. This was rejected with contempt by Germany. Reduction of
+armaments, likewise proposed in the conference, was again deferred. In
+fact, nothing was accomplished beyond agreement upon certain rules for
+the conduct of "civilized warfare," casting a somewhat lurid light upon
+the "pacific" intentions of most of the powers assembled.
+
+=The World Tour of the Fleet.=--As if to assure the world then that the
+United States placed little reliance upon the frail reed of peace
+conferences, Roosevelt the following year (1908) made an imposing
+display of American naval power by sending a fleet of sixteen
+battleships on a tour around the globe. On his own authority, he ordered
+the ships to sail out of Hampton Roads and circle the earth by way of
+the Straits of Magellan, San Francisco, Australia, the Philippines,
+China, Japan, and the Suez Canal. This enterprise was not, as some
+critics claimed, a "mere boyish flourish." President Roosevelt knew how
+deep was the influence of sea power on the fate of nations. He was aware
+that no country could have a wide empire of trade and dominion without
+force adequate to sustain it. The voyage around the world therefore
+served a double purpose. It interested his own country in the naval
+program of the government, and it reminded other powers that the
+American giant, though quiet, was not sleeping in the midst of
+international rivalries.
+
+
+COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
+
+=A Constitutional Question Settled.=--In colonial administration, as in
+foreign policy, President Roosevelt advanced with firm step in a path
+already marked out. President McKinley had defined the principles that
+were to control the development of Porto Rico and the Philippines. The
+Republican party had announced a program of pacification, gradual
+self-government, and commercial improvement. The only remaining question
+of importance, to use the popular phrase,--"Does the Constitution follow
+the flag?"--had been answered by the Supreme Court of the United States.
+Although it was well known that the Constitution did not contemplate the
+government of dependencies, such as the Philippines and Porto Rico, the
+Court, by generous and ingenious interpretations, found a way for
+Congress to apply any reasonable rules required by the occasion.
+
+=Porto Rico.=--The government of Porto Rico was a relatively simple
+matter. It was a single island with a fairly homogeneous population
+apart from the Spanish upper class. For a time after military occupation
+in 1898, it was administered under military rule. This was succeeded by
+the establishment of civil government under the "organic act" passed by
+Congress in 1900. The law assured to the Porto Ricans American
+protection but withheld American citizenship--a boon finally granted in
+1917. It provided for a governor and six executive secretaries appointed
+by the President with the approval of the Senate; and for a legislature
+of two houses--one elected by popular native vote, and an upper chamber
+composed of the executive secretaries and five other persons appointed
+in the same manner. Thus the United States turned back to the provincial
+system maintained by England in Virginia or New York in old colonial
+days. The natives were given a voice in their government and the power
+of initiating laws; but the final word both in law-making and
+administration was vested in officers appointed in Washington. Such was
+the plan under which the affairs of Porto Rico were conducted by
+President Roosevelt. It lasted until the new organic act of 1917.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph from Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A SUGAR MILL, PORTO RICO]
+
+=The Philippines.=--The administration of the Philippines presented far
+more difficult questions. The number of islands, the variety of
+languages and races, the differences in civilization all combined to
+challenge the skill of the government. Moreover, there was raging in
+1901 a stubborn revolt against American authority, which had to be
+faced. Following the lines laid down by President McKinley, the
+evolution of American policy fell into three stages. At first the
+islands were governed directly by the President under his supreme
+military power. In 1901 a civilian commission, headed by William Howard
+Taft, was selected by the President and charged with the government of
+the provinces in which order had been restored. Six years later, under
+the terms of an organic act, passed by Congress in 1902, the third stage
+was reached. The local government passed into the hands of a governor
+and commission, appointed by the President and Senate, and a
+legislature--one house elected by popular vote and an upper chamber
+composed of the commission. This scheme, like that obtaining in Porto
+Rico, remained intact until a Democratic Congress under President
+Wilson's leadership carried the colonial administration into its fourth
+phase by making both houses elective. Thus, by the steady pursuit of a
+liberal policy, self-government was extended to the dependencies; but it
+encouraged rather than extinguished the vigorous movement among the
+Philippine natives for independence.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+MR TAFT IN THE PHILIPPINES]
+
+=Cuban Relations.=--Within the sphere of colonial affairs, Cuba, though
+nominally independent, also presented problems to the government at
+Washington. In the fine enthusiasm that accompanied the declaration of
+war on Spain, Congress, unmindful of practical considerations,
+recognized the independence of Cuba and disclaimed "any disposition or
+intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said
+island except for the pacification thereof." In the settlement that
+followed the war, however, it was deemed undesirable to set the young
+republic adrift upon the stormy sea of international politics without a
+guiding hand. Before withdrawing American troops from the island,
+Congress, in March, 1901, enacted, and required Cuba to approve, a
+series of restrictions known as the Platt amendment, limiting her power
+to incur indebtedness, securing the right of the United States to
+intervene whenever necessary to protect life and property, and reserving
+to the United States coaling stations at certain points to be agreed
+upon. The Cubans made strong protests against what they deemed
+"infringements of their sovereignty"; but finally with good grace
+accepted their fate. Even when in 1906 President Roosevelt landed
+American troops in the island to quell a domestic dissension, they
+acquiesced in the action, evidently regarding it as a distinct warning
+that they should learn to manage their elections in an orderly manner.
+
+
+THE ROOSEVELT DOMESTIC POLICIES
+
+=Social Questions to the Front.=--From the day of his inauguration to
+the close of his service in 1909, President Roosevelt, in messages,
+speeches, and interviews, kept up a lively and interesting discussion of
+trusts, capital, labor, poverty, riches, lawbreaking, good citizenship,
+and kindred themes. Many a subject previously touched upon only by
+representatives of the minor and dissenting parties, he dignified by a
+careful examination. That he did this with any fixed design or policy in
+mind does not seem to be the case. He admitted himself that when he
+became President he did not have in hand any settled or far-reaching
+plan of social betterment. He did have, however, serious convictions on
+general principles. "I was bent upon making the government," he wrote,
+"the most efficient possible instrument in helping the people of the
+United States to better themselves in every way, politically, socially,
+and industrially. I believed with all my heart in real and
+thorough-going democracy and I wished to make the democracy industrial
+as well as political, although I had only partially formulated the
+method I believed we should follow." It is thus evident at least that he
+had departed a long way from the old idea of the government as nothing
+but a great policeman keeping order among the people in a struggle over
+the distribution of the nation's wealth and resources.
+
+=Roosevelt's View of the Constitution.=--Equally significant was
+Roosevelt's attitude toward the Constitution and the office of
+President. He utterly repudiated the narrow construction of our national
+charter. He held that the Constitution "should be treated as the
+greatest document ever devised by the wit of man to aid a people in
+exercising every power necessary for its own betterment, not as a
+strait-jacket cunningly fashioned to strangle growth." He viewed the
+presidency as he did the Constitution. Strict constructionists of the
+Jeffersonian school, of whom there were many on occasion even in the
+Republican party, had taken a view that the President could do nothing
+that he was not specifically authorized by the Constitution to do.
+Roosevelt took exactly the opposite position. It was his opinion that it
+was not only the President's right but his duty "to do anything that the
+needs of the nation demanded unless such action was forbidden by the
+Constitution or the laws." He went on to say that he acted "for the
+common well-being of all our people whenever and in whatever manner was
+necessary, unless prevented by direct constitutional or legislative
+prohibition."
+
+=The Trusts and Railways.=--To the trust question, Roosevelt devoted
+especial attention. This was unavoidable. By far the larger part of the
+business of the country was done by corporations as distinguished from
+partnerships and individual owners. The growth of these gigantic
+aggregations of capital had been the leading feature in American
+industrial development during the last two decades of the nineteenth
+century. In the conquest of business by trusts and "the resulting
+private fortunes of great magnitude," the Populists and the Democrats
+had seen a grievous danger to the republic. "Plutocracy has taken the
+place of democracy; the tariff breeds trusts; let us destroy therefore
+the tariff and the trusts"--such was the battle cry which had been taken
+up by Bryan and his followers.
+
+President Roosevelt countered vigorously. He rejected the idea that the
+trusts were the product of the tariff or of governmental action of any
+kind. He insisted that they were the outcome of "natural economic
+forces": (1) destructive competition among business men compelling them
+to avoid ruin by coöperation in fixing prices; (2) the growth of markets
+on a national scale and even international scale calling for vast
+accumulations of capital to carry on such business; (3) the possibility
+of immense savings by the union of many plants under one management. In
+the corporation he saw a new stage in the development of American
+industry. Unregulated competition he regarded as "the source of evils
+which all men concede must be remedied if this civilization of ours is
+to survive." The notion, therefore, that these immense business concerns
+should be or could be broken up by a decree of law, Roosevelt considered
+absurd.
+
+At the same time he proposed that "evil trusts" should be prevented from
+"wrong-doing of any kind"; that is, punished for plain swindling, for
+making agreements to limit output, for refusing to sell to customers who
+dealt with rival firms, and for conspiracies with railways to ruin
+competitors by charging high freight rates and for similar abuses.
+Accordingly, he proposed, not the destruction of the trusts, but their
+regulation by the government. This, he contended, would preserve the
+advantages of business on a national scale while preventing the evils
+that accompanied it. The railway company he declared to be a public
+servant. "Its rates should be just to and open to all shippers alike."
+So he answered those who thought that trusts and railway combinations
+were private concerns to be managed solely by their owners without let
+or hindrance and also those who thought trusts and railway combinations
+could be abolished by tariff reduction or criminal prosecution.
+
+=The Labor Question.=--On the labor question, then pressing to the front
+in public interest, President Roosevelt took advanced ground for his
+time. He declared that the working-man, single-handed and empty-handed,
+threatened with starvation if unemployed, was no match for the employer
+who was able to bargain and wait. This led him, accordingly, to accept
+the principle of the trade union; namely, that only by collective
+bargaining can labor be put on a footing to measure its strength equally
+with capital. While he severely arraigned labor leaders who advocated
+violence and destructive doctrines, he held that "the organization of
+labor into trade unions and federations is necessary, is beneficent, and
+is one of the greatest possible agencies in the attainment of a true
+industrial, as well as a true political, democracy in the United
+States." The last resort of trade unions in labor disputes, the strike,
+he approved in case negotiations failed to secure "a fair deal."
+
+He thought, however, that labor organizations, even if wisely managed,
+could not solve all the pressing social questions of the time. The aid
+of the government at many points he believed to be necessary to
+eliminate undeserved poverty, industrial diseases, unemployment, and the
+unfortunate consequences of industrial accidents. In his first message
+of 1901, for instance, he urged that workers injured in industry should
+have certain and ample compensation. From time to time he advocated
+other legislation to obtain what he called "a larger measure of social
+and industrial justice."
+
+=Great Riches and Taxation.=--Even the challenge of the radicals, such
+as the Populists, who alleged that "the toil of millions is boldly
+stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a few"--challenges which his
+predecessors did not consider worthy of notice--President Roosevelt
+refused to let pass without an answer. In his first message he denied
+the truth of the common saying that the rich were growing richer and the
+poor were growing poorer. He asserted that, on the contrary, the average
+man, wage worker, farmer, and small business man, was better off than
+ever before in the history of our country. That there had been abuses in
+the accumulation of wealth he did not pretend to ignore, but he believed
+that even immense fortunes, on the whole, represented positive benefits
+conferred upon the country. Nevertheless he felt that grave dangers to
+the safety and the happiness of the people lurked in great inequalities
+of wealth. In 1906 he wrote that he wished it were in his power to
+prevent the heaping up of enormous fortunes. The next year, to the
+astonishment of many leaders in his own party, he boldly announced in a
+message to Congress that he approved both income and inheritance taxes,
+then generally viewed as Populist or Democratic measures. He even took
+the stand that such taxes should be laid in order to bring about a more
+equitable distribution of wealth and greater equality of opportunity
+among citizens.
+
+
+LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE ACTIVITIES
+
+=Economic Legislation.=--When President Roosevelt turned from the field
+of opinion he found himself in a different sphere. Many of his views
+were too advanced for the members of his party in Congress, and where
+results depended upon the making of new laws, his progress was slow.
+Nevertheless, in his administrations several measures were enacted that
+bore the stamp of his theories, though it could hardly be said that he
+dominated Congress to the same degree as did some other Presidents. The
+Hepburn Railway Act of 1906 enlarged the interstate commerce commission;
+it extended the commission's power over oil pipe lines, express
+companies, and other interstate carriers; it gave the commission the
+right to reduce rates found to be unreasonable and discriminatory; it
+forbade "midnight tariffs," that is, sudden changes in rates favoring
+certain shippers; and it prohibited common carriers from transporting
+goods owned by themselves, especially coal, except for their own proper
+use. Two important pure food and drug laws, enacted during the same
+year, were designed to protect the public against diseased meats and
+deleterious foods and drugs. A significant piece of labor legislation
+was an act of the same Congress making interstate railways liable to
+damages for injuries sustained by their employees. When this measure was
+declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court it was reënacted with the
+objectionable clauses removed. A second installment of labor legislation
+was offered in the law of 1908 limiting the hours of railway employees
+engaged as trainmen or telegraph operators.
+
+[Illustration: _Courtesy United States Reclamation Service._
+
+THE ROOSEVELT DAM, PHOENIX, ARIZONA]
+
+=Reclamation and Conservation.=--The open country--the deserts, the
+forests, waterways, and the public lands--interested President Roosevelt
+no less than railway and industrial questions. Indeed, in his first
+message to Congress he placed the conservation of natural resources
+among "the most vital internal problems" of the age, and forcibly
+emphasized an issue that had been discussed in a casual way since
+Cleveland's first administration. The suggestion evoked an immediate
+response in Congress. Under the leadership of Senator Newlands, of
+Nevada, the Reclamation Act of 1902 was passed, providing for the
+redemption of the desert areas of the West. The proceeds from the sale
+of public lands were dedicated to the construction of storage dams and
+sluiceways to hold water and divert it as needed to the thirsty sands.
+Furthermore it was stipulated that the rents paid by water users should
+go into a reclamation fund to continue the good work forever.
+Construction was started immediately under the terms of the law. Within
+seventeen years about 1,600,000 acres had been reclaimed and more than a
+million were actually irrigated. In the single year 1918, the crops of
+the irrigated districts were valued at approximately $100,000,000.
+
+In his first message, also, President Roosevelt urged the transfer of
+all control over national forests to trained men in the Bureau of
+Forestry--a recommendation carried out in 1907 when the Forestry Service
+was created. In every direction noteworthy advances were made in the
+administration of the national domain. The science of forestry was
+improved and knowledge of the subject spread among the people. Lands in
+the national forest available for agriculture were opened to settlers.
+Water power sites on the public domain were leased for a term of years
+to private companies instead of being sold outright. The area of the
+national forests was enlarged from 43 million acres to 194 million acres
+by presidential proclamation--more than 43 million acres being added in
+one year, 1907. The men who turned sheep and cattle to graze on the
+public lands were compelled to pay a fair rental, much to their
+dissatisfaction. Fire prevention work was undertaken in the forests on a
+large scale, reducing the appalling, annual destruction of timber.
+Millions of acres of coal land, such as the government had been
+carelessly selling to mining companies at low figures, were withdrawn
+from sale and held until Congress was prepared to enact laws for the
+disposition of them in the public interest. Prosecutions were
+instituted against men who had obtained public lands by fraud and vast
+tracts were recovered for the national domain. An agitation was begun
+which bore fruit under the administrations of Taft and Wilson in laws
+reserving to the federal government the ownership of coal, water power,
+phosphates, and other natural resources while authorizing corporations
+to develop them under leases for a period of years.
+
+=The Prosecution of the Trusts.=--As an executive, President Roosevelt
+was also a distinct "personality." His discrimination between "good" and
+"bad" trusts led him to prosecute some of them with vigor. On his
+initiative, the Northern Securities Company, formed to obtain control of
+certain great western railways, was dissolved by order of the Supreme
+Court. Proceedings were instituted against the American Tobacco Company
+and the Standard Oil Company as monopolies in violation of the Sherman
+Anti-Trust law. The Sugar Trust was found guilty of cheating the New
+York customs house and some of the minor officers were sent to prison.
+Frauds in the Post-office Department were uncovered and the offenders
+brought to book. In fact hardly a week passed without stirring news of
+"wrong doers" and "malefactors" haled into federal courts.
+
+=The Great Coal Strike.=--The Roosevelt theory that the President could
+do anything for public welfare not forbidden by the Constitution and the
+laws was put to a severe test in 1902. A strike of the anthracite coal
+miners, which started in the summer, ran late into the autumn.
+Industries were paralyzed for the want of coal; cities were threatened
+with the appalling menace of a winter without heat. Governors and mayors
+were powerless and appealed for aid. The mine owners rejected the
+demands of the men and refused to permit the arbitration of the points
+in dispute, although John Mitchell, the leader of the miners, repeatedly
+urged it. After observing closely the course affairs, President
+Roosevelt made up his mind that the situation was intolerable. He
+arranged to have the federal troops, if necessary, take possession of
+the mines and operate them until the strike could be settled. He then
+invited the contestants to the White House and by dint of hard labor
+induced them to accept, as a substitute or compromise, arbitration by a
+commission which he appointed. Thus, by stepping outside the
+Constitution and acting as the first citizen of the land, President
+Roosevelt averted a crisis of great magnitude.
+
+=The Election of 1904.=--The views and measures which he advocated with
+such vigor aroused deep hostility within as well as without his party.
+There were rumors of a Republican movement to defeat his nomination in
+1904 and it was said that the "financial and corporation interests" were
+in arms against him. A prominent Republican paper in New York City
+accused him of having "stolen Mr. Bryan's thunder," by harrying the
+trusts and favoring labor unions. When the Republican convention
+assembled in Chicago, however, the opposition disappeared and Roosevelt
+was nominated by acclamation.
+
+This was the signal for a change on the part of Democratic leaders. They
+denounced the President as erratic, dangerous, and radical and decided
+to assume the moderate rôle themselves. They put aside Mr. Bryan and
+selected as their candidate, Judge Alton B. Parker, of New York, a man
+who repudiated free silver and made a direct appeal for the conservative
+vote. The outcome of the reversal was astounding. Judge Parker's vote
+fell more than a million below that cast for Bryan in 1900; of the 476
+electoral votes he received only 140. Roosevelt, in addition to sweeping
+the Republican sections, even invaded Democratic territory, carrying the
+state of Missouri. Thus vindicated at the polls, he became more
+outspoken than ever. His leadership in the party was so widely
+recognized that he virtually selected his own successor.
+
+
+THE ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT TAFT
+
+=The Campaign of 1908.=--Long before the end of his elective term,
+President Roosevelt let it be known that he favored as his successor,
+William Howard Taft, of Ohio, his Secretary of War. To attain this end
+he used every shred of his powerful influence. When the Republican
+convention assembled, Mr. Taft easily won the nomination. Though the
+party platform was conservative in tone, he gave it a progressive tinge
+by expressing his personal belief in the popular election of United
+States Senators, an income tax, and other liberal measures. President
+Roosevelt announced his faith in the Republican candidate and appealed
+to the country for his election.
+
+The turn in Republican affairs now convinced Mr. Bryan that the signs
+were propitious for a third attempt to win the presidency. The disaster
+to Judge Parker had taught the party that victory did not lie in a
+conservative policy. With little difficulty, therefore, the veteran
+leader from Nebraska once more rallied the Democrats around his
+standard, won the nomination, and wrote a platform vigorously attacking
+the tariff, trusts, and monopolies. Supported by a loyal following, he
+entered the lists, only to meet another defeat. Though he polled almost
+a million and a half more votes than did Judge Parker in 1904, the palm
+went to Mr. Taft.
+
+=The Tariff Revision and Party Dissensions.=--At the very beginning of
+his term, President Taft had to face the tariff issue. He had met it in
+the campaign. Moved by the Democratic demand for a drastic reduction, he
+had expressed opinions which were thought to imply a "downward
+revision." The Democrats made much of the implication and the
+Republicans from the Middle West rejoiced in it. Pressure was coming
+from all sides. More than ten years had elapsed since the enactment of
+the Dingley bill and the position of many industries had been altered
+with the course of time. Evidently the day for revision--at best a
+thankless task--had arrived. Taft accepted the inevitable and called
+Congress in a special session. Until the midsummer of 1909, Republican
+Senators and Representatives wrangled over tariff schedules, the
+President making little effort to influence their decisions. When on
+August 5 the Payne-Aldrich bill became a law, a breach had been made in
+Republican ranks. Powerful Senators from the Middle West had spoken
+angrily against many of the high rates imposed by the bill. They had
+even broken with their party colleagues to vote against the entire
+scheme of tariff revision.
+
+=The Income Tax Amendment.=--The rift in party harmony was widened by
+another serious difference of opinion. During the debate on the tariff
+bill, there was a concerted movement to include in it an income tax
+provision--this in spite of the decision of the Supreme Court in 1895
+declaring it unconstitutional. Conservative men were alarmed by the
+evident willingness of some members to flout a solemn decree of that
+eminent tribunal. At the same time they saw a powerful combination of
+Republicans and Democrats determined upon shifting some of the burden of
+taxation to large incomes. In the press of circumstances, a compromise
+was reached. The income tax bill was dropped for the present; but
+Congress passed the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution, authorizing
+taxes upon incomes from whatever source they might be derived, without
+reference to any apportionment among the states on the basis of
+population. The states ratified the amendment and early in 1913 it was
+proclaimed.
+
+=President Taft's Policies.=--After the enactment of the tariff bill,
+Taft continued to push forward with his legislative program. He
+recommended, and Congress created, a special court of commerce with
+jurisdiction, among other things, over appeals from the interstate
+commerce commission, thus facilitating judicial review of the railway
+rates fixed and the orders issued by that body. This measure was quickly
+followed by an act establishing a system of postal savings banks in
+connection with the post office--a scheme which had long been opposed by
+private banks. Two years later, Congress defied the lobby of the express
+companies and supplemented the savings banks with a parcels post system,
+thus enabling the American postal service to catch up with that of other
+progressive nations. With a view to improving the business
+administration of the federal government, the President obtained from
+Congress a large appropriation for an economy and efficiency commission
+charged with the duty of inquiring into wasteful and obsolete methods
+and recommending improved devices and practices. The chief result of
+this investigation was a vigorous report in favor of a national budget
+system, which soon found public backing.
+
+President Taft negotiated with England and France general treaties
+providing for the arbitration of disputes which were "justiciable" in
+character even though they might involve questions of "vital interest
+and national honor." They were coldly received in the Senate and so
+amended that Taft abandoned them altogether. A tariff reciprocity
+agreement with Canada, however, he forced through Congress in the face
+of strong opposition from his own party. After making a serious breach
+in Republican ranks, he was chagrined to see the whole scheme come to
+naught by the overthrow of the Liberals in the Canadian elections of
+1911.
+
+=Prosecution of the Trusts.=--The party schism was even enlarged by what
+appeared to be the successful prosecution of several great combinations.
+In two important cases, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the
+Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company on the ground that
+they violated the Sherman Anti-Trust law. In taking this step Chief
+Justice White was at some pains to state that the law did not apply to
+combinations which did not "unduly" restrain trade. His remark,
+construed to mean that the Court would not interfere with corporations
+as such, became the subject of a popular outcry against the President
+and the judges.
+
+
+PROGRESSIVE INSURGENCY AND THE ELECTION OF 1912
+
+=Growing Dissensions.=--All in all, Taft's administration from the first
+day had been disturbed by party discord. High words had passed over the
+tariff bill and disgruntled members of Congress could not forget them.
+To differences over issues were added quarrels between youth and old
+age. In the House of Representatives there developed a group of young
+"insurgent" Republicans who resented the dominance of the Speaker,
+Joseph G. Cannon, and other members of the "old guard," as they named
+the men of long service and conservative minds. In 1910, the insurgents
+went so far as to join with the Democrats in a movement to break the
+Speaker's sway by ousting him from the rules committee and depriving him
+of the power to appoint its members. The storm was brewing. In the
+autumn of that year the Democrats won a clear majority in the House of
+Representatives and began an open battle with President Taft by
+demanding an immediate downward revision of the tariff.
+
+=The Rise of the Progressive Republicans.=--Preparatory to the campaign
+of 1912, the dissenters within the Republican party added the prefix
+"Progressive" to their old title and began to organize a movement to
+prevent the renomination of Mr. Taft. As early as January 21, 1911, they
+formed a Progressive Republican League at the home of Senator La
+Follette of Wisconsin and launched an attack on the Taft measures and
+policies. In October they indorsed Mr. La Follette as "the logical
+Republican candidate" and appealed to the party for support. The
+controversy over the tariff had grown into a formidable revolt against
+the occupant of the White House.
+
+=Roosevelt in the Field.=--After looking on for a while, ex-President
+Roosevelt took a hand in the fray. Soon after his return in 1910 from a
+hunting trip in Africa and a tour in Europe, he made a series of
+addresses in which he formulated a progressive program. In a speech in
+Kansas, he favored regulation of the trusts, a graduated income tax
+bearing heavily on great fortunes, tariff revision schedule by schedule,
+conservation of natural resources, labor legislation, the direct
+primary, and the recall of elective officials. In an address before the
+Ohio state constitutional convention in February, 1912, he indorsed the
+initiative and referendum and announced a doctrine known as the "recall
+of judicial decisions." This was a new and radical note in American
+politics. An ex-President of the United States proposed that the people
+at the polls should have the right to reverse the decision of a judge
+who set aside any act of a state legislature passed in the interests of
+social welfare. The Progressive Republicans, impressed by these
+addresses, turned from La Follette to Roosevelt and on February 24,
+induced him to come out openly as a candidate against Taft for the
+Republican nomination.
+
+=The Split in the Republican Party.=--The country then witnessed the
+strange spectacle of two men who had once been close companions engaged
+in a bitter rivalry to secure a majority of the delegates to the
+Republican convention to be held at Chicago. When the convention
+assembled, about one-fourth of the seats were contested, the delegates
+for both candidates loudly proclaiming the regularity of their election.
+In deciding between the contestants the national committee, after the
+usual hearings, settled the disputes in such a way that Taft received a
+safe majority. After a week of negotiation, Roosevelt and his followers
+left the Republican party. Most of his supporters withdrew from the
+convention and the few who remained behind refused to answer the roll
+call. Undisturbed by this formidable bolt, the regular Republicans went
+on with their work. They renominated Mr. Taft and put forth a platform
+roundly condemning such Progressive doctrines as the recall of judges.
+
+=The Formation of the Progressive Party.=--The action of the Republicans
+in seating the Taft delegates was vigorously denounced by Roosevelt. He
+declared that the convention had no claim to represent the voters of the
+Republican party; that any candidate named by it would be "the
+beneficiary of a successful fraud"; and that it would be deeply
+discreditable to any man to accept the convention's approval under such
+circumstances. The bitterness of his followers was extreme. On July 8, a
+call went forth for a "Progressive" convention to be held in Chicago on
+August 5. The assembly which duly met on that day was a unique political
+conference. Prominence was given to women delegates, and "politicians"
+were notably absent. Roosevelt himself, who was cheered as a conquering
+hero, made an impassioned speech setting forth his "confession of
+faith." He was nominated by acclamation; Governor Hiram Johnson of
+California was selected as his companion candidate for Vice President.
+The platform endorsed such political reforms as woman suffrage, direct
+primaries, the initiative, referendum, and recall, popular election of
+United States Senators, and the short ballot. It favored a program of
+social legislation, including the prohibition of child labor and minimum
+wages for women. It approved the regulation, rather than the
+dissolution, of the trusts. Like apostles in a new and lofty cause, the
+Progressives entered a vigorous campaign for the election of their
+distinguished leader.
+
+=Woodrow Wilson and the Election of 1912.=--With the Republicans
+divided, victory loomed up before the Democrats. Naturally, a terrific
+contest over the nomination occurred at their convention in Baltimore.
+Champ Clark, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and Governor
+Woodrow Wilson, of New Jersey, were the chief contestants. After tossing
+to and fro for seven long, hot days, and taking forty-six ballots, the
+delegates, powerfully influenced by Mr. Bryan, finally decided in favor
+of the governor. As a professor, a writer on historical and political
+subjects, and the president of Princeton University, Mr. Wilson had
+become widely known in public life. As the governor of New Jersey he had
+attracted the support of the progressives in both parties. With grim
+determination he had "waged war on the bosses," and pushed through the
+legislature measures establishing direct primaries, regulating public
+utilities, and creating a system of workmen's compensation in
+industries. During the presidential campaign that followed Governor
+Wilson toured the country and aroused great enthusiasm by a series of
+addresses later published under the title of _The New Freedom_. He
+declared that "the government of the United States is at present the
+foster child of the special interests." He proposed to free the country
+by breaking the dominance of "the big bankers, the big manufacturers,
+the big masters of commerce, the heads of railroad corporations and of
+steamship corporations."
+
+In the election Governor Wilson easily secured a majority of the
+electoral votes, and his party, while retaining possession of the House
+of Representatives, captured the Senate as well. The popular verdict,
+however, indicated a state of confusion in the country. The combined
+Progressive and Republican vote exceeded that of the Democrats by
+1,300,000. The Socialists, with Eugene V. Debs as their candidate again,
+polled about 900,000 votes, more than double the number received four
+years before. Thus, as the result of an extraordinary upheaval the
+Republicans, after holding the office of President for sixteen years,
+passed out of power, and the government of the country was intrusted to
+the Democrats under the leadership of a man destined to be one of the
+outstanding figures of the modern age, Woodrow Wilson.
+
+
+=General References=
+
+J.B. Bishop, _Theodore Roosevelt and His Time_ (2 vols.).
+
+Theodore Roosevelt, _Autobiography_; _New Nationalism_; _Progressive
+Principles_.
+
+W.H. Taft, _Popular Government_.
+
+Walter Weyl, _The New Democracy_.
+
+H. Croly, _The Promise of American Life_.
+
+J.B. Bishop, _The Panama Gateway_.
+
+J.B. Scott, _The Hague Peace Conferences_.
+
+W.B. Munro (ed.), _Initiative, Referendum, and Recall_.
+
+C.R. Van Hise, _The Conservation of Natural Resources_.
+
+Gifford Pinchot, _The Fight for Conservation_.
+
+W.F. Willoughby, _Territories and Dependencies of the United States_
+(1905).
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Roosevelt and "Big Business."=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own
+Time_, pp. 281-289; F.A. Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation
+Series), pp. 40-75; Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp.
+293-307.
+
+=Our Insular Possessions.=--Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+896-904.
+
+=Latin-American Relations.=--Haworth, pp. 294-299; Ogg, pp. 254-257.
+
+=The Panama Canal.=--Haworth, pp. 300-309; Ogg, pp. 266-277; Paxson, pp.
+286-292; Elson, pp. 906-911.
+
+=Conservation.=--Haworth, pp. 331-334; Ogg, pp. 96-115; Beard, _American
+Government and Politics_ (3d ed.), pp. 401-416.
+
+=Republican Dissensions under Taft's Administration.=--Haworth, pp.
+351-360; Ogg, pp. 167-186; Paxson, pp. 324-342; Elson, pp. 916-924.
+
+=The Campaign of 1912.=--Haworth, pp. 360-379; Ogg, pp. 187-208.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Compare the early career of Roosevelt with that of some other
+President.
+
+2. Name the chief foreign and domestic questions of the Roosevelt-Taft
+administrations.
+
+3. What international complications were involved in the Panama Canal
+problem?
+
+4. Review the Monroe Doctrine. Discuss Roosevelt's applications of it.
+
+5. What is the strategic importance of the Caribbean to the United
+States?
+
+6. What is meant by the sea power? Trace the voyage of the fleet around
+the world and mention the significant imperial and commercial points
+touched.
+
+7. What is meant by the question: "Does the Constitution follow the
+flag?"
+
+8. Trace the history of self-government in Porto Rico. In the
+Philippines.
+
+9. What is Cuba's relation to the United States?
+
+10. What was Roosevelt's theory of our Constitution?
+
+11. Give Roosevelt's views on trusts, labor, taxation.
+
+12. Outline the domestic phases of Roosevelt's administrations.
+
+13. Account for the dissensions under Taft.
+
+14. Trace the rise of the Progressive movement.
+
+15. What was Roosevelt's progressive program?
+
+16. Review Wilson's early career and explain the underlying theory of
+_The New Freedom_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE SPIRIT OF REFORM IN AMERICA
+
+
+AN AGE OF CRITICISM
+
+=Attacks on Abuses in American Life.=--The crisis precipitated by the
+Progressive uprising was not a sudden and unexpected one. It had been
+long in preparation. The revolt against corruption in politics which
+produced the Liberal Republican outbreak in the seventies and the
+Mugwump movement of the eighties was followed by continuous criticism of
+American political and economic development. From 1880 until his death
+in 1892, George William Curtis, as president of the Civil Service Reform
+Association, kept up a running fire upon the abuses of the spoils
+system. James Bryce, an observant English scholar and man of affairs, in
+his great work, _The American Commonwealth_, published in 1888, by
+picturing fearlessly the political rings and machines which dominated
+the cities, gave the whole country a fresh shock. Six years later Henry
+D. Lloyd, in a powerful book entitled _Wealth against Commonwealth_,
+attacked in scathing language certain trusts which had destroyed their
+rivals and bribed public officials. In 1903 Miss Ida Tarbell, an author
+of established reputation in the historical field, gave to the public an
+account of the Standard Oil Company, revealing the ruthless methods of
+that corporation in crushing competition. About the same time Lincoln
+Steffens exposed the sordid character of politics in several
+municipalities in a series of articles bearing the painful heading: _The
+Shame of the Cities_. The critical spirit appeared in almost every form;
+in weekly and monthly magazines, in essays and pamphlets, in editorials
+and news stories, in novels like Churchill's _Coniston_ and Sinclair's
+_The Jungle_. It became so savage and so wanton that the opening years
+of the twentieth century were well named "the age of the muckrakers."
+
+=The Subjects of the Criticism.=--In this outburst of invective, nothing
+was spared. It was charged that each of the political parties had fallen
+into the hands of professional politicians who devoted their time to
+managing conventions, making platforms, nominating candidates, and
+dictating to officials; in return for their "services" they sold offices
+and privileges. It was alleged that mayors and councils had bargained
+away for private benefit street railway and other franchises. It was
+asserted that many powerful labor unions were dominated by men who
+blackmailed employers. Some critics specialized in descriptions of the
+poverty, slums, and misery of great cities. Others took up "frenzied
+finance" and accused financiers of selling worthless stocks and bonds to
+an innocent public. Still others professed to see in the accumulations
+of millionaires the downfall of our republic.
+
+=The Attack on "Invisible Government."=--Some even maintained that the
+control of public affairs had passed from the people to a sinister
+minority called "the invisible government." So eminent and conservative
+a statesman as the Hon. Elihu Root lent the weight of his great name to
+such an imputation. Speaking of his native state, New York, he said:
+"What is the government of this state? What has it been during the forty
+years of my acquaintance with it? The government of the Constitution?
+Oh, no; not half the time or half way.... From the days of Fenton and
+Conkling and Arthur and Cornell and Platt, from the days of David B.
+Hill down to the present time, the government of the state has presented
+two different lines of activity: one, of the constitutional and
+statutory officers of the state and the other of the party leaders; they
+call them party bosses. They call the system--I don't coin the
+phrase--the system they call 'invisible government.' For I don't know
+how many years Mr. Conkling was the supreme ruler in this state. The
+governor did not count, the legislature did not count, comptrollers and
+secretaries of state and what not did not count. It was what Mr.
+Conkling said, and in a great outburst of public rage he was pulled
+down. Then Mr. Platt ruled the state; for nigh upon twenty years he
+ruled it. It was not the governor; it was not the legislature; it was
+Mr. Platt. And the capital was not here [in Albany]; it was at 49
+Broadway; Mr. Platt and his lieutenants. It makes no difference what
+name you give, whether you call it Fenton or Conkling or Cornell or
+Arthur or Platt or by the names of men now living. The ruler of the
+state during the greater part of the forty years of my acquaintance with
+the state government has not been any man authorized by the constitution
+or by law.... The party leader is elected by no one, accountable to no
+one, bound by no oath of office, removable by no one."
+
+=The Nation Aroused.=--With the spirit of criticism came also the spirit
+of reform. The charges were usually exaggerated; often wholly false; but
+there was enough truth in them to warrant renewed vigilance on the part
+of American democracy. President Roosevelt doubtless summed up the
+sentiment of the great majority of citizens when he demanded the
+punishment of wrong-doers in 1907, saying: "It makes not a particle of
+difference whether these crimes are committed by a capitalist or by a
+laborer, by a leading banker or manufacturer or railroad man or by a
+leading representative of a labor union. Swindling in stocks, corrupting
+legislatures, making fortunes by the inflation of securities, by
+wrecking railroads, by destroying competitors through rebates--these
+forms of wrong-doing in the capitalist are far more infamous than any
+ordinary form of embezzlement or forgery." The time had come, he added,
+to stop "muckraking" and proceed to the constructive work of removing
+the abuses that had grown up.
+
+
+POLITICAL REFORMS
+
+=The Public Service.=--It was a wise comprehension of the needs of
+American democracy that led the friends of reform to launch and to
+sustain for more than half a century a movement to improve the public
+service. On the one side they struck at the spoils system; at the right
+of the politicians to use public offices as mere rewards for partisan
+work. The federal civil service act of 1883 opened the way to reform by
+establishing five vital principles in law: (1) admission to office, not
+on the recommendation of party workers, but on the basis of competitive
+examinations; (2) promotion for meritorious service of the government
+rather than of parties; (3) no assessment of office holders for campaign
+funds; (4) permanent tenure during good behavior; and (5) no dismissals
+for political reasons. The act itself at first applied to only 14,000
+federal offices, but under the constant pressure from the reformers it
+was extended until in 1916 it covered nearly 300,000 employees out of an
+executive force of approximately 414,000. While gaining steadily at
+Washington, civil service reformers carried their agitation into the
+states and cities. By 1920 they were able to report ten states with
+civil service commissions and the merit system well intrenched in more
+than three hundred municipalities.
+
+In excluding spoilsmen from public office, the reformers were, in a
+sense, engaged in a negative work: that of "keeping the rascals out."
+But there was a second and larger phase to their movement, one
+constructive in character: that of getting skilled, loyal, and efficient
+servants into the places of responsibility. Everywhere on land and sea,
+in town and country, new burdens were laid upon public officers. They
+were called upon to supervise the ships sailing to and from our ports;
+to inspect the water and milk supplies of our cities; to construct and
+operate great public works, such as the Panama and Erie canals; to
+regulate the complicated rates of railway companies; to safeguard health
+and safety in a thousand ways; to climb the mountains to fight forest
+fires; and to descend into the deeps of the earth to combat the deadly
+coal gases that assail the miners. In a word, those who labored to
+master the secrets and the powers of nature were summoned to the aid of
+the government: chemists, engineers, architects, nurses, surgeons,
+foresters--the skilled in all the sciences, arts, and crafts.
+
+Keeping rascals out was no task at all compared with the problem of
+finding competent people for all the technical offices. "Now," said the
+reformers, "we must make attractive careers in the government work for
+the best American talent; we must train those applying for admission and
+increase the skill of those already in positions of trust; we must see
+to it that those entering at the bottom have a chance to rise to the
+top; in short, we must work for a government as skilled and efficient as
+it is strong, one commanding all the wisdom and talent of America that
+public welfare requires."
+
+=The Australian Ballot.=--A second line of attack on the political
+machines was made in connection with the ballot. In the early days
+elections were frequently held in the open air and the poll was taken by
+a show of hands or by the enrollment of the voters under names of their
+favorite candidates. When this ancient practice was abandoned in favor
+of the printed ballot, there was still no secrecy about elections. Each
+party prepared its own ballot, often of a distinctive color, containing
+the names of its candidates. On election day, these papers were handed
+out to the voters by party workers. Any one could tell from the color of
+the ballot dropped into the box, or from some mark on the outside of the
+folded ballot, just how each man voted. Those who bought votes were sure
+that their purchases were "delivered." Those who intimidated voters
+could know when their intimidation was effective. In this way the party
+ballot strengthened the party machine.
+
+As a remedy for such abuses, reformers, learning from the experience of
+Australia, urged the adoption of the "Australian ballot." That ballot,
+though it appeared in many forms, had certain constant features. It was
+official, that is, furnished by the government, not by party workers; it
+contained the names of all candidates of all parties; it was given out
+only in the polling places; and it was marked in secret. The first state
+to introduce it was Massachusetts. The year was 1888. Before the end of
+the century it had been adopted by nearly all the states in the union.
+The salutary effect of the reform in reducing the amount of cheating
+and bribery in elections was beyond all question.
+
+=The Direct Primary.=--In connection with the uprising against machine
+politics, came a call for the abolition of the old method of nominating
+candidates by conventions. These time-honored party assemblies, which
+had come down from the days of Andrew Jackson, were, it was said, merely
+conclaves of party workers, sustained by the spoils system, and
+dominated by an inner circle of bosses. The remedy offered in this case
+was again "more democracy," namely, the abolition of the party
+convention and the adoption of the direct primary. Candidates were no
+longer to be chosen by secret conferences. Any member of a party was to
+be allowed to run for any office, to present his name to his party by
+securing signatures to a petition, and to submit his candidacy to his
+fellow partisans at a direct primary--an election within the party. In
+this movement Governor La Follette of Wisconsin took the lead and his
+state was the first in the union to adopt the direct primary for
+state-wide purposes. The idea spread, rapidly in the West, more slowly
+in the East. The public, already angered against "the bosses," grasped
+eagerly at it. Governor Hughes in New York pressed it upon the unwilling
+legislature. State after state accepted it until by 1918 Rhode Island,
+Delaware, Connecticut, and New Mexico were the only states that had not
+bowed to the storm. Still the results were disappointing and at that
+very time the pendulum was beginning to swing backward.
+
+=Popular Election of Federal Senators.=--While the movement for direct
+primaries was still advancing everywhere, a demand for the popular
+election of Senators, usually associated with it, swept forward to
+victory. Under the original Constitution, it had been expressly provided
+that Senators should be chosen by the legislatures of the states. In
+practice this rule transferred the selection of Senators to secret
+caucuses of party members in the state legislatures. In connection with
+these caucuses there had been many scandals, some direct proofs of
+brazen bribery and corruption, and dark hints besides. The Senate was
+called by its detractors "a millionaires' club" and it was looked upon
+as the "citadel of conservatism." The prescription in this case was
+likewise "more democracy"--direct election of Senators by popular vote.
+
+This reform was not a new idea. It had been proposed in Congress as
+early as 1826. President Johnson, an ardent advocate, made it the
+subject of a special message in 1868 Not long afterward it appeared in
+Congress. At last in 1893, the year after the great Populist upheaval,
+the House of Representatives by the requisite two-thirds vote
+incorporated it in an amendment to the federal Constitution. Again and
+again it passed the House; but the Senate itself was obdurate. Able
+Senators leveled their batteries against it. Mr. Hoar of Massachusetts
+declared that it would transfer the seat of power to the "great cities
+and masses of population"; that it would "overthrow the whole scheme of
+the Senate and in the end the whole scheme of the national Constitution
+as designed and established by the framers of the Constitution and the
+people who adopted it."
+
+Failing in the Senate, advocates of popular election made a rear assault
+through the states. They induced state legislatures to enact laws
+requiring the nomination of candidates for the Senate by the direct
+primary, and then they bound the legislatures to abide by the popular
+choice. Nevada took the lead in 1899. Shortly afterward Oregon, by the
+use of the initiative and referendum, practically bound legislators to
+accept the popular nominee and the country witnessed the spectacle of a
+Republican legislature "electing" a Democrat to represent the state in
+the Senate at Washington. By 1910 three-fourths of the states had
+applied the direct primary in some form to the choice of Senators. Men
+selected by that method began to pour in upon the floors of Congress;
+finally in 1912 the two-thirds majority was secured for an amendment to
+the federal Constitution providing for the popular election of Senators.
+It was quickly ratified by the states. The following year it was
+proclaimed in effect.
+
+=The Initiative and Referendum.=--As a corrective for the evils which
+had grown up in state legislatures there arose a demand for the
+introduction of a Swiss device known as the initiative and referendum.
+The initiative permits any one to draw up a proposed bill; and, on
+securing a certain number of signatures among the voters, to require the
+submission of the measure to the people at an election. If the bill thus
+initiated receives a sufficient majority, it becomes a law. The
+referendum allows citizens who disapprove any act passed by the
+legislature to get up a petition against it and thus bring about a
+reference of the measure to the voters at the polls for approval or
+rejection. These two practices constitute a form of "direct government."
+
+These devices were prescribed "to restore the government to the people."
+The Populists favored them in their platform of 1896. Mr. Bryan, two
+years later, made them a part of his program, and in the same year South
+Dakota adopted them. In 1902 Oregon, after a strenuous campaign, added a
+direct legislation amendment to the state constitution. Within ten years
+all the Southwestern, Mountain, and Pacific states, except Texas and
+Wyoming, had followed this example. To the east of the Mississippi,
+however, direct legislation met a chilly reception. By 1920 only five
+states in this section had accepted it: Maine, Massachusetts, Ohio,
+Michigan, and Maryland, the last approving the referendum only.
+
+=The Recall.=--Executive officers and judges, as well as legislatures,
+had come in for their share of criticism, and it was proposed that they
+should likewise be subjected to a closer scrutiny by the public. For
+this purpose there was advanced a scheme known as the recall--which
+permitted a certain percentage of the voters to compel any officer, at
+any time during his term, to go before the people at a new election.
+This feature of direct government, tried out first in the city of Los
+Angeles, was extended to state-wide uses in Oregon in 1908. It failed,
+however, to capture popular imagination to the same degree as the
+initiative and referendum. At the end of ten years' agitation, only ten
+states, mainly in the West, had adopted it for general purposes, and
+four of them did not apply it to the judges of the courts. Still it was
+extensively acclaimed in cities and incorporated into hundreds of
+municipal laws and charters.
+
+As a general proposition, direct government in all its forms was
+bitterly opposed by men of a conservative cast of mind. It was denounced
+by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge as "nothing less than a complete revolution
+in the fabric of our government and in the fundamental principles upon
+which that government rests." In his opinion, it promised to break down
+the representative principle and "undermine and overthrow the bulwarks
+of ordered liberty and individual freedom." Mr. Taft shared Mr. Lodge's
+views and spoke of direct government with scorn. "Votes," he exclaimed,
+"are not bread ... referendums do not pay rent or furnish houses,
+recalls do not furnish clothes, initiatives do not supply employment or
+relieve inequalities of condition or of opportunity."
+
+=Commission Government for Cities.=--In the restless searching out of
+evils, the management of cities early came under critical scrutiny. City
+government, Mr. Bryce had remarked, was the one conspicuous failure in
+America. This sharp thrust, though resented by some, was accepted as a
+warning by others. Many prescriptions were offered by doctors of the
+body politic. Chief among them was the idea of simplifying the city
+government so that the light of public scrutiny could shine through it.
+"Let us elect only a few men and make them clearly responsible for the
+city government!" was the new cry in municipal reform. So, many city
+councils were reduced in size; one of the two houses, which several
+cities had adopted in imitation of the federal government, was
+abolished; and in order that the mayor could be held to account, he was
+given the power to appoint all the chief officials. This made the mayor,
+in some cases, the only elective city official and gave the voters a
+"short ballot" containing only a few names--an idea which some proposed
+to apply also to the state government.
+
+A further step in the concentration of authority was taken in Galveston,
+Texas, where the people, looking upon the ruin of their city wrought by
+the devastating storm of 1901, and confronted by the difficult problems
+of reconstruction, felt the necessity for a more businesslike management
+of city affairs and instituted a new form of local administration. They
+abolished the old scheme of mayor and council and vested all power in
+five commissioners, one of whom, without any special prerogatives, was
+assigned to the office of "mayor president." In 1908, the commission
+form of government, as it was soon characterized, was adopted by Des
+Moines, Iowa. The attention of all municipal reformers was drawn to it
+and it was hailed as the guarantee of a better day. By 1920, more than
+four hundred cities, including Memphis, Spokane, Birmingham, Newark, and
+Buffalo, had adopted it. Still the larger cities like New York and
+Chicago kept their boards of aldermen.
+
+=The City Manager Plan.=--A few years' experience with commission
+government revealed certain patent defects. The division of the work
+among five men was frequently found to introduce dissensions and
+irresponsibility. Commissioners were often lacking in the technical
+ability required to manage such difficult matters as fire and police
+protection, public health, public works, and public utilities. Some one
+then proposed to carry over into city government an idea from the
+business world. In that sphere the stockholders of each corporation
+elect the directors and the directors, in turn, choose a business
+manager to conduct the affairs of the company. It was suggested that the
+city commissioners, instead of attempting to supervise the details of
+the city administration, should select a manager to do this. The scheme
+was put into effect in Sumter, South Carolina, in 1912. Like the
+commission plan, it became popular. Within eight years more than one
+hundred and fifty towns and cities had adopted it. Among the larger
+municipalities were Dayton, Springfield (Ohio), Akron, Kalamazoo, and
+Phoenix. It promised to create a new public service profession, that of
+city manager.
+
+
+MEASURES OF ECONOMIC REFORM
+
+=The Spirit of American Reform.=--The purification of the ballot, the
+restriction of the spoils system, the enlargement of direct popular
+control over the organs of government were not the sole answers made by
+the reformers to the critics of American institutions. Nor were they the
+most important. In fact, they were regarded not as ends in themselves,
+but as means to serve a wider purpose. That purpose was the promotion of
+the "general welfare." The concrete objects covered by that broad term
+were many and varied; but they included the prevention of extortion by
+railway and other corporations, the protection of public health, the
+extension of education, the improvement of living conditions in the
+cities, the elimination of undeserved poverty, the removal of gross
+inequalities in wealth, and more equality of opportunity.
+
+All these things involved the use of the powers of government. Although
+a few clung to the ancient doctrine that the government should not
+interfere with private business at all, the American people at large
+rejected that theory as vigorously as they rejected the doctrines of an
+extreme socialism which exalts the state above the individual. Leaders
+representing every shade of opinion proclaimed the government an
+instrument of common welfare to be used in the public interest. "We must
+abandon definitely," said Roosevelt, "the _laissez-faire_ theory of
+political economy and fearlessly champion a system of increased
+governmental control, paying no attention to the cries of worthy people
+who denounce this as socialistic." This view was shared by Mr. Taft, who
+observed: "Undoubtedly the government can wisely do much more ... to
+relieve the oppressed, to create greater equality of opportunity, to
+make reasonable terms for labor in employment, and to furnish vocational
+education." He was quick to add his caution that "there is a line beyond
+which the government cannot go with any good practical results in
+seeking to make men and society better."
+
+=The Regulation of Railways.=--The first attempts to use the government
+in a large way to control private enterprise in the public interest were
+made by the Northwestern states in the decade between 1870 and 1880.
+Charges were advanced by the farmers, particularly those organized into
+Granges, that the railways extorted the highest possible rates for
+freight and passengers, that favoritism was shown to large shippers,
+that fraudulent stocks and bonds were sold to the innocent public. It
+was claimed that railways were not like other enterprises, but were
+"quasi-public" concerns, like the roads and ferries, and thus subject to
+government control. Accordingly laws were enacted bringing the railroads
+under state supervision. In some cases the state legislature fixed the
+maximum rates to be charged by common carriers, and in other cases
+commissions were created with the power to establish the rates after an
+investigation. This legislation was at first denounced in the East as
+nothing less than the "confiscation" of the railways in the interest of
+the farmers. Attempts to have the Supreme Court of the United States
+declare it unconstitutional were made without avail; still a principle
+was finally laid down to the effect that in fixing rates state
+legislatures and commissions must permit railway companies to earn a
+"fair" return on the capital invested.
+
+In a few years the Granger spirit appeared in Congress. An investigation
+revealed a long list of abuses committed by the railways against
+shippers and travelers. The result was the interstate commerce act of
+1887, which created the Interstate Commerce Commission, forbade
+discriminations in rates, and prohibited other objectionable practices
+on the part of railways. This measure was loosely enforced and the
+abuses against which it was directed continued almost unabated. A demand
+for stricter control grew louder and louder. Congress was forced to
+heed. In 1903 it enacted the Elkins law, forbidding railways to charge
+rates other than those published, and laid penalties upon the officers
+and agents of companies, who granted secret favors to shippers, and upon
+shippers who accepted them. Three years later a still more drastic step
+was taken by the passage of the Hepburn act. The Interstate Commerce
+Commission was authorized, upon complaint of some party aggrieved, and
+after a public hearing, to determine whether just and reasonable rates
+had been charged by the companies. In effect, the right to fix freight
+and passenger rates was taken out of the hands of the owners of the
+railways engaged in interstate commerce and vested in the hands of the
+Interstate Commerce Commission. Thus private property to the value of
+$20,000,000,000 or more was declared to be a matter of public concern
+and subject to government regulation in the common interest.
+
+=Municipal Utilities.=--Similar problems arose in connection with the
+street railways, electric light plants, and other utilities in the great
+cities. In the beginning the right to construct such undertakings was
+freely, and often corruptly, granted to private companies by city
+councils. Distressing abuses arose in connection with such practices.
+Many grants or franchises were made perpetual, or perhaps for a term of
+999 years. The rates charged and services rendered were left largely to
+the will of the companies holding the franchises. Mergers or unions of
+companies were common and the public was deluged with stocks and bonds
+of doubtful value; bankruptcies were frequent. The connection between
+the utility companies and the politicians was, to say the least, not
+always in the public interest.
+
+American ingenuity was quick to devise methods for eliminating such
+evils. Three lines of progress were laid out by the reformers. One group
+proposed that such utilities should be subject to municipal or state
+regulation, that the formation of utility companies should be under
+public control, and that the issue of stocks and bonds must be approved
+by public authority. In some cases state, and in other cases municipal,
+commissions were created to exercise this great power over "quasi-public
+corporations." Wisconsin, by laws enacted in 1907, put all heat, light,
+water works, telephone, and street railway companies under the
+supervision of a single railway commission. Other states followed this
+example rapidly. By 1920 the principle of public control over municipal
+utilities was accepted in nearly every section of the union.
+
+A second line of reform appeared in the "model franchise" for utility
+corporations. An illustration of this tendency was afforded by the
+Chicago street railway settlement of 1906. The total capital of the
+company was fixed at a definite sum, its earnings were agreed upon, and
+the city was given the right to buy and operate the system if it desired
+to do so. In many states, about the same time, it was provided that no
+franchises to utility companies could run more than twenty-five years.
+
+A third group of reformers were satisfied with nothing short of
+municipal ownership. They proposed to drive private companies entirely
+out of the field and vest the ownership and management of municipal
+plants in the city itself. This idea was extensively applied to electric
+light and water works plants, but to street railways in only a few
+cities, including San Francisco and Seattle. In New York the subways are
+owned by the city but leased for operation.
+
+=Tenement House Control.=--Among the other pressing problems of the
+cities was the overcrowding in houses unfit for habitation. An inquiry
+in New York City made under the authority of the state in 1902 revealed
+poverty, misery, slums, dirt, and disease almost beyond imagination. The
+immediate answer was the enactment of a tenement house law prescribing
+in great detail the size of the rooms, the air space, the light and the
+sanitary arrangement for all new buildings. An immense improvement
+followed and the idea was quickly taken up in other states having large
+industrial centers. In 1920 New York made a further invasion of the
+rights of landlords by assuring to the public "reasonable rents" for
+flats and apartments.
+
+=Workmen's Compensation.=--No small part of the poverty in cities was
+due to the injury of wage-earners while at their trade. Every year the
+number of men and women killed or wounded in industry mounted higher.
+Under the old law, the workman or his family had to bear the loss unless
+the employer had been guilty of some extraordinary negligence. Even in
+that case an expensive lawsuit was usually necessary to recover
+"damages." In short, although employers insured their buildings and
+machinery against necessary risks from fire and storm, they allowed
+their employees to assume the heavy losses due to accidents. The
+injustice of this, though apparent enough now, was once not generally
+recognized. It was said to be unfair to make the employer pay for
+injuries for which he was not personally responsible; but the argument
+was overborne.
+
+[Illustration: AN EAST SIDE STREET IN NEW YORK]
+
+About 1910 there set in a decided movement in the direction of lifting
+the burden of accidents from the unfortunate victims. In the first
+place, laws were enacted requiring employers to pay damages in certain
+amounts according to the nature of the case, no matter how the accident
+occurred, as long as the injured person was not guilty of willful
+negligence. By 1914 more than one-half the states had such laws. In the
+second place, there developed schemes of industrial insurance in the
+form of automatic grants made by state commissions to persons injured in
+industries, the funds to be provided by the employers or the state or by
+both. By 1917 thirty-six states had legislation of this type.
+
+=Minimum Wages and Mothers' Pensions.=--Another source of poverty,
+especially among women and children, was found to be the low wages paid
+for their labor. Report after report showed this. In 1912 Massachusetts
+took a significant step in the direction of declaring the minimum wages
+which might be paid to women and children. Oregon, the following year,
+created a commission with power to prescribe minimum wages in certain
+industries, based on the cost of living, and to enforce the rates fixed.
+Within a short time one-third of the states had legislation of this
+character. To cut away some of the evils of poverty and enable widows to
+keep their homes intact and bring up their children, a device known as
+mothers' pensions became popular during the second decade of the
+twentieth century. At the opening of 1913 two states, Colorado and
+Illinois, had laws authorizing the payment from public funds of definite
+sums to widows with children. Within four years, thirty-five states had
+similar legislation.
+
+=Taxation and Great Fortunes.=--As a part of the campaign waged against
+poverty by reformers there came a demand for heavy taxes upon great
+fortunes, particularly taxes upon inheritances or estates passing to
+heirs on the decease of the owners. Roosevelt was an ardent champion of
+this type of taxation and dwelt upon it at length in his message to
+Congress in 1907. "Such a tax," he said, "would help to preserve a
+measurable equality of opportunity for the people of the generations
+growing to manhood.... Our aim is to recognize what Lincoln pointed out:
+the fact that there are some respects in which men are obviously not
+equal; but also to insist that there should be equality of self-respect
+and of mutual respect, an equality of rights before the law, and at
+least an approximate equality in the conditions under which each man
+obtains the chance to show the stuff that is in him when compared with
+his fellows."
+
+The spirit of the new age was, therefore, one of reform, not of
+revolution. It called for no evolutionary or utopian experiments, but
+for the steady and progressive enactment of measures aimed at admitted
+abuses and designed to accomplish tangible results in the name of public
+welfare.
+
+
+=General References=
+
+J. Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_.
+
+R.C. Brooks, _Corruption in American Life_.
+
+E.A. Ross, _Changing America_.
+
+P.L. Haworth, _America in Ferment_.
+
+E.R.A. Seligman, _The Income Tax_.
+
+W.Z. Ripley, _Railroads: Rates and Regulation_.
+
+E.S. Bradford, _Commission Government in American Cities_.
+
+H.R. Seager, _A Program of Social Reform_.
+
+C. Zueblin, _American Municipal Progress_.
+
+W.E. Walling, _Progressivism and After_.
+
+_The American Year Book_ (an annual publication which contains reviews
+of reform legislation).
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+="The Muckrakers."=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp.
+309-323.
+
+=Civil Service Reform.=--Beard, _American Government and Politics_ (3d
+ed.), pp. 222-230; Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation Series),
+pp. 135-142.
+
+=Direct Government.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 461-473; Ogg,
+pp. 160-166.
+
+=Popular Election of Senators.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp.
+241-244; Ogg, pp. 149-150.
+
+=Party Methods.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 656-672.
+
+=Ballot Reform.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 672-705.
+
+=Social and Economic Legislation.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp.
+721-752.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Who were some of the critics of abuses in American life?
+
+2. What particular criticisms were advanced?
+
+3. How did Elihu Root define "invisible government"?
+
+4. Discuss the use of criticism as an aid to progress in a democracy.
+
+5. Explain what is meant by the "merit system" in the civil service.
+Review the rise of the spoils system.
+
+6. Why is the public service of increasing importance? Give some of its
+new problems.
+
+7. Describe the Australian ballot and the abuses against which it is
+directed.
+
+8. What are the elements of direct government? Sketch their progress in
+the United States.
+
+9. Trace the history of popular election of Senators.
+
+10. Explain the direct primary. Commission government. The city manager
+plan.
+
+11. How does modern reform involve government action? On what theory is
+it justified?
+
+12. Enumerate five lines of recent economic reform.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE NEW POLITICAL DEMOCRACY
+
+
+=Women in Public Affairs.=--The social legislation enacted in response
+to the spirit of reform vitally affected women in the home and in
+industry and was promoted by their organizations. Where they did not
+lead, they were affiliated with movements for social improvement. No
+cause escaped their attention; no year passed without widening the range
+of their interests. They served on committees that inquired into the
+problems of the day; they appeared before legislative assemblies to
+advocate remedies for the evils they discovered. By 1912 they were a
+force to be reckoned with in national politics. In nine states complete
+and equal suffrage had been established, and a widespread campaign for a
+national suffrage amendment was in full swing. On every hand lay
+evidences that their sphere had been broadened to include public
+affairs. This was the culmination of forces that had long been
+operating.
+
+=A New Emphasis in History.=--A movement so deeply affecting important
+interests could not fail to find a place in time in the written record
+of human progress. History often began as a chronicle of kings and
+queens, knights and ladies, written partly to amuse and partly to
+instruct the classes that appeared in its pages. With the growth of
+commerce, parliaments, and international relations, politics and
+diplomacy were added to such chronicles of royal and princely doings.
+After the rise of democracy, industry, and organized labor, the
+transactions of everyday life were deemed worthy of a place in the pages
+of history. In each case history was rewritten and the past rediscovered
+in the light of the new age. So it will be with the rise and growth of
+women's political power. The history of their labor, their education,
+their status in society, their influence on the course of events will be
+explored and given its place in the general record.
+
+It will be a history of change. The superior position which women enjoy
+in America to-day is the result of a slow evolution from an almost
+rightless condition in colonial times. The founders of America brought
+with them the English common law. Under that law, a married woman's
+personal property--jewels, money, furniture, and the like--became her
+husband's property; the management of her lands passed into his control.
+Even the wages she earned, if she worked for some one else, belonged to
+him. Custom, if not law, prescribed that women should not take part in
+town meetings or enter into public discussions of religious questions.
+Indeed it is a far cry from the banishment of Anne Hutchinson from
+Massachusetts in 1637, for daring to dispute with the church fathers, to
+the political conventions of 1920 in which women sat as delegates, made
+nominating speeches, and served on committees. In the contrast between
+these two scenes may be measured the change in the privileges of women
+since the landing of the Pilgrims. The account of this progress is a
+narrative of individual effort on the part of women, of organizations
+among them, of generous aid from sympathetic men in the long agitation
+for the removal of civil and political disabilities. It is in part also
+a narrative of irresistible economic change which drew women into
+industry, created a leisure class, gave women wages and incomes, and
+therewith economic independence.
+
+
+THE RISE OF THE WOMAN MOVEMENT
+
+=Protests of Colonial Women.=--The republican spirit which produced
+American independence was of slow and steady growth. It did not spring
+up full-armed in a single night. It was, on the contrary, nourished
+during a long period of time by fireside discussions as well as by
+debates in the public forum. Women shared that fireside sifting of
+political principles and passed on the findings of that scrutiny in
+letters to their friends, newspaper articles, and every form of written
+word. How widespread was this potent, though not spectacular force, is
+revealed in the collections of women's letters, articles, songs, dramas,
+and satirical "skits" on English rule that have come down to us. In this
+search into the reasons of government, some women began to take thought
+about laws that excluded them from the ballot. Two women at least left
+their protests on record. Abigail, the ingenious and witty wife of John
+Adams, wrote to her husband, in March, 1776, that women objected "to all
+arbitrary power whether of state or males" and demanded political
+privileges in the new order then being created. Hannah Lee Corbin, the
+sister of "Lighthorse" Harry Lee, protested to her brother against the
+taxation of women without representation.
+
+[Illustration: ABIGAIL ADAMS]
+
+=The Stir among European Women.=--Ferment in America, in the case of
+women as of men, was quickened by events in Europe. In 1792, Mary
+Wollstonecraft published in England the _Vindication of the Rights of
+Women_--a book that was destined to serve the cause of liberty among
+women as the writings of Locke and Paine had served that of men. The
+specific grievances which stirred English women were men's invasion of
+women's industries, such as spinning and weaving; the denial of equal
+educational opportunities; and political disabilities. In France also
+the great Revolution raised questionings about the status of women. The
+rights of "citizenesses" as well as the rights of "citizens" were
+examined by the boldest thinkers. This in turn reacted upon women in the
+United States.
+
+=Leadership in America.=--The origins of the American woman movement are
+to be found in the writings of a few early intellectual leaders. During
+the first decades of the nineteenth century, books, articles, and
+pamphlets about women came in increasing numbers from the press. Lydia
+Maria Child wrote a history of women; Margaret Fuller made a critical
+examination of the status of women in her time; and Mrs. Elizabeth Ellet
+supplemented the older histories by showing what an important part women
+had played in the American Revolution.
+
+=The Struggle for Education.=--Along with criticism, there was carried
+on a constructive struggle for better educational facilities for women
+who had been from the beginning excluded from every college in the
+country. In this long battle, Emma Willard and Mary Lyon led the way;
+the former founded a seminary at Troy, New York; and the latter made the
+beginnings of Mount Holyoke College in Massachusetts. Oberlin College in
+Ohio, established in 1833, opened its doors to girls and from it were
+graduated young students to lead in the woman movement. Sarah J. Hale,
+who in 1827 became the editor of a "Ladies' Magazine," published in
+Boston, conducted a campaign for equal educational opportunities which
+helped to bear fruit in the founding of Vassar College shortly after the
+Civil War.
+
+=The Desire to Effect Reforms.=--As they came to study their own history
+and their own part in civilization, women naturally became deeply
+interested in all the controversies going on around them. The temperance
+question made a special appeal to them and they organized to demand the
+right to be heard on it. In 1846 the "Daughters of Temperance" formed a
+secret society favoring prohibition. They dared to criticize the
+churches for their indifference and were so bold as to ask that
+drunkenness be made a ground for divorce.
+
+The slavery issue even more than temperance called women into public
+life. The Grimké sisters of South Carolina emancipated their bondmen,
+and one of these sisters, exiled from Charleston for her "Appeal to the
+Christian Women of the South," went North to work against the slavery
+system. In 1837 the National Women's Anti-Slavery Convention met in New
+York; seventy-one women delegates represented eight states. Three years
+later eight American women, five of them in Quaker costume, attended the
+World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, much to the horror of the men,
+who promptly excluded them from the sessions on the ground that it was
+not fitting for women to take part in such meetings.
+
+In other spheres of activity, especially social service, women steadily
+enlarged their interest. Nothing human did they consider alien to them.
+They inveighed against cruel criminal laws and unsanitary prisons. They
+organized poor relief and led in private philanthropy. Dorothea Dix
+directed the movement that induced the New York legislature to establish
+in 1845 a separate asylum for the criminal insane. In the same year
+Sarah G. Bagley organized the Lowell Female Reform Association for the
+purpose of reducing the long hours of labor for women, safeguarding "the
+constitutions of future generations." Mrs. Eliza Woodson Farnham, matron
+in Sing Sing penitentiary, was known throughout the nation for her
+social work, especially prison reform. Wherever there were misery and
+suffering, women were preparing programs of relief.
+
+=Freedom of Speech for Women.=--In the advancement of their causes, of
+whatever kind, women of necessity had to make public appeals and take
+part in open meetings. Here they encountered difficulties. The
+appearance of women on the platform was new and strange. Naturally it
+was widely resented. Antoinette Brown, although she had credentials as a
+delegate, was driven off the platform of a temperance convention in New
+York City simply because she was a woman. James Russell Lowell, editor
+of the "Atlantic Monthly," declined a poem from Julia Ward Howe on the
+theory that no woman could write a poem; but he added on second thought
+that he might consider an article in prose. Nathaniel Hawthorne,
+another editor, even objected to something in prose because to him "all
+ink-stained women were equally detestable." To the natural resentment
+against their intrusion into new fields was added that aroused by their
+ideas and methods. As temperance reformers, they criticized in a caustic
+manner those who would not accept their opinions. As opponents of
+slavery they were especially bitter. One of their conventions, held at
+Philadelphia in 1833, passed a resolution calling on all women to leave
+those churches that would not condemn every form of human bondage. This
+stirred against them many of the clergy who, accustomed to having women
+sit silent during services, were in no mood to treat such a revolt
+leniently. Then came the last straw. Women decided that they would
+preach--out of the pulpit first, and finally in it.
+
+=Women in Industry.=--The period of this ferment was also the age of the
+industrial revolution in America, the rise of the factory system, and
+the growth of mill towns. The labor of women was transferred from the
+homes to the factories. Then arose many questions: the hours of labor,
+the sanitary conditions of the mills, the pressure of foreign
+immigration on native labor, the wages of women as compared with those
+of men, and the right of married women to their own earnings. Labor
+organizations sprang up among working women. The mill girls of Lowell,
+Massachusetts, mainly the daughters of New England farmers, published a
+magazine, "The Lowell Offering." So excellent were their writings that
+the French statesman, Thiers, carried a copy of their paper into the
+Chamber of Deputies to show what working women could achieve in a
+republic. As women were now admittedly earning their own way in the
+world by their own labor, they began to talk of their "economic
+independence."
+
+=The World Shaken by Revolution.=--Such was the quickening of women's
+minds in 1848 when the world was startled once more by a revolution in
+France which spread to Germany, Poland, Austria, Hungary, and Italy.
+Once more the people of the earth began to explore the principles of
+democracy and expound human rights. Women, now better educated and more
+"advanced" in their ideas, played a rôle of still greater importance in
+that revolution. They led in agitations and uprisings. They suffered
+from reaction and persecution. From their prison in France, two of them
+who had been jailed for too much insistence on women's rights exchanged
+greetings with American women who were raising the same issue here. By
+this time the women had more supporters among the men. Horace Greeley,
+editor of the New York _Tribune_, though he afterwards recanted, used
+his powerful pen in their behalf. Anti-slavery leaders welcomed their
+aid and repaid them by urging the enfranchisement of women.
+
+=The Woman's Rights Convention of 1848.=--The forces, moral and
+intellectual, which had been stirring among women, crystallized a few
+months after the outbreak of the European revolution in the first
+Woman's Rights Convention in the history of America. It met at Seneca
+Falls, New York, in 1848, on the call of Lucretia Mott, Martha Wright,
+Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Mary Ann McClintock, three of them Quakers.
+Accustomed to take part in church meetings with men, the Quakers
+naturally suggested that men as well as women be invited to attend the
+convention. Indeed, a man presided over the conference, for that
+position seemed too presumptuous even for such stout advocates of
+woman's rights.
+
+The deliberations of the Seneca Falls convention resulted in a
+Declaration of Rights modeled after the Declaration of Independence. For
+example, the preamble began: "When in the course of human events it
+becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to assume among
+the people of the earth a position different from that which they have
+hitherto occupied...." So also it closed: "Such has been the patient
+suffering of women under this government and such is now the necessity
+which constrains them to demand the equal station to which they are
+entitled." Then followed the list of grievances, the same number which
+had been exhibited to George III in 1776. Especially did they assail the
+disabilities imposed upon them by the English common law imported into
+America--the law which denied married women their property, their wages,
+and their legal existence as separate persons. All these grievances they
+recited to "a candid world." The remedies for the evils which they
+endured were then set forth in detail. They demanded "equal rights" in
+the colleges, trades, and professions; equal suffrage; the right to
+share in all political offices, honors, and emoluments; the right to
+complete equality in marriage, including equal guardianship of the
+children; and for married women the right to own property, to keep
+wages, to make contracts, to transact business, and to testify in the
+courts of justice. In short, they declared women to be persons as men
+are persons and entitled to all the rights and privileges of human
+beings. Such was the clarion call which went forth to the world in
+1848--to an amused and contemptuous world, it must be admitted--but to a
+world fated to heed and obey.
+
+=The First Gains in Civil Liberty.=--The convention of 1848 did not make
+political enfranchisement the leading issue. Rather did it emphasize the
+civil disabilities of women which were most seriously under discussion
+at the time. Indeed, the New York legislature of that very year, as the
+result of a twelve years' agitation, passed the Married Woman's Property
+Act setting aside the general principles of the English common law as
+applied to women and giving them many of the "rights of man." California
+and Wisconsin followed in 1850; Massachusetts in 1854; and Kansas in
+1859. Other states soon fell into line. Women's earnings and
+inheritances were at last their own in some states at least. In a little
+while laws were passed granting women rights as equal guardians of their
+children and permitting them to divorce their husbands on the grounds of
+cruelty and drunkenness.
+
+By degrees other steps were taken. The Woman's Medical College of
+Pennsylvania was founded in 1850, and the Philadelphia School of Design
+for Women three years later. In 1852 the American Women's Educational
+Association was formed to initiate an agitation for enlarged
+educational opportunities for women. Other colleges soon emulated the
+example of Oberlin: the University of Utah in 1850; Hillsdale College in
+Michigan in 1855; Baker University in Kansas in 1858; and the University
+of Iowa in 1860. New trades and professions were opened to women and old
+prejudices against their activities and demands slowly gave way.
+
+
+THE NATIONAL STRUGGLE FOR WOMAN SUFFRAGE
+
+=The Beginnings of Organization.=--As women surmounted one obstacle
+after another, the agitation for equal suffrage came to the front. If
+any year is to be fixed as the date of its beginning, it may very well
+be 1850, when the suffragists of Ohio urged the state constitutional
+convention to confer the vote upon them. With apparent spontaneity there
+were held in the same year state suffrage conferences in Indiana,
+Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts; and connections were formed among the
+leaders of these meetings. At the same time the first national suffrage
+convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts, on the call of
+eighty-nine leading men and women representing six states. Accounts of
+the convention were widely circulated in this country and abroad.
+English women,--for instance, Harriet Martineau,--sent words of
+appreciation for the work thus inaugurated. It inspired a leading
+article in the "Westminster Review," which deeply interested the
+distinguished economist, John Stuart Mill. Soon he was the champion of
+woman suffrage in the British Parliament and the author of a powerful
+tract _The Subjection of Women_, widely read throughout the
+English-speaking world. Thus do world movements grow. Strange to relate
+the women of England were enfranchised before the adoption of the
+federal suffrage amendment in America.
+
+The national suffrage convention of 1850 was followed by an
+extraordinary outburst of agitation. Pamphlets streamed from the press.
+Petitions to legislative bodies were drafted, signed, and presented.
+There were addresses by favorite orators like Garrison, Phillips, and
+Curtis, and lectures and poems by men like Emerson, Longfellow, and
+Whittier. In 1853 the first suffrage paper was founded by the wife of a
+member of Congress from Rhode Island. By this time the last barrier to
+white manhood suffrage in the North had been swept away and the woman's
+movement was gaining momentum every year.
+
+=The Suffrage Movement Checked by the Civil War.=--Advocates of woman
+suffrage believed themselves on the high road to success when the Civil
+War engaged the energies and labors of the nation. Northern women became
+absorbed in the struggle to preserve the union. They held no suffrage
+conventions for five years. They transformed their associations into
+Loyalty Leagues. They banded together to buy only domestic goods when
+foreign imports threatened to ruin American markets. They rolled up
+monster petitions in favor of the emancipation of slaves. In hospitals,
+in military prisons, in agriculture, and in industry they bore their
+full share of responsibility. Even when the New York legislature took
+advantage of their unguarded moments and repealed the law giving the
+mother equal rights with the father in the guardianship of children,
+they refused to lay aside war work for agitation. As in all other wars,
+their devotion was unstinted and their sacrifices equal to the
+necessities of the hour.
+
+=The Federal Suffrage Amendment.=--Their plans and activities, when the
+war closed, were shaped by events beyond their control. The emancipation
+of the slaves and their proposed enfranchisement made prominent the
+question of a national suffrage for the first time in our history.
+Friends of the colored man insisted that his civil liberties would not
+be safe unless he was granted the right to vote. The woman suffragists
+very pertinently asked why the same principle did not apply to women.
+The answer which they received was negative. The fourteenth amendment to
+the federal Constitution, adopted in 1868, definitely put women aside by
+limiting the scope of its application, so far as the suffrage was
+concerned, to the male sex. In making manhood suffrage national,
+however, it nationalized the issue.
+
+This was the signal for the advocates of woman suffrage. In March, 1869,
+their proposed amendment was introduced in Congress by George W. Julian
+of Indiana. It provided that no citizen should be deprived of the vote
+on account of sex, following the language of the fifteenth amendment
+which forbade disfranchisement on account of race. Support for the
+amendment, coming from many directions, led the suffragists to believe
+that their case was hopeful. In their platform of 1872, for example, the
+Republicans praised the women for their loyal devotion to freedom,
+welcomed them to spheres of wider usefulness, and declared that the
+demand of any class of citizens for additional rights deserved
+"respectful consideration."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+SUSAN B. ANTHONY]
+
+Experience soon demonstrated, however, that praise was not the ballot.
+Indeed the suffragists already had realized that a tedious contest lay
+before them. They had revived in 1866 their regular national convention.
+They gave the name of "The Revolution" to their paper, edited by
+Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. They formed a national
+suffrage association and organized annual pilgrimages to Congress to
+present their claims. Such activities bore some results. Many eminent
+congressmen were converted to their cause and presented it ably to their
+colleagues of both chambers. Still the subject was ridiculed by the
+newspapers and looked upon as freakish by the masses.
+
+=The State Campaigns.=--Discouraged by the outcome of the national
+campaign, suffragists turned to the voters of the individual states and
+sought the ballot at their hands. Gains by this process were painfully
+slow. Wyoming, it is true, while still a territory, granted suffrage to
+women in 1869 and continued it on becoming a state twenty years later,
+in spite of strong protests in Congress. In 1893 Colorado established
+complete political equality. In Utah, the third suffrage state, the
+cause suffered many vicissitudes. Women were enfranchised by the
+territorial legislature; they were deprived of the ballot by Congress in
+1887; finally in 1896 on the admission of Utah to the union they
+recovered their former rights. During the same year, 1896, Idaho
+conferred equal suffrage upon the women. This was the last suffrage
+victory for more than a decade.
+
+=The Suffrage Cause in Congress.=--In the midst of the meager gains
+among the states there were occasional flurries of hope for immediate
+action on the federal amendment. Between 1878 and 1896 the Senate
+committee reported the suffrage resolution by a favorable majority on
+five different occasions. During the same period, however, there were
+nine unfavorable reports and only once did the subject reach the point
+of a general debate. At no time could anything like the required
+two-thirds vote be obtained.
+
+=The Changing Status of Women.=--While the suffrage movement was
+lagging, the activities of women in other directions were steadily
+multiplying. College after college--Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Smith, Wellesley,
+to mention a few--was founded to give them the advantages of higher
+education. Other institutions, especially the state universities of the
+West, opened their doors to women, and women were received into the
+professions of law and medicine. By the rapid growth of public high
+schools in which girls enjoyed the same rights as boys, education was
+extended still more widely. The number of women teachers increased by
+leaps and bounds.
+
+Meanwhile women were entering nearly every branch of industry and
+business. How many of them worked at gainful occupations before 1870 we
+do not know; but from that year forward we have the records of the
+census. Between 1870 and 1900 the proportion of women in the professions
+rose from less than two per cent to more than ten per cent; in trade and
+transportation from 24.8 per cent to 43.2 per cent; and in manufacturing
+from 13 to 19 per cent. In 1910, there were over 8,000,000 women
+gainfully employed as compared with 30,000,000 men. When, during the war
+on Germany, the government established the principle of equal pay for
+equal work and gave official recognition to the value of their services
+in industry, it was discovered how far women had traveled along the road
+forecast by the leaders of 1848.
+
+=The Club Movement among Women.=--All over the country women's societies
+and clubs were started to advance this or that reform or merely to study
+literature, art, and science. In time these women's organizations of all
+kinds were federated into city, state, and national associations and
+drawn into the consideration of public questions. Under the leadership
+of Frances Willard they made temperance reform a vital issue. They took
+an interest in legislation pertaining to prisons, pure food, public
+health, and municipal government, among other things. At their sessions
+and conferences local, state, and national issues were discussed until
+finally, it seems, everything led to the quest of the franchise. By
+solemn resolution in 1914 the National Federation of Women's Clubs,
+representing nearly two million club women, formally endorsed woman
+suffrage. In the same year the National Education Association, speaking
+for the public school teachers of the land, added its seal of approval.
+
+=State and National Action.=--Again the suffrage movement was in full
+swing in the states. Washington in 1910, California in 1911, Oregon,
+Kansas, and Arizona in 1912, Nevada and Montana in 1914 by popular vote
+enfranchised their women. Illinois in 1913 conferred upon them the right
+to vote for President of the United States. The time had arrived for a
+new movement. A number of younger suffragists sought to use the votes of
+women in the equal suffrage states to compel one or both of the national
+political parties to endorse and carry through Congress the federal
+suffrage amendment. Pressure then came upon Congress from every
+direction: from the suffragists who made a straight appeal on the
+grounds of justice; and from the suffragists who besought the women of
+the West to vote against candidates for President, who would not approve
+the federal amendment. In 1916, for the first time, a leading
+presidential candidate, Mr. Charles E. Hughes, speaking for the
+Republicans, endorsed the federal amendment and a distinguished
+ex-President, Roosevelt, exerted a powerful influence to keep it an
+issue in the campaign.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+CONFERENCE OF MEN AND WOMEN DELEGATES AT A NATIONAL CONVENTION IN
+1920]
+
+=National Enfranchisement.=--After that, events moved rapidly. The great
+state of New York adopted equal suffrage in 1917. Oklahoma, South
+Dakota, and Michigan swung into line the following year; several other
+states, by legislative action, gave women the right to vote for
+President. In the meantime the suffrage battle at Washington grew
+intense. Appeals and petitions poured in upon Congress and the
+President. Militant suffragists held daily demonstrations in Washington.
+On September 30, 1918, President Wilson, who, two years before, had
+opposed federal action and endorsed suffrage by state adoption only,
+went before Congress and urged the passage of the suffrage amendment to
+the Constitution. In June, 1919, the requisite two-thirds vote was
+secured; the resolution was carried and transmitted to the states for
+ratification. On August 28, 1920, the thirty-sixth state, Tennessee,
+approved the amendment, making three-fourths of the states as required
+by the Constitution. Thus woman suffrage became the law of the land. A
+new political democracy had been created. The age of agitation was
+closed and the epoch of responsible citizenship opened.
+
+
+=General References=
+
+Edith Abbott, _Women in Industry_.
+
+C.P. Gilman, _Woman and Economics_.
+
+I.H. Harper, _Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony_.
+
+E.R. Hecker, _Short History of Woman's Rights_.
+
+S.B. Anthony and I.H. Harper, _History of Woman Suffrage_ (4 vols.).
+
+J.W. Taylor, _Before Vassar Opened_.
+
+A.H. Shaw, _The Story of a Pioneer_.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Rise of the Woman Suffrage Movement.=--McMaster, _History of the
+People of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 116-121; K. Porter,
+_History of Suffrage in the United States_, pp. 135-145.
+
+=The Development of the Suffrage Movement.=--Porter, pp. 228-254; Ogg,
+_National Progress_ (American Nation Series), pp. 151-156 and p. 382.
+
+=Women's Labor in the Colonial Period.=--E. Abbott, _Women in Industry_,
+pp. 10-34.
+
+=Women and the Factory System.=--Abbott, pp. 35-62.
+
+=Early Occupations for Women.=--Abbott, pp. 63-85.
+
+=Women's Wages.=--Abbott, pp. 262-316.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Why were women involved in the reform movements of the new century?
+
+2. What is history? What determines the topics that appear in written
+history?
+
+3. State the position of women under the old common law.
+
+4. What part did women play in the intellectual movement that preceded
+the American Revolution?
+
+5. Explain the rise of the discussion of women's rights.
+
+6. What were some of the early writings about women?
+
+7. Why was there a struggle for educational opportunities?
+
+8. How did reform movements draw women into public affairs and what were
+the chief results?
+
+9. Show how the rise of the factory affected the life and labor of
+women.
+
+10. Why is the year 1848 an important year in the woman movement?
+Discuss the work of the Seneca Falls convention.
+
+11. Enumerate some of the early gains in civil liberty for women.
+
+12. Trace the rise of the suffrage movement. Show the effect of the
+Civil War.
+
+13. Review the history of the federal suffrage amendment.
+
+14. Summarize the history of the suffrage in the states.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY
+
+
+=The New Economic Age.=--The spirit of criticism and the measures of
+reform designed to meet it, which characterized the opening years of the
+twentieth century, were merely the signs of a new age. The nation had
+definitely passed into industrialism. The number of city dwellers
+employed for wages as contrasted with the farmers working on their own
+land was steadily mounting. The free land, once the refuge of restless
+workingmen of the East and the immigrants from Europe, was a thing of
+the past. As President Roosevelt later said in speaking of the great
+coal strike, "a few generations ago, the American workman could have
+saved money, gone West, and taken up a homestead. Now the free lands
+were gone. In earlier days, a man who began with a pick and shovel might
+come to own a mine. That outlet was now closed as regards the immense
+majority.... The majority of men who earned wages in the coal industry,
+if they wished to progress at all, were compelled to progress not by
+ceasing to be wage-earners but by improving the conditions under which
+all the wage-earners of the country lived and worked."
+
+The disappearance of the free land, President Roosevelt went on to say,
+also produced "a crass inequality in the bargaining relation of the
+employer and the individual employee standing alone. The great
+coal-mining and coal-carrying companies which employed their tens of
+thousands could easily dispense with the services of any particular
+miner. The miner, on the other hand, however expert, could not dispense
+with the companies. He needed a job; his wife and children would starve
+if he did not get one.... Individually the miners were impotent when
+they sought to enter a wage contract with the great companies; they
+could make fair terms only by uniting into trade unions to bargain
+collectively." It was of this state of affairs that President Taft spoke
+when he favored the modification of the common law "so as to put
+employees of little power and means on a level with their employers in
+adjusting and agreeing upon their mutual obligations."
+
+John D. Rockefeller, Jr., on the side of the great captains of industry,
+recognized the same facts. He said: "In the early days of the
+development of industry, the employer and capital investor were
+frequently one. Daily contact was had between him and his employees, who
+were his friends and neighbors.... Because of the proportions which
+modern industry has attained, employers and employees are too often
+strangers to each other.... Personal relations can be revived only
+through adequate representation of the employees. Representation is a
+principle which is fundamentally just and vital to the successful
+conduct of industry.... It is not consistent for us as Americans to
+demand democracy in government and practice autocracy in industry....
+With the developments what they are in industry to-day, there is sure to
+come a progressive evolution from aristocratic single control, whether
+by capital, labor, or the state, to democratic, coöperative control by
+all three."
+
+
+COÖPERATION BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES
+
+=Company Unions.=--The changed economic life described by the three
+eminent men just quoted was acknowledged by several great companies and
+business concerns. All over the country decided efforts were made to
+bridge the gulf which industry and the corporation had created. Among
+the devices adopted was that of the "company union." In one of the
+Western lumber mills, for example, all the employees were invited to
+join a company organization; they held monthly meetings to discuss
+matters of common concern; they elected a "shop committee" to confer
+with the representatives of the company; and periodically the agents of
+the employers attended the conferences of the men to talk over matters
+of mutual interest. The function of the shop committee was to consider
+wages, hours, safety rules, sanitation, recreation and other problems.
+Whenever any employee had a grievance he took it up with the foreman
+and, if it was not settled to his satisfaction, he brought it before the
+shop committee. If the members of the shop committee decided in favor of
+the man with a grievance, they attempted to settle the matter with the
+company's agents. All these things failing, the dispute was transferred
+to a grand meeting of all the employees with the employers'
+representatives, in common council. A deadlock, if it ensued from such a
+conference, was broken by calling in impartial arbitrators selected by
+both sides from among citizens outside the mill. Thus the employees were
+given a voice in all decisions affecting their work and welfare; rights
+and grievances were treated as matters of mutual interest rather than
+individual concern. Representatives of trade unions from outside,
+however, were rigidly excluded from all negotiations between employers
+and the employees.
+
+=Profit-sharing.=--Another proposal for drawing capital and labor
+together was to supplement the wage system by other ties. Sometimes lump
+sums were paid to employees who remained in a company's service for a
+definite period of years. Again they were given a certain percentage of
+the annual profits. In other instances, employees were allowed to buy
+stock on easy terms and thus become part owners in the concern. This
+last plan was carried so far by a large soap manufacturing company that
+the employees, besides becoming stockholders, secured the right to elect
+representatives to serve on the board of directors who managed the
+entire business. So extensive had profit-sharing become by 1914 that the
+Federal Industrial Relations Committee, appointed by the President,
+deemed it worthy of a special study. Though opposed by regular trade
+unions, it was undoubtedly growing in popularity.
+
+=Labor Managers and Welfare Work.=--Another effort of employers to meet
+the problems of the new age appeared in the appointment of specialists,
+known as employment managers, whose task it was to study the relations
+existing between masters and workers and discover practical methods for
+dealing with each grievance as it arose. By 1918, hundreds of big
+companies had recognized this modern "profession" and universities were
+giving courses of instruction on the subject to young men and women. In
+that year a national conference of employment managers was held at
+Rochester, New York. The discussion revealed a wide range of duties
+assigned to managers, including questions of wages, hours, sanitation,
+rest rooms, recreational facilities, and welfare work of every kind
+designed to make the conditions in mills and factories safer and more
+humane. Thus it was evident that hundreds of employers had abandoned the
+old idea that they were dealing merely with individual employees and
+that their obligations ended with the payment of any wages they saw fit
+to fix. In short, they were seeking to develop a spirit of coöperation
+to take the place of competition and enmity; and to increase the
+production of commodities by promoting the efficiency and happiness of
+the producers.
+
+
+THE RISE AND GROWTH OF ORGANIZED LABOR
+
+=The American Federation of Labor.=--Meanwhile a powerful association of
+workers representing all the leading trades and crafts, organized into
+unions of their own, had been built up outside the control of employers.
+This was the American Federation of Labor, a nation-wide union of
+unions, founded in 1886 on the basis of beginnings made five years
+before. At the time of its establishment it had approximately 150,000
+members. Its growth up to the end of the century was slow, for the total
+enrollment in 1900 was only 300,000. At that point the increase became
+marked. The membership reached 1,650,000 in 1904 and more than 3,000,000
+in 1919. To be counted in the ranks of organized labor were several
+strong unions, friendly to the Federation, though not affiliated with
+it. Such, for example, were the Railway Brotherhoods with more than half
+a million members. By the opening of 1920 the total strength of
+organized labor was put at about 4,000,000 members, meaning, if we
+include their families, that nearly one-fifth of the people of the
+United States were in some positive way dependent upon the operations of
+trade unions.
+
+=Historical Background.=--This was the culmination of a long and
+significant history. Before the end of the eighteenth century, the
+skilled workmen--printers, shoemakers, tailors, and carpenters--had, as
+we have seen, formed local unions in the large cities. Between 1830 and
+1860, several aggressive steps were taken in the American labor
+movement. For one thing, the number of local unions increased by leaps
+and bounds in all the industrial towns. For another, there was
+established in every large manufacturing city a central labor body
+composed of delegates from the unions of the separate trades. In the
+local union the printers or the cordwainers, for example, considered
+only their special trade problems. In the central labor union, printers,
+cordwainers, iron molders, and other craftsmen considered common
+problems and learned to coöperate with one another in enforcing the
+demands of each craft. A third step was the federation of the unions of
+the same craftsmen in different cities. The printers of New York,
+Philadelphia, Boston, and other towns, for instance, drew together and
+formed a national trade union of printers built upon the local unions of
+that craft. By the eve of the Civil War there were four or five powerful
+national unions of this character. The expansion of the railway made
+travel and correspondence easier and national conventions possible even
+for workmen of small means. About 1834 an attempt was made to federate
+the unions of all the different crafts into a national organization; but
+the effort was premature.
+
+_The National Labor Union._--The plan which failed in 1834 was tried
+again in the sixties. During the war, industries and railways had
+flourished as never before; prices had risen rapidly; the demand for
+labor had increased; wages had mounted slowly, but steadily. Hundreds of
+new local unions had been founded and eight or ten national trade unions
+had sprung into being. The time was ripe, it seemed, for a national
+consolidation of all labor's forces; and in 1866, the year after the
+surrender of General Lee at Appomattox, the "National Labor Union" was
+formed at Baltimore under the leadership of an experienced organizer,
+W.H. Sylvis of the iron molders. The purpose of the National Labor Union
+was not merely to secure labor's standard demands touching hours, wages,
+and conditions of work or to maintain the gains already won. It leaned
+toward political action and radical opinions. Above all, it sought to
+eliminate the conflict between capital and labor by making workingmen
+the owners of shops through the formation of coöperative industries. For
+six years the National Labor Union continued to hold conferences and
+carry on its propaganda; but most of the coöperative enterprises failed,
+political dissensions arose, and by 1872 the experiment had come to an
+end.
+
+_The Knights of Labor._--While the National Labor Union was
+experimenting, there grew up in the industrial world a more radical
+organization known as the "Noble Order of the Knights of Labor." It was
+founded in Philadelphia in 1869, first as a secret society with rituals,
+signs, and pass words; "so that no spy of the boss can find his way into
+the lodge room to betray his fellows," as the Knights put it. In form
+the new organization was simple. It sought to bring all laborers,
+skilled and unskilled, men and women, white and colored, into a mighty
+body of local and national unions without distinction of trade or craft.
+By 1885, ten years after the national organization was established, it
+boasted a membership of over 700,000. In philosophy, the Knights of
+Labor were socialistic, for they advocated public ownership of the
+railways and other utilities and the formation of coöperative societies
+to own and manage stores and factories.
+
+As the Knights were radical in spirit and their strikes, numerous and
+prolonged, were often accompanied by violence, the organization alarmed
+employers and the general public, raising up against itself a vigorous
+opposition. Weaknesses within, as well as foes from without, started the
+Knights on the path to dissolution. They waged more strikes than they
+could carry on successfully; their coöperative experiments failed as
+those of other labor groups before them had failed; and the rank and
+file could not be kept in line. The majority of the members wanted
+immediate gains in wages or the reduction of hours; when their hopes
+were not realized they drifted away from the order. The troubles were
+increased by the appearance of the American Federation of Labor, a still
+mightier organization composed mainly of skilled workers who held
+strategic positions in industry. When they failed to secure the
+effective support of the Federation in their efforts to organize the
+unskilled, the employers closed in upon them; then the Knights declined
+rapidly in power. By 1890 they were a negligible factor and in a short
+time they passed into the limbo of dead experiments.
+
+=The Policies of the American Federation.=--Unlike the Knights of Labor,
+the American Federation of Labor sought, first of all, to be very
+practical in its objects and methods. It avoided all kinds of
+socialistic theories and attended strictly to the business of organizing
+unions for the purpose of increasing wages, shortening hours, and
+improving working conditions for its members. It did not try to include
+everybody in one big union but brought together the employees of each
+particular craft whose interests were clearly the same. To prepare for
+strikes and periods of unemployment, it raised large funds by imposing
+heavy dues and created a benefit system to hold men loyally to the
+union. In order to permit action on a national scale, it gave the
+superior officers extensive powers over local unions.
+
+While declaring that employers and employees had much in common, the
+Federation strongly opposed company unions. Employers, it argued, were
+affiliated with the National Manufacturers' Association or with similar
+employers' organizations; every important industry was now national in
+scope; and wages and hours, in view of competition with other shops,
+could not be determined in a single factory, no matter how amicable
+might be the relations of the company and its workers in that particular
+plant. For these reasons, the Federation declared company unions and
+local shop committees inherently weak; it insisted that hours, wages,
+and other labor standards should be fixed by general trade agreements
+applicable to all the plants of a given industry, even if subject to
+local modifications.
+
+At the same time, the Federation, far from deliberately antagonizing
+employers, sought to enlist their coöperation and support. It affiliated
+with the National Civic Federation, an association of business men,
+financiers, and professional men, founded in 1900 to promote friendly
+relations in the industrial world. In brief, the American Federation of
+Labor accepted the modern industrial system and, by organization within
+it, endeavored to secure certain definite terms and conditions for trade
+unionists.
+
+
+THE WIDER RELATIONS OF ORGANIZED LABOR
+
+=The Socialists.=--The trade unionism "pure and simple," espoused by the
+American Federation of Labor, seemed to involve at first glance nothing
+but businesslike negotiations with employers. In practice it did not
+work out that way. The Federation was only six years old when a new
+organization, appealing directly for the labor vote--namely, the
+Socialist Labor Party--nominated a candidate for President, launched
+into a national campaign, and called upon trade unionists to desert the
+older parties and enter its fold.
+
+The socialistic idea, introduced into national politics in 1892, had
+been long in germination. Before the Civil War, a number of reformers,
+including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Horace Greeley, and Wendell Phillips,
+deeply moved by the poverty of the great industrial cities, had
+earnestly sought relief in the establishment of coöperative or
+communistic colonies. They believed that people should go into the
+country, secure land and tools, own them in common so that no one could
+profit from exclusive ownership, and produce by common labor the food
+and clothing necessary for their support. For a time this movement
+attracted wide interest, but it had little vitality. Nearly all the
+colonies failed. Selfishness and indolence usually disrupted the best of
+them.
+
+In the course of time this "Utopian" idea was abandoned, and another set
+of socialist doctrines, claiming to be more "scientific," appeared
+instead. The new school of socialists, adopting the principles of a
+German writer and agitator, Karl Marx, appealed directly to workingmen.
+It urged them to unite against the capitalists, to get possession of the
+machinery of government, and to introduce collective or public ownership
+of railways, land, mines, mills, and other means of production. The
+Marxian socialists, therefore, became political. They sought to organize
+labor and to win elections. Like the other parties they put forward
+candidates and platforms. The Socialist Labor party in 1892, for
+example, declared in favor of government ownership of utilities, free
+school books, woman suffrage, heavy income taxes, and the referendum.
+The Socialist party, founded in 1900, with Eugene V. Debs, the leader of
+the Pullman strike, as its candidate, called for public ownership of all
+trusts, monopolies, mines, railways; and the chief means of production.
+In the course of time the vote of the latter organization rose to
+considerable proportions, reaching almost a million in 1912. It declined
+four years later and then rose in 1920 to about the same figure.
+
+In their appeal for votes, the socialists of every type turned first to
+labor. At the annual conventions of the American Federation of Labor
+they besought the delegates to endorse socialism. The president of the
+Federation, Samuel Gompers, on each occasion took the floor against
+them. He repudiated socialism and the socialists, on both theoretical
+and practical grounds. He opposed too much public ownership, declaring
+that the government was as likely as any private employer to oppress
+labor. The approval of socialism, he maintained, would split the
+Federation on the rock of politics, weaken it in its fight for higher
+wages and shorter hours, and prejudice the public against it. At every
+turn he was able to vanquish the socialists in the Federation, although
+he could not prevent it from endorsing public ownership of the railways
+at the convention of 1920.
+
+=The Extreme Radicals.=--Some of the socialists, defeated in their
+efforts to capture organized labor and seeing that the gains in
+elections were very meager, broke away from both trade unionism and
+politics. One faction, the Industrial Workers of the World, founded in
+1905, declared themselves opposed to all capitalists, the wages system,
+and craft unions. They asserted that the "working class and the
+employing class have nothing in common" and that trade unions only
+pitted one set of workers against another set. They repudiated all
+government ownership and the government itself, boldly proclaiming their
+intention to unite all employees into one big union and seize the
+railways, mines, and mills of the country. This doctrine, so
+revolutionary in tone, called down upon the extremists the condemnation
+of the American Federation of Labor as well as of the general public. At
+its convention in 1919, the Federation went on record as "opposed to
+Bolshevism, I.W.W.-ism, and the irresponsible leadership that encourages
+such a policy." It announced its "firm adherence to American ideals."
+
+=The Federation and Political Issues.=--The hostility of the Federation
+to the socialists did not mean, however, that it was indifferent to
+political issues or political parties. On the contrary, from time to
+time, at its annual conventions, it endorsed political and social
+reforms, such as the initiative, referendum, and recall, the abolition
+of child labor, the exclusion of Oriental labor, old-age pensions, and
+government ownership. Moreover it adopted the policy of "rewarding
+friends and punishing enemies" by advising members to vote for or
+against candidates according to their stand on the demands of organized
+labor.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+SAMUEL GOMPERS AND OTHER LABOR LEADERS]
+
+This policy was pursued with especial zeal in connection with disputes
+over the use of injunctions in labor controversies. An injunction is a
+bill or writ issued by a judge ordering some person or corporation to do
+or to refrain from doing something. For example, a judge may order a
+trade union to refrain from interfering with non-union men or to
+continue at work handling goods made by non-union labor; and he may fine
+or imprison those who disobey his injunction, the penalty being
+inflicted for "contempt of court." This ancient legal device came into
+prominence in connection with nation-wide railway strikes in 1877. It
+was applied with increasing frequency after its effective use against
+Eugene V. Debs in the Pullman strike of 1894.
+
+Aroused by the extensive use of the writ, organized labor demanded that
+the power of judges to issue injunctions in labor disputes be limited by
+law. Representatives of the unions sought support from the Democrats and
+the Republicans; they received from the former very specific and cordial
+endorsement. In 1896 the Democratic platform denounced "government by
+injunction as a new and highly dangerous form of oppression." Mr.
+Gompers, while refusing to commit the Federation to Democratic politics,
+privately supported Mr. Bryan. In 1908, he came out openly and boasted
+that eighty per cent of the votes of the Federation had been cast for
+the Democratic candidate. Again in 1912 the same policy was pursued. The
+reward was the enactment in 1914 of a federal law exempting trade unions
+from prosecution as combinations in restraint of trade, limiting the use
+of the injunction in labor disputes, and prescribing trial by jury in
+case of contempt of court. This measure was hailed by Mr. Gompers as the
+"Magna Carta of Labor" and a vindication of his policy. As a matter of
+fact, however, it did not prevent the continued use of injunctions
+against trade unions. Nevertheless Mr. Gompers was unshaken in his
+conviction that organized labor should not attempt to form an
+independent political party or endorse socialist or other radical
+economic theories.
+
+=Organized Labor and the Public.=--Besides its relations to employers,
+radicals within its own ranks, and political questions, the Federation
+had to face responsibilities to the general public. With the passing of
+time these became heavy and grave. While industries were small and
+conflicts were local in character, a strike seldom affected anybody but
+the employer and the employees immediately involved in it. When,
+however, industries and trade unions became organized on a national
+scale and a strike could paralyze a basic enterprise like coal mining or
+railways, the vital interests of all citizens were put in jeopardy.
+Moreover, as increases in wages and reductions in hours often added
+directly to the cost of living, the action of the unions affected the
+well-being of all--the food, clothing, and shelter of the whole people.
+
+For the purpose of meeting the issue raised by this state of affairs, it
+was suggested that employers and employees should lay their disputes
+before commissions of arbitration for decision and settlement. President
+Cleveland, in a message of April 2, 1886, proposed such a method for
+disposing of industrial controversies, and two years later Congress
+enacted a voluntary arbitration law applicable to the railways. The
+principle was extended in 1898 and again in 1913, and under the
+authority of the federal government many contentions in the railway
+world were settled by arbitration.
+
+The success of such legislation induced some students of industrial
+questions to urge that unions and employers should be compelled to
+submit all disputes to official tribunals of arbitration. Kansas
+actually passed such a law in 1920. Congress in the Esch-Cummins railway
+bill of the same year created a federal board of nine members to which
+all railway controversies, not settled by negotiation, must be
+submitted. Strikes, however, were not absolutely forbidden. Generally
+speaking, both employers and employees opposed compulsory adjustments
+without offering any substitute in case voluntary arbitration should not
+be accepted by both parties to a dispute.
+
+
+IMMIGRATION AND AMERICANIZATION
+
+=The Problems of Immigration.=--From its very inception, the American
+Federation of Labor, like the Knights of Labor before it, was confronted
+by numerous questions raised by the ever swelling tide of aliens coming
+to our shores. In its effort to make each trade union all-inclusive, it
+had to wrestle with a score or more languages. When it succeeded in
+thoroughly organizing a craft, it often found its purposes defeated by
+an influx of foreigners ready to work for lower wages and thus undermine
+the foundations of the union.
+
+At the same time, persons outside the labor movement began to be
+apprehensive as they contemplated the undoubted evil, as well as the
+good, that seemed to be associated with the "alien invasion." They saw
+whole sections of great cities occupied by people speaking foreign
+tongues, reading only foreign newspapers, and looking to the Old World
+alone for their ideas and their customs. They witnessed an expanding
+army of total illiterates, men and women who could read and write no
+language at all; while among those aliens who could read few there were
+who knew anything of American history, traditions, and ideals. Official
+reports revealed that over twenty per cent of the men of the draft army
+during the World War could not read a newspaper or write a letter home.
+Perhaps most alarming of all was the discovery that thousands of alien
+men are in the United States only on a temporary sojourn, solely to make
+money and return home with their savings. These men, willing to work for
+low wages and live in places unfit for human beings, have no stake in
+this country and do not care what becomes of it.
+
+=The Restriction of Immigration.=--In all this there was, strictly
+speaking, no cause for surprise. Since the foundation of our republic
+the policy of the government had been to encourage the coming of the
+alien. For nearly one hundred years no restraining act was passed by
+Congress, while two important laws positively encouraged it; namely, the
+homestead act of 1862 and the contract immigration law of 1864. Not
+until American workingmen came into open collision with cheap Chinese
+labor on the Pacific Coast did the federal government spread the first
+measure of limitation on the statute books. After the discovery of gold,
+and particularly after the opening of the railway construction era, a
+horde of laborers from China descended upon California. Accustomed to
+starvation wages and indifferent to the conditions of living, they
+threatened to cut the American standard to the point of subsistence. By
+1876 the protest of American labor was loud and long and both the
+Republicans and the Democrats gave heed to it. In 1882 Congress enacted
+a law prohibiting the admission of Chinese laborers to the United States
+for a term of ten years--later extended by legislation. In a little
+while the demand arose for the exclusion of the Japanese as well. In
+this case no exclusion law was passed; but an understanding was reached
+by which Japan agreed not to issue passports to her laborers authorizing
+them to come to the United States. By act of Congress in 1907 the
+President was empowered to exclude any laborers who, having passports to
+Canada, Hawaii, or Mexico, attempted to enter our country.
+
+These laws and agreements, however, did not remove all grounds for the
+agitation of the subject. They were difficult to enforce and it was
+claimed by residents of the Coast that in spite of federal authority
+Oriental laborers were finding their way into American ports. Moreover,
+several Western states, anxious to preserve the soil for American
+ownership, enacted laws making it impossible for Chinese and Japanese to
+buy land outright; and in other ways they discriminated against
+Orientals. Such proceedings placed the federal government in an
+embarrassing position. By treaty it had guaranteed specific rights to
+Japanese citizens in the United States, and the government at Tokyo
+contended that the state laws just cited violated the terms of the
+international agreement. The Western states were fixed in their
+determination to control Oriental residents; Japan was equally
+persistent in asking that no badge of inferiority be attached to her
+citizens. Subjected to pressure on both sides, the federal government
+sought a way out of the deadlock.
+
+Having embarked upon the policy of restriction in 1882, Congress readily
+extended it. In that same year it barred paupers, criminals, convicts,
+and the insane. Three years later, mainly owing to the pressure of the
+Knights of Labor, it forbade any person, company, or association to
+import aliens under contract. By an act of 1887, the contract labor
+restriction was made even more severe. In 1903, anarchists were excluded
+and the bureau of immigration was transferred from the Treasury
+Department to the Department of Commerce and Labor, in order to provide
+for a more rigid execution of the law. In 1907 the classes of persons
+denied admission were widened to embrace those suffering from physical
+and mental defects and otherwise unfit for effective citizenship. When
+the Department of Labor was established in 1913 the enforcement of the
+law was placed in the hands of the Secretary of Labor, W.B. Wilson, who
+was a former leader in the American Federation of Labor.
+
+=The Literacy Test.=--Still the advocates of restriction were not
+satisfied. Still organized labor protested and demanded more protection
+against the competition of immigrants. In 1917 it won a thirty-year
+battle in the passage of a bill excluding "all aliens over sixteen years
+of age, physically capable of reading, who cannot read the English
+language or some other language or dialect, including Hebrew or
+Yiddish." Even President Wilson could not block it, for a two-thirds
+vote to overcome his veto was mustered in Congress.
+
+This act, while it served to exclude illiterates, made no drastic cut in
+the volume of immigration. Indeed a material reduction was resolutely
+opposed in many quarters. People of certain nationalities already in the
+United States objected to every barrier that shut out their own kinsmen.
+Some Americans of the old stock still held to the idea that the United
+States should continue to be an asylum for "the oppressed of the earth."
+Many employers looked upon an increased labor supply as the means of
+escaping what they called "the domination of trade unions." In the babel
+of countless voices, the discussion of these vital matters went on in
+town and country.
+
+=Americanization.=--Intimately connected with the subject of immigration
+was a call for the "Americanization" of the alien already within our
+gates. The revelation of the illiteracy in the army raised the cry and
+the demand was intensified when it was found that many of the leaders
+among the extreme radicals were foreign in birth and citizenship.
+Innumerable programs for assimilating the alien to American life were
+drawn up, and in 1919 a national conference on the subject was held in
+Washington under the auspices of the Department of the Interior. All
+were agreed that the foreigner should be taught to speak and write the
+language and understand the government of our country. Congress was
+urged to lend aid in this vast undertaking. America, as ex-President
+Roosevelt had said, was to find out "whether it was a nation or a
+boarding-house."
+
+
+=General References=
+
+J.R. Commons and Associates, _History of Labor in the United States_ (2
+vols.).
+
+Samuel Gompers, _Labor and the Common Welfare_.
+
+W.E. Walling, _Socialism as It Is_.
+
+W.E. Walling (and Others), _The Socialism of Today_.
+
+R.T. Ely, _The Labor Movement in America_.
+
+T.S. Adams and H. Sumner, _Labor Problems_.
+
+J.G. Brooks, _American Syndicalism_ and _Social Unrest_.
+
+P.F. Hall, _Immigration and Its Effects on the United States_.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Rise of Trade Unionism.=--Mary Beard, _Short History of the
+American Labor Movement_, pp. 10-18, 47-53, 62-79; Carlton, _Organized
+Labor in American History_, pp. 11-44.
+
+=Labor and Politics.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp. 33-46, 54-61,
+103-112; Carlton, pp. 169-197; Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation
+Series), pp. 76-85.
+
+=The Knights of Labor.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp. 116-126; Dewey,
+_National Problems_ (American Nation Series), pp. 40-49.
+
+=The American Federation of Labor--Organization and Policies.=--Beard,
+_Short History_, pp. 86-112.
+
+=Organized Labor and the Socialists.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp.
+126-149.
+
+=Labor and the Great War.=--Carlton, pp. 282-306; Beard, _Short
+History_, pp. 150-170.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What are the striking features of the new economic age?
+
+2. Give Mr. Rockefeller's view of industrial democracy.
+
+3. Outline the efforts made by employers to establish closer relations
+with their employees.
+
+4. Sketch the rise and growth of the American Federation of Labor.
+
+5. How far back in our history does the labor movement extend?
+
+6. Describe the purposes and outcome of the National Labor Union and the
+Knights of Labor.
+
+7. State the chief policies of the American Federation of Labor.
+
+8. How does organized labor become involved with outside forces?
+
+9. Outline the rise of the socialist movement. How did it come into
+contact with the American Federation?
+
+10. What was the relation of the Federation to the extreme radicals? To
+national politics? To the public?
+
+11. Explain the injunction.
+
+12. Why are labor and immigration closely related?
+
+13. Outline the history of restrictions on immigration.
+
+14. What problems arise in connection with the assimilation of the alien
+to American life?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR
+
+
+"The welfare, the happiness, the energy, and the spirit of the men and
+women who do the daily work in our mines and factories, on our
+railroads, in our offices and ports of trade, on our farms, and on the
+sea are the underlying necessity of all prosperity." Thus spoke Woodrow
+Wilson during his campaign for election. In this spirit, as President,
+he gave the signal for work by summoning Congress in a special session
+on April 7, 1913. He invited the coöperation of all "forward-looking
+men" and indicated that he would assume the rôle of leadership. As an
+evidence of his resolve, he appeared before Congress in person to read
+his first message, reviving the old custom of Washington and Adams. Then
+he let it be known that he would not give his party any rest until it
+fulfilled its pledges to the country. When Democratic Senators balked at
+tariff reductions, they were sharply informed that the party had
+plighted its word and that no excuses or delays would be tolerated.
+
+
+DOMESTIC LEGISLATION
+
+=Financial Measures.=--Under this spirited leadership Congress went to
+work, passing first the Underwood tariff act of 1913, which made a
+downward revision in the rates of duty, fixing them on the average about
+twenty-six per cent lower than the figures of 1907. The protective
+principle was retained, but an effort was made to permit a moderate
+element of foreign competition. As a part of the revenue act Congress
+levied a tax on incomes as authorized by the sixteenth amendment to the
+Constitution. The tax which roused such party passions twenty years
+before was now accepted as a matter of course.
+
+Having disposed of the tariff, Congress took up the old and vexatious
+currency question and offered a new solution in the form of the federal
+reserve law of December, 1913. This measure, one of the most interesting
+in the history of federal finance, embraced four leading features. In
+the first place, it continued the prohibition on the issuance of notes
+by state banks and provided for a national currency. In the second
+place, it put the new banking system under the control of a federal
+reserve board composed entirely of government officials. To prevent the
+growth of a "central money power," it provided, in the third place, for
+the creation of twelve federal reserve banks, one in each of twelve
+great districts into which the country is divided. All local national
+banks were required and certain other banks permitted to become members
+of the new system and share in its control. Finally, with a view to
+expanding the currency, a step which the Democrats had long urged upon
+the country, the issuance of paper money, under definite safeguards, was
+authorized.
+
+Mindful of the agricultural interest, ever dear to the heart of
+Jefferson's followers, the Democrats supplemented the reserve law by the
+Farm Loan Act of 1916, creating federal agencies to lend money on farm
+mortgages at moderate rates of interest. Within a year $20,000,000 had
+been lent to farmers, the heaviest borrowing being in nine Western and
+Southern states, with Texas in the lead.
+
+=Anti-trust Legislation.=--The tariff and currency laws were followed by
+three significant measures relative to trusts. Rejecting utterly the
+Progressive doctrine of government regulation, President Wilson
+announced that it was the purpose of the Democrats "to destroy monopoly
+and maintain competition as the only effective instrument of business
+liberty." The first step in this direction, the Clayton Anti-trust Act,
+carried into great detail the Sherman law of 1890 forbidding and
+penalizing combinations in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. In
+every line it revealed a determined effort to tear apart the great
+trusts and to put all business on a competitive basis. Its terms were
+reinforced in the same year by a law creating a Federal Trade Commission
+empowered to inquire into the methods of corporations and lodge
+complaints against concerns "using any unfair method of competition." In
+only one respect was the severity of the Democratic policy relaxed. An
+act of 1918 provided that the Sherman law should not apply to companies
+engaged in export trade, the purpose being to encourage large
+corporations to enter foreign commerce.
+
+The effect of this whole body of anti-trust legislation, in spite of
+much labor on it, remained problematical. Very few combinations were
+dissolved as a result of it. Startling investigations were made into
+alleged abuses on the part of trusts; but it could hardly be said that
+huge business concerns had lost any of their predominance in American
+industry.
+
+=Labor Legislation.=--By no mere coincidence, the Clayton Anti-trust law
+of 1914 made many concessions to organized labor. It declared that "the
+labor of a human being is not a commodity or an article of commerce,"
+and it exempted unions from prosecution as "combinations in restraint of
+trade." It likewise defined and limited the uses which the federal
+courts might make of injunctions in labor disputes and guaranteed trial
+by jury to those guilty of disobedience (see p. 581).
+
+The Clayton law was followed the next year by the Seamen's Act giving
+greater liberty of contract to American sailors and requiring an
+improvement of living conditions on shipboard. This was such a drastic
+law that shipowners declared themselves unable to meet foreign
+competition under its terms, owing to the low labor standards of other
+countries.
+
+Still more extraordinary than the Seamen's Act was the Adamson law of
+1916 fixing a standard eight-hour work-day for trainmen on railroads--a
+measure wrung from Congress under a threat of a great strike by the four
+Railway Brotherhoods. This act, viewed by union leaders as a triumph,
+called forth a bitter denunciation of "trade union domination," but it
+was easier to criticize than to find another solution of the problem.
+
+Three other laws enacted during President Wilson's administration were
+popular in the labor world. One of them provided compensation for
+federal employees injured in the discharge of their duties. Another
+prohibited the labor of children under a certain age in the industries
+of the nation. A third prescribed for coal miners in Alaska an
+eight-hour day and modern safeguards for life and health. There were
+positive proofs that organized labor had obtained a large share of power
+in the councils of the country.
+
+=Federal and State Relations.=--If the interference of the government
+with business and labor represented a departure from the old idea of
+"the less government the better," what can be said of a large body of
+laws affecting the rights of states? The prohibition of child labor
+everywhere was one indication of the new tendency. Mr. Wilson had once
+declared such legislation unconstitutional; the Supreme Court declared
+it unconstitutional; but Congress, undaunted, carried it into effect
+under the guise of a tax on goods made by children below the age limit.
+There were other indications of the drift. Large sums of money were
+appropriated by Congress in 1916 to assist the states in building and
+maintaining highways. The same year the Farm Loan Act projected the
+federal government into the sphere of local money lending. In 1917
+millions of dollars were granted to states in aid of vocational
+education, incidentally imposing uniform standards throughout the
+country. Evidently the government was no longer limited to the duties of
+the policeman.
+
+=The Prohibition Amendment.=--A still more significant form of
+intervention in state affairs was the passage, in December, 1917, of an
+amendment to the federal Constitution establishing national prohibition
+of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as beverages. This
+was the climax of a historical movement extending over half a century.
+In 1872, a National Prohibition party, launched three years before,
+nominated its first presidential candidate and inaugurated a campaign of
+agitation. Though its vote was never large, the cause for which it
+stood found increasing favor among the people. State after state by
+popular referendum abolished the liquor traffic within its borders. By
+1917 at least thirty-two of the forty-eight were "dry." When the federal
+amendment was submitted for approval, the ratification was surprisingly
+swift. In a little more than a year, namely, on January 16, 1919, it was
+proclaimed. Twelve months later the amendment went into effect.
+
+
+COLONIAL AND FOREIGN POLICIES
+
+=The Philippines and Porto Rico.=--Independence for the Philippines and
+larger self-government for Porto Rico had been among the policies of the
+Democratic party since the campaign of 1900. President Wilson in his
+annual messages urged upon Congress more autonomy for the Filipinos and
+a definite promise of final independence. The result was the Jones
+Organic Act for the Philippines passed in 1916. This measure provided
+that the upper as well as the lower house of the Philippine legislature
+should be elected by popular vote, and declared it to be the intention
+of the United States to grant independence "as soon as a stable
+government can be established." This, said President Wilson on signing
+the bill, is "a very satisfactory advance in our policy of extending to
+them self-government and control of their own affairs." The following
+year Congress, yielding to President Wilson's insistence, passed a new
+organic act for Porto Rico, making both houses of the legislature
+elective and conferring American citizenship upon the inhabitants of the
+island.
+
+[Illustration: THE CARIBBEAN REGION]
+
+=American Power in the Caribbean.=--While extending more self-government
+to its dominions, the United States enlarged its sphere of influence in
+the Caribbean. The supervision of finances in Santo Domingo, inaugurated
+in Roosevelt's administration, was transformed into a protectorate under
+Wilson. In 1914 dissensions in the republic led to the landing of
+American marines to "supervise" the elections. Two years later, an
+officer in the American navy, with authority from Washington, placed
+the entire republic "in a state of military occupation." He proceeded to
+suspend the government and laws of the country, exile the president,
+suppress the congress, and substitute American military authority. In
+1919 a consulting board of four prominent Dominicans was appointed to
+aid the American military governor; but it resigned the next year after
+making a plea for the restoration of independence to the republic. For
+all practical purposes, it seemed, the sovereignty of Santo Domingo had
+been transferred to the United States.
+
+In the neighboring republic of Haiti, a similar state of affairs
+existed. In the summer of 1915 a revolution broke out there--one of a
+long series beginning in 1804--and our marines were landed to restore
+order. Elections were held under the supervision of American officers,
+and a treaty was drawn up placing the management of Haitian finances and
+the local constabulary under American authority. In taking this action,
+our Secretary of State was careful to announce: "The United States
+government has no purpose of aggression and is entirely disinterested in
+promoting this protectorate." Still it must be said that there were
+vigorous protests on the part of natives and American citizens against
+the conduct of our agents in the island. In 1921 President Wilson was
+considering withdrawal.
+
+In line with American policy in the West Indian waters was the purchase
+in 1917 of the Danish Islands just off the coast of Porto Rico. The
+strategic position of the islands, especially in relation to Haiti and
+Porto Rico, made them an object of American concern as early as 1867,
+when a treaty of purchase was negotiated only to be rejected by the
+Senate of the United States. In 1902 a second arrangement was made, but
+this time it was defeated by the upper house of the Danish parliament.
+The third treaty brought an end to fifty years of bargaining and the
+Stars and Stripes were raised over St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John, and
+numerous minor islands scattered about in the neighborhood. "It would be
+suicidal," commented a New York newspaper, "for America, on the
+threshold of a great commercial expansion in South America, to suffer a
+Heligoland, or a Gibraltar, or an Aden to be erected by her rivals at
+the mouth of her Suez." On the mainland American power was strengthened
+by the establishment of a protectorate over Nicaragua in 1916.
+
+=Mexican Relations.=--The extension of American enterprise southward
+into Latin America, of which the operations in the Caribbean regions
+were merely one phase, naturally carried Americans into Mexico to
+develop the natural resources of that country. Under the iron rule of
+General Porfirio Diaz, established in 1876 and maintained with only a
+short break until 1911, Mexico had become increasingly attractive to our
+business men. On the invitation of President Diaz, they had invested
+huge sums in Mexican lands, oil fields, and mines, and had laid the
+foundations of a new industrial order. The severe régime instituted by
+Diaz, however, stirred popular discontent. The peons, or serfs, demanded
+the break-up of the great estates, some of which had come down from the
+days of Cortez. Their clamor for "the restoration of the land to the
+people could not be silenced." In 1911 Diaz was forced to resign and
+left the country.
+
+Mexico now slid down the path to disorder. Revolutions and civil
+commotions followed in swift succession. A liberal president, Madero,
+installed as the successor to Diaz, was deposed in 1913 and brutally
+murdered. Huerta, a military adventurer, hailed for a time as another
+"strong man," succeeded Madero whose murder he was accused of
+instigating. Although Great Britain and nearly all the powers of Europe
+accepted the new government as lawful, the United States steadily
+withheld recognition. In the meantime Mexico was torn by insurrections
+under the leadership of Carranza, a friend of Madero, Villa, a bandit of
+generous pretensions, and Zapata, a radical leader of the peons. Without
+the support of the United States, Huerta was doomed.
+
+In the summer of 1914, the dictator resigned and fled from the capital,
+leaving the field to Carranza. For six years the new president,
+recognized by the United States, held a precarious position which he
+vigorously strove to strengthen against various revolutionary movements.
+At length in 1920, he too was deposed and murdered, and another military
+chieftain, Obregon, installed in power.
+
+These events right at our door could not fail to involve the government
+of the United States. In the disorders many American citizens lost their
+lives. American property was destroyed and land owned by Americans was
+confiscated. A new Mexican constitution, in effect nationalizing the
+natural resources of the country, struck at the rights of foreign
+investors. Moreover the Mexican border was in constant turmoil. Even in
+the last days of his administration, Mr. Taft felt compelled to issue a
+solemn warning to the Mexican government protesting against the
+violation of American rights.
+
+President Wilson, soon after his inauguration, sent a commissioner to
+Mexico to inquire into the situation. Although he declared a general
+policy of "watchful waiting," he twice came to blows with Mexican
+forces. In 1914 some American sailors at Tampico were arrested by a
+Mexican officer; the Mexican government, although it immediately
+released the men, refused to make the required apology for the incident.
+As a result President Wilson ordered the landing of American forces at
+Vera Cruz and the occupation of the city. A clash of arms followed in
+which several Americans were killed. War seemed inevitable, but at this
+juncture the governments of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile tendered their
+good offices as mediators. After a few weeks of negotiation, during
+which Huerta was forced out of power, American forces were withdrawn
+from Vera Cruz and the incident closed.
+
+In 1916 a second break in amicable relations occurred. In the spring of
+that year a band of Villa's men raided the town of Columbus, New Mexico,
+killing several citizens and committing robberies. A punitive expedition
+under the command of General Pershing was quickly sent out to capture
+the offenders. Against the protests of President Carranza, American
+forces penetrated deeply into Mexico without effecting the object of
+the undertaking. This operation lasted until January, 1917, when the
+imminence of war with Germany led to the withdrawal of the American
+soldiers. Friendly relations were resumed with the Mexican government
+and the policy of "watchful waiting" was continued.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES AND THE EUROPEAN WAR
+
+=The Outbreak of the War.=--In the opening days of August, 1914, the
+age-long jealousies of European nations, sharpened by new imperial
+ambitions, broke out in another general conflict such as had shaken the
+world in the days of Napoleon. On June 28, the heir to the
+Austro-Hungarian throne was assassinated at Serajevo, the capital of
+Bosnia, an Austrian province occupied mainly by Serbs. With a view to
+stopping Serbian agitation for independence, Austria-Hungary laid the
+blame for this incident on the government of Serbia and made humiliating
+demands on that country. Germany at once proposed that the issue should
+be regarded as "an affair which should be settled solely between
+Austria-Hungary and Serbia"; meaning that the small nation should be
+left to the tender mercies of a great power. Russia refused to take this
+view. Great Britain proposed a settlement by mediation. Germany backed
+up Austria to the limit. To use the language of the German authorities:
+"We were perfectly aware that a possible warlike attitude of
+Austria-Hungary against Serbia might bring Russia upon the field and
+that it might therefore involve us in a war, in accordance with our
+duties as allies. We could not, however, in these vital interests of
+Austria-Hungary which were at stake, advise our ally to take a yielding
+attitude not compatible with his dignity nor deny him our assistance."
+That made the war inevitable.
+
+Every day of the fateful August, 1914, was crowded with momentous
+events. On the 1st, Germany declared war on Russia. On the 2d, the
+Germans invaded the little duchy of Luxemburg and notified the King of
+Belgium that they were preparing to violate the neutrality of his realm
+on their way to Paris. On the same day, Great Britain, anxiously
+besought by the French government, promised the aid of the British navy
+if German warships made hostile demonstrations in the Channel. August
+3d, the German government declared war on France. The following day,
+Great Britain demanded of Germany respect for Belgian neutrality and,
+failing to receive the guarantee, broke off diplomatic relations. On the
+5th, the British prime minister announced that war had opened between
+England and Germany. The storm now broke in all its pitiless fury.
+
+=The State of American Opinion.=--Although President Wilson promptly
+proclaimed the neutrality of the United States, the sympathies of a
+large majority of the American people were without doubt on the side of
+Great Britain and France. To them the invasion of the little kingdom of
+Belgium and the horrors that accompanied German occupation were odious
+in the extreme. Moreover, they regarded the German imperial government
+as an autocratic power wielded in the interest of an ambitious military
+party. The Kaiser, William II, and the Crown Prince were the symbols of
+royal arrogance. On the other hand, many Americans of German descent, in
+memory of their ties with the Fatherland, openly sympathized with the
+Central Powers; and many Americans of Irish descent, recalling their
+long and bitter struggle for home rule in Ireland, would have regarded
+British defeat as a merited redress of ancient grievances.
+
+Extremely sensitive to American opinion, but ill informed about it, the
+German government soon began systematic efforts to present its cause to
+the people of the United States in the most favorable light possible.
+Dr. Bernhard Dernburg, the former colonial secretary of the German
+empire, was sent to America as a special agent. For months he filled the
+newspapers, magazines, and periodicals with interviews, articles, and
+notes on the justice of the Teutonic cause. From a press bureau in New
+York flowed a stream of pamphlets, leaflets, and cartoons. A magazine,
+"The Fatherland," was founded to secure "fair play for Germany and
+Austria." Several professors in American universities, who had received
+their training in Germany, took up the pen in defense of the Central
+Empires. The German language press, without exception it seems, the
+National German Alliance, minor German societies, and Lutheran churches
+came to the support of the German cause. Even the English language
+papers, though generally favorable to the Entente Allies, opened their
+columns in the interest of equal justice to the spokesmen for all the
+contending powers of Europe.
+
+Before two weeks had elapsed the controversy had become so intense that
+President Wilson (August 18, 1914) was moved to caution his countrymen
+against falling into angry disputes. "Every man," he said, "who really
+loves America will act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality which
+is the spirit of impartiality and fairness and friendliness to all
+concerned.... We must be impartial in thought as well as in action, must
+put a curb upon our sentiments as well as upon every transaction that
+might be construed as a preference of one party to the struggle before
+another."
+
+=The Clash over American Trade.=--As in the time of the Napoleonic wars,
+the conflict in Europe raised fundamental questions respecting rights of
+Americans trading with countries at peace as well as those at war. On
+this point there existed on August 1, 1914, a fairly definite body of
+principles by which nations were bound. Among them the following were of
+vital significance. In the first place, it was recognized that an enemy
+merchant ship caught on the high seas was a legitimate prize of war
+which might be seized and confiscated. In the second place, it was
+agreed that "contraband of war" found on an enemy or neutral ship was a
+lawful prize; any ship suspected of carrying it was liable to search and
+if caught with forbidden goods was subject to seizure. In the third
+place, international law prescribed that a peaceful merchant ship,
+whether belonging to an enemy or to a neutral country, should not be
+destroyed or sunk without provision for the safety of crew and
+passengers. In the fourth place, it was understood that a belligerent
+had the right, if it could, to blockade the ports of an enemy and
+prevent the ingress and egress of all ships; but such a blockade, to be
+lawful, had to be effective.
+
+These general principles left undetermined two important matters: "What
+is an effective blockade?" and "What is contraband of war?" The task of
+answering these questions fell to Great Britain as mistress of the seas.
+Although the German submarines made it impossible for her battleships to
+maintain a continuous patrol of the waters in front of blockaded ports,
+she declared the blockade to be none the less "effective" because her
+navy was supreme. As to contraband of war Great Britain put such a broad
+interpretation upon the term as to include nearly every important
+article of commerce. Early in 1915 she declared even cargoes of grain
+and flour to be contraband, defending the action on the ground that the
+German government had recently taken possession of all domestic stocks
+of corn, wheat, and flour.
+
+A new question arose in connection with American trade with the neutral
+countries surrounding Germany. Great Britain early began to intercept
+ships carrying oil, gasoline, and copper--all war materials of prime
+importance--on the ground that they either were destined ultimately to
+Germany or would release goods for sale to Germans. On November 2, 1914,
+the English government announced that the Germans wore sowing mines in
+open waters and that therefore the whole of the North Sea was a military
+zone. Ships bound for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were ordered to come
+by the English Channel for inspection and sailing directions. In effect,
+Americans were now licensed by Great Britain to trade in certain
+commodities and in certain amounts with neutral countries.
+
+Against these extraordinary measures, the State Department at Washington
+lodged pointed objections, saying: "This government is reluctantly
+forced to the conclusion that the present policy of His Majesty's
+government toward neutral ships and cargoes exceeds the manifest
+necessity of a belligerent and constitutes restrictions upon the rights
+of American citizens on the high seas, which are not justified by the
+rules of international law or required under the principle of
+self-preservation."
+
+=Germany Begins the Submarine Campaign.=--Germany now announced that, on
+and after February 18, 1915, the whole of the English Channel and the
+waters around Great Britain would be deemed a war zone and that every
+enemy ship found therein would be destroyed. The German decree added
+that, as the British admiralty had ordered the use of neutral flags by
+English ships in time of distress, neutral vessels would be in danger of
+destruction if found in the forbidden area. It was clear that Germany
+intended to employ submarines to destroy shipping. A new factor was thus
+introduced into naval warfare, one not provided for in the accepted laws
+of war. A warship overhauling a merchant vessel could easily take its
+crew and passengers on board for safe keeping as prescribed by
+international law; but a submarine ordinarily could do nothing of the
+sort. Of necessity the lives and the ships of neutrals, as well as of
+belligerents, were put in mortal peril. This amazing conduct Germany
+justified on the ground that it was mere retaliation against Great
+Britain for her violations of international law.
+
+The response of the United States to the ominous German order was swift
+and direct. On February 10, 1915, it warned Germany that if her
+commanders destroyed American lives and ships in obedience to that
+decree, the action would "be very hard indeed to reconcile with the
+friendly relations happily subsisting between the two governments." The
+American note added that the German imperial government would be held to
+"strict accountability" and all necessary steps would be taken to
+safeguard American lives and American rights. This was firm and clear
+language, but the only response which it evoked from Germany was a
+suggestion that, if Great Britain would allow food supplies to pass
+through the blockade, the submarine campaign would be dropped.
+
+=Violations of American Rights.=--Meanwhile Germany continued to ravage
+shipping on the high seas. On January 28, a German raider sank the
+American ship, _William P. Frye_, in the South Atlantic; on March 28, a
+British ship, the _Falaba_, was sunk by a submarine and many on board,
+including an American citizen, were killed; and on April 28, a German
+airplane dropped bombs on the American steamer _Cushing_. On the morning
+of May 1, 1915, Americans were astounded to see in the newspapers an
+advertisement, signed by the German Imperial Embassy, warning travelers
+of the dangers in the war zone and notifying them that any who ventured
+on British ships into that area did so at their own risk. On that day,
+the _Lusitania_, a British steamer, sailed from New York for Liverpool.
+On May 7, without warning, the ship was struck by two torpedoes and in a
+few minutes went down by the bow, carrying to death 1153 persons
+including 114 American men, women, and children. A cry of horror ran
+through the country. The German papers in America and a few American
+people argued that American citizens had been duly warned of the danger
+and had deliberately taken their lives into their own hands; but the
+terrible deed was almost universally condemned by public opinion.
+
+=The _Lusitania_ Notes.=--On May 14, the Department of State at
+Washington made public the first of three famous notes on the
+_Lusitania_ case. It solemnly informed the German government that "no
+warning that an unlawful and inhumane act will be committed can possibly
+be accepted as an excuse or palliation for that act or as an abatement
+of the responsibility for its commission." It called upon the German
+government to disavow the act, make reparation as far as possible, and
+take steps to prevent "the recurrence of anything so obviously
+subversive of the principles of warfare." The note closed with a clear
+caution to Germany that the government of the United States would not
+"omit any word or any act necessary to the performance of its sacred
+duty of maintaining the rights of the United States and its citizens and
+of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment." The die was cast;
+but Germany in reply merely temporized.
+
+In a second note, made public on June 11, the position of the United
+States was again affirmed. William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of
+State, had resigned because the drift of President Wilson's policy was
+not toward mediation but the strict maintenance of American rights, if
+need be, by force of arms. The German reply was still evasive and German
+naval commanders continued their course of sinking merchant ships. In a
+third and final note of July 21, 1915, President Wilson made it clear to
+Germany that he meant what he said when he wrote that he would maintain
+the rights of American citizens. Finally after much discussion and
+shifting about, the German ambassador on September 1, 1915, sent a brief
+note to the Secretary of State: "Liners will not be sunk by our
+submarines without warning and without safety of the lives of
+non-combatants, provided the liners do not try to escape or offer
+resistance." Editorially, the New York _Times_ declared: "It is a
+triumph not only of diplomacy but of reason, of humanity, of justice,
+and of truth." The Secretary of State saw in it "a recognition of the
+fundamental principles for which we have contended."
+
+=The Presidential Election of 1916.=--In the midst of this crisis came
+the presidential campaign. On the Republican side everything seemed to
+depend upon the action of the Progressives. If the breach created in
+1912 could be closed, victory was possible; if not, defeat was certain.
+A promise of unity lay in the fact that the conventions of the
+Republicans and Progressives were held simultaneously in Chicago. The
+friends of Roosevelt hoped that both parties would select him as their
+candidate; but this hope was not realized. The Republicans chose, and
+the Progressives accepted, Charles E. Hughes, an associate justice of
+the federal Supreme Court who, as governor of New York, had won a
+national reputation by waging war on "machine politicians."
+
+In the face of the clamor for expressions of sympathy with one or the
+other of the contending powers of Europe, the Republicans chose a middle
+course, declaring that they would uphold all American rights "at home
+and abroad, by land and by sea." This sentiment Mr. Hughes echoed in his
+acceptance speech. By some it was interpreted to mean a firmer policy in
+dealing with Great Britain; by others, a more vigorous handling of the
+submarine menace. The Democrats, on their side, renominated President
+Wilson by acclamation, reviewed with pride the legislative achievements
+of the party, and commended "the splendid diplomatic victories of our
+great President who has preserved the vital interests of our government
+and its citizens and kept us out of war."
+
+In the election which ensued President Wilson's popular vote exceeded
+that cast for Mr. Hughes by more than half a million, while his
+electoral vote stood 277 to 254. The result was regarded, and not
+without warrant, as a great personal triumph for the President. He had
+received the largest vote yet cast for a presidential candidate. The
+Progressive party practically disappeared, and the Socialists suffered a
+severe set-back, falling far behind the vote of 1912.
+
+=President Wilson Urges Peace upon the Warring Nations.=--Apparently
+convinced that his pacific policies had been profoundly approved by his
+countrymen, President Wilson, soon after the election, addressed "peace
+notes" to the European belligerents. On December 16, the German Emperor
+proposed to the Allied Powers that they enter into peace negotiations, a
+suggestion that was treated as a mere political maneuver by the opposing
+governments. Two days later President Wilson sent a note to the warring
+nations asking them to avow "the terms upon which war might be
+concluded." To these notes the Central Powers replied that they were
+ready to meet their antagonists in a peace conference; and Allied Powers
+answered by presenting certain conditions precedent to a satisfactory
+settlement. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson in an address before
+the Senate, declared it to be a duty of the United States to take part
+in the establishment of a stable peace on the basis of certain
+principles. These were, in short: "peace without victory"; the right of
+nationalities to freedom and self-government; the independence of
+Poland; freedom of the seas; the reduction of armaments; and the
+abolition of entangling alliances. The whole world was discussing the
+President's remarkable message, when it was dumbfounded to hear, on
+January 31, that the German ambassador at Washington had announced the
+official renewal of ruthless submarine warfare.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES AT WAR
+
+=Steps toward War.=--Three days after the receipt of the news that the
+German government intended to return to its former submarine policy,
+President Wilson severed diplomatic relations with the German empire. At
+the same time he explained to Congress that he desired no conflict with
+Germany and would await an "overt act" before taking further steps to
+preserve American rights. "God grant," he concluded, "that we may not be
+challenged to defend them by acts of willful injustice on the part of
+the government of Germany." Yet the challenge came. Between February 26
+and April 2, six American merchant vessels were torpedoed, in most cases
+without any warning and without regard to the loss of American lives.
+President Wilson therefore called upon Congress to answer the German
+menace. The reply of Congress on April 6 was a resolution, passed with
+only a few dissenting votes, declaring the existence of a state of war
+with Germany. Austria-Hungary at once severed diplomatic relations with
+the United States; but it was not until December 7 that Congress, acting
+on the President's advice, declared war also on that "vassal of the
+German government."
+
+=American War Aims.=--In many addresses at the beginning and during the
+course of the war, President Wilson stated the purposes which actuated
+our government in taking up arms. He first made it clear that it was a
+war of self-defense. "The military masters of Germany," he exclaimed,
+"denied us the right to be neutral." Proof of that lay on every hand.
+Agents of the German imperial government had destroyed American lives
+and American property on the high seas. They had filled our communities
+with spies. They had planted bombs in ships and munition works. They had
+fomented divisions among American citizens.
+
+Though assailed in many ways and compelled to resort to war, the United
+States sought no material rewards. "The world must be made safe for
+democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of
+political liberty. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no
+conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves."
+
+In a very remarkable message read to Congress on January 8, 1918,
+President Wilson laid down his famous "fourteen points" summarizing the
+ideals for which we were fighting. They included open treaties of peace,
+openly arrived at; absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas; the
+removal, as far as possible, of trade barriers among nations; reduction
+of armaments; adjustment of colonial claims in the interest of the
+populations concerned; fair and friendly treatment of Russia; the
+restoration of Belgium; righting the wrong done to France in 1871 in the
+matter of Alsace-Lorraine; adjustment of Italian frontiers along the
+lines of nationality; more liberty for the peoples of Austria-Hungary;
+the restoration of Serbia and Rumania; the readjustment of the Turkish
+Empire; an independent Poland; and an association of nations to afford
+mutual guarantees to all states great and small. On a later occasion
+President Wilson elaborated the last point, namely, the formation of a
+league of nations to guarantee peace and establish justice among the
+powers of the world. Democracy, the right of nations to determine their
+own fate, a covenant of enduring peace--these were the ideals for which
+the American people were to pour out their blood and treasure.
+
+=The Selective Draft.=--The World War became a war of nations. The
+powers against which we were arrayed had every able-bodied man in
+service and all their resources, human and material, thrown into the
+scale. For this reason, President Wilson summoned the whole people of
+the United States to make every sacrifice necessary for victory.
+Congress by law decreed that the national army should be chosen from all
+male citizens and males not enemy aliens who had declared their
+intention of becoming citizens. By the first act of May 18, 1917, it
+fixed the age limits at twenty-one to thirty-one inclusive. Later, in
+August, 1918, it extended them to eighteen and forty-five. From the men
+of the first group so enrolled were chosen by lot the soldiers for the
+World War who, with the regular army and the national guard, formed the
+American Expeditionary Force upholding the American cause on the
+battlefields of Europe. "The whole nation," said the President, "must be
+a team in which each man shall play the part for which he is best
+fitted."
+
+=Liberty Loans and Taxes.=--In order that the military and naval forces
+should be stinted in no respect, the nation was called upon to place its
+financial resources at the service of the government. Some urged the
+"conscription of wealth as well as men," meaning the support of the war
+out of taxes upon great fortunes; but more conservative counsels
+prevailed. Four great Liberty Loans were floated, all the agencies of
+modern publicity being employed to enlist popular interest. The first
+loan had four and a half million subscribers; the fourth more than
+twenty million. Combined with loans were heavy taxes. A progressive tax
+was laid upon incomes beginning with four per cent on incomes in the
+lower ranges and rising to sixty-three per cent of that part of any
+income above $2,000,000. A progressive tax was levied upon inheritances.
+An excess profits tax was laid upon all corporations and partnerships,
+rising in amount to sixty per cent of the net income in excess of
+thirty-three per cent on the invested capital. "This," said a
+distinguished economist, "is the high-water mark in the history of
+taxation. Never before in the annals of civilization has an attempt been
+made to take as much as two-thirds of a man's income by taxation."
+
+=Mobilizing Material Resources.=--No stone was left unturned to provide
+the arms, munitions, supplies, and transportation required in the
+gigantic undertaking. Between the declaration of war and the armistice,
+Congress enacted law after law relative to food supplies, raw materials,
+railways, mines, ships, forests, and industrial enterprises. No power
+over the lives and property of citizens, deemed necessary to the
+prosecution of the armed conflict, was withheld from the government. The
+farmer's wheat, the housewife's sugar, coal at the mines, labor in the
+factories, ships at the wharves, trade with friendly countries, the
+railways, banks, stores, private fortunes--all were mobilized and laid
+under whatever obligations the government deemed imperative. Never was a
+nation more completely devoted to a single cause.
+
+A law of August 10, 1917, gave the President power to fix the prices of
+wheat and coal and to take almost any steps necessary to prevent
+monopoly and excessive prices. By a series of measures, enlarging the
+principles of the shipping act of 1916, ships and shipyards were brought
+under public control and the government was empowered to embark upon a
+great ship-building program. In December, 1917, the government assumed
+for the period of the war the operation of the railways under a
+presidential proclamation which was elaborated in March, 1918, by act of
+Congress. In the summer of 1918 the express, telephone, and telegraph
+business of the entire country passed under government control. By war
+risk insurance acts allowances were made for the families of enlisted
+men, compensation for injuries was provided, death benefits were
+instituted, and a system of national insurance was established in the
+interest of the men in service. Never before in the history of the
+country had the government taken such a wise and humane view of its
+obligations to those who served on the field of battle or on the seas.
+
+=The Espionage and Sedition Acts.=--By the Espionage law of June 15,
+1917, and the amending law, known as the Sedition act, passed in May of
+the following year, the government was given a drastic power over the
+expression of opinion. The first measure penalized those who conveyed
+information to a foreign country to be used to the injury of the United
+States; those who made false statements designed to interfere with the
+military or naval forces of the United States; those who attempted to
+stir up insubordination or disloyalty in the army and navy; and those
+who willfully obstructed enlistment. The Sedition act was still more
+severe and sweeping in its terms. It imposed heavy penalties upon any
+person who used "abusive language about the government or institutions
+of the country." It authorized the dismissal of any officer of the
+government who committed "disloyal acts" or uttered "disloyal language,"
+and empowered the Postmaster General to close the mails to persons
+violating the law. This measure, prepared by the Department of Justice,
+encountered vigorous opposition in the Senate, where twenty-four
+Republicans and two Democrats voted against it. Senator Johnson of
+California denounced it as a law "to suppress the freedom of the press
+in the United States and to prevent any man, no matter who he is, from
+expressing legitimate criticism concerning the present government." The
+constitutionality of the acts was attacked; but they were sustained by
+the Supreme Court and stringently enforced.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+THE LAUNCHING OF A SHIP AT THE GREAT NAVAL YARDS, NEWARK, N.J.]
+
+=Labor and the War.=--In view of the restlessness of European labor
+during the war and especially the proletarian revolution in Russia in
+November, 1917, some anxiety was early expressed as to the stand which
+organized labor might take in the United States. It was, however, soon
+dispelled. Samuel Gompers, speaking for the American Federation of
+Labor, declared that "this is labor's war," and pledged the united
+support of all the unions. There was some dissent. The Socialist party
+denounced the war as a capitalist quarrel; but all the protests combined
+were too slight to have much effect. American labor leaders were sent to
+Europe to strengthen the wavering ranks of trade unionists in war-worn
+England, France, and Italy. Labor was given representation on the
+important boards and commissions dealing with industrial questions.
+Trade union standards were accepted by the government and generally
+applied in industry. The Department of Labor became one of the powerful
+war centers of the nation. In a memorable address to the American
+Federation of Labor, President Wilson assured the trade unionists that
+labor conditions should not be made unduly onerous by the war and
+received in return a pledge of loyalty from the Federation. Recognition
+of labor's contribution to winning the war was embodied in the treaty of
+peace, which provided for a permanent international organization to
+promote the world-wide effort of labor to improve social conditions.
+"The league of nations has for its object the establishment of universal
+peace," runs the preamble to the labor section of the treaty, "and such
+a peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice....
+The failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of labor is an
+obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve the
+conditions in their own countries."
+
+=The American Navy in the War.=--As soon as Congress declared war the
+fleet was mobilized, American ports were thrown open to the warships of
+the Allies, immediate provision was made for increasing the number of
+men and ships, and a contingent of war vessels was sent to coöperate
+with the British and French in their life-and-death contest with
+submarines. Special effort was made to stimulate the production of
+"submarine chasers" and "scout cruisers" to be sent to the danger zone.
+Convoys were provided to accompany the transports conveying soldiers to
+France. Before the end of the war more than three hundred American
+vessels and 75,000 officers and men were operating in European waters.
+Though the German fleet failed to come out and challenge the sea power
+of the Allies, the battleships of the United States were always ready to
+do their full duty in such an event. As things turned out, the service
+of the American navy was limited mainly to helping in the campaign that
+wore down the submarine menace to Allied shipping.
+
+=The War in France.=--Owing to the peculiar character of the warfare in
+France, it required a longer time for American military forces to get
+into action; but there was no unnecessary delay. Soon after the
+declaration of war, steps were taken to give military assistance to the
+Allies. The regular army was enlarged and the troops of the national
+guard were brought into national service. On June 13, General John J.
+Pershing, chosen head of the American Expeditionary Forces, reached
+Paris and began preparations for the arrival of our troops. In June, the
+vanguard of the army reached France. A slow and steady stream followed.
+As soon as the men enrolled under the draft were ready, it became a
+flood. During the period of the war the army was enlarged from about
+190,000 men to 3,665,000, of whom more than 2,000,000 were in France
+when the armistice was signed.
+
+Although American troops did not take part on a large scale until the
+last phase of the war in 1918, several battalions of infantry were in
+the trenches by October, 1917, and had their first severe encounter with
+the Germans early in November. In January, 1918, they took over a part
+of the front line as an American sector. In March, General Pershing
+placed our forces at the disposal of General Foch, commander-in-chief of
+the Allied armies. The first division, which entered the Montdidier
+salient in April, soon was engaged with the enemy, "taking with splendid
+dash the town of Cantigny and all other objectives, which were organized
+and held steadfastly against vicious counter attacks and galling
+artillery fire."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+TROOPS RETURNING FROM FRANCE]
+
+When the Germans launched their grand drives toward the Marne and Paris,
+in June and July, 1918, every available man was placed at General Foch's
+command. At Belleau Wood, at Château-Thierry, and other points along the
+deep salient made by the Germans into the French lines, American
+soldiers distinguished themselves by heroic action. They also played an
+important rôle in the counter attack that "smashed" the salient and
+drove the Germans back.
+
+In September, American troops, with French aid, "wiped out" the German
+salient at St. Mihiel. By this time General Pershing was ready for the
+great American drive to the northeast in the Argonne forest, while he
+also coöperated with the British in the assault on the Hindenburg line.
+In the Meuse-Argonne battle, our soldiers encountered some of the most
+severe fighting of the war and pressed forward steadily against the most
+stubborn resistance from the enemy. On the 6th of November, reported
+General Pershing, "a division of the first corps reached a point on the
+Meuse opposite Sedan, twenty-five miles from our line of departure. The
+strategical goal which was our highest hope was gained. We had cut the
+enemy's main line of communications and nothing but a surrender or an
+armistice could save his army from complete disaster." Five days later
+the end came. On the morning of November 11, the order to cease firing
+went into effect. The German army was in rapid retreat and
+demoralization had begun. The Kaiser had abdicated and fled into
+Holland. The Hohenzollern dreams of empire were shattered. In the
+fifty-second month, the World War, involving nearly every civilized
+nation on the globe, was brought to a close. More than 75,000 American
+soldiers and sailors had given their lives. More than 250,000 had been
+wounded or were missing or in German prison camps.
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN BATTLE LINES OF THE VARIOUS YEARS OF THE
+WORLD WAR]
+
+
+THE SETTLEMENT AT PARIS
+
+=The Peace Conference.=--On January 18, 1919, a conference of the Allied
+and Associated Powers assembled to pronounce judgment upon the German
+empire and its defeated satellites: Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and
+Turkey. It was a moving spectacle. Seventy-two delegates spoke for
+thirty-two states. The United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and
+Japan had five delegates each. Belgium, Brazil, and Serbia were each
+assigned three. Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, China, Greece,
+Hedjaz, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Siam, and Czechoslovakia were
+allotted two apiece. The remaining states of New Zealand, Bolivia, Cuba,
+Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru,
+and Uruguay each had one delegate. President Wilson spoke in person for
+the United States. England, France, and Italy were represented by their
+premiers: David Lloyd George, Georges Clémenceau, and Vittorio Orlando.
+
+[Illustration: PREMIERS LLOYD GEORGE, ORLANDO AND CLÉMENCEAU AND
+PRESIDENT WILSON AT PARIS]
+
+=The Supreme Council.=--The real work of the settlement was first
+committed to a Supreme Council of ten representing the United States,
+Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. This was later reduced to five
+members. Then Japan dropped out and finally Italy, leaving only
+President Wilson and the Premiers, Lloyd George and Clémenceau, the
+"Big Three," who assumed the burden of mighty decisions. On May 6, their
+work was completed and in a secret session of the full conference the
+whole treaty of peace was approved, though a few of the powers made
+reservations or objections. The next day the treaty was presented to the
+Germans who, after prolonged protests, signed on the last day of grace,
+June 28. This German treaty was followed by agreements with Austria,
+Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Collectively these great documents formed
+the legal basis of the general European settlement.
+
+=The Terms of the Settlement.=--The combined treaties make a huge
+volume. The German treaty alone embraces about 80,000 words.
+Collectively they cover an immense range of subjects which may be
+summarized under five heads: (1) The territorial settlement in Europe;
+(2) the destruction of German military power; (3) reparations for
+damages done by Germany and her allies; (4) the disposition of German
+colonies and protectorates; and (5) the League of Nations.
+
+Germany was reduced by the cession of Alsace-Lorraine to France and the
+loss of several other provinces. Austria-Hungary was dissolved and
+dismembered. Russia was reduced by the creation of new states on the
+west. Bulgaria was stripped of her gains in the recent Balkan wars.
+Turkey was dismembered. Nine new independent states were created:
+Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Esthonia, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia,
+Armenia, and Hedjaz. Italy, Greece, Rumania, and Serbia were enlarged by
+cessions of territory and Serbia was transformed into the great state of
+Jugoslavia.
+
+The destruction of German military power was thorough. The entire navy,
+with minor exceptions, was turned over to the Allied and Associated
+Powers; Germany's total equipment for the future was limited to six
+battleships and six light cruisers, with certain small vessels but no
+submarines. The number of enlisted men and officers for the army was
+fixed at not more than 100,000; the General Staff was dissolved; and the
+manufacture of munitions restricted.
+
+Germany was compelled to accept full responsibility for all damages; to
+pay five billion dollars in cash and goods, and to make certain other
+payments which might be ordered from time to time by an inter-allied
+reparations commission. She was also required to deliver to Belgium,
+France, and Italy, millions of tons of coal every year for ten years;
+while by way of additional compensation to France the rich coal basin of
+the Saar was placed under inter-allied control to be exploited under
+French administration for a period of at least fifteen years. Austria
+and the other associates of Germany were also laid under heavy
+obligations to the victors. Damages done to shipping by submarines and
+other vessels were to be paid for on the basis of ton for ton.
+
+The disposition of the German colonies and the old Ottoman empire
+presented knotty problems. It was finally agreed that the German
+colonies and Turkish provinces which were in a backward stage of
+development should be placed under the tutelage of certain powers acting
+as "mandatories" holding them in "a sacred trust of civilization." An
+exception to the mandatory principle arose in the case of German rights
+in Shantung, all of which were transferred directly to Japan. It was
+this arrangement that led the Chinese delegation to withhold their
+signatures from the treaty.
+
+=The League of Nations.=--High among the purposes which he had in mind
+in summoning the nation to arms, President Wilson placed the desire to
+put an end to war. All through the United States the people spoke of the
+"war to end war." No slogan called forth a deeper response from the
+public. The President himself repeatedly declared that a general
+association of nations must be formed to guard the peace and protect all
+against the ambitions of the few. "As I see it," he said in his address
+on opening the Fourth Liberty Loan campaign, "the constitution of the
+League of Nations and the clear definition of its objects must be a
+part, in a sense the most essential part, of the peace settlement
+itself."
+
+Nothing was more natural, therefore, than Wilson's insistence at Paris
+upon the formation of an international association. Indeed he had gone
+to Europe in person largely to accomplish that end. Part One of the
+treaty with Germany, the Covenant of the League of Nations, was due to
+his labors more than to any other influence. Within the League thus
+created were to be embraced all the Allied and Associated Powers and
+nearly all the neutrals. By a two-thirds vote of the League Assembly the
+excluded nations might be admitted.
+
+The agencies of the League of Nations were to be three in number: (1) a
+permanent secretariat located at Geneva; (2) an Assembly consisting of
+one delegate from each country, dominion, or self-governing colony
+(including Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and India); (3)
+and a Council consisting of representatives of the United States, Great
+Britain, France, Italy, and Japan, and four other representatives
+selected by the Assembly from time to time.
+
+The duties imposed on the League and the obligations accepted by its
+members were numerous and important. The Council was to take steps to
+formulate a scheme for the reduction of armaments and to submit a plan
+for the establishment of a permanent Court of International Justice. The
+members of the League (Article X) were to respect and preserve as
+against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing
+political independence of all the associated nations. They were to
+submit to arbitration or inquiry by the Council all disputes which could
+not be adjusted by diplomacy and in no case to resort to war until three
+months after the award. Should any member disregard its covenants, its
+action would be considered an act of war against the League, which would
+accordingly cut off the trade and business of the hostile member and
+recommend through the Council to the several associated governments the
+military measures to be taken. In case the decision in any arbitration
+of a dispute was unanimous, the members of the League affected by it
+were to abide by it.
+
+Such was the settlement at Paris and such was the association of nations
+formed to promote the peace of the world. They were quickly approved by
+most of the powers, and the first Assembly of the League of Nations met
+at Geneva late in 1920.
+
+=The Treaty in the United States.=--When the treaty was presented to the
+United States Senate for approval, a violent opposition appeared. In
+that chamber the Republicans had a slight majority and a two-thirds vote
+was necessary for ratification. The sentiment for and against the treaty
+ran mainly along party lines; but the Republicans were themselves
+divided. The major portion, known as "reservationists," favored
+ratification with certain conditions respecting American rights; while a
+small though active minority rejected the League of Nations in its
+entirety, announcing themselves to be "irreconcilables." The grounds of
+this Republican opposition lay partly in the terms of peace imposed on
+Germany and partly in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Exception
+was taken to the clauses which affected the rights of American citizens
+in property involved in the adjustment with Germany, but the burden of
+criticism was directed against the League. Article X guaranteeing
+against external aggression the political independence and territorial
+integrity of the members of the League was subjected to a specially
+heavy fire; while the treatment accorded to China and the sections
+affecting American internal affairs were likewise attacked as "unjust
+and dangerous." As an outcome of their deliberations, the Republicans
+proposed a long list of reservations which touched upon many of the
+vital parts of the treaty. These were rejected by President Wilson as
+amounting in effect to a "nullification of the treaty." As a deadlock
+ensued the treaty was definitely rejected, owing to the failure of its
+sponsors to secure the requisite two-thirds vote.
+
+[Illustration: EUROPE]
+
+=The League of Nations in the Campaign of 1920.=--At this juncture the
+presidential campaign of 1920 opened. The Republicans, while condemning
+the terms of the proposed League, endorsed the general idea of an
+international agreement to prevent war. Their candidate, Senator
+Warren G. Harding of Ohio, maintained a similar position without saying
+definitely whether the League devised at Paris could be recast in such a
+manner as to meet his requirements. The Democrats, on the other hand,
+while not opposing limitations clarifying the obligations of the United
+States, demanded "the immediate ratification of the treaty without
+reservations which would impair its essential integrity." The Democratic
+candidate, Governor James M. Cox, of Ohio, announced his firm conviction
+that the United States should "go into the League," without closing the
+door to mild reservations; he appealed to the country largely on that
+issue. The election of Senator Harding, in an extraordinary "landslide,"
+coupled with the return of a majority of Republicans to the Senate, made
+uncertain American participation in the League of Nations.
+
+=The United States and International Entanglements.=--Whether America
+entered the League or not, it could not close its doors to the world and
+escape perplexing international complications. It had ever-increasing
+financial and commercial connections with all other countries. Our
+associates in the recent war were heavily indebted to our government.
+The prosperity of American industries depended to a considerable extent
+upon the recovery of the impoverished and battle-torn countries of
+Europe.
+
+There were other complications no less specific. The United States was
+compelled by force of circumstances to adopt a Russian policy. The
+government of the Czar had been overthrown by a liberal revolution,
+which in turn had been succeeded by an extreme, communist
+"dictatorship." The Bolsheviki, or majority faction of the socialists,
+had obtained control of the national council of peasants, workingmen,
+and soldiers, called the soviet, and inaugurated a radical régime. They
+had made peace with Germany in March, 1918. Thereupon the United States
+joined England, France, and Japan in an unofficial war upon them. After
+the general settlement at Paris in 1919, our government, while
+withdrawing troops from Siberia and Archangel, continued in its refusal
+to recognize the Bolshevists or to permit unhampered trade with them.
+President Wilson repeatedly denounced them as the enemies of
+civilization and undertook to lay down for all countries the principles
+which should govern intercourse with Russia.
+
+Further international complications were created in connection with the
+World War, wholly apart from the terms of peace or the League of
+Nations. The United States had participated in a general European
+conflict which changed the boundaries of countries, called into being
+new nations, and reduced the power and territories of the vanquished.
+Accordingly, it was bound to face the problem of how far it was prepared
+to coöperate with the victors in any settlement of Europe's
+difficulties. By no conceivable process, therefore, could America be
+disentangled from the web of world affairs. Isolation, if desirable, had
+become impossible. Within three hundred years from the founding of the
+tiny settlements at Jamestown and Plymouth, America, by virtue of its
+institutions, its population, its wealth, and its commerce, had become
+first among the nations of the earth. By moral obligations and by
+practical interests its fate was thus linked with the destiny of all
+mankind.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR
+
+The astounding industrial progress that characterized the period
+following the Civil War bequeathed to the new generation many perplexing
+problems connected with the growth of trusts and railways, the
+accumulation of great fortunes, the increase of poverty in the
+industrial cities, the exhaustion of the free land, and the acquisition
+of dominions in distant seas. As long as there was an abundance of land
+in the West any able-bodied man with initiative and industry could
+become an independent farmer. People from the cities and immigrants from
+Europe had always before them that gateway to property and prosperity.
+When the land was all gone, American economic conditions inevitably
+became more like those of Europe.
+
+Though the new economic questions had been vigorously debated in many
+circles before his day, it was President Roosevelt who first discussed
+them continuously from the White House. The natural resources of the
+country were being exhausted; he advocated their conservation. Huge
+fortunes were being made in business creating inequalities in
+opportunity; he favored reducing them by income and inheritance taxes.
+Industries were disturbed by strikes; he pressed arbitration upon
+capital and labor. The free land was gone; he declared that labor was in
+a less favorable position to bargain with capital and therefore should
+organize in unions for collective bargaining. There had been wrong-doing
+on the part of certain great trusts; those responsible should be
+punished.
+
+The spirit of reform was abroad in the land. The spoils system was
+attacked. It was alleged that the political parties were dominated by
+"rings and bosses." The United States Senate was called "a millionaires'
+club." Poverty and misery were observed in the cities. State
+legislatures and city governments were accused of corruption.
+
+In answer to the charges, remedies were proposed and adopted. Civil
+service reform was approved. The Australian ballot, popular election of
+Senators, the initiative, referendum, and recall, commission and city
+manager plans for cities, public regulation of railways, compensation
+for those injured in industries, minimum wages for women and children,
+pensions for widows, the control of housing in the cities--these and a
+hundred other reforms were adopted and tried out. The national watchword
+became: "America, Improve Thyself."
+
+The spirit of reform broke into both political parties. It appeared in
+many statutes enacted by Congress under President Taft's leadership. It
+disrupted the Republicans temporarily in 1912 when the Progressive party
+entered the field. It led the Democratic candidate in that year,
+Governor Wilson, to make a "progressive appeal" to the voters. It
+inspired a considerable program of national legislation under President
+Wilson's two administrations.
+
+In the age of change, four important amendments to the federal
+constitution, the first in more than forty years, were adopted. The
+sixteenth empowered Congress to lay an income tax. The seventeenth
+assured popular election of Senators. The eighteenth made prohibition
+national. The nineteenth, following upon the adoption of woman suffrage
+in many states, enfranchised the women of the nation.
+
+In the sphere of industry, equally great changes took place. The major
+portion of the nation's business passed into the hands of corporations.
+In all the leading industries of the country labor was organized into
+trade unions and federated in a national organization. The power of
+organized capital and organized labor loomed upon the horizon. Their
+struggles, their rights, and their place in the economy of the nation
+raised problems of the first magnitude.
+
+While the country was engaged in a heated debate upon its domestic
+issues, the World War broke out in Europe in 1914. As a hundred years
+before, American rights upon the high seas became involved at once. They
+were invaded on both sides; but Germany, in addition to assailing
+American ships and property, ruthlessly destroyed American lives. She
+set at naught the rules of civilized warfare upon the sea. Warnings from
+President Wilson were without avail. Nothing could stay the hand of the
+German war party.
+
+After long and patient negotiations, President Wilson in 1917 called
+upon the nation to take up arms against an assailant that had in effect
+declared war upon America. The answer was swift and firm. The national
+resources, human and material, were mobilized. The navy was enlarged, a
+draft army created, huge loans floated, heavy taxes laid, and the spirit
+of sacrifice called forth in a titanic struggle against an autocratic
+power that threatened to dominate Europe and the World.
+
+In the end, American financial, naval, and military assistance counted
+heavily in the scale. American sailors scoured the seas searching for
+the terrible submarines. American soldiers took part in the last great
+drives that broke the might of Germany's army. Such was the nation's
+response to the President's summons to arms in a war "for democracy" and
+"to end war."
+
+When victory crowned the arms of the powers united against Germany,
+President Wilson in person took part in the peace council. He sought to
+redeem his pledge to end wars by forming a League of Nations to keep the
+peace. In the treaty drawn at the close of the war the first part was a
+covenant binding the nations in a permanent association for the
+settlement of international disputes. This treaty, the President offered
+to the United States Senate for ratification and to his country for
+approval.
+
+Once again, as in the days of the Napoleonic wars, the people seriously
+discussed the place of America among the powers of the earth. The Senate
+refused to ratify the treaty. World politics then became an issue in the
+campaign of 1920. Though some Americans talked as if the United States
+could close its doors and windows against all mankind, the victor in the
+election, Senator Harding, of Ohio, knew better. The election returns
+were hardly announced before he began to ask the advice of his
+countrymen on the pressing theme that would not be downed: "What part
+shall America--first among the nations of the earth in wealth and
+power--assume at the council table of the world?"
+
+
+=General References=
+
+Woodrow Wilson, _The New Freedom_.
+
+C.L. Jones, _The Caribbean Interests of the United States_.
+
+H.P. Willis, _The Federal Reserve_.
+
+C.W. Barron, _The Mexican Problem_ (critical toward Mexico).
+
+L.J. de Bekker, _The Plot against Mexico_ (against American
+intervention).
+
+Theodore Roosevelt, _America and the World War_.
+
+E.E. Robinson and V.J. West, _The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson_.
+
+J.S. Bassett, _Our War with Germany_.
+
+Carlton J.H. Hayes, _A Brief History of the Great War_.
+
+J.B. McMaster, _The United States in the World War_.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=President Wilson's First Term.=--Elson, _History of the United States_,
+pp. 925-941.
+
+=The Underwood Tariff Act.=--Ogg, _National Progress_ (The American
+Nation Series), pp. 209-226.
+
+=The Federal Reserve System.=--Ogg, pp. 228-232.
+
+=Trust and Labor Legislation.=--Ogg, pp. 232-236.
+
+=Legislation Respecting the Territories.=--Ogg, pp. 236-245.
+
+=American Interests in the Caribbean.=--Ogg, pp. 246-265.
+
+=American Interests in the Pacific.=--Ogg, pp. 304-324.
+
+=Mexican Affairs.=--Haworth, pp. 388-395; Ogg, pp. 284-304.
+
+=The First Phases of the European War.=--Haworth, pp. 395-412; Ogg, pp.
+325-343.
+
+=The Campaign of 1916.=--Haworth, pp. 412-418; Ogg, pp. 364-383.
+
+=America Enters the War.=--Haworth, pp. 422-440; pp. 454-475. Ogg, pp.
+384-399; Elson, pp. 951-970.
+
+=Mobilizing the Nation.=--Haworth, pp. 441-453.
+
+=The Peace Settlement.=--Haworth, pp. 475-497; Elson, pp. 971-982.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Enumerate the chief financial measures of the Wilson administration.
+Review the history of banks and currency and give the details of the
+Federal reserve law.
+
+2. What was the Wilson policy toward trusts? Toward labor?
+
+3. Review again the theory of states' rights. How has it fared in recent
+years?
+
+4. What steps were taken in colonial policies? In the Caribbean?
+
+5. Outline American-Mexican relations under Wilson.
+
+6. How did the World War break out in Europe?
+
+7. Account for the divided state of opinion in America.
+
+8. Review the events leading up to the War of 1812. Compare them with
+the events from 1914 to 1917.
+
+9. State the leading principles of international law involved and show
+how they were violated.
+
+10. What American rights were assailed in the submarine campaign?
+
+11. Give Wilson's position on the _Lusitania_ affair.
+
+12. How did the World War affect the presidential campaign of 1916?
+
+13. How did Germany finally drive the United States into war?
+
+14. State the American war aims given by the President.
+
+15. Enumerate the measures taken by the government to win the war.
+
+16. Review the part of the navy in the war. The army.
+
+17. How were the terms of peace formulated?
+
+18. Enumerate the principal results of the war.
+
+19. Describe the League of Nations.
+
+20. Trace the fate of the treaty in American politics.
+
+21. Can there be a policy of isolation for America?
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+We the people of the United States, in order to form a more
+perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide
+for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the
+blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
+establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
+
+
+ARTICLE I
+
+SECTION 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a
+Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House
+of Representatives.
+
+
+SECTION 2. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members
+chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the
+electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for
+electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature.
+
+2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to
+the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
+United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
+State in which he shall be chosen.
+
+3. Representatives and direct taxes[3] shall be apportioned among the
+several States which may be included within this Union, according to
+their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
+whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
+term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all
+other persons.[3] The actual enumeration shall be made within three
+years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
+within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall
+by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for
+every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one
+representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of
+New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight,
+Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York
+six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six,
+Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia
+three.
+
+4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the
+executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such
+vacancies.
+
+5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other
+officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.
+
+
+SECTION 3. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two
+senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six
+years; and each senator shall have one vote.[4]
+
+2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first
+election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes.
+The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the
+expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of
+the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth
+year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if
+vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the
+legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary
+appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then
+fill such vacancies.[5]
+
+3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age
+of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and
+who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he
+shall be chosen.
+
+4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the
+Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.
+
+5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President
+_pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall
+exercise the office of President of the United States.
+
+6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When
+sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the
+President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall
+preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of
+two-thirds of the members present.
+
+7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to
+removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office
+of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: but the party
+convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial,
+judgment, and punishment, according to law.
+
+
+SECTION 4. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for
+senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the
+legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or
+alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.
+
+2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such
+meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by
+law appoint a different day.
+
+
+SECTION 5. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns
+and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall
+constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn
+from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of
+absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House
+may provide.
+
+2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its
+members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the concurrence of
+two-thirds, expel a member.
+
+3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to
+time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment
+require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on
+any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be
+entered on the journal.
+
+4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the
+consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other
+place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
+
+
+SECTION 6. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a
+compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out
+of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except
+treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
+during their attendance at the sessions of their respective Houses, and
+in going to and returning from the same; and, for any speech or debate
+in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
+
+2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was
+elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the
+United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof
+shall have been increased during such time; and no person, holding any
+office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during
+his continuance in office.
+
+
+SECTION 7. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House
+of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments
+as on other bills.
+
+2. Every bill, which shall have passed the House of Representatives; and
+the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President
+of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he
+shall return it with his objections to that House, in which it shall
+have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their
+journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration
+two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent,
+together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall
+likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House,
+it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses
+shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons
+voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each
+House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President
+within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to
+him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it,
+unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which
+case it shall not be a law.
+
+3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the
+Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a
+question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the
+United States and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved
+by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of
+the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and
+limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.
+
+
+SECTION 8. The Congress shall have power: 1. To lay and collect taxes,
+duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the
+common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties,
+imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
+
+2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
+
+3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several
+States, and with the Indian tribes;
+
+4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on
+the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
+
+5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and
+fix the standard of weights and measures;
+
+6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and
+current coin of the United States;
+
+7. To establish post offices and post roads;
+
+8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for
+limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
+respective writings and discoveries;
+
+9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
+
+10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high
+seas, and offences against the law of nations;
+
+11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules
+concerning captures on land and water;
+
+12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that
+use shall be for a longer term than two years;
+
+13. To provide and maintain a navy;
+
+14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and
+naval forces;
+
+15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the
+Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions;
+
+16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia,
+and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service
+of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the
+appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia
+according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.
+
+17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such
+district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
+particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the
+government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all
+places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which
+the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals,
+dock-yards, and other needful buildings;--and
+
+18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying
+into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this
+Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
+department or officer thereof.
+
+
+SECTION 9. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the
+States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited
+by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight,
+but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten
+dollars for each person.
+
+2. The privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended,
+unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may
+require it.
+
+3. No bill of attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed.
+
+4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in
+proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be
+taken.[6]
+
+5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State.
+
+6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue
+to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall vessels bound
+to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in
+another.
+
+7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of
+appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the
+receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from
+time to time.
+
+8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no
+person, holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without
+the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office,
+or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State.
+
+
+SECTION 10. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
+confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit
+bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in
+payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, _ex post facto_ law, or
+law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of
+nobility.
+
+2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts
+or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary
+for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and
+imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use
+of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject
+to the revision and control of the Congress.
+
+3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of
+tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any
+agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or
+engage in war unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as
+will not admit of delay.
+
+
+ARTICLE II
+
+SECTION 1. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the
+United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of
+four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same
+term, be elected, as follows:
+
+2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof
+may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators
+and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress;
+but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust
+or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.[7] The
+electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for
+two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same
+State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons
+voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall
+sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of
+the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The
+President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House
+of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then
+be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the
+President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors
+appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and
+have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall
+immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person
+have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House
+shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the
+President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from
+each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a
+member or members from two-thirds of the States and a majority of all
+the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the
+choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes
+of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain
+two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by
+ballot the Vice-President.[8]
+
+3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the
+day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same
+throughout the United States.
+
+4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United
+States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be
+eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be
+eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
+thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United
+States.
+
+5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death,
+resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said
+office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress
+may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or
+inability both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what
+officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act
+accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be
+elected.
+
+6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
+compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the
+period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive
+within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of
+them.
+
+7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the
+following oath or affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I
+will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States,
+and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the
+Constitution of the United States."
+
+
+SECTION 2. 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and
+navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States,
+when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require
+the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the
+executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their
+respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and
+pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of
+impeachment.
+
+2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
+Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present
+concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of
+the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the
+United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for,
+and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest
+the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the
+President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
+
+3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen
+during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall
+expire at the end of their next session.
+
+
+SECTION 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information
+on the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such
+measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on
+extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in
+case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
+adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper;
+he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take
+care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the
+officers of the United States.
+
+
+SECTION 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the
+United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and
+conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.
+
+
+ARTICLE III
+
+SECTION 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in
+one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from
+time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and
+inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and
+shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which
+shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.
+
+
+SECTION 2. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and
+equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States,
+and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to
+all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;--to
+all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to
+which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies between two
+or more States;--between a State and citizens of another
+State;[9]--between citizens of different States;--between citizens of
+the same State claiming lands under grants of different States;--and
+between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens,
+or subjects.
+
+2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court
+shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before
+mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as
+to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the
+Congress shall make.
+
+3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by
+jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes
+shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the
+trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have
+directed.
+
+
+SECTION 3. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in
+levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them
+aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the
+testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in
+open court.
+
+2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason,
+but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture
+except during the life of the person attainted.
+
+
+ARTICLE IV
+
+SECTION 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the
+public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And
+the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such
+acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.
+
+
+SECTION 2. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all
+privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.
+
+2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime,
+who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on
+demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be
+delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the
+crime.
+
+3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws
+thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or
+regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall
+be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may
+be due.
+
+
+SECTION 3. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this
+Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the
+jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction
+of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the
+legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.
+
+2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful
+rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
+belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall
+be so construed as to prejudice any claims, of the United States, or of
+any particular State.
+
+
+SECTION 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this
+Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them
+against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the
+executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic
+violence.
+
+
+ARTICLE V
+
+The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
+necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
+application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States,
+shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case,
+shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution,
+when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several
+States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the
+other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided
+that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight
+hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth
+clauses in the ninth Section of the first article; and that no State,
+without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the
+Senate.
+
+
+ARTICLE VI
+
+1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the
+adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
+States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
+
+2. This Constitution and the laws of the United States which shall be
+made in pursuance thereof and all treaties made, or which shall be made,
+under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of
+the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything
+in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary
+notwithstanding.
+
+3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of
+the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers,
+both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by
+oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test
+shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust
+under the United States.
+
+
+ARTICLE VII
+
+The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient
+for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so
+ratifying the same.
+
+Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the
+seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven
+hundred and eighty-seven and of the independence of the United States of
+America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our
+names,
+
+     G^O. WASHINGTON--
+     Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia
+
+[and thirty-eight members from all the States except Rhode Island.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the
+United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the
+legislatures of the several States pursuant to the fifth article of the
+original Constitution.
+
+
+ARTICLE I[10]
+
+Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
+prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of
+speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
+assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
+
+
+ARTICLE II
+
+A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free
+State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
+infringed.
+
+
+ARTICLE III
+
+No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without
+the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
+prescribed by law.
+
+
+ARTICLE IV
+
+The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
+and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
+violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause,
+supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place
+to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
+
+
+ARTICLE V
+
+No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous
+crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in
+cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in
+actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be
+subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or
+limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness
+against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
+due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
+without just compensation.
+
+
+ARTICLE VI
+
+In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a
+speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district
+wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
+been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and
+cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against
+him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor,
+and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence.
+
+
+ARTICLE VII
+
+In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
+twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no
+fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the
+United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
+
+
+ARTICLE VIII
+
+Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor
+cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
+
+
+ARTICLE IX
+
+The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be
+construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
+
+
+ARTICLE X
+
+The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
+prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively,
+or to the people.
+
+
+ARTICLE XI[11]
+
+The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend
+to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the
+United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects
+of any foreign State.
+
+
+ARTICLE XII[12]
+
+The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot
+for President and Vice-President, one of whom at least shall not be an
+inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their
+ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the
+person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists
+of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as
+Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they
+shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the
+government of the United States, directed to the President of the
+Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate
+and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes
+shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes
+for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of
+the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such
+majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding
+three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of
+Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But
+in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the
+representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this
+purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the
+States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice.
+And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President
+whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth
+day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as
+President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional
+disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of
+votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be
+a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person
+have a majority, then from the two highest members on the list, the
+Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall
+consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of
+the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person
+constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible
+to that of Vice-President of the United States.
+
+
+ARTICLE XIII[13]
+
+SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a
+punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted,
+shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
+jurisdiction.
+
+SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
+appropriate legislation.
+
+
+ARTICLE XIV[14]
+
+SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and
+subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States
+and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any
+law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
+United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty,
+or property without due process of law; nor deny to any person within
+its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
+
+SECTION 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States
+according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of
+persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right
+to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and
+Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the
+executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the
+legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such
+State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States,
+or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other
+crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the
+proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the
+whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
+
+SECTION 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress,
+or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or
+military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having
+previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of
+the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an
+executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution
+of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion
+against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But
+Congress may by two-thirds vote of each House, remove such disability.
+
+SECTION 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States,
+authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and
+bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall
+not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall
+assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or
+rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or
+emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims
+shall be held illegal and void.
+
+SECTION 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate
+legislation, the provisions of this article.
+
+
+ARTICLE XV[15]
+
+SECTION 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not
+be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of
+race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
+
+SECTION 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
+appropriate legislation.
+
+
+ARTICLE XVI[16]
+
+The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from
+whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States,
+and without regard to any census or enumeration.
+
+
+ARTICLE XVII[17]
+
+The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from
+each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each
+senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the
+qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the
+State legislature.
+
+When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate,
+the executive authority of each State shall issue writs of election to
+fill such vacancies: _Provided_ that the legislature of any State may
+empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the
+people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.
+
+This amendment shall not be so construed as to effect the election or
+term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the
+Constitution.
+
+
+ARTICLE XVIII[18]
+
+SECTION 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the
+manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the
+importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United
+States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for
+beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
+
+SECTION 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent
+power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
+
+SECTION 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been
+ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the
+several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from
+the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.
+
+
+ARTICLE XIX[19]
+
+The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied
+or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex.
+
+The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
+legislation.
+
+
+
+POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES: 1920, 1910, 1900
+
++---------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+|      STATES         |                  POPULATION                |
++                     +--------------+--------------+--------------+
+|                     |     1920     |     1910     |     1900     |
++---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+|United States        | 105,708,771  |  91,972,266  |  75,994,575  |
++---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+|Alabama              |   2,348,174  |   2,138,093  |   1,828,697  |
+|Arizona              |     333,903  |     204,354  |     122,931  |
+|Arkansas             |   1,752,204  |   1,574,449  |   1,311,564  |
+|California           |   3,426,861  |   2,377,549  |   1,485,053  |
+|Colorado             |     939,629  |     799,024  |     539,700  |
+|Connecticut          |   1,380,631  |   1,114,756  |     908,420  |
+|Delaware             |     223,003  |     202,322  |     184,735  |
+|District of Columbia |     437,571  |     331,069  |     278,718  |
+|Florida              |     968,470  |     752,619  |     528,542  |
+|Georgia              |   2,895,832  |   2,609,121  |   2,216,331  |
+|Idaho                |     431,866  |     325,594  |     161,772  |
+|Illinois             |   6,485,280  |   5,638,591  |   4,821,550  |
+|Indiana              |   2,930,390  |   2,700,876  |   2,516,462  |
+|Iowa                 |   2,404,021  |   2,224,771  |   2,231,853  |
+|Kansas               |   1,769,257  |   1,690,949  |   1,470,495  |
+|Kentucky             |   2,416,630  |   2,289,905  |   2,147,174  |
+|Louisiana            |   1,798,509  |   1,656,388  |   1,381,625  |
+|Maine                |     768,014  |     742,371  |     694,466  |
+|Maryland             |   1,449,661  |   1,295,346  |   1,188,044  |
+|Massachusetts        |   3,852,356  |   3,366,416  |   2,805,346  |
+|Michigan             |   3,668,412  |   2,810,173  |   2,420,982  |
+|Minnesota            |   2,387,125  |   2,075,708  |   1,751,394  |
+|Mississippi          |   1,790,618  |   1,797,114  |   1,551,270  |
+|Missouri             |   3,404,055  |   3,293,335  |   3,106,665  |
+|Montana              |     548,889  |     376,053  |     243,329  |
+|Nebraska             |   1,296,372  |   1,192,214  |   1,066,300  |
+|Nevada               |      77,407  |      81,875  |      42,335  |
+|New Hampshire        |     443,407  |     430,572  |     411,588  |
+|New Jersey           |   3,155,900  |   2,537,167  |   1,883,669  |
+|New Mexico           |     360,350  |     327,301  |     195,310  |
+|New York             |  10,384,829  |   9,113,614  |   7,268,894  |
+|North Carolina       |   2,559,123  |   2,206,287  |   1,893,810  |
+|North Dakota         |     645,680  |     577,056  |     319,146  |
+|Ohio                 |   5,759,394  |   4,767,121  |   4,157,545  |
+|Oklahoma             |   2,028,283  |   1,657,155  |     790,391  |
+|Oregon               |     783,389  |     672,765  |     413,536  |
+|Pennsylvania         |   8,720,017  |   7,665,111  |   6,302,115  |
+|Rhode Island         |     604,397  |     542,610  |     428,556  |
+|South Carolina       |   1,683,724  |   1,515,400  |   1,340,316  |
+|South Dakota         |     636,547  |     583,888  |     401,570  |
+|Tennessee            |   2,337,885  |   2,184,789  |   2,020,616  |
+|Texas                |   4,663,228  |   3,896,542  |   3,048,710  |
+|Utah                 |     449,396  |     373,351  |     276,749  |
+|Vermont              |     352,428  |     355,956  |     343,641  |
+|Virginia             |   2,309,187  |   2,061,612  |   1,854,184  |
+|Washington           |   1,356,621  |   1,141,990  |     518,103  |
+|West Virginia        |   1,463,701  |   1,221,119  |     958,800  |
+|Wisconsin            |   2,632,067  |   2,333,860  |   2,069,042  |
+|Wyoming              |     194,402  |     145,965  |      92,531  |
++---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] Partly superseded by the 14th Amendment, p. 639.
+
+[4] See the 17th Amendment, p. 641.
+
+[5] _Ibid._, p. 641.
+
+[6] See the 16th Amendment, p. 640.
+
+[7] The following paragraph was in force only from 1788 to 1803.
+
+[8] Superseded by the 12th Amendment, p. 638.
+
+[9] See the 11th Amendment, p. 638.
+
+[10] First ten amendments proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 1789.
+Proclaimed to be in force Dec. 15, 1791.
+
+[11] Proposed Sept. 5, 1794. Declared in force January 8, 1798.
+
+[12] Adopted in 1804.
+
+[13] Adopted in 1865.
+
+[14] Adopted in 1868.
+
+[15] Proposed February 27, 1869. Declared in force March 30, 1870.
+
+[16] Passed July, 1909; proclaimed February 25, 1913.
+
+[17] Passed May, 1912, in lieu of paragraph one, Section 3, Article I,
+of the Constitution and so much of paragraph two of the same Section as
+relates to the filling of vacancies; proclaimed May 31, 1913.
+
+[18] Ratified January 16, 1919.
+
+[19] Ratified August 26, 1920.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+TABLE OF PRESIDENTS
+
+NAME                    STATE  PARTY     YEAR IN    VICE-PRESIDENT
+                                         OFFICE
+1 George Washington      Va.    Fed.    1789-1797   John Adams
+2 John Adams             Mass.  Fed.    1797-1801   Thomas Jefferson
+3 Thomas Jefferson       Va.    Rep.    1801-1809   Aaron Burr
+                                                    George Clinton
+4 James Madison          Va.    Rep.    1809-1817   George Clinton
+                                                    Elbridge Gerry
+5 James Monroe           Va.    Rep.    1817-1825   Daniel D. Tompkins
+6 John Q. Adams          Mass.  Rep.    1825-1829   John C. Calhoun
+7 Andrew Jackson         Tenn.  Dem.    1829-1837   John C. Calhoun
+                                                    Martin Van Buren
+8 Martin Van Buren       N.Y.   Dem.    1837-1841   Richard M. Johnson
+9 Wm. H. Harrison        Ohio   Whig    1841-1841   John Tyler
+10 John Tyler[20]        Va.    Whig    1841-1845
+11 James K. Polk         Tenn.  Dem.    1845-1849   George M. Dallas
+12 Zachary Taylor        La.    Whig    1849-1850   Millard Fillmore
+13 Millard Fillmore[20]  N.Y.   Whig    1850-1853
+14 Franklin Pierce       N.H.   Dem.    1853-1857   William R. King
+15 James Buchanan        Pa.    Dem.    1857-1861   J.C. Breckinridge
+16 Abraham Lincoln       Ill.   Rep.    1861-1865   Hannibal Hamlin
+                                                    Andrew Johnson
+17 Andrew Johnson[20]    Tenn.  Rep.    1865-1869
+18 Ulysses S. Grant      Ill.   Rep.    1869-1877   Schuyler Colfax
+                                                    Henry Wilson
+19 Rutherford B. Hayes   Ohio   Rep.    1877-1881   Wm. A. Wheeler
+20 James A. Garfield     Ohio   Rep.    1881-1881   Chester A. Arthur
+21 Chester A. Arthur[20] N.Y.   Rep.    1881-1885
+22 Grover Cleveland      N.Y.   Dem.    1885-1889   Thomas A. Hendricks
+23 Benjamin Harrison     Ind.   Rep.    1889-1893   Levi P. Morton
+24 Grover Cleveland      N.Y.   Dem.    1893-1897   Adlai E. Stevenson
+25 William McKinley      Ohio   Rep.    1897-1901   Garrett A. Hobart
+                                                    Theodore Roosevelt
+26 Theodore Roosevelt[20]N.Y.   Rep.    1901-1909   Chas. W. Fairbanks
+27 William H. Taft       Ohio   Rep.    1909-1913   James S. Sherman
+28 Woodrow Wilson        N.J.   Dem.    1913-1921   Thomas R. Marshall
+29 Warren G. Harding     Ohio   Rep.    1921-       Calvin Coolidge
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] Promoted from the vice-presidency on the death of the president.
+
+POPULATION OF THE OUTLYING POSSESSIONS: 1920 AND 1910
+
+----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------
+                AREA                    |     1920     |     1910
+----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------
+United States with outlying possessions |117,857,509   | 101,146,530
+                                        +--------------+---------------
+Continental United States               |105,708,771   | 91,972,266
+Outlying Possessions                    | 12,148,738   |  9,174,264
+                                        +--------------|---------------
+  Alaska                                |     54,899   |     64,356
+  American Samoa                        |      8,056   |      7,251[21]
+  Guam                                  |     13,275   |     11,806
+  Hawaii                                |    255,912   |    191,909
+  Panama Canal Zone                     |     22,858   |     62,810[21]
+  Porto Rico                            |  1,299,809   |  1,118,012
+  Military  and  naval,  etc.,  service |              |
+    abroad                              |    117,238   |     55,608
+  Philippine Islands                    |10,350,640[22]|  7,635,426[23]
+  Virgin Islands of the United States   |    26,051[24]|     27,086[25]
+----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21] Population in 1912.
+
+[22] Population in 1918.
+
+[23] Population in 1903.
+
+[24] Population in 1917.
+
+[25] Population in 1911.
+
+
+
+
+A TOPICAL SYLLABUS
+
+As a result of a wholesome reaction against the purely chronological
+treatment of history, there is now a marked tendency in the direction of
+a purely topical handling of the subject. The topical method, however,
+may also be pushed too far. Each successive stage of any topic can be
+understood only in relation to the forces of the time. For that reason,
+the best results are reached when there is a combination of the
+chronological and the topical methods. It is therefore suggested that
+the teacher first follow the text closely and then review the subject
+with the aid of this topical syllabus. The references are to pages.
+
+
+=Immigration=
+
+     I. Causes: religious (1-2, 4-11, 302), economic (12-17, 302-303),
+        and political (302-303).
+     II. Colonial immigration.
+       1. Diversified character: English, Scotch-Irish, Irish, Jews,
+          Germans and other peoples (6-12).
+       2. Assimilation to an American type; influence of the land
+          system (23-25, 411).
+       3. Enforced immigration: indentured servitude, slavery, etc.
+          (13-17).
+     III. Immigration between 1789-1890.
+       1. Nationalities: English, Irish, Germans, and Scandinavians
+          (278, 302-303).
+       2. Relations to American life (432-433, 445).
+     IV. Immigration and immigration questions after 1890.
+       1. Change in nationalities (410-411).
+       2. Changes in economic opportunities (411).
+       3. Problems of congestion and assimilation (410).
+       4. Relations to labor and illiteracy (582-586).
+       5. Oriental immigration (583).
+       6. The restriction of immigration (583-585).
+
+=Expansion of the United States=
+
+     I. Territorial growth.
+       1. Territory of the United States in 1783 (134 and color map).
+       2. Louisiana purchase, 1803 (188-193 and color map).
+       3. Florida purchase, 1819 (204).
+       4. Annexation of Texas, 1845 (278-281).
+       5. Acquisition of Arizona, New Mexico, California, and other
+          territory at close of Mexican War, 1848 (282-283).
+       6. The Gadsden purchase, 1853 (283).
+       7. Settlement of the Oregon boundary question, 1846 (284-286).
+       8. Purchase of Alaska from Russia, 1867 (479).
+       9. Acquisition of Tutuila in Samoan group, 1899 (481-482).
+       10. Annexation of Hawaii, 1898 (484).
+       11. Acquisition of Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam at
+           close of Spanish War, 1898 (493-494).
+       12. Acquisition of Panama Canal strip, 1904 (508-510).
+       13. Purchase of Danish West Indies, 1917 (593).
+       14. Extension of protectorate over Haiti, Santo Domingo, and
+           Nicaragua (593-594).
+     II. Development of colonial self-government.
+       1. Hawaii (485).
+       2. Philippines (516-518).
+       3. Porto Rico (515-516).
+     III. Sea power.
+       1. In American Revolution (118).
+       2. In the War of 1812 (193-201).
+       3. In the Civil War (353-354).
+       4. In the Spanish-American War (492).
+       5. In the Caribbean region (512-519).
+       6. In the Pacific (447-448, 481).
+       7. The rôle of the American navy (515).
+
+=The Westward Advance of the People=
+
+     I. Beyond the Appalachians.
+       1. Government and land system (217-231).
+       2. The routes (222-224).
+       3. The settlers (221-223, 228-230).
+       4. Relations with the East (230-236).
+     II. Beyond the Mississippi.
+       1. The lower valley (271-273).
+       2. The upper valley (275-276).
+     III. Prairies, plains, and desert.
+       1. Cattle ranges and cowboys (276-278, 431-432).
+       2. The free homesteads (432-433).
+       3. Irrigation (434-436, 523-525).
+     IV. The Far West.
+       1. Peculiarities of the West (433-440).
+       2. The railways (425-431).
+       3. Relations to the East and Europe (443-447).
+       4. American power in the Pacific (447-449).
+
+=The Wars of American History=
+
+     I. Indian wars (57-59).
+     II. Early colonial wars: King William's, Queen Anne's, and King
+         George's (59).
+     III. French and Indian War (Seven Years' War), 1754-1763 (59-61).
+     IV. Revolutionary War, 1775-1783 (99-135).
+     V. The War of 1812, 1812-1815 (193-201).
+     VI. The Mexican War, 1845-1848 (276-284).
+     VII. The Civil War, 1861-1865 (344-375).
+     VIII. The Spanish War, 1898 (485-497).
+     IX. The World War, 1914-1918 [American participation, 1917-1918]
+         (596-625).
+
+=Government=
+
+     I. Development of the American system of government.
+       1. Origin and growth of state government.
+         _a._ The trading corporation (2-4), religious congregation
+              (4-5), and proprietary system (5-6).
+         _b._ Government of the colonies (48-53).
+         _c._ Formation of the first state constitutions (108-110).
+         _d._ The admission of new states (_see_ Index under each
+              state).
+         _e._ Influence of Jacksonian Democracy (238-247).
+         _f._ Growth of manhood suffrage (238-244).
+         _g._ Nullification and state sovereignty (180-182, 251-257).
+         _h._ The doctrine of secession (345-346).
+         _i._ Effects of the Civil War on position of states (366,
+              369-375).
+         _j._ Political reform--direct government--initiative,
+              referendum, and recall (540-544).
+       2. Origin and growth of national government.
+         _a._ British imperial control over the colonies (64-72).
+         _b._ Attempts at intercolonial union--New England
+              Confederation, Albany plan (61-62).
+         _c._ The Stamp Act Congress (85-86).
+         _d._ The Continental Congresses (99-101).
+         _e._ The Articles of Confederation (110-111, 139-143).
+         _f._ The formation of the federal Constitution (143-160).
+         _g._ Development of the federal Constitution.
+           (1) Amendments 1-11--rights of persons and states (163).
+           (2) Twelfth amendment--election of President (184, note).
+           (3) Amendments 13-15--Civil War settlement (358, 366, 369,
+               370, 374, 375).
+           (4) Sixteenth amendment--income tax (528-529).
+           (5) Seventeenth amendment--election of Senators (541-542).
+           (6) Eighteenth amendment--prohibition (591-592).
+           (7) Nineteenth amendment--woman suffrage (563-568).
+       3. Development of the suffrage.
+         _a._ Colonial restrictions (51-52).
+         _b._ Provisions of the first state constitutions
+              (110, 238-240).
+         _c._ Position under federal Constitution of 1787 (149).
+         _d._ Extension of manhood suffrage (241-244).
+         _e._ Extension and limitation of negro suffrage (373-375,
+              382-387).
+         _f._ Woman suffrage (560-568).
+     II. Relation of government to economic and social welfare.
+       1. Debt and currency.
+         _a._ Colonial paper money (80).
+         _b._ Revolutionary currency and debt (125-127).
+         _c._ Disorders under Articles of Confederation (140-141).
+         _d._ Powers of Congress under the Constitution to coin money
+              (_see_ Constitution in the Appendix).
+         _e._ First United States bank notes (167).
+         _f._ Second United States bank notes (257).
+         _g._ State bank notes (258).
+         _h._ Civil War greenbacks and specie payment (352-353, 454).
+         _i._ The Civil War debt (252).
+         _j._ Notes of National Banks under act of 1864 (369).
+         _k._ Demonetization of silver and silver legislation
+              (452-458).
+         _l._ The gold standard (472).
+         _m._ The federal reserve notes (589).
+         _n._ Liberty bonds (606).
+       2. Banking systems.
+         _a._ The first United States bank (167).
+         _b._ The second United States bank--origin and destruction
+              (203, 257-259).
+         _c._ United States treasury system (263).
+         _d._ State banks (258).
+         _e._ The national banking system of 1864 (369).
+         _f._ Services of banks (407-409).
+         _g._ Federal reserve system (589).
+       3. The tariff.
+         _a._ British colonial system (69-72).
+         _b._ Disorders under Articles of Confederation (140).
+         _c._ The first tariff under the Constitution (150, 167-168).
+         _d._ Development of the tariff, 1816-1832 (252-254).
+         _f._ Tariff and nullification (254-256).
+         _g._ Development to the Civil War--attitude of South and West
+              (264, 309-314, 357).
+         _h._ Republicans and Civil War tariffs (352, 367).
+         _i._ Revival of the tariff controversy under Cleveland (422).
+         _j._ Tariff legislation after 1890--McKinley bill (422),
+              Wilson bill (459), Dingley bill (472), Payne-Aldrich bill
+              (528), Underwood bill (588).
+       4. Foreign and domestic commerce and transportation
+          (_see_ Tariff, Immigration, and Foreign Relations).
+         _a._ British imperial regulations (69-72).
+         _b._ Confusion under Articles of Confederation (140).
+         _c._ Provisions of federal Constitution (150).
+         _d._ Internal improvements--aid to roads, canals, etc.
+              (230-236).
+         _e._ Aid to railways (403).
+         _f._ Service of railways (402).
+         _g._ Regulation of railways (460-461, 547-548).
+         _h._ Control of trusts and corporations (461-462, 589-590).
+       5. Land and natural resources.
+         _a._ British control over lands (80).
+         _b._ Early federal land measures (219-221).
+         _c._ The Homestead act (368, 432-445).
+         _d._ Irrigation and reclamation (434-436, 523-525).
+         _e._ Conservation of natural resources (523-526).
+       6. Legislation advancing human rights and general welfare
+          (_see_ Suffrage).
+         _a._ Abolition of slavery: civil and political rights of
+              negroes (357-358, 373-375).
+         _b._ Extension of civil and political rights to women
+              (554-568).
+         _c._ Legislation relative to labor conditions (549-551,
+              579-581, 590-591).
+         _d._ Control of public utilities (547-549).
+         _e._ Social reform and the war on poverty (549-551).
+         _f._ Taxation and equality of opportunity (551-552).
+
+=Political Parties and Political Issues=
+
+     I. The Federalists _versus_ the Anti-Federalists [Jeffersonian
+        Republicans] from about 1790 to about 1816 (168-208, 201-203).
+       1. Federalist leaders: Hamilton, John Adams, John Marshall,
+          Robert Morris.
+       2. Anti-Federalist leaders: Jefferson, Madison, Monroe.
+       3. Issues: funding the debt, assumption of state debts, first
+          United States bank, taxation, tariff, strong central
+          government _versus_ states' rights, and the Alien and
+          Sedition acts.
+     II. Era of "Good Feeling" from about 1816 to about 1824, a period
+         of no organized party opposition (248).
+     III. The Democrats [former Jeffersonian Republicans] _versus_ the
+          Whigs [or National Republicans] from about 1832 to 1856
+         (238-265, 276-290, 324-334).
+       1. Democratic leaders: Jackson, Van Buren, Calhoun, Benton.
+       2. Whig leaders: Webster and Clay.
+       3. Issues: second United States bank, tariff, nullification,
+          Texas, internal improvements, and disposition of Western
+          lands.
+     IV. The Democrats _versus_ the Republicans from about 1856 to the
+         present time (334-377, 388-389, 412-422, 451-475, 489-534,
+         588-620).
+       1. Democratic leaders: Jefferson Davis, Tilden, Cleveland,
+          Bryan, and Wilson.
+       2. Republican leaders: Lincoln, Blaine, McKinley, Roosevelt.
+       3. Issues: Civil War and reconstruction, currency, tariff,
+          taxation, trusts, railways, foreign policies, imperialism,
+          labor questions, and policies with regard to land and
+          conservation.
+     V. Minor political parties.
+       1. Before the Civil War: Free Soil (319) and Labor Parties
+          (306-307).
+       2. Since the Civil War: Greenback (463-464), Populist (464),
+          Liberal Republican (420), Socialistic (577-579), Progressive
+         (531-534, 602-603).
+
+=The Economic Development of the United States=
+
+     I. The land and natural resources.
+       1. The colonial land system: freehold, plantation, and manor
+          (20-25).
+       2. Development of the freehold in the West (220-221, 228-230).
+       3. The Homestead act and its results (368, 432-433).
+       4. The cattle range and cowboy (431-432).
+       5. Disappearance of free land (443-445).
+       6. Irrigation and reclamation (434-436).
+       7. Movement for the conservation of resources (523-526).
+     II. Industry.
+       1. The rise of local and domestic industries (28-32).
+       2. British restrictions on American enterprise (67-69, 70-72).
+       3. Protective tariffs (see above, 648-649).
+       4. Development of industry previous to the Civil War (295-307).
+       5. Great progress of industry after the war (401-406).
+       6. Rise and growth of trusts and combinations (406-412,
+          472-474).
+     III. Commerce and transportation.
+       1. Extent of colonial trade and commerce (32-35).
+       2. British regulation (69-70).
+       3. Effects of the Revolution and the Constitution
+          (139-140, 154).
+       4. Growth of American shipping (195-196).
+       5. Waterways and canals (230-236).
+       6. Rise and extension of the railway system (298-300).
+       7. Growth of American foreign trade (445-449).
+     IV. Rise of organized labor.
+       1. Early phases before the Civil War: local unions, city
+          federations, and national unions in specific trades
+          (304-307).
+       2. The National Trade Union, 1866-1872 (574-575).
+       3. The Knights of Labor (575-576).
+       4. The American Federation of Labor (573-574).
+         _a._ Policies of the Federation (576-577).
+         _b._ Relations to politics (579-581).
+         _c._ Contests with socialists and radicals (577-579).
+         _d._ Problems of immigration (582-585).
+       5. The relations of capital and labor.
+         _a._ The corporation and labor (410, 570-571).
+         _b._ Company unions and profit-sharing (571-572).
+         _c._ Welfare work (573).
+         _d._ Strikes (465, 526, 580-581).
+         _e._ Arbitration (581-582).
+
+=American Foreign Relations=
+
+     I. Colonial period.
+       1. Indian relations (57-59).
+       2. French relations (59-61).
+     II. Period of conflict and independence.
+       1. Relations with Great Britain (77-108, 116-125, 132-135).
+       2. Establishment of connections with European powers (128).
+       3. The French alliance of 1778 (128-130).
+       4. Assistance of Holland and Spain (130).
+     III. Relations with Great Britain since 1783.
+       1. Commercial settlement in Jay treaty of 1794 (177-178).
+       2. Questions arising out of European wars [1793-1801]
+          (176-177, 180).
+       3. Blockade and embargo problems (193-199).
+       4. War of 1812 (199-201).
+       5. Monroe Doctrine and Holy Alliance (205-207).
+       6. Maine boundary--Webster-Ashburton treaty (265).
+       7. Oregon boundary (284-286).
+       8. Attitude of Great Britain during Civil War (354-355).
+       9. Arbitration of _Alabama_ claims (480-481).
+       10. The Samoan question (481-482)
+       11. The Venezuelan question (482-484).
+       12. British policy during Spanish-American War (496-497).
+       13. Controversy over blockade, 1914-1917 (598-600).
+       14. The World War (603-620).
+     IV. Relations with France.
+       1. The colonial wars (59-61).
+       2. The French alliance of 1778 (128-130).
+       3. Controversies over the French Revolution (128-130).
+       4. Commercial questions arising out of the European wars
+          (176-177, 180, 193-199).
+       5. Attitude of Napoleon III toward the Civil War (354-355).
+       6. The Mexican entanglement (478-479).
+       7. The World War (596-620).
+     V. Relations with Germany.
+       1. Negotiations with Frederick, king of Prussia (128).
+       2. The Samoan controversy (481-482).
+       3. Spanish-American War (491).
+       4. The Venezuelan controversy (512).
+       5. The World War (596-620).
+     VI. Relations with the Orient.
+       1. Early trading connections (486-487).
+       2. The opening of China (447).
+       3. The opening of Japan (448).
+       4. The Boxer rebellion and the "open door" policy (499-502).
+       5. Roosevelt and the close of the Russo-Japanese War (511).
+       6. The Oriental immigration question (583-584).
+     VII. The United States and Latin America.
+       1. Mexican relations.
+         _a._ Mexican independence and the Monroe Doctrine (205-207).
+         _b._ Mexico and French intervention--policy of the United
+              States (478-479).
+         _c._ The overthrow of Diaz (1911) and recent questions
+              (594-596).
+       2. Cuban relations.
+         _a._ Slavery and the "Ostend Manifesto" (485-486).
+         _b._ The revolutionary period, 1867-1877 (487).
+         _c._ The revival of revolution (487-491).
+         _d._ American intervention and the Spanish War (491-496).
+         _e._ The Platt amendment and American protection (518-519).
+       3. Caribbean and other relations.
+         _a._ Acquisition of Porto Rico (493).
+         _b._ The acquisition of the Panama Canal strip (508-510).
+         _c._ Purchase of Danish West Indies (593).
+         _d._ Venezuelan controversies (482-484, 512).
+         _e._ Extension of protectorate over Haiti, Santo Domingo,
+              and Nicaragua (513-514, 592-594).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abolition, 318, 331
+
+Adams, Abigail, 556
+
+Adams, John, 97, 128, 179ff.
+
+Adams, J.Q., 247, 319
+
+Adams, Samuel, 90, 99, 108
+
+Adamson law, 590
+
+Aguinaldo, 497
+
+Alabama, admission, 227
+
+_Alabama_ claims, 480
+
+Alamance, battle, 92
+
+Alamo, 280
+
+Alaska, purchase, 479
+
+Albany, plan of union, 62
+
+Algonquins, 57
+
+Alien law, 180
+
+Amendment, method of, 156
+
+Amendments to federal Constitution: first eleven, 163
+  twelfth, 184, note
+  thirteenth, 358
+  fourteenth, 366, 369, 387
+  fifteenth, 358
+  sixteenth, 528
+  seventeenth, 542
+  eighteenth, 591
+  nineteenth, 563ff.
+
+American expeditionary force, 610
+
+American  Federation  of  Labor,  573, 608
+
+Americanization, 585
+
+Amnesty, for Confederates, 383
+
+Andros, 65
+
+Annapolis, convention, 144
+
+Antietam, 357
+
+Anti-Federalists, 169
+
+Anti-slavery. _See_ Abolition
+
+Anthony, Susan, 564
+
+Appomattox, 363
+
+Arbitration:  international,  480,  514, 617
+  labor disputes, 582
+
+Arizona, admission, 443
+
+Arkansas, admission, 272
+
+Arnold, Benedict, 114, 120
+
+Articles of Confederation, 110, 139ff., 146
+
+Ashburton, treaty, 265
+
+Assembly, colonial, 49ff., 89ff.
+
+Assumption, 164ff.
+
+Atlanta, 361
+
+Australian ballot, 540
+
+
+Bacon, Nathaniel, 58
+
+Ballot:  Australian, 540
+  short, 544
+
+Baltimore, Lord, 6
+
+Bank: first U.S., 167
+  second, 203, 257ff.
+
+Banking system:  state, 300
+  U.S. national, 369
+  services of, 407
+  _See also_ Federal reserve
+
+Barry, John, 118
+
+Bastille, 172
+
+Bell, John, 341
+
+Belleau Wood, 611
+
+Berlin decree, 194
+
+Blockade: by England and France, 193ff.
+  Southern ports, 353
+  law and practice in 1914, 598ff.
+
+Bond servants, 13ff.
+
+Boone, Daniel, 28, 218
+
+Boston:  massacre, 91
+  evacuation, 116
+  port bill, 94
+
+Bowdoin, Governor, 142
+
+Boxer rebellion, 499
+
+Brandywine, 129
+
+Breckinridge, J.C., 340
+
+Bright, John, 355
+
+Brown, John, 338
+
+Brown University, 45
+
+Bryan, W.J., 468ff., 495, 502, 503, 527
+
+Buchanan, James, 335, 368
+
+Budget system, 529
+
+Bull Run, 350
+
+Bunker Hill, 102
+
+Burgoyne, General, 116, 118, 130
+
+Burke, Edmund, 87, 96ff., 132, 175
+
+Burr, Aaron, 183, 231
+
+Business. _See_  Industry
+
+
+Calhoun, J.C., 198ff., 203, 208, 281, 321, 328
+
+California, 286ff.
+
+Canada, 61, 114, 530
+
+Canals, 233, 298, 508
+
+Canning, British premier, 206
+
+Cannon, J.G., 530
+
+Cantigny, 611
+
+Caribbean, 479
+
+Carpet baggers, 373
+
+Cattle ranger, 431ff.
+
+Caucus, 245
+
+Censorship. _See_ Newspapers
+
+Charles I, 3
+
+Charles II, 65
+
+Charleston, 36, 116
+
+Charters, colonial, 2ff., 41
+
+Chase, Justice, 187
+
+Château-Thierry, 611
+
+Checks and balances, 153
+
+_Chesapeake_, the, 195
+
+Chickamauga, 361
+
+Child labor law, 591
+
+China, 447, 499ff.
+
+Chinese labor, 583
+
+Churches, colonial, 39ff., 42, 43
+
+Cities, 35, 36, 300ff., 395, 410, 544
+
+City manager plan, 545
+
+Civil liberty, 358ff., 561
+
+Civil service, 419, 536, 538ff.
+
+Clarendon, Lord, 6
+
+Clark, G.R., 116, 218
+
+Clay, Henry, 198, 203, 248, 261, 328
+
+Clayton anti-trust act, 489
+
+Clergy. _See_ Churches
+
+Cleveland, Grover, 421, 465, 482, 484, 489, 582
+
+Clinton, Sir Henry, 119
+
+Colorado, admission, 441
+
+Combination. _See_ Trusts
+
+Commerce, colonial, 33ff.
+  disorders after 1781, 140
+  Constitutional provisions on, 154
+  Napoleonic wars, 176, 193ff.
+  domestic growth of, 307
+  congressional regulation of, 460ff., 547
+  _See also_ Trusts and Railways
+
+Commission government, 544
+
+Committees of correspondence, 108
+
+_Commonsense_, pamphlet, 103
+
+Communism, colonial, 20f.
+
+Company, trading, 2f.
+
+Compromises: of Constitution, 148, 150, 151
+  Missouri, 325, 332
+  of 1850, 328ff.
+  Crittenden, 350
+
+Conciliation, with England, 131
+
+Concord, battle, 100
+
+Confederacy, Southern, 346ff.
+
+Confederation: New England, 61f.
+  _See also_ Articles of
+
+Congregation, religious, 4
+
+Congress:  stamp act, 85
+  continental, 99ff.
+  under Articles, 139f.
+  under Constitution, 152
+  powers of, 153
+
+Connecticut: founded, 4ff.
+  self-government, 49
+  _See also_ Suffrage
+  constitutions, state
+
+Conservation, 523ff.
+
+Constitution: formation of, 143ff.
+  _See also_ Amendment
+
+_Constitution_, the, 200
+
+Constitutions, state, 109ff., 238ff., 385ff.
+
+Constitutional union party, 340
+
+Contract labor law, 584
+
+Convention: 1787, 144ff.
+  nominating, 405
+
+Convicts, colonial, 15
+
+Conway Cabal, 120
+
+Cornwallis, General, 116, 119, 131
+
+Corporation and labor, 571. _See also_ Trusts
+
+Cotton. _See_ Planting system
+
+Cowboy, 431ff.
+
+Cowpens, battle, 116
+
+Cox, J.M., 619
+
+_Crisis, The_, pamphlet, 115
+
+Crittenden Compromise, 350
+
+Cuba, 485ff., 518
+
+Cumberland Gap, 223
+
+Currency. _See_ Banking
+
+
+Danish West Indies, purchased, 593
+
+Dartmouth College, 45
+
+Daughters of liberty, 84
+
+Davis, Jefferson, 346ff.
+
+Deane, Silas, 128
+
+Debs, E.V., 465, 534
+
+Debt, national, 164ff.
+
+Decatur, Commodore, 477
+
+Declaration of Independence, 101ff.
+
+Defense, national, 154
+
+De Kalb, 121
+
+Delaware, 3, 49
+
+De Lome affair, 490
+
+Democratic party, name assumed, 260
+  _See also_ Anti-Federalists
+
+Dewey, Admiral, 492
+
+Diplomacy: of the Revolution, 127ff.
+  Civil War, 354
+
+Domestic industry, 28
+
+Donelson, Fort, 361
+
+Dorr Rebellion, 243
+
+Douglas, Stephen A., 333, 337, 368
+
+Draft: Civil War, 351
+  World War, 605
+
+Draft riots, 351
+
+Dred Scott case, 335, 338
+
+Drug act, 523
+
+Duquesne, Fort, 60
+
+Dutch, 3, 12
+
+
+East India Company, 93
+
+Education, 43ff., 557, 591
+
+Electors, popular election of, 245
+
+Elkins law, 547
+
+Emancipation, 357ff.
+
+Embargo acts, 186ff.
+
+England: Colonial policy of, 64ff.
+  Revolutionary War, 99ff.
+  Jay treaty, 177
+  War of 1812, 198ff.
+  Monroe Doctrine, 206
+  Ashburton treaty, 265
+  Civil War, 354
+  _Alabama_ claims, 480
+  Samoa, 481
+  Venezuela question, 482
+  Spanish War, 496
+  World War, 596ff.
+
+Erie Canal, 233
+
+Esch-Cummins bill, 582
+
+Espionage act, 607
+
+Excess profits tax, 606
+
+Executive, federal, plans for, 151
+
+Expunging resolution, 260
+
+
+Farm loan act, 589
+
+Federal reserve act, 589
+
+Federal trade commission, 590
+
+_Federalist_, the, 158
+
+Federalists, 168ff., 201ff.
+
+Feudal elements in colonies, 21f.
+
+Filipino revolt. _See_ Philippines
+
+Fillmore, President, 485
+
+Finances: colonial, 64
+  revolutionary, 125ff.
+  disorders, 140
+  Civil War, 347, 352ff.
+  World War, 606
+  _See also_ Banking
+
+Fishing industry, 31
+
+Fleet, world tour, 515
+
+Florida, 134, 204
+
+Foch, General, 611
+
+Food and fuel law, 607
+
+Force bills, 384 ff., 375
+
+Forests, national, 525ff.
+
+Fourteen points, 605
+
+Fox, C.J., 132
+
+France: colonization, 59ff.
+  French and Indian War, 60ff.
+  American Revolution, 116, 123, 128ff.
+  French Revolution, 165ff.
+  Quarrel with, 180
+  Napoleonic wars, 193ff.
+  Louisiana purchase, 190
+  French Revolution of 1830, 266
+  Civil War, 354
+  Mexican affair, 478
+  World War, 596ff.
+
+Franchises, utility, 548
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, 45, 62, 82, 86, 128, 134
+
+Freedmen. _See_ Negro
+
+Freehold. _See_ Land
+
+Free-soil party, 319
+
+Frémont, J.C., 288, 334
+
+French. _See_ France
+
+Friends, the, 5
+
+Frontier. _See_ Land
+
+Fugitive slave act, 329
+
+Fulton, Robert, 231, 234
+
+Fundamental articles, 5
+
+Fundamental orders, 5
+
+
+Gage, General, 95, 100
+
+Garfield, President, 416
+
+Garrison, William Lloyd, 318
+
+_Gaspee_, the, 92
+
+Gates, General, 116, 120, 131
+
+Genêt, 177
+
+George I, 66
+
+George II, 4, 66, 82
+
+George III, 77ff.
+
+Georgia: founded, 4
+  royal province, 49
+  state constitution, 109
+  _See also_ Secession
+
+Germans: colonial immigration, 9ff.
+  in Revolutionary War, 102ff.
+  later immigration, 303
+
+Germany: Samoa, 481
+  Venezuela affair, 512
+  World War, 596f.
+
+Gerry, Elbridge, 148
+
+Gettysburg, 362
+
+Gibbon, Edward, 133
+
+Gold: discovery, 288
+  standard, 466, 472
+
+Gompers, Samuel, 573, 608
+
+Governor, royal, 49ff.
+
+Grandfather clause, 386f.
+
+Grangers, 460ff.
+
+Grant, General, 361, 416, 480, 487
+
+Great Britain. _See_ England
+
+Greeley, Horace, 420
+
+Greenbacks, 454ff.
+
+Greenbackers, 462ff.
+
+Greene, General, 117, 120
+
+Grenville, 79ff.
+
+Guilford, battle, 117
+
+
+Habeas corpus, 358
+
+Hague conferences, 514
+
+Haiti, 593
+
+Hamilton, Alexander, 95, 143, 158, 162, 168ff., 231
+
+Harding, W.G., 389, 619
+
+Harlem Heights, battle, 114
+
+Harper's Ferry, 339
+
+Harrison, Benjamin, 422, 484
+
+Harrison, W.H., 198, 263f.
+
+Hartford convention, 201ff., 238
+
+Harvard, 44
+
+Hawaii, 484f.
+
+Hay, John, 477, 500ff.
+
+Hayne, Robert, 256
+
+Hays, President, 416f.
+
+Henry, Patrick, 85
+
+Hepburn act, 523
+
+Hill, James J., 429
+
+Holland, 130
+
+Holy Alliance, 205
+
+Homestead act, 368, 432
+
+Hooker, Thomas, 5
+
+Houston, Sam, 279ff.
+
+Howe, General, 118
+
+Hughes, Charles E., 602
+
+Huguenots, 10
+
+Hume, David, 132
+
+Hutchinson, Anne, 5
+
+
+Idaho, admission, 442
+
+Income tax, 459, 466, 528, 588, 606
+
+Inheritance tax, 606
+
+Illinois, admission, 226
+
+Illiteracy, 585
+
+Immigration: colonial, 1-17
+  before Civil War, 302, 367
+  after Civil War, 410ff.
+  problems of, 582ff.
+
+Imperialism, 494ff., 498f., 502ff.
+
+Implied powers, 212
+
+Impressment of seamen, 194
+
+Indentured servants, 13f.
+
+Independence, Declaration of, 107
+
+Indiana, admission, 226
+
+Indians, 57ff., 81, 431
+
+Industry: colonial, 28ff.
+  growth of, 296ff.
+  during Civil War, 366
+  after 1865, 390ff., 401ff., 436ff., 559
+  _See also_ Trusts
+
+Initiative, the, 543
+
+Injunction, 465, 580
+
+Internal improvements, 260, 368
+
+Interstate commerce act, 461, 529
+
+Intolerable acts, 93
+
+Invisible government, 537
+
+Iowa, admission, 275
+
+Irish, 11, 302
+
+Iron. _See_ Industry
+
+Irrigation, 434ff., 523ff.
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew, 201, 204, 246, 280
+
+Jacobins, 174
+
+James I, 3
+
+James II, 65
+
+Jamestown, 3, 21
+
+Japan, relations with, 447, 511, 583
+
+Jay, John, 128, 158, 177
+
+Jefferson, Thomas: Declaration of Independence, 107
+  Secretary of State, 162ff.
+  political leader, 169
+  as President, 183ff.
+  Monroe Doctrine, 206, 231
+
+Jews, migration of, 11
+
+Johnson, Andrew, 365, 368, 371f.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 132
+
+Joliet, 59
+
+Jones, John Paul, 118
+
+Judiciary: British system, 67
+  federal, 152
+
+
+Kansas, admission, 441
+
+Kansas-Nebraska bill, 333
+
+Kentucky: admission, 224
+  Resolutions, 182
+
+King George's War, 59
+
+King Philip's War, 57
+
+King William's War, 59
+
+King's College (Columbia), 45
+
+Knights of Labor, 575ff.
+
+Kosciusko, 121
+
+Ku Klux Klan, 382
+
+
+Labor:  rise of organized, 304
+  parties, 462ff.
+  question, 521
+  American Federation, 573ff.
+  legislation, 590
+  World War, 608ff.
+
+Lafayette, 121
+
+La Follette, Senator, 531
+
+Land: tenure 20ff.
+  sales restricted, 80
+  Western survey, 219
+  federal sales policy, 220
+  Western tenure, 228
+  disappearance of free, 445
+  new problems, 449
+  _See also_ Homestead act
+
+La Salle, 59
+
+Lawrence, Captain, 200
+
+League of Nations, 616ff.
+
+Le Boeuf, Fort, 59
+
+Lee, General Charles, 131
+
+Lee, R.E., 357
+
+Lewis and Clark expedition, 193
+
+Lexington, battle, 100
+
+Liberal Republicans, 420
+
+Liberty loan, 606
+
+Lincoln: Mexican War, 282
+  Douglas debates, 336f.
+  election, 341
+  Civil War, 344ff.
+  reconstruction, 371
+
+Literacy test, 585
+
+Livingston, R.R., 191
+
+Locke, John, 95
+
+London Company, 3
+
+Long Island, battle, 114
+
+Lords of trade, 67ff.
+
+Louis XVI, 171ff.
+
+Louisiana: ceded to Spain, 61
+  purchase, 190ff.
+  admission, 227
+
+Loyalists. _See_ Tories
+
+_Lusitania_, the, 601ff.
+
+
+McClellan, General, 362, 365
+
+McCulloch _vs._ Maryland, 211
+
+McKinley, William, 422, 467ff., 489ff.
+
+Macaulay, Catherine, 132
+
+Madison, James, 158, 197ff.
+
+Maine, 325
+
+_Maine_, the, 490
+
+Manila Bay, battle, 492
+
+Manors, colonial, 22
+
+Manufactures. _See_ Industry
+
+Marbury _vs._ Madison, 209
+
+Marietta, 220
+
+Marion, Francis, 117, 120
+
+Marquette, 59
+
+Marshall, John, 208ff.
+
+Martineau, Harriet, 267
+
+Maryland, founded, 6, 49, 109, 239, 242
+
+Massachusetts: founded, 3ff.
+  _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Industry, Revolutionary War,
+     Constitutions, state, Suffrage, Commerce, and Industry
+
+Massachusetts Bay Company, 3
+  founded, 3ff.
+  _See also_ Immigration, Royal province
+
+_Mayflower_ compact, 4
+
+Mercantile theory, 69
+
+Merchants. _See_ Commerce
+
+_Merrimac_, the, 353
+
+Meuse-Argonne, battle, 612
+
+Mexico: and Texas, 278ff.
+  later relations, 594f.
+
+Michigan, admission, 273
+
+Midnight appointees, 187
+
+Milan Decree, 194
+
+Militia, Revolutionary War, 122
+
+Minimum wages, 551
+
+Minnesota, admission, 275
+
+Mississippi River, and West, 189f.
+
+Missouri Compromise, 207, 227, 271, 325, 332
+
+Molasses act, 71
+
+Money, paper, 80, 126, 155, 369
+
+_Monitor_, the, 353
+
+Monroe, James, 204ff., 191
+
+Monroe Doctrine, 205, 512
+
+Montana, admission, 442
+
+Montgomery, General, 114
+
+Morris, Robert, 127
+
+Mothers' pensions, 551
+
+Mohawks, 57
+
+Muckraking, 536f.
+
+Mugwumps, 420
+
+Municipal ownership, 549
+
+
+Napoleon I, 190
+
+Napoleon III: Civil War, 354f.
+  Mexico, 477
+
+National Labor Union, 574
+
+National road, 232
+
+Nationalism, colonial, 56ff.
+
+Natural rights, 95
+
+Navigation acts, 69
+
+Navy: in Revolution, 188
+  War of 1812, 195
+  Civil War, 353
+  World War, 610.
+  _See also_ Sea Power
+
+Nebraska, admission, 441
+
+Negro: Civil rights, 370ff.
+  in agriculture, 393ff.
+  status of, 396ff.
+  _See also_ Slavery
+
+New England: colonial times, 6ff., 35, 40ff.
+  _See also_ Industry, Suffrage, Commerce, and Wars
+
+New Hampshire: founded, 4ff.
+  _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Suffrage, and Constitutions,
+    state
+
+New Jersey, founded, 6.
+   _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Suffrage, and
+     Constitutions, state
+
+Newlands, Senator, 524
+
+New Mexico, admission, 443
+
+New Orleans, 59, 190
+  battle, 201
+
+Newspapers, colonial, 46ff.
+
+New York: founded by Dutch, 3
+  transferred to English, 49
+  _See also_ Dutch, Immigration, Royal province, Commerce, Suffrage,
+    and Constitutions, state
+
+New York City, colonial, 36
+
+Niagara, Fort, 59
+
+Nicaragua protectorate, 594
+
+Non-intercourse act, 196ff.
+
+Non-importation, 84ff., 99
+
+North, Lord, 100, 131, 133
+
+North Carolina: founded, 6.
+  _See also_ Royal province, Immigration, Suffrage, and Constitutions,
+    state
+
+North Dakota, admission, 442
+
+Northwest Ordinance, 219
+
+Nullification, 182, 251ff.
+
+
+Oglethorpe, James, 3
+
+Ohio, admission, 225
+
+Oklahoma, admission, 443
+
+Open door policy, 500
+
+Oregon, 284ff.
+
+Ostend Manifesto, 486
+
+Otis, James, 88, 95f.
+
+
+Pacific, American influence, 447
+
+Paine, Thomas, 103, 115, 175
+
+Panama Canal, 508ff.
+
+Panics: 1837, 262
+  1857, 336
+  1873, 464
+  1893, 465
+
+Parcel post, 529
+
+Parker, A.B., 527
+
+Parties: rise of, 168ff.
+  Federalists, 169ff.
+  Anti-Federalists (Jeffersonian Republicans), 169ff.
+  Democrats, 260
+  Whigs, 260ff.
+  Republicans, 334ff.
+  Liberal Republicans, 420
+  Constitutional union, 340
+  minor parties, 462ff.
+
+Paterson, William, 196ff.
+
+Penn, William, 6
+
+Pennsylvania: founded, 6
+  _See also_ Penn, Germans, Immigration, Industry, Revolutionary War,
+    Constitutions, state, Suffrage
+
+Pennsylvania University, 45
+
+Pensions, soldiers and sailors, 413, 607
+  mothers', 551
+
+Pequots, 57
+
+Perry, O.H., 200
+
+Pershing, General, 610
+
+Philadelphia, 36, 116
+
+Philippines, 492ff., 516ff., 592
+
+Phillips, Wendell, 320
+
+Pierce, Franklin, 295, 330
+
+Pike, Z., 193, 287
+
+Pilgrims, 4
+
+Pinckney, Charles, 148
+
+Pitt, William, 61, 79, 87, 132
+
+Planting system, 22f., 25, 149, 389, 393ff.
+
+Plymouth, 4, 21
+
+Polk, J.K., 265, 285f.
+
+Polygamy, 290f.
+
+Populist party, 464
+
+Porto Rico, 515, 592
+
+Postal savings bank, 529
+
+Preble, Commodore, 196
+
+Press. _See_ Newspapers
+
+Primary, direct, 541
+
+Princeton, battle, 129
+  University, 45
+
+Profit sharing, 572
+
+Progressive party, 531f.
+
+Prohibition, 591f.
+
+Proprietary colonies, 3, 6
+
+Provinces, royal, 49ff.
+
+Public service, 538ff.
+
+Pulaski, 121
+
+Pullman strike, 465
+
+Pure food act, 523
+
+Puritans, 3, 7, 40ff.
+
+
+Quakers, 6ff.
+
+Quartering act, 83
+
+Quebec act, 94
+
+Queen Anne's War, 59
+
+Quit rents, 21f.
+
+
+Radicals, 579
+
+Railways,  298, 402, 425, 460ff., 547, 621
+
+Randolph, Edmund, 146, 147, 162
+
+Ratification, of Constitution, 156ff.
+
+Recall, 543
+
+Reclamation, 523ff.
+
+Reconstruction, 370ff.
+
+Referendum, the, 543
+
+Reign of terror, 174
+
+Republicans: Jeffersonian, 179
+  rise of present party, 334ff.
+  supremacy of, 412ff.
+  _See also_ McKinley, Roosevelt, and Taft
+
+Resumption, 454
+
+Revolution: American, 99ff.
+  French, 171ff.
+  Russian, 619
+
+Rhode Island: founded, 4ff.
+  self-government, 49
+  _See also_ Suffrage
+
+Roosevelt, Theodore, 492, 500ff., 531, 570
+
+Royal province, 49ff.
+
+Russia, 205, 207, 355, 479, 619
+
+Russo-Japanese War, 511f.
+
+
+Saint Mihiel, 612
+
+Samoa, 481
+
+San Jacinto, 280
+
+Santa Fé trail, 287
+
+Santo Domingo, 480, 513, 592
+
+Saratoga, battle, 116, 130
+
+Savannah, 116, 131
+
+Scandinavians, 278
+
+Schools. _See_ Education
+
+Scott, General, 283, 330
+
+Scotch-Irish, 7ff.
+
+Seamen's act, 590
+
+Sea power: American Revolution, 118
+  Napoleonic wars, 193ff.
+  Civil War, 353
+  Caribbean, 593
+  Pacific, 447
+  World War, 610ff.
+
+Secession, 344ff.
+
+Sedition: act of 1798, 180ff., 187
+  of 1918, 608
+
+Senators, popular election, 527, 541ff.
+
+Seven Years' War, 60ff.
+
+Sevier, John, 218
+
+Seward, W.H., 322, 342
+
+Shafter, General, 492
+
+Shays's rebellion, 142
+
+Sherman, General, 361
+
+Sherman: anti-trust law, 461
+  silver act, 458
+
+Shiloh, 361
+
+Shipping. _See_ Commerce
+
+Shipping act, 607
+
+Silver, free, 455ff.
+
+Slavery: colonial, 16f.
+  trade, 150
+  in Northwest, 219
+  decline in North, 316f.
+  growth in South, 320ff.
+  and the Constitution, 324
+  and territories, 325ff.
+  compromises, 350
+  abolished, 357ff.
+
+Smith, Joseph, 290
+
+Socialism, 577ff.
+
+Solid South, 388
+
+Solomon, Hayn, 126
+
+Sons of liberty, 82
+
+South: economic and political views, 309ff.
+  _See also_ Slavery and Planting system, and Reconstruction
+
+South Carolina: founded, 6
+  nullification, 253ff.
+  _See also_ Constitutions, state, Suffrage, Slavery, and Secession
+
+South Dakota, 442
+
+Spain: and Revolution, 130
+  Louisiana, 190
+  Monroe Doctrine, 205
+  Spanish War, 490ff.
+
+Spoils system, 244, 250, 418, 536ff.
+
+Stamp act, 82ff.
+
+Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 564
+
+States: disorders under Articles of Confederation, 141
+  constitutions, federal limits on, 155
+  position after Civil War, 366ff.
+  _See also_ Suffrage, Nullification, and Secession
+
+Steamboat, 234
+
+Stowe, H.B., 332
+
+Strikes: of 1877, 581
+  Pullman, 581
+  coal, 526
+  _See also_ Labor
+
+Submarine campaign, 600ff.
+
+Suffrage: colonial, 42, 51
+  first state constitutions, 239
+  White manhood, 242
+  Negro, 374ff., 385f.
+  Woman, 110, 562ff.
+
+Sugar act, 81
+
+Sumner, Charles, 319
+
+Sumter, Fort, 350
+
+Swedes, 3, 13
+
+
+Taft, W.H., 527ff.
+
+Tammany Hall, 306, 418
+
+Taney, Chief Justice, 357
+
+Tariff: first, 167
+  of 1816, 203
+  development of, 251ff.
+  abominations, 249, 253
+  nullification, 251
+  of 1842, 264
+  Southern views of, 309ff.
+  of 1857, 337
+  Civil War, 367
+  Wilson bill, 459
+  McKinley bill, 422
+  Dingley bill, 472
+  Payne-Aldrich, 528
+  Underwood, 588
+
+Taxation: and representation, 149
+  and Constitution, 154
+  Civil War, 353
+  and wealth, 522, 551
+  and World War, 606
+
+Tea act, 88
+
+Tea party, 92
+
+Tenement house reform, 549
+
+Tennessee, 28, 224
+
+Territories, Northwest, 219
+  South of the Ohio, 219
+  _See also_ Slavery and Compromise
+
+Texas, 278ff.
+
+Tippecanoe, battle, 198
+
+Tocqueville, 267
+
+Toleration, religious, 42
+
+Tories, colonial, 84
+  in Revolution, 112
+
+Townshend acts, 80, 87
+
+Trade, colonial, 70
+  legislation, 70. _See_ Commerce
+
+Transylvania company, 28
+
+Treasury, independent, 263
+
+Treaties, of 1763, 61
+  alliance with France, 177
+  of 1783 with England, 134
+  Jay, 177, 218
+  Louisiana purchase, 191f.
+  of 1815, 201
+  Ashburton, 265
+  of 1848 with Mexico, 283
+  Washington with England, 481
+  with Spain, 492
+  Versailles (1919), 612ff.
+
+Trenton, battle, 116
+
+Trollope, Mrs., 268
+
+Trusts, 405ff., 461, 472ff., 521, 526, 530
+
+Tweed, W.M., 418
+
+Tyler, President, 264ff., 281, 349
+
+
+"Uncle Tom's Cabin," 332
+
+Union party, 365
+
+Unions. _See_ Labor
+
+Utah, 290ff., 329, 442
+
+Utilities, municipal, 548
+
+
+Vallandigham, 360
+
+Valley Forge, 116, 129
+
+Van Buren, Martin, 262
+
+Venango, Fort, 59
+
+Venezuela, 482ff., 512
+
+Vermont, 223
+
+Vicksburg, 361
+
+Virginia: founded, 3.
+  _See also_ Royal province, Constitutions, state, Planting system,
+    Slavery, Secession, and Immigration
+
+
+Walpole, Sir Robert, 66
+
+Wars: colonial, 57ff.
+  Revolutionary, 99ff.
+  of 1812, 199ff.
+  Mexican, 282ff.
+  Civil, 344ff.
+  Spanish, 490ff.
+  World, 596ff.
+
+Washington: warns French, 60
+  in French war, 63
+  commander-in-chief, 101ff.
+  and movement for Constitution, 142ff.
+  as President, 166ff.
+  Farewell Address, 178
+
+Washington City, 166
+
+Washington State, 442
+
+Webster, 256, 265, 328
+
+Welfare work, 573
+
+Whigs: English, 78
+  colonial, 83
+  rise of party, 260ff., 334, 340
+
+Whisky Rebellion, 171
+
+White Camelia, 382
+
+White Plains, battle, 114
+
+Whitman, Marcus, 284
+
+William and Mary College, 45
+
+Williams, Roger, 5, 42
+
+Wilmot Proviso, 326
+
+Wilson, James, 147
+
+Wilson, Woodrow, election, 533f.
+  administrations, 588ff.
+
+Winthrop, John, 3
+
+Wisconsin, admission, 274
+
+Witchcraft, 41
+
+Wollstonecraft, Mary, 556
+
+Women: colonial, 28
+  Revolutionary War, 124
+  labor, 305
+  education and civil rights, 554ff.
+  suffrage, 562ff.
+
+Workmen's compensation, 549
+
+Writs of assistance, 88
+
+Wyoming, admission, 442
+
+
+X, Y, Z affair, 180
+
+
+Yale, 44
+
+Young, Brigham, 290
+
+
+Zenger, Peter, 48
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Transcriber's notes:
+
+Punctuation normalized in all _Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+Superscripted letters are denoted with a caret. For example, G^O
+WASHINGTON.
+
+Period added after Mass on verso page. Original read "Mass, U.S.A."
+
+Chapter I, page 19, period added to pp. 55-159 and pp. 242-244.
+
+Chapter IV, page 61 cooperation changed to coöperation twice to match
+rest of text usage. Also on page 620.
+
+Chapter VI, page 121 changed maneuvered to manoevered.
+
+Chapter VIII, page 185, period added to "Vol." Original read "Vol III,"
+
+Chapter X, page 219, changed coordinate to coördinate to reflect rest of
+text usage.
+
+Chapter X, page 234, Italicized habeus corpus to match rest of text.
+
+Chapter XI, page 257 changed reestablished to reëstablished to conform
+to rest of text usage.
+
+Chapter XI, page 259 changed reelection to reëlection
+
+Chapter XII, page 269 added period after "Vol" Vol. II
+
+Chapter XII, page 270. Title of work reads "_Selected Documents of
+United States History, 1776-1761_". Research shows the document does
+have this title.
+
+Chapter XV, page 351. changed "bout" to "about". "for only about"
+
+Chapter XVI, page 385. changed "provisons" to "provisions".
+
+Chapter XX, page 478. changed "aniversary" to "anniversary".
+
+Chapter XXIV, page 579 word "on" changed to "one" "five commissioners,
+one of whom,"
+
+Topical Syllabus. Missing periods added to normalize punctuation in
+entries such as on page 648 (4) Sixteenth Amendment--income tax
+(528-529).
+
+Appendix, page 631, comma changed to semi-colon on "bills of credit;" to
+match rest of list. Also on "obligation of contracts;"
+
+Index, page 657, changed "Freesoil" to Free-soil to match rest of text
+usage.
+
+Index, page 660, space removed from "396 ff." changed to "status of,
+396ff."
+
+Index, Page 662, added comma to States: disorders under Articles of
+Constitution, 141]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States
+by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States
+by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of the United States
+
+Author: Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
+
+Release Date: October 28, 2005 [EBook #16960]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, M and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<h1>HISTORY</h1>
+
+<h4>OF THE</h4>
+
+<h1>UNITED STATES</h1>
+
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+
+<h2>CHARLES A. BEARD</h2>
+
+<h4>AND</h4>
+
+<h2>MARY R. BEARD</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">New York</div>
+
+<div class="center">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</div>
+
+<div class="center">1921</div>
+
+<div class="center"><i>All rights reserved</i></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1921,</div>
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">By</span> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1921.</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">Norwood Press<br />
+J.S. Cushing Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith Co.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Norwood, Mass.</span>, U.S.A.
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>As things now stand, the course of instruction in American history in
+our public schools embraces three distinct treatments of the subject.
+Three separate books are used. First, there is the primary book, which
+is usually a very condensed narrative with emphasis on biographies and
+anecdotes. Second, there is the advanced text for the seventh or eighth
+grade, generally speaking, an expansion of the elementary book by the
+addition of forty or fifty thousand words. Finally, there is the high
+school manual. This, too, ordinarily follows the beaten path, giving
+fuller accounts of the same events and characters. To put it bluntly, we
+do not assume that our children obtain permanent possessions from their
+study of history in the lower grades. If mathematicians followed the
+same method, high school texts on algebra and geometry would include the
+multiplication table and fractions.</p>
+
+<p>There is, of course, a ready answer to the criticism advanced above. It
+is that teachers have learned from bitter experience how little history
+their pupils retain as they pass along the regular route. No teacher of
+history will deny this. Still it is a standing challenge to existing
+methods of historical instruction. If the study of history cannot be
+made truly progressive like the study of mathematics, science, and
+languages, then the historians assume a grave responsibility in adding
+their subject to the already overloaded curriculum. If the successive
+historical texts are only enlarged editions of the first text&mdash;more
+facts, more dates, more words&mdash;then history deserves most of the sharp
+criticism which it is receiving from teachers of science, civics, and
+economics.</p>
+
+<p>In this condition of affairs we find our justification for offering a
+new high school text in American history. Our first contribution is one
+of omission. The time-honored stories of exploration and the
+biographies of heroes are left out. We frankly hold that, if pupils know
+little or nothing about Columbus, Cortes, Magellan, or Captain John
+Smith by the time they reach the high school, it is useless to tell the
+same stories for perhaps the fourth time. It is worse than useless. It
+is an offense against the teachers of those subjects that are
+demonstrated to be progressive in character.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place we have omitted all descriptions of battles. Our
+reasons for this are simple. The strategy of a campaign or of a single
+battle is a highly technical, and usually a highly controversial, matter
+about which experts differ widely. In the field of military and naval
+operations most writers and teachers of history are mere novices. To
+dispose of Gettysburg or the Wilderness in ten lines or ten pages is
+equally absurd to the serious student of military affairs. Any one who
+compares the ordinary textbook account of a single Civil War campaign
+with the account given by Ropes, for instance, will ask for no further
+comment. No youth called upon to serve our country in arms would think
+of turning to a high school manual for information about the art of
+warfare. The dramatic scene or episode, so useful in arousing the
+interest of the immature pupil, seems out of place in a book that
+deliberately appeals to boys and girls on the very threshold of life's
+serious responsibilities.</p>
+
+<p>It is not upon negative features, however, that we rest our case. It is
+rather upon constructive features.</p>
+
+<p><i>First.</i> We have written a topical, not a narrative, history. We have
+tried to set forth the important aspects, problems, and movements of
+each period, bringing in the narrative rather by way of illustration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second.</i> We have emphasized those historical topics which help to
+explain how our nation has come to be what it is to-day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third.</i> We have dwelt fully upon the social and economic aspects of our
+history, especially in relation to the politics of each period.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth.</i> We have treated the causes and results of wars, the problems
+of financing and sustaining armed forces, rather than military strategy.
+These are the subjects which belong to a history for civilians. These
+are matters which civilians can understand&mdash;matters which they must
+understand, if they are to play well their part in war and peace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth.</i> By omitting the period of exploration, we have been able to
+enlarge the treatment of our own time. We have given special attention
+to the history of those current questions which must form the subject
+matter of sound instruction in citizenship.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth.</i> We have borne in mind that America, with all her unique
+characteristics, is a part of a general civilization. Accordingly we
+have given diplomacy, foreign affairs, world relations, and the
+reciprocal influences of nations their appropriate place.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seventh.</i> We have deliberately aimed at standards of maturity. The
+study of a mere narrative calls mainly for the use of the memory. We
+have aimed to stimulate habits of analysis, comparison, association,
+reflection, and generalization&mdash;habits calculated to enlarge as well as
+inform the mind. We have been at great pains to make our text clear,
+simple, and direct; but we have earnestly sought to stretch the
+intellects of our readers&mdash;to put them upon their mettle. Most of them
+will receive the last of their formal instruction in the high school.
+The world will soon expect maturity from them. Their achievements will
+depend upon the possession of other powers than memory alone. The
+effectiveness of their citizenship in our republic will be measured by
+the excellence of their judgment as well as the fullness of their
+information.</p>
+
+<div class='right'>
+C.A.B.<br />
+M.R.B.</div>
+<div>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">N</span><span class="smcap">ew York City</span>,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">February 8, 1921.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>A SMALL LIBRARY IN AMERICAN HISTORY</h2>
+
+
+<div>
+<i><b>SINGLE VOLUMES:</b></i><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">BASSETT, J.S. <i>A Short History of the United States</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">ELSON, H.W. <i>History of the United States of America</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i><b>SERIES:</b></i><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"E</span><span class="smcap">pochs of American History," edited by A.B. Hart</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">HART, A.B. <i>Formation of the Union</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">THWAITES, R.G. <i>The Colonies</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">WILSON, WOODROW. <i>Division and Reunion</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"R</span><span class="smcap">iverside Series," edited by W.E. Dodd</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">BECKER, C.L. <i>Beginnings of the American People</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">DODD, W.E. <i>Expansion and Conflict</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">JOHNSON, A. <i>Union and Democracy</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">PAXSON, F.L. <i>The New Nation</i></span><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='center'>PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><span class="smcap">chapter</span></td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>
+<span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Great Migration to America</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Agencies of American Colonization</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Colonial Peoples</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Process of Colonization</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">Colonial Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Land and the Westward Movement</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Industrial and Commercial Development</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">Social and Political Progress</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Leadership of the Churches</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Schools and Colleges</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Colonial Press</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Evolution in Political Institutions</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Development of Colonial Nationalism</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Relations with the Indians and the French</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Effects of Warfare on the Colonies</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Colonial Relations with the British Government</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Summary of Colonial Period</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='center'><br /><br />PART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE<br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The New Course in British Imperial Policy</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">George III and His System</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">George III's Ministers and Their Colonial Policies</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Colonial Resistance Forces Repeal</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Resumption of British Revenue and Commercial Policies</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Renewed Resistance in America</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Retaliation by the British Government</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">From Reform to Revolution in America</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The American Revolution</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Resistance and Retaliation</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">American Independence</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Establishment of Government and the New Allegiance</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Military Affairs</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Finances of the Revolution</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Diplomacy of the Revolution</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Peace at Last</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Summary of the Revolutionary Period</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='center'><br /><br />PART III. FOUNDATIONS OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS<br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Formation of the Constitution</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Promise and the Difficulties of America</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Calling of a Constitutional Convention</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Framing of the Constitution</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Struggle over Ratification</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Clash of Political Parties</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Men and Measures of the New Government</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Rise of Political Parties</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Foreign Influences and Domestic Politics</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Republican Principles and Policies</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Republicans and the Great West</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Republican War for Commercial Independence</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Republicans Nationalized</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The National Decisions of Chief Justice Marshall</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Summary of Union and National Politics</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='center'><br /><br />PART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY<br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>X.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Farmers beyond the Appalachians</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Preparation for Western Settlement</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Western Migration and New States</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Spirit of the Frontier</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The West and the East Meet</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">Jacksonian Democracy</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_238'>238</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Democratic Movement in the East</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_238'>238</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The New Democracy Enters the Arena</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_244'>244</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The New Democracy at Washington</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_250'>250</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Rise of the Whigs</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_260'>260</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Interaction of American and European Opinion</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XII.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Middle Border and the Great West</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_271'>271</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Advance of the Middle Border</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_271'>271</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">On to the Pacific&mdash;Texas and the Mexican War</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_276'>276</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Pacific Coast and Utah</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_284'>284</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Summary of Western Development and National Politics</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_292'>292</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='center'><br /><br />PART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION<br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XIII.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Rise of the Industrial System</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_295'>295</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Industrial Revolution</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_296'>296</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Industrial Revolution and National Politics</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_307'>307</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XIV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Planting System and National Politics</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Slavery&mdash;North and South</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Slavery in National Politics</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_324'>324</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Drift of Events toward the Irrepressible Conflict</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_332'>332</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XV.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Civil War and Reconstruction</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_344'>344</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Southern Confederacy</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_344'>344</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The War Measures of the Federal Government</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_350'>350</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Results of the Civil War</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_365'>365</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Reconstruction in the South</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_370'>370</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Summary of the Sectional Conflict</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_375'>375</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='center'><br /><br />PART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS<br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XVI.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Political and Economic Evolution of the South</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_379'>379</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The South at the Close of the War</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_379'>379</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Restoration of White Supremacy</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_382'>382</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Economic Advance of the South</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_389'>389</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XVII.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">Business Enterprise and the Republican Party</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_401'>401</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Railways and Industry</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_401'>401</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Supremacy of the Republican Party (1861-1885)</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_412'>412</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Growth of Opposition to Republican Rule</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_417'>417</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XVIII.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Development of the Great West</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_425'>425</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Railways as Trail Blazers</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_425'>425</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Evolution of Grazing and Agriculture</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_431'>431</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Mining and Manufacturing in the West</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_436'>436</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Admission of New States</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_440'>440</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Influence of the Far West on National Life</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_443'>443</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XIX.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">Domestic Issues before the Country</span>(1865-1897)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_451'>451</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Currency Question</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_452'>452</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Protective Tariff and Taxation</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_459'>459</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Railways and Trusts</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_460'>460</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Minor Parties and Unrest</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_462'>462</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Sound Money Battle of 1896</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_466'>466</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Republican Measures and Results</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_472'>472</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XX.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">America a World Power</span>(1865-1900)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_477'>477</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">American Foreign Relations (1865-1898)</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_478'>478</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Cuba and the Spanish War</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_485'>485</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">American Policies in the Philippines and the Orient</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_497'>497</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Summary of National Growth and World Politics</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_504'>504</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='center'><br /><br />PART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR<br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXI.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Evolution of Republican Policies</span>(1901-1913)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_507'>507</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Foreign Affairs</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_508'>508</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Colonial Administration</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_515'>515</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Roosevelt Domestic Policies</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_519'>519</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Legislative and Executive Activities</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_523'>523</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Administration of President Taft</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_527'>527</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Progressive Insurgency and the Election of 1912</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_530'>530</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXII.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Spirit of Reform in America</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_536'>536</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">An Age of Criticism</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_536'>536</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Political Reforms</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_538'>538</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Measures of Economic Reform</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_546'>546</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIII.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">The New Political Democracy</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_554'>554</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Rise of the Woman Movement</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_555'>555</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The National Struggle for Woman Suffrage</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_562'>562</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIV.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">Industrial Democracy</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_570'>570</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Co&ouml;peration between Employers and Employees</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_571'>571</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Rise and Growth of Organized Labor</span>
+</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_575'>575</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Wider Relations of Organized Labor</span>
+</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_577'>577</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Immigration and Americanization</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_582'>582</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXV.</td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">President Wilson and the World War</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_588'>588</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Domestic Legislation</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_588'>588</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Colonial and Foreign Policies</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_592'>592</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The United States and the European War</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_596'>596</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The United States at War</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_604'>604</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">The Settlement at Paris</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_612'>612</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 5em;">Summary of Democracy and the World War</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_620'>620</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_627'>627</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Topical Syllabus</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_645'>645</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#Page_655'>655</a></td></tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>MAPS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Maps">
+<tr><td align='left'></td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The Original Grants (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#grant'>4</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>German and Scotch-Irish Settlements</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#settlements'>8</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Distribution of Population in 1790</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#population'>27</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>English, French, and Spanish Possessions in America, 1750 (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#possessions'>59</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The Colonies at the Time of the Declaration of Independence (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#independence'>108</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>North America according to the Treaty of 1783 (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#treaty'>134</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The United States in 1805 (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#o-five'>193</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Roads and Trails into Western Territory (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#roads'>224</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The Cumberland Road</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#cumberland'>233</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Distribution of Population in 1830</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#thirty'>235</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Texas and the Territory in Dispute</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#texas'>282</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The Oregon Country and the Disputed Boundary</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#oregon'>285</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The Overland Trails</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#overland'>287</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Distribution of Slaves in Southern States</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#slaves'>323</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The Missouri Compromise</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#missouri'>326</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Slave and Free Soil on the Eve of the Civil War</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#free'>335</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The United States in 1861 (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#sixty_one'>345</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Railroads of the United States in 1918</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#railroads'>405</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The United States in 1870 (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#seventy'>427</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The United States in 1912 (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#twelve'>443</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>American Dominions in the Pacific (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#pacific'>500</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>The Caribbean Region (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Facing</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#caribbean'>592</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Battle Lines of the Various Years of the World War</td>
+<td align='left'></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#lines'>613</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Europe in 1919 (color map)</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Between</i></td>
+<td align='right'><a href='#europe'>618</a>-<a href='#europe'>619</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#nations'><span class="smcap">The Nations of the West</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#winthrop'><span class="smcap">John Winthrop, Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Company</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#penn'><span class="smcap">William Penn, Proprietor of Pennsylvania</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#germantown'><span class="smcap">A Glimpse of Old Germantown</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#dutch'><span class="smcap">Old Dutch Fort and English Church Near Albany</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#plantation'><span class="smcap">Southern Plantation Mansion</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#farmhouse'><span class="smcap">A New England Farmhouse</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#tallow'><span class="smcap">Domestic Industry: Dipping Tallow Candles</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#warehouse'><span class="smcap">The Dutch West India Warehouse in New Amsterdam (New York City)</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#page'><span class="smcap">A Page from a Famous Schoolbook</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#palace'><span class="smcap">The Royal Governor's Palace at New Berne</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#virginians'><span class="smcap">Virginians Defending Themselves against the Indians</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#retreat'><span class="smcap">Braddock's Retreat</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#franklin'><span class="smcap">Benjamin Franklin</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#george'><span class="smcap">George III</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#henry'><span class="smcap">Patrick Henry</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#samuel'><span class="smcap">Samuel Adams</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#spirit'><span class="smcap">Spirit of 1776</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#paine'><span class="smcap">Thomas Paine</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#jeffersonr'><span class="smcap">Thomas Jefferson Reading His Draft of the Declaration</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#mobbing'><span class="smcap">Mobbing the Tories</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#washington'><span class="smcap">George Washington</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#morris'><span class="smcap">Robert Morris</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#hamilton'><span class="smcap">Alexander Hamilton</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#advert'><span class="smcap">An Advertisement of</span> <i>The Federalist</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#celebrating'><span class="smcap">Celebrating the Ratification</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#bank'><span class="smcap">First United States Bank at Philadelphia</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#louis'><span class="smcap">Louis XVI in the Hands of the Mob</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#quarrel'><span class="smcap">A Quarrel between a Federalist and a Republican</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#jumping'><span class="smcap">New England Jumping into the Hands of George III</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#marshall'><span class="smcap">John Marshall</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#log'><span class="smcap">A Log Cabin&mdash;Lincoln's Birthplace</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#steamboat'><span class="smcap">An Early Mississippi Steamboat</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#dorr'><span class="smcap">Thomas Dorr Arousing His Followers</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#jackson'><span class="smcap">Andrew Jackson</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#webster'><span class="smcap">Daniel Webster</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#cartoon'><span class="smcap">An Old Cartoon Ridiculing Clay's Tariff</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#santa'><span class="smcap">Santa Barbara Mission</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#frisco'><span class="smcap">San Francisco in 1849</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#mill'><span class="smcap">A New England Mill Built in 1793</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#railway'><span class="smcap">An Early Railway</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#lowell'><span class="smcap">Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1838</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#calhoun'><span class="smcap">John C. Calhoun</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#clay'><span class="smcap">Henry Clay</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#thunder'><span class="smcap">An Old Cartoon Representing Webster "Stealing Clay's Thunder"</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#stowe'><span class="smcap">Harriet Beecher Stowe</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#davis'><span class="smcap">Jefferson Davis</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#draft'><span class="smcap">The Draft Riots in New York City</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#blockade'><span class="smcap">A Blockade Runner</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#bright'><span class="smcap">John Bright</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#seward'><span class="smcap">William H. Seward</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#lincoln'><span class="smcap">Abraham Lincoln</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#gengrant'><span class="smcap">General Ulysses S. Grant</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#lee'><span class="smcap">General Robert E. Lee</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#hospital'><span class="smcap">The Federal Military Hospital at Gettysburg</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#steel'><span class="smcap">Steel Mills&mdash;Birmingham, Alabama</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#cotton'><span class="smcap">A Southern Cotton Mill in a Cotton Field</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#memphis'><span class="smcap">A Glimpse of Memphis, Tennessee</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#bethlehem'><span class="smcap">A Corner in the Bethlehem Steel Works</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#rockefeller'><span class="smcap">John D. Rockefeller</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#wallstreet'><span class="smcap">Wall Street, New York City</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#prairie'><span class="smcap">A Town on the Prairie</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#logging'><span class="smcap">Logging</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#canadian'><span class="smcap">The Canadian Building</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#commodore'><span class="smcap">Commodore Perry's Men Making Presents to the Japanese</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#bryan'><span class="smcap">William J. Bryan in 1898</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#mckinley'><span class="smcap">President McKinley and His Cabinet</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#cleveland'><span class="smcap">Grover Cleveland</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#cuba'><span class="smcap"><i>An old cartoon.</i>A Sight Too Bad</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#cuban'><span class="smcap">Cuban Revolutionists</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#home'><span class="smcap">A Philippine Home</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#engineer'><span class="smcap">Roosevelt Talking to the Engineer of a Railroad Train</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#canal'><span class="smcap">Panama Canal</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#sugar'><span class="smcap">A Sugar Mill, Porto Rico</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#taft'><span class="smcap">Mr Taft in the Philippines</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#dam'><span class="smcap">The Roosevelt Dam, Phoenix, Arizona</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#street'><span class="smcap">An East Side Street in New York</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#abigail'><span class="smcap">Abigail Adams</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#anthony'><span class="smcap">Susan B. Anthony</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#conference'><span class="smcap">Conference of Men and Women Delegates</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#gompers'><span class="smcap">Samuel Gompers and Other Labor Leaders</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#launch'><span class="smcap">The Launching of a Ship at the Great Naval Yards, Newark, N.J.</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#troops'><span class="smcap">Troops Returning from France</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href='#paris'><span class="smcap">Premiers Lloyd George, Orlando and Cl&eacute;menceau and President Wilson at Paris</span></a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="blockquot">"<span class="smcap">The Nations of the West</span>" (popularly called "The
+Pioneers"), designed by A. Stirling Calder and modeled by
+Mr. Calder, F.G.R. Roth, and Leo Lentelli, topped the Arch
+of the Setting Sun at the Panama-Pacific Exposition held at
+San Francisco in 1915. Facing the Court of the Universe
+moves a group of men and women typical of those who have
+made our civilization. From left to right appear the
+French-Canadian, the Alaskan, the Latin-American, the
+German, the Italian, the Anglo-American, and the American
+Indian, squaw and warrior. In the place of honor in the
+center of the group, standing between the oxen on the tongue
+of the prairie schooner, is a figure, beautiful and almost
+girlish, but strong, dignified, and womanly, the Mother of
+To-morrow. Above the group rides the Spirit of Enterprise,
+flanked right and left by the Hopes of the Future in the
+person of two boys. The group as a whole is beautifully
+symbolic of the westward march of American civilization.</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a name="nations" id="nations"></a><a href="./images/14.jpg"><img src="./images/14-tb.jpg" alt="The Nations of the West" title="The Nations of the West" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'> <i><small>Photograph by Cardinell-Vincent Co., San Francisco</small></i><br />
+"<span class="smcap"><big>The Nations of the West</big></span>"</div>
+
+<div><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>HISTORY OF</h1>
+<h1>THE UNITED STATES</h1>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD</h2>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA</h3>
+
+
+<p>The tide of migration that set in toward the shores of North America
+during the early years of the seventeenth century was but one phase in
+the restless and eternal movement of mankind upon the surface of the
+earth. The ancient Greeks flung out their colonies in every direction,
+westward as far as Gaul, across the Mediterranean, and eastward into
+Asia Minor, perhaps to the very confines of India. The Romans, supported
+by their armies and their government, spread their dominion beyond the
+narrow lands of Italy until it stretched from the heather of Scotland to
+the sands of Arabia. The Teutonic tribes, from their home beyond the
+Danube and the Rhine, poured into the empire of the C&aelig;sars and made the
+beginnings of modern Europe. Of this great sweep of races and empires
+the settlement of America was merely a part. And it was, moreover, only
+one aspect of the expansion which finally carried the peoples, the
+institutions, and the trade of Europe to the very ends of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>In one vital point, it must be noted, American colonization differed
+from that of the ancients. The Greeks usually carried with them
+affection for the government they left behind and sacred fire from the
+altar of the parent city; but thousands of the immigrants who came to
+America disliked the state and <a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>disowned the church of the mother
+country. They established compacts of government for themselves and set
+up altars of their own. They sought not only new soil to till but also
+political and religious liberty for themselves and their children.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Agencies of American Colonization</span></h3>
+
+<p>It was no light matter for the English to cross three thousand miles of
+water and found homes in the American wilderness at the opening of the
+seventeenth century. Ships, tools, and supplies called for huge outlays
+of money. Stores had to be furnished in quantities sufficient to sustain
+the life of the settlers until they could gather harvests of their own.
+Artisans and laborers of skill and industry had to be induced to risk
+the hazards of the new world. Soldiers were required for defense and
+mariners for the exploration of inland waters. Leaders of good judgment,
+adept in managing men, had to be discovered. Altogether such an
+enterprise demanded capital larger than the ordinary merchant or
+gentleman could amass and involved risks more imminent than he dared to
+assume. Though in later days, after initial tests had been made, wealthy
+proprietors were able to establish colonies on their own account, it was
+the corporation that furnished the capital and leadership in the
+beginning.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Trading Company.</b>&mdash;English pioneers in exploration found an
+instrument for colonization in companies of merchant adventurers, which
+had long been employed in carrying on commerce with foreign countries.
+Such a corporation was composed of many persons of different ranks of
+society&mdash;noblemen, merchants, and gentlemen&mdash;who banded together for a
+particular undertaking, each contributing a sum of money and sharing in
+the profits of the venture. It was organized under royal authority; it
+received its charter, its grant of land, and its trading privileges from
+the king and carried on its operations under his supervision and
+control. The charter named all the persons originally included in the
+corporation and gave them certain powers in the management <a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>of its
+affairs, including the right to admit new members. The company was in
+fact a little government set up by the king. When the members of the
+corporation remained in England, as in the case of the Virginia Company,
+they operated through agents sent to the colony. When they came over the
+seas themselves and settled in America, as in the case of Massachusetts,
+they became the direct government of the country they possessed. The
+stockholders in that instance became the voters and the governor, the
+chief magistrate.</p>
+
+<div><a name="winthrop" id="winthrop"></a></div>
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="./images/17.jpg" alt="John Winthrop, Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Company" title="John Winthrop, Governor of the Massachusetts Bay
+Company" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">John Winthrop, Governor of the <br />Massachusetts Bay
+Company</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Four of the thirteen colonies in America owed their origins to the
+trading corporation. It was the London Company, created by King James I,
+in 1606, that laid during the following year the foundations of Virginia
+at Jamestown. It was under the auspices of their West India Company,
+chartered in 1621, that the Dutch planted the settlements of the New
+Netherland in the valley of the Hudson. The founders of Massachusetts
+were Puritan leaders and men of affairs whom King Charles I incorporated
+in 1629 under the title: "The governor and company of the Massachusetts
+Bay in New England." In this case the law did but incorporate a group
+drawn together by religious ties. "We must be knit together as one man,"
+wrote John Winthrop, the first Puritan governor in America. Far to the
+south, on the banks of the Delaware River, a Swedish commercial company
+in 1638 made the beginnings of a settlement, christened New Sweden; it
+was destined to pass under the rule of the Dutch, and finally under the
+rule of William Penn as the proprietary colony of Delaware.<a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a></p>
+
+<p>In a certain sense, Georgia may be included among the "company
+colonies." It was, however, originally conceived by the moving spirit,
+James Oglethorpe, as an asylum for poor men, especially those imprisoned
+for debt. To realize this humane purpose, he secured from King George
+II, in 1732, a royal charter uniting several gentlemen, including
+himself, into "one body politic and corporate," known as the "Trustees
+for establishing the colony of Georgia in America." In the structure of
+their organization and their methods of government, the trustees did not
+differ materially from the regular companies created for trade and
+colonization. Though their purposes were benevolent, their transactions
+had to be under the forms of law and according to the rules of business.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Religious Congregation.</b>&mdash;A second agency which figured largely in
+the settlement of America was the religious brotherhood, or
+congregation, of men and women brought together in the bonds of a common
+religious faith. By one of the strange fortunes of history, this
+institution, founded in the early days of Christianity, proved to be a
+potent force in the origin and growth of self-government in a land far
+away from Galilee. "And the multitude of them that believed were of one
+heart and of one soul," we are told in the Acts describing the Church at
+Jerusalem. "We are knit together as a body in a most sacred covenant of
+the Lord ... by virtue of which we hold ourselves strictly tied to all
+care of each other's good and of the whole," wrote John Robinson, a
+leader among the Pilgrims who founded their tiny colony of Plymouth in
+1620. The Mayflower Compact, so famous in American history, was but a
+written and signed agreement, incorporating the spirit of obedience to
+the common good, which served as a guide to self-government until
+Plymouth was annexed to Massachusetts in 1691.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a name="grant" id="grant"></a><a href="./images/19.jpg"><img src="./images/19-tb.jpg" alt="THE ORIGINAL GRANTS" title="THE ORIGINAL GRANTS" /></a></div>
+
+<p>Three other colonies, all of which retained their identity until the eve
+of the American Revolution, likewise sprang directly from the
+congregations of the faithful: Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New
+Hampshire, mainly offshoots from Massachu<a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>setts. They were founded by
+small bodies of men and women, "united in solemn covenants with the
+Lord," who planted their settlements in the wilderness. Not until many a
+year after Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson conducted their followers
+to the Narragansett country was Rhode Island granted a charter of
+incorporation (1663) by the crown. Not until long after the congregation
+of Thomas Hooker from Newtown blazed the way into the Connecticut River
+Valley did the king of England give Connecticut a charter of its own
+(1662) and a place among the colonies. Half a century elapsed before the
+towns laid out beyond the Merrimac River by emigrants from Massachusetts
+were formed into the royal province of New Hampshire in 1679.</p>
+
+<p>Even when Connecticut was chartered, the parchment and sealing wax of
+the royal lawyers did but confirm rights and habits of self-government
+and obedience to law previously established by the congregations. The
+towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield had long lived happily
+under their "Fundamental Orders" drawn up by themselves in 1639; so had
+the settlers dwelt peacefully at New Haven under their "Fundamental
+Articles" drafted in the same year. The pioneers on the Connecticut
+shore had no difficulty in agreeing that "the Scriptures do hold forth a
+perfect rule for the direction and government of all men."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Proprietor.</b>&mdash;A third and very important colonial agency was the
+proprietor, or proprietary. As the name, associated with the word
+"property," implies, the proprietor was a person to whom the king
+granted property in lands in North America to have, hold, use, and enjoy
+for his own benefit and profit, with the right to hand the estate down
+to his heirs in perpetual succession. The proprietor was a rich and
+powerful person, prepared to furnish or secure the capital, collect the
+ships, supply the stores, and assemble the settlers necessary to found
+and sustain a plantation beyond the seas. Sometimes the proprietor
+worked alone. Sometimes two or more were associated like partners in the
+common undertaking.<a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="penn" id="penn"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/22.jpg" alt="William Penn, Proprietor of Pennsylvania" title="William Penn, Proprietor of Pennsylvania" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">William Penn, <br />Proprietor of Pennsylvania</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Five colonies, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Carolinas,
+owe their formal origins, though not always their first settlements, nor
+in most cases their prosperity, to the proprietary system. Maryland,
+established in 1634 under a Catholic nobleman, Lord Baltimore, and
+blessed with religious toleration by the act of 1649, flourished under
+the mild rule of proprietors until it became a state in the American
+union. New Jersey, beginning its career under two proprietors, Berkeley
+and Carteret, in 1664, passed under the direct government of the crown
+in 1702. Pennsylvania was, in a very large measure, the product of the
+generous spirit and tireless labors of its first proprietor, the leader
+of the Friends, William Penn, to whom it was granted in 1681 and in
+whose family it remained until 1776. The two Carolinas were first
+organized as one colony in 1663 under the government and patronage of
+eight proprietors, including Lord Clarendon; but after more than half a
+century both became royal provinces governed by the king.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Colonial Peoples</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The English.</b>&mdash;In leadership and origin the thirteen colonies, except
+New York and Delaware, were English. During the early days of all, save
+these two, the main, if not the sole, current of immigration was from
+England. The colonists came from every walk of life. They were men,
+women, and children of "all sorts and conditions." The major portion
+were yeomen, or small land owners, farm laborers, and artisans. With
+them were merchants and gentlemen who brought their stocks of goods or
+their fortunes to the New World. Scholars <a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>came from Oxford and
+Cambridge to preach the gospel or to teach. Now and then the son of an
+English nobleman left his baronial hall behind and cast his lot with
+America. The people represented every religious faith&mdash;members of the
+Established Church of England; Puritans who had labored to reform that
+church; Separatists, Baptists, and Friends, who had left it altogether;
+and Catholics, who clung to the religion of their fathers.</p>
+
+<p>New England was almost purely English. During the years between 1629 and
+1640, the period of arbitrary Stuart government, about twenty thousand
+Puritans emigrated to America, settling in the colonies of the far
+North. Although minor additions were made from time to time, the greater
+portion of the New England people sprang from this original stock.
+Virginia, too, for a long time drew nearly all her immigrants from
+England alone. Not until the eve of the Revolution did other
+nationalities, mainly the Scotch-Irish and Germans, rival the English in
+numbers.</p>
+
+<p>The populations of later English colonies&mdash;the Carolinas, New York,
+Pennsylvania, and Georgia&mdash;while receiving a steady stream of
+immigration from England, were constantly augmented by wanderers from
+the older settlements. New York was invaded by Puritans from New England
+in such numbers as to cause the Anglican clergymen there to lament that
+"free thinking spreads almost as fast as the Church." North Carolina was
+first settled toward the northern border by immigrants from Virginia.
+Some of the North Carolinians, particularly the Quakers, came all the
+way from New England, tarrying in Virginia only long enough to learn how
+little they were wanted in that Anglican colony.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Scotch-Irish.</b>&mdash;Next to the English in numbers and influence were
+the Scotch-Irish, Presbyterians in belief, English in tongue. Both
+religious and economic reasons sent them across the sea. Their Scotch
+ancestors, in the days of Cromwell, had settled in the north of Ireland
+whence the native Irish had been driven by the conqueror's sword. There
+the<a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a> Scotch nourished for many years enjoying in peace their own form of
+religion and growing prosperous in the manufacture of fine linen and
+woolen cloth. Then the blow fell. Toward the end of the seventeenth
+century their religious worship was put under the ban and the export of
+their cloth was forbidden by the English Parliament. Within two decades
+twenty thousand Scotch-Irish left Ulster alone, for America; and all
+during the eighteenth century the migration continued to be heavy.
+Although no exact record was kept, it is reckoned that the Scotch-Irish
+and the Scotch who came directly from Scotland, composed one-sixth of
+the entire American population on the eve of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<div><a name="settlements" id="settlements"></a></div>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a href="./images/24.jpg"><img src="./images/24-tb.jpg" alt="SETTLEMENTS OF GERMAN AND SCOTCH-IRISH IMMIGRANTS" title="SETTLEMENTS OF GERMAN AND SCOTCH-IRISH IMMIGRANTS" /></a><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Settlements of German and <br />Scotch-Irish Immigrants</span></div></div>
+
+<p>These newcomers in America made their homes chiefly in New Jersey,
+Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Coming late upon
+the scene, they found much of the land immediately upon the seaboard
+already taken up. For this reason most of them became frontier people
+settling the interior and upland regions. There they cleared the land,
+laid out their small farms, and worked as "sturdy yeomen on the soil,"
+hardy, industrious, and independent in spirit, sharing neither the
+luxuries of the rich planters nor the easy life of the leisurely
+merchants. To their agriculture they added woolen and linen
+manufactures, which, flourishing in the supple fingers of their tireless
+women, <a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>made heavy inroads upon the trade of the English merchants in
+the colonies. Of their labors a poet has sung:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="O, willing hands">
+<tr><td align='left'><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">"O, willing hands to toil;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Strong natures tuned to the harvest-song and bound to the kindly soil;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bold pioneers for the wilderness, defenders in the field."<br /></span>
+</div></div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>The Germans.</b>&mdash;Third among the colonists in order of numerical
+importance were the Germans. From the very beginning, they appeared in
+colonial records. A number of the artisans and carpenters in the first
+Jamestown colony were of German descent. Peter Minuit, the famous
+governor of New Motherland, was a German from Wesel on the Rhine, and
+Jacob Leisler, leader of a popular uprising against the provincial
+administration of New York, was a German from Frankfort-on-Main. The
+wholesale migration of Germans began with the founding of Pennsylvania.
+Penn was diligent in searching for thrifty farmers to cultivate his
+lands and he made a special effort to attract peasants from the Rhine
+country. A great association, known as the Frankfort Company, bought
+more than twenty thousand acres from him and in 1684 established a
+center at Germantown for the distribution of German immigrants. In old
+New York, Rhinebeck-on-the-Hudson became a similar center for
+distribution. All the way from Maine to Georgia inducements were offered
+to the German farmers and in nearly every colony were to be found, in
+time, German settlements. In fact the migration became so large that
+German princes were frightened at the loss of so many subjects and
+England was alarmed by the influx of foreigners into her overseas
+dominions. Yet nothing could stop the movement. By the end of the
+colonial period, the number of Germans had risen to more than two
+hundred thousand.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of them were Protestants from the Rhine region, and South
+Germany. Wars, religious controversies, oppression, and poverty drove
+them forth to America. Though most of them were farmers, there were also
+among them skilled artisans who contributed to the rapid growth of
+industries in Penn<a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>sylvania. Their iron, glass, paper, and woolen mills,
+dotted here and there among the thickly settled regions, added to the
+wealth and independence of the province.</p>
+
+<div><a name="germantown" id="germantown" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/26-tb.jpg" alt="A Glimpse of Old Germantown" title="A Glimpse of Old Germantown" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'> <i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>A Glimpse of Old Germantown</big></span></div>
+
+
+<p>Unlike the Scotch-Irish, the Germans did not speak the language of the
+original colonists or mingle freely with them. They kept to themselves,
+built their own schools, founded their own newspapers, and published
+their own books. Their clannish habits often irritated their neighbors
+and led to occasional agitations against "foreigners." However, no
+serious collisions seem to have occurred; and in the days of the
+Revolution, German soldiers from Pennsylvania fought in the patriot
+armies side by side with soldiers from the English and Scotch-Irish
+sections.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Nationalities.</b>&mdash;Though the English, the Scotch-Irish, and the
+Germans made up the bulk of the colonial population, there were other
+racial strains as well, varying in numerical importance but contributing
+their share to colonial life.</p>
+
+<p>From France came the Huguenots fleeing from the decree of the king which
+inflicted terrible penalties upon Protestants.<a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a></p>
+
+<p>From "Old Ireland" came thousands of native Irish, Celtic in race and
+Catholic in religion. Like their Scotch-Irish neighbors to the north,
+they revered neither the government nor the church of England imposed
+upon them by the sword. How many came we do not know, but shipping
+records of the colonial period show that boatload after boatload left
+the southern and eastern shores of Ireland for the New World.
+Undoubtedly thousands of their passengers were Irish of the native
+stock. This surmise is well sustained by the constant appearance of
+Celtic names in the records of various colonies.</p>
+
+<div><a name="dutch" id="dutch" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/27-tb.jpg" alt="Old Dutch Fort and English Church Near Albany" title="Old Dutch Fort and English Church Near Albany" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'> <i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>Old Dutch Fort and English Church Near Albany</big></span></div>
+
+
+<p>The Jews, then as ever engaged in their age-long battle for religious
+and economic toleration, found in the American colonies, not complete
+liberty, but certainly more freedom than they enjoyed in England,
+France, Spain, or Portugal. The English law did not actually recognize
+their right to live in any of the dominions, but owing to the easy-going
+habits of the Americans they were allowed to filter into the seaboard
+<a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>towns. The treatment they received there varied. On one occasion the
+mayor and council of New York forbade them to sell by retail and on
+another prohibited the exercise of their religious worship. Newport,
+Philadelphia, and Charleston were more hospitable, and there large
+Jewish colonies, consisting principally of merchants and their families,
+flourished in spite of nominal prohibitions of the law.</p>
+
+<p>Though the small Swedish colony in Delaware was quickly submerged
+beneath the tide of English migration, the Dutch in New York continued
+to hold their own for more than a hundred years after the English
+conquest in 1664. At the end of the colonial period over one-half of the
+170,000 inhabitants of the province were descendants of the original
+Dutch&mdash;still distinct enough to give a decided cast to the life and
+manners of New York. Many of them clung as tenaciously to their mother
+tongue as they did to their capacious farmhouses or their Dutch ovens;
+but they were slowly losing their identity as the English pressed in
+beside them to farm and trade.</p>
+
+<p>The melting pot had begun its historic mission.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Process of Colonization</span></h3>
+
+<p>Considered from one side, colonization, whatever the motives of the
+emigrants, was an economic matter. It involved the use of capital to pay
+for their passage, to sustain them on the voyage, and to start them on
+the way of production. Under this stern economic necessity, Puritans,
+Scotch-Irish, Germans, and all were alike laid.</p>
+
+<p><b>Immigrants Who Paid Their Own Way.</b>&mdash;Many of the immigrants to America
+in colonial days were capitalists themselves, in a small or a large way,
+and paid their own passage. What proportion of the colonists were able
+to finance their voyage across the sea is a matter of pure conjecture.
+Undoubtedly a very considerable number could do so, for we can trace the
+family fortunes of many early settlers. Henry Cabot Lodge is authority
+for the statement that "the settlers of New England were drawn from the
+country gentlemen, small <a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>farmers, and yeomanry of the mother
+country.... Many of the emigrants were men of wealth, as the old lists
+show, and all of them, with few exceptions, were men of property and
+good standing. They did not belong to the classes from which emigration
+is usually supplied, for they all had a stake in the country they left
+behind." Though it would be interesting to know how accurate this
+statement is or how applicable to the other colonies, no study has as
+yet been made to gratify that interest. For the present it is an
+unsolved problem just how many of the colonists were able to bear the
+cost of their own transfer to the New World.</p>
+
+<p><b>Indentured Servants.</b>&mdash;That at least tens of thousands of immigrants
+were unable to pay for their passage is established beyond the shadow of
+a doubt by the shipping records that have come down to us. The great
+barrier in the way of the poor who wanted to go to America was the cost
+of the sea voyage. To overcome this difficulty a plan was worked out
+whereby shipowners and other persons of means furnished the passage
+money to immigrants in return for their promise, or bond, to work for a
+term of years to repay the sum advanced. This system was called
+indentured servitude.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the number of bond servants exceeded the original
+twenty thousand Puritans, the yeomen, the Virginia gentlemen, and the
+Huguenots combined. All the way down the coast from Massachusetts to
+Georgia were to be found in the fields, kitchens, and workshops, men,
+women, and children serving out terms of bondage generally ranging from
+five to seven years. In the proprietary colonies the proportion of bond
+servants was very high. The Baltimores, Penns, Carterets, and other
+promoters anxiously sought for workers of every nationality to till
+their fields, for land without labor was worth no more than land in the
+moon. Hence the gates of the proprietary colonies were flung wide open.
+Every inducement was offered to immigrants in the form of cheap land,
+and special efforts were made to increase the population by importing
+servants. In Pennsylvania, it was not uncommon to find a <a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>master with
+fifty bond servants on his estate. It has been estimated that two-thirds
+of all the immigrants into Pennsylvania between the opening of the
+eighteenth century and the outbreak of the Revolution were in bondage.
+In the other Middle colonies the number was doubtless not so large; but
+it formed a considerable part of the population.</p>
+
+<p>The story of this traffic in white servants is one of the most striking
+things in the history of labor. Bondmen differed from the serfs of the
+feudal age in that they were not bound to the soil but to the master.
+They likewise differed from the negro slaves in that their servitude had
+a time limit. Still they were subject to many special disabilities. It
+was, for instance, a common practice to impose on them penalties far
+heavier than were imposed upon freemen for the same offense. A free
+citizen of Pennsylvania who indulged in horse racing and gambling was
+let off with a fine; a white servant guilty of the same unlawful conduct
+was whipped at the post and fined as well.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary life of the white servant was also severely restricted. A
+bondman could not marry without his master's consent; nor engage in
+trade; nor refuse work assigned to him. For an attempt to escape or
+indeed for any infraction of the law, the term of service was extended.
+The condition of white bondmen in Virginia, according to Lodge, "was
+little better than that of slaves. Loose indentures and harsh laws put
+them at the mercy of their masters." It would not be unfair to add that
+such was their lot in all other colonies. Their fate depended upon the
+temper of their masters.</p>
+
+<p>Cruel as was the system in many ways, it gave thousands of people in the
+Old World a chance to reach the New&mdash;an opportunity to wrestle with fate
+for freedom and a home of their own. When their weary years of servitude
+were over, if they survived, they might obtain land of their own or
+settle as free mechanics in the towns. For many a bondman the gamble
+proved to be a losing venture because he found himself unable to rise
+out of the state of poverty and dependence into <a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>which his servitude
+carried him. For thousands, on the contrary, bondage proved to be a real
+avenue to freedom and prosperity. Some of the best citizens of America
+have the blood of indentured servants in their veins.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Transported&mdash;Involuntary Servitude.</b>&mdash;In their anxiety to secure
+settlers, the companies and proprietors having colonies in America
+either resorted to or connived at the practice of kidnapping men, women,
+and children from the streets of English cities. In 1680 it was
+officially estimated that "ten thousand persons were spirited away" to
+America. Many of the victims of the practice were young children, for
+the traffic in them was highly profitable. Orphans and dependents were
+sometimes disposed of in America by relatives unwilling to support them.
+In a single year, 1627, about fifteen hundred children were shipped to
+Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>In this gruesome business there lurked many tragedies, and very few
+romances. Parents were separated from their children and husbands from
+their wives. Hundreds of skilled artisans&mdash;carpenters, smiths, and
+weavers&mdash;utterly disappeared as if swallowed up by death. A few thus
+dragged off to the New World to be sold into servitude for a term of
+five or seven years later became prosperous and returned home with
+fortunes. In one case a young man who was forcibly carried over the sea
+lived to make his way back to England and establish his claim to a
+peerage.</p>
+
+<p>Akin to the kidnapped, at least in economic position, were convicts
+deported to the colonies for life in lieu of fines and imprisonment. The
+Americans protested vigorously but ineffectually against this practice.
+Indeed, they exaggerated its evils, for many of the "criminals" were
+only mild offenders against unduly harsh and cruel laws. A peasant
+caught shooting a rabbit on a lord's estate or a luckless servant girl
+who purloined a pocket handkerchief was branded as a criminal along with
+sturdy thieves and incorrigible rascals. Other transported offenders
+were "political criminals"; that is, persons who criticized or opposed
+the government. This class <a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>included now Irish who revolted against
+British rule in Ireland; now Cavaliers who championed the king against
+the Puritan revolutionists; Puritans, in turn, dispatched after the
+monarchy was restored; and Scotch and English subjects in general who
+joined in political uprisings against the king.</p>
+
+<p><b>The African Slaves.</b>&mdash;Rivaling in numbers, in the course of time, the
+indentured servants and whites carried to America against their will
+were the African negroes brought to America and sold into slavery. When
+this form of bondage was first introduced into Virginia in 1619, it was
+looked upon as a temporary necessity to be discarded with the increase
+of the white population. Moreover it does not appear that those planters
+who first bought negroes at the auction block intended to establish a
+system of permanent bondage. Only by a slow process did chattel slavery
+take firm root and become recognized as the leading source of the labor
+supply. In 1650, thirty years after the introduction of slavery, there
+were only three hundred Africans in Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>The great increase in later years was due in no small measure to the
+inordinate zeal for profits that seized slave traders both in Old and in
+New England. Finding it relatively easy to secure negroes in Africa,
+they crowded the Southern ports with their vessels. The English Royal
+African Company sent to America annually between 1713 and 1743 from five
+to ten thousand slaves. The ship owners of New England were not far
+behind their English brethren in pushing this extraordinary traffic.</p>
+
+<p>As the proportion of the negroes to the free white population steadily
+rose, and as whole sections were overrun with slaves and slave traders,
+the Southern colonies grew alarmed. In 1710, Virginia sought to curtail
+the importation by placing a duty of &pound;5 on each slave. This effort was
+futile, for the royal governor promptly vetoed it. From time to time
+similar bills were passed, only to meet with royal disapproval. South
+Carolina, in 1760, absolutely prohibited importation; but the measure
+was killed by the British crown. As late as 1772, Virginia, not <a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>daunted
+by a century of rebuffs, sent to George III a petition in this vein:
+"The importation of slaves into the colonies from the coast of Africa
+hath long been considered as a trade of great inhumanity and under its
+present encouragement, we have too much reason to fear, will endanger
+the very existence of Your Majesty's American dominions.... Deeply
+impressed with these sentiments, we most humbly beseech Your Majesty to
+remove all those restraints on Your Majesty's governors of this colony
+which inhibit their assenting to such laws as might check so very
+pernicious a commerce."</p>
+
+<p>All such protests were without avail. The negro population grew by leaps
+and bounds, until on the eve of the Revolution it amounted to more than
+half a million. In five states&mdash;Maryland, Virginia, the two Carolinas,
+and Georgia&mdash;the slaves nearly equalled or actually exceeded the whites
+in number. In South Carolina they formed almost two-thirds of the
+population. Even in the Middle colonies of Delaware and Pennsylvania
+about one-fifth of the inhabitants were from Africa. To the North, the
+proportion of slaves steadily diminished although chattel servitude was
+on the same legal footing as in the South. In New York approximately one
+in six and in New England one in fifty were negroes, including a few
+freedmen.</p>
+
+<p>The climate, the soil, the commerce, and the industry of the North were
+all unfavorable to the growth of a servile population. Still, slavery,
+though sectional, was a part of the national system of economy. Northern
+ships carried slaves to the Southern colonies and the produce of the
+plantations to Europe. "If the Northern states will consult their
+interest, they will not oppose the increase in slaves which will
+increase the commodities of which they will become the carriers," said
+John Rutledge, of South Carolina, in the convention which framed the
+Constitution of the United States. "What enriches a part enriches the
+whole and the states are the best judges of their particular interest,"
+responded Oliver Ellsworth, the distinguished spokesman of Connecticut.<a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a></p>
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<div>E. Charming, <i>History of the United States</i>, Vols. I and II.<br />
+
+J.A. Doyle, <i>The English Colonies in America</i> (5 vols.).<br />
+
+J. Fiske, <i>Old Virginia and Her Neighbors</i> (2 vols.).<br />
+
+A.B. Faust, <i>The German Element in the United States</i> (2 vols.).<br />
+
+H.J. Ford, <i>The Scotch-Irish in America</i>.<br />
+
+L. Tyler, <i>England in America</i> (American Nation Series).<br />
+
+R. Usher, <i>The Pilgrims and Their History</i>.</div>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. America has been called a nation of immigrants. Explain why.</p>
+
+<p>2. Why were individuals unable to go alone to America in the beginning?
+What agencies made colonization possible? Discuss each of them.</p>
+
+<p>3. Make a table of the colonies, showing the methods employed in their
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>4. Why were capital and leadership so very important in early
+colonization?</p>
+
+<p>5. What is meant by the "melting pot"? What nationalities were
+represented among the early colonists?</p>
+
+<p>6. Compare the way immigrants come to-day with the way they came in
+colonial times.</p>
+
+<p>7. Contrast indentured servitude with slavery and serfdom.</p>
+
+<p>8. Account for the anxiety of companies and proprietors to secure
+colonists.</p>
+
+<p>9. What forces favored the heavy importation of slaves?</p>
+
+<p>10. In what way did the North derive advantages from slavery?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Chartered Company.</b>&mdash;Compare the first and third charters of
+Virginia in Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source Book of American History</i>,
+1606-1898, pp. 1-14. Analyze the first and second Massachusetts charters
+in Macdonald, pp. 22-84. Special reference: W.A.S. Hewins, <i>English
+Trading Companies</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Congregations and Compacts for Self-government.</b>&mdash;A study of the
+Mayflower Compact, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and the
+Fundamental Articles of New Haven in Macdonald, pp. 19, 36, 39.
+Reference: Charles Borgeaud, <i>Rise of Modern Democracy</i>, and C.S.
+Lobingier, <i>The People's Law</i>, Chaps. I-VII.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Proprietary System.</b>&mdash;Analysis of Penn's charter of 1681, in
+Macdonald, p. 80. Reference: Lodge, <i>Short History of the English
+Colonies in America</i>, p. 211.<a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Studies of Individual Colonies.</b>&mdash;Review of outstanding events in
+history of each colony, using Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>, pp.
+55-159, as the basis.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;John Smith, John Winthrop, William Penn, Lord
+Baltimore, William Bradford, Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, Thomas
+Hooker, and Peter Stuyvesant, using any good encyclopedia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Indentured Servitude.</b>&mdash;In Virginia, Lodge, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 69-72;
+in Pennsylvania, pp. 242-244. Contemporary account in Callender,
+<i>Economic History of the United States</i>, pp. 44-51. Special reference:
+Karl Geiser, <i>Redemptioners and Indentured Servants</i> (Yale Review, X,
+No. 2 Supplement).</p>
+
+<p><b>Slavery.</b>&mdash;In Virginia, Lodge, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 67-69; in the
+Northern colonies, pp. 241, 275, 322, 408, 442.</p>
+
+<p><b>The People of the Colonies.</b>&mdash;Virginia, Lodge, <i>Short History</i>, pp.
+67-73; New England, pp. 406-409, 441-450; Pennsylvania, pp. 227-229,
+240-250; New York, pp. 312-313, 322-335.<a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>COLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE</h3>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Land and the Westward Movement</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The Significance of Land Tenure.</b>&mdash;The way in which land may be
+acquired, held, divided among heirs, and bought and sold exercises a
+deep influence on the life and culture of a people. The feudal and
+aristocratic societies of Europe were founded on a system of landlordism
+which was characterized by two distinct features. In the first place,
+the land was nearly all held in great estates, each owned by a single
+proprietor. In the second place, every estate was kept intact under the
+law of primogeniture, which at the death of a lord transferred all his
+landed property to his eldest son. This prevented the subdivision of
+estates and the growth of a large body of small farmers or freeholders
+owning their own land. It made a form of tenantry or servitude
+inevitable for the mass of those who labored on the land. It also
+enabled the landlords to maintain themselves in power as a governing
+class and kept the tenants and laborers subject to their economic and
+political control. If land tenure was so significant in Europe, it was
+equally important in the development of America, where practically all
+the first immigrants were forced by circumstances to derive their
+livelihood from the soil.</p>
+
+<p><b>Experiments in Common Tillage.</b>&mdash;In the New World, with its broad
+extent of land awaiting the white man's plow, it was impossible to
+introduce in its entirety and over the whole area the system of lords
+and tenants that existed across the sea. So it happened that almost
+every kind of experiment in land tenure, from communism to feudalism,
+was tried. In the early days of the Jamestown colony, the land, though
+owned by the<a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a> London Company, was tilled in common by the settlers. No
+man had a separate plot of his own. The motto of the community was:
+"Labor and share alike." All were supposed to work in the fields and
+receive an equal share of the produce. At Plymouth, the Pilgrims
+attempted a similar experiment, laying out the fields in common and
+distributing the joint produce of their labor with rough equality among
+the workers.</p>
+
+<p>In both colonies the communistic experiments were failures. Angry at the
+lazy men in Jamestown who idled their time away and yet expected regular
+meals, Captain John Smith issued a manifesto: "Everyone that gathereth
+not every day as much as I do, the next day shall be set beyond the
+river and forever banished from the fort and live there or starve." Even
+this terrible threat did not bring a change in production. Not until
+each man was given a plot of his own to till, not until each gathered
+the fruits of his own labor, did the colony prosper. In Plymouth, where
+the communal experiment lasted for five years, the results were similar
+to those in Virginia, and the system was given up for one of separate
+fields in which every person could "set corn for his own particular."
+Some other New England towns, refusing to profit by the experience of
+their Plymouth neighbor, also made excursions into common ownership and
+labor, only to abandon the idea and go in for individual ownership of
+the land. "By degrees it was seen that even the Lord's people could not
+carry the complicated communist legislation into perfect and wholesome
+practice."</p>
+
+<p><b>Feudal Elements in the Colonies&mdash;Quit Rents, Manors, and
+Plantations.</b>&mdash;At the other end of the scale were the feudal elements of
+land tenure found in the proprietary colonies, in the seaboard regions
+of the South, and to some extent in New York. The proprietor was in fact
+a powerful feudal lord, owning land granted to him by royal charter. He
+could retain any part of it for his personal use or dispose of it all in
+large or small lots. While he generally kept for himself an estate of
+baronial proportions, it was impossible for him to manage directly any
+considerable part of the land in his dominion.<a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a> Consequently he either
+sold it in parcels for lump sums or granted it to individuals on
+condition that they make to him an annual payment in money, known as
+"quit rent." In Maryland, the proprietor sometimes collected as high as
+&pound;9000 (equal to about $500,000 to-day) in a single year from this
+source. In Pennsylvania, the quit rents brought a handsome annual
+tribute into the exchequer of the Penn family. In the royal provinces,
+the king of England claimed all revenues collected in this form from the
+land, a sum amounting to &pound;19,000 at the time of the Revolution. The quit
+rent,&mdash;"really a feudal payment from freeholders,"&mdash;was thus a material
+source of income for the crown as well as for the proprietors. Wherever
+it was laid, however, it proved to be a burden, a source of constant
+irritation; and it became a formidable item in the long list of
+grievances which led to the American Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Something still more like the feudal system of the Old World appeared in
+the numerous manors or the huge landed estates granted by the crown, the
+companies, or the proprietors. In the colony of Maryland alone there
+were sixty manors of three thousand acres each, owned by wealthy men and
+tilled by tenants holding small plots under certain restrictions of
+tenure. In New York also there were many manors of wide extent, most of
+which originated in the days of the Dutch West India Company, when
+extensive concessions were made to patroons to induce them to bring over
+settlers. The Van Rensselaer, the Van Cortlandt, and the Livingston
+manors were so large and populous that each was entitled to send a
+representative to the provincial legislature. The tenants on the New
+York manors were in somewhat the same position as serfs on old European
+estates. They were bound to pay the owner a rent in money and kind; they
+ground their grain at his mill; and they were subject to his judicial
+power because he held court and meted out justice, in some instances
+extending to capital punishment.</p>
+
+<p>The manors of New York or Maryland were, however, of slight consequence
+as compared with the vast plantations of the<a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a> Southern seaboard&mdash;huge
+estates, far wider in expanse than many a European barony and tilled by
+slaves more servile than any feudal tenants. It must not be forgotten
+that this system of land tenure became the dominant feature of a large
+section and gave a decided bent to the economic and political life of
+America.</p>
+
+<div><a name="plantation" id="plantation" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/39.jpg"><img src="./images/39-tb.jpg" alt="Southern Plantation Mansion" title="Southern Plantation Mansion" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<span class="smcap"><big>Southern Plantation Mansion</big></span></div>
+
+
+<p><b>The Small Freehold.</b>&mdash;In the upland regions of the South, however, and
+throughout most of the North, the drift was against all forms of
+servitude and tenantry and in the direction of the freehold; that is,
+the small farm owned outright and tilled by the possessor and his
+family. This was favored by natural circumstances and the spirit of the
+immigrants. For one thing, the abundance of land and the scarcity of
+labor made it impossible for the companies, the proprietors, or the
+crown to develop over the whole continent a network of vast estates. In
+many sections, particularly in New England, the climate, the stony soil,
+the hills, and the narrow valleys conspired to keep the farms within a
+moderate compass. For another thing, <a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>the English, Scotch-Irish, and
+German peasants, even if they had been tenants in the Old World, did not
+propose to accept permanent dependency of any kind in the New. If they
+could not get freeholds, they would not settle at all; thus they forced
+proprietors and companies to bid for their enterprise by selling land in
+small lots. So it happened that the freehold of modest proportions
+became the cherished unit of American farmers. The people who tilled the
+farms were drawn from every quarter of western Europe; but the freehold
+system gave a uniform cast to their economic and social life in America.</p>
+
+
+<div><a name="farmhouse" id="farmhouse" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/40-tb.jpg" alt="A New England Farmhouse" title="A New England Farmhouse" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'> <i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>A New England Farmhouse</big></span></div>
+
+<p><b>Social Effects of Land Tenure.</b>&mdash;Land tenure and the process of western
+settlement thus developed two distinct types of people engaged in the
+same pursuit&mdash;agriculture. They had a common tie in that they both
+cultivated the soil and possessed the local interest and independence
+which arise from that occupation. Their methods and their culture,
+however, differed widely.<a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a></p>
+
+<p>The Southern planter, on his broad acres tilled by slaves, resembled the
+English landlord on his estates more than he did the colonial farmer who
+labored with his own hands in the fields and forests. He sold his rice
+and tobacco in large amounts directly to English factors, who took his
+entire crop in exchange for goods and cash. His fine clothes,
+silverware, china, and cutlery he bought in English markets. Loving the
+ripe old culture of the mother country, he often sent his sons to Oxford
+or Cambridge for their education. In short, he depended very largely for
+his prosperity and his enjoyment of life upon close relations with the
+Old World. He did not even need market towns in which to buy native
+goods, for they were made on his own plantation by his own artisans who
+were usually gifted slaves.</p>
+
+<p>The economic condition of the small farmer was totally different. His
+crops were not big enough to warrant direct connection with English
+factors or the personal maintenance of a corps of artisans. He needed
+local markets, and they sprang up to meet the need. Smiths, hatters,
+weavers, wagon-makers, and potters at neighboring towns supplied him
+with the rough products of their native skill. The finer goods, bought
+by the rich planter in England, the small farmer ordinarily could not
+buy. His wants were restricted to staples like tea and sugar, and
+between him and the European market stood the merchant. His community
+was therefore more self-sufficient than the seaboard line of great
+plantations. It was more isolated, more provincial, more independent,
+more American. The planter faced the Old East. The farmer faced the New
+West.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Westward Movement.</b>&mdash;Yeoman and planter nevertheless were alike in
+one respect. Their land hunger was never appeased. Each had the eye of
+an expert for new and fertile soil; and so, north and south, as soon as
+a foothold was secured on the Atlantic coast, the current of migration
+set in westward, creeping through forests, across rivers, and over
+mountains. Many of the later immigrants, in their search for cheap
+lands, were compelled to go to the border; but in a large part the <a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>path
+breakers to the West were native Americans of the second and third
+generations. Explorers, fired by curiosity and the lure of the
+mysterious unknown, and hunters, fur traders, and squatters, following
+their own sweet wills, blazed the trail, opening paths and sending back
+stories of the new regions they traversed. Then came the regular
+settlers with lawful titles to the lands they had purchased, sometimes
+singly and sometimes in companies.</p>
+
+<p>In Massachusetts, the westward movement is recorded in the founding of
+Springfield in 1636 and Great Barrington in 1725. By the opening of the
+eighteenth century the pioneers of Connecticut had pushed north and west
+until their outpost towns adjoined the Hudson Valley settlements. In New
+York, the inland movement was directed by the Hudson River to Albany,
+and from that old Dutch center it radiated in every direction,
+particularly westward through the Mohawk Valley. New Jersey was early
+filled to its borders, the beginnings of the present city of New
+Brunswick being made in 1681 and those of Trenton in 1685. In
+Pennsylvania, as in New York, the waterways determined the main lines of
+advance. Pioneers, pushing up through the valley of the Schuylkill,
+spread over the fertile lands of Berks and Lancaster counties, laying
+out Reading in 1748. Another current of migration was directed by the
+Susquehanna, and, in 1726, the first farmhouse was built on the bank
+where Harrisburg was later founded. Along the southern tier of counties
+a thin line of settlements stretched westward to Pittsburgh, reaching
+the upper waters of the Ohio while the colony was still under the Penn
+family.</p>
+
+<p>In the South the westward march was equally swift. The seaboard was
+quickly occupied by large planters and their slaves engaged in the
+cultivation of tobacco and rice. The Piedmont Plateau, lying back from
+the coast all the way from Maryland to Georgia, was fed by two streams
+of migration, one westward from the sea and the other southward from the
+other colonies&mdash;Germans from Pennsylvania and Scotch-Irish furnishing
+the main supply. "By 1770, tide-water Virginia was full <a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>to overflowing
+and the 'back country' of the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah was fully
+occupied. Even the mountain valleys ... were claimed by sturdy pioneers.
+Before the Declaration of Independence, the oncoming tide of
+home-seekers had reached the crest of the Alleghanies."</p>
+
+<div><a name="population" id="population"></a></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/43.jpg"><img src="./images/43-tb.jpg" alt="DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1790" title="DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1790" /></a><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Distribution of Population, 1790</span></div></div>
+
+
+<p>Beyond the mountains pioneers had already ventured, harbingers of an
+invasion that was about to break in upon Kentucky and Tennessee. As
+early as 1769 that mighty Nimrod, Daniel Boone, curious to hunt
+buffaloes, of which he had heard weird reports, passed through the
+Cumberland Gap and brought back news of a wonderful country awaiting the
+plow. A hint was sufficient. Singly, in pairs, and in groups, settlers
+followed the trail he had blazed. A great land corporation, the
+Transylvania Company, emulating the merchant adventurers of earlier
+times, secured a huge grant of territory and sought profits in quit
+rents from lands sold to farmers. By the outbreak of the Revolution
+there were several hundred people in the Kentucky region. Like the older
+colonists, they did not relish quit rents, and their opposition wrecked
+the Transylvania Company. They even carried their protests into the
+Continental Congress in 1776, for by that time they were our "embryo
+fourteenth colony."</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Industrial and Commercial Development</span></h3>
+
+<p>Though the labor of the colonists was mainly spent in farming, there was
+a steady growth in industrial and commercial pursuits. Most of the
+staple industries of to-day, not omitting iron and textiles, have their
+beginnings in colonial times. Manufacturing and trade soon gave rise to
+towns which enjoyed an importance all out of proportion to their
+numbers. The great centers of commerce and finance on the seaboard
+originated in the days when the king of England was "lord of these
+dominions."</p>
+
+<div><a name="tallow" id="tallow"></a></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/45-tb.jpg" alt="Domestic Industry: Dipping Tallow Candles" title="Domestic Industry: Dipping Tallow Candles" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Domestic Industry: Dipping Tallow Candles</span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>Textile Manufacture as a Domestic Industry.</b>&mdash;Colonial women, in
+addition to sharing every hardship of pioneering, often the heavy labor
+of the open field, developed in the course <a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>of time a national industry
+which was almost exclusively their own. Wool and flax were raised in
+abundance in the North and South. "Every farm house," says Coman, the
+economic historian, "was a workshop where the women spun and wove the
+serges, kerseys, and linsey-woolseys which served for the common wear."
+By the close of the seventeenth century, New England manufactured cloth
+in sufficient quantities to export it to the Southern colonies and to
+the West Indies. As the industry developed, mills were erected for the
+more difficult process of dyeing, weaving, and fulling, but carding and
+spinning <a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>continued to be done in the home. The Dutch of New Netherland,
+the Swedes of Delaware, and the Scotch-Irish of the interior "were not
+one whit behind their Yankee neighbors."</p>
+
+<p>The importance of this enterprise to British economic life can hardly be
+overestimated. For many a century the English had employed their fine
+woolen cloth as the chief staple in a lucrative foreign trade, and the
+government had come to look upon it as an object of special interest and
+protection. When the colonies were established, both merchants and
+statesmen naturally expected to maintain a monopoly of increasing value;
+but before long the Americans, instead of buying cloth, especially of
+the coarser varieties, were making it to sell. In the place of
+customers, here were rivals. In the place of helpless reliance upon
+English markets, here was the germ of economic independence.</p>
+
+<p>If British merchants had not discovered it in the ordinary course of
+trade, observant officers in the provinces would have conveyed the news
+to them. Even in the early years of the eighteenth century the royal
+governor of New York wrote of the industrious Americans to his home
+government: "The consequence will be that if they can clothe themselves
+once, not only comfortably, but handsomely too, without the help of
+England, they who already are not very fond of submitting to government
+will soon think of putting in execution designs they have long harboured
+in their breasts. This will not seem strange when you consider what sort
+of people this country is inhabited by."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Iron Industry.</b>&mdash;Almost equally widespread was the art of iron
+working&mdash;one of the earliest and most picturesque of colonial
+industries. Lynn, Massachusetts, had a forge and skilled artisans within
+fifteen years after the founding of Boston. The smelting of iron began
+at New London and New Haven about 1658; in Litchfield county,
+Connecticut, a few years later; at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in
+1731; and near by at Lenox some thirty years after that. New Jersey had
+iron works at Shrewsbury within ten years after the found<a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>ing of the
+colony in 1665. Iron forges appeared in the valleys of the Delaware and
+the Susquehanna early in the following century, and iron masters then
+laid the foundations of fortunes in a region destined to become one of
+the great iron centers of the world. Virginia began iron working in the
+year that saw the introduction of slavery. Although the industry soon
+lapsed, it was renewed and flourished in the eighteenth century.
+Governor Spotswood was called the "Tubal Cain" of the Old Dominion
+because he placed the industry on a firm foundation. Indeed it seems
+that every colony, except Georgia, had its iron foundry. Nails, wire,
+metallic ware, chains, anchors, bar and pig iron were made in large
+quantities; and Great Britain, by an act in 1750, encouraged the
+colonists to export rough iron to the British Islands.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shipbuilding.</b>&mdash;Of all the specialized industries in the colonies,
+shipbuilding was the most important. The abundance of fir for masts, oak
+for timbers and boards, pitch for tar and turpentine, and hemp for rope
+made the way of the shipbuilder easy. Early in the seventeenth century a
+ship was built at New Amsterdam, and by the middle of that century
+shipyards were scattered along the New England coast at Newburyport,
+Salem, New Bedford, Newport, Providence, New London, and New Haven.
+Yards at Albany and Poughkeepsie in New York built ships for the trade
+of that colony with England and the Indies. Wilmington and Philadelphia
+soon entered the race and outdistanced New York, though unable to equal
+the pace set by New England. While Maryland, Virginia, and South
+Carolina also built ships, Southern interest was mainly confined to the
+lucrative business of producing ship materials: fir, cedar, hemp, and
+tar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fishing.</b>&mdash;The greatest single economic resource of New England outside
+of agriculture was the fisheries. This industry, started by hardy
+sailors from Europe, long before the landing of the Pilgrims, flourished
+under the indomitable seamanship of the Puritans, who labored with the
+net and the harpoon in almost every quarter of the Atlantic. "Look,"
+exclaimed<a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a> Edmund Burke, in the House of Commons, "at the manner in
+which the people of New England have of late carried on the whale
+fishery. Whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice and
+behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay
+and Davis's Straits, while we are looking for them beneath the arctic
+circle, we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar
+cold, that they are at the antipodes and engaged under the frozen
+serpent of the south.... Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging
+to them than the accumulated winter of both poles. We know that, whilst
+some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of
+Africa, others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game along
+the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed by their fisheries. No
+climate that is not witness to their toils. Neither the perseverance of
+Holland nor the activity of France nor the dexterous and firm sagacity
+of English enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of hard
+industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by this recent
+people."</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the business was widespread. A large and lucrative
+European trade was built upon it. The better quality of the fish caught
+for food was sold in the markets of Spain, Portugal, and Italy, or
+exchanged for salt, lemons, and raisins for the American market. The
+lower grades of fish were carried to the West Indies for slave
+consumption, and in part traded for sugar and molasses, which furnished
+the raw materials for the thriving rum industry of New England. These
+activities, in turn, stimulated shipbuilding, steadily enlarging the
+demand for fishing and merchant craft of every kind and thus keeping the
+shipwrights, calkers, rope makers, and other artisans of the seaport
+towns rushed with work. They also increased trade with the mother
+country for, out of the cash collected in the fish markets of Europe and
+the West Indies, the colonists paid for English manufactures. So an
+ever-widening circle of American enterprise centered around this single
+industry, the nursery of seamanship and the maritime spirit.<a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Oceanic Commerce and American Merchants.</b>&mdash;All through the eighteenth
+century, the commerce of the American colonies spread in every direction
+until it rivaled in the number of people employed, the capital engaged,
+and the profits gleaned, the commerce of European nations. A modern
+historian has said: "The enterprising merchants of New England developed
+a network of trade routes that covered well-nigh half the world." This
+commerce, destined to be of such significance in the conflict with the
+mother country, presented, broadly speaking, two aspects.</p>
+
+<p>On the one side, it involved the export of raw materials and
+agricultural produce. The Southern colonies produced for shipping,
+tobacco, rice, tar, pitch, and pine; the Middle colonies, grain, flour,
+furs, lumber, and salt pork; New England, fish, flour, rum, furs, shoes,
+and small articles of manufacture. The variety of products was in fact
+astounding. A sarcastic writer, while sneering at the idea of an
+American union, once remarked of colonial trade: "What sort of dish will
+you make? New England will throw in fish and onions. The middle states,
+flax-seed and flour. Maryland and Virginia will add tobacco. North
+Carolina, pitch, tar, and turpentine. South Carolina, rice and indigo,
+and Georgia will sprinkle the whole composition with sawdust. Such an
+absurd jumble will you make if you attempt to form a union among such
+discordant materials as the thirteen British provinces."</p>
+
+<p>On the other side, American commerce involved the import trade,
+consisting principally of English and continental manufactures, tea, and
+"India goods." Sugar and molasses, brought from the West Indies,
+supplied the flourishing distilleries of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
+and Connecticut. The carriage of slaves from Africa to the Southern
+colonies engaged hundreds of New England's sailors and thousands of
+pounds of her capital.</p>
+
+<p>The disposition of imported goods in the colonies, though in part
+controlled by English factors located in America, employed also a large
+and important body of American merchants like <a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>the Willings and Morrises
+of Philadelphia; the Amorys, Hancocks, and Faneuils of Boston; and the
+Livingstons and Lows of New York. In their zeal and enterprise, they
+were worthy rivals of their English competitors, so celebrated for
+world-wide commercial operations. Though fully aware of the advantages
+they enjoyed in British markets and under the protection of the British
+navy, the American merchants were high-spirited and mettlesome, ready to
+contend with royal officers in order to shield American interests
+against outside interference.</p>
+
+<div><a name="warehouse" id="warehouse"></a></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/50-tb.jpg" alt="The Dutch West India Warehouse in New Amsterdam (New York City)" title="The Dutch West India Warehouse in New Amsterdam (New York City)" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">The Dutch West India Warehouse in New Amsterdam (New York City)</span></div></div>
+
+<p>Measured against the immense business of modern times, colonial commerce
+seems perhaps trivial. That, however, is not the test of its
+significance. It must be considered in relation to the growth of English
+colonial trade in its entirety&mdash;a relation which can be shown by a few
+startling figures. The whole export trade of England, including that to
+the colonies, <a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>was, in 1704, &pound;6,509,000. On the eve of the American
+Revolution, namely, in 1772, English exports to the American colonies
+alone amounted to &pound;6,024,000; in other words, almost as much as the
+whole foreign business of England two generations before. At the first
+date, colonial trade was but one-twelfth of the English export business;
+at the second date, it was considerably more than one-third. In 1704,
+Pennsylvania bought in English markets goods to the value of &pound;11,459; in
+1772 the purchases of the same colony amounted to &pound;507,909. In short,
+Pennsylvania imports increased fifty times within sixty-eight years,
+amounting in 1772 to almost the entire export trade of England to the
+colonies at the opening of the century. The American colonies were
+indeed a great source of wealth to English merchants.</p>
+
+<p><b>Intercolonial Commerce.</b>&mdash;Although the bad roads of colonial times made
+overland transportation difficult and costly, the many rivers and
+harbors along the coast favored a lively water-borne trade among the
+colonies. The Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna rivers in
+the North and the many smaller rivers in the South made it possible for
+goods to be brought from, and carried to, the interior regions in little
+sailing vessels with comparative ease. Sloops laden with manufactures,
+domestic and foreign, collected at some city like Providence, New York,
+or Philadelphia, skirted the coasts, visited small ports, and sailed up
+the navigable rivers to trade with local merchants who had for exchange
+the raw materials which they had gathered in from neighboring farms.
+Larger ships carried the grain, live stock, cloth, and hardware of New
+England to the Southern colonies, where they were traded for tobacco,
+leather, tar, and ship timber. From the harbors along the Connecticut
+shores there were frequent sailings down through Long Island Sound to
+Maryland, Virginia, and the distant Carolinas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Growth of Towns.</b>&mdash;In connection with this thriving trade and industry
+there grew up along the coast a number of prosperous commercial centers
+which were soon reckoned among the <a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>first commercial towns of the whole
+British empire, comparing favorably in numbers and wealth with such
+ports as Liverpool and Bristol. The statistical records of that time are
+mainly guesses; but we know that Philadelphia stood first in size among
+these towns. Serving as the port of entry for Pennsylvania, Delaware,
+and western Jersey, it had drawn within its borders, just before the
+Revolution, about 25,000 inhabitants. Boston was second in rank, with
+somewhat more than 20,000 people. New York, the "commercial capital of
+Connecticut and old East Jersey," was slightly smaller than Boston, but
+growing at a steady rate. The fourth town in size was Charleston, South
+Carolina, with about 10,000 inhabitants. Newport in Rhode Island, a
+center of rum manufacture and shipping, stood fifth, with a population
+of about 7000. Baltimore and Norfolk were counted as "considerable
+towns." In the interior, Hartford in Connecticut, Lancaster and York in
+Pennsylvania, and Albany in New York, with growing populations and
+increasing trade, gave prophecy of an urban America away from the
+seaboard. The other towns were straggling villages. Williamsburg,
+Virginia, for example, had about two hundred houses, in which dwelt a
+dozen families of the gentry and a few score of tradesmen. Inland county
+seats often consisted of nothing more than a log courthouse, a prison,
+and one wretched inn to house judges, lawyers, and litigants during the
+sessions of the court.</p>
+
+<p>The leading towns exercised an influence on colonial opinion all out of
+proportion to their population. They were the centers of wealth, for one
+thing; of the press and political activity, for another. Merchants and
+artisans could readily take concerted action on public questions arising
+from their commercial operations. The towns were also centers for news,
+gossip, religious controversy, and political discussion. In the market
+places the farmers from the countryside learned of British policies and
+laws, and so, mingling with the townsmen, were drawn into the main
+currents of opinion which set in toward colonial nationalism and
+independence.<a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>J. Bishop, <i>History of American Manufactures</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>E.L. Bogart, <i>Economic History of the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>P.A. Bruce, <i>Economic History of Virginia</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>E. Semple, <i>American History and Its Geographical Conditions</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W. Weeden, <i>Economic and Social History of New England</i>. (2 vols.).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Is land in your community parceled out into small farms? Contrast the
+system in your community with the feudal system of land tenure.</p>
+
+<p>2. Are any things owned and used in common in your community? Why did
+common tillage fail in colonial times?</p>
+
+<p>3. Describe the elements akin to feudalism which were introduced in the
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>4. Explain the success of freehold tillage.</p>
+
+<p>5. Compare the life of the planter with that of the farmer.</p>
+
+<p>6. How far had the western frontier advanced by 1776?</p>
+
+<p>7. What colonial industry was mainly developed by women? Why was it very
+important both to the Americans and to the English?</p>
+
+<p>8. What were the centers for iron working? Ship building?</p>
+
+<p>9. Explain how the fisheries affected many branches of trade and
+industry.</p>
+
+<p>10. Show how American trade formed a vital part of English business.</p>
+
+<p>11. How was interstate commerce mainly carried on?</p>
+
+<p>12. What were the leading towns? Did they compare in importance with
+British towns of the same period?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Land Tenure.</b>&mdash;Coman, <i>Industrial History</i> (rev. ed.), pp. 32-38.
+Special reference: Bruce, <i>Economic History of Virginia</i>, Vol. I, Chap.
+VIII.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco Planting in Virginia.</b>&mdash;Callender, <i>Economic History of the
+United States</i>, pp. 22-28.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colonial Agriculture.</b>&mdash;Coman, pp. 48-63. Callender, pp. 69-74.
+Reference: J.R.H. Moore, <i>Industrial History of the American People</i>,
+pp. 131-162.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colonial Manufactures.</b>&mdash;Coman, pp. 63-73. Callender, pp. 29-44.
+Special reference: Weeden, <i>Economic and Social History of New England</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colonial Commerce.</b>&mdash;Coman, pp. 73-85. Callender, pp. 51-63, 78-84.
+Moore, pp. 163-208. Lodge, <i>Short History of the English Colonies</i>, pp.
+409-412, 229-231, 312-314.<a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>Chapter III</h2>
+
+<h3>SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS</h3>
+
+
+<p>Colonial life, crowded as it was with hard and unremitting toil, left
+scant leisure for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. There was
+little money in private purses or public treasuries to be dedicated to
+schools, libraries, and museums. Few there were with time to read long
+and widely, and fewer still who could devote their lives to things that
+delight the eye and the mind. And yet, poor and meager as the
+intellectual life of the colonists may seem by way of comparison, heroic
+efforts were made in every community to lift the people above the plane
+of mere existence. After the first clearings were opened in the forests
+those efforts were redoubled, and with lengthening years told upon the
+thought and spirit of the land. The appearance, during the struggle with
+England, of an extraordinary group of leaders familiar with history,
+political philosophy, and the arts of war, government, and diplomacy
+itself bore eloquent testimony to the high quality of the American
+intellect. No one, not even the most critical, can run through the
+writings of distinguished Americans scattered from Massachusetts to
+Georgia&mdash;the Adamses, Ellsworth, the Morrises, the Livingstons,
+Hamilton, Franklin, Washington, Madison, Marshall, Henry, the Randolphs,
+and the Pinckneys&mdash;without coming to the conclusion that there was
+something in American colonial life which fostered minds of depth and
+power. Women surmounted even greater difficulties than the men in the
+process of self-education, and their keen interest in public issues is
+evident in many a record like the <i>Letters</i> of Mrs. John Adams to her
+husband during the Revolution; the writings of Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren,
+the sister of James Otis, who <a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>measured her pen with the British
+propagandists; and the patriot newspapers founded and managed by women.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Leadership of the Churches</span></h3>
+
+<p>In the intellectual life of America, the churches assumed a r&ocirc;le of high
+importance. There were abundant reasons for this. In many of the
+colonies&mdash;Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New England&mdash;the religious impulse
+had been one of the impelling motives in stimulating immigration. In all
+the colonies, the clergy, at least in the beginning, formed the only
+class with any leisure to devote to matters of the spirit. They preached
+on Sundays and taught school on week days. They led in the discussion of
+local problems and in the formation of political opinion, so much of
+which was concerned with the relation between church and state. They
+wrote books and pamphlets. They filled most of the chairs in the
+colleges; under clerical guidance, intellectual and spiritual, the
+Americans received their formal education. In several of the provinces
+the Anglican Church was established by law. In New England the Puritans
+were supreme, notwithstanding the efforts of the crown to overbear their
+authority. In the Middle colonies, particularly, the multiplication of
+sects made the dominance of any single denomination impossible; and in
+all of them there was a growing diversity of faith, which promised in
+time a separation of church and state and freedom of opinion.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Church of England.</b>&mdash;Virginia was the stronghold of the English
+system of church and state. The Anglican faith and worship were
+prescribed by law, sustained by taxes imposed on all, and favored by the
+governor, the provincial councilors, and the richest planters. "The
+Established Church," says Lodge, "was one of the appendages of the
+Virginia aristocracy. They controlled the vestries and the ministers,
+and the parish church stood not infrequently on the estate of the
+planter who built and managed it." As in England, Catholics and
+Protestant Dissenters were at first laid under heavy dis<a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>abilities. Only
+slowly and on sufferance were they admitted to the province; but when
+once they were even covertly tolerated, they pressed steadily in, until,
+by the Revolution, they outnumbered the adherents of the established
+order.</p>
+
+<p>The Church was also sanctioned by law and supported by taxes in the
+Carolinas after 1704, and in Georgia after that colony passed directly
+under the crown in 1754&mdash;this in spite of the fact that the majority of
+the inhabitants were Dissenters. Against the protests of the Catholics
+it was likewise established in Maryland. In New York, too,
+notwithstanding the resistance of the Dutch, the Established Church was
+fostered by the provincial officials, and the Anglicans, embracing about
+one-fifteenth of the population, exerted an influence all out of
+proportion to their numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Many factors helped to enhance the power of the English Church in the
+colonies. It was supported by the British government and the official
+class sent out to the provinces. Its bishops and archbishops in England
+were appointed by the king, and its faith and service were set forth by
+acts of Parliament. Having its seat of power in the English monarchy, it
+could hold its clergy and missionaries loyal to the crown and so
+counteract to some extent the independent spirit that was growing up in
+America. The Church, always a strong bulwark of the state, therefore had
+a political r&ocirc;le to play here as in England. Able bishops and far-seeing
+leaders firmly grasped this fact about the middle of the eighteenth
+century and redoubled their efforts to augment the influence of the
+Church in provincial affairs. Unhappily for their plans they failed to
+calculate in advance the effect of their methods upon dissenting
+Protestants, who still cherished memories of bitter religious conflicts
+in the mother country.</p>
+
+<p><b>Puritanism in New England.</b>&mdash;If the established faith made for imperial
+unity, the same could not be said of Puritanism. The Plymouth Pilgrims
+had cast off all allegiance to the Anglican Church and established a
+separate and independent congregation before they came to America. The
+Puritans, essaying at <a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>first the task of reformers within the Church,
+soon after their arrival in Massachusetts, likewise flung off their yoke
+of union with the Anglicans. In each town a separate congregation was
+organized, the male members choosing the pastor, the teachers, and the
+other officers. They also composed the voters in the town meeting, where
+secular matters were determined. The union of church and government was
+thus complete, and uniformity of faith and life prescribed by law and
+enforced by civil authorities; but this worked for local autonomy
+instead of imperial unity.</p>
+
+<p>The clergy became a powerful class, dominant through their learning and
+their fearful denunciations of the faithless. They wrote the books for
+the people to read&mdash;the famous Cotton Mather having three hundred and
+eighty-three books and pamphlets to his credit. In co&ouml;peration with the
+civil officers they enforced a strict observance of the Puritan
+Sabbath&mdash;a day of rest that began at six o'clock on Saturday evening and
+lasted until sunset on Sunday. All work, all trading, all amusement, and
+all worldly conversation were absolutely prohibited during those hours.
+A thoughtless maid servant who for some earthly reason smiled in church
+was in danger of being banished as a vagabond. Robert Pike, a devout
+Puritan, thinking the sun had gone to rest, ventured forth on horseback
+one Sunday evening and was luckless enough to have a ray of light strike
+him through a rift in the clouds. The next day he was brought into court
+and fined for "his ungodly conduct." With persons accused of witchcraft
+the Puritans were still more ruthless. When a mania of persecution swept
+over Massachusetts in 1692, eighteen people were hanged, one was pressed
+to death, many suffered imprisonment, and two died in jail.</p>
+
+<p>Just about this time, however, there came a break in the uniformity of
+Puritan rule. The crown and church in England had long looked upon it
+with disfavor, and in 1684 King Charles II annulled the old charter of
+the Massachusetts Bay Company. A new document issued seven years later
+wrested from the Puritans of the colony the right to elect their own
+governor <a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>and reserved the power of appointment to the king. It also
+abolished the rule limiting the suffrage to church members, substituting
+for it a simple property qualification. Thus a royal governor and an
+official family, certain to be Episcopalian in faith and monarchist in
+sympathies, were forced upon Massachusetts; and members of all religious
+denominations, if they had the required amount of property, were
+permitted to take part in elections. By this act in the name of the
+crown, the Puritan monopoly was broken down in Massachusetts, and that
+province was brought into line with Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New
+Hampshire, where property, not religious faith, was the test for the
+suffrage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Growth of Religious Toleration.</b>&mdash;Though neither the Anglicans of
+Virginia nor the Puritans of Massachusetts believed in toleration for
+other denominations, that principle was strictly applied in Rhode
+Island. There, under the leadership of Roger Williams, liberty in
+matters of conscience was established in the beginning. Maryland, by
+granting in 1649 freedom to those who professed to believe in Jesus
+Christ, opened its gates to all Christians; and Pennsylvania, true to
+the tenets of the Friends, gave freedom of conscience to those "who
+confess and acknowledge the one Almighty and Eternal God to be the
+creator, upholder, and ruler of the World." By one circumstance or
+another, the Middle colonies were thus early characterized by diversity
+rather than uniformity of opinion. Dutch Protestants, Huguenots,
+Quakers, Baptists, Presbyterians, New Lights, Moravians, Lutherans,
+Catholics, and other denominations became too strongly intrenched and
+too widely scattered to permit any one of them to rule, if it had
+desired to do so. There were communities and indeed whole sections where
+one or another church prevailed, but in no colony was a legislature
+steadily controlled by a single group. Toleration encouraged diversity,
+and diversity, in turn, worked for greater toleration.</p>
+
+<p>The government and faith of the dissenting denominations conspired with
+economic and political tendencies to draw<a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a> America away from the English
+state. Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and Puritans had no hierarchy
+of bishops and archbishops to bind them to the seat of power in London.
+Neither did they look to that metropolis for guidance in interpreting
+articles of faith. Local self-government in matters ecclesiastical
+helped to train them for local self-government in matters political. The
+spirit of independence which led Dissenters to revolt in the Old World,
+nourished as it was amid favorable circumstances in the New World, made
+them all the more zealous in the defense of every right against
+authority imposed from without.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Schools and Colleges</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Religion and Local Schools.</b>&mdash;One of the first cares of each Protestant
+denomination was the education of the children in the faith. In this
+work the Bible became the center of interest. The English version was
+indeed the one book of the people. Farmers, shopkeepers, and artisans,
+whose life had once been bounded by the daily routine of labor, found in
+the Scriptures not only an inspiration to religious conduct, but also a
+book of romance, travel, and history. "Legend and annal," says John
+Richard Green, "war-song and psalm, state-roll and biography, the mighty
+voices of prophets, the parables of Evangelists, stories of mission
+journeys, of perils by sea and among the heathen, philosophic arguments,
+apocalyptic visions, all were flung broadcast over minds unoccupied for
+the most part by any rival learning.... As a mere literary monument, the
+English version of the Bible remains the noblest example of the English
+tongue." It was the King James version just from the press that the
+Pilgrims brought across the sea with them.</p>
+
+<div><a name="page" id="page"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><a href="./images/60.jpg"><img src="./images/60-tb.jpg" alt="A Page from a Famous Schoolbook" title="A Page from a Famous Schoolbook" /></a>
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Page from a Famous Schoolbook</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the authority of the Established Church was substituted the
+authority of the Scriptures. The Puritans devised a catechism based upon
+their interpretation of the Bible, and, very soon after their arrival in
+America, they ordered all parents and masters of servants to be diligent
+in seeing that their <a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>children and wards were taught to read religious
+works and give answers to the religious questions. Massachusetts was
+scarcely twenty years old before education of this character was
+declared to be compulsory, and provision was made for public schools
+where those not taught at home could receive instruction in reading and
+writing.</p>
+
+<p>Outside of New England the idea of compulsory education was not regarded
+with the same favor; but the whole land was nevertheless dotted with
+little schools kept by "dames, itinerant teachers, or local parsons."
+Whether we turn to the life of Franklin in the North or Washington in
+the South, we read of tiny schoolhouses, where boys, and sometimes
+girls, were taught to read and write. Where there were no schools,
+fathers and mothers of the better kind gave their children the rudiments
+of learning. Though illiteracy was widespread, there is evidence to show
+that the diffusion of knowledge among the masses was making steady
+progress all through the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>Religion and Higher Learning.</b>&mdash;Religious motives entered into the
+establishment of colleges as well as local schools. Harvard, founded in
+1636, and Yale, opened in 1718, were intended primarily to train
+"learned and godly ministers" for the Puritan churches of New England.
+To the far North,<a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a> Dartmouth, chartered in 1769, was designed first as a
+mission to the Indians and then as a college for the sons of New England
+farmers preparing to preach, teach, or practice law. The College of New
+Jersey, organized in 1746 and removed to Princeton eleven years later,
+was sustained by the Presbyterians. Two colleges looked to the
+Established Church as their source of inspiration and support: William
+and Mary, founded in Virginia in 1693, and King's College, now Columbia
+University, chartered by King George II in 1754, on an appeal from the
+New York Anglicans, alarmed at the growth of religious dissent and the
+"republican tendencies" of the age. Two colleges revealed a drift away
+from sectarianism. Brown, established in Rhode Island in 1764, and the
+Philadelphia Academy, forerunner of the University of Pennsylvania,
+organized by Benjamin Franklin, reflected the spirit of toleration by
+giving representation on the board of trustees to several religious
+sects. It was Franklin's idea that his college should prepare young men
+to serve in public office as leaders of the people and ornaments to
+their country.</p>
+
+<p><b>Self-education in America.</b>&mdash;Important as were these institutions of
+learning, higher education was by no means confined within their walls.
+Many well-to-do families sent their sons to Oxford or Cambridge in
+England. Private tutoring in the home was common. In still more families
+there were intelligent children who grew up in the great colonial school
+of adversity and who trained themselves until, in every contest of mind
+and wit, they could vie with the sons of Harvard or William and Mary or
+any other college. Such, for example, was Benjamin Franklin, whose
+charming autobiography, in addition to being an American classic, is a
+fine record of self-education. His formal training in the classroom was
+limited to a few years at a local school in Boston; but his
+self-education continued throughout his life. He early manifested a zeal
+for reading, and devoured, he tells us, his father's dry library on
+theology, Bunyan's works, Defoe's writings, Plutarch's <i>Lives</i>, Locke's
+<i>On the Human Understanding</i>, and in<a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>numerable volumes dealing with
+secular subjects. His literary style, perhaps the best of his time,
+Franklin acquired by the diligent and repeated analysis of the
+<i>Spectator</i>. In a life crowded with labors, he found time to read widely
+in natural science and to win single-handed recognition at the hands of
+European savants for his discoveries in electricity. By his own efforts
+he "attained an acquaintance" with Latin, Italian, French, and Spanish,
+thus unconsciously preparing himself for the day when he was to speak
+for all America at the court of the king of France.</p>
+
+<p>Lesser lights than Franklin, educated by the same process, were found
+all over colonial America. From this fruitful source of native ability,
+self-educated, the American cause drew great strength in the trials of
+the Revolution.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Colonial Press</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Rise of the Newspaper.</b>&mdash;The evolution of American democracy into a
+government by public opinion, enlightened by the open discussion of
+political questions, was in no small measure aided by a free press. That
+too, like education, was a matter of slow growth. A printing press was
+brought to Massachusetts in 1639, but it was put in charge of an
+official censor and limited to the publication of religious works. Forty
+years elapsed before the first newspaper appeared, bearing the curious
+title, <i>Public Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestic</i>, and it had not
+been running very long before the government of Massachusetts suppressed
+it for discussing a political question.</p>
+
+<p>Publishing, indeed, seemed to be a precarious business; but in 1704
+there came a second venture in journalism, <i>The Boston News-Letter</i>,
+which proved to be a more lasting enterprise because it refrained from
+criticizing the authorities. Still the public interest languished. When
+Franklin's brother, James, began to issue his <i>New England Courant</i>
+about 1720, his friends sought to dissuade him, saying that one
+newspaper was enough for America. Nevertheless he continued it; and his
+confidence in the future was rewarded. In nearly every <a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>colony a gazette
+or chronicle appeared within the next thirty years or more. Benjamin
+Franklin was able to record in 1771 that America had twenty-five
+newspapers. Boston led with five. Philadelphia had three: two in English
+and one in German.</p>
+
+<p><b>Censorship and Restraints on the Press.</b>&mdash;The idea of printing,
+unlicensed by the government and uncontrolled by the church, was,
+however, slow in taking form. The founders of the American colonies had
+never known what it was to have the free and open publication of books,
+pamphlets, broadsides, and newspapers. When the art of printing was
+first discovered, the control of publishing was vested in clerical
+authorities. After the establishment of the State Church in England in
+the reign of Elizabeth, censorship of the press became a part of royal
+prerogative. Printing was restricted to Oxford, Cambridge, and London;
+and no one could publish anything without previous approval of the
+official censor. When the Puritans were in power, the popular party,
+with a zeal which rivaled that of the crown, sought, in turn, to silence
+royalist and clerical writers by a vigorous censorship. After the
+restoration of the monarchy, control of the press was once more placed
+in royal hands, where it remained until 1695, when Parliament, by
+failing to renew the licensing act, did away entirely with the official
+censorship. By that time political parties were so powerful and so
+active and printing presses were so numerous that official review of all
+published matter became a sheer impossibility.</p>
+
+<p>In America, likewise, some troublesome questions arose in connection
+with freedom of the press. The Puritans of Massachusetts were no less
+anxious than King Charles or the Archbishop of London to shut out from
+the prying eyes of the people all literature "not mete for them to
+read"; and so they established a system of official licensing for
+presses, which lasted until 1755. In the other colonies where there was
+more diversity of opinion and publishers could set up in business with
+impunity, they were nevertheless constantly liable to arrest <a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>for
+printing anything displeasing to the colonial governments. In 1721 the
+editor of the <i>Mercury</i> in Philadelphia was called before the
+proprietary council and ordered to apologize for a political article,
+and for a later offense of a similar character he was thrown into jail.
+A still more famous case was that of Peter Zenger, a New York publisher,
+who was arrested in 1735 for criticising the administration. Lawyers who
+ventured to defend the unlucky editor were deprived of their licenses to
+practice, and it became necessary to bring an attorney all the way from
+Philadelphia. By this time the tension of feeling was high, and the
+approbation of the public was forthcoming when the lawyer for the
+defense exclaimed to the jury that the very cause of liberty itself, not
+that of the poor printer, was on trial! The verdict for Zenger, when it
+finally came, was the signal for an outburst of popular rejoicing.
+Already the people of King George's province knew how precious a thing
+is the freedom of the press.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to the schools, few and scattered as they were, and to the
+vigilance of parents, a very large portion, perhaps nearly one-half, of
+the colonists could read. Through the newspapers, pamphlets, and
+almanacs that streamed from the types, the people could follow the
+course of public events and grasp the significance of political
+arguments. An American opinion was in the process of making&mdash;an
+independent opinion nourished by the press and enriched by discussions
+around the fireside and at the taverns. When the day of resistance to
+British rule came, government by opinion was at hand. For every person
+who could hear the voice of Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, there were a
+thousand who could see their appeals on the printed page. Men who had
+spelled out their letters while poring over Franklin's <i>Poor Richard's
+Almanac</i> lived to read Thomas Paine's thrilling call to arms.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Evolution in Political Institutions</span></h3>
+
+<p>Two very distinct lines of development appeared in colonial politics.
+The one, exalting royal rights and aristocratic privi<a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>leges, was the
+drift toward provincial government through royal officers appointed in
+England. The other, leading toward democracy and self-government, was
+the growth in the power of the popular legislative assembly. Each
+movement gave impetus to the other, with increasing force during the
+passing years, until at last the final collision between the two ideals
+of government came in the war of independence.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Royal Provinces.</b>&mdash;Of the thirteen English colonies eight were
+royal provinces in 1776, with governors appointed by the king. Virginia
+passed under the direct rule of the crown in 1624, when the charter of
+the London Company was annulled. The Massachusetts Bay corporation lost
+its charter in 1684, and the new instrument granted seven years later
+stripped the colonists of the right to choose their chief executive. In
+the early decades of the eighteenth century both the Carolinas were
+given the provincial instead of the proprietary form. New Hampshire,
+severed from Massachusetts in 1679, and Georgia, surrendered by the
+trustees in 1752, went into the hands of the crown. New York,
+transferred to the Duke of York on its capture from the Dutch in 1664,
+became a province when he took the title of James II in 1685. New
+Jersey, after remaining for nearly forty years under proprietors, was
+brought directly under the king in 1702. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
+Delaware, although they retained their proprietary character until the
+Revolution, were in some respects like the royal colonies, for their
+governors were as independent of popular choice as were the appointees
+of King George. Only two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut,
+retained full self-government on the eve of the Revolution. They alone
+had governors and legislatures entirely of their own choosing.</p>
+
+<p>The chief officer of the royal province was the governor, who enjoyed
+high and important powers which he naturally sought to augment at every
+turn. He enforced the laws and, usually with the consent of a council,
+appointed the civil and military officers. He granted pardons and
+reprieves; he was head of <a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>the highest court; he was commander-in-chief
+of the militia; he levied troops for defense and enforced martial law in
+time of invasion, war, and rebellion. In all the provinces, except
+Massachusetts, he named the councilors who composed the upper house of
+the legislature and was likely to choose those who favored his claims.
+He summoned, adjourned, and dissolved the popular assembly, or the lower
+house; he laid before it the projects of law desired by the crown; and
+he vetoed measures which he thought objectionable. Here were in America
+all the elements of royal prerogative against which Hampden had
+protested and Cromwell had battled in England.</p>
+
+<div><a name="palace" id="palace"></a></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/66-tb.jpg" alt="The Royal Governor's Palace at New Berne" title="The Royal Governor's Palace at New Berne" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">The Royal Governor's Palace at New Berne</span></div></div>
+
+<p>The colonial governors were generally surrounded by a body of
+office-seekers and hunters for land grants. Some of them were noblemen
+of broken estates who had come to America to improve their fortunes. The
+pretensions of this circle grated on colonial nerves, and privileges
+granted to them, often at the expense of colonists, did much to deepen
+popular antipathy <a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>to the British government. Favors extended to
+adherents of the Established Church displeased Dissenters. The
+reappearance of this formidable union of church and state, from which
+they had fled, stirred anew the ancient wrath against that combination.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Colonial Assembly.</b>&mdash;Coincident with the drift toward
+administration through royal governors was the second and opposite
+tendency, namely, a steady growth in the practice of self-government.
+The voters of England had long been accustomed to share in taxation and
+law-making through representatives in Parliament, and the idea was early
+introduced in America. Virginia was only twelve years old (1619) when
+its first representative assembly appeared. As the towns of
+Massachusetts multiplied and it became impossible for all the members of
+the corporation to meet at one place, the representative idea was
+adopted, in 1633. The river towns of Connecticut formed a representative
+system under their "Fundamental Orders" of 1639, and the entire colony
+was given a royal charter in 1662. Generosity, as well as practical
+considerations, induced such proprietors as Lord Baltimore and William
+Penn to invite their colonists to share in the government as soon as any
+considerable settlements were made. Thus by one process or another every
+one of the colonies secured a popular assembly.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that in the provision for popular elections, the suffrage was
+finally restricted to property owners or taxpayers, with a leaning
+toward the freehold qualification. In Virginia, the rural voter had to
+be a freeholder owning at least fifty acres of land, if there was no
+house on it, or twenty-five acres with a house twenty-five feet square.
+In Massachusetts, the voter for member of the assembly under the charter
+of 1691 had to be a freeholder of an estate worth forty shillings a year
+at least or of other property to the value of forty pounds sterling. In
+Pennsylvania, the suffrage was granted to freeholders owning fifty acres
+or more of land well seated, twelve acres cleared, and to other persons
+worth at least fifty pounds in lawful money.<a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a></p>
+
+<p>Restrictions like these undoubtedly excluded from the suffrage a very
+considerable number of men, particularly the mechanics and artisans of
+the towns, who were by no means content with their position.
+Nevertheless, it was relatively easy for any man to acquire a small
+freehold, so cheap and abundant was land; and in fact a large proportion
+of the colonists were land owners. Thus the assemblies, in spite of the
+limited suffrage, acquired a democratic tone.</p>
+
+<p>The popular character of the assemblies increased as they became engaged
+in battles with the royal and proprietary governors. When called upon by
+the executive to make provision for the support of the administration,
+the legislature took advantage of the opportunity to make terms in the
+interest of the taxpayers. It made annual, not permanent, grants of
+money to pay official salaries and then insisted upon electing a
+treasurer to dole it out. Thus the colonists learned some of the
+mysteries of public finance, as well as the management of rapacious
+officials. The legislature also used its power over money grants to
+force the governor to sign bills which he would otherwise have vetoed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Contests between Legislatures and Governors.</b>&mdash;As may be imagined, many
+and bitter were the contests between the royal and proprietary governors
+and the colonial assemblies. Franklin relates an amusing story of how
+the Pennsylvania assembly held in one hand a bill for the executive to
+sign and, in the other hand, the money to pay his salary. Then, with sly
+humor, Franklin adds: "Do not, my courteous reader, take pet at our
+proprietary constitution for these our bargain and sale proceedings in
+legislation. It is a happy country where justice and what was your own
+before can be had for ready money. It is another addition to the value
+of money and of course another spur to industry. Every land is not so
+blessed."</p>
+
+<p>It must not be thought, however, that every governor got off as easily
+as Franklin's tale implies. On the contrary, the legislatures, like
+C&aelig;sar, fed upon meat that made them great and steadily encroached upon
+executive prerogatives as they <a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>tried out and found their strength. If
+we may believe contemporary laments, the power of the crown in America
+was diminishing when it was struck down altogether. In New York, the
+friends of the governor complained in 1747 that "the inhabitants of
+plantations are generally educated in republican principles; upon
+republican principles all is conducted. Little more than a shadow of
+royal authority remains in the Northern colonies." "Here," echoed the
+governor of South Carolina, the following year, "levelling principles
+prevail; the frame of the civil government is unhinged; a governor, if
+he would be idolized, must betray his trust; the people have got their
+whole administration in their hands; the election of the members of the
+assembly is by ballot; not civil posts only, but all ecclesiastical
+preferments, are in the disposal or election of the people."</p>
+
+<p>Though baffled by the "levelling principles" of the colonial assemblies,
+the governors did not give up the case as hopeless. Instead they evolved
+a system of policy and action which they thought could bring the
+obstinate provincials to terms. That system, traceable in their letters
+to the government in London, consisted of three parts: (1) the royal
+officers in the colonies were to be made independent of the legislatures
+by taxes imposed by acts of Parliament; (2) a British standing army was
+to be maintained in America; (3) the remaining colonial charters were to
+be revoked and government by direct royal authority was to be enlarged.</p>
+
+<p>Such a system seemed plausible enough to King George III and to many
+ministers of the crown in London. With governors, courts, and an army
+independent of the colonists, they imagined it would be easy to carry
+out both royal orders and acts of Parliament. This reasoning seemed both
+practical and logical. Nor was it founded on theory, for it came fresh
+from the governors themselves. It was wanting in one respect only. It
+failed to take account of the fact that the American people were growing
+strong in the practice of self-government and could dispense with the
+tutelage of the British ministry, no matter how excellent it might be or
+how benevolent its intentions.<a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>A.M. Earle, <i>Home Life in Colonial Days</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.L. Cross, <i>The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies</i> (Harvard
+Studies).</p>
+
+<p>E.G. Dexter, <i>History of Education in the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C.A. Duniway, <i>Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin Franklin, <i>Autobiography</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.B. Greene, <i>The Provincial Governor</i> (Harvard Studies).</p>
+
+<p>A.E. McKinley, <i>The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English Colonies</i>
+(Pennsylvania University Studies).</p>
+
+<p>M.C. Tyler, <i>History of American Literature during the Colonial Times</i>
+(2 vols.).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Why is leisure necessary for the production of art and literature?
+How may leisure be secured?</p>
+
+<p>2. Explain the position of the church in colonial life.</p>
+
+<p>3. Contrast the political r&ocirc;les of Puritanism and the Established
+Church.</p>
+
+<p>4. How did diversity of opinion work for toleration?</p>
+
+<p>5. Show the connection between religion and learning in colonial times.</p>
+
+<p>6. Why is a "free press" such an important thing to American democracy?</p>
+
+<p>7. Relate some of the troubles of early American publishers.</p>
+
+<p>8. Give the undemocratic features of provincial government.</p>
+
+<p>9. How did the colonial assemblies help to create an independent
+American spirit, in spite of a restricted suffrage?</p>
+
+<p>10. Explain the nature of the contests between the governors and the
+legislatures.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Religious and Intellectual Life.</b>&mdash;Lodge, <i>Short History of the English
+Colonies</i>: (1) in New England, pp. 418-438, 465-475; (2) in Virginia,
+pp. 54-61, 87-89; (3) in Pennsylvania, pp. 232-237, 253-257; (4) in New
+York, pp. 316-321. Interesting source materials in Hart, <i>American
+History Told by Contemporaries</i>, Vol. II, pp. 255-275, 276-290.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Government of a Royal Province, Virginia.</b>&mdash;Lodge, pp. 43-50.
+Special Reference: E.B. Greene, <i>The Provincial Governor</i> (Harvard
+Studies).</p>
+
+<p><b>The Government of a Proprietary Colony, Pennsylvania.</b>&mdash;Lodge, pp.
+230-232.<a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Government in New England.</b>&mdash;Lodge, pp. 412-417.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Colonial Press.</b>&mdash;Special Reference: G.H. Payne, <i>History of
+Journalism in the United States</i> (1920).</p>
+
+<p><b>Colonial Life in General.</b>&mdash;John Fiske, <i>Old Virginia and Her
+Neighbors</i>, Vol. II, pp. 174-269; Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>,
+pp. 197-210.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colonial Government in General.</b>&mdash;Elson, pp. 210-216.<a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM</h3>
+
+
+<p>It is one of the well-known facts of history that a people loosely
+united by domestic ties of a political and economic nature, even a
+people torn by domestic strife, may be welded into a solid and compact
+body by an attack from a foreign power. The imperative call to common
+defense, the habit of sharing common burdens, the fusing force of common
+service&mdash;these things, induced by the necessity of resisting outside
+interference, act as an amalgam drawing together all elements, except,
+perhaps, the most discordant. The presence of the enemy allays the most
+virulent of quarrels, temporarily at least. "Politics," runs an old
+saying, "stops at the water's edge."</p>
+
+<p>This ancient political principle, so well understood in diplomatic
+circles, applied nearly as well to the original thirteen American
+colonies as to the countries of Europe. The necessity for common
+defense, if not equally great, was certainly always pressing. Though it
+has long been the practice to speak of the early settlements as founded
+in "a wilderness," this was not actually the case. From the earliest
+days of Jamestown on through the years, the American people were
+confronted by dangers from without. All about their tiny settlements
+were Indians, growing more and more hostile as the frontier advanced and
+as sharp conflicts over land aroused angry passions. To the south and
+west was the power of Spain, humiliated, it is true, by the disaster to
+the Armada, but still presenting an imposing front to the British
+empire. To the north and west were the French, ambitious, energetic,
+imperial in temper, and prepared to contest on land and water the
+advance of British dominion in America.<a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Relations with the Indians and the French</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Indian Affairs.</b>&mdash;It is difficult to make general statements about the
+relations of the colonists to the Indians. The problem was presented in
+different shape in different sections of America. It was not handled
+according to any coherent or uniform plan by the British government,
+which alone could speak for all the provinces at the same time. Neither
+did the proprietors and the governors who succeeded one another, in an
+irregular train, have the consistent policy or the matured experience
+necessary for dealing wisely with Indian matters. As the difficulties
+arose mainly on the frontiers, where the restless and pushing pioneers
+were making their way with gun and ax, nearly everything that happened
+was the result of chance rather than of calculation. A personal quarrel
+between traders and an Indian, a jug of whisky, a keg of gunpowder, the
+exchange of guns for furs, personal treachery, or a flash of bad temper
+often set in motion destructive forces of the most terrible character.</p>
+
+<p>On one side of the ledger may be set innumerable generous records&mdash;of
+Squanto and Samoset teaching the Pilgrims the ways of the wilds; of
+Roger Williams buying his lands from the friendly natives; or of William
+Penn treating with them on his arrival in America. On the other side of
+the ledger must be recorded many a cruel and bloody conflict as the
+frontier rolled westward with deadly precision. The Pequots on the
+Connecticut border, sensing their doom, fell upon the tiny settlements
+with awful fury in 1637 only to meet with equally terrible punishment. A
+generation later, King Philip, son of Massasoit, the friend of the
+Pilgrims, called his tribesmen to a war of extermination which brought
+the strength of all New England to the field and ended in his own
+destruction. In New York, the relations with the Indians, especially
+with the Algonquins and the Mohawks, were marked by periodic and
+desperate wars. Virginia and her Southern neighbors suffered as did New
+England. In 1622 Opecacano, a brother of Powhatan, the friend of the
+Jamestown settlers, launched a general massacre; and <a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>in 1644 he
+attempted a war of extermination. In 1675 the whole frontier was ablaze.
+Nathaniel Bacon vainly attempted to stir the colonial governor to put up
+an adequate defense and, failing in that plea, himself headed a revolt
+and a successful expedition against the Indians. As the Virginia
+outposts advanced into the Kentucky country, the strife with the natives
+was transferred to that "dark and bloody ground"; while to the
+southeast, a desperate struggle with the Tuscaroras called forth the
+combined forces of the two Carolinas and Virginia.</p>
+
+<div><a name="virginians" id="virginians" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/74.jpg"><img src="./images/74-tb.jpg" alt="Virginians Defending Themselves against the Indians" title="Virginians Defending Themselves against the Indians" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'> <i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>Virginians Defending Themselves against the Indians</big></span></div>
+
+<p>From such horrors New Jersey and Delaware were saved on account of their
+geographical location. Pennsylvania, consistently following a policy of
+conciliation, was likewise spared until her western vanguard came into
+full conflict with the allied French and Indians. Georgia, by clever
+negotiations and treaties of alliance, managed to keep on fair terms
+with her belligerent Cherokees and Creeks. But neither diplomacy nor
+generosity could stay the inevitable conflict as the frontier advanced,
+especially after the French soldiers enlisted the Indians <a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>in their
+imperial enterprises. It was then that desultory fighting became general
+warfare.</p>
+
+<div><a name="possessions" id="possessions" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/76.jpg"><img src="./images/76-tb.jpg" alt="English, French, and Spanish Possessions in America, 1750" title="English, French, and Spanish Possessions in America, 1750" /></a><div class='center'><span class="smcap">English, French, and Spanish Possessions in America, 1750</span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>Early Relations with the French.</b>&mdash;During the first decades of French
+exploration and settlement in the St. Lawrence country, the English
+colonies, engrossed with their own problems, gave little or no thought
+to their distant neighbors. Quebec, founded in 1608, and Montreal, in
+1642, were too far away, too small in population, and too slight in
+strength to be much of a menace to Boston, Hartford, or New York. It was
+the statesmen in France and England, rather than the colonists in
+America, who first grasped the significance of the slowly converging
+empires in North America. It was the ambition of Louis XIV of France,
+rather than the labors of Jesuit missionaries and French rangers, that
+sounded the first note of colonial alarm.</p>
+
+<p>Evidence of this lies in the fact that three conflicts between the
+English and the French occurred before their advancing frontiers met on
+the Pennsylvania border. King William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's
+War (1701-1713), and King George's War (1744-1748) owed their origins
+and their endings mainly to the intrigues and rivalries of European
+powers, although they all involved the American colonies in struggles
+with the French and their savage allies.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Clash in the Ohio Valley.</b>&mdash;The second of these wars had hardly
+closed, however, before the English colonists themselves began to be
+seriously alarmed about the rapidly expanding French dominion in the
+West. Marquette and Joliet, who opened the Lake region, and La Salle,
+who in 1682 had gone down the Mississippi to the Gulf, had been followed
+by the builders of forts. In 1718, the French founded New Orleans, thus
+taking possession of the gateway to the Mississippi as well as the St.
+Lawrence. A few years later they built Fort Niagara; in 1731 they
+occupied Crown Point; in 1749 they formally announced their dominion
+over all the territory drained by the Ohio River. Having asserted this
+lofty claim, they set out to make it good by constructing in the years
+1752-1754 Fort Le B&oelig;uf near Lake Erie, Fort Venango on the upper
+waters of the<a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a> Allegheny, and Fort Duquesne at the junction of the
+streams forming the Ohio. Though they were warned by George Washington,
+in the name of the governor of Virginia, to keep out of territory "so
+notoriously known to be property of the crown of Great Britain," the
+French showed no signs of relinquishing their pretensions.</p>
+
+<div><a name="retreat" id="retreat" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/78.jpg"><img src="./images/78-tb.jpg" alt="Braddock's Retreat" title="Braddock's Retreat" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'> <i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>Braddock's Retreat</big></span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Final Phase&mdash;the French and Indian War.</b>&mdash;Thus it happened that the
+shot which opened the Seven Years' War, known in America as the French
+and Indian War, was fired in the wilds of Pennsylvania. There began the
+conflict that spread to Europe and even Asia and finally involved
+England and Prussia, on the one side, and France, Austria, Spain, and
+minor powers on the other. On American soil, the defeat of Braddock in
+1755 and Wolfe's exploit in capturing Quebec four years later were the
+dramatic features. On the continent of Europe, England subsidized
+Prussian arms to hold France at bay. In India, on the banks of the
+Ganges, as on the banks of the St. Lawrence,<a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a> British arms were
+triumphant. Well could the historian write: "Conquests equaling in
+rapidity and far surpassing in magnitude those of Cortes and Pizarro had
+been achieved in the East." Well could the merchants of London declare
+that under the administration of William Pitt, the imperial genius of
+this world-wide conflict, commerce had been "united with and made to
+flourish by war."</p>
+
+<p>From the point of view of the British empire, the results of the war
+were momentous. By the peace of 1763, Canada and the territory east of
+the Mississippi, except New Orleans, passed under the British flag. The
+remainder of the Louisiana territory was transferred to Spain and French
+imperial ambitions on the American continent were laid to rest. In
+exchange for Havana, which the British had seized during the war, Spain
+ceded to King George the colony of Florida. Not without warrant did
+Macaulay write in after years that Pitt "was the first Englishman of his
+time; and he had made England the first country in the world."</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Effects of Warfare on the Colonies</span></h3>
+
+<p>The various wars with the French and the Indians, trivial in detail as
+they seem to-day, had a profound influence on colonial life and on the
+destiny of America. Circumstances beyond the control of popular
+assemblies, jealous of their individual powers, compelled <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'cooperation'">co&ouml;peration</ins>
+among them, grudging and stingy no doubt, but still <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'cooperation'">co&ouml;peration</ins>. The
+American people, more eager to be busy in their fields or at their
+trades, were simply forced to raise and support armies, to learn the
+arts of warfare, and to practice, if in a small theater, the science of
+statecraft. These forces, all cumulative, drove the colonists, so
+tenaciously provincial in their habits, in the direction of nationalism.</p>
+
+<p><b>The New England Confederation.</b>&mdash;It was in their efforts to deal with
+the problems presented by the Indian and French menace that the
+Americans took the first steps toward union. Though there were many
+common ties among the settlers of<a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a> New England, it required a deadly
+fear of the Indians to produce in 1643 the New England Confederation,
+composed of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. The
+colonies so united were bound together in "a firm and perpetual league
+of friendship and amity for offense and defense, mutual service and
+succor, upon all just occasions." They made provision for distributing
+the burdens of wars among the members and provided for a congress of
+commissioners from each colony to determine upon common policies. For
+some twenty years the Confederation was active and it continued to hold
+meetings until after the extinction of the Indian peril on the immediate
+border.</p>
+
+<p>Virginia, no less than Massachusetts, was aware of the importance of
+intercolonial co&ouml;peration. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the
+Old Dominion began treaties of commerce and amity with New York and the
+colonies of New England. In 1684 delegates from Virginia met at Albany
+with the agents of New York and Massachusetts to discuss problems of
+mutual defense. A few years later the Old Dominion co&ouml;perated loyally
+with the Carolinas in defending their borders against Indian forays.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Albany Plan of Union.</b>&mdash;An attempt at a general colonial union was
+made in 1754. On the suggestion of the Lords of Trade in England, a
+conference was held at Albany to consider Indian relations, to devise
+measures of defense against the French, and to enter into "articles of
+union and confederation for the general defense of his Majesty's
+subjects and interests in North America as well in time of peace as of
+war." New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,
+Pennsylvania, and Maryland were represented. After a long discussion, a
+plan of union, drafted mainly, it seems, by Benjamin Franklin, was
+adopted and sent to the colonies and the crown for approval. The
+colonies, jealous of their individual rights, refused to accept the
+scheme and the king disapproved it for the reason, Franklin said, that
+it had "too much weight in the democratic part of the constitution."
+Though the Albany <a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>union failed, the document is still worthy of study
+because it forecast many of the perplexing problems that were not solved
+until thirty-three years afterward, when another convention of which
+also Franklin was a member drafted the Constitution of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<div><a name="franklin" id="franklin"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/81.jpg" alt="Benjamin Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Benjamin Franklin</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Military Education of the Colonists.</b>&mdash;The same wars that showed
+the provincials the meaning of union likewise instructed them in the art
+of defending their institutions. Particularly was this true of the last
+French and Indian conflict, which stretched all the way from Maine to
+the Carolinas and made heavy calls upon them all for troops. The answer,
+it is admitted, was far from satisfactory to the British government and
+the conduct of the militiamen was far from professional; but thousands
+of Americans got a taste, a strong taste, of actual fighting in the
+field. Men like George Washington and Daniel Morgan learned lessons that
+were not forgotten in after years. They saw what American militiamen
+could do under favorable circumstances and they watched British regulars
+operating on American soil. "This whole transaction," shrewdly remarked
+Franklin of Braddock's campaign, "gave us Americans the first suspicion
+that our exalted ideas of the prowess of British regular troops had not
+been well founded." It was no mere accident that the Virginia colonel
+who drew his sword under the elm at Cambridge and took com<a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>mand of the
+army of the Revolution was the brave officer who had "spurned the
+whistle of bullets" at the memorable battle in western Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p><b>Financial Burdens and Commercial Disorder.</b>&mdash;While the provincials were
+learning lessons in warfare they were also paying the bills. All the
+conflicts were costly in treasure as in blood. King Philip's war left
+New England weak and almost bankrupt. The French and Indian struggle was
+especially expensive. The twenty-five thousand men put in the field by
+the colonies were sustained only by huge outlays of money. Paper
+currency streamed from the press and debts were accumulated. Commerce
+was driven from its usual channels and prices were enhanced. When the
+end came, both England and America were staggering under heavy
+liabilities, and to make matters worse there was a fall of prices
+accompanied by a commercial depression which extended over a period of
+ten years. It was in the midst of this crisis that measures of taxation
+had to be devised to pay the cost of the war, precipitating the quarrel
+which led to American independence.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Expulsion of French Power from North America.</b>&mdash;The effects of the
+defeat administered to France, as time proved, were difficult to
+estimate. Some British statesmen regarded it as a happy circumstance
+that the colonists, already restive under their administration, had no
+foreign power at hand to aid them in case they struck for independence.
+American leaders, on the other hand, now that the soldiers of King Louis
+were driven from the continent, thought that they had no other country
+to fear if they cast off British sovereignty. At all events, France,
+though defeated, was not out of the sphere of American influence; for,
+as events proved, it was the fortunate French alliance negotiated by
+Franklin that assured the triumph of American arms in the War of the
+Revolution.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Colonial Relations with the British Government</span></h3>
+
+<p>It was neither the Indian wars nor the French wars that finally brought
+forth American nationality. That was the <a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>product of the long strife
+with the mother country which culminated in union for the war of
+independence. The forces that created this nation did not operate in the
+colonies alone. The character of the English sovereigns, the course of
+events in English domestic politics, and English measures of control
+over the colonies&mdash;executive, legislative, and judicial&mdash;must all be
+taken into account.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Last of the Stuarts.</b>&mdash;The struggles between Charles I (1625-49)
+and the parliamentary party and the turmoil of the Puritan r&eacute;gime
+(1649-60) so engrossed the attention of Englishmen at home that they had
+little time to think of colonial policies or to interfere with colonial
+affairs. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660, accompanied by
+internal peace and the increasing power of the mercantile classes in the
+House of Commons, changed all that. In the reign of Charles II
+(1660-85), himself an easy-going person, the policy of regulating trade
+by act of Parliament was developed into a closely knit system and
+powerful agencies to supervise the colonies were created. At the same
+time a system of stricter control over the dominions was ushered in by
+the annulment of the old charter of Massachusetts which conferred so
+much self-government on the Puritans.</p>
+
+<p>Charles' successor, James II, a man of sterner stuff and jealous of his
+authority in the colonies as well as at home, continued the policy thus
+inaugurated and enlarged upon it. If he could have kept his throne, he
+would have bent the Americans under a harsh rule or brought on in his
+dominions a revolution like that which he precipitated at home in 1688.
+He determined to unite the Northern colonies and introduce a more
+efficient administration based on the pattern of the royal provinces. He
+made a martinet, Sir Edmund Andros, governor of all New England, New
+York, and New Jersey. The charter of Massachusetts, annulled in the last
+days of his brother's reign, he continued to ignore, and that of
+Connecticut would have been seized if it had not been spirited away and
+hidden, according to tradition, in a hollow oak.<a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a></p>
+
+<p>For several months, Andros gave the Northern colonies a taste of
+ill-tempered despotism. He wrung quit rents from land owners not
+accustomed to feudal dues; he abrogated titles to land where, in his
+opinion, they were unlawful; he forced the Episcopal service upon the
+Old South Church in Boston; and he denied the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> to
+a preacher who denounced taxation without representation. In the middle
+of his arbitrary course, however, his hand was stayed. The news came
+that King James had been dethroned by his angry subjects, and the people
+of Boston, kindling a fire on Beacon Hill, summoned the countryside to
+dispose of Andros. The response was prompt and hearty. The hated
+governor was arrested, imprisoned, and sent back across the sea under
+guard.</p>
+
+<p>The overthrow of James, followed by the accession of William and Mary
+and by assured parliamentary supremacy, had an immediate effect in the
+colonies. The new order was greeted with thanksgiving. Massachusetts was
+given another charter which, though not so liberal as the first,
+restored the spirit if not the entire letter of self-government. In the
+other colonies where Andros had been operating, the old course of
+affairs was resumed.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Indifference of the First Two Georges.</b>&mdash;On the death in 1714 of
+Queen Anne, the successor of King William, the throne passed to a
+Hanoverian prince who, though grateful for English honors and revenues,
+was more interested in Hanover than in England. George I and George II,
+whose combined reigns extended from 1714 to 1760, never even learned to
+speak the English language, at least without an accent. The necessity of
+taking thought about colonial affairs bored both of them so that the
+stoutest defender of popular privileges in Boston or Charleston had no
+ground to complain of the exercise of personal prerogatives by the king.
+Moreover, during a large part of this period, the direction of affairs
+was in the hands of an astute leader, Sir Robert Walpole, who betrayed
+his somewhat cynical view of politics by adopting as his motto: "Let
+sleeping dogs lie." He revealed his appreciation of popular sentiment
+<a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>by exclaiming: "I will not be the minister to enforce taxes at the
+expense of blood." Such kings and such ministers were not likely to
+arouse the slumbering resistance of the thirteen colonies across the
+sea.</p>
+
+<p><b>Control of the Crown over the Colonies.</b>&mdash;While no English ruler from
+James II to George III ventured to interfere with colonial matters
+personally, constant control over the colonies was exercised by royal
+officers acting under the authority of the crown. Systematic supervision
+began in 1660, when there was created by royal order a committee of the
+king's council to meet on Mondays and Thursdays of each week to consider
+petitions, memorials, and addresses respecting the plantations. In 1696
+a regular board was established, known as the "Lords of Trade and
+Plantations," which continued, until the American Revolution, to
+scrutinize closely colonial business. The chief duties of the board were
+to examine acts of colonial legislatures, to recommend measures to those
+assemblies for adoption, and to hear memorials and petitions from the
+colonies relative to their affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The methods employed by this board were varied. All laws passed by
+American legislatures came before it for review as a matter of routine.
+If it found an act unsatisfactory, it recommended to the king the
+exercise of his veto power, known as the royal disallowance. Any person
+who believed his personal or property rights injured by a colonial law
+could be heard by the board in person or by attorney; in such cases it
+was the practice to hear at the same time the agent of the colony so
+involved. The royal veto power over colonial legislation was not,
+therefore, a formal affair, but was constantly employed on the
+suggestion of a highly efficient agency of the crown. All this was in
+addition to the powers exercised by the governors in the royal
+provinces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Judicial Control.</b>&mdash;Supplementing this administrative control over the
+colonies was a constant supervision by the English courts of law. The
+king, by virtue of his inherent authority, claimed and exercised high
+appellate powers over all judicial <a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>tribunals in the empire. The right
+of appeal from local courts, expressly set forth in some charters, was,
+on the eve of the Revolution, maintained in every colony. Any subject in
+England or America, who, in the regular legal course, was aggrieved by
+any act of a colonial legislature or any decision of a colonial court,
+had the right, subject to certain regulations, to carry his case to the
+king in council, forcing his opponent to follow him across the sea. In
+the exercise of appellate power, the king in council acting as a court
+could, and frequently did, declare acts of colonial legislatures duly
+enacted and approved, null and void, on the ground that they were
+contrary to English law.</p>
+
+<p><b>Imperial Control in Operation.</b>&mdash;Day after day, week after week, year
+after year, the machinery for political and judicial control over
+colonial affairs was in operation. At one time the British governors in
+the colonies were ordered not to approve any colonial law imposing a
+duty on European goods imported in English vessels. Again, when North
+Carolina laid a tax on peddlers, the council objected to it as
+"restrictive upon the trade and dispersion of English manufactures
+throughout the continent." At other times, Indian trade was regulated in
+the interests of the whole empire or grants of lands by a colonial
+legislature were set aside. Virginia was forbidden to close her ports to
+North Carolina lest there should be retaliation.</p>
+
+<p>In short, foreign and intercolonial trade were subjected to a control
+higher than that of the colony, foreshadowing a day when the
+Constitution of the United States was to commit to Congress the power to
+regulate interstate and foreign commerce and commerce with the Indians.
+A superior judicial power, towering above that of the colonies, as the
+Supreme Court at Washington now towers above the states, kept the
+colonial legislatures within the metes and bounds of established law. In
+the thousands of appeals, memorials, petitions, and complaints, and the
+rulings and decisions upon them, were written the real history of
+British imperial control over the American colonies.</p>
+
+<p>So great was the business before the Lords of Trade that the colonies
+had to keep skilled agents in London to protect their <a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>interests. As
+common grievances against the operation of this machinery of control
+arose, there appeared in each colony a considerable body of men, with
+the merchants in the lead, who chafed at the restraints imposed on their
+enterprise. Only a powerful blow was needed to weld these bodies into a
+common mass nourishing the spirit of colonial nationalism. When to the
+repeated minor irritations were added general and sweeping measures of
+Parliament applying to every colony, the rebound came in the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p><b>Parliamentary Control over Colonial Affairs.</b>&mdash;As soon as Parliament
+gained in power at the expense of the king, it reached out to bring the
+American colonies under its sway as well. Between the execution of
+Charles I and the accession of George III, there was enacted an immense
+body of legislation regulating the shipping, trade, and manufactures of
+America. All of it, based on the "mercantile" theory then prevalent in
+all countries of Europe, was designed to control the overseas
+plantations in such a way as to foster the commercial and business
+interests of the mother country, where merchants and men of finance had
+got the upper hand. According to this theory, the colonies of the
+British empire should be confined to agriculture and the production of
+raw materials, and forced to buy their manufactured goods of England.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Navigation Acts.</i>&mdash;In the first rank among these measures of
+British colonial policy must be placed the navigation laws framed for
+the purpose of building up the British merchant marine and navy&mdash;arms so
+essential in defending the colonies against the Spanish, Dutch, and
+French. The beginning of this type of legislation was made in 1651 and
+it was worked out into a system early in the reign of Charles II
+(1660-85).</p>
+
+<p>The Navigation Acts, in effect, gave a monopoly of colonial commerce to
+British ships. No trade could be carried on between Great Britain and
+her dominions save in vessels built and manned by British subjects. No
+European goods could be brought to America save in the ships of the
+country that <a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>produced them or in English ships. These laws, which were
+almost fatal to Dutch shipping in America, fell with severity upon the
+colonists, compelling them to pay higher freight rates. The adverse
+effect, however, was short-lived, for the measures stimulated
+shipbuilding in the colonies, where the abundance of raw materials gave
+the master builders of America an advantage over those of the mother
+country. Thus the colonists in the end profited from the restrictive
+policy written into the Navigation Acts.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Acts against Manufactures.</i>&mdash;The second group of laws was
+deliberately aimed to prevent colonial industries from competing too
+sharply with those of England. Among the earliest of these measures may
+be counted the Woolen Act of 1699, forbidding the exportation of woolen
+goods from the colonies and even the woolen trade between towns and
+colonies. When Parliament learned, as the result of an inquiry, that New
+England and New York were making thousands of hats a year and sending
+large numbers annually to the Southern colonies and to Ireland, Spain,
+and Portugal, it enacted in 1732 a law declaring that "no hats or felts,
+dyed or undyed, finished or unfinished" should be "put upon any vessel
+or laden upon any horse or cart with intent to export to any place
+whatever." The effect of this measure upon the hat industry was almost
+ruinous. A few years later a similar blow was given to the iron
+industry. By an act of 1750, pig and bar iron from the colonies were
+given free entry to England to encourage the production of the raw
+material; but at the same time the law provided that "no mill or other
+engine for slitting or rolling of iron, no plating forge to work with a
+tilt hammer, and no furnace for making steel" should be built in the
+colonies. As for those already built, they were declared public
+nuisances and ordered closed. Thus three important economic interests of
+the colonists, the woolen, hat, and iron industries, were laid under the
+ban.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Trade Laws.</i>&mdash;The third group of restrictive measures passed by the
+British Parliament related to the sale of <a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>colonial produce. An act of
+1663 required the colonies to export certain articles to Great Britain
+or to her dominions alone; while sugar, tobacco, and ginger consigned to
+the continent of Europe had to pass through a British port paying custom
+duties and through a British merchant's hands paying the usual
+commission. At first tobacco was the only one of the "enumerated
+articles" which seriously concerned the American colonies, the rest
+coming mainly from the British West Indies. In the course of time,
+however, other commodities were added to the list of enumerated
+articles, until by 1764 it embraced rice, naval stores, copper, furs,
+hides, iron, lumber, and pearl ashes. This was not all. The colonies
+were compelled to bring their European purchases back through English
+ports, paying duties to the government and commissions to merchants
+again.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Molasses Act.</i>&mdash;Not content with laws enacted in the interest of
+English merchants and manufacturers, Parliament sought to protect the
+British West Indies against competition from their French and Dutch
+neighbors. New England merchants had long carried on a lucrative trade
+with the French islands in the West Indies and Dutch Guiana, where sugar
+and molasses could be obtained in large quantities at low prices. Acting
+on the protests of English planters in the Barbadoes and Jamaica,
+Parliament, in 1733, passed the famous Molasses Act imposing duties on
+sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from foreign
+countries&mdash;rates which would have destroyed the American trade with the
+French and Dutch if the law had been enforced. The duties, however, were
+not collected. The molasses and sugar trade with the foreigners went on
+merrily, smuggling taking the place of lawful traffic.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effect of the Laws in America.</b>&mdash;As compared with the strict monopoly
+of her colonial trade which Spain consistently sought to maintain, the
+policy of England was both moderate and liberal. Furthermore, the
+restrictive laws were supplemented by many measures intended to be
+favorable to colonial prosperity. The Navigation Acts, for example,
+redounded <a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>to the advantage of American shipbuilders and the producers
+of hemp, tar, lumber, and ship stores in general. Favors in British
+ports were granted to colonial producers as against foreign competitors
+and in some instances bounties were paid by England to encourage
+colonial enterprise. Taken all in all, there is much justification in
+the argument advanced by some modern scholars to the effect that the
+colonists gained more than they lost by British trade and industrial
+legislation. Certainly after the establishment of independence, when
+free from these old restrictions, the Americans found themselves
+handicapped by being treated as foreigners rather than favored traders
+and the recipients of bounties in English markets.</p>
+
+<p>Be that as it may, it appears that the colonists felt little irritation
+against the mother country on account of the trade and navigation laws
+enacted previous to the close of the French and Indian war. Relatively
+few were engaged in the hat and iron industries as compared with those
+in farming and planting, so that England's policy of restricting America
+to agriculture did not conflict with the interests of the majority of
+the inhabitants. The woolen industry was largely in the hands of women
+and carried on in connection with their domestic duties, so that it was
+not the sole support of any considerable number of people.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact, moreover, the restrictive laws, especially those
+relating to trade, were not rigidly enforced. Cargoes of tobacco were
+boldly sent to continental ports without even so much as a bow to the
+English government, to which duties should have been paid. Sugar and
+molasses from the French and Dutch colonies were shipped into New
+England in spite of the law. Royal officers sometimes protested against
+smuggling and sometimes connived at it; but at no time did they succeed
+in stopping it. Taken all in all, very little was heard of "the galling
+restraints of trade" until after the French war, when the British
+government suddenly entered upon a new course.<a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of the Colonial Period</span></h3>
+
+<p>In the period between the landing of the English at Jamestown, Virginia,
+in 1607, and the close of the French and Indian war in 1763&mdash;a period of
+a century and a half&mdash;a new nation was being prepared on this continent
+to take its place among the powers of the earth. It was an epoch of
+migration. Western Europe contributed emigrants of many races and
+nationalities. The English led the way. Next to them in numerical
+importance were the Scotch-Irish and the Germans. Into the melting pot
+were also cast Dutch, Swedes, French, Jews, Welsh, and Irish. Thousands
+of negroes were brought from Africa to till Southern fields or labor as
+domestic servants in the North.</p>
+
+<p>Why did they come? The reasons are various. Some of them, the Pilgrims
+and Puritans of New England, the French Huguenots, Scotch-Irish and
+Irish, and the Catholics of Maryland, fled from intolerant governments
+that denied them the right to worship God according to the dictates of
+their consciences. Thousands came to escape the bondage of poverty in
+the Old World and to find free homes in America. Thousands, like the
+negroes from Africa, were dragged here against their will. The lure of
+adventure appealed to the restless and the lure of profits to the
+enterprising merchants.</p>
+
+<p>How did they come? In some cases religious brotherhoods banded together
+and borrowed or furnished the funds necessary to pay the way. In other
+cases great trading companies were organized to found colonies. Again it
+was the wealthy proprietor, like Lord Baltimore or William Penn, who
+undertook to plant settlements. Many immigrants were able to pay their
+own way across the sea. Others bound themselves out for a term of years
+in exchange for the cost of the passage. Negroes were brought on account
+of the profits derived from their sale as slaves.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the motive for their coming, however, they managed to get
+across the sea. The immigrants set to work with a will. They cut down
+forests, built houses, and laid out <a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>fields. They founded churches,
+schools, and colleges. They set up forges and workshops. They spun and
+wove. They fashioned ships and sailed the seas. They bartered and
+traded. Here and there on favorable harbors they established centers of
+commerce&mdash;Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and
+Charleston. As soon as a firm foothold was secured on the shore line
+they pressed westward until, by the close of the colonial period, they
+were already on the crest of the Alleghanies.</p>
+
+<p>Though they were widely scattered along a thousand miles of seacoast,
+the colonists were united in spirit by many common ties. The major
+portion of them were Protestants. The language, the law, and the
+literature of England furnished the basis of national unity. Most of the
+colonists were engaged in the same hard task; that of conquering a
+wilderness. To ties of kinship and language were added ties created by
+necessity. They had to unite in defense; first, against the Indians and
+later against the French. They were all subjects of the same
+sovereign&mdash;the king of England. The English Parliament made laws for
+them and the English government supervised their local affairs, their
+trade, and their manufactures. Common forces assailed them. Common
+grievances vexed them. Common hopes inspired them.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the things which tended to unite them likewise tended to throw
+them into opposition to the British Crown and Parliament. Most of them
+were freeholders; that is, farmers who owned their own land and tilled
+it with their own hands. A free soil nourished the spirit of freedom.
+The majority of them were Dissenters, critics, not friends, of the
+Church of England, that stanch defender of the British monarchy. Each
+colony in time developed its own legislature elected by the voters; it
+grew accustomed to making laws and laying taxes for itself. Here was a
+people learning self-reliance and self-government. The attempts to
+strengthen the Church of England in America and the transformation of
+colonies into royal provinces only fanned the spirit of independence
+which they were designed to quench.<a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a></p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the Americans owed much of their prosperity to the
+assistance of the government that irritated them. It was the protection
+of the British navy that prevented Holland, Spain, and France from
+wiping out their settlements. Though their manufacture and trade were
+controlled in the interests of the mother country, they also enjoyed
+great advantages in her markets. Free trade existed nowhere upon the
+earth; but the broad empire of Britain was open to American ships and
+merchandise. It could be said, with good reason, that the disadvantages
+which the colonists suffered through British regulation of their
+industry and trade were more than offset by the privileges they enjoyed.
+Still that is somewhat beside the point, for mere economic advantage is
+not necessarily the determining factor in the fate of peoples. A
+thousand circumstances had helped to develop on this continent a nation,
+to inspire it with a passion for independence, and to prepare it for a
+destiny greater than that of a prosperous dominion of the British
+empire. The economists, who tried to prove by logic unassailable that
+America would be richer under the British flag, could not change the
+spirit of Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, or George
+Washington.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>G.L. Beer, <i>Origin of the British Colonial System</i> and <i>The Old Colonial
+System</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A. Bradley, <i>The Fight for Canada in North America</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C.M. Andrews, <i>Colonial Self-Government</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>H. Egerton, <i>Short History of British Colonial Policy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>F. Parkman, <i>France and England in North America</i> (12 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>R. Thwaites, <i>France in America</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>J. Winsor, <i>The Mississippi Valley</i> and <i>Cartier to Frontenac</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. How would you define "nationalism"?</p>
+
+<p>2. Can you give any illustrations of the way that war promotes
+nationalism?</p>
+
+<p>3. Why was it impossible to establish and maintain a uniform policy in
+dealing with the Indians?<a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a></p>
+
+<p>4. What was the outcome of the final clash with the French?</p>
+
+<p>5. Enumerate the five chief results of the wars with the French and the
+Indians. Discuss each in detail.</p>
+
+<p>6. Explain why it was that the character of the English king mattered to
+the colonists.</p>
+
+<p>7. Contrast England under the Stuarts with England under the
+Hanoverians.</p>
+
+<p>8. Explain how the English Crown, Courts, and Parliament controlled the
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>9. Name the three important classes of English legislation affecting the
+colonies. Explain each.</p>
+
+<p>10. Do you think the English legislation was beneficial or injurious to
+the colonies? Why?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Rise of French Power in North America.</b>&mdash;Special reference: Francis
+Parkman, <i>Struggle for a Continent</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The French and Indian Wars.</b>&mdash;Special reference: W.M. Sloane, <i>French
+War and the Revolution</i>, Chaps. VI-IX. Parkman, <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>,
+Vol. II, pp. 195-299. Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>, pp.
+171-196.</p>
+
+<p><b>English Navigation Acts.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>, pp.
+55, 72, 78, 90, 103. Coman, <i>Industrial History</i>, pp. 79-85.</p>
+
+<p><b>British Colonial Policy.</b>&mdash;Callender, <i>Economic History of the United
+States</i>, pp. 102-108.</p>
+
+<p><b>The New England Confederation.</b>&mdash;Analyze the document in Macdonald,
+<i>Source Book</i>, p. 45. Special reference: Fiske, <i>Beginnings of New
+England</i>, pp. 140-198.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Administration of Andros.</b>&mdash;Fiske, <i>Beginnings</i>, pp. 242-278.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;William Pitt and Sir Robert Walpole. Consult
+Green, <i>Short History of England</i>, on their policies, using the index.<a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY</h3>
+
+
+<p>On October 25, 1760, King George II died and the British crown passed to
+his young grandson. The first George, the son of the Elector of Hanover
+and Sophia the granddaughter of James I, was a thorough German who never
+even learned to speak the language of the land over which he reigned.
+The second George never saw England until he was a man. He spoke English
+with an accent and until his death preferred his German home. During
+their reign, the principle had become well established that the king did
+not govern but acted only through ministers representing the majority in
+Parliament.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">George III and His System</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Character of the New King.</b>&mdash;The third George rudely broke the
+German tradition of his family. He resented the imputation that he was a
+foreigner and on all occasions made a display of his British sympathies.
+To the draft of his first speech to Parliament, he added the popular
+phrase: "Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of
+Briton." Macaulay, the English historian, certainly of no liking for
+high royal prerogative, said of George: "The young king was a born
+Englishman. All his tastes and habits, good and bad, were English. No
+portion of his subjects had anything to reproach him with.... His age,
+his appearance, and all that was known of his character conciliated
+public favor. He was in the bloom of youth; his person and address were
+pleasing; scandal imputed to him no vice; and flattery might without
+glaring absurdity ascribe to him many princely virtues."<a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a></p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless George III had been spoiled by his mother, his tutors, and
+his courtiers. Under their influence he developed high and mighty
+notions about the sacredness of royal authority and his duty to check
+the pretensions of Parliament and the ministers dependent upon it. His
+mother had dinned into his ears the slogan: "George, be king!" Lord
+Bute, his teacher and adviser, had told him that his honor required him
+to take an active part in the shaping of public policy and the making of
+laws. Thus educated, he surrounded himself with courtiers who encouraged
+him in the determination to rule as well as reign, to subdue all
+parties, and to place himself at the head of the nation and empire.</p>
+
+<div><a name="george" id="george" /></div>
+<div class="figleft"><a href="./images/96.jpg"><img src="./images/96-tb.jpg" alt="George III" title="George III" /></a>
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i><small>From an old print</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>George III</big></span></div></div>
+
+
+<p><b>Political Parties and George III.</b>&mdash;The state of the political parties
+favored the plans of the king to restore some of the ancient luster of
+the crown. The Whigs, who were composed mainly of the smaller
+freeholders, merchants, inhabitants of towns, and Protestant
+non-conformists, had grown haughty and overbearing through long
+continuance in power and had as a consequence raised up many enemies in
+their own ranks. Their opponents, the Tories, had by this time given up
+all hope of restoring to the throne the direct Stuart line; but they
+still cherished their old notions about divine right.<a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a> With the
+accession of George III the coveted opportunity came to them to rally
+around the throne again. George received his Tory friends with open
+arms, gave them offices, and bought them seats in the House of Commons.</p>
+
+<p><b>The British Parliamentary System.</b>&mdash;The peculiarities of the British
+Parliament at the time made smooth the way for the king and his allies
+with their designs for controlling the entire government. In the first
+place, the House of Lords was composed mainly of hereditary nobles whose
+number the king could increase by the appointment of his favorites, as
+of old. Though the members of the House of Commons were elected by
+popular vote, they did not speak for the mass of English people. Great
+towns like Leeds, Manchester, and Birmingham, for example, had no
+representatives at all. While there were about eight million inhabitants
+in Great Britain, there were in 1768 only about 160,000 voters; that is
+to say, only about one in every ten adult males had a voice in the
+government. Many boroughs returned one or more members to the Commons
+although they had merely a handful of voters or in some instances no
+voters at all. Furthermore, these tiny boroughs were often controlled by
+lords who openly sold the right of representation to the highest bidder.
+The "rotten-boroughs," as they were called by reformers, were a public
+scandal, but George III readily made use of them to get his friends into
+the House of Commons.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">George III's Ministers and Their Colonial Policies</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Grenville and the War Debt.</b>&mdash;Within a year after the accession of
+George III, William Pitt was turned out of office, the king treating him
+with "gross incivility" and the crowds shouting "Pitt forever!" The
+direction of affairs was entrusted to men enjoying the king's
+confidence. Leadership in the House of Commons fell to George Grenville,
+a grave and laborious man who for years had groaned over the increasing
+cost of government.</p>
+
+<p>The first task after the conclusion of peace in 1763 was the <a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>adjustment
+of the disordered finances of the kingdom. The debt stood at the highest
+point in the history of the country. More revenue was absolutely
+necessary and Grenville began to search for it, turning his attention
+finally to the American colonies. In this quest he had the aid of a
+zealous colleague, Charles Townshend, who had long been in public
+service and was familiar with the difficulties encountered by royal
+governors in America. These two men, with the support of the entire
+ministry, inaugurated in February, 1763, "a new system of colonial
+government. It was announced by authority that there were to be no more
+requisitions from the king to the colonial assemblies for supplies, but
+that the colonies were to be taxed instead by act of Parliament.
+Colonial governors and judges were to be paid by the Crown; they were to
+be supported by a standing army of twenty regiments; and all the
+expenses of this force were to be met by parliamentary taxation."</p>
+
+<p><b>Restriction of Paper Money (1763).</b>&mdash;Among the many complaints filed
+before the board of trade were vigorous protests against the issuance of
+paper money by the colonial legislatures. The new ministry provided a
+remedy in the act of 1763, which declared void all colonial laws
+authorizing paper money or extending the life of outstanding bills. This
+law was aimed at the "cheap money" which the Americans were fond of
+making when specie was scarce&mdash;money which they tried to force on their
+English creditors in return for goods and in payment of the interest and
+principal of debts. Thus the first chapter was written in the long
+battle over sound money on this continent.</p>
+
+<p><b>Limitation on Western Land Sales.</b>&mdash;Later in the same year (1763)
+George III issued a royal proclamation providing, among other things,
+for the government of the territory recently acquired by the treaty of
+Paris from the French. One of the provisions in this royal decree
+touched frontiersmen to the quick. The contests between the king's
+officers and the colonists over the disposition of western lands had
+been long <a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>and sharp. The Americans chafed at restrictions on
+settlement. The more adventurous were continually moving west and
+"squatting" on land purchased from the Indians or simply seized without
+authority. To put an end to this, the king forbade all further purchases
+from the Indians, reserving to the crown the right to acquire such lands
+and dispose of them for settlement. A second provision in the same
+proclamation vested the power of licensing trade with the Indians,
+including the lucrative fur business, in the hands of royal officers in
+the colonies. These two limitations on American freedom and enterprise
+were declared to be in the interest of the crown and for the
+preservation of the rights of the Indians against fraud and abuses.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sugar Act of 1764.</b>&mdash;King George's ministers next turned their
+attention to measures of taxation and trade. Since the heavy debt under
+which England was laboring had been largely incurred in the defense of
+America, nothing seemed more reasonable to them than the proposition
+that the colonies should help to bear the burden which fell so heavily
+upon the English taxpayer. The Sugar Act of 1764 was the result of this
+reasoning. There was no doubt about the purpose of this law, for it was
+set forth clearly in the title: "An act for granting certain duties in
+the British colonies and plantations in America ... for applying the
+produce of such duties ... towards defraying the expenses of defending,
+protecting and securing the said colonies and plantations ... and for
+more effectually preventing the clandestine conveyance of goods to and
+from the said colonies and plantations and improving and securing the
+trade between the same and Great Britain." The old Molasses Act had been
+prohibitive; the Sugar Act of 1764 was clearly intended as a revenue
+measure. Specified duties were laid upon sugar, indigo, calico, silks,
+and many other commodities imported into the colonies. The enforcement
+of the Molasses Act had been utterly neglected; but this Sugar Act had
+"teeth in it." Special precautions as to bonds, security, and
+registration of ship masters, ac<a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>companied by heavy penalties, promised
+a vigorous execution of the new revenue law.</p>
+
+<p>The strict terms of the Sugar Act were strengthened by administrative
+measures. Under a law of the previous year the commanders of armed
+vessels stationed along the American coast were authorized to stop,
+search, and, on suspicion, seize merchant ships approaching colonial
+ports. By supplementary orders, the entire British official force in
+America was instructed to be diligent in the execution of all trade and
+navigation laws. Revenue collectors, officers of the army and navy, and
+royal governors were curtly ordered to the front to do their full duty
+in the matter of law enforcement. The ordinary motives for the discharge
+of official obligations were sharpened by an appeal to avarice, for
+naval officers who seized offenders against the law were rewarded by
+large prizes out of the forfeitures and penalties.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Stamp Act (1765).</b>&mdash;The Grenville-Townshend combination moved
+steadily towards its goal. While the Sugar Act was under consideration
+in Parliament, Grenville announced a plan for a stamp bill. The next
+year it went through both Houses with a speed that must have astounded
+its authors. The vote in the Commons stood 205 in favor to 49 against;
+while in the Lords it was not even necessary to go through the formality
+of a count. As George III was temporarily insane, the measure received
+royal assent by a commission acting as a board of regency. Protests of
+colonial agents in London were futile. "We might as well have hindered
+the sun's progress!" exclaimed Franklin. Protests of a few opponents in
+the Commons were equally vain. The ministry was firm in its course and
+from all appearances the Stamp Act hardly roused as much as a languid
+interest in the city of London. In fact, it is recorded that the fateful
+measure attracted less notice than a bill providing for a commission to
+act for the king when he was incapacitated.</p>
+
+<p>The Stamp Act, like the Sugar Act, declared the purpose of the British
+government to raise revenue in America "towards <a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>defraying the expenses
+of defending, protecting, and securing the British colonies and
+plantations in America." It was a long measure of more than fifty
+sections, carefully planned and skillfully drawn. By its provisions
+duties were imposed on practically all papers used in legal
+transactions,&mdash;deeds, mortgages, inventories, writs, bail bonds,&mdash;on
+licenses to practice law and sell liquor, on college diplomas, playing
+cards, dice, pamphlets, newspapers, almanacs, calendars, and
+advertisements. The drag net was closely knit, for scarcely anything
+escaped.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Quartering Act (1765).</b>&mdash;The ministers were aware that the Stamp
+Act would rouse opposition in America&mdash;how great they could not
+conjecture. While the measure was being debated, a friend of General
+Wolfe, Colonel Barr&eacute;, who knew America well, gave them an ominous
+warning in the Commons. "Believe me&mdash;remember I this day told you so&mdash;"
+he exclaimed, "the same spirit of freedom which actuated that people at
+first will accompany them still ... a people jealous of their liberties
+and who will vindicate them, if ever they should be violated." The
+answer of the ministry to a prophecy of force was a threat of force.
+Preparations were accordingly made to dispatch a larger number of
+soldiers than usual to the colonies, and the ink was hardly dry on the
+Stamp Act when Parliament passed the Quartering Act ordering the
+colonists to provide accommodations for the soldiers who were to enforce
+the new laws. "We have the power to tax them," said one of the ministry,
+"and we will tax them."</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Colonial Resistance Forces Repeal</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Popular Opposition.</b>&mdash;The Stamp Act was greeted in America by an
+outburst of denunciation. The merchants of the seaboard cities took the
+lead in making a dignified but unmistakable protest, agreeing not to
+import British goods while the hated law stood upon the books. Lawyers,
+some of them incensed at the heavy taxes on their operations and others
+intimidated by patriots who refused to permit them to use stamped
+papers, joined with the merchants. Aristocratic colonial Whigs, <a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>who had
+long grumbled at the administration of royal governors, protested
+against taxation without their consent, as the Whigs had done in old
+England. There were Tories, however, in the colonies as in England&mdash;many
+of them of the official class&mdash;who denounced the merchants, lawyers, and
+Whig aristocrats as "seditious, factious and republican." Yet the
+opposition to the Stamp Act and its accompanying measure, the Quartering
+Act, grew steadily all through the summer of 1765.</p>
+
+<p>In a little while it was taken up in the streets and along the
+countryside. All through the North and in some of the Southern colonies,
+there sprang up, as if by magic, committees and societies pledged to
+resist the Stamp Act to the bitter end. These popular societies were
+known as Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty: the former including
+artisans, mechanics, and laborers; and the latter, patriotic women. Both
+groups were alike in that they had as yet taken little part in public
+affairs. Many artisans, as well as all the women, were excluded from the
+right to vote for colonial assemblymen.</p>
+
+<p>While the merchants and Whig gentlemen confined their efforts chiefly to
+drafting well-phrased protests against British measures, the Sons of
+Liberty operated in the streets and chose rougher measures. They stirred
+up riots in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston when attempts
+were made to sell the stamps. They sacked and burned the residences of
+high royal officers. They organized committees of inquisition who by
+threats and intimidation curtailed the sale of British goods and the use
+of stamped papers. In fact, the Sons of Liberty carried their operations
+to such excesses that many mild opponents of the stamp tax were
+frightened and drew back in astonishment at the forces they had
+unloosed. The Daughters of Liberty in a quieter way were making a very
+effective resistance to the sale of the hated goods by spurring on
+domestic industries, their own particular province being the manufacture
+of clothing, and devising substitutes for taxed foods. They helped to
+feed and clothe their families without buying British goods.<a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="henry" id="henry"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/103.jpg" alt="Patrick Henry" title="Patrick Henry" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Patrick Henry</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Legislative Action against the Stamp Act.</b>&mdash;Leaders in the colonial
+assemblies, accustomed to battle against British policies, supported the
+popular protest. The Stamp Act was signed on March 22, 1765. On May 30,
+the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a set of resolutions declaring
+that the General Assembly of the colony alone had the right to lay taxes
+upon the inhabitants and that attempts to impose them otherwise were
+"illegal, unconstitutional, and unjust." It was in support of these
+resolutions that Patrick Henry uttered the immortal challenge: "C&aelig;sar
+had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III...." Cries of
+"Treason" were calmly met by the orator who finished: "George III may
+profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Stamp Act Congress.</b>&mdash;The Massachusetts Assembly answered the call
+of Virginia by inviting the colonies to elect delegates to a Congress to
+be held in New York to discuss the situation. Nine colonies responded
+and sent representatives. The delegates, while professing the warmest
+affection for the king's person and government, firmly spread on record
+a series of resolutions that admitted of no double meaning. They
+declared that taxes could not be imposed without their consent, given
+through their respective colonial assemblies; that the Stamp Act showed
+a tendency to subvert their rights and liberties; that the recent trade
+acts were burdensome and grievous; and that the right to petition the
+king and Parliament was their heritage. They thereupon made "humble
+supplication" for the repeal of the Stamp Act.</p>
+
+<p>The Stamp Act Congress was more than an assembly of pro<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>test. It marked
+the rise of a new agency of government to express the will of America.
+It was the germ of a government which in time was to supersede the
+government of George III in the colonies. It foreshadowed the Congress
+of the United States under the Constitution. It was a successful attempt
+at union. "There ought to be no New England men," declared Christopher
+Gadsden, in the Stamp Act Congress, "no New Yorkers known on the
+Continent, but all of us Americans."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Repeal of the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act.</b>&mdash;The effect of American
+resistance on opinion in England was telling. Commerce with the colonies
+had been effectively boycotted by the Americans; ships lay idly swinging
+at the wharves; bankruptcy threatened hundreds of merchants in London,
+Bristol, and Liverpool. Workingmen in the manufacturing towns of England
+were thrown out of employment. The government had sown folly and was
+reaping, in place of the coveted revenue, rebellion.</p>
+
+<p>Perplexed by the storm they had raised, the ministers summoned to the
+bar of the House of Commons, Benjamin Franklin, the agent for
+Pennsylvania, who was in London. "Do you think it right," asked
+Grenville, "that America should be protected by this country and pay no
+part of the expenses?" The answer was brief: "That is not the case; the
+colonies raised, clothed, and paid during the last war twenty-five
+thousand men and spent many millions." Then came an inquiry whether the
+colonists would accept a modified stamp act. "No, never," replied
+Franklin, "never! They will never submit to it!" It was next suggested
+that military force might compel obedience to law. Franklin had a ready
+answer. "They cannot force a man to take stamps.... They may not find a
+rebellion; they may, indeed, make one."</p>
+
+<p>The repeal of the Stamp Act was moved in the House of Commons a few days
+later. The sponsor for the repeal spoke of commerce interrupted, debts
+due British merchants placed in jeopardy, Manchester industries closed,
+workingmen unemployed, oppression instituted, and the loss of the
+colonies threat<a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>ened. Pitt and Edmund Burke, the former near the close
+of his career, the latter just beginning his, argued cogently in favor
+of retracing the steps taken the year before. Grenville refused.
+"America must learn," he wailed, "that prayers are not to be brought to
+C&aelig;sar through riot and sedition." His protests were idle. The Commons
+agreed to the repeal on February 22, 1766, amid the cheers of the
+victorious majority. It was carried through the Lords in the face of
+strong opposition and, on March 18, reluctantly signed by the king, now
+restored to his right mind.</p>
+
+<p>In rescinding the Stamp Act, Parliament did not admit the contention of
+the Americans that it was without power to tax them. On the contrary, it
+accompanied the repeal with a Declaratory Act. It announced that the
+colonies were subordinate to the crown and Parliament of Great Britain;
+that the king and Parliament therefore had undoubted authority to make
+laws binding the colonies in all cases whatsoever; and that the
+resolutions and proceedings of the colonists denying such authority were
+null and void.</p>
+
+<p>The repeal was greeted by the colonists with great popular
+demonstrations. Bells were rung; toasts to the king were drunk; and
+trade resumed its normal course. The Declaratory Act, as a mere paper
+resolution, did not disturb the good humor of those who again cheered
+the name of King George. Their confidence was soon strengthened by the
+news that even the Sugar Act had been repealed, thus practically
+restoring the condition of affairs before Grenville and Townshend
+inaugurated their policy of "thoroughness."</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Resumption of British Revenue and Commercial Policies</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Townshend Acts (1767).</b>&mdash;The triumph of the colonists was brief.
+Though Pitt, the friend of America, was once more prime minister, and
+seated in the House of Lords as the Earl of Chatham, his severe illness
+gave to Townshend and the Tory party practical control over Parliament.
+Unconvinced by the experience with the Stamp Act, Townshend brought
+forward <a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>and pushed through both Houses of Parliament three measures,
+which to this day are associated with his name. First among his
+restrictive laws was that of June 29, 1767, which placed the enforcement
+of the collection of duties and customs on colonial imports and exports
+in the hands of British commissioners appointed by the king, resident in
+the colonies, paid from the British treasury, and independent of all
+control by the colonists. The second measure of the same date imposed a
+tax on lead, glass, paint, tea, and a few other articles imported into
+the colonies, the revenue derived from the duties to be applied toward
+the payment of the salaries and other expenses of royal colonial
+officials. A third measure was the Tea Act of July 2, 1767, aimed at the
+tea trade which the Americans carried on illegally with foreigners. This
+law abolished the duty which the East India Company had to pay in
+England on tea exported to America, for it was thought that English tea
+merchants might thus find it possible to undersell American tea
+smugglers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Writs of Assistance Legalized by Parliament.</b>&mdash;Had Parliament been
+content with laying duties, just as a manifestation of power and right,
+and neglected their collection, perhaps little would have been heard of
+the Townshend Acts. It provided, however, for the strict, even the
+harsh, enforcement of the law. It ordered customs officers to remain at
+their posts and put an end to smuggling. In the revenue act of June 29,
+1767, it expressly authorized the superior courts of the colonies to
+issue "writs of assistance," empowering customs officers to enter "any
+house, warehouse, shop, cellar, or other place in the British colonies
+or plantations in America to search for and seize" prohibited or
+smuggled goods.</p>
+
+<p>The writ of assistance, which was a general search warrant issued to
+revenue officers, was an ancient device hateful to a people who
+cherished the spirit of personal independence and who had made actual
+gains in the practice of civil liberty. To allow a "minion of the law"
+to enter a man's house and search his papers and premises, was too much
+for the emotions of people who had fled to America in a quest for
+self-government <a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>and free homes, who had braved such hardships to
+establish them, and who wanted to trade without official interference.</p>
+
+<p>The writ of assistance had been used in Massachusetts in 1755 to prevent
+illicit trade with Canada and had aroused a violent hostility at that
+time. In 1761 it was again the subject of a bitter controversy which
+arose in connection with the application of a customs officer to a
+Massachusetts court for writs of assistance "as usual." This application
+was vainly opposed by James Otis in a speech of five hours' duration&mdash;a
+speech of such fire and eloquence that it sent every man who heard it
+away "ready to take up arms against writs of assistance." Otis denounced
+the practice as an exercise of arbitrary power which had cost one king
+his head and another his throne, a tyrant's device which placed the
+liberty of every man in jeopardy, enabling any petty officer to work
+possible malice on any innocent citizen on the merest suspicion, and to
+spread terror and desolation through the land. "What a scene," he
+exclaimed, "does this open! Every man, prompted by revenge, ill-humor,
+or wantonness to inspect the inside of his neighbor's house, may get a
+writ of assistance. Others will ask it from self-defense; one arbitrary
+exertion will provoke another until society is involved in tumult and
+blood." He did more than attack the writ itself. He said that Parliament
+could not establish it because it was against the British constitution.
+This was an assertion resting on slender foundation, but it was quickly
+echoed by the people. Then and there James Otis sounded the call to
+America to resist the exercise of arbitrary power by royal officers.
+"Then and there," wrote John Adams, "the child Independence was born."
+Such was the hated writ that Townshend proposed to put into the hands of
+customs officers in his grim determination to enforce the law.</p>
+
+<p><b>The New York Assembly Suspended.</b>&mdash;In the very month that Townshend's
+Acts were signed by the king, Parliament took a still more drastic step.
+The assembly of New York, protesting against the "ruinous and
+insupportable" expense involved, had failed to make provision for the
+care of British <a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>troops in accordance with the terms of the Quartering
+Act. Parliament therefore suspended the assembly until it promised to
+obey the law. It was not until a third election was held that compliance
+with the Quartering Act was wrung from the reluctant province. In the
+meantime, all the colonies had learned on how frail a foundation their
+representative bodies rested.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Renewed Resistance in America</span></h3>
+
+<div><a name="samuel" id="samuel" /></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/108.jpg" alt="Samuel Adams" title="Samuel Adams" />
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i><small>From an old print</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>Samuel Adams</big></span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Massachusetts Circular (1768).</b>&mdash;Massachusetts, under the
+leadership of Samuel Adams, resolved to resist the policy of renewed
+intervention in America. At his suggestion the assembly adopted a
+Circular Letter addressed to the assemblies of the other colonies
+informing them of the state of affairs in Massachusetts and roundly
+condemning the whole British program. The Circular Letter declared that
+Parliament had no right to lay taxes on Americans without their consent
+and that the colonists could not, from the nature of the case, be
+represented in Parliament. It went on shrewdly to submit to
+consideration the question as to whether any people could be called free
+who were subjected to governors and judges appointed by the crown and
+paid out of funds raised independently. It invited the other colonies,
+in the most temperate tones, to take thought about the common
+predicament in which they were all placed.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Dissolution of Assemblies.</b>&mdash;The governor of Massachusetts, hearing
+of the Circular Letter, ordered the assembly <a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>to rescind its appeal. On
+meeting refusal, he promptly dissolved it. The Maryland, Georgia, and
+South Carolina assemblies indorsed the Circular Letter and were also
+dissolved at once. The Virginia House of Burgesses, thoroughly aroused,
+passed resolutions on May 16, 1769, declaring that the sole right of
+imposing taxes in Virginia was vested in its legislature, asserting anew
+the right of petition to the crown, condemning the transportation of
+persons accused of crimes or trial beyond the seas, and beseeching the
+king for a redress of the general grievances. The immediate dissolution
+of the Virginia assembly, in its turn, was the answer of the royal
+governor.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Boston Massacre.</b>&mdash;American opposition to the British authorities
+kept steadily rising as assemblies were dissolved, the houses of
+citizens searched, and troops distributed in increasing numbers among
+the centers of discontent. Merchants again agreed not to import British
+goods, the Sons of Liberty renewed their agitation, and women set about
+the patronage of home products still more loyally.</p>
+
+<p>On the night of March 5, 1770, a crowd on the streets of Boston began to
+jostle and tease some British regulars stationed in the town. Things
+went from bad to worse until some "boys and young fellows" began to
+throw snowballs and stones. Then the exasperated soldiers fired into the
+crowd, killing five and wounding half a dozen more. The day after the
+"massacre," a mass meeting was held in the town and Samuel Adams was
+sent to demand the withdrawal of the soldiers. The governor hesitated
+and tried to compromise. Finding Adams relentless, the governor yielded
+and ordered the regulars away.</p>
+
+<p>The Boston Massacre stirred the country from New Hampshire to Georgia.
+Popular passions ran high. The guilty soldiers were charged with murder.
+Their defense was undertaken, in spite of the wrath of the populace, by
+John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who as lawyers thought even the worst
+offenders entitled to their full rights in law. In his speech to the
+jury, however, Adams warned the British government against its <a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>course,
+saying, that "from the nature of things soldiers quartered in a populous
+town will always occasion two mobs where they will prevent one." Two of
+the soldiers were convicted and lightly punished.</p>
+
+<p><b>Resistance in the South.</b>&mdash;The year following the Boston Massacre some
+citizens of North Carolina, goaded by the conduct of the royal governor,
+openly resisted his authority. Many were killed as a result and seven
+who were taken prisoners were hanged as traitors. A little later royal
+troops and local militia met in a pitched battle near Alamance River,
+called the "Lexington of the South."</p>
+
+<p><b>The <i>Gaspee</i> Affair and the Virginia Resolutions of 1773.</b>&mdash;On sea as
+well as on land, friction between the royal officers and the colonists
+broke out into overt acts. While patrolling Narragansett Bay looking for
+smugglers one day in 1772, the armed ship, <i>Gaspee</i>, ran ashore and was
+caught fast. During the night several men from Providence boarded the
+vessel and, after seizing the crew, set it on fire. A royal commission,
+sent to Rhode Island to discover the offenders and bring them to
+account, failed because it could not find a single informer. The very
+appointment of such a commission aroused the patriots of Virginia to
+action; and in March, 1773, the House of Burgesses passed a resolution
+creating a standing committee of correspondence to develop co&ouml;peration
+among the colonies in resistance to British measures.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Boston Tea Party.</b>&mdash;Although the British government, finding the
+Townshend revenue act a failure, repealed in 1770 all the duties except
+that on tea, it in no way relaxed its resolve to enforce the other
+commercial regulations it had imposed on the colonies. Moreover,
+Parliament decided to relieve the British East India Company of the
+financial difficulties into which it had fallen partly by reason of the
+Tea Act and the colonial boycott that followed. In 1773 it agreed to
+return to the Company the regular import duties, levied in England, on
+all tea transshipped to America. A small impost of three pence, to be
+collected in America, was left as a reminder of <a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>the principle laid down
+in the Declaratory Act that Parliament had the right to tax the
+colonists.</p>
+
+<p>This arrangement with the East India Company was obnoxious to the
+colonists for several reasons. It was an act of favoritism for one
+thing, in the interest of a great monopoly. For another thing, it
+promised to dump on the American market, suddenly, an immense amount of
+cheap tea and so cause heavy losses to American merchants who had large
+stocks on hand. It threatened with ruin the business of all those who
+were engaged in clandestine trade with the Dutch. It carried with it an
+irritating tax of three pence on imports. In Charleston, Annapolis, New
+York, and Boston, captains of ships who brought tea under this act were
+roughly handled. One night in December, 1773, a band of Boston citizens,
+disguised as Indians, boarded the hated tea ships and dumped the cargo
+into the harbor. This was serious business, for it was open, flagrant,
+determined violation of the law. As such the British government viewed
+it.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Retaliation by the British Government</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Reception of the News of the Tea Riot.</b>&mdash;The news of the tea riot in
+Boston confirmed King George in his conviction that there should be no
+soft policy in dealing with his American subjects. "The die is cast," he
+stated with evident satisfaction. "The colonies must either triumph or
+submit.... If we take the resolute part, they will undoubtedly be very
+meek." Lord George Germain characterized the tea party as "the
+proceedings of a tumultuous and riotous rabble who ought, if they had
+the least prudence, to follow their mercantile employments and not
+trouble themselves with politics and government, which they do not
+understand." This expressed, in concise form, exactly the sentiments of
+Lord North, who had then for three years been the king's chief minister.
+Even Pitt, Lord Chatham, was prepared to support the government in
+upholding its authority.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Five Intolerable Acts.</b>&mdash;Parliament, beginning on March 31, 1774,
+passed five stringent measures, known in American <a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>history as the five
+"intolerable acts." They were aimed at curing the unrest in America. The
+<i>first</i> of them was a bill absolutely shutting the port of Boston to
+commerce with the outside world. The <i>second</i>, following closely,
+revoked the Massachusetts charter of 1691 and provided furthermore that
+the councilors should be appointed by the king, that all judges should
+be named by the royal governor, and that town meetings (except to elect
+certain officers) could not be held without the governor's consent. A
+<i>third</i> measure, after denouncing the "utter subversion of all lawful
+government" in the provinces, authorized royal agents to transfer to
+Great Britain or to other colonies the trials of officers or other
+persons accused of murder in connection with the enforcement of the law.
+The <i>fourth</i> act legalized the quartering of troops in Massachusetts
+towns. The <i>fifth</i> of the measures was the Quebec Act, which granted
+religious toleration to the Catholics in Canada, extended the boundaries
+of Quebec southward to the Ohio River, and established, in this western
+region, government by a viceroy.</p>
+
+<p>The intolerable acts went through Parliament with extraordinary
+celerity. There was an opposition, alert and informed; but it was
+ineffective. Burke spoke eloquently against the Boston port bill,
+condemning it roundly for punishing the innocent with the guilty, and
+showing how likely it was to bring grave consequences in its train. He
+was heard with respect and his pleas were rejected. The bill passed both
+houses without a division, the entry "unanimous" being made upon their
+journals although it did not accurately represent the state of opinion.
+The law destroying the charter of Massachusetts passed the Commons by a
+vote of three to one; and the third intolerable act by a vote of four to
+one. The triumph of the ministry was complete. "What passed in Boston,"
+exclaimed the great jurist, Lord Mansfield, "is the overt act of High
+Treason proceeding from our over lenity and want of foresight." The
+crown and Parliament were united in resorting to punitive measures.</p>
+
+<p>In the colonies the laws were received with consternation.<a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a> To the
+American Protestants, the Quebec Act was the most offensive. That
+project they viewed not as an act of grace or of mercy but as a direct
+attempt to enlist French Canadians on the side of Great Britain. The
+British government did not grant religious toleration to Catholics
+either at home or in Ireland and the Americans could see no good motive
+in granting it in North America. The act was also offensive because
+Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia had, under their charters,
+large claims in the territory thus annexed to Quebec.</p>
+
+<p>To enforce these intolerable acts the military arm of the British
+government was brought into play. The commander-in-chief of the armed
+forces in America, General Gage, was appointed governor of
+Massachusetts. Reinforcements were brought to the colonies, for now King
+George was to give "the rebels," as he called them, a taste of strong
+medicine. The majesty of his law was to be vindicated by force.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">From Reform to Revolution in America</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Doctrine of Natural Rights.</b>&mdash;The dissolution of assemblies, the
+destruction of charters, and the use of troops produced in the colonies
+a new phase in the struggle. In the early days of the contest with the
+British ministry, the Americans spoke of their "rights as Englishmen"
+and condemned the acts of Parliament as unlawful, as violating the
+principles of the English constitution under which they all lived. When
+they saw that such arguments had no effect on Parliament, they turned
+for support to their "natural rights." The latter doctrine, in the form
+in which it was employed by the colonists, was as English as the
+constitutional argument. John Locke had used it with good effect in
+defense of the English revolution in the seventeenth century. American
+leaders, familiar with the writings of Locke, also took up his thesis in
+the hour of their distress. They openly declared that their rights did
+not rest after all upon the English constitution or a charter from the
+crown. "Old Magna Carta was not the beginning of all things," retorted
+Otis when the constitutional argument failed. "A time <a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>may come when
+Parliament shall declare every American charter void, but the natural,
+inherent, and inseparable rights of the colonists as men and as citizens
+would remain and whatever became of charters can never be abolished
+until the general conflagration." Of the same opinion was the young and
+impetuous Alexander Hamilton. "The sacred rights of mankind," he
+exclaimed, "are not to be rummaged for among old parchments or musty
+records. They are written as with a sunbeam in the whole volume of human
+destiny by the hand of divinity itself, and can never be erased or
+obscured by mortal power."</p>
+
+<p>Firm as the American leaders were in the statement and defense of their
+rights, there is every reason for believing that in the beginning they
+hoped to confine the conflict to the realm of opinion. They constantly
+avowed that they were loyal to the king when protesting in the strongest
+language against his policies. Even Otis, regarded by the loyalists as a
+firebrand, was in fact attempting to avert revolution by winning
+concessions from England. "I argue this cause with the greater
+pleasure," he solemnly urged in his speech against the writs of
+assistance, "as it is in favor of British liberty ... and as it is in
+opposition to a kind of power, the exercise of which in former periods
+cost one king of England his head and another his throne."</p>
+
+<p><b>Burke Offers the Doctrine of Conciliation.</b>&mdash;The flooding tide of
+American sentiment was correctly measured by one Englishman at least,
+Edmund Burke, who quickly saw that attempts to restrain the rise of
+American democracy were efforts to reverse the processes of nature. He
+saw how fixed and rooted in the nature of things was the American
+spirit&mdash;how inevitable, how irresistible. He warned his countrymen that
+there were three ways of handling the delicate situation&mdash;and only
+three. One was to remove the cause of friction by changing the spirit of
+the colonists&mdash;an utter impossibility because that spirit was grounded
+in the essential circumstances of American life. The second was to
+prosecute American leaders as criminals; of this he begged his
+countrymen to beware lest the colonists <a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>declare that "a government
+against which a claim of liberty is tantamount to high treason is a
+government to which submission is equivalent to slavery." The third and
+right way to meet the problem, Burke concluded, was to accept the
+American spirit, repeal the obnoxious measures, and receive the colonies
+into equal partnership.</p>
+
+<p><b>Events Produce the Great Decision.</b>&mdash;The right way, indicated by Burke,
+was equally impossible to George III and the majority in Parliament. To
+their narrow minds, American opinion was contemptible and American
+resistance unlawful, riotous, and treasonable. The correct way, in their
+view, was to dispatch more troops to crush the "rebels"; and that very
+act took the contest from the realm of opinion. As John Adams said:
+"Facts are stubborn things." Opinions were unseen, but marching soldiers
+were visible to the veriest street urchin. "Now," said Gouverneur
+Morris, "the sheep, simple as they are, cannot be gulled as heretofore."
+It was too late to talk about the excellence of the British
+constitution. If any one is bewildered by the controversies of modern
+historians as to why the crisis came at last, he can clarify his
+understanding by reading again Edmund Burke's stately oration, <i>On
+Conciliation with America</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>G.L. Beer, <i>British Colonial Policy</i> (1754-63).</p>
+
+<p>E. Channing, <i>History of the United States</i>, Vol. III.</p>
+
+<p>R. Frothingham, <i>Rise of the Republic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>G.E. Howard, <i>Preliminaries of the Revolution</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>J.K. Hosmer, <i>Samuel Adams</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.T. Morse, <i>Benjamin Franklin</i>.</p>
+
+<p>M.C. Tyler, <i>Patrick Henry</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.A. Woodburn (editor), <i>The American Revolution</i> (Selections from the
+English work by Lecky).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Show how the character of George III made for trouble with the
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>2. Explain why the party and parliamentary systems of England favored
+the plans of George III.<a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a></p>
+
+<p>3. How did the state of English finances affect English policy?</p>
+
+<p>4. Enumerate five important measures of the English government affecting
+the colonies between 1763 and 1765. Explain each in detail.</p>
+
+<p>5. Describe American resistance to the Stamp Act. What was the outcome?</p>
+
+<p>6. Show how England renewed her policy of regulation in 1767.</p>
+
+<p>7. Summarize the events connected with American resistance.</p>
+
+<p>8. With what measures did Great Britain retaliate?</p>
+
+<p>9. Contrast "constitutional" with "natural" rights.</p>
+
+<p>10. What solution did Burke offer? Why was it rejected?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Powers Conferred on Revenue Officers by Writs of Assistance.</b>&mdash;See a
+writ in Macdonald, <i>Source Book</i>, p. 109.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Acts of Parliament Respecting America.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, pp. 117-146.
+Assign one to each student for report and comment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Source Studies on the Stamp Act.</b>&mdash;Hart, <i>American History Told by
+Contemporaries</i>, Vol. II, pp. 394-412.</p>
+
+<p><b>Source Studies of the Townshend Acts.</b>&mdash;Hart, Vol. II, pp. 413-433.</p>
+
+<p><b>American Principles.</b>&mdash;Prepare a table of them from the Resolutions of
+the Stamp Act Congress and the Massachusetts Circular. Macdonald, pp.
+136-146.</p>
+
+<p><b>An English Historian's View of the Period.</b>&mdash;Green, <i>Short History of
+England</i>, Chap. X.</p>
+
+<p><b>English Policy Not Injurious to America.</b>&mdash;Callender, <i>Economic
+History</i>, pp. 85-121.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Review of English Policy.</b>&mdash;Woodrow Wilson, <i>History of the American
+People</i>, Vol. II, pp. 129-170.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Opening of the Revolution.</b>&mdash;Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>,
+pp. 220-235.<a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION</h3>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Resistance and Retaliation</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Continental Congress.</b>&mdash;When the news of the "intolerable acts"
+reached America, every one knew what strong medicine Parliament was
+prepared to administer to all those who resisted its authority. The
+cause of Massachusetts became the cause of all the colonies. Opposition
+to British policy, hitherto local and spasmodic, now took on a national
+character. To local committees and provincial conventions was added a
+Continental Congress, appropriately called by Massachusetts on June 17,
+1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams. The response to the summons
+was electric. By hurried and irregular methods delegates were elected
+during the summer, and on September 5 the Congress duly assembled in
+Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia. Many of the greatest men in America
+were there&mdash;George Washington and Patrick Henry from Virginia and John
+and Samuel Adams from Massachusetts. Every shade of opinion was
+represented. Some were impatient with mild devices; the majority favored
+moderation.</p>
+
+<p>The Congress drew up a declaration of American rights and stated in
+clear and dignified language the grievances of the colonists. It
+approved the resistance to British measures offered by Massachusetts and
+promised the united support of all sections. It prepared an address to
+King George and another to the people of England, disavowing the idea of
+independence but firmly attacking the policies pursued by the British
+government.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Non-Importation Agreement.</b>&mdash;The Congress was not content, however,
+with professions of faith and with petitions.<a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a> It took one revolutionary
+step. It agreed to stop the importation of British goods into America,
+and the enforcement of this agreement it placed in the hands of local
+"committees of safety and inspection," to be elected by the qualified
+voters. The significance of this action is obvious. Congress threw
+itself athwart British law. It made a rule to bind American citizens and
+to be carried into effect by American officers. It set up a state within
+the British state and laid down a test of allegiance to the new order.
+The colonists, who up to this moment had been wavering, had to choose
+one authority or the other. They were for the enforcement of the
+non-importation agreement or they were against it. They either bought
+English goods or they did not. In the spirit of the toast&mdash;"May Britain
+be wise and America be free"&mdash;the first Continental Congress adjourned
+in October, having appointed the tenth of May following for the meeting
+of a second Congress, should necessity require.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lord North's "Olive Branch."</b>&mdash;When the news of the action of the
+American Congress reached England, Pitt and Burke warmly urged a repeal
+of the obnoxious laws, but in vain. All they could wring from the prime
+minister, Lord North, was a set of "conciliatory resolutions" proposing
+to relieve from taxation any colony that would assume its share of
+imperial defense and make provision for supporting the local officers of
+the crown. This "olive branch" was accompanied by a resolution assuring
+the king of support at all hazards in suppressing the rebellion and by
+the restraining act of March 30, 1775, which in effect destroyed the
+commerce of New England.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775).</b>&mdash;Meanwhile the
+British authorities in Massachusetts relaxed none of their efforts in
+upholding British sovereignty. General Gage, hearing that military
+stores had been collected at Concord, dispatched a small force to seize
+them. By this act he precipitated the conflict he had sought to avoid.
+At Lexington, on the road to Concord, occurred "the little thing" that
+produced "the great event." An unexpected collision beyond <a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>the thought
+or purpose of any man had transferred the contest from the forum to the
+battle field.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Second Continental Congress.</b>&mdash;Though blood had been shed and war
+was actually at hand, the second Continental Congress, which met at
+Philadelphia in May, 1775, was not yet convinced that conciliation was
+beyond human power. It petitioned the king to interpose on behalf of the
+colonists in order that the empire might avoid the calamities of civil
+war. On the last day of July, it made a temperate but firm answer to
+Lord North's offer of conciliation, stating that the proposal was
+unsatisfactory because it did not renounce the right to tax or repeal
+the offensive acts of Parliament.</p>
+
+<p><b>Force, the British Answer.</b>&mdash;Just as the representatives of America
+were about to present the last petition of Congress to the king on
+August 23, 1775, George III issued a proclamation of rebellion. This
+announcement declared that the colonists, "misled by dangerous and
+ill-designing men," were in a state of insurrection; it called on the
+civil and military powers to bring "the traitors to justice"; and it
+threatened with "condign punishment the authors, perpetrators, and
+abettors of such traitorous designs." It closed with the usual prayer:
+"God, save the king." Later in the year, Parliament passed a sweeping
+act destroying all trade and intercourse with America. Congress was
+silent at last. Force was also America's answer.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">American Independence</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Drifting into War.</b>&mdash;Although the Congress had not given up all hope of
+reconciliation in the spring and summer of 1775, it had firmly resolved
+to defend American rights by arms if necessary. It transformed the
+militiamen who had assembled near Boston, after the battle of Lexington,
+into a Continental army and selected Washington as commander-in-chief.
+It assumed the powers of a government and prepared to raise money, wage
+war, and carry on diplomatic relations with foreign countries.</p>
+
+<div><a name="spirit" id="spirit" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/120-tb.jpg" alt="Spirit of 1776" title="Spirit of 1776" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'> <i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>Spirit of 1776</big></span></div>
+
+<p>Events followed thick and fast. On June 17, the American <a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>militia, by
+the stubborn defense of Bunker Hill, showed that it could make British
+regulars pay dearly for all they got. On July 3, Washington took command
+of the army at Cambridge. In January, 1776, after bitter disappointments
+in drumming up recruits for its army in England, Scotland, and Ireland,
+the British government concluded a treaty with the Landgrave of
+Hesse-Cassel in Germany contracting, at a handsome figure, for thousands
+of soldiers and many pieces of cannon. This was the crowning insult to
+America. Such was the view of all friends of the colonies on both sides
+of the water. Such was, long afterward, the judgment of the conservative
+historian Lecky: "The conduct of England in hiring German mercenaries to
+subdue the essentially English population beyond the Atlantic made
+reconciliation hopeless and independence inevitable." The news of this
+wretched transaction in German soldiers had hardly reached America
+before there ran all down the coast <a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>the thrilling story that Washington
+had taken Boston, on March 17, 1776, compelling Lord Howe to sail with
+his entire army for Halifax.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Growth of Public Sentiment in Favor of Independence.</b>&mdash;Events were
+bearing the Americans away from their old position under the British
+constitution toward a final separation. Slowly and against their
+desires, prudent and honorable men, who cherished the ties that united
+them to the old order and dreaded with genuine horror all thought of
+revolution, were drawn into the path that led to the great decision. In
+all parts of the country and among all classes, the question of the hour
+was being debated. "American independence," as the historian Bancroft
+says, "was not an act of sudden passion nor the work of one man or one
+assembly. It had been discussed in every part of the country by farmers
+and merchants, by mechanics and planters, by the fishermen along the
+coast and the backwoodsmen of the West; in town meetings and from the
+pulpit; at social gatherings and around the camp fires; in county
+conventions and conferences or committees; in colonial congresses and
+assemblies."</p>
+
+<div><a name="paine" id="paine" /></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/121.jpg" alt="Thomas Paine" title="Thomas Paine" />
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i><small>From an old print</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Thomas Paine</span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>Paine's "Commonsense."</b>&mdash;In the midst of this ferment of American
+opinion, a bold and eloquent pamphleteer broke in upon the hesitating
+public with a program for absolute independence, without fears and
+without apologies. In the early days of 1776, Thomas Paine issued the
+first of his famous tracts, "Commonsense," a passionate attack upon the
+British <a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>monarchy and an equally passionate plea for American liberty.
+Casting aside the language of petition with which Americans had hitherto
+addressed George III, Paine went to the other extreme and assailed him
+with many a violent epithet. He condemned monarchy itself as a system
+which had laid the world "in blood and ashes." Instead of praising the
+British constitution under which colonists had been claiming their
+rights, he brushed it aside as ridiculous, protesting that it was "owing
+to the constitution of the people, not to the constitution of the
+government, that the Crown is not as oppressive in England as in
+Turkey."</p>
+
+<p>Having thus summarily swept away the grounds of allegiance to the old
+order, Paine proceeded relentlessly to an argument for immediate
+separation from Great Britain. There was nothing in the sphere of
+practical interest, he insisted, which should bind the colonies to the
+mother country. Allegiance to her had been responsible for the many wars
+in which they had been involved. Reasons of trade were not less weighty
+in behalf of independence. "Our corn will fetch its price in any market
+in Europe and our imported goods must be paid for, buy them where we
+will." As to matters of government, "it is not in the power of Britain
+to do this continent justice; the business of it will soon be too
+weighty and intricate to be managed with any tolerable degree of
+convenience by a power so distant from us and so very ignorant of us."</p>
+
+<p>There is accordingly no alternative to independence for America.
+"Everything that is right or natural pleads for separation. The blood of
+the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries ''tis time to part.' ...
+Arms, the last resort, must decide the contest; the appeal was the
+choice of the king and the continent hath accepted the challenge.... The
+sun never shone on a cause of greater worth. 'Tis not the affair of a
+city, a county, a province or a kingdom, but of a continent.... 'Tis not
+the concern of a day, a year or an age; posterity is involved in the
+contest and will be more or less affected to the end of time by the
+proceedings now. Now is <a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>the seed-time of Continental union, faith, and
+honor.... O! ye that love mankind! Ye that dare oppose not only the
+tyranny, but the tyrant, stand forth.... Let names of Whig and Tory be
+extinct. Let none other be heard among us than those of a good citizen,
+an open and resolute friend, and a virtuous supporter of the rights of
+mankind and of the free and independent states of America." As more than
+100,000 copies were scattered broadcast over the country, patriots
+exclaimed with Washington: "Sound doctrine and unanswerable reason!"</p>
+
+<p><b>The Drift of Events toward Independence.</b>&mdash;Official support for the
+idea of independence began to come from many quarters. On the tenth of
+February, 1776, Gadsden, in the provincial convention of South Carolina,
+advocated a new constitution for the colony and absolute independence
+for all America. The convention balked at the latter but went half way
+by abolishing the system of royal administration and establishing a
+complete plan of self-government. A month later, on April 12, the
+neighboring state of North Carolina uttered the daring phrase from which
+others shrank. It empowered its representatives in the Congress to
+concur with the delegates of the other colonies in declaring
+independence. Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Virginia quickly
+responded to the challenge. The convention of the Old Dominion, on May
+15, instructed its delegates at Philadelphia to propose the independence
+of the United Colonies and to give the assent of Virginia to the act of
+separation. When the resolution was carried the British flag on the
+state house was lowered for all time.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Continental Congress was alive to the course of events
+outside. The subject of independence was constantly being raised. "Are
+we rebels?" exclaimed Wyeth of Virginia during a debate in February.
+"No: we must declare ourselves a free people." Others hesitated and
+spoke of waiting for the arrival of commissioners of conciliation. "Is
+not America already independent?" asked Samuel Adams a few weeks later.
+"Why not then declare it?" Still there was uncertainty and delegates
+avoided the direct word. A few more weeks elapsed.<a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a> At last, on May 10,
+Congress declared that the authority of the British crown in America
+must be suppressed and advised the colonies to set up governments of
+their own.</p>
+
+<div><a name="jeffersonr" id="jeffersonr" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/124-tb.jpg" alt="Thomas Jefferson Reading His Draft" title="Thomas Jefferson Reading His Draft" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap"><big>Thomas Jefferson Reading His Draft of the <br />Declaration of Independence to the <br />Committee of Congress</big></span></div>
+
+<p><b>Independence Declared.</b>&mdash;The way was fully prepared, therefore, when,
+on June 7, the Virginia delegation in the Congress moved that "these
+united colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent
+states." A committee was immediately appointed to draft a formal
+document setting forth the reasons for the act, and on July 2 all the
+states save New York went on record in favor of severing their political
+connection with Great Britain. Two days later, July 4, Jefferson's draft
+of the Declaration of Independence, changed in some slight particulars,
+was adopted. The old bell in Independence Hall, as it is now known, rang
+out the glad tidings; couriers swiftly carried the news to the uttermost
+hamlet and farm. A new nation announced its will to have a place among
+the powers of the world.</p>
+
+<p>To some documents is given immortality. The Declaration of Independence
+is one of them. American patriotism is forever associated with it; but
+patriotism alone does not make it immortal. Neither does the vigor of
+its language or the severity of its indictment give it a secure place in
+the records of time. The secret of its greatness lies in the simple fact
+that it is one of the memorable landmarks in the history of a political
+ideal which for three centuries has been taking form and spreading
+throughout the earth, challenging kings and potentates, shaking down
+thrones and aristocracies, breaking the armies of irresponsible power on
+battle fields as far apart as Marston Moor and Ch&acirc;teau-Thierry. That
+ideal, now so familiar, then so novel, is summed up in the simple
+sentence: "Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the
+governed."</p>
+
+<p>Written in a "decent respect for the opinions of mankind," to set forth
+the causes which impelled the American colonists to separate from
+Britain, the Declaration contained a long list of "abuses and
+usurpations" which had induced them to <a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>throw off the government of King
+George. That section of the Declaration has passed into "ancient"
+history and is seldom read. It is the part laying down a new basis for
+government and giving a new dignity to the common man that has become a
+household phrase in the Old World as in the New.</p>
+
+<p>In the more enduring passages there are four fundamental ideas which,
+from the standpoint of the old system of government, were the essence of
+revolution: (1) all men are created equal and are endowed by their
+Creator with certain unalienable rights including life, liberty, and the
+pursuit of happiness; (2) the purpose of government is to secure these
+rights; (3) governments derive their just powers from the consent of the
+governed; (4) whenever any form of government becomes destructive of
+these ends it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it and
+institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and
+organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to
+effect their safety and happiness. Here was the prelude to the historic
+drama of democracy&mdash;a challenge to every form of government and every
+privilege not founded on popular assent.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Establishment of Government and the New Allegiance</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Committees of Correspondence.</b>&mdash;As soon as debate had passed into
+armed resistance, the patriots found it necessary to consolidate their
+forces by organizing civil government. This was readily effected, for
+the means were at hand in town meetings, provincial legislatures, and
+committees of correspondence. The working tools of the Revolution were
+in fact the committees of correspondence&mdash;small, local, unofficial
+groups of patriots formed to exchange views and create public sentiment.
+As early as November, 1772, such a committee had been created in Boston
+under the leadership of Samuel Adams. It held regular meetings, sent
+emissaries to neighboring towns, and carried on a campaign of education
+in the doctrines of liberty.<a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="independence" id="independence" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/127.jpg"><img src="./images/127-tb.jpg" alt="The Colonies of North America at the Time of the Declaration of Independence" title="The Colonies of North America at the Time of the Declaration of Independence" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<span class="smcap"><big>The Colonies of North America at the Time of the Declaration of Independence</big></span></div>
+
+
+<p>Upon local organizations similar in character to the Boston committee
+were built county committees and then the larger colonial committees,
+congresses, and conventions, all unofficial and representing the
+revolutionary elements. Ordinarily the provincial convention was merely
+the old legislative assembly freed from all royalist sympathizers and
+controlled by patriots. Finally, upon these colonial assemblies was
+built the Continental Congress, the precursor of union under the
+Articles of Confederation and ultimately under the Constitution of the
+United States. This was the revolutionary government set up within the
+British empire in America.</p>
+
+<p><b>State Constitutions Framed.</b>&mdash;With the rise of these new assemblies of
+the people, the old colonial governments broke down. From the royal
+provinces the governor, the judges, and the high officers fled in haste,
+and it became necessary to substitute patriot authorities. The appeal to
+the colonies advising them to adopt a new form of government for
+themselves, issued by the Congress in May, 1776, was quickly acted upon.
+Before the expiration of a year, Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
+Delaware, Maryland, Georgia, and New York had drafted new constitutions
+as states, not as colonies uncertain of their destinies. Connecticut and
+Rhode Island, holding that their ancient charters were equal to their
+needs, merely renounced their allegiance to the king and went on as
+before so far as the form of government was concerned. South Carolina,
+which had drafted a temporary plan early in 1776, drew up a new and more
+complete constitution in 1778. Two years later Massachusetts with much
+deliberation put into force its fundamental law, which in most of its
+essential features remains unchanged to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The new state constitutions in their broad outlines followed colonial
+models. For the royal governor was substituted a governor or president
+chosen usually by the legislature; but in two instances, New York and
+Massachusetts, by popular vote. For the provincial council there was
+substituted, except in Georgia, a senate; while the lower house, or
+assembly, was <a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>continued virtually without change. The old property
+restriction on the suffrage, though lowered slightly in some states, was
+continued in full force to the great discontent of the mechanics thus
+deprived of the ballot. The special qualifications, laid down in several
+constitutions, for governors, senators, and representatives, indicated
+that the revolutionary leaders were not prepared for any radical
+experiments in democracy. The protests of a few women, like Mrs. John
+Adams of Massachusetts and Mrs. Henry Corbin of Virginia, against a
+government which excluded them from political rights were treated as
+mild curiosities of no significance, although in New Jersey women were
+allowed to vote for many years on the same terms as men.</p>
+
+<p>By the new state constitutions the signs and symbols of royal power, of
+authority derived from any source save "the people," were swept aside
+and republican governments on an imposing scale presented for the first
+time to the modern world. Copies of these remarkable documents prepared
+by plain citizens were translated into French and widely circulated in
+Europe. There they were destined to serve as a guide and inspiration to
+a generation of constitution-makers whose mission it was to begin the
+democratic revolution in the Old World.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Articles of Confederation.</b>&mdash;The formation of state constitutions
+was an easy task for the revolutionary leaders. They had only to build
+on foundations already laid. The establishment of a national system of
+government was another matter. There had always been, it must be
+remembered, a system of central control over the colonies, but Americans
+had had little experience in its operation. When the supervision of the
+crown of Great Britain was suddenly broken, the patriot leaders,
+accustomed merely to provincial statesmanship, were poorly trained for
+action on a national stage.</p>
+
+<p>Many forces worked against those who, like Franklin, had a vision of
+national destiny. There were differences in economic interest&mdash;commerce
+and industry in the North and the planting system of the South. There
+were contests over the apportionment of taxes and the quotas of troops
+for common <a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>defense. To these practical difficulties were added local
+pride, the vested rights of state and village politicians in their
+provincial dignity, and the scarcity of men with a large outlook upon
+the common enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, necessity compelled them to consider some sort of
+federation. The second Continental Congress had hardly opened its work
+before the most sagacious leaders began to urge the desirability of a
+permanent connection. As early as July, 1775, Congress resolved to go
+into a committee of the whole on the state of the union, and Franklin,
+undaunted by the fate of his Albany plan of twenty years before, again
+presented a draft of a constitution. Long and desultory debates followed
+and it was not until late in 1777 that Congress presented to the states
+the Articles of Confederation. Provincial jealousies delayed
+ratification, and it was the spring of 1781, a few months before the
+surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, when Maryland, the last of the
+states, approved the Articles. This plan of union, though it was all
+that could be wrung from the reluctant states, provided for neither a
+chief executive nor a system of federal courts. It created simply a
+Congress of delegates in which each state had an equal voice and gave it
+the right to call upon the state legislatures for the sinews of
+government&mdash;money and soldiers.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Application of Tests of Allegiance.</b>&mdash;As the successive steps were
+taken in the direction of independent government, the patriots devised
+and applied tests designed to discover who were for and who were against
+the new nation in the process of making. When the first Continental
+Congress agreed not to allow the importation of British goods, it
+provided for the creation of local committees to enforce the rules. Such
+agencies were duly formed by the choice of men favoring the scheme, all
+opponents being excluded from the elections. Before these bodies those
+who persisted in buying British goods were summoned and warned or
+punished according to circumstances. As soon as the new state
+constitutions were put into effect, local committees set to work in the
+same <a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>way to ferret out all who were not outspoken in their support of
+the new order of things.</p>
+
+<div><a name="mobbing" id="mobbing" /></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/132-tb.jpg" alt="Mobbing the Tories" title="Mobbing the Tories" />
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap"><big>Mobbing the Tories</big></span></div></div>
+
+<p>These patriot agencies, bearing different names in different sections,
+were sometimes ruthless in their methods. They called upon all men to
+sign the test of loyalty, frequently known as the "association test."
+Those who refused were promptly branded as outlaws, while some of the
+more dangerous were thrown into jail. The prison camp in Connecticut at
+one time held the former governor of New Jersey and the mayor of New
+York. Thousands were black-listed and subjected to espionage. The
+black-list of Pennsylvania contained the names of nearly five hundred
+persons of prominence who were under suspicion. Loyalists or Tories who
+were bold enough to speak and write against the Revolution were
+suppressed and their pamphlets burned. In many places, particularly in
+the North, the property of the loyalists was confiscated and the
+proceeds applied to the cause of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the official agencies for suppression of opposition was
+sometimes supplemented by mob violence. A few Tories were hanged without
+trial, and others were tarred and feathered. One was placed upon a cake
+of ice and held there "until his loyalty to King George might cool."
+Whole families were driven out of their homes to find their way as best
+they <a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>could within the British lines or into Canada, where the British
+government gave them lands. Such excesses were deplored by Washington,
+but they were defended on the ground that in effect a civil war, as well
+as a war for independence, was being waged.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Patriots and Tories.</b>&mdash;Thus, by one process or another, those who
+were to be citizens of the new republic were separated from those who
+preferred to be subjects of King George. Just what proportion of the
+Americans favored independence and what share remained loyal to the
+British monarchy there is no way of knowing. The question of revolution
+was not submitted to popular vote, and on the point of numbers we have
+conflicting evidence. On the patriot side, there is the testimony of a
+careful and informed observer, John Adams, who asserted that two-thirds
+of the people were for the American cause and not more than one-third
+opposed the Revolution at all stages.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of the loyalists, or Tories as they were popularly known,
+extravagant claims were made. Joseph Galloway, who had been a member of
+the first Continental Congress and had fled to England when he saw its
+temper, testified before a committee of Parliament in 1779 that not
+one-fifth of the American people supported the insurrection and that
+"many more than four-fifths of the people prefer a union with Great
+Britain upon constitutional principles to independence." At the same
+time General Robertson, who had lived in America twenty-four years,
+declared that "more than two-thirds of the people would prefer the
+king's government to the Congress' tyranny." In an address to the king
+in that year a committee of American loyalists asserted that "the number
+of Americans in his Majesty's army exceeded the number of troops
+enlisted by Congress to oppose them."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Character of the Loyalists.</b>&mdash;When General Howe evacuated Boston,
+more than a thousand people fled with him. This great company, according
+to a careful historian, "formed the aristocracy of the province by
+virtue of their <a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>official rank; of their dignified callings and
+professions; of their hereditary wealth and of their culture." The act
+of banishment passed by Massachusetts in 1778, listing over 300 Tories,
+"reads like the social register of the oldest and noblest families of
+New England," more than one out of five being graduates of Harvard
+College. The same was true of New York and Philadelphia; namely, that
+the leading loyalists were prominent officials of the old order,
+clergymen and wealthy merchants. With passion the loyalists fought
+against the inevitable or with anguish of heart they left as refugees
+for a life of uncertainty in Canada or the mother country.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tories Assail the Patriots.</b>&mdash;The Tories who remained in America joined
+the British army by the thousands or in other ways aided the royal
+cause. Those who were skillful with the pen assailed the patriots in
+editorials, rhymes, satires, and political catechisms. They declared
+that the members of Congress were "obscure, pettifogging attorneys,
+bankrupt shopkeepers, outlawed smugglers, etc." The people and their
+leaders they characterized as "wretched banditti ... the refuse and
+dregs of mankind." The generals in the army they sneered at as "men of
+rank and honor nearly on a par with those of the Congress."</p>
+
+<p><b>Patriot Writers Arouse the National Spirit.</b>&mdash;Stung by Tory taunts,
+patriot writers devoted themselves to creating and sustaining a public
+opinion favorable to the American cause. Moreover, they had to combat
+the depression that grew out of the misfortunes in the early days of the
+war. A terrible disaster befell Generals Arnold and Montgomery in the
+winter of 1775 as they attempted to bring Canada into the revolution&mdash;a
+disaster that cost 5000 men; repeated calamities harassed Washington in
+1776 as he was defeated on Long Island, driven out of New York City, and
+beaten at Harlem Heights and White Plains. These reverses were almost
+too great for the stoutest patriots.</p>
+
+<p>Pamphleteers, preachers, and publicists rose, however, to meet the needs
+of the hour. John Witherspoon, provost of <a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>the College of New Jersey,
+forsook the classroom for the field of political controversy. The poet,
+Philip Freneau, flung taunts of cowardice at the Tories and celebrated
+the spirit of liberty in many a stirring poem. Songs, ballads, plays,
+and satires flowed from the press in an unending stream. Fast days,
+battle anniversaries, celebrations of important steps taken by Congress
+afforded to patriotic clergymen abundant opportunities for sermons.
+"Does Mr. Wiberd preach against oppression?" anxiously inquired John
+Adams in a letter to his wife. The answer was decisive. "The clergy of
+every denomination, not excepting the Episcopalian, thunder and lighten
+every Sabbath. They pray for Boston and Massachusetts. They thank God
+most explicitly and fervently for our remarkable successes. They pray
+for the American army."</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Paine never let his pen rest. He had been with the forces of
+Washington when they retreated from Fort Lee and were harried from New
+Jersey into Pennsylvania. He knew the effect of such reverses on the
+army as well as on the public. In December, 1776, he made a second great
+appeal to his countrymen in his pamphlet, "The Crisis," the first part
+of which he had written while defeat and gloom were all about him. This
+tract was a cry for continued support of the Revolution. "These are the
+times that try men's souls," he opened. "The summer soldier and the
+sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his
+country; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of men
+and women." Paine laid his lash fiercely on the Tories, branding every
+one as a coward grounded in "servile, slavish, self-interested fear." He
+deplored the inadequacy of the militia and called for a real army. He
+refuted the charge that the retreat through New Jersey was a disaster
+and he promised victory soon. "By perseverance and fortitude," he
+concluded, "we have the prospect of a glorious issue; by cowardice and
+submission the sad choice of a variety of evils&mdash;a ravaged country, a
+depopulated city, habitations without safety and slavery with<a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>out
+hope.... Look on this picture and weep over it." His ringing call to
+arms was followed by another and another until the long contest was
+over.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Military Affairs</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Two Phases of the War.</b>&mdash;The war which opened with the battle of
+Lexington, on April 19, 1775, and closed with the surrender of
+Cornwallis at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, passed through two distinct
+phases&mdash;the first lasting until the treaty of alliance with France, in
+1778, and the second until the end of the struggle. During the first
+phase, the war was confined mainly to the North. The outstanding
+features of the contest were the evacuation of Boston by the British,
+the expulsion of American forces from New York and their retreat through
+New Jersey, the battle of Trenton, the seizure of Philadelphia by the
+British (September, 1777), the invasion of New York by Burgoyne and his
+capture at Saratoga in October, 1777, and the encampment of American
+forces at Valley Forge for the terrible winter of 1777-78.</p>
+
+<p>The final phase of the war, opening with the treaty of alliance with
+France on February 6, 1778, was confined mainly to the Middle states,
+the West, and the South. In the first sphere of action the chief events
+were the withdrawal of the British from Philadelphia, the battle of
+Monmouth, and the inclosure of the British in New York by deploying
+American forces from Morristown, New Jersey, up to West Point. In the
+West, George Rogers Clark, by his famous march into the Illinois
+country, secured Kaskaskia and Vincennes and laid a firm grip on the
+country between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. In the South, the second
+period opened with successes for the British. They captured Savannah,
+conquered Georgia, and restored the royal governor. In 1780 they seized
+Charleston, administered a crushing defeat to the American forces under
+Gates at Camden, and overran South Carolina, though meeting reverses at
+Cowpens and King's Mountain. Then came the closing scenes. Cornwallis
+began the last of his operations.<a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a> He pursued General Greene far into
+North Carolina, clashed with him at Guilford Court House, retired to the
+coast, took charge of British forces engaged in plundering Virginia, and
+fortified Yorktown, where he was penned up by the French fleet from the
+sea and the combined French and American forces on land.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Geographical Aspects of the War.</b>&mdash;For the British the theater of
+the war offered many problems. From first to last it extended from
+Massachusetts to Georgia, a distance of almost a thousand miles. It was
+nearly three thousand miles from the main base of supplies and, though
+the British navy kept the channel open, transports were constantly
+falling prey to daring privateers and fleet American war vessels. The
+sea, on the other hand, offered an easy means of transportation between
+points along the coast and gave ready access to the American centers of
+wealth and population. Of this the British made good use. Though early
+forced to give up Boston, they seized New York and kept it until the end
+of the war; they took Philadelphia and retained it until threatened by
+the approach of the French fleet; and they captured and held both
+Savannah and Charleston. Wars, however, are seldom won by the conquest
+of cities.</p>
+
+<p>Particularly was this true in the case of the Revolution. Only a small
+portion of the American people lived in towns. Countrymen back from the
+coast were in no way dependent upon them for a livelihood. They lived on
+the produce of the soil, not upon the profits of trade. This very fact
+gave strength to them in the contest. Whenever the British ventured far
+from the ports of entry, they encountered reverses. Burgoyne was forced
+to surrender at Saratoga because he was surrounded and cut off from his
+base of supplies. As soon as the British got away from Charleston, they
+were harassed and worried by the guerrilla warriors of Marion, Sumter,
+and Pickens. Cornwallis could technically defeat Greene at Guilford far
+in the interior; but he could not hold the inland region he had invaded.
+Sustained by their own labor, possessing the interior <a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>to which their
+armies could readily retreat, supplied mainly from native resources, the
+Americans could not be hemmed in, penned up, and destroyed at one fell
+blow.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sea Power.</b>&mdash;The British made good use of their fleet in cutting
+off American trade, but control of the sea did not seriously affect the
+United States. As an agricultural country, the ruin of its commerce was
+not such a vital matter. All the materials for a comfortable though
+somewhat rude life were right at hand. It made little difference to a
+nation fighting for existence, if silks, fine linens, and chinaware were
+cut off. This was an evil to which submission was necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Nor did the brilliant exploits of John Paul Jones and Captain John Barry
+materially change the situation. They demonstrated the skill of American
+seamen and their courage as fighting men. They raised the rates of
+British marine insurance, but they did not dethrone the mistress of the
+seas. Less spectacular, and more distinctive, were the deeds of the
+hundreds of privateers and minor captains who overhauled British supply
+ships and kept British merchantmen in constant anxiety. Not until the
+French fleet was thrown into the scale, were the British compelled to
+reckon seriously with the enemy on the sea and make plans based upon the
+possibilities of a maritime disaster.</p>
+
+<p><b>Commanding Officers.</b>&mdash;On the score of military leadership it is
+difficult to compare the contending forces in the revolutionary contest.
+There is no doubt that all the British commanders were men of experience
+in the art of warfare. Sir William Howe had served in America during the
+French War and was accounted an excellent officer, a strict
+disciplinarian, and a gallant gentleman. Nevertheless he loved ease,
+society, and good living, and his expulsion from Boston, his failure to
+overwhelm Washington by sallies from his comfortable bases at New York
+and Philadelphia, destroyed every shred of his military reputation. John
+Burgoyne, to whom was given the task of penetrating New York from
+Canada, had likewise seen service in the French War both in America and
+Europe. He had, however, a touch of the theatrical in his <a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>nature and
+after the collapse of his plans and the surrender of his army in 1777,
+he devoted his time mainly to light literature. Sir Henry Clinton, who
+directed the movement which ended in the capture of Charleston in 1780,
+had "learned his trade on the continent," and was regarded as a man of
+discretion and understanding in military matters. Lord Cornwallis, whose
+achievements at Camden and Guilford were blotted out by his surrender at
+Yorktown, had seen service in the Seven Years' War and had undoubted
+talents which he afterward displayed with great credit to himself in
+India. Though none of them, perhaps, were men of first-rate ability,
+they all had training and experience to guide them.</p>
+
+<div><a name="washington" id="washington"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/139.jpg" alt="George Washington" title="George Washington" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">George Washington</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Americans had a host in Washington himself. He had long been
+interested in military strategy and had tested his coolness under fire
+during the first clashes with the French nearly twenty years before. He
+had no doubts about the justice of his cause, such as plagued some of
+the British generals. He was a stern but reasonable disciplinarian. He
+was reserved and patient, little given to exaltation at success or
+depression at reverses. In the dark hour of the Revolution, "what held
+the patriot forces together?" asks Beveridge in his <i>Life of John
+Marshall</i>. Then he an<a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>swers: "George Washington and he alone. Had he
+died or been seriously disabled, the Revolution would have ended....
+Washington was the soul of the American cause. Washington was the
+government. Washington was the Revolution." The weakness of Congress in
+furnishing men and supplies, the indolence of civilians, who lived at
+ease while the army starved, the intrigues of army officers against him
+such as the "Conway cabal," the cowardice of Lee at Monmouth, even the
+treason of Benedict Arnold, while they stirred deep emotions in his
+breast and aroused him to make passionate pleas to his countrymen, did
+not shake his iron will or his firm determination to see the war through
+to the bitter end. The weight of Washington's moral force was
+immeasurable.</p>
+
+<p>Of the generals who served under him, none can really be said to have
+been experienced military men when the war opened. Benedict Arnold, the
+unhappy traitor but brave and daring soldier, was a druggist, book
+seller, and ship owner at New Haven when the news of Lexington called
+him to battle. Horatio Gates was looked upon as a "seasoned soldier"
+because he had entered the British army as a youth, had been wounded at
+Braddock's memorable defeat, and had served with credit during the Seven
+Years' War; but he was the most conspicuous failure of the Revolution.
+The triumph over Burgoyne was the work of other men; and his crushing
+defeat at Camden put an end to his military pretensions. Nathanael
+Greene was a Rhode Island farmer and smith without military experience
+who, when convinced that war was coming, read C&aelig;sar's <i>Commentaries</i> and
+took up the sword. Francis Marion was a shy and modest planter of South
+Carolina whose sole passage at arms had been a brief but desperate brush
+with the Indians ten or twelve years earlier. Daniel Morgan, one of the
+heroes of Cowpens, had been a teamster with Braddock's army and had seen
+some fighting during the French and Indian War, but his military
+knowledge, from the point of view of a trained British officer, was
+negligible. John Sullivan was a successful lawyer at Durham, New
+Hampshire, and a major <a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>in the local militia when duty summoned him to
+lay down his briefs and take up the sword. Anthony Wayne was a
+Pennsylvania farmer and land surveyor who, on hearing the clash of arms,
+read a few books on war, raised a regiment, and offered himself for
+service. Such is the story of the chief American military leaders, and
+it is typical of them all. Some had seen fighting with the French and
+Indians, but none of them had seen warfare on a large scale with regular
+troops commanded according to the strategy evolved in European
+experience. Courage, native ability, quickness of mind, and knowledge of
+the country they had in abundance, and in battles such as were fought
+during the Revolution all those qualities counted heavily in the
+balance.</p>
+
+<p><b>Foreign Officers in American Service.</b>&mdash;To native genius was added
+military talent from beyond the seas. Baron Steuben, well schooled in
+the iron r&eacute;gime of Frederick the Great, came over from Prussia, joined
+Washington at Valley Forge, and day after day drilled and <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'maneuvered'">man&oelig;uvered</ins> the
+men, laughing and cursing as he turned raw countrymen into regular
+soldiers. From France came young Lafayette and the stern De Kalb, from
+Poland came Pulaski and Kosciusko;&mdash;all acquainted with the arts of war
+as waged in Europe and fitted for leadership as well as teaching.
+Lafayette came early, in 1776, in a ship of his own, accompanied by
+several officers of wide experience, and remained loyally throughout the
+war sharing the hardships of American army life. Pulaski fell at the
+siege of Savannah and De Kalb at Camden. Kosciusko survived the American
+war to defend in vain the independence of his native land. To these
+distinguished foreigners, who freely threw in their lot with American
+revolutionary fortunes, was due much of that spirit and discipline which
+fitted raw recruits and temperamental militiamen to cope with a military
+power of the first rank.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Soldiers.</b>&mdash;As far as the British soldiers were concerned their
+annals are short and simple. The regulars from the standing army who
+were sent over at the opening of the con<a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>test, the recruits drummed up
+by special efforts at home, and the thousands of Hessians bought
+outright by King George presented few problems of management to the
+British officers. These common soldiers were far away from home and
+enlisted for the war. Nearly all of them were well disciplined and many
+of them experienced in actual campaigns. The armies of King George
+fought bravely, as the records of Bunker Hill, Brandywine, and Monmouth
+demonstrate. Many a man and subordinate officer and, for that matter,
+some of the high officers expressed a reluctance at fighting against
+their own kin; but they obeyed orders.</p>
+
+<p>The Americans, on the other hand, while they fought with grim
+determination, as men fighting for their homes, were lacking in
+discipline and in the experience of regular troops. When the war broke
+in upon them, there were no common preparations for it. There was no
+continental army; there were only local bands of militiamen, many of
+them experienced in fighting but few of them "regulars" in the military
+sense. Moreover they were volunteers serving for a short time,
+unaccustomed to severe discipline, and impatient at the restraints
+imposed on them by long and arduous campaigns. They were continually
+leaving the service just at the most critical moments. "The militia,"
+lamented Washington, "come in, you cannot tell how; go, you cannot tell
+where; consume your provisions; exhaust your stores; and leave you at
+last at a critical moment."</p>
+
+<p>Again and again Washington begged Congress to provide for an army of
+regulars enlisted for the war, thoroughly trained and paid according to
+some definite plan. At last he was able to overcome, in part at least,
+the chronic fear of civilians in Congress and to wring from that
+reluctant body an agreement to grant half pay to all officers and a
+bonus to all privates who served until the end of the war. Even this
+scheme, which Washington regarded as far short of justice to the
+soldiers, did not produce quick results. It was near the close of the
+conflict before he had an army of well-disciplined veterans capable of
+meeting British regulars on equal terms.<a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a></p>
+
+<p>Though there were times when militiamen and frontiersmen did valiant and
+effective work, it is due to historical accuracy to deny the
+time-honored tradition that a few minutemen overwhelmed more numerous
+forces of regulars in a seven years' war for independence. They did
+nothing of the sort. For the victories of Bennington, Trenton, Saratoga,
+and Yorktown there were the defeats of Bunker Hill, Long Island, White
+Plains, Germantown, and Camden. Not once did an army of militiamen
+overcome an equal number of British regulars in an open trial by battle.
+"To bring men to be well acquainted with the duties of a soldier," wrote
+Washington, "requires time.... To expect the same service from raw and
+undisciplined recruits as from veteran soldiers is to expect what never
+did and perhaps never will happen."</p>
+
+<p><b>How the War Was Won.</b>&mdash;Then how did the American army win the war? For
+one thing there were delays and blunders on the part of the British
+generals who, in 1775 and 1776, dallied in Boston and New York with
+large bodies of regular troops when they might have been dealing
+paralyzing blows at the scattered bands that constituted the American
+army. "Nothing but the supineness or folly of the enemy could have saved
+us," solemnly averred Washington in 1780. Still it is fair to say that
+this apparent supineness was not all due to the British generals. The
+ministers behind them believed that a large part of the colonists were
+loyal and that compromise would be promoted by inaction rather than by a
+war vigorously prosecuted. Victory by masterly inactivity was obviously
+better than conquest, and the slighter the wounds the quicker the
+healing. Later in the conflict when the seasoned forces of France were
+thrown into the scale, the Americans themselves had learned many things
+about the practical conduct of campaigns. All along, the British were
+embarrassed by the problem of supplies. Their troops could not forage
+with the skill of militiamen, as they were in unfamiliar territory. The
+long oversea voyages were uncertain at best and doubly so when the
+warships of<a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a> France joined the American privateers in preying on supply
+boats.</p>
+
+<p>The British were in fact battered and worn down by a guerrilla war and
+outdone on two important occasions by superior forces&mdash;at Saratoga and
+Yorktown. Stern facts convinced them finally that an immense army, which
+could be raised only by a supreme effort, would be necessary to subdue
+the colonies if that hazardous enterprise could be accomplished at all.
+They learned also that America would then be alienated, fretful, and the
+scene of endless uprisings calling for an army of occupation. That was a
+price which staggered even Lord North and George III. Moreover, there
+were forces of opposition at home with which they had to reckon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Women and the War.</b>&mdash;At no time were the women of America indifferent
+to the struggle for independence. When it was confined to the realm of
+opinion they did their part in creating public sentiment. Mrs. Elizabeth
+Timothee, for example, founded in Charleston, in 1773, a newspaper to
+espouse the cause of the province. Far to the north the sister of James
+Otis, Mrs. Mercy Warren, early begged her countrymen to rest their case
+upon their natural rights, and in influential circles she urged the
+leaders to stand fast by their principles. While John Adams was tossing
+about with uncertainty at the Continental Congress, his wife was writing
+letters to him declaring her faith in "independency."</p>
+
+<p>When the war came down upon the country, women helped in every field. In
+sustaining public sentiment they were active. Mrs. Warren with a
+tireless pen combatted loyalist propaganda in many a drama and satire.
+Almost every revolutionary leader had a wife or daughter who rendered
+service in the "second line of defense." Mrs. Washington managed the
+plantation while the General was at the front and went north to face the
+rigors of the awful winter at Valley Forge&mdash;an inspiration to her
+husband and his men. The daughter of Benjamin Franklin, Mrs. Sarah
+Bache, while her father was pleading the American cause in France, set
+the <a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>women of Pennsylvania to work sewing and collecting supplies. Even
+near the firing line women were to be found, aiding the wounded, hauling
+powder to the front, and carrying dispatches at the peril of their
+lives.</p>
+
+<p>In the economic sphere, the work of women was invaluable. They harvested
+crops without enjoying the picturesque title of "farmerettes" and they
+canned and preserved for the wounded and the prisoners of war. Of their
+labor in spinning and weaving it is recorded: "Immediately on being cut
+off from the use of English manufactures, the women engaged within their
+own families in manufacturing various kinds of cloth for domestic use.
+They thus kept their households decently clad and the surplus of their
+labors they sold to such as chose to buy rather than make for
+themselves. In this way the female part of families by their industry
+and strict economy frequently supported the whole domestic circle,
+evincing the strength of their attachment and the value of their
+service."</p>
+
+<p>For their war work, women were commended by high authorities on more
+than one occasion. They were given medals and public testimonials even
+as in our own day. Washington thanked them for their labors and paid
+tribute to them for the inspiration and material aid which they had
+given to the cause of independence.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Finances of the Revolution</span></h3>
+
+<p>When the Revolution opened, there were thirteen little treasuries in
+America but no common treasury, and from first to last the Congress was
+in the position of a beggar rather than a sovereign. Having no authority
+to lay and collect taxes directly and knowing the hatred of the
+provincials for taxation, it resorted mainly to loans and paper money to
+finance the war. "Do you think," boldly inquired one of the delegates,
+"that I will consent to load my constituents with taxes when we can send
+to the printer and get a wagon load of money, one quire of which will
+pay for the whole?"<a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Paper Money and Loans.</b>&mdash;Acting on this curious but appealing political
+economy, Congress issued in June, 1776, two million dollars in bills of
+credit to be redeemed by the states on the basis of their respective
+populations. Other issues followed in quick succession. In all about
+$241,000,000 of continental paper was printed, to which the several
+states added nearly $210,000,000 of their own notes. Then came
+interest-bearing bonds in ever increasing quantities. Several millions
+were also borrowed from France and small sums from Holland and Spain. In
+desperation a national lottery was held, producing meager results. The
+property of Tories was confiscated and sold, bringing in about
+$16,000,000. Begging letters were sent to the states asking them to
+raise revenues for the continental treasury, but the states, burdened
+with their own affairs, gave little heed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Inflation and Depreciation.</b>&mdash;As paper money flowed from the press, it
+rapidly declined in purchasing power until in 1779 a dollar was worth
+only two or three cents in gold or silver. Attempts were made by
+Congress and the states to compel people to accept the notes at face
+value; but these were like attempts to make water flow uphill.
+Speculators collected at once to fatten on the calamities of the
+republic. Fortunes were made and lost gambling on the prices of public
+securities while the patriot army, half clothed, was freezing at Valley
+Forge. "Speculation, peculation, engrossing, forestalling," exclaimed
+Washington, "afford too many melancholy proofs of the decay of public
+virtue. Nothing, I am convinced, but the depreciation of our currency
+... aided by stock jobbing and party dissensions has fed the hopes of
+the enemy."</p>
+
+<div><a name="morris" id="morris"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/147.jpg" alt="Robert Morris" title="Robert Morris" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Robert Morris</span></div>
+</div>
+<p><b>The Patriot Financiers.</b>&mdash;To the efforts of Congress in financing the
+war were added the labors of private citizens. Hayn Solomon, a merchant
+of Philadelphia, supplied members of Congress, including Madison,
+Jefferson, and Monroe, and army officers, like Lee and Steuben, with
+money for their daily needs. All together he contributed the huge sum of
+half a million dollars to the American cause and died broken in purse,
+<a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>if not in spirit, a British prisoner of war. Another Philadelphia
+merchant, Robert Morris, won for himself the name of the "patriot
+financier" because he labored night and day to find the money to meet
+the bills which poured in upon the bankrupt government. When his own
+funds were exhausted, he borrowed from his friends. Experienced in the
+handling of merchandise, he created agencies at important points to
+distribute supplies to the troops, thus displaying administrative as
+well as financial talents.</p>
+
+<p>Women organized "drives" for money, contributed their plate and their
+jewels, and collected from door to door. Farmers took worthless paper in
+return for their produce, and soldiers saw many a pay day pass without
+yielding them a penny. Thus by the labors and sacrifices of citizens,
+the issuance of paper money, lotteries, the floating of loans,
+borrowings in Europe, and the impressment of supplies, the Congress
+staggered through the Revolution like a pauper who knows not how his
+next meal is to be secured but is continuously relieved at a crisis by a
+kindly fate.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Diplomacy of the Revolution</span></h3>
+
+<p>When the full measure of honor is given to the soldiers and sailors and
+their commanding officers, the civilians who managed finances and
+supplies, the writers who sustained the American spirit, and the women
+who did well their part, there yet remains the duty of recognizing the
+achievements of diplomacy. The importance of this field of activity was
+keenly appreciated by the leaders in the Continental Congress. They were
+fairly <a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>well versed in European history. They knew of the balance of
+power and the sympathies, interests, and prejudices of nations and their
+rulers. All this information they turned to good account, in opening
+relations with continental countries and seeking money, supplies, and
+even military assistance. For the transaction of this delicate business,
+they created a secret committee on foreign correspondence as early as
+1775 and prepared to send agents abroad.</p>
+
+<p><b>American Agents Sent Abroad.</b>&mdash;Having heard that France was inclining a
+friendly ear to the American cause, the Congress, in March, 1776, sent a
+commissioner to Paris, Silas Deane of Connecticut, often styled the
+"first American diplomat." Later in the year a form of treaty to be
+presented to foreign powers was drawn up, and Franklin, Arthur Lee, and
+Deane were selected as American representatives at the court of "His
+Most Christian Majesty the King of France." John Jay of New York was
+chosen minister to Spain in 1779; John Adams was sent to Holland the
+same year; and other agents were dispatched to Florence, Vienna, and
+Berlin. The representative selected for St. Petersburg spent two
+fruitless years there, "ignored by the court, living in obscurity and
+experiencing nothing but humiliation and failure." Frederick the Great,
+king of Prussia, expressed a desire to find in America a market for
+Silesian linens and woolens, but, fearing England's command of the sea,
+he refused to give direct aid to the Revolutionary cause.</p>
+
+<p><b>Early French Interest.</b>&mdash;The great diplomatic triumph of the Revolution
+was won at Paris, and Benjamin Franklin was the hero of the occasion,
+although many circumstances prepared the way for his success. Louis
+XVI's foreign minister, Count de Vergennes, before the arrival of any
+American representative, had brought to the attention of the king the
+opportunity offered by the outbreak of the war between England and her
+colonies. He showed him how France could redress her grievances and
+"reduce the power and greatness of England"&mdash;the empire that in 1763 had
+forced upon her a <a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>humiliating peace "at the price of our possessions,
+of our commerce, and our credit in the Indies, at the price of Canada,
+Louisiana, Isle Royale, Acadia, and Senegal." Equally successful in
+gaining the king's interest was a curious French adventurer,
+Beaumarchais, a man of wealth, a lover of music, and the author of two
+popular plays, "Figaro" and "The Barber of Seville." These two men had
+already urged upon the king secret aid for America before Deane appeared
+on the scene. Shortly after his arrival they made confidential
+arrangements to furnish money, clothing, powder, and other supplies to
+the struggling colonies, although official requests for them were
+officially refused by the French government.</p>
+
+<p><b>Franklin at Paris.</b>&mdash;When Franklin reached Paris, he was received only
+in private by the king's minister, Vergennes. The French people,
+however, made manifest their affection for the "plain republican" in
+"his full dress suit of spotted Manchester velvet." He was known among
+men of letters as an author, a scientist, and a philosopher of
+extraordinary ability. His "Poor Richard" had thrice been translated
+into French and was scattered in numerous editions throughout the
+kingdom. People of all ranks&mdash;ministers, ladies at court, philosophers,
+peasants, and stable boys&mdash;knew of Franklin and wished him success in
+his mission. The queen, Marie Antoinette, fated to lose her head in a
+revolution soon to follow, played with fire by encouraging "our dear
+republican."</p>
+
+<p>For the king of France, however, this was more serious business. England
+resented the presence of this "traitor" in Paris, and Louis had to be
+cautious about plunging into another war that might also end
+disastrously. Moreover, the early period of Franklin's sojourn in Paris
+was a dark hour for the American Revolution. Washington's brilliant
+exploit at Trenton on Christmas night, 1776, and the battle with
+Cornwallis at Princeton had been followed by the disaster at Brandywine,
+the loss of Philadelphia, the defeat at Germantown, and the retirement
+to Valley Forge for the winter of 1777-78. New York City and
+Philadelphia&mdash;two strategic ports&mdash;were in<a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a> British hands; the Hudson
+and Delaware rivers were blocked; and General Burgoyne with his British
+troops was on his way down through the heart of northern New York,
+cutting New England off from the rest of the colonies. No wonder the
+king was cautious. Then the unexpected happened. Burgoyne, hemmed in
+from all sides by the American forces, his flanks harried, his foraging
+parties beaten back, his supplies cut off, surrendered on October 17,
+1777, to General Gates, who had superseded General Schuyler in time to
+receive the honor.</p>
+
+<p><b>Treaties of Alliance and Commerce (1778).</b>&mdash;News of this victory,
+placed by historians among the fifteen decisive battles of the world,
+reached Franklin one night early in December while he and some friends
+sat gloomily at dinner. Beaumarchais, who was with him, grasped at once
+the meaning of the situation and set off to the court at Versailles with
+such haste that he upset his coach and dislocated his arm. The king and
+his ministers were at last convinced that the hour had come to aid the
+Revolution. Treaties of commerce and alliance were drawn up and signed
+in February, 1778. The independence of the United States was recognized
+by France and an alliance was formed to guarantee that independence.
+Combined military action was agreed upon and Louis then formally
+declared war on England. Men who had, a few short years before, fought
+one another in the wilderness of Pennsylvania or on the Plains of
+Abraham, were now ranged side by side in a war on the Empire that Pitt
+had erected and that George III was pulling down.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spain and Holland Involved.</b>&mdash;Within a few months, Spain, remembering
+the steady decline of her sea power since the days of the Armada and
+hoping to drive the British out of Gibraltar, once more joined the
+concert of nations against England. Holland, a member of a league of
+armed neutrals formed in protest against British searches on the high
+seas, sent her fleet to unite with the forces of Spain, France, and
+America to prey upon British commerce. To all this trouble <a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>for England
+was added the danger of a possible revolt in Ireland, where the spirit
+of independence was flaming up.</p>
+
+<p><b>The British Offer Terms to America.</b>&mdash;Seeing the colonists about to be
+joined by France in a common war on the English empire, Lord North
+proposed, in February, 1778, a renewal of negotiations. By solemn
+enactment, Parliament declared its intention not to exercise the right
+of imposing taxes within the colonies; at the same time it authorized
+the opening of negotiations through commissioners to be sent to America.
+A truce was to be established, pardons granted, objectionable laws
+suspended, and the old imperial constitution, as it stood before the
+opening of hostilities, restored to full vigor. It was too late. Events
+had taken the affairs of America out of the hands of British
+commissioners and diplomats.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effects of French Aid.</b>&mdash;The French alliance brought ships of war,
+large sums of gold and silver, loads of supplies, and a considerable
+body of trained soldiers to the aid of the Americans. Timely as was this
+help, it meant no sudden change in the fortunes of war. The British
+evacuated Philadelphia in the summer following the alliance, and
+Washington's troops were encouraged to come out of Valley Forge. They
+inflicted a heavy blow on the British at Monmouth, but the treasonable
+conduct of General Charles Lee prevented a triumph. The recovery of
+Philadelphia was offset by the treason of Benedict Arnold, the loss of
+Savannah and Charleston (1780), and the defeat of Gates at Camden.</p>
+
+<p>The full effect of the French alliance was not felt until 1781, when
+Cornwallis went into Virginia and settled at Yorktown. Accompanied by
+French troops Washington swept rapidly southward and penned the British
+to the shore while a powerful French fleet shut off their escape by sea.
+It was this movement, which certainly could not have been executed
+without French aid, that put an end to all chance of restoring British
+dominion in America. It was the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown that
+caused Lord North to pace the floor and cry out: "It is all over! It is
+all over!" What might have been done with<a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>out the French alliance lies
+hidden from mankind. What was accomplished with the help of French
+soldiers, sailors, officers, money, and supplies, is known to all the
+earth. "All the world agree," exultantly wrote Franklin from Paris to
+General Washington, "that no expedition was ever better planned or
+better executed. It brightens the glory that must accompany your name to
+the latest posterity." Diplomacy as well as martial valor had its
+reward.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Peace at Last</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>British Opposition to the War.</b>&mdash;In measuring the forces that led to
+the final discomfiture of King George and Lord North, it is necessary to
+remember that from the beginning to the end the British ministry at home
+faced a powerful, informed, and relentless opposition. There were
+vigorous protests, first against the obnoxious acts which precipitated
+the unhappy quarrel, then against the way in which the war was waged,
+and finally against the futile struggle to retain a hold upon the
+American dominions. Among the members of Parliament who thundered
+against the government were the first statesmen and orators of the land.
+William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, though he deplored the idea of American
+independence, denounced the government as the aggressor and rejoiced in
+American resistance. Edmund Burke leveled his heavy batteries against
+every measure of coercion and at last strove for a peace which, while
+giving independence to America, would work for reconciliation rather
+than estrangement. Charles James Fox gave the colonies his generous
+sympathy and warmly championed their rights. Outside of the circle of
+statesmen there were stout friends of the American cause like David
+Hume, the philosopher and historian, and Catherine Macaulay, an author
+of wide fame and a republican bold enough to encourage Washington in
+seeing it through.</p>
+
+<p>Against this powerful opposition, the government enlisted a whole army
+of scribes and journalists to pour out criticism on the Americans and
+their friends. Dr. Samuel Johnson, whom <a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>it employed in this business,
+was so savage that even the ministers had to tone down his pamphlets
+before printing them. Far more weighty was Edward Gibbon, who was in
+time to win fame as the historian of the <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire</i>. He had at first opposed the government; but, on being given a
+lucrative post, he used his sharp pen in its support, causing his
+friends to ridicule him in these lines:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="King George">
+<tr><td align='left'><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"King George, in a fright<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Lest Gibbon should write<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">The story of England's disgrace,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Thought no way so sure<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">His pen to secure<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">As to give the historian a place."<br /></span>
+</div></div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>Lord North Yields.</b>&mdash;As time wore on, events bore heavily on the side
+of the opponents of the government's measures. They had predicted that
+conquest was impossible, and they had urged the advantages of a peace
+which would in some measure restore the affections of the Americans.
+Every day's news confirmed their predictions and lent support to their
+arguments. Moreover, the war, which sprang out of an effort to relieve
+English burdens, made those burdens heavier than ever. Military expenses
+were daily increasing. Trade with the colonies, the greatest single
+outlet for British goods and capital, was paralyzed. The heavy debts due
+British merchants in America were not only unpaid but postponed into an
+indefinite future. Ireland was on the verge of revolution. The French
+had a dangerous fleet on the high seas. In vain did the king assert in
+December, 1781, that no difficulties would ever make him consent to a
+peace that meant American independence. Parliament knew better, and on
+February 27, 1782, in the House of Commons was carried an address to the
+throne against continuing the war. Burke, Fox, the younger Pitt, Barr&eacute;,
+and other friends of the colonies voted in the affirmative. Lord North
+gave notice then that his ministry was at an end. The king moaned:
+"Necessity made me yield."<a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a></p>
+
+<p>In April, 1782, Franklin received word from the English government that
+it was prepared to enter into negotiations leading to a settlement. This
+was embarrassing. In the treaty of alliance with France, the United
+States had promised that peace should be a joint affair agreed to by
+both nations in open conference. Finding France, however, opposed to
+some of their claims respecting boundaries and fisheries, the American
+commissioners conferred with the British agents at Paris without
+consulting the French minister. They actually signed a preliminary peace
+draft before they informed him of their operations. When Vergennes
+reproached him, Franklin replied that they "had been guilty of
+neglecting <i>biens&eacute;ance</i> [good manners] but hoped that the great work
+would not be ruined by a single indiscretion."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Terms of Peace (1783).</b>&mdash;The general settlement at Paris in 1783
+was a triumph for America. England recognized the independence of the
+United States, naming each state specifically, and agreed to boundaries
+extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from the Great Lakes
+to the Floridas. England held Canada, Newfoundland, and the West Indies
+intact, made gains in India, and maintained her supremacy on the seas.
+Spain won Florida and Minorca but not the coveted Gibraltar. France
+gained nothing important save the satisfaction of seeing England humbled
+and the colonies independent.</p>
+
+<p>The generous terms secured by the American commission at Paris called
+forth surprise and gratitude in the United States and smoothed the way
+for a renewal of commercial relations with the mother country. At the
+same time they gave genuine anxiety to European diplomats. "This federal
+republic is born a pigmy," wrote the Spanish ambassador to his royal
+master. "A day will come when it will be a giant; even a colossus
+formidable to these countries. Liberty of conscience and the facility
+for establishing a new population on immense lands, as well as the
+advantages of the new government, will draw thither farmers and artisans
+from all the nations. In a few <a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>years we shall watch with grief the
+tyrannical existence of the same colossus."</p>
+
+<div><a name="treaty" id="treaty" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/155.jpg"><img src="./images/155-tb.jpg" alt="North America according to the Treaty of 1783" title="North America according to the Treaty of 1783" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<span class="smcap">North America according to the Treaty of 1783</span></div>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of the Revolutionary Period</span></h3>
+
+<p>The independence of the American colonies was foreseen by many European
+statesmen as they watched the growth of their population, wealth, and
+power; but no one could fix the hour of the great event. Until 1763 the
+American colonists lived fairly happily under British dominion. There
+were collisions from time to time, of course. Royal governors clashed
+with stiff-necked colonial legislatures. There were protests against the
+exercise of the king's veto power in specific cases. Nevertheless, on
+the whole, the relations between America and the mother country were
+more amicable in 1763 than at any period under the Stuart r&eacute;gime which
+closed in 1688.</p>
+
+<p>The crash, when it came, was not deliberately willed by any one. It was
+the product of a number of forces that happened to converge about 1763.
+Three years before, there had come to the throne George III, a young,
+proud, inexperienced, and stubborn king. For nearly fifty years his
+predecessors, Germans as they were in language and interest, had allowed
+things to drift in England and America. George III decided that he would
+be king in fact as well as in name. About the same time England brought
+to a close the long and costly French and Indian War and was staggering
+under a heavy burden of debt and taxes. The war had been fought partly
+in defense of the American colonies and nothing seemed more reasonable
+to English statesmen than the idea that the colonies should bear part of
+the cost of their own defense. At this juncture there came into
+prominence, in royal councils, two men bent on taxing America and
+controlling her trade, Grenville and Townshend. The king was willing,
+the English taxpayers were thankful for any promise of relief, and
+statesmen were found to undertake the experiment. England therefore set
+out upon a new course. She imposed taxes upon the colonists, regulated
+their trade and set royal officers upon them to <a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>enforce the law. This
+action evoked protests from the colonists. They held a Stamp Act
+Congress to declare their rights and petition for a redress of
+grievances. Some of the more restless spirits rioted in the streets,
+sacked the houses of the king's officers, and tore up the stamped paper.</p>
+
+<p>Frightened by uprising, the English government drew back and repealed
+the Stamp Act. Then it veered again and renewed its policy of
+interference. Interference again called forth American protests.
+Protests aroused sharper retaliation. More British regulars were sent
+over to keep order. More irritating laws were passed by Parliament.
+Rioting again appeared: tea was dumped in the harbor of Boston and
+seized in the harbor of Charleston. The British answer was more force.
+The response of the colonists was a Continental Congress for defense. An
+unexpected and unintended clash of arms at Lexington and Concord in the
+spring of 1775 brought forth from the king of England a proclamation:
+"The Americans are rebels!"</p>
+
+<p>The die was cast. The American Revolution had begun. Washington was made
+commander-in-chief. Armies were raised, money was borrowed, a huge
+volume of paper currency was issued, and foreign aid was summoned.
+Franklin plied his diplomatic arts at Paris until in 1778 he induced
+France to throw her sword into the balance. Three years later,
+Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. In 1783, by the formal treaty of
+peace, George III acknowledged the independence of the United States.
+The new nation, endowed with an imperial domain stretching from the
+Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, began its career among the
+sovereign powers of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>In the sphere of civil government, the results of the Revolution were
+equally remarkable. Royal officers and royal authorities were driven
+from the former dominions. All power was declared to be in the people.
+All the colonies became states, each with its own constitution or plan
+of government. The thirteen states were united in common bonds under the
+Articles of Confederation. A republic on a large scale was instituted.<a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>
+Thus there was begun an adventure in popular government such as the
+world had never seen. Could it succeed or was it destined to break down
+and be supplanted by a monarchy? The fate of whole continents hung upon
+the answer.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>J. Fiske, <i>The American Revolution</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>H. Lodge, <i>Life of Washington</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>W. Sumner, <i>The Financier and the Finances of the American Revolution</i>.</p>
+
+<p>O. Trevelyan, <i>The American Revolution</i> (4 vols.). A sympathetic account
+by an English historian.</p>
+
+<p>M.C. Tyler, <i>Literary History of the American Revolution</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>C.H. Van Tyne, <i>The American Revolution</i> (American Nation Series) and
+<i>The Loyalists in the American Revolution</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. What was the non-importation agreement? By what body was it adopted?
+Why was it revolutionary in character?</p>
+
+<p>2. Contrast the work of the first and second Continental Congresses.</p>
+
+<p>3. Why did efforts at conciliation fail?</p>
+
+<p>4. Trace the growth of American independence from opinion to the sphere
+of action.</p>
+
+<p>5. Why is the Declaration of Independence an "immortal" document?</p>
+
+<p>6. What was the effect of the Revolution on colonial governments? On
+national union?</p>
+
+<p>7. Describe the contest between "Patriots" and "Tories."</p>
+
+<p>8. What topics are considered under "military affairs"? Discuss each in
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>9. Contrast the American forces with the British forces and show how the
+war was won.</p>
+
+<p>10. Compare the work of women in the Revolutionary War with their labors
+in the World War (1917-18).</p>
+
+<p>11. How was the Revolution financed?</p>
+
+<p>12. Why is diplomacy important in war? Describe the diplomatic triumph
+of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>13. What was the nature of the opposition in England to the war?</p>
+
+<p>14. Give the events connected with the peace settlement; the terms of
+peace.<a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Spirit of America.</b>&mdash;Woodrow Wilson, <i>History of the American
+People</i>, Vol. II, pp. 98-126.</p>
+
+<p><b>American Rights.</b>&mdash;Draw up a table showing all the principles laid down
+by American leaders in (1) the Resolves of the First Continental
+Congress, Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>, pp. 162-166; (2) the
+Declaration of the Causes and the Necessity of Taking Up Arms,
+Macdonald, pp. 176-183; and (3) the Declaration of Independence.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Declaration of Independence.</b>&mdash;Fiske, <i>The American Revolution</i>,
+Vol. I, pp. 147-197. Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>, pp. 250-254.</p>
+
+<p><b>Diplomacy and the French Alliance.</b>&mdash;Hart, <i>American History Told by
+Contemporaries</i>, Vol. II, pp. 574-590. Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 1-24.
+Callender, <i>Economic History of the United States</i>, pp. 159-168; Elson,
+pp. 275-280.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;Washington, Franklin, Samuel Adams, Patrick
+Henry, Thomas Jefferson&mdash;emphasizing the peculiar services of each.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Tories.</b>&mdash;Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>, Vol. II, pp. 470-480.</p>
+
+<p><b>Valley Forge.</b>&mdash;Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 25-49.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Battles of the Revolution.</b>&mdash;Elson, pp. 235-317.</p>
+
+<p><b>An English View of the Revolution.</b>&mdash;Green, <i>Short History of England</i>,
+Chap. X, Sect. 2.</p>
+
+<p><b>English Opinion and the Revolution.</b>&mdash;Trevelyan, <i>The American
+Revolution</i>, Vol. III (or Part 2, Vol. II), Chaps. XXIV-XXVII.<a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PART III. THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION</h3>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Promise and the Difficulties of America</span></h3>
+
+<p>The rise of a young republic composed of thirteen states, each governed
+by officials popularly elected under constitutions drafted by "the plain
+people," was the most significant feature of the eighteenth century. The
+majority of the patriots whose labors and sacrifices had made this
+possible naturally looked upon their work and pronounced it good. Those
+Americans, however, who peered beneath the surface of things, saw that
+the Declaration of Independence, even if splendidly phrased, and paper
+constitutions, drawn by finest enthusiasm "uninstructed by experience,"
+could not alone make the republic great and prosperous or even free. All
+around them they saw chaos in finance and in industry and perils for the
+immediate future.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Weakness of the Articles of Confederation.</b>&mdash;The government under
+the Articles of Confederation had neither the strength nor the resources
+necessary to cope with the problems of reconstruction left by the war.
+The sole organ of government was a Congress composed of from two to
+seven members from each state chosen as the legislature might direct and
+paid by the state. In determining all questions, each state had one
+vote&mdash;Delaware thus enjoying the same weight as Virginia. There was no
+president to enforce the laws. Congress was given power to select a
+committee of thirteen&mdash;one from each state&mdash;to act as an executive body
+when it was not in session; but this device, on being tried out, proved
+a failure. There was no system of national courts to which citizens and
+<a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>states could appeal for the protection of their rights or through which
+they could compel obedience to law. The two great powers of government,
+military and financial, were withheld. Congress, it is true, could
+authorize expenditures but had to rely upon the states for the payment
+of contributions to meet its bills. It could also order the
+establishment of an army, but it could only request the states to supply
+their respective quotas of soldiers. It could not lay taxes nor bring
+any pressure to bear upon a single citizen in the whole country. It
+could act only through the medium of the state governments.</p>
+
+<p><b>Financial and Commercial Disorders.</b>&mdash;In the field of public finance,
+the disorders were pronounced. The huge debt incurred during the war was
+still outstanding. Congress was unable to pay either the interest or the
+principal. Public creditors were in despair, as the market value of
+their bonds sank to twenty-five or even ten cents on the dollar. The
+current bills of Congress were unpaid. As some one complained, there was
+not enough money in the treasury to buy pen and ink with which to record
+the transactions of the shadow legislature. The currency was in utter
+chaos. Millions of dollars in notes issued by Congress had become mere
+trash worth a cent or two on the dollar. There was no other expression
+of contempt so forceful as the popular saying: "not worth a
+Continental." To make matters worse, several of the states were pouring
+new streams of paper money from the press. Almost the only good money in
+circulation consisted of English, French, and Spanish coins, and the
+public was even defrauded by them because money changers were busy
+clipping and filing away the metal. Foreign commerce was unsettled. The
+entire British system of trade discrimination was turned against the
+Americans, and Congress, having no power to regulate foreign commerce,
+was unable to retaliate or to negotiate treaties which it could enforce.
+Domestic commerce was impeded by the jealousies of the states, which
+erected tariff barriers against their neighbors. The condition of the
+currency made the exchange of money and goods extremely difficult, and,
+as if to in<a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>crease the confusion, backward states enacted laws hindering
+the prompt collection of debts within their borders&mdash;an evil which
+nothing but a national system of courts could cure.</p>
+
+<p><b>Congress in Disrepute.</b>&mdash;With treaties set at naught by the states, the
+laws unenforced, the treasury empty, and the public credit gone, the
+Congress of the United States fell into utter disrepute. It called upon
+the states to pay their quotas of money into the treasury, only to be
+treated with contempt. Even its own members looked upon it as a solemn
+futility. Some of the ablest men refused to accept election to it, and
+many who did take the doubtful honor failed to attend the sessions.
+Again and again it was impossible to secure a quorum for the transaction
+of business.</p>
+
+<p><b>Troubles of the State Governments.</b>&mdash;The state governments, free to
+pursue their own course with no interference from without, had almost as
+many difficulties as the Congress. They too were loaded with
+revolutionary debts calling for heavy taxes upon an already restive
+population. Oppressed by their financial burdens and discouraged by the
+fall in prices which followed the return of peace, the farmers of
+several states joined in a concerted effort and compelled their
+legislatures to issue large sums of paper money. The currency fell in
+value, but nevertheless it was forced on unwilling creditors to square
+old accounts.</p>
+
+<p>In every part of the country legislative action fluctuated violently.
+Laws were made one year only to be repealed the next and re&euml;nacted the
+third year. Lands were sold by one legislature and the sales were
+canceled by its successor. Uncertainty and distrust were the natural
+consequences. Men of substance longed for some power that would forbid
+states to issue bills of credit, to make paper money legal tender in
+payment of debts, or to impair the obligation of contracts. Men heavily
+in debt, on the other hand, urged even more drastic action against
+creditors.</p>
+
+<p>So great did the discontent of the farmers in New Hampshire become in
+1786 that a mob surrounded the legislature, demand<a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>ing a repeal of the
+taxes and the issuance of paper money. It was with difficulty that an
+armed rebellion was avoided. In Massachusetts the malcontents, under the
+leadership of Daniel Shays, a captain in the Revolutionary army,
+organized that same year open resistance to the government of the state.
+Shays and his followers protested against the conduct of creditors in
+foreclosing mortgages upon the debt-burdened farmers, against the
+lawyers for increasing the costs of legal proceedings, against the
+senate of the state the members of which were apportioned among the
+towns on the basis of the amount of taxes paid, against heavy taxes, and
+against the refusal of the legislature to issue paper money. They seized
+the towns of Worcester and Springfield and broke up the courts of
+justice. All through the western part of the state the revolt spread,
+sending a shock of alarm to every center and section of the young
+republic. Only by the most vigorous action was Governor Bowdoin able to
+quell the uprising; and when that task was accomplished, the state
+government did not dare to execute any of the prisoners because they had
+so many sympathizers. Moreover, Bowdoin and several members of the
+legislature who had been most zealous in their attacks on the insurgents
+were defeated at the ensuing election. The need of national assistance
+for state governments in times of domestic violence was everywhere
+emphasized by men who were opposed to revolutionary acts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alarm over Dangers to the Republic.</b>&mdash;Leading American citizens,
+watching the drift of affairs, were slowly driven to the conclusion that
+the new ship of state so proudly launched a few years before was
+careening into anarchy. "The facts of our peace and independence," wrote
+a friend of Washington, "do not at present wear so promising an
+appearance as I had fondly painted in my mind. The prejudices,
+jealousies, and turbulence of the people at times almost stagger my
+confidence in our political establishments; and almost occasion me to
+think that they will show themselves unworthy of the noble prize for
+which we have contended."</p>
+
+<p>Washington himself was profoundly discouraged. On hear<a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>ing of Shays's
+rebellion, he exclaimed: "What, gracious God, is man that there should
+be such inconsistency and perfidiousness in his conduct! It is but the
+other day that we were shedding our blood to obtain the constitutions
+under which we now live&mdash;constitutions of our own choice and making&mdash;and
+now we are unsheathing our sword to overturn them." The same year he
+burst out in a lament over rumors of restoring royal government. "I am
+told that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical government
+without horror. From thinking proceeds speaking. Hence to acting is
+often but a single step. But how irresistible and tremendous! What a
+triumph for our enemies to verify their predictions! What a triumph for
+the advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable of governing
+ourselves!"</p>
+
+<p><b>Congress Attempts Some Reforms.</b>&mdash;The Congress was not indifferent to
+the events that disturbed Washington. On the contrary it put forth many
+efforts to check tendencies so dangerous to finance, commerce,
+industries, and the Confederation itself. In 1781, even before the
+treaty of peace was signed, the Congress, having found out how futile
+were its taxing powers, carried a resolution of amendment to the
+Articles of Confederation, authorizing the levy of a moderate duty on
+imports. Yet this mild measure was rejected by the states. Two years
+later the Congress prepared another amendment sanctioning the levy of
+duties on imports, to be collected this time by state officers and
+applied to the payment of the public debt. This more limited proposal,
+designed to save public credit, likewise failed. In 1786, the Congress
+made a third appeal to the states for help, declaring that they had been
+so irregular and so negligent in paying their quotas that further
+reliance upon that mode of raising revenues was dishonorable and
+dangerous.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Calling of a Constitutional Convention</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Hamilton and Washington Urge Reform.</b>&mdash;The attempts at reform by the
+Congress were accompanied by demand for, <a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>both within and without that
+body, a convention to frame a new plan of government. In 1780, the
+youthful Alexander Hamilton, realizing the weakness of the Articles, so
+widely discussed, proposed a general convention for the purpose of
+drafting a new constitution on entirely different principles. With
+tireless energy he strove to bring his countrymen to his view.
+Washington, agreeing with him on every point, declared, in a circular
+letter to the governors, that the duration of the union would be short
+unless there was lodged somewhere a supreme power "to regulate and
+govern the general concerns of the confederated republic." The governor
+of Massachusetts, disturbed by the growth of discontent all about him,
+suggested to the state legislature in 1785 the advisability of a
+national convention to enlarge the powers of the Congress. The
+legislature approved the plan, but did not press it to a conclusion.</p>
+
+<div><a name="hamilton" id="hamilton"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/166.jpg" alt="Alexander Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Alexander Hamilton</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Annapolis Convention.</b>&mdash;Action finally came from the South. The
+Virginia legislature, taking things into its own hands, called a
+conference of delegates at Annapolis to consider matters of taxation and
+commerce. When the convention assembled in 1786, it was found that only
+five states had taken the trouble to send representatives. The leaders
+were deeply discouraged, but the resourceful Hamilton, a delegate from
+New York, turned the affair to good account. He secured the adoption of
+a resolution, calling upon the Congress itself to summon another
+convention, to meet at Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p><b>A National Convention Called (1787).</b>&mdash;The Congress, as tardy as ever,
+at last decided in February, 1787, to issue the call. Fearing drastic
+changes, however, it restricted the con<a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>vention to "the sole and express
+purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." Jealous of its own
+powers, it added that any alterations proposed should be referred to the
+Congress and the states for their approval.</p>
+
+<p>Every state in the union, except Rhode Island, responded to this call.
+Indeed some of the states, having the Annapolis resolution before them,
+had already anticipated the Congress by selecting delegates before the
+formal summons came. Thus, by the persistence of governors,
+legislatures, and private citizens, there was brought about the
+long-desired national convention. In May, 1787, it assembled in
+Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Eminent Men of the Convention.</b>&mdash;On the roll of that memorable
+convention were fifty-five men, at least half of whom were acknowledged
+to be among the foremost statesmen and thinkers in America. Every field
+of statecraft was represented by them: war and practical management in
+Washington, who was chosen president of the convention; diplomacy in
+Franklin, now old and full of honor in his own land as well as abroad;
+finance in Alexander Hamilton and Robert Morris; law in James Wilson of
+Pennsylvania; the philosophy of government in James Madison, called the
+"father of the Constitution." They were not theorists but practical men,
+rich in political experience and endowed with deep insight into the
+springs of human action. Three of them had served in the Stamp Act
+Congress: Dickinson of Delaware, William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut,
+and John Rutledge of South Carolina. Eight had been signers of the
+Declaration of Independence: Read of Delaware, Sherman of Connecticut,
+Wythe of Virginia, Gerry of Massachusetts, Franklin, Robert Morris,
+George Clymer, and James Wilson of Pennsylvania. All but twelve had at
+some time served in the Continental Congress and eighteen were members
+of that body in the spring of 1787. Washington, Hamilton, Mifflin, and
+Charles Pinckney had been officers in the Revolutionary army. Seven of
+the delegates had gained political experience as governors of states.
+"The convention as a whole," according to the historian Hildreth,
+"represented <a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>in a marked manner the talent, intelligence, and
+especially the conservative sentiment of the country."</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Framing of the Constitution</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Problems Involved.</b>&mdash;The great problems before the convention were nine
+in number: (1) Shall the Articles of Confederation be revised or a new
+system of government constructed? (2) Shall the government be founded on
+states equal in power as under the Articles or on the broader and deeper
+foundation of population? (3) What direct share shall the people have in
+the election of national officers? (4) What shall be the qualifications
+for the suffrage? (5) How shall the conflicting interests of the
+commercial and the planting states be balanced so as to safeguard the
+essential rights of each? (6) What shall be the form of the new
+government? (7) What powers shall be conferred on it? (8) How shall the
+state legislatures be restrained from their attacks on property rights
+such as the issuance of paper money? (9) Shall the approval of all the
+states be necessary, as under the Articles, for the adoption and
+amendment of the Constitution?</p>
+
+<p><b>Revision of the Articles or a New Government?</b>&mdash;The moment the first
+problem was raised, representatives of the small states, led by William
+Paterson of New Jersey, were on their feet. They feared that, if the
+Articles were overthrown, the equality and rights of the states would be
+put in jeopardy. Their protest was therefore vigorous. They cited the
+call issued by the Congress in summoning the convention which
+specifically stated that they were assembled for "the sole and express
+purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." They cited also
+their instructions from their state legislatures, which authorized them
+to "revise and amend" the existing scheme of government, not to make a
+revolution in it. To depart from the authorization laid down by the
+Congress and the legislatures would be to exceed their powers, they
+argued, and to betray the trust reposed in them by their countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>To their contentions, Randolph of Virginia replied: "When <a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>the salvation
+of the republic is at stake, it would be treason to our trust not to
+propose what we find necessary." Hamilton, reminding the delegates that
+their work was still subject to the approval of the states, frankly said
+that on the point of their powers he had no scruples. With the issue
+clear, the convention cast aside the Articles as if they did not exist
+and proceeded to the work of drawing up a new constitution, "laying its
+foundations on such principles and organizing its powers in such form"
+as to the delegates seemed "most likely to affect their safety and
+happiness."</p>
+
+<p><b>A Government Founded on States or on People?&mdash;The
+Compromise.</b>&mdash;Defeated in their attempt to limit the convention to a
+mere revision of the Articles, the spokesmen of the smaller states
+redoubled their efforts to preserve the equality of the states. The
+signal for a radical departure from the Articles on this point was given
+early in the sessions when Randolph presented "the Virginia plan." He
+proposed that the new national legislature consist of two houses, the
+members of which were to be apportioned among the states according to
+their wealth or free white population, as the convention might decide.
+This plan was vehemently challenged. Paterson of New Jersey flatly
+avowed that neither he nor his state would ever bow to such tyranny. As
+an alternative, he presented "the New Jersey plan" calling for a
+national legislature of one house representing states as such, not
+wealth or people&mdash;a legislature in which all states, large or small,
+would have equal voice. Wilson of Pennsylvania, on behalf of the more
+populous states, took up the gauntlet which Paterson had thrown down. It
+was absurd, he urged, for 180,000 men in one state to have the same
+weight in national counsels as 750,000 men in another state. "The
+gentleman from New Jersey," he said, "is candid. He declares his opinion
+boldly.... I will be equally candid.... I will never confederate on his
+principles." So the bitter controversy ran on through many exciting
+sessions.</p>
+
+<p>Greek had met Greek. The convention was hopelessly deadlocked and on the
+verge of dissolution, "scarce held <a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>together by the strength of a hair,"
+as one of the delegates remarked. A crash was averted only by a
+compromise. Instead of a Congress of one house as provided by the
+Articles, the convention agreed upon a legislature of two houses. In the
+Senate, the aspirations of the small states were to be satisfied, for
+each state was given two members in that body. In the formation of the
+House of Representatives, the larger states were placated, for it was
+agreed that the members of that chamber were to be apportioned among the
+states on the basis of population, counting three-fifths of the slaves.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Question of Popular Election.</b>&mdash;The method of selecting federal
+officers and members of Congress also produced an acrimonious debate
+which revealed how deep-seated was the distrust of the capacity of the
+people to govern themselves. Few there were who believed that no branch
+of the government should be elected directly by the voters; still fewer
+were there, however, who desired to see all branches so chosen. One or
+two even expressed a desire for a monarchy. The dangers of democracy
+were stressed by Gerry of Massachusetts: "All the evils we experience
+flow from an excess of democracy. The people do not want virtue but are
+the dupes of pretended patriots.... I have been too republican
+heretofore but have been taught by experience the danger of a leveling
+spirit." To the "democratic licentiousness of the state legislatures,"
+Randolph sought to oppose a "firm senate." To check the excesses of
+popular government Charles Pinckney of South Carolina declared that no
+one should be elected President who was not worth $100,000 and that high
+property qualifications should be placed on members of Congress and
+judges. Other members of the convention were stoutly opposed to such
+"high-toned notions of government." Franklin and Wilson, both from
+Pennsylvania, vigorously championed popular election; while men like
+Madison insisted that at least one part of the government should rest on
+the broad foundation of the people.</p>
+
+<p>Out of this clash of opinion also came compromise. One branch, the House
+of Representatives, it was agreed, was to be <a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>elected directly by the
+voters, while the Senators were to be elected indirectly by the state
+legislatures. The President was to be chosen by electors selected as the
+legislatures of the states might determine, and the judges of the
+federal courts, supreme and inferior, by the President and the Senate.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Question of the Suffrage.</b>&mdash;The battle over the suffrage was sharp
+but brief. Gouverneur Morris proposed that only land owners should be
+permitted to vote. Madison replied that the state legislatures, which
+had made so much trouble with radical laws, were elected by freeholders.
+After the debate, the delegates, unable to agree on any property
+limitations on the suffrage, decided that the House of Representatives
+should be elected by voters having the "qualifications requisite for
+electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature." Thus
+they accepted the suffrage provisions of the states.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Balance between the Planting and the Commercial States.</b>&mdash;After the
+debates had gone on for a few weeks, Madison came to the conclusion that
+the real division in the convention was not between the large and the
+small states but between the planting section founded on slave labor and
+the commercial North. Thus he anticipated by nearly three-quarters of a
+century "the irrepressible conflict." The planting states had neither
+the free white population nor the wealth of the North. There were,
+counting Delaware, six of them as against seven commercial states.
+Dependent for their prosperity mainly upon the sale of tobacco, rice,
+and other staples abroad, they feared that Congress might impose
+restraints upon their enterprise. Being weaker in numbers, they were
+afraid that the majority might lay an unfair burden of taxes upon them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Representation and Taxation.</i>&mdash;The Southern members of the convention
+were therefore very anxious to secure for their section the largest
+possible representation in Congress, and at the same time to restrain
+the taxing power of that body. Two devices were thought adapted to these
+ends. One was to count the slaves as people when apportioning
+representatives <a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>among the states according to their respective
+populations; the other was to provide that direct taxes should be
+apportioned among the states, in proportion not to their wealth but to
+the number of their free white inhabitants. For obvious reasons the
+Northern delegates objected to these proposals. Once more a compromise
+proved to be the solution. It was agreed that not all the slaves but
+three-fifths of them should be counted for both purposes&mdash;representation
+and direct taxation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce and the Slave Trade.</i>&mdash;Southern interests were also involved
+in the project to confer upon Congress the power to regulate interstate
+and foreign commerce. To the manufacturing and trading states this was
+essential. It would prevent interstate tariffs and trade jealousies; it
+would enable Congress to protect American manufactures and to break
+down, by appropriate retaliations, foreign discriminations against
+American commerce. To the South the proposal was menacing because
+tariffs might interfere with the free exchange of the produce of
+plantations in European markets, and navigation acts might confine the
+carrying trade to American, that is Northern, ships. The importation of
+slaves, moreover, it was feared might be heavily taxed or immediately
+prohibited altogether.</p>
+
+<p>The result of this and related controversies was a debate on the merits
+of slavery. Gouverneur Morris delivered his mind and heart on that
+subject, denouncing slavery as a nefarious institution and the curse of
+heaven on the states in which it prevailed. Mason of Virginia, a
+slaveholder himself, was hardly less outspoken, saying: "Slavery
+discourages arts and manufactures. The poor despise labor when performed
+by slaves. They prevent the migration of whites who really strengthen
+and enrich a country."</p>
+
+<p>The system, however, had its defenders. Representatives from South
+Carolina argued that their entire economic life rested on slave labor
+and that the high death rate in the rice swamps made continuous
+importation necessary. Ellsworth of Connect<a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>icut took the ground that
+the convention should not meddle with slavery. "The morality or wisdom
+of slavery," he said, "are considerations belonging to the states. What
+enriches a part enriches the whole." To the future he turned an
+untroubled face: "As population increases, poor laborers will be so
+plenty as to render slaves useless. Slavery in time will not be a speck
+in our country." Virginia and North Carolina, already overstocked with
+slaves, favored prohibiting the traffic in them; but South Carolina was
+adamant. She must have fresh supplies of slaves or she would not
+federate.</p>
+
+<p>So it was agreed that, while Congress might regulate foreign trade by
+majority vote, the importation of slaves should not be forbidden before
+the lapse of twenty years, and that any import tax should not exceed $10
+a head. At the same time, in connection with the regulation of foreign
+trade, it was stipulated that a two-thirds vote in the Senate should be
+necessary in the ratification of treaties. A further concession to the
+South was made in the provision for the return of runaway slaves&mdash;a
+provision also useful in the North, where indentured servants were about
+as troublesome as slaves in escaping from their masters.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Form of the Government.</b>&mdash;As to the details of the frame of
+government and the grand principles involved, the opinion of the
+convention ebbed and flowed, decisions being taken in the heat of
+debate, only to be revoked and taken again.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Executive.</i>&mdash;There was general agreement that there should be an
+executive branch; for reliance upon Congress to enforce its own laws and
+treaties had been a broken reed. On the character and functions of the
+executive, however, there were many views. The New Jersey plan called
+for a council selected by the Congress; the Virginia plan provided that
+the executive branch should be chosen by the Congress but did not state
+whether it should be composed of one or several persons. On this matter
+the convention voted first one way and then another; finally it agreed
+on a single executive chosen indirectly by electors selected as the
+state legislatures might decide, serving <a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>for four years, subject to
+impeachment, and endowed with regal powers in the command of the army
+and the navy and in the enforcement of the laws.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Legislative Branch&mdash;Congress.</i>&mdash;After the convention had made the
+great compromise between the large and small commonwealths by giving
+representation to states in the Senate and to population in the House,
+the question of methods of election had to be decided. As to the House
+of Representatives it was readily agreed that the members should be
+elected by direct popular vote. There was also easy agreement on the
+proposition that a strong Senate was needed to check the "turbulence" of
+the lower house. Four devices were finally selected to accomplish this
+purpose. In the first place, the Senators were not to be chosen directly
+by the voters but by the legislatures of the states, thus removing their
+election one degree from the populace. In the second place, their term
+was fixed at six years instead of two, as in the case of the House. In
+the third place, provision was made for continuity by having only
+one-third of the members go out at a time while two-thirds remained in
+service. Finally, it was provided that Senators must be at least thirty
+years old while Representatives need be only twenty-five.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Judiciary.</i>&mdash;The need for federal courts to carry out the law was
+hardly open to debate. The feebleness of the Articles of Confederation
+was, in a large measure, attributed to the want of a judiciary to hold
+states and individuals in obedience to the laws and treaties of the
+union. Nevertheless on this point the advocates of states' rights were
+extremely sensitive. They looked with distrust upon judges appointed at
+the national capital and emancipated from local interests and
+traditions; they remembered with what insistence they had claimed
+against Britain the right of local trial by jury and with what
+consternation they had viewed the proposal to make colonial judges
+independent of the assemblies in the matter of their salaries.
+Reluctantly they yielded to the demand for federal courts, consenting at
+first only to a supreme court to <a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>review cases heard in lower state
+courts and finally to such additional inferior courts as Congress might
+deem necessary.</p>
+
+<p><i>The System of Checks and Balances.</i>&mdash;It is thus apparent that the
+framers of the Constitution, in shaping the form of government, arranged
+for a distribution of power among three branches, executive,
+legislative, and judicial. Strictly speaking we might say four branches,
+for the legislature, or Congress, was composed of two houses, elected in
+different ways, and one of them, the Senate, was made a check on the
+President through its power of ratifying treaties and appointments. "The
+accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judicial, in the
+same hands," wrote Madison, "whether of one, a few, or many, and whether
+hereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the
+very definition of tyranny." The devices which the convention adopted to
+prevent such a centralization of authority were exceedingly ingenious
+and well calculated to accomplish the purposes of the authors.</p>
+
+<p>The legislature consisted of two houses, the members of which were to be
+apportioned on a different basis, elected in different ways, and to
+serve for different terms. A veto on all its acts was vested in a
+President elected in a manner not employed in the choice of either
+branch of the legislature, serving for four years, and subject to
+removal only by the difficult process of impeachment. After a law had
+run the gantlet of both houses and the executive, it was subject to
+interpretation and annulment by the judiciary, appointed by the
+President with the consent of the Senate and serving for life. Thus it
+was made almost impossible for any political party to get possession of
+all branches of the government at a single popular election. As Hamilton
+remarked, the friends of good government considered "every institution
+calculated to restrain the excess of law making and to keep things in
+the same state in which they happen to be at any given period as more
+likely to do good than harm."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Powers of the Federal Government.</b>&mdash;On the question of the powers
+to be conferred upon the new government there was less occasion for a
+serious dispute. Even the delegates <a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>from the small states agreed with
+those from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia that new powers
+should be added to those intrusted to Congress by the Articles of
+Confederation. The New Jersey plan as well as the Virginia plan
+recognized this fact. Some of the delegates, like Hamilton and Madison,
+even proposed to give Congress a general legislative authority covering
+all national matters; but others, frightened by the specter of
+nationalism, insisted on specifying each power to be conferred and
+finally carried the day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Taxation and Commerce.</i>&mdash;There were none bold enough to dissent from
+the proposition that revenue must be provided to pay current expenses
+and discharge the public debt. When once the dispute over the
+apportionment of direct taxes among the slave states was settled, it was
+an easy matter to decide that Congress should have power to lay and
+collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises. In this way the national
+government was freed from dependence upon stubborn and tardy
+legislatures and enabled to collect funds directly from citizens. There
+were likewise none bold enough to contend that the anarchy of state
+tariffs and trade discriminations should be longer endured. When the
+fears of the planting states were allayed and the "bargain" over the
+importation of slaves was reached, the convention vested in Congress the
+power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.</p>
+
+<p><i>National Defense.</i>&mdash;The necessity for national defense was realized,
+though the fear of huge military establishments was equally present. The
+old practice of relying on quotas furnished by the state legislatures
+was completely discredited. As in the case of taxes a direct authority
+over citizens was demanded. Congress was therefore given full power to
+raise and support armies and a navy. It could employ the state militia
+when desirable; but it could at the same time maintain a regular army
+and call directly upon all able-bodied males if the nature of a crisis
+was thought to require it.</p>
+
+<p><i>The "Necessary and Proper" Clause.</i>&mdash;To the specified power vested in
+Congress by the Constitution, the advocates <a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>of a strong national
+government added a general clause authorizing it to make all laws
+"necessary and proper" for carrying into effect any and all of the
+enumerated powers. This clause, interpreted by that master mind, Chief
+Justice Marshall, was later construed to confer powers as wide as the
+requirements of a vast country spanning a continent and taking its place
+among the mighty nations of the earth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Restraints on the States.</b>&mdash;Framing a government and endowing it with
+large powers were by no means the sole concern of the convention. Its
+very existence had been due quite as much to the conduct of the state
+legislatures as to the futilities of a paralyzed Continental Congress.
+In every state, explains Marshall in his <i>Life of Washington</i>, there was
+a party of men who had "marked out for themselves a more indulgent
+course. Viewing with extreme tenderness the case of the debtor, their
+efforts were unceasingly directed to his relief. To exact a faithful
+compliance with contracts was, in their opinion, a harsh measure which
+the people could not bear. They were uniformly in favor of relaxing the
+administration of justice, of affording facilities for the payment of
+debts, or of suspending their collection, and remitting taxes."</p>
+
+<p>The legislatures under the dominance of these men had enacted paper
+money laws enabling debtors to discharge their obligations more easily.
+The convention put an end to such practices by providing that no state
+should emit bills of credit or make anything but gold or silver legal
+tender in the payment of debts. The state legislatures had enacted laws
+allowing men to pay their debts by turning over to creditors land or
+personal property; they had repealed the charter of an endowed college
+and taken the management from the hands of the lawful trustees; and they
+had otherwise interfered with the enforcement of private agreements. The
+convention, taking notice of such matters, inserted a clause forbidding
+states "to impair the obligation of contracts." The more venturous of
+the radicals had in Massachusetts raised the standard of revolt against
+the authorities of the state. The convention <a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>answered by a brief
+sentence to the effect that the President of the United States, to be
+equipped with a regular army, would send troops to suppress domestic
+insurrections whenever called upon by the legislature or, if it was not
+in session, by the governor of the state. To make sure that the
+restrictions on the states would not be dead letters, the federal
+Constitution, laws, and treaties were made the supreme law of the land,
+to be enforced whenever necessary by a national judiciary and executive
+against violations on the part of any state authorities.</p>
+
+<p><b>Provisions for Ratification and Amendment.</b>&mdash;When the frame of
+government had been determined, the powers to be vested in it had been
+enumerated, and the restrictions upon the states had been written into
+the bond, there remained three final questions. How shall the
+Constitution be ratified? What number of states shall be necessary to
+put it into effect? How shall it be amended in the future?</p>
+
+<p>On the first point, the mandate under which the convention was sitting
+seemed positive. The Articles of Confederation were still in effect.
+They provided that amendments could be made only by unanimous adoption
+in Congress and the approval of all the states. As if to give force to
+this provision of law, the call for the convention had expressly stated
+that all alterations and revisions should be reported to Congress for
+adoption or rejection, Congress itself to transmit the document
+thereafter to the states for their review.</p>
+
+<p>To have observed the strict letter of the law would have defeated the
+purposes of the delegates, because Congress and the state legislatures
+were openly hostile to such drastic changes as had been made. Unanimous
+ratification, as events proved, would have been impossible. Therefore
+the delegates decided that the Constitution should be sent to Congress
+with the recommendation that it, in turn, transmit the document, not to
+the state legislatures, but to conventions held in the states for the
+special object of deciding upon ratification. This process was followed.
+It was their belief that special conventions would be more friendly than
+the state legislatures.<a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a></p>
+
+<p>The convention was equally positive in dealing with the problem of the
+number of states necessary to establish the new Constitution. Attempts
+to change the Articles had failed because amendment required the
+approval of every state and there was always at least one recalcitrant
+member of the union. The opposition to a new Constitution was
+undoubtedly formidable. Rhode Island had even refused to take part in
+framing it, and her hostility was deep and open. So the convention cast
+aside the provision of the Articles of Confederation which required
+unanimous approval for any change in the plan of government; it decreed
+that the new Constitution should go into effect when ratified by nine
+states.</p>
+
+<p>In providing for future changes in the Constitution itself the
+convention also thrust aside the old rule of unanimous approval, and
+decided that an amendment could be made on a two-thirds vote in both
+houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states. This
+change was of profound significance. Every state agreed to be bound in
+the future by amendments duly adopted even in case it did not approve
+them itself. America in this way set out upon the high road that led
+from a league of states to a nation.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Struggle over Ratification</span></h3>
+
+<p>On September 17, 1787, the Constitution, having been finally drafted in
+clear and simple language, a model to all makers of fundamental law, was
+adopted. The convention, after nearly four months of debate in secret
+session, flung open the doors and presented to the Americans the
+finished plan for the new government. Then the great debate passed to
+the people.</p>
+
+<div><a name="advert" id="advert"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><a href="./images/180.jpg"><img src="./images/180-tb.jpg" alt="An Advertisement of _The Federalist_" title="An Advertisement of _The Federalist_" /></a>
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">An Advertisement of</span> <i>The Federalist</i></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Opposition.</b>&mdash;Storms of criticism at once descended upon the
+Constitution. "Fraudulent usurpation!" exclaimed Gerry, who had refused
+to sign it. "A monster" out of the "thick veil of secrecy," declaimed a
+Pennsylvania newspaper. "An iron-handed despotism will be the result,"
+protested a third. "We, 'the low-born,'" sarcastically wrote a fourth,
+"will now admit the 'six hundred well-born' immediately to <a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>establish
+this most noble, most excellent, and truly divine constitution." The
+President will become a king; Congress will be as tyrannical as
+Parliament in the old days; the states will be swallowed up; the rights
+of the people will be trampled upon; the poor man's justice will be lost
+in the endless delays of the federal courts&mdash;such was the strain of the
+protests against ratification.</p>
+
+<p><b>Defense of the Constitution.</b>&mdash;Moved by the tempest of opposition,
+Hamilton, Madison, and Jay took up their pens in defense of the
+Constitution. In a series of newspaper articles they discussed and
+expounded with eloquence, learning, and dignity every important clause
+and provision of the proposed plan. These papers, afterwards collected
+and published in a volume known as <i>The Federalist</i>, form the finest
+textbook on the Constitution that has ever been printed. It takes its
+place, moreover, among the wisest and weightiest treatises on government
+ever written in any language in any time. Other men, not so gifted, were
+no less earnest in their support of ratification. In private
+correspondence, editorials, pamphlets, and letters to the newspapers,
+they urged their countrymen to forget their partisanship and accept a
+Constitution which, in spite of any <a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>defects great or small, was the
+only guarantee against dissolution and warfare at home and dishonor and
+weakness abroad.</p>
+
+<div><a name="celebrating" id="celebrating" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/181.png" alt="Celebrating the Ratification" title="Celebrating the Ratification" /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<span class="smcap">Celebrating the Ratification</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Action of the State Conventions.</b>&mdash;Before the end of the year,
+1787, three states had ratified the Constitution: Delaware and New
+Jersey unanimously and Pennsylvania after a short, though savage,
+contest. Connecticut and Georgia followed early the next year. Then came
+the battle royal in Massachusetts, ending in ratification in February by
+the narrow margin of 187 votes to 168. In the spring came the news that
+Maryland and<a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a> South Carolina were "under the new roof." On June 21, New
+Hampshire, where the sentiment was at first strong enough to defeat the
+Constitution, joined the new republic, influenced by the favorable
+decision in Massachusetts. Swift couriers were sent to carry the news to
+New York and Virginia, where the question of ratification was still
+undecided. Nine states had accepted it and were united, whether more saw
+fit to join or not.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, however, Virginia, after a long and searching debate, had
+given her approval by a narrow margin, leaving New York as the next seat
+of anxiety. In that state the popular vote for the delegates to the
+convention had been clearly and heavily against ratification. Events
+finally demonstrated the futility of resistance, and Hamilton by good
+judgment and masterly arguments was at last able to marshal a majority
+of thirty to twenty-seven votes in favor of ratification.</p>
+
+<p>The great contest was over. All the states, except North Carolina and
+Rhode Island, had ratified. "The sloop Anarchy," wrote an ebullient
+journalist, "when last heard from was ashore on Union rocks."</p>
+
+<p><b>The First Election.</b>&mdash;In the autumn of 1788, elections were held to
+fill the places in the new government. Public opinion was overwhelmingly
+in favor of Washington as the first President. Yielding to the
+importunities of friends, he accepted the post in the spirit of public
+service. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office at Federal Hall
+in New York City. "Long live George Washington, President of the United
+States!" cried Chancellor Livingston as soon as the General had kissed
+the Bible. The cry was caught by the assembled multitude and given back.
+A new experiment in popular government was launched.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>M. Farrand, <i>The Framing of the Constitution of the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>P.L. Ford, <i>Essays on the Constitution of the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Federalist</i> (in many editions).</p>
+
+<p>G. Hunt, <i>Life of James Madison</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.C. McLaughlin, <i>The Confederation and the Constitution</i> (American
+Nation Series).<a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Account for the failure of the Articles of Confederation.</p>
+
+<p>2. Explain the domestic difficulties of the individual states.</p>
+
+<p>3. Why did efforts at reform by the Congress come to naught?</p>
+
+<p>4. Narrate the events leading up to the constitutional convention.</p>
+
+<p>5. Who were some of the leading men in the convention? What had been
+their previous training?</p>
+
+<p>6. State the great problems before the convention.</p>
+
+<p>7. In what respects were the planting and commercial states opposed?
+What compromises were reached?</p>
+
+<p>8. Show how the "check and balance" system is embodied in our form of
+government.</p>
+
+<p>9. How did the powers conferred upon the federal government help cure
+the defects of the Articles of Confederation?</p>
+
+<p>10. In what way did the provisions for ratifying and amending the
+Constitution depart from the old system?</p>
+
+<p>11. What was the nature of the conflict over ratification?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>English Treatment of American Commerce.</b>&mdash;Callender, <i>Economic History
+of the United States</i>, pp. 210-220.</p>
+
+<p><b>Financial Condition of the United States.</b>&mdash;Fiske, <i>Critical Period of
+American History</i>, pp. 163-186.</p>
+
+<p><b>Disordered Commerce.</b>&mdash;Fiske, pp. 134-162.</p>
+
+<p><b>Selfish Conduct of the States.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 185-191.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Failure of the Confederation.</b>&mdash;Elson, <i>History of the United
+States</i>, pp. 318-326.</p>
+
+<p><b>Formation of the Constitution.</b>&mdash;(1) The plans before the convention,
+Fiske, pp. 236-249; (2) the great compromise, Fiske, pp. 250-255; (3)
+slavery and the convention, Fiske, pp. 256-266; and (4) the frame of
+government, Fiske, pp. 275-301; Elson, pp. 328-334.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;Look up the history and services of the leaders
+in the convention in any good encyclopedia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ratification of the Constitution.</b>&mdash;Hart, <i>History Told by
+Contemporaries</i>, Vol. III, pp. 233-254; Elson, pp. 334-340.</p>
+
+<p><b>Source Study.</b>&mdash;Compare the Constitution and Articles of Confederation
+under the following heads: (1) frame of government; (2) powers of
+Congress; (3) limits on states; and (4) methods of amendment. Every line
+of the Constitution should be read and re-read in the light of the
+historical circumstances set forth in this chapter.<a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES</h3>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Men and Measures of the New Government</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Friends of the Constitution in Power.</b>&mdash;In the first Congress that
+assembled after the adoption of the Constitution, there were eleven
+Senators, led by Robert Morris, the financier, who had been delegates to
+the national convention. Several members of the House of
+Representatives, headed by James Madison, had also been at Philadelphia
+in 1787. In making his appointments, Washington strengthened the new
+system of government still further by a judicious selection of
+officials. He chose as Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton,
+who had been the most zealous for its success; General Knox, head of the
+War Department, and Edmund Randolph, the Attorney-General, were likewise
+conspicuous friends of the experiment. Every member of the federal
+judiciary whom Washington appointed, from the Chief Justice, John Jay,
+down to the justices of the district courts, had favored the
+ratification of the Constitution; and a majority of them had served as
+members of the national convention that framed the document or of the
+state ratifying conventions. Only one man of influence in the new
+government, Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, was reckoned as a
+doubter in the house of the faithful. He had expressed opinions both for
+and against the Constitution; but he had been out of the country acting
+as the minister at Paris when the Constitution was drafted and ratified.</p>
+
+<p><b>An Opposition to Conciliate.</b>&mdash;The inauguration of Washington amid the
+plaudits of his countrymen did not set at rest all the political turmoil
+which had been aroused by the angry <a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>contest over ratification. "The
+interesting nature of the question," wrote John Marshall, "the equality
+of the parties, the animation produced inevitably by ardent debate had a
+necessary tendency to embitter the dispositions of the vanquished and to
+fix more deeply in many bosoms their prejudices against a plan of
+government in opposition to which all their passions were enlisted." The
+leaders gathered around Washington were well aware of the excited state
+of the country. They saw Rhode Island and North Carolina still outside
+of the union.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> They knew by what small margins the Constitution had
+been approved in the great states of Massachusetts, Virginia, and New
+York. They were equally aware that a majority of the state conventions,
+in yielding reluctant approval to the Constitution, had drawn a number
+of amendments for immediate submission to the states.</p>
+
+<p><b>The First Amendments&mdash;a Bill of Rights.</b>&mdash;To meet the opposition,
+Madison proposed, and the first Congress adopted, a series of amendments
+to the Constitution. Ten of them were soon ratified and became in 1791 a
+part of the law of the land. These amendments provided, among other
+things, that Congress could make no law respecting the establishment of
+religion, abridging the freedom of speech or of the press or the right
+of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for a
+redress of grievances. They also guaranteed indictment by grand jury and
+trial by jury for all persons charged by federal officers with serious
+crimes. To reassure those who still feared that local rights might be
+invaded by the federal government, the tenth amendment expressly
+provided that the powers not delegated to the United States by the
+Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the
+states respectively or to the people. Seven years later, the eleventh
+amendment was written in the same spirit as the first ten, after a
+heated debate over the action of the Supreme Court in permitting a
+citizen to bring a suit <a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>against "the sovereign state" of Georgia. The
+new amendment was designed to protect states against the federal
+judiciary by forbidding it to hear any case in which a state was sued by
+a citizen.</p>
+
+<p><b>Funding the National Debt.</b>&mdash;Paper declarations of rights, however,
+paid no bills. To this task Hamilton turned all his splendid genius. At
+the very outset he addressed himself to the problem of the huge public
+debt, daily mounting as the unpaid interest accumulated. In a <i>Report on
+Public Credit</i> under date of January 9, 1790, one of the first and
+greatest of American state papers, he laid before Congress the outlines
+of his plan. He proposed that the federal government should call in all
+the old bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and other promises to pay
+which had been issued by the Congress since the beginning of the
+Revolution. These national obligations, he urged, should be put into one
+consolidated debt resting on the credit of the United States; to the
+holders of the old paper should be issued new bonds drawing interest at
+fixed rates. This process was called "funding the debt." Such a
+provision for the support of public credit, Hamilton insisted, would
+satisfy creditors, restore landed property to its former value, and
+furnish new resources to agriculture and commerce in the form of credit
+and capital.</p>
+
+<p><b>Assumption and Funding of State Debts.</b>&mdash;Hamilton then turned to the
+obligations incurred by the several states in support of the Revolution.
+These debts he proposed to add to the national debt. They were to be
+"assumed" by the United States government and placed on the same secure
+foundation as the continental debt. This measure he defended not merely
+on grounds of national honor. It would, as he foresaw, give strength to
+the new national government by making all public creditors, men of
+substance in their several communities, look to the federal, rather than
+the state government, for the satisfaction of their claims.</p>
+
+<p><b>Funding at Face Value.</b>&mdash;On the question of the terms of consolidation,
+assumption, and funding, Hamilton had a <a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>firm conviction. That millions
+of dollars' worth of the continental and state bonds had passed out of
+the hands of those who had originally subscribed their funds to the
+support of the government or had sold supplies for the Revolutionary
+army was well known. It was also a matter of common knowledge that a
+very large part of these bonds had been bought by speculators at ruinous
+figures&mdash;ten, twenty, and thirty cents on the dollar. Accordingly, it
+had been suggested, even in very respectable quarters, that a
+discrimination should be made between original holders and speculative
+purchasers. Some who held this opinion urged that the speculators who
+had paid nominal sums for their bonds should be reimbursed for their
+outlays and the original holders paid the difference; others said that
+the government should "scale the debt" by redeeming, not at full value
+but at a figure reasonably above the market price. Against the
+proposition Hamilton set his face like flint. He maintained that the
+government was honestly bound to redeem every bond at its face value,
+although the difficulty of securing revenue made necessary a lower rate
+of interest on a part of the bonds and the deferring of interest on
+another part.</p>
+
+<p><b>Funding and Assumption Carried.</b>&mdash;There was little difficulty in
+securing the approval of both houses of Congress for the funding of the
+national debt at full value. The bill for the assumption of state debts,
+however, brought the sharpest division of opinions. To the Southern
+members of Congress assumption was a gross violation of states' rights,
+without any warrant in the Constitution and devised in the interest of
+Northern speculators who, anticipating assumption and funding, had
+bought up at low prices the Southern bonds and other promises to pay.
+New England, on the other hand, was strongly in favor of assumption;
+several representatives from that section were rash enough to threaten a
+dissolution of the union if the bill was defeated. To this dispute was
+added an equally bitter quarrel over the location of the national
+capital, then temporarily at New York City.<a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="bank" id="bank" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/188.jpg" alt="First United States Bank at Philadelphia" title="First United States Bank at Philadelphia" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">First United States Bank at Philadelphia</span></div>
+
+<p>A deadlock, accompanied by the most surly feelings on both sides,
+threatened the very existence of the young government. Washington and
+Hamilton were thoroughly alarmed. Hearing of the extremity to which the
+contest had been carried and acting on the appeal from the Secretary of
+the Treasury, Jefferson intervened at this point. By skillful management
+at a good dinner he brought the opposing leaders together; and thus once
+more, as on many other occasions, peace was purchased and the union
+saved by compromise. The bargain this time consisted of an exchange of
+votes for assumption in return for votes for the capital. Enough
+Southern members voted for assumption to pass the bill, and a majority
+was mustered in favor of building the capital on the banks of the
+Potomac, after locating it for a ten-year period at Philadelphia to
+satisfy Pennsylvania members.<a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The United States Bank.</b>&mdash;Encouraged by the success of his funding and
+assumption measures, Hamilton laid before Congress a project for a great
+United States Bank. He proposed that a private corporation be chartered
+by Congress, authorized to raise a capital stock of $10,000,000
+(three-fourths in new six per cent federal bonds and one-fourth in
+specie) and empowered to issue paper currency under proper safeguards.
+Many advantages, Hamilton contended, would accrue to the government from
+this institution. The price of the government bonds would be increased,
+thus enhancing public credit. A national currency would be created of
+uniform value from one end of the land to the other. The branches of the
+bank in various cities would make easy the exchange of funds so vital to
+commercial transactions on a national scale. Finally, through the issue
+of bank notes, the money capital available for agriculture and industry
+would be increased, thus stimulating business enterprise. Jefferson
+hotly attacked the bank on the ground that Congress had no power
+whatever under the Constitution to charter such a private corporation.
+Hamilton defended it with great cogency. Washington, after weighing all
+opinions, decided in favor of the proposal. In 1791 the bill
+establishing the first United States Bank for a period of twenty years
+became a law.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Protective Tariff.</b>&mdash;A third part of Hamilton's program was the
+protection of American industries. The first revenue act of 1789, though
+designed primarily to bring money into the empty treasury, declared in
+favor of the principle. The following year Washington referred to the
+subject in his address to Congress. Thereupon Hamilton was instructed to
+prepare recommendations for legislative action. The result, after a
+delay of more than a year, was his <i>Report on Manufactures</i>, another
+state paper worthy, in closeness of reasoning and keenness of
+understanding, of a place beside his report on public credit. Hamilton
+based his argument on the broadest national grounds: the protective
+tariff would, by encouraging the building of factories, create a home
+market for the <a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>produce of farms and plantations; by making the United
+States independent of other countries in times of peace, it would double
+its security in time of war; by making use of the labor of women and
+children, it would turn to the production of goods persons otherwise
+idle or only partly employed; by increasing the trade between the North
+and South it would strengthen the links of union and add to political
+ties those of commerce and intercourse. The revenue measure of 1792 bore
+the impress of these arguments.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Rise of Political Parties</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Dissensions over Hamilton's Measures.</b>&mdash;Hamilton's plans, touching
+deeply as they did the resources of individuals and the interests of the
+states, awakened alarm and opposition. Funding at face value, said his
+critics, was a government favor to speculators; the assumption of state
+debts was a deep design to undermine the state governments; Congress had
+no constitutional power to create a bank; the law creating the bank
+merely allowed a private corporation to make paper money and lend it at
+a high rate of interest; and the tariff was a tax on land and labor for
+the benefit of manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton's reply to this bill of indictment was simple and
+straightforward. Some rascally speculators had profited from the funding
+of the debt at face value, but that was only an incident in the
+restoration of public credit. In view of the jealousies of the states it
+was a good thing to reduce their powers and pretensions. The
+Constitution was not to be interpreted narrowly but in the full light of
+national needs. The bank would enlarge the amount of capital so sorely
+needed to start up American industries, giving markets to farmers and
+planters. The tariff by creating a home market and increasing
+opportunities for employment would benefit both land and labor. Out of
+such wise policies firmly pursued by the government, he concluded, were
+bound to come strength and prosperity for the new government at home,
+credit and power <a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>abroad. This view Washington fully indorsed, adding
+the weight of his great name to the inherent merits of the measures
+adopted under his administration.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sharpness of the Partisan Conflict.</b>&mdash;As a result of the clash of
+opinion, the people of the country gradually divided into two parties:
+Federalists and Anti-Federalists, the former led by Hamilton, the latter
+by Jefferson. The strength of the Federalists lay in the cities&mdash;Boston,
+Providence, Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston&mdash;among the
+manufacturing, financial, and commercial groups of the population who
+were eager to extend their business operations. The strength of the
+Anti-Federalists lay mainly among the debt-burdened farmers who feared
+the growth of what they called "a money power" and planters in all
+sections who feared the dominance of commercial and manufacturing
+interests. The farming and planting South, outside of the few towns,
+finally presented an almost solid front against assumption, the bank,
+and the tariff. The conflict between the parties grew steadily in
+bitterness, despite the conciliatory and engaging manner in which
+Hamilton presented his cause in his state papers and despite the
+constant efforts of Washington to soften the asperity of the
+contestants.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Leadership and Doctrines of Jefferson.</b>&mdash;The party dispute had not
+gone far before the opponents of the administration began to look to
+Jefferson as their leader. Some of Hamilton's measures he had approved,
+declaring afterward that he did not at the time understand their
+significance. Others, particularly the bank, he fiercely assailed. More
+than once, he and Hamilton, shaking violently with anger, attacked each
+other at cabinet meetings, and nothing short of the grave and dignified
+pleas of Washington prevented an early and open break between them. In
+1794 it finally came. Jefferson resigned as Secretary of State and
+retired to his home in Virginia to assume, through correspondence and
+negotiation, the leadership of the steadily growing party of opposition.</p>
+
+<p>Shy and modest in manner, halting in speech, disliking <a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>the turmoil of
+public debate, and deeply interested in science and philosophy,
+Jefferson was not very well fitted for the strenuous life of political
+contest. Nevertheless, he was an ambitious and shrewd negotiator. He was
+also by honest opinion and matured conviction the exact opposite of
+Hamilton. The latter believed in a strong, active, "high-toned"
+government, vigorously compelling in all its branches. Jefferson looked
+upon such government as dangerous to the liberties of citizens and
+openly avowed his faith in the desirability of occasional popular
+uprisings. Hamilton distrusted the people. "Your people is a great
+beast," he is reported to have said. Jefferson professed his faith in
+the people with an abandon that was considered reckless in his time.</p>
+
+<p>On economic matters, the opinions of the two leaders were also
+hopelessly at variance. Hamilton, while cherishing agriculture, desired
+to see America a great commercial and industrial nation. Jefferson was
+equally set against this course for his country. He feared the
+accumulation of riches and the growth of a large urban working class.
+The mobs of great cities, he said, are sores on the body politic;
+artisans are usually the dangerous element that make revolutions;
+workshops should be kept in Europe and with them the artisans with their
+insidious morals and manners. The only substantial foundation for a
+republic, Jefferson believed to be agriculture. The spirit of
+independence could be kept alive only by free farmers, owning the land
+they tilled and looking to the sun in heaven and the labor of their
+hands for their sustenance. Trusting as he did in the innate goodness of
+human nature when nourished on a free soil, Jefferson advocated those
+measures calculated to favor agriculture and to enlarge the rights of
+persons rather than the powers of government. Thus he became the
+champion of the individual against the interference of the government,
+and an ardent advocate of freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and
+freedom of scientific inquiry. It was, accordingly, no mere factious
+spirit that drove him into opposition to Hamilton.<a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Whisky Rebellion.</b>&mdash;The political agitation of the Anti-Federalists
+was accompanied by an armed revolt against the government in 1794. The
+occasion for this uprising was another of Hamilton's measures, a law
+laying an excise tax on distilled spirits, for the purpose of increasing
+the revenue needed to pay the interest on the funded debt. It so
+happened that a very considerable part of the whisky manufactured in the
+country was made by the farmers, especially on the frontier, in their
+own stills. The new revenue law meant that federal officers would now
+come into the homes of the people, measure their liquor, and take the
+tax out of their pockets. All the bitterness which farmers felt against
+the fiscal measures of the government was redoubled. In the western
+districts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, they refused to
+pay the tax. In Pennsylvania, some of them sacked and burned the houses
+of the tax collectors, as the Revolutionists thirty years before had
+mobbed the agents of King George sent over to sell stamps. They were in
+a fair way to nullify the law in whole districts when Washington called
+out the troops to suppress "the Whisky Rebellion." Then the movement
+collapsed; but it left behind a deep-seated resentment which flared up
+in the election of several obdurate Anti-Federalist Congressmen from the
+disaffected regions.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Foreign Influences and Domestic Politics</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The French Revolution.</b>&mdash;In this exciting period, when all America was
+distracted by partisan disputes, a storm broke in Europe&mdash;the
+epoch-making French Revolution&mdash;which not only shook the thrones of the
+Old World but stirred to its depths the young republic of the New World.
+The first scene in this dramatic affair occurred in the spring of 1789,
+a few days after Washington was inaugurated. The king of France, Louis
+XVI, driven into bankruptcy by extravagance and costly wars, was forced
+to resort to his people for financial help. Accordingly he called, for
+the first time in more than one hundred fifty years, a meeting of the
+national parliament, <a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>the "Estates General," composed of representatives
+of the "three estates"&mdash;the clergy, nobility, and commoners. Acting
+under powerful leaders, the commoners, or "third estate," swept aside
+the clergy and nobility and resolved themselves into a national
+assembly. This stirred the country to its depths.</p>
+
+<div><a name="louis" id="louis" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/194.jpg" alt="Louis XVI in the Hands of the Mob" title="Louis XVI in the Hands of the Mob" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Louis XVI in the Hands of the Mob</span></div>
+
+<p>Great events followed in swift succession. On July 14, 1789, the
+Bastille, an old royal prison, symbol of the king's absolutism, was
+stormed by a Paris crowd and destroyed. On the night of August 4, the
+feudal privileges of the nobility were abolished by the national
+assembly amid great excitement. A few days later came the famous
+Declaration of the Rights of Man, proclaiming the sovereignty of the
+people and the privileges of citizens. In the autumn of 1791, Louis XVI
+was forced to accept a new constitution for France vesting the
+legislative power in a popular assembly. Little disorder accompanied
+these startling changes. To all appearances a peaceful <a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>revolution had
+stripped the French king of his royal prerogatives and based the
+government of his country on the consent of the governed.</p>
+
+<p><b>American Influence in France.</b>&mdash;In undertaking their great political
+revolt the French had been encouraged by the outcome of the American
+Revolution. Officers and soldiers, who had served in the American war,
+reported to their French countrymen marvelous tales. At the frugal table
+of General Washington, in council with the unpretentious Franklin, or at
+conferences over the strategy of war, French noblemen of ancient lineage
+learned to respect both the talents and the simple character of the
+leaders in the great republican commonwealth beyond the seas. Travelers,
+who had gone to see the experiment in republicanism with their own eyes,
+carried home to the king and ruling class stories of an astounding
+system of popular government.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand the dalliance with American democracy was regarded by
+French conservatives as playing with fire. "When we think of the false
+ideas of government and philanthropy," wrote one of Lafayette's aides,
+"which these youths acquired in America and propagated in France with so
+much enthusiasm and such deplorable success&mdash;for this mania of imitation
+powerfully aided the Revolution, though it was not the sole cause of
+it&mdash;we are bound to confess that it would have been better, both for
+themselves and for us, if these young philosophers in red-heeled shoes
+had stayed at home in attendance on the court."</p>
+
+<p><b>Early American Opinion of the French Revolution.</b>&mdash;So close were the
+ties between the two nations that it is not surprising to find every
+step in the first stages of the French Revolution greeted with applause
+in the United States. "Liberty will have another feather in her cap,"
+exultantly wrote a Boston editor. "In no part of the globe," soberly
+wrote John Marshall, "was this revolution hailed with more joy than in
+America.... But one sentiment existed." The main key to the Bastille,
+sent to Washington as a memento, was ac<a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>cepted as "a token of the
+victory gained by liberty." Thomas Paine saw in the great event "the
+first ripe fruits of American principles transplanted into Europe."
+Federalists and Anti-Federalists regarded the new constitution of France
+as another vindication of American ideals.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Reign of Terror.</b>&mdash;While profuse congratulations were being
+exchanged, rumors began to come that all was not well in France. Many
+noblemen, enraged at the loss of their special privileges, fled into
+Germany and plotted an invasion of France to overthrow the new system of
+government. Louis XVI entered into negotiations with his brother
+monarchs on the continent to secure their help in the same enterprise,
+and he finally betrayed to the French people his true sentiments by
+attempting to escape from his kingdom, only to be captured and taken
+back to Paris in disgrace.</p>
+
+<p>A new phase of the revolution now opened. The working people, excluded
+from all share in the government by the first French constitution,
+became restless, especially in Paris. Assembling on the Champs de Mars,
+a great open field, they signed a petition calling for another
+constitution giving them the suffrage. When told to disperse, they
+refused and were fired upon by the national guard. This "massacre," as
+it was called, enraged the populace. A radical party, known as
+"Jacobins," then sprang up, taking its name from a Jacobin monastery in
+which it held its sessions. In a little while it became the master of
+the popular convention convoked in September, 1792. The monarchy was
+immediately abolished and a republic established. On January 21, 1793,
+Louis was sent to the scaffold. To the war on Austria, already raging,
+was added a war on England. Then came the Reign of Terror, during which
+radicals in possession of the convention executed in large numbers
+counter-revolutionists and those suspected of sympathy with the
+monarchy. They shot down peasants who rose in insurrection against their
+rule and established a relentless dictatorship. Civil war followed.
+Terrible atrocities were committed on both sides in the name of liberty,
+and <a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>in the name of monarchy. To Americans of conservative temper it now
+seemed that the Revolution, so auspiciously begun, had degenerated into
+anarchy and mere bloodthirsty strife.</p>
+
+<p><b>Burke Summons the World to War on France.</b>&mdash;In England, Edmund Burke
+led the fight against the new French principles which he feared might
+spread to all Europe. In his <i>Reflections on the French Revolution</i>,
+written in 1790, he attacked with terrible wrath the whole program of
+popular government; he called for war, relentless war, upon the French
+as monsters and outlaws; he demanded that they be reduced to order by
+the restoration of the king to full power under the protection of the
+arms of European nations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paine's Defense of the French Revolution.</b>&mdash;To counteract the campaign
+of hate against the French, Thomas Paine replied to Burke in another of
+his famous tracts, <i>The Rights of Man</i>, which was given to the American
+public in an edition containing a letter of approval from Jefferson.
+Burke, said Paine, had been mourning about the glories of the French
+monarchy and aristocracy but had forgotten the starving peasants and the
+oppressed people; had wept over the plumage and neglected the dying
+bird. Burke had denied the right of the French people to choose their
+own governors, blandly forgetting that the English government in which
+he saw final perfection itself rested on two revolutions. He had boasted
+that the king of England held his crown in contempt of the democratic
+societies. Paine answered: "If I ask a man in America if he wants a
+king, he retorts and asks me if I take him for an idiot." To the charge
+that the doctrines of the rights of man were "new fangled," Paine
+replied that the question was not whether they were new or old but
+whether they were right or wrong. As to the French disorders and
+difficulties, he bade the world wait to see what would be brought forth
+in due time.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Effect of the French Revolution on American Politics.</b>&mdash;The course
+of the French Revolution and the controversies <a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>accompanying it,
+exercised a profound influence on the formation of the first political
+parties in America. The followers of Hamilton, now proud of the name
+"Federalists," drew back in fright as they heard of the cruel deeds
+committed during the Reign of Terror. They turned savagely upon the
+revolutionists and their friends in America, denouncing as "Jacobin"
+everybody who did not condemn loudly enough the proceedings of the
+French Republic. A Massachusetts preacher roundly assailed "the
+atheistical, anarchical, and in other respects immoral principles of the
+French Republicans"; he then proceeded with equal passion to attack
+Jefferson and the Anti-Federalists, whom he charged with spreading false
+French propaganda and betraying America. "The editors, patrons, and
+abettors of these vehicles of slander," he exclaimed, "ought to be
+considered and treated as enemies to their country.... Of all traitors
+they are the most aggravatedly criminal; of all villains, they are the
+most infamous and detestable."</p>
+
+<p>The Anti-Federalists, as a matter of fact, were generally favorable to
+the Revolution although they deplored many of the events associated with
+it. Paine's pamphlet, indorsed by Jefferson, was widely read. Democratic
+societies, after the fashion of French political clubs, arose in the
+cities; the coalition of European monarchs against France was denounced
+as a coalition against the very principles of republicanism; and the
+execution of Louis XVI was openly celebrated at a banquet in
+Philadelphia. Harmless titles, such as "Sir," "the Honorable," and "His
+Excellency," were decried as aristocratic and some of the more excited
+insisted on adopting the French title, "Citizen," speaking, for example,
+of "Citizen Judge" and "Citizen Toastmaster." Pamphlets in defense of
+the French streamed from the press, while subsidized newspapers kept the
+propaganda in full swing.</p>
+
+<p><b>The European War Disturbs American Commerce.</b>&mdash;This battle of wits, or
+rather contest in calumny, might have gone on indefinitely in America
+without producing any serious <a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>results, had it not been for the war
+between England and France, then raging. The English, having command of
+the seas, claimed the right to seize American produce bound for French
+ports and to confiscate American ships engaged in carrying French goods.
+Adding fuel to a fire already hot enough, they began to search American
+ships and to carry off British-born sailors found on board American
+vessels.</p>
+
+<p><b>The French Appeal for Help.</b>&mdash;At the same time the French Republic
+turned to the United States for aid in its war on England and sent over
+as its diplomatic representative "Citizen" Gen&ecirc;t, an ardent supporter of
+the new order. On his arrival at Charleston, he was greeted with fervor
+by the Anti-Federalists. As he made his way North, he was wined and
+dined and given popular ovations that turned his head. He thought the
+whole country was ready to join the French Republic in its contest with
+England. Gen&ecirc;t therefore attempted to use the American ports as the base
+of operations for French privateers preying on British merchant ships;
+and he insisted that the United States was in honor bound to help France
+under the treaty of 1778.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Proclamation of Neutrality and the Jay Treaty.</b>&mdash;Unmoved by the
+rising tide of popular sympathy for France, Washington took a firm
+course. He received Gen&ecirc;t coldly. The demand that the United States aid
+France under the old treaty of alliance he answered by proclaiming the
+neutrality of America and warning American citizens against hostile acts
+toward either France or England. When Gen&ecirc;t continued to hold meetings,
+issue manifestoes, and stir up the people against England, Washington
+asked the French government to recall him. This act he followed up by
+sending the Chief Justice, John Jay, on a pacific mission to England.</p>
+
+<p>The result was the celebrated Jay treaty of 1794. By its terms Great
+Britain agreed to withdraw her troops from the western forts where they
+had been since the war for independence and to grant certain slight
+trade concessions. The chief sources of bitterness&mdash;the failure of the
+British to return <a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>slaves carried off during the Revolution, the seizure
+of American ships, and the impressment of sailors&mdash;were not touched,
+much to the distress of everybody in America, including loyal
+Federalists. Nevertheless, Washington, dreading an armed conflict with
+England, urged the Senate to ratify the treaty. The weight of his
+influence carried the day.</p>
+
+<p>At this, the hostility of the Anti-Federalists knew no bounds. Jefferson
+declared the Jay treaty "an infamous act which is really nothing more
+than an alliance between England and the Anglo-men of this country,
+against the legislature and the people of the United States." Hamilton,
+defending it with his usual courage, was stoned by a mob in New York and
+driven from the platform with blood streaming from his face. Jay was
+burned in effigy. Even Washington was not spared. The House of
+Representatives was openly hostile. To display its feelings, it called
+upon the President for the papers relative to the treaty negotiations,
+only to be more highly incensed by his flat refusal to present them, on
+the ground that the House did not share in the treaty-making power.</p>
+
+<p><b>Washington Retires from Politics.</b>&mdash;Such angry contests confirmed the
+President in his slowly maturing determination to retire at the end of
+his second term in office. He did not believe that a third term was
+unconstitutional or improper; but, worn out by his long and arduous
+labors in war and in peace and wounded by harsh attacks from former
+friends, he longed for the quiet of his beautiful estate at Mount
+Vernon.</p>
+
+<p>In September, 1796, on the eve of the presidential election, Washington
+issued his Farewell Address, another state paper to be treasured and
+read by generations of Americans to come. In this address he directed
+the attention of the people to three subjects of lasting interest. He
+warned them against sectional jealousies. He remonstrated against the
+spirit of partisanship, saying that in government "of the popular
+character, in government purely elective, it is a spirit not to be
+encouraged." He likewise cautioned the people against "the <a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>insidious
+wiles of foreign influence," saying: "Europe has a set of primary
+interests which to us have none or a very remote relation. Hence she
+must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are
+essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it would be
+unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary
+vicissitudes of her politics or the ordinary combinations and collisions
+of her friendships or enmities.... Why forego the advantages of so
+peculiar a situation?... It is our true policy to steer clear of
+permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.... Taking
+care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a
+respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary
+alliances for extraordinary emergencies."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Campaign of 1796&mdash;Adams Elected.</b>&mdash;On hearing of the retirement of
+Washington, the Anti-Federalists cast off all restraints. In honor of
+France and in opposition to what they were pleased to call the
+monarchical tendencies of the Federalists, they boldly assumed the name
+"Republican"; the term "Democrat," then applied only to obscure and
+despised radicals, had not come into general use. They selected
+Jefferson as their candidate for President against John Adams, the
+Federalist nominee, and carried on such a spirited campaign that they
+came within four votes of electing him.</p>
+
+<p>The successful candidate, Adams, was not fitted by training or opinion
+for conciliating a determined opposition. He was a reserved and studious
+man. He was neither a good speaker nor a skillful negotiator. In one of
+his books he had declared himself in favor of "government by an
+aristocracy of talents and wealth"&mdash;an offense which the Republicans
+never forgave. While John Marshall found him "a sensible, plain, candid,
+good-tempered man," Jefferson could see in him nothing but a "monocrat"
+and "Anglo-man." Had it not been for the conduct of the French
+government, Adams would hardly have enjoyed a moment's genuine
+popularity during his administration.<a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Quarrel with France.</b>&mdash;The French Directory, the executive
+department established under the constitution of 1795, managed, however,
+to stir the anger of Republicans and Federalists alike. It regarded the
+Jay treaty as a rebuke to France and a flagrant violation of obligations
+solemnly registered in the treaty of 1778. Accordingly it refused to
+receive the American minister, treated him in a humiliating way, and
+finally told him to leave the country. Overlooking this affront in his
+anxiety to maintain peace, Adams dispatched to France a commission of
+eminent men with instructions to reach an understanding with the French
+Republic. On their arrival, they were chagrined to find, instead of a
+decent reception, an indirect demand for an apology respecting the past
+conduct of the American government, a payment in cash, and an annual
+tribute as the price of continued friendship. When the news of this
+affair reached President Adams, he promptly laid it before Congress,
+referring to the Frenchmen who had made the demands as "Mr. X, Mr. Y,
+and Mr. Z."</p>
+
+<p>This insult, coupled with the fact that French privateers, like the
+British, were preying upon American commerce, enraged even the
+Republicans who had been loudest in the profession of their French
+sympathies. They forgot their wrath over the Jay treaty and joined with
+the Federalists in shouting: "Millions for defense, not a cent for
+tribute!" Preparations for war were made on every hand. Washington was
+once more called from Mount Vernon to take his old position at the head
+of the army. Indeed, fighting actually began upon the high seas and went
+on without a formal declaration of war until the year 1800. By that time
+the Directory had been overthrown. A treaty was readily made with
+Napoleon, the First Consul, who was beginning his remarkable career as
+chief of the French Republic, soon to be turned into an empire.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alien and Sedition Laws.</b>&mdash;Flushed with success, the Federalists
+determined, if possible, to put an end to radical French influence in
+America and to silence Republican opposition.<a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a> They therefore passed two
+drastic laws in the summer of 1798: the Alien and Sedition Acts.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these measures empowered the President to expel from the
+country or to imprison any alien whom he regarded as "dangerous" or "had
+reasonable grounds to suspect" of "any treasonable or secret
+machinations against the government."</p>
+
+<p>The second of the measures, the Sedition Act, penalized not only those
+who attempted to stir up unlawful combinations against the government
+but also every one who wrote, uttered, or published "any false,
+scandalous, and malicious writing ... against the government of the
+United States or either House of Congress, or the President of the
+United States, with intent to defame said government ... or to bring
+them or either of them into contempt or disrepute." This measure was
+hurried through Congress in spite of the opposition and the clear
+provision in the Constitution that Congress shall make no law abridging
+the freedom of speech or of the press. Even many Federalists feared the
+consequences of the action. Hamilton was alarmed when he read the bill,
+exclaiming: "Let us not establish a tyranny. Energy is a very different
+thing from violence." John Marshall told his friends in Virginia that,
+had he been in Congress, he would have opposed the two bills because he
+thought them "useless" and "calculated to create unnecessary discontents
+and jealousies."</p>
+
+<p>The Alien law was not enforced; but it gave great offense to the Irish
+and French whose activities against the American government's policy
+respecting Great Britain put them in danger of prison. The Sedition law,
+on the other hand, was vigorously applied. Several editors of Republican
+newspapers soon found themselves in jail or broken by ruinous fines for
+their caustic criticisms of the Federalist President and his policies.
+Bystanders at political meetings, who uttered sentiments which, though
+ungenerous and severe, seem harmless enough now, were hurried before
+Federalist judges and promptly fined and imprisoned. Although the
+prosecutions were not <a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>numerous, they aroused a keen resentment. The
+Republicans were convinced that their political opponents, having
+saddled upon the country Hamilton's fiscal system and the British
+treaty, were bent on silencing all censure. The measures therefore had
+exactly the opposite effect from that which their authors intended.
+Instead of helping the Federalist party, they made criticism of it more
+bitter than ever.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.</b>&mdash;Jefferson was quick to take
+advantage of the discontent. He drafted a set of resolutions declaring
+the Sedition law null and void, as violating the federal Constitution.
+His resolutions were passed by the Kentucky legislature late in 1798,
+signed by the governor, and transmitted to the other states for their
+consideration. Though receiving unfavorable replies from a number of
+Northern states, Kentucky the following year reaffirmed its position and
+declared that the nullification of all unconstitutional acts of Congress
+was the rightful remedy to be used by the states in the redress of
+grievances. It thus defied the federal government and announced a
+doctrine hostile to nationality and fraught with terrible meaning for
+the future. In the neighboring state of Virginia, Madison led a movement
+against the Alien and Sedition laws. He induced the legislature to pass
+resolutions condemning the acts as unconstitutional and calling upon the
+other states to take proper means to preserve their rights and the
+rights of the people.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Republican Triumph in 1800.</b>&mdash;Thus the way was prepared for the
+election of 1800. The Republicans left no stone unturned in their
+efforts to place on the Federalist candidate, President Adams, all the
+odium of the Alien and Sedition laws, in addition to responsibility for
+approving Hamilton's measures and policies. The Federalists, divided in
+councils and cold in their affection for Adams, made a poor campaign.
+They tried to discredit their opponents with epithets of "Jacobins" and
+"Anarchists"&mdash;terms which had been weakened by excessive use. When the
+vote was counted, it was found that Adams had been defeated; while the
+Republicans had carried the entire<a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a> South and New York also and secured
+eight of the fifteen electoral votes cast by Pennsylvania. "Our beloved
+Adams will now close his bright career," lamented a Federalist
+newspaper. "Sons of faction, demagogues and high priests of anarchy, now
+you have cause to triumph!"</p>
+
+<div><a name="quarrel" id="quarrel" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/205.png"><img src="./images/205-tb.png" alt="A Quarrel between a Federalist and a Republican in the House of Representatives" title="A Quarrel between a Federalist and a Republican in the House of Representatives" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>An old cartoon</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">A Quarrel between a Federalist and a Republican in the House of Representatives</span></div>
+
+<p>Jefferson's election, however, was still uncertain. By a curious
+provision in the Constitution, presidential electors were required to
+vote for two persons without indicating which office each was to fill,
+the one receiving the highest number of votes to be President and the
+candidate standing next to be Vice President. It so happened that Aaron
+Burr, the Republican candidate for Vice President, had received the same
+number of votes as Jefferson; as neither had a majority the election was
+thrown into the House of Representatives, where the Federalists held the
+balance of power. Although it was well <a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>known that Burr was not even a
+candidate for President, his friends and many Federalists began
+intriguing for his election to that high office. Had it not been for the
+vigorous action of Hamilton the prize might have been snatched out of
+Jefferson's hands. Not until the thirty-sixth ballot on February 17,
+1801, was the great issue decided in his favor.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>J.S. Bassett, <i>The Federalist System</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>C.A. Beard, <i>Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H. Lodge, <i>Alexander Hamilton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.T. Morse, <i>Thomas Jefferson</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Who were the leaders in the first administration under the
+Constitution?</p>
+
+<p>2. What step was taken to appease the opposition?</p>
+
+<p>3. Enumerate Hamilton's great measures and explain each in detail.</p>
+
+<p>4. Show the connection between the parts of Hamilton's system.</p>
+
+<p>5. Contrast the general political views of Hamilton and Jefferson.</p>
+
+<p>6. What were the important results of the "peaceful" French Revolution
+(1789-92)?</p>
+
+<p>7. Explain the interaction of opinion between France and the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>8. How did the "Reign of Terror" change American opinion?</p>
+
+<p>9. What was the Burke-Paine controversy?</p>
+
+<p>10. Show how the war in Europe affected American commerce and involved
+America with England and France.</p>
+
+<p>11. What were American policies with regard to each of those countries?</p>
+
+<p>12. What was the outcome of the Alien and Sedition Acts?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Early Federal Legislation.</b>&mdash;Coman, <i>Industrial History of the United
+States</i>, pp. 133-156; Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>, pp.
+341-348.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hamilton's Report on Public Credit.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source
+Book</i>, pp. 233-243.<a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The French Revolution.</b>&mdash;Robinson and Beard, <i>Development of Modern
+Europe</i>, Vol. I, pp. 224-282; Elson, pp. 351-354.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Burke-Paine Controversy.</b>&mdash;Make an analysis of Burke's <i>Reflections
+on the French Revolution</i> and Paine's <i>Rights of Man</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Alien and Sedition Acts.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>,
+pp. 259-267; Elson, pp. 367-375.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, pp. 267-278.</p>
+
+<p><b>Source Studies.</b>&mdash;Materials in Hart, <i>American History Told by
+Contemporaries</i>, Vol. III, pp. 255-343.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, Thomas
+Jefferson, and Albert Gallatin.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Twelfth Amendment.</b>&mdash;Contrast the provision in the original
+Constitution with the terms of the Amendment. <i>See</i> <a href='#appendix'>Appendix</a>.<a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Republican Principles and Policies</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Opposition to Strong Central Government.</b>&mdash;Cherishing especially the
+agricultural interest, as Jefferson said, the Republicans were in the
+beginning provincial in their concern and outlook. Their attachment to
+America was, certainly, as strong as that of Hamilton; but they regarded
+the state, rather than the national government, as the proper center of
+power and affection. Indeed, a large part of the rank and file had been
+among the opponents of the Constitution in the days of its adoption.
+Jefferson had entertained doubts about it and Monroe, destined to be the
+fifth President, had been one of the bitter foes of ratification. The
+former went so far in the direction of local autonomy that he exalted
+the state above the nation in the Kentucky resolutions of 1798,
+declaring the Constitution to be a mere compact and the states competent
+to interpret and nullify federal law. This was provincialism with a
+vengeance. "It is jealousy, not confidence, which prescribes limited
+constitutions," wrote Jefferson for the Kentucky legislature. Jealousy
+of the national government, not confidence in it&mdash;this is the ideal that
+reflected the provincial and agricultural interest.</p>
+
+<p><b>Republican Simplicity.</b>&mdash;Every act of the Jeffersonian party during its
+early days of power was in accord with the ideals of government which it
+professed. It had opposed all pomp and ceremony, calculated to give
+weight and dignity to the chief executive of the nation, as symbols of
+monarchy and high prerogative. Appropriately, therefore, Jefferson's
+inauguration on March 4, 1801, the first at the new capital at
+Washington, was marked by extreme simplicity. In keeping with this
+procedure <a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>he quit the practice, followed by Washington and Adams, of
+reading presidential addresses to Congress in joint assembly and adopted
+in its stead the plan of sending his messages in writing&mdash;a custom that
+was continued unbroken until 1913 when President Wilson returned to the
+example set by the first chief magistrate.</p>
+
+<p><b>Republican Measures.</b>&mdash;The Republicans had complained of a great
+national debt as the source of a dangerous "money power," giving
+strength to the federal government; accordingly they began to pay it off
+as rapidly as possible. They had held commerce in low esteem and looked
+upon a large navy as a mere device to protect it; consequently they
+reduced the number of warships. They had objected to excise taxes,
+particularly on whisky; these they quickly abolished, to the intense
+satisfaction of the farmers. They had protested against the heavy cost
+of the federal government; they reduced expenses by discharging hundreds
+of men from the army and abolishing many offices.</p>
+
+<p>They had savagely criticized the Sedition law and Jefferson refused to
+enforce it. They had been deeply offended by the assault on freedom of
+speech and press and they promptly impeached Samuel Chase, a justice of
+the Supreme Court, who had been especially severe in his attacks upon
+offenders under the Sedition Act. Their failure to convict Justice Chase
+by a narrow margin was due to no lack of zeal on their part but to the
+Federalist strength in the Senate where the trial was held. They had
+regarded the appointment of a large number of federal judges during the
+last hours of Adams' administration as an attempt to intrench
+Federalists in the judiciary and to enlarge the sphere of the national
+government. Accordingly, they at once repealed the act creating the new
+judgeships, thus depriving the "midnight appointees" of their posts.
+They had considered the federal offices, civil and military, as sources
+of great strength to the Federalists and Jefferson, though committed to
+the principle that offices should be open to all and distributed
+according to merit, was careful to <a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>fill most of the vacancies as they
+occurred with trusted Republicans. To his credit, however, it must be
+said that he did not make wholesale removals to find room for party
+workers.</p>
+
+<p>The Republicans thus hewed to the line of their general policy of
+restricting the weight, dignity, and activity of the national
+government. Yet there were no Republicans, as the Federalists asserted,
+prepared to urge serious modifications in the Constitution. "If there be
+any among us who wish to dissolve this union or to change its republican
+form," wrote Jefferson in his first inaugural, "let them stand
+undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may
+be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it." After reciting the
+fortunate circumstances of climate, soil, and isolation which made the
+future of America so full of promise, Jefferson concluded: "A wise and
+frugal government which shall restrain men from injuring one another,
+shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of
+industry and improvement and shall not take from the mouth of labour the
+bread it has earned. This is the sum of good government; and this is
+necessary to close the circle of our felicities."</p>
+
+<p>In all this the Republicans had not reckoned with destiny. In a few
+short years that lay ahead it was their fate to double the territory of
+the country, making inevitable a continental nation; to give the
+Constitution a generous interpretation that shocked many a Federalist;
+to wage war on behalf of American commerce; to re&euml;stablish the hated
+United States Bank; to enact a high protective tariff; to see their
+Federalist opponents in their turn discredited as nullifiers and
+provincials; to announce high national doctrines in foreign affairs; and
+to behold the Constitution exalted and defended against the pretensions
+of states by a son of old Virginia, John Marshall, Chief Justice of the
+Supreme Court of the United States.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Republicans and the Great West</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Expansion and Land Hunger.</b>&mdash;The first of the great measures which
+drove the Republicans out upon this new national <a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>course&mdash;the purchase
+of the Louisiana territory&mdash;was the product of circumstances rather than
+of their deliberate choosing. It was not the lack of land for his
+cherished farmers that led Jefferson to add such an immense domain to
+the original possessions of the United States. In the Northwest
+territory, now embracing Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin,
+and a portion of Minnesota, settlements were mainly confined to the
+north bank of the Ohio River. To the south, in Kentucky and Tennessee,
+where there were more than one hundred thousand white people who had
+pushed over the mountains from Virginia and the Carolinas, there were
+still wide reaches of untilled soil. The Alabama and Mississippi regions
+were vast Indian frontiers of the state of Georgia, unsettled and almost
+unexplored. Even to the wildest imagination there seemed to be territory
+enough to satisfy the land hunger of the American people for a century
+to come.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Significance of the Mississippi River.</b>&mdash;At all events the East,
+then the center of power, saw no good reason for expansion. The planters
+of the Carolinas, the manufacturers of Pennsylvania, the importers of
+New York, the shipbuilders of New England, looking to the seaboard and
+to Europe for trade, refinements, and sometimes their ideas of
+government, were slow to appreciate the place of the West in national
+economy. The better educated the Easterners were, the less, it seems,
+they comprehended the destiny of the nation. Sons of Federalist fathers
+at Williams College, after a long debate decided by a vote of fifteen to
+one that the purchase of Louisiana was undesirable.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the pioneers of Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee,
+unlearned in books, saw with their own eyes the resources of the
+wilderness. Many of them had been across the Mississippi and had beheld
+the rich lands awaiting the plow of the white man. Down the great river
+they floated their wheat, corn, and bacon to ocean-going ships bound for
+the ports of the seaboard or for Europe. The land journeys over the
+mountain barriers with bulky farm produce, they knew from experience,
+<a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>were almost impossible, and costly at best. Nails, bolts of cloth, tea,
+and coffee could go or come that way, but not corn and bacon. A free
+outlet to the sea by the Mississippi was as essential to the pioneers of
+the Kentucky region as the harbor of Boston to the merchant princes of
+that metropolis.</p>
+
+<p><b>Louisiana under Spanish Rule.</b>&mdash;For this reason they watched with deep
+solicitude the fortunes of the Spanish king to whom, at the close of the
+Seven Years' War, had fallen the Louisiana territory stretching from New
+Orleans to the Rocky Mountains. While he controlled the mouth of the
+Mississippi there was little to fear, for he had neither the army nor
+the navy necessary to resist any invasion of American trade. Moreover,
+Washington had been able, by the exercise of great tact, to secure from
+Spain in 1795 a trading privilege through New Orleans which satisfied
+the present requirements of the frontiersmen even if it did not allay
+their fears for the future. So things stood when a swift succession of
+events altered the whole situation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Louisiana Transferred to France.</b>&mdash;In July, 1802, a royal order from
+Spain instructed the officials at New Orleans to close the port to
+American produce. About the same time a disturbing rumor, long current,
+was confirmed&mdash;Napoleon had coerced Spain into returning Louisiana to
+France by a secret treaty signed in 1800. "The scalers of the Alps and
+conquerors of Venice" now looked across the sea for new scenes of
+adventure. The West was ablaze with excitement. A call for war ran
+through the frontier; expeditions were organized to prevent the landing
+of the French; and petitions for instant action flooded in upon
+Jefferson.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jefferson Sees the Danger.</b>&mdash;Jefferson, the friend of France and sworn
+enemy of England, compelled to choose in the interest of America, never
+winced. "The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France,"
+he wrote to Livingston, the American minister in Paris, "works sorely on
+the United States. It completely reverses all the political relations of
+the United States and will form a new epoch in our political course....
+There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of <a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>which is our
+natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans through which the produce
+of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market.... France,
+placing herself in that door, assumes to us an attitude of defiance.
+Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific
+dispositions, her feeble state would induce her to increase our
+facilities there.... Not so can it ever be in the hands of France....
+The day that France takes possession of New Orleans fixes the sentence
+which is to restrain her forever within her low water mark.... It seals
+the union of the two nations who in conjunction can maintain exclusive
+possession of the ocean. From that moment we must marry ourselves to the
+British fleet and nation.... This is not a state of things we seek or
+desire. It is one which this measure, if adopted by France, forces on us
+as necessarily as any other cause by the laws of nature brings on its
+necessary effect."</p>
+
+<p><b>Louisiana Purchased.</b>&mdash;Acting on this belief, but apparently seeing
+only the Mississippi outlet at stake, Jefferson sent his friend, James
+Monroe, to France with the power to buy New Orleans and West Florida.
+Before Monroe arrived, the regular minister, Livingston, had already
+convinced Napoleon that it would be well to sell territory which might
+be wrested from him at any moment by the British sea power, especially
+as the war, temporarily stopped by the peace of Amiens, was once more
+raging in Europe. Wise as he was in his day, Livingston had at first no
+thought of buying the whole Louisiana country. He was simply dazed when
+Napoleon offered to sell the entire domain and get rid of the business
+altogether. Though staggered by the proposal, he and Monroe decided to
+accept. On April 30, they signed the treaty of cession, agreeing to pay
+$11,250,000 in six per cent bonds and to discharge certain debts due
+French citizens, making in all approximately fifteen millions. Spain
+protested, Napoleon's brother fumed, French newspapers objected; but the
+deed was done.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jefferson and His Constitutional Scruples.</b>&mdash;When the news of this
+extraordinary event reached the United States, the people <a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>were filled
+with astonishment, and no one was more surprised than Jefferson himself.
+He had thought of buying New Orleans and West Florida for a small sum,
+and now a vast domain had been dumped into the lap of the nation. He was
+puzzled. On looking into the Constitution he found not a line
+authorizing the purchase of more territory and so he drafted an
+amendment declaring "Louisiana, as ceded by France,&mdash;a part of the
+United States." He had belabored the Federalists for piling up a big
+national debt and he could hardly endure the thought of issuing more
+bonds himself.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of his doubts came the news that Napoleon might withdraw
+from the bargain. Thoroughly alarmed by that, Jefferson pressed the
+Senate for a ratification of the treaty. He still clung to his original
+idea that the Constitution did not warrant the purchase; but he lamely
+concluded: "If our friends shall think differently, I shall certainly
+acquiesce with satisfaction; confident that the good sense of our
+country will correct the evil of construction when it shall produce ill
+effects." Thus the stanch advocate of "strict interpretation" cut loose
+from his own doctrine and intrusted the construction of the Constitution
+to "the good sense" of his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Treaty Ratified.</b>&mdash;This unusual transaction, so favorable to the
+West, aroused the ire of the seaboard Federalists. Some denounced it as
+unconstitutional, easily forgetting Hamilton's masterly defense of the
+bank, also not mentioned in the Constitution. Others urged that, if "the
+howling wilderness" ever should be settled, it would turn against the
+East, form new commercial connections, and escape from federal control.
+Still others protested that the purchase would lead inevitably to the
+dominance of a "hotch potch of wild men from the Far West." Federalists,
+who thought "the broad back of America" could readily bear Hamilton's
+consolidated debt, now went into agonies over a bond issue of less than
+one-sixth of that amount. But in vain. Jefferson's party with a high
+hand carried the day. The Senate, after hearing the Federalist protest,
+ratified the treaty. In December, 1803, the French flag was hauled down
+<a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>from the old government buildings in New Orleans and the Stars and
+Stripes were hoisted as a sign that the land of Coronado, De Soto,
+Marquette, and La Salle had passed forever to the United States.</p>
+
+<div><a name="o-five" id="o-five" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/216.jpg"><img src="./images/216-tb.jpg" alt="The United States in 1805" title="The United States in 1805" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The United States in 1805</span></div>
+
+<p>By a single stroke, the original territory of the United States was more
+than doubled. While the boundaries of the purchase were uncertain, it is
+safe to say that the Louisiana territory included what is now Arkansas,
+Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and large
+portions of Louisiana, Minnesota, North Dakota, Colorado, Montana, and
+Wyoming. The farm lands that the friends of "a little America" on the
+seacoast declared a hopeless wilderness were, within a hundred years,
+fully occupied and valued at nearly seven billion dollars&mdash;almost five
+hundred times the price paid to Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Western Explorations.</b>&mdash;Having taken the fateful step, Jefferson wisely
+began to make the most of it. He prepared for the opening of the new
+country by sending the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore it,
+discover its resources, and lay out an overland route through the
+Missouri Valley and across the Great Divide to the Pacific. The story of
+this mighty exploit, which began in the spring of 1804 and ended in the
+autumn of 1806, was set down with skill and pains in the journal of
+Lewis and Clark; when published even in a short form, it invited the
+forward-looking men of the East to take thought about the western
+empire. At the same time Zebulon Pike, in a series of journeys, explored
+the sources of the Mississippi River and penetrated the Spanish
+territories of the far Southwest. Thus scouts and pioneers continued the
+work of diplomats.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Republican War for Commercial Independence</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The English and French Blockades.</b>&mdash;In addition to bringing Louisiana
+to the United States, the reopening of the European War in 1803, after a
+short lull, renewed in an acute form the commercial difficulties that
+had plagued the country all during the administrations of Washington and
+Adams. The<a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a> Republicans were now plunged into the hornets' nest. The
+party whose ardent spirits had burned Jay in effigy, stoned Hamilton for
+defending his treaty, jeered Washington's proclamation of neutrality,
+and spoken bitterly of "timid traders," could no longer take refuge in
+criticism. It had to act.</p>
+
+<p>Its troubles took a serious turn in 1806. England, in a determined
+effort to bring France to her knees by starvation, declared the coast of
+Europe blockaded from Brest to the mouth of the Elbe River. Napoleon
+retaliated by his Berlin Decree of November, 1806, blockading the
+British Isles&mdash;a measure terrifying to American ship owners whose
+vessels were liable to seizure by any French rover, though Napoleon had
+no navy to make good his proclamation. Great Britain countered with a
+still more irritating decree&mdash;the Orders in Council of 1807. It modified
+its blockade, but in so doing merely authorized American ships not
+carrying munitions of war to complete their voyage to the Continent, on
+condition of their stopping at a British port, securing a license, and
+paying a tax. This, responded Napoleon, was the height of insolence, and
+he denounced it as a gross violation of international law. He then
+closed the circle of American troubles by issuing his Milan Decree of
+December, 1807. This order declared that any ship which complied with
+the British rules would be subject to seizure and confiscation by French
+authorities.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Impressment of Seamen.</b>&mdash;That was not all. Great Britain, in dire
+need of men for her navy, adopted the practice of stopping American
+ships, searching them, and carrying away British-born sailors found on
+board. British sailors were so badly treated, so cruelly flogged for
+trivial causes, and so meanly fed that they fled in crowds to the
+American marine. In many cases it was difficult to tell whether seamen
+were English or American. They spoke the same language, so that language
+was no test. Rovers on the deep and stragglers in the ports of both
+countries, they frequently had no papers to show their nativity.
+Moreover, Great Britain held to the old rule&mdash;"Once an Englishman,
+always an Englishman"&mdash;a doctrine <a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>rejected by the United States in
+favor of the principle that a man could choose the nation to which he
+would give allegiance. British sea captains, sometimes by mistake, and
+often enough with reckless indifference, carried away into servitude in
+their own navy genuine American citizens. The process itself, even when
+executed with all the civilities of law, was painful enough, for it
+meant that American ships were forced to "come to," and compelled to
+rest submissively under British guns until the searching party had pried
+into records, questioned seamen, seized and handcuffed victims. Saints
+could not have done this work without raising angry passions, and only
+saints could have endured it with patience and fortitude.</p>
+
+<p>Had the enactment of the scenes been confined to the high seas and
+knowledge of them to rumors and newspaper stories, American resentment
+might not have been so intense; but many a search and seizure was made
+in sight of land. British and French vessels patrolled the coasts,
+firing on one another and chasing one another in American waters within
+the three-mile limit. When, in the summer of 1807, the American frigate
+<i>Chesapeake</i> refused to surrender men alleged to be deserters from King
+George's navy, the British warship <i>Leopard</i> opened fire, killing three
+men and wounding eighteen more&mdash;an act which even the British ministry
+could hardly excuse. If the French were less frequently the offenders,
+it was not because of their tenderness about American rights but because
+so few of their ships escaped the hawk-eyed British navy to operate in
+American waters.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Losses in American Commerce.</b>&mdash;This high-handed conduct on the part
+of European belligerents was very injurious to American trade. By their
+enterprise, American shippers had become the foremost carriers on the
+Atlantic Ocean. In a decade they had doubled the tonnage of American
+merchant ships under the American flag, taking the place of the French
+marine when Britain swept that from the seas, and supplying Britain with
+the sinews of war for the contest with the Napoleonic empire. The
+American shipping engaged in foreign <a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>trade embraced 363,110 tons in
+1791; 669,921 tons in 1800; and almost 1,000,000 tons in 1810. Such was
+the enterprise attacked by the British and French decrees. American
+ships bound for Great Britain were liable to be captured by French
+privateers which, in spite of the disasters of the Nile and Trafalgar,
+ranged the seas. American ships destined for the Continent, if they
+failed to stop at British ports and pay tribute, were in great danger of
+capture by the sleepless British navy and its swarm of auxiliaries.
+American sea captains who, in fear of British vengeance, heeded the
+Orders in Council and paid the tax were almost certain to fall a prey to
+French vengeance, for the French were vigorous in executing the Milan
+Decree.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jefferson's Policy.</b>&mdash;The President's dilemma was distressing. Both the
+belligerents in Europe were guilty of depredations on American commerce.
+War on both of them was out of the question. War on France was
+impossible because she had no territory on this side of the water which
+could be reached by American troops and her naval forces had been
+shattered at the battles of the Nile and Trafalgar. War on Great
+Britain, a power which Jefferson's followers feared and distrusted, was
+possible but not inviting. Jefferson shrank from it. A man of peace, he
+disliked war's brazen clamor; a man of kindly spirit, he was startled at
+the death and destruction which it brought in its train. So for the
+eight years Jefferson steered an even course, suggesting measure after
+measure with a view to avoiding bloodshed. He sent, it is true,
+Commodore Preble in 1803 to punish Mediterranean pirates preying upon
+American commerce; but a great war he evaded with passionate
+earnestness, trying in its place every other expedient to protect
+American rights.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Embargo and Non-intercourse Acts.</b>&mdash;In 1806, Congress passed and
+Jefferson approved a non-importation act closing American ports to
+certain products from British dominions&mdash;a measure intended as a club
+over the British government's head. This law, failing in its purpose,
+Jefferson pro<a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>posed and Congress adopted in December, 1807, the Embargo
+Act forbidding all vessels to leave American harbors for foreign ports.
+France and England were to be brought to terms by cutting off their
+supplies.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the embargo was pathetic. England and France refused to
+give up search and seizure. American ship owners who, lured by huge
+profits, had formerly been willing to take the risk were now restrained
+by law to their home ports. Every section suffered. The South and West
+found their markets for cotton, rice, tobacco, corn, and bacon
+curtailed. Thus they learned by bitter experience the national
+significance of commerce. Ship masters, ship builders, longshoremen, and
+sailors were thrown out of employment while the prices of foreign goods
+doubled. Those who obeyed the law were ruined; violators of the law
+smuggled goods into Canada and Florida for shipment abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson's friends accepted the medicine with a wry face as the only
+alternative to supine submission or open war. His opponents, without
+offering any solution of their own, denounced it as a contemptible plan
+that brought neither relief nor honor. Beset by the clamor that arose on
+all sides, Congress, in the closing days of Jefferson's administration,
+repealed the Embargo law and substituted a Non-intercourse act
+forbidding trade with England and France while permitting it with other
+countries&mdash;a measure equally futile in staying the depredations on
+American shipping.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jefferson Retires in Favor of Madison.</b>&mdash;Jefferson, exhausted by
+endless wrangling and wounded, as Washington had been, by savage
+criticism, welcomed March 4, 1809. His friends urged him to "stay by the
+ship" and accept a third term. He declined, saying that election for
+life might result from repeated re&euml;lection. In following Washington's
+course and defending it on principle, he set an example to all his
+successors, making the "third term doctrine" a part of American
+unwritten law.</p>
+
+<p>His intimate friend, James Madison, to whom he turned over <a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>the burdens
+of his high office was, like himself, a man of peace. Madison had been a
+leader since the days of the Revolution, but in legislative halls and
+council chambers, not on the field of battle. Small in stature,
+sensitive in feelings, studious in habits, he was no man for the rough
+and tumble of practical politics. He had taken a prominent and
+distinguished part in the framing and the adoption of the Constitution.
+He had served in the first Congress as a friend of Hamilton's measures.
+Later he attached himself to Jefferson's fortunes and served for eight
+years as his first counselor, the Secretary of State. The principles of
+the Constitution, which he had helped to make and interpret, he was now
+as President called upon to apply in one of the most perplexing moments
+in all American history. In keeping with his own traditions and
+following in the footsteps of Jefferson, he vainly tried to solve the
+foreign problem by negotiation.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Trend of Events.</b>&mdash;Whatever difficulties Madison had in making up
+his mind on war and peace were settled by events beyond his own control.
+In the spring of 1811, a British frigate held up an American ship near
+the harbor of New York and impressed a seaman alleged to be an American
+citizen. Burning with resentment, the captain of the <i>President</i>, an
+American warship, acting under orders, poured several broadsides into
+the <i>Little Belt</i>, a British sloop, suspected of being the guilty party.
+The British also encouraged the Indian chief Tecumseh, who welded
+together the Indians of the Northwest under British protection and gave
+signs of restlessness presaging a revolt. This sent a note of alarm
+along the frontier that was not checked even when, in November,
+Tecumseh's men were badly beaten at Tippecanoe by William Henry
+Harrison. The Indians stood in the way of the advancing frontier, and it
+seemed to the pioneers that, without support from the British in Canada,
+the Red Men would soon be subdued.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clay and Calhoun.</b>&mdash;While events were moving swiftly and rumors were
+flying thick and fast, the mastery of the government passed from the
+uncertain hands of Madison to a party of <a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>ardent young men in Congress,
+dubbed "Young Republicans," under the leadership of two members destined
+to be mighty figures in American history: Henry Clay of Kentucky and
+John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The former contended, in a flair of
+folly, that "the militia of Kentucky alone are competent to place
+Montreal and Upper Canada at your feet." The latter with a light heart
+spoke of conquering Canada in a four weeks' campaign. "It must not be
+inferred," says Channing, "that in advocating conquest, the Westerners
+were actuated merely by desire for land; they welcomed war because they
+thought it would be the easiest way to abate Indian troubles. The
+savages were supported by the fur-trading interests that centred at
+Quebec and London.... The Southerners on their part wished for Florida
+and they thought that the conquest of Canada would obviate some Northern
+opposition to this acquisition of slave territory." While Clay and
+Calhoun, spokesmen of the West and South, were not unmindful of what
+Napoleon had done to American commerce, they knew that their followers
+still remembered with deep gratitude the aid of the French in the war
+for independence and that the embers of the old hatred for George III,
+still on the throne, could be readily blown into flame.</p>
+
+<p><b>Madison Accepts War as Inevitable.</b>&mdash;The conduct of the British
+ministers with whom Madison had to deal did little to encourage him in
+adhering to the policy of "watchful waiting." One of them, a high Tory,
+believed that all Americans were alike "except that a few are less
+knaves than others" and his methods were colored by his belief. On the
+recall of this minister the British government selected another no less
+high and mighty in his principles and opinions. So Madison became
+thoroughly discouraged about the outcome of pacific measures. When the
+pressure from Congress upon him became too heavy, he gave way, signing
+on June 18, 1812, the declaration of war on Great Britain. In
+proclaiming hostilities, the administration set forth the causes which
+justified the declaration; namely, the British had been encouraging the
+Indians to attack American <a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>citizens on the frontier; they had ruined
+American trade by blockades; they had insulted the American flag by
+stopping and searching our ships; they had illegally seized American
+sailors and driven them into the British navy.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Course of the War.</b>&mdash;The war lasted for nearly three years without
+bringing victory to either side. The surrender of Detroit by General
+Hull to the British and the failure of the American invasion of Canada
+were offset by Perry's victory on Lake Erie and a decisive blow
+administered to British designs for an invasion of New York by way of
+Plattsburgh. The triumph of Jackson at New Orleans helped to atone for
+the humiliation suffered in the burning of the Capitol by the British.
+The stirring deeds of the <i>Constitution</i>, the <i>United States</i>, and the
+<i>Argus</i> on the seas, the heroic death of Lawrence and the victories of a
+hundred privateers furnished consolation for those who suffered from the
+iron blockade finally established by the British government when it came
+to appreciate the gravity of the situation. While men love the annals of
+the sea, they will turn to the running battles, the narrow escapes, and
+the reckless daring of American sailors in that naval contest with Great
+Britain.</p>
+
+<p>All this was exciting but it was inconclusive. In fact, never was a
+government less prepared than was that of the United States in 1812. It
+had neither the disciplined troops, the ships of war, nor the supplies
+required by the magnitude of the military task. It was fortune that
+favored the American cause. Great Britain, harassed, worn, and
+financially embarrassed by nearly twenty years of fighting in Europe,
+was in no mood to gather her forces for a titanic effort in America even
+after Napoleon was overthrown and sent into exile at Elba in the spring
+of 1814. War clouds still hung on the European horizon and the conflict
+temporarily halted did again break out. To be rid of American anxieties
+and free for European eventualities, England was ready to settle with
+the United States, especially as that could be done without conceding
+anything or surrendering any claims.<a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Treaty of Peace.</b>&mdash;Both countries were in truth sick of a war that
+offered neither glory nor profit. Having indulged in the usual
+diplomatic skirmishing, they sent representatives to Ghent to discuss
+terms of peace. After long negotiations an agreement was reached on
+Christmas eve, 1814, a few days before Jackson's victory at New Orleans.
+When the treaty reached America the people were surprised to find that
+it said nothing about the seizure of American sailors, the destruction
+of American trade, the searching of American ships, or the support of
+Indians on the frontier. Nevertheless, we are told, the people "passed
+from gloom to glory" when the news of peace arrived. The bells were
+rung; schools were closed; flags were displayed; and many a rousing
+toast was drunk in tavern and private home. The rejoicing could
+continue. With Napoleon definitely beaten at Waterloo in June, 1815,
+Great Britain had no need to impress sailors, search ships, and
+confiscate American goods bound to the Continent. Once more the terrible
+sea power sank into the background and the ocean was again white with
+the sails of merchantmen.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Republicans Nationalized</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Federalists Discredited.</b>&mdash;By a strange turn of fortune's wheel,
+the party of Hamilton, Washington, Adams, the party of the grand nation,
+became the party of provincialism and nullification. New England,
+finding its shipping interests crippled in the European conflict and
+then penalized by embargoes, opposed the declaration of war on Great
+Britain, which meant the completion of the ruin already begun. In the
+course of the struggle, the Federalist leaders came perilously near to
+treason in their efforts to hamper the government of the United States;
+and in their desperation they fell back upon the doctrine of
+nullification so recently condemned by them when it came from Kentucky.
+The Senate of Massachusetts, while the war was in progress, resolved
+that it was waged "without justifiable cause," and refused to approve
+military and naval projects not connected with "the defense of our
+seacoast and <a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>soil." A Boston newspaper declared that the union was
+nothing but a treaty among sovereign states, that states could decide
+for themselves the question of obeying federal law, and that armed
+resistance under the banner of a state would not be rebellion or
+treason. The general assembly of Connecticut reminded the administration
+at Washington that "the state of Connecticut is a free, sovereign, and
+independent state." Gouverneur Morris, a member of the convention which
+had drafted the Constitution, suggested the holding of another
+conference to consider whether the Northern states should remain in the
+union.</p>
+
+<div><a name="jumping" id="jumping" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/226.jpg"><img src="./images/226-tb.png" alt="New England Jumping into the Hands of George III" title="New England Jumping into the Hands of George III" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old cartoon</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">New England Jumping into the Hands of George III</span></div>
+
+<p>In October, 1814, a convention of delegates from Connecticut,
+Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and certain counties of New Hampshire and
+Vermont was held at Hartford, on the call of Massachusetts. The counsels
+of the extremists were rejected but the convention solemnly went on
+record to the effect that acts of Congress in violation of the
+Constitution are void; that in cases of deliberate, dangerous, and
+palpable infractions the <a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>state is duty bound to interpose its authority
+for the protection of its citizens; and that when emergencies occur the
+states must be their own judges and execute their own decisions. Thus
+New England answered the challenge of Calhoun and Clay. Fortunately its
+actions were not as rash as its words. The Hartford convention merely
+proposed certain amendments to the Constitution and adjourned. At the
+close of the war, its proposals vanished harmlessly; but the men who
+made them were hopelessly discredited.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Second United States Bank.</b>&mdash;In driving the Federalists towards
+nullification and waging a national war themselves, the Republicans lost
+all their old taint of provincialism. Moreover, in turning to measures
+of reconstruction called forth by the war, they resorted to the national
+devices of the Federalists. In 1816, they chartered for a period of
+twenty years a second United States Bank&mdash;the institution which
+Jefferson and Madison once had condemned as unsound and
+unconstitutional. The Constitution remained unchanged; times and
+circumstances had changed. Calhoun dismissed the vexed question of
+constitutionality with a scant reference to an ancient dispute, while
+Madison set aside his scruples and signed the bill.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Protective Tariff of 1816.</b>&mdash;The Republicans supplemented the Bank
+by another Federalist measure&mdash;a high protective tariff. Clay viewed it
+as the beginning of his "American system" of protection. Calhoun
+defended it on national principles. For this sudden reversal of policy
+the young Republicans were taunted by some of their older party
+colleagues with betraying the "agricultural interest" that Jefferson had
+fostered; but Calhoun refused to listen to their criticisms. "When the
+seas are open," he said, "the produce of the South may pour anywhere
+into the markets of the Old World.... What are the effects of a war with
+a maritime power&mdash;with England? Our commerce annihilated ... our
+agriculture cut off from its accustomed markets, the surplus of the
+farmer perishes on his hands.... The recent war fell with peculiar
+pressure on the growers of cotton and tobacco and the <a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>other great
+staples of the country; and the same state of things will recur in the
+event of another war unless prevented by the foresight of this body....
+When our manufactures are grown to a certain perfection, as they soon
+will be under the fostering care of the government, we shall no longer
+experience these evils." With the Republicans nationalized, the
+Federalist party, as an organization, disappeared after a crushing
+defeat in the presidential campaign of 1816.</p>
+
+<p><b>Monroe and the Florida Purchase.</b>&mdash;To the victor in that political
+contest, James Monroe of Virginia, fell two tasks of national
+importance, adding to the prestige of the whole country and deepening
+the sense of patriotism that weaned men away from mere allegiance to
+states. The first of these was the purchase of Florida from Spain. The
+acquisition of Louisiana let the Mississippi flow "unvexed to the sea";
+but it left all the states east of the river cut off from the Gulf,
+affording them ground for discontent akin to that which had moved the
+pioneers of Kentucky to action a generation earlier. The uncertainty as
+to the boundaries of Louisiana gave the United States a claim to West
+Florida, setting on foot a movement for occupation. The Florida swamps
+were a basis for Indian marauders who periodically swept into the
+frontier settlements, and hiding places for runaway slaves. Thus the
+sanction of international law was given to punitive expeditions into
+alien territory.</p>
+
+<p>The pioneer leaders stood waiting for the signal. It came. President
+Monroe, on the occasion of an Indian outbreak, ordered General Jackson
+to seize the offenders, in the Floridas, if necessary. The high-spirited
+warrior, taking this as a hint that he was to occupy the coveted region,
+replied that, if possession was the object of the invasion, he could
+occupy the Floridas within sixty days. Without waiting for an answer to
+this letter, he launched his expedition, and in the spring of 1818 was
+master of the Spanish king's domain to the south.</p>
+
+<p>There was nothing for the king to do but to make the best of the
+inevitable by ceding the Floridas to the United States in return for
+five million dollars to be paid to American citizens <a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>having claims
+against Spain. On Washington's birthday, 1819, the treaty was signed. It
+ceded the Floridas to the United States and defined the boundary between
+Mexico and the United States by drawing a line from the mouth of the
+Sabine River in a northwesterly direction to the Pacific. On this
+occasion even Monroe, former opponent of the Constitution, forgot to
+inquire whether new territory could be constitutionally acquired and
+incorporated into the American union. The Republicans seemed far away
+from the days of "strict construction." And Jefferson still lived!</p>
+
+<p><b>The Monroe Doctrine.</b>&mdash;Even more effective in fashioning the national
+idea was Monroe's enunciation of the famous doctrine that bears his
+name. The occasion was another European crisis. During the Napoleonic
+upheaval and the years of dissolution that ensued, the Spanish colonies
+in America, following the example set by their English neighbors in
+1776, declared their independence. Unable to conquer them alone, the
+king of Spain turned for help to the friendly powers of Europe that
+looked upon revolution and republics with undisguised horror.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Holy Alliance.</i>&mdash;He found them prepared to view his case with
+sympathy. Three of them, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, under the
+leadership of the Czar, Alexander I, in the autumn of 1815, had entered
+into a Holy Alliance to sustain by reciprocal service the autocratic
+principle in government. Although the effusive, almost maudlin, language
+of the treaty did not express their purpose explicitly, the Alliance was
+later regarded as a mere union of monarchs to prevent the rise and
+growth of popular government.</p>
+
+<p>The American people thought their worst fears confirmed when, in 1822, a
+conference of delegates from Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France met at
+Verona to consider, among other things, revolutions that had just broken
+out in Spain and Italy. The spirit of the conference is reflected in the
+first article of the agreement reached by the delegates: "The high
+contracting powers, being convinced that the system of representative
+government is equally incompatible with the monarchical prin<a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>ciple and
+the maxim of the sovereignty of the people with the divine right,
+mutually engage in the most solemn manner to use all their efforts to
+put an end to the system of representative government in whatever
+country it may exist in Europe and to prevent its being introduced in
+those countries where it is not yet known." The Czar, who incidentally
+coveted the west coast of North America, proposed to send an army to aid
+the king of Spain in his troubles at home, thus preparing the way for
+intervention in Spanish America. It was material weakness not want of
+spirit, that prevented the grand union of monarchs from making open war
+on popular government.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Position of England.</i>&mdash;Unfortunately, too, for the Holy Alliance,
+England refused to co&ouml;perate. English merchants had built up a large
+trade with the independent Latin-American colonies and they protested
+against the restoration of Spanish sovereignty, which meant a renewal of
+Spain's former trade monopoly. Moreover, divine right doctrines had been
+laid to rest in England and the representative principle thoroughly
+established. Already there were signs of the coming democratic flood
+which was soon to carry the first reform bill of 1832, extending the
+suffrage, and sweep on to even greater achievements. British statesmen,
+therefore, had to be cautious. In such circumstances, instead of
+co&ouml;perating with the autocrats of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, they
+turned to the minister of the United States in London. The British prime
+minister, Canning, proposed that the two countries join in declaring
+their unwillingness to see the Spanish colonies transferred to any other
+power.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jefferson's Advice.</i>&mdash;The proposal was rejected; but President Monroe
+took up the suggestion with Madison and Jefferson as well as with his
+Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams. They favored the plan. Jefferson
+said: "One nation, most of all, could disturb us in this pursuit [of
+freedom]; she now offers to lead, aid, and accompany us in it. By
+acceding to her proposition we detach her from the bands, bring her
+mighty weight into the scale of free government and emancipate a
+continent <a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>at one stroke.... With her on our side we need not fear the
+whole world. With her then we should most sedulously cherish a cordial
+friendship."</p>
+
+<p><i>Monroe's Statement of the Doctrine.</i>&mdash;Acting on the advice of trusted
+friends, President Monroe embodied in his message to Congress, on
+December 2, 1823, a statement of principles now famous throughout the
+world as the Monroe Doctrine. To the autocrats of Europe he announced
+that he would regard "any attempt on their part to extend their system
+to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety."
+While he did not propose to interfere with existing colonies dependent
+on European powers, he ranged himself squarely on the side of those that
+had declared their independence. Any attempt by a European power to
+oppress them or control their destiny in any manner he characterized as
+"a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States."
+Referring in another part of his message to a recent claim which the
+Czar had made to the Pacific coast, President Monroe warned the Old
+World that "the American continents, by the free and independent
+condition which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to
+be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European
+powers." The effect of this declaration was immediate and profound. Men
+whose political horizon had been limited to a community or state were
+led to consider their nation as a great power among the sovereignties of
+the earth, taking its part in shaping their international relations.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Missouri Compromise.</b>&mdash;Respecting one other important measure of
+this period, the Republicans also took a broad view of their obligations
+under the Constitution; namely, the Missouri Compromise. It is true,
+they insisted on the admission of Missouri as a slave state, balanced
+against the free state of Maine; but at the same time they assented to
+the prohibition of slavery in the Louisiana territory north of the line
+36&deg; 30'. During the debate on the subject an extreme view had been
+presented, to the effect that Congress had no constitutional warrant for
+abolishing slavery in the territories. The prece<a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>dent of the Northwest
+Ordinance, ratified by Congress in 1789, seemed a conclusive answer from
+practice to this contention; but Monroe submitted the issue to his
+cabinet, which included Calhoun of South Carolina, Crawford of Georgia,
+and Wirt of Virginia, all presumably adherents to the Jeffersonian
+principle of strict construction. He received in reply a unanimous
+verdict to the effect that Congress did have the power to prohibit
+slavery in the territories governed by it. Acting on this advice he
+approved, on March 6, 1820, the bill establishing freedom north of the
+compromise line. This generous interpretation of the powers of Congress
+stood for nearly forty years, until repudiated by the Supreme Court in
+the Dred Scott case.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The National Decisions of Chief Justice Marshall</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>John Marshall, the Nationalist.</b>&mdash;The Republicans in the lower ranges
+of state politics, who did not catch the grand national style of their
+leaders charged with responsibilities in the national field, were
+assisted in their education by a Federalist from the Old Dominion, John
+Marshall, who, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United
+States from 1801 to 1835, lost no occasion to exalt the Constitution
+above the claims of the provinces. No differences of opinion as to his
+political views have ever led even his warmest opponents to deny his
+superb abilities or his sincere devotion to the national idea. All will
+likewise agree that for talents, native and acquired, he was an ornament
+to the humble democracy that brought him forth. His whole career was
+American. Born on the frontier of Virginia, reared in a log cabin,
+granted only the barest rudiments of education, inured to hardship and
+rough life, he rose by masterly efforts to the highest judicial honor
+America can bestow.</p>
+
+<div><a name="marshall" id="marshall"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/233.jpg" alt="John Marshall" title="John Marshall" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">John Marshall</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On him the bitter experience of the Revolution and of later days made a
+lasting impression. He was no "summer patriot." He had been a soldier in
+the Revolutionary army. He had suffered with Washington at Valley Forge.
+He had seen his comrades in arms starving and freezing because the
+Conti<a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>nental Congress had neither the power nor the inclination to force
+the states to do their full duty. To him the Articles of Confederation
+were the symbol of futility. Into the struggle for the formation of the
+Constitution and its ratification in Virginia he had thrown himself with
+the ardor of a soldier. Later, as a member of Congress, a representative
+to France, and Secretary of State, he had aided the Federalists in
+establishing the new government. When at length they were driven from
+power in the executive and legislative branches of the government, he
+was chosen for their last stronghold, the Supreme Court. By historic
+irony he administered the oath of office to his bitterest enemy, Thomas
+Jefferson; and, long after the author of the Declaration of Independence
+had retired to private life, the stern Chief Justice continued to
+announce the old Federalist principles from the Supreme Bench.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marbury <i>vs.</i> Madison&mdash;An Act of Congress Annulled.</b>&mdash;He had been in
+his high office only two years when he laid down for the first time in
+the name of the entire Court the doctrine that the judges have the power
+to declare an act of Congress null and void when in their opinion it
+violates the Constitution. This power was not expressly conferred on the
+Court. Though many able men held that the judicial branch of the
+government enjoyed it, the principle was not positively established
+until 1803 when the case of Marbury <i>vs.</i> Madison was decided. In
+rendering the opinion of the Court, Marshall cited no precedents. He
+sought no foundations for his argument in ancient history. He rested it
+on the general nature of the American system. The Constitution, ran his
+<a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>reasoning, is the supreme law of the land; it limits and binds all who
+act in the name of the United States; it limits the powers of Congress
+and defines the rights of citizens. If Congress can ignore its
+limitations and trespass upon the rights of citizens, Marshall argued,
+then the Constitution disappears and Congress is supreme. Since,
+however, the Constitution is supreme and superior to Congress, it is the
+duty of judges, under their oath of office, to sustain it against
+measures which violate it. Therefore, from the nature of the American
+constitutional system the courts must declare null and void all acts
+which are not authorized. "A law repugnant to the Constitution," he
+closed, "is void and the courts as well as other departments are bound
+by that instrument." From that day to this the practice of federal and
+state courts in passing upon the constitutionality of laws has remained
+unshaken.</p>
+
+<p>This doctrine was received by Jefferson and many of his followers with
+consternation. If the idea was sound, he exclaimed, "then indeed is our
+Constitution a complete <i>felo de se</i> [legally, a suicide]. For,
+intending to establish three departments, co&ouml;rdinate and independent
+that they might check and balance one another, it has given, according
+to this opinion, to one of them alone the right to prescribe rules for
+the government of the others, and to that one, too, which is unelected
+by and independent of the nation.... The Constitution, on this
+hypothesis, is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the judiciary which
+they may twist and shape into any form they please. It should be
+remembered, as an axiom of eternal truth in politics, that whatever
+power in any government is independent, is absolute also.... A judiciary
+independent of a king or executive alone is a good thing; but
+independence of the will of the nation is a solecism, at least in a
+republican government." But Marshall was mighty and his view prevailed,
+though from time to time other men, clinging to Jefferson's opinion,
+likewise opposed the exercise by the Courts of the high power of passing
+upon the constitutionality of acts of Congress.<a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Acts of State Legislatures Declared Unconstitutional.</b>&mdash;Had Marshall
+stopped with annulling an act of Congress, he would have heard less
+criticism from Republican quarters; but, with the same firmness, he set
+aside acts of state legislatures as well, whenever, in his opinion, they
+violated the federal Constitution. In 1810, in the case of Fletcher
+<i>vs.</i> Peck, he annulled an act of the Georgia legislature, informing the
+state that it was not sovereign, but "a part of a large empire, ... a
+member of the American union; and that union has a constitution ...
+which imposes limits to the legislatures of the several states." In the
+case of McCulloch <i>vs.</i> Maryland, decided in 1819, he declared void an
+act of the Maryland legislature designed to paralyze the branches of the
+United States Bank established in that state. In the same year, in the
+still more memorable Dartmouth College case, he annulled an act of the
+New Hampshire legislature which infringed upon the charter received by
+the college from King George long before. That charter, he declared, was
+a contract between the state and the college, which the legislature
+under the federal Constitution could not impair. Two years later he
+stirred the wrath of Virginia by summoning her to the bar of the Supreme
+Court to answer in a case in which the validity of one of her laws was
+involved and then justified his action in a powerful opinion rendered in
+the case of Cohens <i>vs.</i> Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>All these decisions aroused the legislatures of the states. They passed
+sheaves of resolutions protesting and condemning; but Marshall never
+turned and never stayed. The Constitution of the United States, he
+fairly thundered at them, is the supreme law of the land; the Supreme
+Court is the proper tribunal to pass finally upon the validity of the
+laws of the states; and "those sovereignties," far from possessing the
+right of review and nullification, are irrevocably bound by the
+decisions of that Court. This was strong medicine for the authors of the
+Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions and for the members of the Hartford
+convention; but they had to take it.<a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Doctrine of Implied Powers.</b>&mdash;While restraining Congress in the
+Marbury case and the state legislatures in a score of cases, Marshall
+also laid the judicial foundation for a broad and liberal view of the
+Constitution as opposed to narrow and strict construction. In McCulloch
+<i>vs.</i> Maryland, he construed generously the words "necessary and proper"
+in such a way as to confer upon Congress a wide range of "implied
+powers" in addition to their express powers. That case involved, among
+other things, the question whether the act establishing the second
+United States Bank was authorized by the Constitution. Marshall answered
+in the affirmative. Congress, ran his reasoning, has large powers over
+taxation and the currency; a bank is of appropriate use in the exercise
+of these enumerated powers; and therefore, though not absolutely
+necessary, a bank is entirely proper and constitutional. "With respect
+to the means by which the powers that the Constitution confers are to be
+carried into execution," he said, Congress must be allowed the
+discretion which "will enable that body to perform the high duties
+assigned to it, in the manner most beneficial to the people." In short,
+the Constitution of the United States is not a strait jacket but a
+flexible instrument vesting in Congress the powers necessary to meet
+national problems as they arise. In delivering this opinion Marshall
+used language almost identical with that employed by Lincoln when,
+standing on the battle field of a war waged to preserve the nation, he
+said that "a government of the people, by the people, for the people
+shall not perish from the earth."</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of the Union and National Politics</span></h3>
+
+<p>During the strenuous period between the establishment of American
+independence and the advent of Jacksonian democracy the great American
+experiment was under the direction of the men who had launched it. All
+the Presidents in that period, except John Quincy Adams, had taken part
+in the Revolution. James Madison, the chief author of the Constitution,
+lived until 1836. This age, therefore, was the "age of <a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>the fathers." It
+saw the threatened ruin of the country under the Articles of
+Confederation, the formation of the Constitution, the rise of political
+parties, the growth of the West, the second war with England, and the
+apparent triumph of the national spirit over sectionalism.</p>
+
+<p>The new republic had hardly been started in 1783 before its troubles
+began. The government could not raise money to pay its debts or running
+expenses; it could not protect American commerce and manufactures
+against European competition; it could not stop the continual issues of
+paper money by the states; it could not intervene to put down domestic
+uprisings that threatened the existence of the state governments.
+Without money, without an army, without courts of law, the union under
+the Articles of Confederation was drifting into dissolution. Patriots,
+who had risked their lives for independence, began to talk of monarchy
+again. Washington, Hamilton, and Madison insisted that a new
+constitution alone could save America from disaster.</p>
+
+<p>By dint of much labor the friends of a new form of government induced
+the Congress to call a national convention to take into account the
+state of America. In May, 1787, it assembled at Philadelphia and for
+months it debated and wrangled over plans for a constitution. The small
+states clamored for equal rights in the union. The large states vowed
+that they would never grant it. A spirit of conciliation, fair play, and
+compromise saved the convention from breaking up. In addition, there
+were jealousies between the planting states and the commercial states.
+Here, too, compromises had to be worked out. Some of the delegates
+feared the growth of democracy and others cherished it. These factions
+also had to be placated. At last a plan of government was drafted&mdash;the
+Constitution of the United States&mdash;and submitted to the states for
+approval. Only after a long and acrimonious debate did enough states
+ratify the instrument to put it into effect. On April 30, 1789, George
+Washington was inaugurated first President.<a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a></p>
+
+<p>The new government proceeded to fund the old debt of the nation, assume
+the debts of the states, found a national bank, lay heavy taxes to pay
+the bills, and enact laws protecting American industry and commerce.
+Hamilton led the way, but he had not gone far before he encountered
+opposition. He found a formidable antagonist in Jefferson. In time two
+political parties appeared full armed upon the scene: the Federalists
+and the Republicans. For ten years they filled the country with
+political debate. In 1800 the Federalists were utterly vanquished by the
+Republicans with Jefferson in the lead.</p>
+
+<p>By their proclamations of faith the Republicans favored the states
+rather than the new national government, but in practice they added
+immensely to the prestige and power of the nation. They purchased
+Louisiana from France, they waged a war for commercial independence
+against England, they created a second United States Bank, they enacted
+the protective tariff of 1816, they declared that Congress had power to
+abolish slavery north of the Missouri Compromise line, and they spread
+the shield of the Monroe Doctrine between the Western Hemisphere and
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Still America was a part of European civilization. Currents of opinion
+flowed to and fro across the Atlantic. Friends of popular government in
+Europe looked to America as the great exemplar of their ideals. Events
+in Europe reacted upon thought in the United States. The French
+Revolution exerted a profound influence on the course of political
+debate. While it was in the stage of mere reform all Americans favored
+it. When the king was executed and a radical democracy set up, American
+opinion was divided. When France fell under the military dominion of
+Napoleon and preyed upon American commerce, the United States made ready
+for war.</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of England likewise affected American affairs. In 1793 war
+broke out between England and France and raged with only a slight
+intermission until 1815. England and France both ravaged American
+commerce, but England was <a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>the more serious offender because she had
+command of the seas. Though Jefferson and Madison strove for peace, the
+country was swept into war by the vehemence of the "Young Republicans,"
+headed by Clay and Calhoun.</p>
+
+<p>When the armed conflict was closed, one in diplomacy opened. The
+autocratic powers of Europe threatened to intervene on behalf of Spain
+in her attempt to recover possession of her Latin-American colonies.
+Their challenge to America brought forth the Monroe Doctrine. The powers
+of Europe were warned not to interfere with the independence or the
+republican policies of this hemisphere or to attempt any new
+colonization in it. It seemed that nationalism was to have a peaceful
+triumph over sectionalism.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>H. Adams, <i>History of the United States, 1800-1817</i> (9 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>K.C. Babcock, <i>Rise of American Nationality</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>E. Channing, <i>The Jeffersonian System</i> (Same Series).</p>
+
+<p>D.C. Gilman, <i>James Monroe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W. Reddaway, <i>The Monroe Doctrine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>T. Roosevelt, <i>Naval War of 1812</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. What was the leading feature of Jefferson's political theory?</p>
+
+<p>2. Enumerate the chief measures of his administration.</p>
+
+<p>3. Were the Jeffersonians able to apply their theories? Give the
+reasons.</p>
+
+<p>4. Explain the importance of the Mississippi River to Western farmers.</p>
+
+<p>5. Show how events in Europe forced the Louisiana Purchase.</p>
+
+<p>6. State the constitutional question involved in the Louisiana Purchase.</p>
+
+<p>7. Show how American trade was affected by the European war.</p>
+
+<p>8. Compare the policies of Jefferson and Madison.</p>
+
+<p>9. Why did the United States become involved with England rather than
+with France?</p>
+
+<p>10. Contrast the causes of the War of 1812 with the results.</p>
+
+<p>11. Give the economic reasons for the attitude of New England.</p>
+
+<p>12. Give five "nationalist" measures of the Republicans. Discuss each in
+detail.<a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a></p>
+
+<p>13. Sketch the career of John Marshall.</p>
+
+<p>14. Discuss the case of Marbury <i>vs.</i> Madison.</p>
+
+<p>15. Summarize Marshall's views on: (<i>a</i>) states' rights; and (<i>b</i>) a
+liberal interpretation of the Constitution.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Louisiana Purchase.</b>&mdash;Text of Treaty in Macdonald, <i>Documentary
+Source Book</i>, pp. 279-282. Source materials in Hart, <i>American History
+Told by Contemporaries</i>, Vol. III, pp. 363-384. Narrative, Henry Adams,
+<i>History of the United States</i>, Vol. II, pp. 25-115; Elson, <i>History of
+the United States</i>, pp. 383-388.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, pp. 282-288; Adams,
+Vol. IV, pp. 152-177; Elson, pp. 394-405.</p>
+
+<p><b>Congress and the War of 1812.</b>&mdash;Adams, Vol. VI, pp. 113-198; Elson, pp.
+408-450.</p>
+
+<p><b>Proposals of the Hartford Convention.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, pp. 293-302.</p>
+
+<p><b>Manufactures and the Tariff of 1816.</b>&mdash;Coman, <i>Industrial History of
+the United States</i>, pp. 184-194.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Second United States Bank.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, pp. 302-306.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effect of European War on American Trade.</b>&mdash;Callender, <i>Economic
+History of the United States</i>, pp. 240-250.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Monroe Message.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, pp. 318-320.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lewis and Clark Expedition.</b>&mdash;R.G. Thwaites, <i>Rocky Mountain
+Explorations</i>, pp. 92-187. Schafer, <i>A History of the Pacific Northwest</i>
+(rev. ed.), pp. 29-61.<a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The nationalism of Hamilton was undemocratic. The democracy of Jefferson
+was, in the beginning, provincial. The historic mission of uniting
+nationalism and democracy was in the course of time given to new leaders
+from a region beyond the mountains, peopled by men and women from all
+sections and free from those state traditions which ran back to the
+early days of colonization. The voice of the democratic nationalism
+nourished in the West was heard when Clay of Kentucky advocated his
+American system of protection for industries; when Jackson of Tennessee
+condemned nullification in a ringing proclamation that has taken its
+place among the great American state papers; and when Lincoln of
+Illinois, in a fateful hour, called upon a bewildered people to meet the
+supreme test whether this was a nation destined to survive or to perish.
+And it will be remembered that Lincoln's party chose for its banner that
+earlier device&mdash;Republican&mdash;which Jefferson had made a sign of power.
+The "rail splitter" from Illinois united the nationalism of Hamilton
+with the democracy of Jefferson, and his appeal was clothed in the
+simple language of the people, not in the sonorous rhetoric which
+Webster learned in the schools.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Preparation for Western Settlement</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The West and the American Revolution.</b>&mdash;The excessive attention devoted
+by historians to the military operations <a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>along the coast has obscured
+the r&ocirc;le played by the frontier in the American Revolution. The action
+of Great Britain in closing western land to easy settlement in 1763 was
+more than an incident in precipitating the war for independence.
+Americans on the frontier did not forget it; when Indians were employed
+by England to defend that land, zeal for the patriot cause set the
+interior aflame. It was the members of the western vanguard, like Daniel
+Boone, John Sevier, and George Rogers Clark, who first understood the
+value of the far-away country under the guns of the English forts, where
+the Red Men still wielded the tomahawk and the scalping knife. It was
+they who gave the East no rest until their vision was seen by the
+leaders on the seaboard who directed the course of national policy. It
+was one of their number, a seasoned Indian fighter, George Rogers Clark,
+who with aid from Virginia seized Kaskaskia and Vincennes and secured
+the whole Northwest to the union while the fate of Washington's army was
+still hanging in the balance.</p>
+
+<p><b>Western Problems at the End of the Revolution.</b>&mdash;The treaty of peace,
+signed with Great Britain in 1783, brought the definite cession of the
+coveted territory west to the Mississippi River, but it left unsolved
+many problems. In the first place, tribes of resentful Indians in the
+Ohio region, even though British support was withdrawn at last, had to
+be reckoned with; and it was not until after the establishment of the
+federal Constitution that a well-equipped army could be provided to
+guarantee peace on the border. In the second place, British garrisons
+still occupied forts on Lake Erie pending the execution of the terms of
+the treaty of 1783&mdash;terms which were not fulfilled until after the
+ratification of the Jay treaty twelve years later. In the third place,
+Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts had conflicting claims to the
+land in the Northwest based on old English charters and Indian treaties.
+It was only after a bitter contest that the states reached an agreement
+to transfer their rights to the government of the United States,
+Virginia executing her deed of cession on March 1,<a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a> 1784. In the fourth
+place, titles to lands bought by individuals remained uncertain in the
+absence of official maps and records. To meet this last situation,
+Congress instituted a systematic survey of the Ohio country, laying it
+out into townships, sections of 640 acres each, and quarter sections. In
+every township one section of land was set aside for the support of
+public schools.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Northwest Ordinance.</b>&mdash;The final problem which had to be solved
+before settlement on a large scale could be begun was that of governing
+the territory. Pioneers who looked with hungry eyes on the fertile
+valley of the Ohio could hardly restrain their impatience. Soldiers of
+the Revolution, who had been paid for their services in land warrants
+entitling them to make entries in the West, called for action.</p>
+
+<p>Congress answered by passing in 1787 the famous Northwest Ordinance
+providing for temporary territorial government to be followed by the
+creation of a popular assembly as soon as there were five thousand free
+males in any district. Eventual admission to the union on an equal
+footing with the original states was promised to the new territories.
+Religious freedom was guaranteed. The safeguards of trial by jury,
+regular judicial procedure, and <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original was not italicized."><i>habeas corpus</i></ins> were established, in order
+that the methods of civilized life might take the place of the
+rough-and-ready justice of lynch law. During the course of the debate on
+the Ordinance, Congress added the sixth article forbidding slavery and
+involuntary servitude.</p>
+
+<p>This Charter of the Northwest, so well planned by the Congress under the
+Articles of Confederation, was continued in force by the first Congress
+under the Constitution in 1789. The following year its essential
+provisions, except the ban on slavery, were applied to the territory
+south of the Ohio, ceded by North Carolina to the national government,
+and in 1798 to the Mississippi territory, once held by Georgia. Thus it
+was settled for all time that "the new colonies were not to be exploited
+for the benefit of the parent states (any more than for the benefit of
+England) but were to be autonomous and <a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a><ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'coordinate'">co&ouml;rdinate</ins> commonwealths." This
+outcome, bitterly opposed by some Eastern leaders who feared the triumph
+of Western states over the seaboard, completed the legal steps necessary
+by way of preparation for the flood of settlers.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Land Companies, Speculators, and Western Land Tenure.</b>&mdash;As in the
+original settlement of America, so in the opening of the West, great
+companies and single proprietors of large grants early figured. In 1787
+the Ohio Land Company, a New England concern, acquired a million and a
+half acres on the Ohio and began operations by planting the town of
+Marietta. A professional land speculator, J.C. Symmes, secured a million
+acres lower down where the city of Cincinnati was founded. Other
+individuals bought up soldiers' claims and so acquired enormous holdings
+for speculative purposes. Indeed, there was such a rush to make fortunes
+quickly through the rise in land values that Washington was moved to cry
+out against the "rage for speculating in and forestalling of land on the
+North West of the Ohio," protesting that "scarce a valuable spot within
+any tolerable distance of it is left without a claimant." He therefore
+urged Congress to fix a reasonable price for the land, not "too
+exorbitant and burdensome for real occupiers, but high enough to
+discourage monopolizers."</p>
+
+<p>Congress, however, was not prepared to use the public domain for the
+sole purpose of developing a body of small freeholders in the West. It
+still looked upon the sale of public lands as an important source of
+revenue with which to pay off the public debt; consequently it thought
+more of instant income than of ultimate results. It placed no limit on
+the amount which could be bought when it fixed the price at $2 an acre
+in 1796, and it encouraged the professional land operator by making the
+first installment only twenty cents an acre in addition to the small
+registration and survey fee. On such terms a speculator with a few
+thousand dollars could get possession of an enormous plot of land. If he
+was fortunate in disposing of it, he could meet the installments, which
+were spread over a period of four years, and make a handsome profit <a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a>for
+himself. Even when the credit or installment feature was abolished in
+1821 and the price of the land lowered to a cash price of $1.75 an acre,
+the opportunity for large speculative purchases continued to attract
+capital to land ventures.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Development of the Small Freehold.</b>&mdash;The cheapness of land and the
+scarcity of labor, nevertheless, made impossible the triumph of the huge
+estate with its semi-servile tenantry. For about $45 a man could get a
+farm of 160 acres on the installment plan; another payment of $80 was
+due in forty days; but a four-year term was allowed for the discharge of
+the balance. With a capital of from two to three hundred dollars a
+family could embark on a land venture. If it had good crops, it could
+meet the deferred payments. It was, however, a hard battle at best. Many
+a man forfeited his land through failure to pay the final installment;
+yet in the end, in spite of all the handicaps, the small freehold of a
+few hundred acres at most became the typical unit of Western
+agriculture, except in the planting states of the Gulf. Even the lands
+of the great companies were generally broken up and sold in small lots.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency toward moderate holdings, so favored by Western conditions,
+was also promoted by a clause in the Northwest Ordinance declaring that
+the land of any person dying intestate&mdash;that is, without any will
+disposing of it&mdash;should be divided equally among his descendants.
+Hildreth says of this provision: "It established the important
+republican principle, not then introduced into all the states, of the
+equal distribution of landed as well as personal property." All these
+forces combined made the wide dispersion of wealth, in the early days of
+the nineteenth century, an American characteristic, in marked contrast
+with the European system of family prestige and vast estates based on
+the law of primogeniture.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Western Migration and New States</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The People.</b>&mdash;With government established, federal arms victorious over
+the Indians, and the lands surveyed for sale, <a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>the way was prepared for
+the immigrants. They came with a rush. Young New Englanders, weary of
+tilling the stony soil of their native states, poured through New York
+and Pennsylvania, some settling on the northern bank of the Ohio but
+most of them in the Lake region. Sons and daughters of German farmers in
+Pennsylvania and many a redemptioner who had discharged his bond of
+servitude pressed out into Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, or beyond. From
+the exhausted fields and the clay hills of the Southern states came
+pioneers of English and Scotch-Irish descent, the latter in great
+numbers. Indeed one historian of high authority has ventured to say that
+"the rapid expansion of the United States from a coast strip to a
+continental area is largely a Scotch-Irish achievement." While native
+Americans of mixed stocks led the way into the West, it was not long
+before immigrants direct from Europe, under the stimulus of company
+enterprise, began to filter into the new settlements in increasing
+numbers.</p>
+
+<p>The types of people were as various as the nations they represented.
+Timothy Flint, who published his entertaining <i>Recollections</i> in 1826,
+found the West a strange mixture of all sorts and conditions of people.
+Some of them, he relates, had been hunters in the upper world of the
+Mississippi, above the falls of St. Anthony. Some had been still farther
+north, in Canada. Still others had wandered from the South&mdash;the Gulf of
+Mexico, the Red River, and the Spanish country. French boatmen and
+trappers, Spanish traders from the Southwest, Virginia planters with
+their droves of slaves mingled with English, German, and Scotch-Irish
+farmers. Hunters, forest rangers, restless bordermen, and squatters,
+like the foaming combers of an advancing tide, went first. Then followed
+the farmers, masters of the ax and plow, with their wives who shared
+every burden and hardship and introduced some of the features of
+civilized life. The hunters and rangers passed on to new scenes; the
+home makers built for all time.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Number of Immigrants.</b>&mdash;There were no official stations on the
+frontier to record the number of immigrants who <a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>entered the West during
+the decades following the American Revolution. But travelers of the time
+record that every road was "crowded" with pioneers and their families,
+their wagons and cattle; and that they were seldom out of the sound of
+the snapping whip of the teamster urging forward his horses or the crack
+of the hunter's rifle as he brought down his evening meal. "During the
+latter half of 1787," says Coman, "more than nine hundred boats floated
+down the Ohio carrying eighteen thousand men, women, and children, and
+twelve thousand horses, sheep, and cattle, and six hundred and fifty
+wagons." Other lines of travel were also crowded and with the passing
+years the flooding tide of home seekers rose higher and higher.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Western Routes.</b>&mdash;Four main routes led into the country beyond the
+Appalachians. The Genesee road, beginning at Albany, ran almost due west
+to the present site of Buffalo on Lake Erie, through a level country. In
+the dry season, wagons laden with goods could easily pass along it into
+northern Ohio. A second route, through Pittsburgh, was fed by three
+eastern branches, one starting at Philadelphia, one at Baltimore, and
+another at Alexandria. A third main route wound through the mountains
+from Alexandria to Boonesboro in Kentucky and then westward across the
+Ohio to St. Louis. A fourth, the most famous of them all, passed through
+the Cumberland Gap and by branches extended into the Cumberland valley
+and the Kentucky country.</p>
+
+<p>Of these four lines of travel, the Pittsburgh route offered the most
+advantages. Pioneers, no matter from what section they came, when once
+they were on the headwaters of the Ohio and in possession of a flatboat,
+could find a quick and easy passage into all parts of the West and
+Southwest. Whether they wanted to settle in Ohio, Kentucky, or western
+Tennessee they could find their way down the drifting flood to their
+destination or at least to some spot near it. Many people from the South
+as well as the Northern and Middle states chose this route; so it came
+about that the sons and daughters of<a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a> Virginia and the Carolinas mingled
+with those of New York, Pennsylvania, and New England in the settlement
+of the Northwest territory.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Methods of Travel into the West.</b>&mdash;Many stories giving exact
+descriptions of methods of travel into the West in the early days have
+been preserved. The country was hardly opened before visitors from the
+Old World and from the Eastern states, impelled by curiosity, made their
+way to the very frontier of civilization and wrote books to inform or
+amuse the public. One of them, Gilbert Imlay, an English traveler, has
+given us an account of the Pittsburgh route as he found it in 1791. "If
+a man ... " he writes, "has a family or goods of any sort to remove, his
+best way, then, would be to purchase a waggon and team of horses to
+carry his property to Redstone Old Fort or to Pittsburgh, according as
+he may come from the Northern or Southern states. A good waggon will
+cost, at Philadelphia, about &pound;10 ... and the horses about &pound;12 each; they
+would cost something more both at Baltimore and Alexandria. The waggon
+may be covered with canvass, and if it is the choice of the people, they
+may sleep in it of nights with the greatest safety. But if they dislike
+that, there are inns of accommodation the whole distance on the
+different roads.... The provisions I would purchase in the same manner
+[that is, from the farmers along the road]; and by having two or three
+camp kettles and stopping every evening when the weather is fine upon
+the brink of some rivulet and by kindling a fire they may soon dress
+their own food.... This manner of journeying is so far from being
+disagreeable that in a fine season it is extremely pleasant." The
+immigrant once at Pittsburgh or Wheeling could then buy a flatboat of a
+size required for his goods and stock, and drift down the current to his
+journey's end.</p>
+
+<div><a name="roads" id="roads" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/249.jpg"><img src="./images/249-tb.jpg" alt="Roads and Trails into the Western Territory" title="Roads and Trails into the Western Territory" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Roads and Trails into the Western Territory</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Admission of Kentucky and Tennessee.</b>&mdash;When the eighteenth century
+drew to a close, Kentucky had a population larger than Delaware, Rhode
+Island, or New Hampshire. Tennessee claimed 60,000 inhabitants. In 1792
+Kentucky <a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>took her place as a state beside her none too kindly parent,
+Virginia. The Eastern Federalists resented her intrusion; but they took
+some consolation in the admission of Vermont because the balance of
+Eastern power was still retained.</p>
+
+<p>As if to assert their independence of old homes and conservative ideas
+the makers of Kentucky's first constitution swept aside the landed
+qualification on the suffrage and gave the vote to all free white males.
+Four years later, Kentucky's neighbor to the south, Tennessee, followed
+this step toward a wider democracy. After encountering fierce opposition
+from the Federalists, Tennessee was accepted as the sixteenth state.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ohio.</b>&mdash;The door of the union had hardly opened for Tennessee when
+another appeal was made to Congress, this time from the pioneers in
+Ohio. The little posts founded at Marietta and Cincinnati had grown into
+flourishing centers of trade. The stream of immigrants, flowing down the
+river, added daily to their numbers and the growing settlements all
+around poured produce into their markets to be exchanged for "store
+goods." After the Indians were disposed of in 1794 and the last British
+soldier left the frontier forts under the terms of the Jay treaty of
+1795, tiny settlements of families appeared on Lake Erie in the "Western
+Reserve," a region that had been retained by Connecticut when she
+surrendered her other rights in the Northwest.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the century, Ohio, claiming a population of more than
+50,000, grew discontented with its territorial status. Indeed, two years
+before the enactment of the Northwest Ordinance, squatters in that
+region had been invited by one John Emerson to hold a convention after
+the fashion of the men of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield in old
+Connecticut and draft a frame of government for themselves. This true
+son of New England declared that men "have an undoubted right to pass
+into every vacant country and there to form their constitution and that
+from the confederation of the whole United States Congress is not
+empowered to forbid them."<a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a> This grand convention was never held because
+the heavy hand of the government fell upon the leaders; but the spirit
+of John Emerson did not perish. In November, 1802, a convention chosen
+by voters, assembled under the authority of Congress at Chillicothe,
+drew up a constitution. It went into force after a popular ratification.
+The roll of the convention bore such names as Abbot, Baldwin, Cutler,
+Huntington, Putnam, and Sargent, and the list of counties from which
+they came included Adams, Fairfield, Hamilton, Jefferson, Trumbull, and
+Washington, showing that the new America in the West was peopled and led
+by the old stock. In 1803 Ohio was admitted to the union.</p>
+
+<p><b>Indiana and Illinois.</b>&mdash;As in the neighboring state, the frontier in
+Indiana advanced northward from the Ohio, mainly under the leadership,
+however, of settlers from the South&mdash;restless Kentuckians hoping for
+better luck in a newer country and pioneers from the far frontiers of
+Virginia and North Carolina. As soon as a tier of counties swinging
+upward like the horns of the moon against Ohio on the east and in the
+Wabash Valley on the west was fairly settled, a clamor went up for
+statehood. Under the authority of an act of Congress in 1816 the
+Indianians drafted a constitution and inaugurated their government at
+Corydon. "The majority of the members of the convention," we are told by
+a local historian, "were frontier farmers who had a general idea of what
+they wanted and had sense enough to let their more erudite colleagues
+put it into shape."</p>
+
+<p>Two years later, the pioneers of Illinois, also settled upward from the
+Ohio, like Indiana, elected their delegates to draft a constitution.
+Leadership in the convention, quite properly, was taken by a man born in
+New York and reared in Tennessee; and the constitution as finally
+drafted "was in its principal provisions a copy of the then existing
+constitutions of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana.... Many of the articles
+are exact copies in wording although differently arranged and
+numbered."<a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.</b>&mdash;Across the Mississippi to the
+far south, clearing and planting had gone on with much bustle and
+enterprise. The cotton and sugar lands of Louisiana, opened by French
+and Spanish settlers, were widened in every direction by planters with
+their armies of slaves from the older states. New Orleans, a good market
+and a center of culture not despised even by the pioneer, grew apace. In
+1810 the population of lower Louisiana was over 75,000. The time had
+come, said the leaders of the people, to fulfill the promise made to
+France in the treaty of cession; namely, to grant to the inhabitants of
+the territory statehood and the rights of American citizens. Federalists
+from New England still having a voice in Congress, if somewhat weaker,
+still protested in tones of horror. "I am compelled to declare it as my
+deliberate opinion," pronounced Josiah Quincy in the House of
+Representatives, "that if this bill [to admit Louisiana] passes, the
+bonds of this Union are virtually dissolved ... that as it will be the
+right of all, so it will be the duty of some [states] to prepare
+definitely for a separation; amicably if they can, violently if they
+must.... It is a death blow to the Constitution. It may afterwards
+linger; but lingering, its fate will, at no very distant period, be
+consummated." Federalists from New York like those from New England had
+their doubts about the wisdom of admitting Western states; but the party
+of Jefferson and Madison, having the necessary majority, granted the
+coveted statehood to Louisiana in 1812.</p>
+
+<p>When, a few years later, Mississippi and Alabama knocked at the doors of
+the union, the Federalists had so little influence, on account of their
+conduct during the second war with England, that spokesmen from the
+Southwest met a kindlier reception at Washington. Mississippi, in 1817,
+and Alabama, in 1819, took their places among the United States of
+America. Both of them, while granting white manhood suffrage, gave their
+constitutions the tone of the old East by providing landed
+qualifications for the governor and members of the legislature.<a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Missouri.</b>&mdash;Far to the north in the Louisiana purchase, a new
+commonwealth was rising to power. It was peopled by immigrants who came
+down the Ohio in fleets of boats or crossed the Mississippi from
+Kentucky and Tennessee. Thrifty Germans from Pennsylvania, hardy farmers
+from Virginia ready to work with their own hands, freemen seeking
+freemen's homes, planters with their slaves moving on from worn-out
+fields on the seaboard, came together in the widening settlements of the
+Missouri country. Peoples from the North and South flowed together,
+small farmers and big planters mingling in one community. When their
+numbers had reached sixty thousand or more, they precipitated a contest
+over their admission to the union, "ringing an alarm bell in the night,"
+as Jefferson phrased it. The favorite expedient of compromise with
+slavery was brought forth in Congress once more. Maine consequently was
+brought into the union without slavery and Missouri with slavery. At the
+same time there was drawn westward through the rest of the Louisiana
+territory a line separating servitude from slavery.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Spirit of the Frontier</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Land Tenure and Liberty.</b>&mdash;Over an immense western area there developed
+an unbroken system of freehold farms. In the Gulf states and the lower
+Mississippi Valley, it is true, the planter with his many slaves even
+led in the pioneer movement; but through large sections of Tennessee and
+Kentucky, as well as upper Georgia and Alabama, and all throughout the
+Northwest territory the small farmer reigned supreme. In this immense
+dominion there sprang up a civilization without caste or class&mdash;a body
+of people all having about the same amount of this world's goods and
+deriving their livelihood from one source: the labor of their own hands
+on the soil. The Northwest territory alone almost equaled in area all
+the original thirteen states combined, except Georgia, and its system of
+agricultural economy was unbroken by plantations and feudal estates. "In
+the subdivision of the soil and the great equality <a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a>of condition," as
+Webster said on more than one occasion, "lay the true basis, most
+certainly, of popular government." There was the undoubted source of
+Jacksonian democracy.</p>
+
+<div><a name="log" id="log" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/255-tb.jpg" alt="A Log Cabin&mdash;Lincoln's Birthplace" title="A Log Cabin&mdash;Lincoln's Birthplace" /></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Log Cabin&mdash;Lincoln's Birthplace</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Characteristics of the Western People.</b>&mdash;Travelers into the
+Northwest during the early years of the nineteenth century were agreed
+that the people of that region were almost uniformly marked by the
+characteristics common to an independent yeomanry. A close observer thus
+recorded his impressions: "A spirit of adventurous enterprise, a
+willingness to go through any hardship to accomplish an object....
+Independence of thought and action. They have felt the influence of
+these principles from their childhood. Men who can endure anything; that
+have lived almost without restraint, free as the mountain air or as the
+deer and the buffalo of their forests, and who know they are Americans
+all.... An apparent roughness which some would deem rudeness of
+manner.... Where there is <a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>perfect equality in a neighborhood of people
+who know little about each other's previous history or ancestry but
+where each is lord of the soil he cultivates. Where a log cabin is all
+that the best of families can expect to have for years and of course can
+possess few of the external decorations which have so much influence in
+creating a diversity of rank in society. These circumstances have laid
+the foundation for that equality of intercourse, simplicity of manners,
+want of deference, want of reserve, great readiness to make
+acquaintances, freedom of speech, indisposition to brook real or
+imaginary insults which one witnesses among people of the West."</p>
+
+<p>This equality, this independence, this rudeness so often described by
+the traveler as marking a new country, were all accentuated by the
+character of the settlers themselves. Traces of the fierce, unsociable,
+eagle-eyed, hard-drinking hunter remained. The settlers who followed the
+hunter were, with some exceptions, soldiers of the Revolutionary army,
+farmers of the "middling order," and mechanics from the towns,&mdash;English,
+Scotch-Irish, Germans,&mdash;poor in possessions and thrown upon the labor of
+their own hands for support. Sons and daughters from well-to-do Eastern
+homes sometimes brought softer manners; but the equality of life and the
+leveling force of labor in forest and field soon made them one in spirit
+with their struggling neighbors. Even the preachers and teachers, who
+came when the cabins were raised in the clearings and rude churches and
+schoolhouses were built, preached sermons and taught lessons that
+savored of the frontier, as any one may know who reads Peter
+Cartwright's <i>A Muscular Christian</i> or Eggleston's <i>The Hoosier
+Schoolmaster</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The West and the East Meet</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The East Alarmed.</b>&mdash;A people so independent as the Westerners and so
+attached to local self-government gave the conservative East many a rude
+shock, setting gentlemen in powdered wigs and knee breeches agog with
+the idea that terrible things might happen in the Mississippi Valley.
+Not without <a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a>good grounds did Washington fear that "a touch of a feather
+would turn" the Western settlers away from the seaboard to the
+Spaniards; and seriously did he urge the East not to neglect them, lest
+they be "drawn into the arms of, or be dependent upon foreigners."
+Taking advantage of the restless spirit in the Southwest, Aaron Burr,
+having disgraced himself by killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, laid
+wild plans, if not to bring about a secession in that region, at least
+to build a state of some kind out of the Spanish dominions adjoining
+Louisiana. Frightened at such enterprises and fearing the dominance of
+the West, the Federalists, with a few conspicuous exceptions, opposed
+equality between the sections. Had their narrow views prevailed, the
+West, with its new democracy, would have been held in perpetual tutelage
+to the seaboard or perhaps been driven into independence as the thirteen
+colonies had been not long before.</p>
+
+<p><b>Eastern Friends of the West.</b>&mdash;Fortunately for the nation, there were
+many Eastern leaders, particularly from the South, who understood the
+West, approved its spirit, and sought to bring the two sections together
+by common bonds. Washington kept alive and keen the zeal for Western
+advancement which he acquired in his youth as a surveyor. He never grew
+tired of urging upon his Eastern friends the importance of the lands
+beyond the mountains. He pressed upon the governor of Virginia a project
+for a wagon road connecting the seaboard with the Ohio country and was
+active in a movement to improve the navigation of the Potomac. He
+advocated strengthening the ties of commerce. "Smooth the roads," he
+said, "and make easy the way for them, and then see what an influx of
+articles will be poured upon us; how amazingly our exports will be
+increased by them; and how amply we shall be compensated for any trouble
+and expense we may encounter to effect it." Jefferson, too, was
+interested in every phase of Western development&mdash;the survey of lands,
+the exploration of waterways, the opening of trade, and even the
+discovery of the bones of prehistoric animals. Robert Fulton, the
+inventor <a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>of the steamboat, was another man of vision who for many years
+pressed upon his countrymen the necessity of uniting East and West by a
+canal which would cement the union, raise the value of the public lands,
+and extend the principles of confederate and republican government.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Difficulties of Early Transportation.</b>&mdash;Means of communication
+played an important part in the strategy of all those who sought to
+bring together the seaboard and the frontier. The produce of the
+West&mdash;wheat, corn, bacon, hemp, cattle, and tobacco&mdash;was bulky and the
+cost of overland transportation was prohibitive. In the Eastern market,
+"a cow and her calf were given for a bushel of salt, while a suit of
+'store clothes' cost as much as a farm." In such circumstances, the
+inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley were forced to ship their produce
+over a long route by way of New Orleans and to pay high freight rates
+for everything that was brought across the mountains. Scows of from five
+to fifty tons were built at the towns along the rivers and piloted down
+the stream to the Crescent City. In a few cases small ocean-going
+vessels were built to transport goods to the West Indies or to the
+Eastern coast towns. Salt, iron, guns, powder, and the absolute
+essentials which the pioneers had to buy mainly in Eastern markets were
+carried over narrow wagon trails that were almost impassable in the
+rainy season.</p>
+
+<p><b>The National Road.</b>&mdash;To far-sighted men, like Albert Gallatin, "the
+father of internal improvements," the solution of this problem was the
+construction of roads and canals. Early in Jefferson's administration,
+Congress dedicated a part of the proceeds from the sale of lands to
+building highways from the headwaters of the navigable waters emptying
+into the Atlantic to the Ohio River and beyond into the Northwest
+territory. In 1806, after many misgivings, it authorized a great
+national highway binding the East and the West. The Cumberland Road, as
+it was called, began in northwestern Maryland, wound through southern
+Pennsylvania, crossed the narrow neck of Virginia at Wheeling, and then
+shot almost straight across Ohio,<a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a> Indiana, and Illinois, into Missouri.
+By 1817, stagecoaches were running between Washington and Wheeling; by
+1833 contractors had carried their work to Columbus, Ohio, and by 1852,
+to Vandalia, Illinois. Over this ballasted road mail and passenger
+coaches could go at high speed, and heavy freight wagons proceed in
+safety at a steady pace.</p>
+
+<div><a name="cumberland" id="cumberland" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/259.png"><img src="./images/259-tb.png" alt="The Cumberland Road" title="The Cumberland Road" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The Cumberland Road</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Canals and Steamboats.</b>&mdash;A second epoch in the economic union of the
+East and West was reached with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825,
+offering an all-water route from New York City to the Great Lakes and
+the Mississippi Valley. Pennsylvania, alarmed by the advantages
+conferred on New York by this enterprise, began her system of canals and
+portages from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, completing the last link in
+1834. In the South, the Chesapeake and Ohio Company, chartered in 1825,
+was busy with a project to connect Georgetown and Cumberland when
+railways broke in upon the undertaking before it was half finished.
+About the same time, Ohio built a canal across the state, affording
+water communication between Lake Erie and the Ohio River through a rich
+wheat belt. Passengers could now travel by canal boat into the West with
+comparative ease and comfort, if not at a rapid speed, and the bulkiest
+of freight could be easily handled. Moreover, the rate charged for
+carrying goods was cut by the Erie Canal from $32 a ton per hundred
+miles to $1. New Orleans was destined to lose her primacy in the
+Mississippi Valley.</p>
+
+<p>The diversion of traffic to Eastern markets was also stimulated <a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>by
+steamboats which appeared on the Ohio about 1810, three years after
+Fulton had made his famous trip on the Hudson. It took twenty men to
+sail and row a five-ton scow up the river at a speed of from ten to
+twenty miles a day. In 1825, Timothy Flint traveled a hundred miles a
+day on the new steamer <i>Grecian</i> "against the whole weight of the
+Mississippi current." Three years later the round trip from Louisville
+to New Orleans was cut to eight days. Heavy produce that once had to
+float down to New Orleans could be carried upstream and sent to the East
+by way of the canal systems.</p>
+
+<div><a name="steamboat" id="steamboat" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/260.jpg" alt="An Early Mississippi Steamboat" title="An Early Mississippi Steamboat" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">An Early Mississippi Steamboat</span></div>
+
+<p>Thus the far country was brought near. The timid no longer hesitated at
+the thought of the perilous journey. All routes were crowded with
+Western immigrants. The forests fell before the ax like grain before the
+sickle. Clearings scattered through the woods spread out into a great
+mosaic of farms stretching from the Southern Appalachians to Lake
+Michigan. The national census of 1830 gave 937,000 inhabitants to Ohio;
+343,000 to Indiana; 157,000 to Illinois; 687,000 to Kentucky; and
+681,000 to Tennessee.</p>
+
+<div><a name="thirty" id="thirty" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/261.jpg"><img src="./images/261-tb.jpg" alt="Distribution of Population, 1830" title="Distribution of Population, 1830" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Distribution of Population, 1830</span></div>
+
+<p>With the increase in population and the growth of agricul<a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>ture came
+political influence. People who had once petitioned Congress now sent
+their own representatives. Men who had hitherto accepted without
+protests Presidents from the seaboard expressed a new spirit of dissent
+in 1824 by giving only three electoral votes for John Quincy Adams; and
+four years later they sent a son of the soil from Tennessee, Andrew
+Jackson, to take Washington's chair as chief executive of the
+nation&mdash;the first of a long line of Presidents from the Mississippi
+basin.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>W.G. Brown, <i>The Lower South in American History</i>.</p>
+
+<p>B.A. Hinsdale, <i>The Old North West</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>A.B. Hulbert, <i>Great American Canals</i> and <i>The Cumberland Road</i>.</p>
+
+<p>T. Roosevelt, <i>Thomas H. Benton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>P.J. Treat, <i>The National Land System</i> (1785-1820).</p>
+
+<p>F.J. Turner, <i>Rise of the New West</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>J. Winsor, <i>The Westward Movement</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. How did the West come to play a r&ocirc;le in the Revolution?</p>
+
+<p>2. What preparations were necessary to settlement?</p>
+
+<p>3. Give the principal provisions of the Northwest Ordinance.</p>
+
+<p>4. Explain how freehold land tenure happened to predominate in the West.</p>
+
+<p>5. Who were the early settlers in the West? What routes did they take?
+How did they travel?</p>
+
+<p>6. Explain the Eastern opposition to the admission of new Western
+states. Show how it was overcome.</p>
+
+<p>7. Trace a connection between the economic system of the West and the
+spirit of the people.</p>
+
+<p>8. Who were among the early friends of Western development?</p>
+
+<p>9. Describe the difficulties of trade between the East and the West.</p>
+
+<p>10. Show how trade was promoted.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Northwest Ordinance.</b>&mdash;Analysis of text in Macdonald, <i>Documentary
+Source Book</i>. Roosevelt, <i>Winning of the West</i>, Vol. V, pp. 5-57.</p>
+
+<p><b>The West before the Revolution.</b>&mdash;Roosevelt, Vol. I.</p>
+
+<p><b>The West during the Revolution.</b>&mdash;Roosevelt, Vols. II and III.<a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Tennessee.</b>&mdash;Roosevelt, Vol. V, pp. 95-119 and Vol. VI, pp. 9-87.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Cumberland Road.</b>&mdash;A.B. Hulbert, <i>The Cumberland Road</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Early Life in the Middle West.</b>&mdash;Callender, <i>Economic History of the
+United States</i>, pp. 617-633; 636-641.</p>
+
+<p><b>Slavery in the Southwest.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 641-652.</p>
+
+<p><b>Early Land Policy.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 668-680.</p>
+
+<p><b>Westward Movement of Peoples.</b>&mdash;Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 7-39.</p>
+
+<p>Lists of books dealing with the early history of Western states are
+given in Hart, Channing, and Turner, <i>Guide to the Study and Reading of
+American History</i> (rev. ed.), pp. 62-89.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kentucky.</b>&mdash;Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 176-263.<a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY</h3>
+
+
+<p>The New England Federalists, at the Hartford convention, prophesied that
+in time the West would dominate the East. "At the adoption of the
+Constitution," they said, "a certain balance of power among the original
+states was considered to exist, and there was at that time and yet is
+among those parties a strong affinity between their great and general
+interests. By the admission of these [new] states that balance has been
+materially affected and unless the practice be modified must ultimately
+be destroyed. The Southern states will first avail themselves of their
+new confederates to govern the East, and finally the Western states,
+multiplied in number, and augmented in population, will control the
+interests of the whole." Strangely enough the fulfillment of this
+prophecy was being prepared even in Federalist strongholds by the rise
+of a new urban democracy that was to make common cause with the farmers
+beyond the mountains.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Democratic Movement in the East</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Aristocratic Features of the Old Order.</b>&mdash;The Revolutionary
+fathers, in setting up their first state constitutions, although they
+often spoke of government as founded on the consent of the governed, did
+not think that consistency required giving the vote to all adult males.
+On the contrary they looked upon property owners as the only safe
+"depositary" of political power. They went back to the colonial
+tradition that related taxation and representation. This, they argued,
+was not only just but a safeguard against the "excesses of democracy."<a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a></p>
+
+<p>In carrying their theory into execution they placed taxpaying or
+property qualifications on the right to vote. Broadly speaking, these
+limitations fell into three classes. Three states, Pennsylvania (1776),
+New Hampshire (1784), and Georgia (1798), gave the ballot to all who
+paid taxes, without reference to the value of their property. Three,
+Virginia, Delaware, and Rhode Island, clung firmly to the ancient
+principles that only freeholders could be intrusted with electoral
+rights. Still other states, while closely restricting the suffrage,
+accepted the ownership of other things as well as land in fulfillment of
+the requirements. In Massachusetts, for instance, the vote was granted
+to all men who held land yielding an annual income of three pounds or
+possessed other property worth sixty pounds.</p>
+
+<p>The electors thus enfranchised, numerous as they were, owing to the wide
+distribution of land, often suffered from a very onerous disability. In
+many states they were able to vote only for persons of wealth because
+heavy property qualifications were imposed on public officers. In New
+Hampshire, the governor had to be worth five hundred pounds, one-half in
+land; in Massachusetts, one thousand pounds, all freehold; in Maryland,
+five thousand pounds, one thousand of which was freehold; in North
+Carolina, one thousand pounds freehold; and in South Carolina, ten
+thousand pounds freehold. A state senator in Massachusetts had to be the
+owner of a freehold worth three hundred pounds or personal property
+worth six hundred pounds; in New Jersey, one thousand pounds' worth of
+property; in North Carolina, three hundred acres of land; in South
+Carolina, two thousand pounds freehold. For members of the lower house
+of the legislature lower qualifications were required.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the states the suffrage or office holding or both were
+further restricted by religious provisions. No single sect was powerful
+enough to dominate after the Revolution, but, for the most part,
+Catholics and Jews were either disfranchised or excluded from office.
+North Carolina and Georgia denied the ballot to any one who was not a
+Protestant. Delaware with<a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a>held it from all who did not believe in the
+Trinity and the inspiration of the Scriptures. Massachusetts and
+Maryland limited it to Christians. Virginia and New York, advanced for
+their day, made no discrimination in government on account of religious
+opinion.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Defense of the Old Order.</b>&mdash;It must not be supposed that property
+qualifications were thoughtlessly imposed at the outset or considered of
+little consequence in practice. In the beginning they were viewed as
+fundamental. As towns grew in size and the number of landless citizens
+increased, the restrictions were defended with even more vigor. In
+Massachusetts, the great Webster upheld the rights of property in
+government, saying: "It is entirely just that property should have its
+due weight and consideration in political arrangements.... The
+disastrous revolutions which the world has witnessed, those political
+thunderstorms and earthquakes which have shaken the pillars of society
+to their deepest foundations, have been revolutions against property."
+In Pennsylvania, a leader in local affairs cried out against a plan to
+remove the taxpaying limitation on the suffrage: "What does the delegate
+propose? To place the vicious vagrant, the wandering Arabs, the Tartar
+hordes of our large cities on the level with the virtuous and good man?"
+In Virginia, Jefferson himself had first believed in property
+qualifications and had feared with genuine alarm the "mobs of the great
+cities." It was near the end of the eighteenth century before he
+accepted the idea of manhood suffrage. Even then he was unable to
+convince the constitution-makers of his own state. "It is not an idle
+chimera of the brain," urged one of them, "that the possession of land
+furnishes the strongest evidence of permanent, common interest with, and
+attachment to, the community.... It is upon this foundation I wish to
+place the right of suffrage. This is the best general standard which can
+be resorted to for the purpose of determining whether the persons to be
+invested with the right of suffrage are such persons as could be,
+consistently with the safety and well-being of the community, intrusted
+with the exercise of that right."<a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Attacks on the Restricted Suffrage.</b>&mdash;The changing circumstances of
+American life, however, soon challenged the rule of those with property.
+Prominent among the new forces were the rising mercantile and business
+interests. Where the freehold qualification was applied, business men
+who did not own land were deprived of the vote and excluded from office.
+In New York, for example, the most illiterate farmer who had one hundred
+pounds' worth of land could vote for state senator and governor, while
+the landless banker or merchant could not. It is not surprising,
+therefore, to find business men taking the lead in breaking down
+freehold limitations on the suffrage. The professional classes also were
+interested in removing the barriers which excluded many of them from
+public affairs. It was a schoolmaster, Thomas Dorr, who led the popular
+uprising in Rhode Island which brought the exclusive rule by freeholders
+to an end.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the business and professional classes, the mechanics of
+the towns showed a growing hostility to a system of government that
+generally barred them from voting or holding office. Though not
+numerous, they had early begun to exercise an influence on the course of
+public affairs. They had led the riots against the Stamp Act, overturned
+King George's statue, and "crammed stamps down the throats of
+collectors." When the state constitutions were framed they took a lively
+interest, particularly in New York City and Philadelphia. In June, 1776,
+the "mechanicks in union" in New York protested against putting the new
+state constitution into effect without their approval, declaring that
+the right to vote on the acceptance or rejection of a fundamental law
+"is the birthright of every man to whatever state he may belong." Though
+their petition was rejected, their spirit remained. When, a few years
+later, the federal Constitution was being framed, the mechanics watched
+the process with deep concern; they knew that one of its main objects
+was to promote trade and commerce, affecting directly their daily bread.
+During the struggle over ratification, they passed resolutions approving
+its provisions and <a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>they often joined in parades organized to stir up
+sentiment for the Constitution, even though they could not vote for
+members of the state conventions and so express their will directly.
+After the organization of trade unions they collided with the courts of
+law and thus became interested in the election of judges and lawmakers.</p>
+
+<p>Those who attacked the old system of class rule found a strong moral
+support in the Declaration of Independence. Was it not said that all men
+are created equal? Whoever runs may read. Was it not declared that
+governments derive their just power from the consent of the governed?
+That doctrine was applied with effect to George III and seemed
+appropriate for use against the privileged classes of Massachusetts or
+Virginia. "How do the principles thus proclaimed," asked the
+non-freeholders of Richmond, in petitioning for the ballot, "accord with
+the existing regulation of the suffrage? A regulation which, instead of
+the equality nature ordains, creates an odious distinction between
+members of the same community ... and vests in a favored class, not in
+consideration of their public services but of their private possessions,
+the highest of all privileges."</p>
+
+<p><b>Abolition of Property Qualifications.</b>&mdash;By many minor victories rather
+than by any spectacular triumphs did the advocates of manhood suffrage
+carry the day. Slight gains were made even during the Revolution or
+shortly afterward. In Pennsylvania, the mechanics, by taking an active
+part in the contest over the Constitution of 1776, were able to force
+the qualification down to the payment of a small tax. Vermont came into
+the union in 1792 without any property restrictions. In the same year
+Delaware gave the vote to all men who paid taxes. Maryland, reckoned one
+of the most conservative of states, embarked on the experiment of
+manhood suffrage in 1809; and nine years later, Connecticut, equally
+conservative, decided that all taxpayers were worthy of the ballot.</p>
+
+<p>Five states, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, Rhode Island, and North
+Carolina, remained obdurate while these changes were going on around
+them; finally they had to yield them<a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>selves. The last struggle in
+Massachusetts took place in the constitutional convention of 1820. There
+Webster, in the prime of his manhood, and John Adams, in the closing
+years of his old age, alike protested against such radical innovations
+as manhood suffrage. Their protests were futile. The property test was
+abolished and a small tax-paying qualification was substituted. New York
+surrendered the next year and, after trying some minor restrictions for
+five years, went completely over to white manhood suffrage in 1826.
+Rhode Island clung to her freehold qualification through thirty years of
+agitation. Then Dorr's Rebellion, almost culminating in bloodshed,
+brought about a reform in 1843 which introduced a slight tax-paying
+qualification as an alternative to the freehold. Virginia and North
+Carolina were still unconvinced. The former refused to abandon ownership
+of land as the test for political rights until 1850 and the latter until
+1856. Although religious discriminations and property qualifications for
+office holders were sometimes retained after the establishment of
+manhood suffrage, they were usually abolished along with the monopoly of
+government enjoyed by property owners and taxpayers.<a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="dorr" id="dorr" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/269.png" alt="Thomas Dorr Arousing His Followers" title="Thomas Dorr Arousing His Followers" /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<span class="smcap">Thomas Dorr Arousing His Followers</span></div>
+
+<p>At the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the white
+male industrial workers and the mechanics of the Northern cities, at
+least, could lay aside the petition for the ballot and enjoy with the
+free farmer a voice in the government of their common country.
+"Universal democracy," sighed Carlyle, who was widely read in the United
+States, "whatever we may think of it has declared itself the inevitable
+fact of the days in which we live; and he who has any chance to instruct
+or lead in these days must begin by admitting that ... Where no
+government is wanted, save that of the parish constable, as in America
+with its boundless soil, every man being able to find work and
+recompense for himself, democracy may subsist; not elsewhere." Amid the
+grave misgivings of the first generation of statesmen, America was
+committed to the great adventure, in the populous towns of the East as
+well as in the forests and fields of the West.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The New Democracy Enters the Arena</span></h3>
+
+<p>The spirit of the new order soon had a pronounced effect on the
+machinery of government and the practice of politics. The enfranchised
+electors were not long in demanding for themselves a larger share in
+administration.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Spoils System and Rotation in Office.</b>&mdash;First of all they wanted
+office for themselves, regardless of their fitness. They therefore
+extended the system of rewarding party workers with government
+positions&mdash;a system early established in several states, notably New
+York and Pennsylvania. Closely connected with it was the practice of
+fixing short terms for officers and making frequent changes in
+personnel. "Long continuance in office," explained a champion of this
+idea in Pennsylvania in 1837, "unfits a man for the discharge of its
+duties, by rendering him arbitrary and aristocratic, and tends to beget,
+first life office, and then hereditary office, which leads to the
+destruction of free government." The solution offered was the historic
+doctrine of "rotation in office." At the same time the principle of
+popular election was extended to an increasing number <a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>of officials who
+had once been appointed either by the governor or the legislature. Even
+geologists, veterinarians, surveyors, and other technical officers were
+declared elective on the theory that their appointment "smacked of
+monarchy."</p>
+
+<p><b>Popular Election of Presidential Electors.</b>&mdash;In a short time the spirit
+of democracy, while playing havoc with the old order in state
+government, made its way upward into the federal system. The framers of
+the Constitution, bewildered by many proposals and unable to agree on
+any single plan, had committed the choice of presidential electors to
+the discretion of the state legislatures. The legislatures, in turn,
+greedy of power, early adopted the practice of choosing the electors
+themselves; but they did not enjoy it long undisturbed. Democracy,
+thundering at their doors, demanded that they surrender the privilege to
+the people. Reluctantly they yielded, sometimes granting popular
+election and then withdrawing it. The drift was inevitable, and the
+climax came with the advent of Jacksonian democracy. In 1824, Vermont,
+New York, Delaware, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, though some
+had experimented with popular election, still left the choice of
+electors with the legislature. Eight years later South Carolina alone
+held to the old practice. Popular election had become the final word.
+The fanciful idea of an electoral college of "good and wise men,"
+selected without passion or partisanship by state legislatures acting as
+deliberative bodies, was exploded for all time; the election of the
+nation's chief magistrate was committed to the tempestuous methods of
+democracy.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Nominating Convention.</b>&mdash;As the suffrage was widened and the
+popular choice of presidential electors extended, there arose a violent
+protest against the methods used by the political parties in nominating
+candidates. After the retirement of Washington, both the Republicans and
+the Federalists found it necessary to agree upon their favorites before
+the election, and they adopted a colonial device&mdash;the pre-election
+caucus. The Federalist members of Congress held a conference and
+selected their candidate, and the Republicans followed the ex<a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>ample. In
+a short time the practice of nominating by a "congressional caucus"
+became a recognized institution. The election still remained with the
+people; but the power of picking candidates for their approval passed
+into the hands of a small body of Senators and Representatives.</p>
+
+<p>A reaction against this was unavoidable. To friends of "the plain
+people," like Andrew Jackson, it was intolerable, all the more so
+because the caucus never favored him with the nomination. More
+conservative men also found grave objections to it. They pointed out
+that, whereas the Constitution intended the President to be an
+independent officer, he had now fallen under the control of a caucus of
+congressmen. The supremacy of the legislative branch had been obtained
+by an extra-legal political device. To such objections were added
+practical considerations. In 1824, when personal rivalry had taken the
+place of party conflicts, the congressional caucus selected as the
+candidate, William H. Crawford, of Georgia, a man of distinction but no
+great popularity, passing by such an obvious hero as General Jackson.
+The followers of the General were enraged and demanded nothing short of
+the death of "King Caucus." Their clamor was effective. Under their
+attacks, the caucus came to an ignominious end.</p>
+
+<p>In place of it there arose in 1831 a new device, the national nominating
+convention, composed of delegates elected by party voters for the sole
+purpose of nominating candidates. Senators and Representatives were
+still prominent in the party councils, but they were swamped by hundreds
+of delegates "fresh from the people," as Jackson was wont to say. In
+fact, each convention was made up mainly of office holders and office
+seekers, and the new institution was soon denounced as vigorously as
+King Caucus had been, particularly by statesmen who failed to obtain a
+nomination. Still it grew in strength and by 1840 was firmly
+established.</p>
+
+<p><b>The End of the Old Generation.</b>&mdash;In the election of 1824, the
+representatives of the "aristocracy" made their last successful stand.
+Until then the leadership by men of "wealth and <a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a>talents" had been
+undisputed. There had been five Presidents&mdash;Washington, John Adams,
+Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe&mdash;all Eastern men brought up in prosperous
+families with the advantages of culture which come from leisure and the
+possession of life's refinements. None of them had ever been compelled
+to work with his hands for a livelihood. Four of them had been
+slaveholders. Jefferson was a philosopher, learned in natural science, a
+master of foreign languages, a gentleman of dignity and grace of manner,
+notwithstanding his studied simplicity. Madison, it was said, was armed
+"with all the culture of his century." Monroe was a graduate of William
+and Mary, a gentleman of the old school. Jefferson and his three
+successors called themselves Republicans and professed a genuine faith
+in the people but they were not "of the people" themselves; they were
+not sons of the soil or the workshop. They were all men of "the grand
+old order of society" who gave finish and style even to popular
+government.</p>
+
+<p>Monroe was the last of the Presidents belonging to the heroic epoch of
+the Revolution. He had served in the war for independence, in the
+Congress under the Articles of Confederation, and in official capacity
+after the adoption of the Constitution. In short, he was of the age that
+had wrought American independence and set the government afloat. With
+his passing, leadership went to a new generation; but his successor,
+John Quincy Adams, formed a bridge between the old and the new in that
+he combined a high degree of culture with democratic sympathies.
+Washington had died in 1799, preceded but a few months by Patrick Henry
+and followed in four years by Samuel Adams. Hamilton had been killed in
+a duel with Burr in 1804. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were yet alive
+in 1824 but they were soon to pass from the scene, reconciled at last,
+full of years and honors. Madison was in dignified retirement, destined
+to live long enough to protest against the doctrine of nullification
+proclaimed by South Carolina before death carried him away at the ripe
+old age of eighty-five.<a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Election of John Quincy Adams (1824).</b>&mdash;The campaign of 1824 marked
+the end of the "era of good feeling" inaugurated by the collapse of the
+Federalist party after the election of 1816. There were four leading
+candidates, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and W.H.
+Crawford. The result of the election was a division of the electoral
+votes into four parts and no one received a majority. Under the
+Constitution, therefore, the selection of President passed to the House
+of Representatives. Clay, who stood at the bottom of the poll, threw his
+weight to Adams and assured his triumph, much to the chagrin of
+Jackson's friends. They thought, with a certain justification, that
+inasmuch as the hero of New Orleans had received the largest electoral
+vote, the House was morally bound to accept the popular judgment and
+make him President. Jackson shook hands cordially with Adams on the day
+of the inauguration, but never forgave him for being elected.</p>
+
+<p>While Adams called himself a Republican in politics and often spoke of
+"the rule of the people," he was regarded by Jackson's followers as "an
+aristocrat." He was not a son of the soil. Neither was he acquainted at
+first hand with the labor of farmers and mechanics. He had been educated
+at Harvard and in Europe. Like his illustrious father, John Adams, he
+was a stern and reserved man, little given to seeking popularity.
+Moreover, he was from the East and the frontiersmen of the West regarded
+him as a man "born with a silver spoon in his mouth." Jackson's
+supporters especially disliked him because they thought their hero
+entitled to the presidency. Their anger was deepened when Adams
+appointed Clay to the office of Secretary of State; and they set up a
+cry that there had been a "deal" by which Clay had helped to elect Adams
+to get office for himself.</p>
+
+<p>Though Adams conducted his administration with great dignity and in a
+fine spirit of public service, he was unable to overcome the opposition
+which he encountered on his election to office or to win popularity in
+the West and South. On the contrary, by advocating government assistance
+in building <a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>roads and canals and public grants in aid of education,
+arts, and sciences, he ran counter to the current which had set in
+against appropriations of federal funds for internal improvements. By
+signing the Tariff Bill of 1828, soon known as the "Tariff of
+Abominations," he made new enemies without adding to his friends in New
+York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio where he sorely needed them. Handicapped by
+the false charge that he had been a party to a "corrupt bargain" with
+Clay to secure his first election; attacked for his advocacy of a high
+protective tariff; charged with favoring an "aristocracy of
+office-holders" in Washington on account of his refusal to discharge
+government clerks by the wholesale, Adams was retired from the White
+House after he had served four years.</p>
+
+<div><a name="jackson" id="jackson"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/276.jpg" alt="Andrew Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Andrew Jackson</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Triumph of Jackson in 1828.</b>&mdash;Probably no candidate for the
+presidency ever had such passionate popular support as Andrew Jackson
+had in 1828. He was truly a man of the people. Born of poor parents in
+the upland region of South Carolina, schooled in poverty and adversity,
+without the advantages of education or the refinements of cultivated
+leisure, he seemed the embodiment of the spirit of the new American
+democracy. Early in his youth he had gone into the frontier of Tennessee
+where he soon won a name as a fearless and intrepid Indian fighter. On
+the march and in camp, he endeared himself to his men by sharing their
+hardships, sleeping on the ground with them, and eating parched corn
+when nothing better could be found for the privates. From local
+prominence he sprang into national fame by his exploit at the battle of
+New Orleans. His reputation as a military hero was enhanced by the
+feeling that he had been a martyr to political treachery in 1824. The
+farmers of the West and South claimed him as their own. The mechanics of
+the Eastern cities, newly enfranchised, also looked upon him as their
+friend. Though his views on the tariff, internal improvements, and other
+issues before the country were either vague or unknown, he was readily
+elected President.</p>
+
+<p>The returns of the electoral vote in 1828 revealed the sources of
+Jackson's power. In New England, he received but <a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>one ballot, from
+Maine; he had a majority of the electors in New York and all of them in
+Pennsylvania; and he carried every state south of Maryland and beyond
+the Appalachians. Adams did not get a single electoral vote in the South
+and West. The prophecy of the Hartford convention had been fulfilled.</p>
+
+
+<p>When Jackson took the oath of office on March 4, 1829, the government of
+the United States entered into a new era. Until this time the
+inauguration of a President&mdash;even that of Jefferson, the apostle of
+simplicity&mdash;had brought no rude shock to the course of affairs at the
+capital. Hitherto the installation of a President meant that an
+old-fashioned gentleman, accompanied by a few servants, had driven to
+the White House in his own coach, taken the oath with quiet dignity,
+appointed a few new men to the higher posts, continued in office the
+long list of regular civil employees, and begun his administration with
+respectable decorum. Jackson changed all this. When he was inaugurated,
+men and women journeyed hundreds of miles to witness the ceremony. Great
+throngs pressed into the White House, "upset the bowls of punch, broke
+the glasses, and stood with their muddy boots on the satin-covered
+chairs to see the people's President." If Jefferson's inauguration was,
+as he called it, the "great revolution," Jackson's inauguration was a
+cataclysm.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The New Democracy at Washington</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Spoils System.</b>&mdash;The staid and respectable society of Washington
+was disturbed by this influx of farmers and frontiersmen. To speak of
+politics became "bad form" among <a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a>fashionable women. The clerks and
+civil servants of the government who had enjoyed long and secure tenure
+of office became alarmed at the clamor of new men for their positions.
+Doubtless the major portion of them had opposed the election of Jackson
+and looked with feelings akin to contempt upon him and his followers.
+With a hunter's instinct, Jackson scented his prey. Determined to have
+none but his friends in office, he made a clean sweep, expelling old
+employees to make room for men "fresh from the people." This was a new
+custom. Other Presidents had discharged a few officers for engaging in
+opposition politics. They had been careful in making appointments not to
+choose inveterate enemies; but they discharged relatively few men on
+account of their political views and partisan activities.</p>
+
+<p>By wholesale removals and the frank selection of officers on party
+grounds&mdash;a practice already well intrenched in New York&mdash;Jackson
+established the "spoils system" at Washington. The famous slogan, "to
+the victor belong the spoils of victory," became the avowed principle of
+the national government. Statesmen like Calhoun denounced it; poets like
+James Russell Lowell ridiculed it; faithful servants of the government
+suffered under it; but it held undisturbed sway for half a century
+thereafter, each succeeding generation outdoing, if possible, its
+predecessor in the use of public office for political purposes. If any
+one remarked that training and experience were necessary qualifications
+for important public positions, he met Jackson's own profession of
+faith: "The duties of any public office are so simple or admit of being
+made so simple that any man can in a short time become master of them."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Tariff and Nullification.</b>&mdash;Jackson had not been installed in power
+very long before he was compelled to choose between states' rights and
+nationalism. The immediate occasion of the trouble was the tariff&mdash;a
+matter on which Jackson did not have any very decided views. His mind
+did not run naturally to abstruse economic questions; and owing to the
+<a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a>divided opinion of the country it was "good politics" to be vague and
+ambiguous in the controversy. Especially was this true, because the
+tariff issue was threatening to split the country into parties again.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Development of the Policy of "Protection."</i>&mdash;The war of 1812 and
+the commercial policies of England which followed it had accentuated the
+need for American economic independence. During that conflict, the
+United States, cut off from English manufactures as during the
+Revolution, built up home industries to meet the unusual call for iron,
+steel, cloth, and other military and naval supplies as well as the
+demands from ordinary markets. Iron foundries and textile mills sprang
+up as in the night; hundreds of business men invested fortunes in
+industrial enterprises so essential to the military needs of the
+government; and the people at large fell into the habit of buying
+American-made goods again. As the London <i>Times</i> tersely observed of the
+Americans, "their first war with England made them independent; their
+second war made them formidable."</p>
+
+<p>In recognition of this state of affairs, the tariff of 1816 was
+designed: <i>first</i>, to prevent England from ruining these "infant
+industries" by dumping the accumulated stores of years suddenly upon
+American markets; and, <i>secondly</i>, to enlarge in the manufacturing
+centers the demand for American agricultural produce. It accomplished
+the purposes of its framers. It kept in operation the mills and furnaces
+so recently built. It multiplied the number of industrial workers and
+enhanced the demand for the produce of the soil. It brought about
+another very important result. It turned the capital and enterprise of
+New England from shipping to manufacturing, and converted her statesmen,
+once friends of low tariffs, into ardent advocates of protection.</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the nineteenth century, the Yankees had bent their
+energies toward building and operating ships to carry produce from
+America to Europe and manufactures from Europe to America. For this
+reason, they had opposed the <a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>tariff of 1816 calculated to increase
+domestic production and cut down the carrying trade. Defeated in their
+efforts, they accepted the inevitable and turned to manufacturing. Soon
+they were powerful friends of protection for American enterprise. As the
+money invested and the labor employed in the favored industries
+increased, the demand for continued and heavier protection grew apace.
+Even the farmers who furnished raw materials, like wool, flax, and hemp,
+began to see eye to eye with the manufacturers. So the textile interests
+of New England, the iron masters of Connecticut, New Jersey, and
+Pennsylvania, the wool, hemp, and flax growers of Ohio, Kentucky, and
+Tennessee, and the sugar planters of Louisiana developed into a
+formidable combination in support of a high protective tariff.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Planting States Oppose the Tariff.</i>&mdash;In the meantime, the cotton
+states on the seaboard had forgotten about the havoc wrought during the
+Napoleonic wars when their produce rotted because there were no ships to
+carry it to Europe. The seas were now open. The area devoted to cotton
+had swiftly expanded as Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana were opened
+up. Cotton had in fact become "king" and the planters depended for their
+prosperity, as they thought, upon the sale of their staple to English
+manufacturers whose spinning and weaving mills were the wonder of the
+world. Manufacturing nothing and having to buy nearly everything except
+farm produce and even much of that for slaves, the planters naturally
+wanted to purchase manufactures in the cheapest market, England, where
+they sold most of their cotton. The tariff, they contended, raised the
+price of the goods they had to buy and was thus in fact a tribute laid
+on them for the benefit of the Northern mill owners.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Tariff of Abominations.</i>&mdash;They were overborne, however, in 1824 and
+again in 1828 when Northern manufacturers and Western farmers forced
+Congress to make an upward revision of the tariff. The Act of 1828 known
+as "the Tariff of Abominations," though slightly modified in 1832, was<a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>
+"the straw which broke the camel's back." Southern leaders turned in
+rage against the whole system. The legislatures of Virginia, North
+Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama denounced it; a general
+convention of delegates held at Augusta issued a protest of defiance
+against it; and South Carolina, weary of verbal battles, decided to
+prevent its enforcement.</p>
+
+<p><i>South Carolina Nullifies the Tariff.</i>&mdash;The legislature of that state,
+on October 26, 1832, passed a bill calling for a state convention which
+duly assembled in the following month. In no mood for compromise, it
+adopted the famous Ordinance of Nullification after a few days' debate.
+Every line of this document was clear and firm. The tariff, it opened,
+gives "bounties to classes and individuals ... at the expense and to the
+injury and oppression of other classes and individuals"; it is a
+violation of the Constitution of the United States and therefore null
+and void; its enforcement in South Carolina is unlawful; if the federal
+government attempts to coerce the state into obeying the law, "the
+people of this state will thenceforth hold themselves absolved from all
+further obligations to maintain or preserve their political connection
+with the people of the other states and will forthwith proceed to
+organize a separate government and do all other acts and things which
+sovereign and independent states may of right do."</p>
+
+<p><i>Southern States Condemn Nullification.</i>&mdash;The answer of the country to
+this note of defiance, couched in the language used in the Kentucky
+resolutions and by the New England Federalists during the war of 1812,
+was quick and positive. The legislatures of the Southern states, while
+condemning the tariff, repudiated the step which South Carolina had
+taken. Georgia responded: "We abhor the doctrine of nullification as
+neither a peaceful nor a constitutional remedy." Alabama found it
+"unsound in theory and dangerous in practice." North Carolina replied
+that it was "revolutionary in character, subversive of the Constitution
+of the United States."<a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a> Mississippi answered: "It is disunion by
+force&mdash;it is civil war." Virginia spoke more softly, condemning the
+tariff and sustaining the principle of the Virginia resolutions but
+denying that South Carolina could find in them any sanction for her
+proceedings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jackson Firmly Upholds the Union.</i>&mdash;The eyes of the country were turned
+upon Andrew Jackson. It was known that he looked with no friendly
+feelings upon nullification, for, at a Jefferson dinner in the spring of
+1830 while the subject was in the air, he had with laconic firmness
+announced a toast: "Our federal union; it must be preserved." When two
+years later the open challenge came from South Carolina, he replied that
+he would enforce the law, saying with his frontier directness: "If a
+single drop of blood shall be shed there in opposition to the laws of
+the United States, I will hang the first man I can lay my hands on
+engaged in such conduct upon the first tree that I can reach." He made
+ready to keep his word by preparing for the use of military and naval
+forces in sustaining the authority of the federal government. Then in a
+long and impassioned proclamation to the people of South Carolina he
+pointed out the national character of the union, and announced his
+solemn resolve to preserve it by all constitutional means. Nullification
+he branded as "incompatible with the existence of the union,
+contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized
+by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was
+founded, and destructive of the great objects for which it was formed."</p>
+
+<p><i>A Compromise.</i>&mdash;In his messages to Congress, however, Jackson spoke the
+language of conciliation. A few days before issuing his proclamation he
+suggested that protection should be limited to the articles of domestic
+manufacture indispensable to safety in war time, and shortly afterward
+he asked for new legislation to aid him in enforcing the laws. With two
+propositions before it, one to remove the chief grounds for South
+Carolina's resistance and the other to apply force if it was continued,
+Congress bent its efforts to avoid a crisis.<a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a> On February 12, 1833,
+Henry Clay laid before the Senate a compromise tariff bill providing for
+the gradual reduction of the duties until by 1842 they would reach the
+level of the law which Calhoun had supported in 1816. About the same
+time the "force bill," designed to give the President ample authority in
+executing the law in South Carolina, was taken up. After a short but
+acrimonious debate, both measures were passed and signed by President
+Jackson on the same day, March 2. Looking upon the reduction of the
+tariff as a complete vindication of her policy and an undoubted victory,
+South Carolina rescinded her ordinance and enacted another nullifying
+the force bill.</p>
+
+<div><a name="webster" id="webster" /></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/282.jpg" alt="Daniel Webster" title="Daniel Webster" />
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i><small>From an old print</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Daniel Webster</span></div></div>
+
+<p><i>The Webster-Hayne Debate.</i>&mdash;Where the actual victory lay in this
+quarrel, long the subject of high dispute, need not concern us to-day.
+Perhaps the chief result of the whole affair was a clarification of the
+issue between the North and the South&mdash;a definite statement of the
+principles for which men on both sides were years afterward to lay down
+their lives. On behalf of nationalism and a perpetual union, the stanch
+old Democrat from Tennessee had, in his proclamation on nullification,
+spoken a language that admitted of only one meaning. On behalf of
+nullification, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, a skilled lawyer and
+courtly orator, had in a great speech delivered in the Senate in
+January, 1830, set forth clearly and cogently the doctrine that the
+union is a compact among sovereign states from which the parties may
+lawfully withdraw. It was this address that called into the arena
+Daniel<a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a> Webster, Senator from Massachusetts, who, spreading the mantle
+of oblivion over the Hartford convention, delivered a reply to Hayne
+that has been reckoned among the powerful orations of all time&mdash;a plea
+for the supremacy of the Constitution and the national character of the
+union.</p>
+
+<p><b>The War on the United States Bank.</b>&mdash;If events forced the issue of
+nationalism and nullification upon Jackson, the same could not be said
+of his attack on the bank. That institution, once denounced by every
+true Jeffersonian, had been <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'reestablished'">re&euml;stablished</ins> in 1816 under the
+administration of Jefferson's disciple, James Madison. It had not been
+in operation very long, however, before it aroused bitter opposition,
+especially in the South and the West. Its notes drove out of circulation
+the paper currency of unsound banks chartered by the states, to the
+great anger of local financiers. It was accused of favoritism in making
+loans, of conferring special privileges upon politicians in return for
+their support at Washington. To all Jackson's followers it was "an
+insidious money power." One of them openly denounced it as an
+institution designed "to strengthen the arm of wealth and counterpoise
+the influence of extended suffrage in the disposition of public
+affairs."</p>
+
+<p>This sentiment President Jackson fully shared. In his first message to
+Congress he assailed the bank in vigorous language. He declared that its
+constitutionality was in doubt and alleged that it had failed to
+establish a sound and uniform currency. If such an institution was
+necessary, he continued, it should be a public bank, owned and managed
+by the government, not a private concern endowed with special privileges
+by it. In his second and third messages, Jackson came back to the
+subject, leaving the decision, however, to "an enlightened people and
+their representatives."</p>
+
+<p>Moved by this frank hostility and anxious for the future, the bank
+applied to Congress for a renewal of its charter in 1832, four years
+before the expiration of its life. Clay, with his eye upon the
+presidency and an issue for the campaign, warmly supported the
+application. Congress, deeply im<a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a>pressed by his leadership, passed the
+bill granting the new charter, and sent the open defiance to Jackson.
+His response was an instant veto. The battle was on and it raged with
+fury until the close of his second administration, ending in the
+destruction of the bank, a disordered currency, and a national panic.</p>
+
+<p>In his veto message, Jackson attacked the bank as unconstitutional and
+even hinted at corruption. He refused to assent to the proposition that
+the Supreme Court had settled the question of constitutionality by the
+decision in the McCulloch case. "Each public officer," he argued, "who
+takes an oath to support the Constitution, swears that he will support
+it as he understands it, not as it is understood by others."</p>
+
+<p>Not satisfied with his veto and his declaration against the bank,
+Jackson ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to withdraw the government
+deposits which formed a large part of the institution's funds. This
+action he followed up by an open charge that the bank had used money
+shamefully to secure the return of its supporters to Congress. The
+Senate, stung by this charge, solemnly resolved that Jackson had
+"assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the
+Constitution and laws, but in derogation of both."</p>
+
+<p>The effects of the destruction of the bank were widespread. When its
+charter expired in 1836, banking was once more committed to the control
+of the states. The state legislatures, under a decision rendered by the
+Supreme Court after the death of Marshall, began to charter banks under
+state ownership and control, with full power to issue paper money&mdash;this
+in spite of the provision in the Constitution that states shall not
+issue bills of credit or make anything but gold and silver coin legal
+tender in the payment of debts. Once more the country was flooded by
+paper currency of uncertain value. To make matters worse, Jackson
+adopted the practice of depositing huge amounts of government funds in
+these banks, not forgetting to render favors to those institutions which
+supported him in politics&mdash;"pet banks," as they were styled <a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a>at the
+time. In 1837, partially, though by no means entirely, as a result of
+the abolition of the bank, the country was plunged into one of the most
+disastrous panics which it ever experienced.</p>
+
+<p><b>Internal Improvements Checked.</b>&mdash;The bank had presented to Jackson a
+very clear problem&mdash;one of destruction. Other questions were not so
+simple, particularly the subject of federal appropriations in aid of
+roads and other internal improvements. Jefferson had strongly favored
+government assistance in such matters, but his administration was
+followed by a reaction. Both Madison and Monroe vetoed acts of Congress
+appropriating public funds for public roads, advancing as their reason
+the argument that the Constitution authorized no such laws. Jackson,
+puzzled by the clamor on both sides, followed their example without
+making the constitutional bar absolute. Congress, he thought, might
+lawfully build highways of a national and military value, but he
+strongly deprecated attacks by local interests on the federal treasury.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Triumph of the Executive Branch.</b>&mdash;Jackson's <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'reelection'">re&euml;lection</ins> in 1832
+served to confirm his opinion that he was the chosen leader of the
+people, freed and instructed to ride rough shod over Congress and even
+the courts. No President before or since ever entertained in times of
+peace such lofty notions of executive prerogative. The entire body of
+federal employees he transformed into obedient servants of his wishes, a
+sign or a nod from him making and undoing the fortunes of the humble and
+the mighty. His lawful cabinet of advisers, filling all of the high
+posts in the government, he treated with scant courtesy, preferring
+rather to secure his counsel and advice from an unofficial body of
+friends and dependents who, owing to their secret methods and back
+stairs arrangements, became known as "the kitchen cabinet." Under the
+leadership of a silent, astute, and resourceful politician, Amos
+Kendall, this informal gathering of the faithful both gave and carried
+out decrees and orders, communicating the President's lightest wish or
+strictest command to the uttermost part of the country.<a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a> Resolutely and
+in the face of bitter opposition Jackson had removed the deposits from
+the United States Bank. When the Senate protested against this arbitrary
+conduct, he did not rest until it was forced to expunge the resolution
+of condemnation; in time one of his lieutenants with his own hands was
+able to tear the censure from the records. When Chief Justice Marshall
+issued a decree against Georgia which did not suit him, Jackson,
+according to tradition, blurted out that Marshall could go ahead and
+enforce his own orders. To the end he pursued his willful way, finally
+even choosing his own successor.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Rise of the Whigs</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Jackson's Measures Arouse Opposition.</b>&mdash;Measures so decided, policies
+so radical, and conduct so high-handed could not fail to arouse against
+Jackson a deep and exasperated opposition. The truth is the conduct of
+his entire administration profoundly disturbed the business and finances
+of the country. It was accompanied by conditions similar to those which
+existed under the Articles of Confederation. A paper currency, almost as
+unstable and irritating as the worthless notes of revolutionary days,
+flooded the country, hindering the easy transaction of business. The use
+of federal funds for internal improvements, so vital to the exchange of
+commodities which is the very life of industry, was blocked by executive
+vetoes. The Supreme Court, which, under Marshall, had held refractory
+states to their obligations under the Constitution, was flouted; states'
+rights judges, deliberately selected by Jackson for the bench, began to
+sap and undermine the rulings of Marshall. The protective tariff, under
+which the textile industry of New England, the iron mills of
+Pennsylvania, and the wool, flax, and hemp farms of the West had
+flourished, had received a severe blow in the compromise of 1833 which
+promised a steady reduction of duties. To cap the climax, Jackson's
+party, casting aside the old and reputable name of Republican, boldly
+chose for its title the term "Demo<a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>crat," throwing down the gauntlet to
+every conservative who doubted the omniscience of the people. All these
+things worked together to evoke an opposition that was sharp and
+determined.</p>
+
+<div><a name="cartoon" id="cartoon" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/287.png"><img src="./images/287-tb.png" alt="An Old Cartoon Ridiculing Clay's Tariff and Internal Improvement Program" title="An Old Cartoon Ridiculing Clay's Tariff and Internal Improvement Program" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">An Old Cartoon Ridiculing Clay's Tariff and Internal Improvement Program</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Clay and the National Republicans.</b>&mdash;In this opposition movement,
+leadership fell to Henry Clay, a son of Kentucky, rather than to Daniel
+Webster of Massachusetts. Like Jackson, Clay was born in a home haunted
+by poverty. Left fatherless early and thrown upon his own resources, he
+went from Virginia into Kentucky where by sheer force of intellect he
+rose to eminence in the profession of law. Without the martial gifts or
+the martial spirit of Jackson, he slipped more easily into the social
+habits of the East at the same time that he retained his hold on the
+affections of the boisterous West. Farmers of Ohio, Indiana, and
+Kentucky loved him; financiers of New York and Philadelphia trusted him.
+He was thus a leader <a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a>well fitted to gather the forces of opposition
+into union against Jackson.</p>
+
+<p>Around Clay's standard assembled a motley collection, representing every
+species of political opinion, united by one tie only&mdash;hatred for "Old
+Hickory." Nullifiers and less strenuous advocates of states' rights were
+yoked with nationalists of Webster's school; ardent protectionists were
+bound together with equally ardent free traders, all fraternizing in one
+grand confusion of ideas under the title of "National Republicans." Thus
+the ancient and honorable term selected by Jefferson and his party, now
+abandoned by Jacksonian Democracy, was adroitly adopted to cover the
+supporters of Clay. The platform of the party, however, embraced all the
+old Federalist principles: protection for American industry; internal
+improvements; respect for the Supreme Court; resistance to executive
+tyranny; and denunciation of the spoils system. Though Jackson was
+easily victorious in 1832, the popular vote cast for Clay should have
+given him some doubts about the faith of "the whole people" in the
+wisdom of his "reign."</p>
+
+<p><b>Van Buren and the Panic of 1837.</b>&mdash;Nothing could shake the General's
+superb confidence. At the end of his second term he insisted on
+selecting his own successor; at a national convention, chosen by party
+voters, but packed with his office holders and friends, he nominated
+Martin Van Buren of New York. Once more he proved his strength by
+carrying the country for the Democrats. With a fine flourish, he
+attended the inauguration of Van Buren and then retired, amid the
+applause and tears of his devotees, to the Hermitage, his home in
+Tennessee.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately for him, Jackson escaped the odium of a disastrous panic
+which struck the country with terrible force in the following summer.
+Among the contributory causes of this crisis, no doubt, were the
+destruction of the bank and the issuance of the "specie circular" of
+1836 which required the purchasers of public lands to pay for them in
+coin, instead of the paper notes of state banks. Whatever the dominating
+<a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>cause, the ruin was widespread. Bank after bank went under; boom towns
+in the West collapsed; Eastern mills shut down; and working people in
+the industrial centers, starving from unemployment, begged for relief.
+Van Buren braved the storm, offering no measure of reform or assistance
+to the distracted people. He did seek security for government funds by
+suggesting the removal of deposits from private banks and the
+establishment of an independent treasury system, with government
+depositaries for public funds, in several leading cities. This plan was
+finally accepted by Congress in 1840.</p>
+
+<p>Had Van Buren been a captivating figure he might have lived down the
+discredit of the panic unjustly laid at his door; but he was far from
+being a favorite with the populace. Though a man of many talents, he
+owed his position to the quiet and adept management of Jackson rather
+than to his own personal qualities. The men of the frontier did not care
+for him. They suspected that he ate from "gold plate" and they could not
+forgive him for being an astute politician from New York. Still the
+Democratic party, remembering Jackson's wishes, renominated him
+unanimously in 1840 and saw him go down to utter defeat.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Whigs and General Harrison.</b>&mdash;By this time, the National
+Republicans, now known as Whigs&mdash;a title taken from the party of
+opposition to the Crown in England, had learned many lessons. Taking a
+leaf out of the Democratic book, they nominated, not Clay of Kentucky,
+well known for his views on the bank, the tariff, and internal
+improvements, but a military hero, General William Henry Harrison, a man
+of uncertain political opinions. Harrison, a son of a Virginia signer of
+the Declaration of Independence, sprang into public view by winning a
+battle more famous than important, "Tippecanoe"&mdash;a brush with the
+Indians in Indiana. He added to his laurels by rendering praiseworthy
+services during the war of 1812. When days of peace returned he was
+rewarded by a grateful people with a seat in Congress. Then he retired
+to quiet life in a little village near Cincinnati. Like Jackson <a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a>he was
+held to be a son of the South and the West. Like Jackson he was a
+military hero, a lesser light, but still a light. Like Old Hickory he
+rode into office on a tide of popular feeling against an Eastern man
+accused of being something of an aristocrat. His personal popularity was
+sufficient. The Whigs who nominated him shrewdly refused to adopt a
+platform or declare their belief in anything. When some Democrat
+asserted that Harrison was a backwoodsman whose sole wants were a jug of
+hard cider and a log cabin, the Whigs treated the remark not as an
+insult but as proof positive that Harrison deserved the votes of Jackson
+men. The jug and the cabin they proudly transformed into symbols of the
+campaign, and won for their chieftain 234 electoral votes, while Van
+Buren got only sixty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Harrison and Tyler.</b>&mdash;The Hero of Tippecanoe was not long to enjoy the
+fruits of his victory. The hungry horde of Whig office seekers descended
+upon him like wolves upon the fold. If he went out they waylaid him; if
+he stayed indoors, he was besieged; not even his bed chamber was spared.
+He was none too strong at best and he took a deep cold on the day of his
+inauguration. Between driving out Democrats and appeasing Whigs, he fell
+mortally ill. Before the end of a month he lay dead at the capitol.</p>
+
+<p>Harrison's successor, John Tyler, the Vice President, whom the Whigs had
+nominated to catch votes in Virginia, was more of a Democrat than
+anything else, though he was not partisan enough to please anybody. The
+Whigs railed at him because he would not approve the founding of another
+United States Bank. The Democrats stormed at him for refusing, until
+near the end of his term, to sanction the annexation of Texas, which had
+declared its independence of Mexico in 1836. His entire administration,
+marked by unseemly wrangling, produced only two measures of importance.
+The Whigs, flushed by victory, with the aid of a few protectionist
+Democrats, enacted, in 1842, a new tariff law destroying the compromise
+which had brought about the truce between the North and the<a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a> South, in
+the days of nullification. The distinguished leader of the Whigs, Daniel
+Webster, as Secretary of State, in negotiation with Lord Ashburton
+representing Great Britain, settled the long-standing dispute between
+the two countries over the Maine boundary. A year after closing this
+chapter in American diplomacy, Webster withdrew to private life, leaving
+the President to endure alone the buffets of political fortune.</p>
+
+<p>To the end, the Whigs regarded Tyler as a traitor to their cause; but
+the judgment of history is that it was a case of the biter bitten. They
+had nominated him for the vice presidency as a man of views acceptable
+to Southern Democrats in order to catch their votes, little reckoning
+with the chances of his becoming President. Tyler had not deceived them
+and, thoroughly soured, he left the White House in 1845 not to appear in
+public life again until the days of secession, when he espoused the
+Southern confederacy. Jacksonian Democracy, with new leadership, serving
+a new cause&mdash;slavery&mdash;was returned to power under James K. Polk, a
+friend of the General from Tennessee. A few grains of sand were to run
+through the hour glass before the Whig party was to be broken and
+scattered as the Federalists had been more than a generation before.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Interaction of American and European Opinion</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Democracy in England and France.</b>&mdash;During the period of Jacksonian
+Democracy, as in all epochs of ferment, there was a close relation
+between the thought of the New World and the Old. In England, the
+successes of the American experiment were used as arguments in favor of
+overthrowing the aristocracy which George III had manipulated with such
+effect against America half a century before. In the United States, on
+the other hand, conservatives like Chancellor Kent, the stout opponent
+of manhood suffrage in New York, cited the riots of the British working
+classes as a warning against admitting the same classes to a share in
+the government of the United States. Along with the agitation of opinion
+went epoch-making events. In 1832, the year of Jackson's second
+<a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a>triumph, the British Parliament passed its first reform bill, which
+conferred the ballot&mdash;not on workingmen as yet&mdash;but on mill owners and
+shopkeepers whom the landlords regarded with genuine horror. The initial
+step was thus taken in breaking down the privileges of the landed
+aristocracy and the rich merchants of England.</p>
+
+<p>About the same time a popular revolution occurred in France. The Bourbon
+family, restored to the throne of France by the allied powers after
+their victory over Napoleon in 1815, had embarked upon a policy of
+arbitrary government. To use the familiar phrase, they had learned
+nothing and forgotten nothing. Charles X, who came to the throne in
+1824, set to work with zeal to undo the results of the French
+Revolution, to stifle the press, restrict the suffrage, and restore the
+clergy and the nobility to their ancient rights. His policy encountered
+equally zealous opposition and in 1830 he was overthrown. The popular
+party, under the leadership of Lafayette, established, not a republic as
+some of the radicals had hoped, but a "liberal" middle-class monarchy
+under Louis Philippe. This second French Revolution made a profound
+impression on Americans, convincing them that the whole world was moving
+toward democracy. The mayor, aldermen, and citizens of New York City
+joined in a great parade to celebrate the fall of the Bourbons. Mingled
+with cheers for the new order in France were hurrahs for "the people's
+own, Andrew Jackson, the Hero of New Orleans and President of the United
+States!"</p>
+
+<p><b>European Interest in America.</b>&mdash;To the older and more settled
+Europeans, the democratic experiment in America was either a menace or
+an inspiration. Conservatives viewed it with anxiety; liberals with
+optimism. Far-sighted leaders could see that the tide of democracy was
+rising all over the world and could not be stayed. Naturally the country
+that had advanced furthest along the new course was the place in which
+to find arguments for and against proposals that Europe should make
+experiments of the same character.<a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>De Tocqueville's <i>Democracy in America</i>.</b>&mdash;In addition to the casual
+traveler there began to visit the United States the thoughtful observer
+bent on finding out what manner of nation this was springing up in the
+wilderness. Those who looked with sympathy upon the growing popular
+forces of England and France found in the United States, in spite of
+many blemishes and defects, a guarantee for the future of the people's
+rule in the Old World. One of these, Alexis de Tocqueville, a French
+liberal of mildly democratic sympathies, made a journey to this country
+in 1831; he described in a very remarkable volume, <i>Democracy in
+America</i>, the grand experiment as he saw it. On the whole he was
+convinced. After examining with a critical eye the life and labor of the
+American people, as well as the constitutions of the states and the
+nation, he came to the conclusion that democracy with all its faults was
+both inevitable and successful. Slavery he thought was a painful
+contrast to the other features of American life, and he foresaw what
+proved to be the irrepressible conflict over it. He believed that
+through blundering the people were destined to learn the highest of all
+arts, self-government on a grand scale. The absence of a leisure class,
+devoted to no calling or profession, merely enjoying the refinements of
+life and adding to its graces&mdash;the flaw in American culture that gave
+deep distress to many a European leader&mdash;de Tocqueville thought a
+necessary virtue in the republic. "Amongst a democratic people where
+there is no hereditary wealth, every man works to earn a living, or has
+worked, or is born of parents who have worked. A notion of labor is
+therefore presented to the mind on every side as the necessary, natural,
+and honest condition of human existence." It was this notion of a
+government in the hands of people who labored that struck the French
+publicist as the most significant fact in the modern world.</p>
+
+<p><b>Harriet Martineau's Visit to America.</b>&mdash;This phase of American life
+also profoundly impressed the brilliant English writer, Harriet
+Martineau. She saw all parts of the country, the homes of the rich and
+the log cabins of the frontier; <a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>she traveled in stagecoaches, canal
+boats, and on horseback; and visited sessions of Congress and auctions
+at slave markets. She tried to view the country impartially and the
+thing that left the deepest mark on her mind was the solidarity of the
+people in one great political body. "However various may be the tribes
+of inhabitants in those states, whatever part of the world may have been
+their birthplace, or that of their fathers, however broken may be their
+language, however servile or noble their employments, however exalted or
+despised their state, all are declared to be bound together by equal
+political obligations.... In that self-governing country all are held to
+have an equal interest in the principles of its institutions and to be
+bound in equal duty to watch their workings." Miss Martineau was also
+impressed with the passion of Americans for land ownership and
+contrasted the United States favorably with England where the tillers of
+the soil were either tenants or laborers for wages.</p>
+
+<p><b>Adverse Criticism.</b>&mdash;By no means all observers and writers were
+convinced that America was a success. The fastidious traveler, Mrs.
+Trollope, who thought the English system of church and state was ideal,
+saw in the United States only roughness and ignorance. She lamented the
+"total and universal want of manners both in males and females," adding
+that while "they appear to have clear heads and active intellects,"
+there was "no charm, no grace in their conversation." She found
+everywhere a lack of reverence for kings, learning, and rank. Other
+critics were even more savage. The editor of the <i>Foreign Quarterly</i>
+petulantly exclaimed that the United States was "a brigand
+confederation." Charles Dickens declared the country to be "so maimed
+and lame, so full of sores and ulcers that her best friends turn from
+the loathsome creature in disgust." Sydney Smith, editor of the
+<i>Edinburgh Review</i>, was never tired of trying his caustic wit at the
+expense of America. "Their Franklins and Washingtons and all the other
+sages and heroes of their revolution were born and bred subjects of the
+king of England," he observed in 1820.<a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a> "During the thirty or forty
+years of their independence they have done absolutely nothing for the
+sciences, for the arts, for literature, or even for the statesmanlike
+studies of politics or political economy.... In the four quarters of the
+globe who reads an American book? Or goes to an American play? Or looks
+at an American picture or statue?" To put a sharp sting into his taunt
+he added, forgetting by whose authority slavery was introduced and
+fostered: "Under which of the old tyrannical governments of Europe is
+every sixth man a slave whom his fellow creatures may buy and sell?"</p>
+
+<p>Some Americans, while resenting the hasty and often superficial
+judgments of European writers, winced under their satire and took
+thought about certain particulars in the indictments brought against
+them. The mass of the people, however, bent on the great experiment,
+gave little heed to carping critics who saw the flaws and not the
+achievements of our country&mdash;critics who were in fact less interested in
+America than in preventing the rise and growth of democracy in Europe.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>J.S. Bassett, <i>Life of Andrew Jackson</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.W. Burgess, <i>The Middle Period</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H. Lodge, <i>Daniel Webster</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W. Macdonald, <i>Jacksonian Democracy</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>Ostrogorski, <i>Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties</i>, Vol.
+II.</p>
+
+<p>C.H. Peck, <i>The Jacksonian Epoch</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C. Schurz, <i>Henry Clay</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. By what devices was democracy limited in the first days of our
+Republic?</p>
+
+<p>2. On what grounds were the limitations defended? Attacked?</p>
+
+<p>3. Outline the rise of political democracy in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>4. Describe three important changes in our political system.</p>
+
+<p>5. Contrast the Presidents of the old and the new generations.</p>
+
+<p>6. Account for the unpopularity of John Adams' administration.</p>
+
+<p>7. What had been the career of Andrew Jackson before 1829?</p>
+
+<p>8. Sketch the history of the protective tariff and explain the theory
+underlying it.<a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a></p>
+
+<p>9. Explain the growth of Southern opposition to the tariff.</p>
+
+<p>10. Relate the leading events connected with nullification in South
+Carolina.</p>
+
+<p>11. State Jackson's views and tell the outcome of the controversy.</p>
+
+<p>12. Why was Jackson opposed to the bank? How did he finally destroy it?</p>
+
+<p>13. The Whigs complained of Jackson's "executive tyranny." What did they
+mean?</p>
+
+<p>14. Give some of the leading events in Clay's career.</p>
+
+<p>15. How do you account for the triumph of Harrison in 1840?</p>
+
+<p>16. Why was Europe especially interested in America at this period? Who
+were some of the European writers on American affairs?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Jackson's Criticisms of the Bank.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source
+Book</i>, pp. 320-329.</p>
+
+<p><b>Financial Aspects of the Bank Controversy.</b>&mdash;Dewey, <i>Financial History
+of the United States</i>, Sections 86-87; Elson, <i>History of the United
+States</i>, pp. 492-496.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jackson's View of the Union.</b>&mdash;See his proclamation on nullification in
+Macdonald, pp. 333-340.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nullification.</b>&mdash;McMaster, <i>History of the People of the United
+States</i>, Vol. VI, pp. 153-182; Elson, pp. 487-492.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Webster-Hayne Debate.</b>&mdash;Analyze the arguments. Extensive extracts
+are given in Macdonald's larger three-volume work, <i>Select Documents of
+United States History, 1776-1761</i>, pp. 239-260.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Character of Jackson's Administration.</b>&mdash;Woodrow Wilson, <i>History
+of the American People</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 1-87; Elson, pp. 498-501.</p>
+
+<p><b>The People in 1830.</b>&mdash;From contemporary writings in Hart, <i>American
+History Told by Contemporaries</i>, Vol. III, pp. 509-530.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;Andrew Jackson, J.Q. Adams, Henry Clay, Daniel
+Webster, J.C. Calhoun, and W.H. Harrison.<a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST</h3>
+
+
+<p>"We shall not send an emigrant beyond the Mississippi in a hundred
+years," exclaimed Livingston, the principal author of the Louisiana
+purchase. When he made this astounding declaration, he doubtless had
+before his mind's eye the great stretches of unoccupied lands between
+the Appalachians and the Mississippi. He also had before him the history
+of the English colonies, which told him of the two centuries required to
+settle the seaboard region. To practical men, his prophecy did not seem
+far wrong; but before the lapse of half that time there appeared beyond
+the Mississippi a tier of new states, reaching from the Gulf of Mexico
+to the southern boundary of Minnesota, and a new commonwealth on the
+Pacific Ocean where American emigrants had raised the Bear flag of
+California.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Advance of the Middle Border</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Missouri.</b>&mdash;When the middle of the nineteenth century had been reached,
+the Mississippi River, which Daniel Boone, the intrepid hunter, had
+crossed during Washington's administration "to escape from civilization"
+in Kentucky, had become the waterway for a vast empire. The center of
+population of the United States had passed to the Ohio Valley. Missouri,
+with its wide reaches of rich lands, low-lying, level, and fertile, well
+adapted to hemp raising, had drawn to its borders thousands of planters
+from the old Southern states&mdash;from Virginia and the Carolinas as well as
+from Kentucky and Tennessee. When the great compromise of 1820-21
+admitted her to the union, wearing "every jewel of sovereignty," as a
+florid orator announced, migratory slave owners were assured <a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>that their
+property would be safe in Missouri. Along the western shore of the
+Mississippi and on both banks of the Missouri to the uttermost limits of
+the state, plantations tilled by bondmen spread out in broad expanses.
+In the neighborhood of Jefferson City the slaves numbered more than a
+fourth of the population.</p>
+
+<p>Into this stream of migration from the planting South flowed another
+current of land-tilling farmers; some from Kentucky, Tennessee, and
+Mississippi, driven out by the onrush of the planters buying and
+consolidating small farms into vast estates; and still more from the
+East and the Old World. To the northwest over against Iowa and to the
+southwest against Arkansas, these yeomen laid out farms to be tilled by
+their own labor. In those regions the number of slaves seldom rose above
+five or six per cent of the population. The old French post, St. Louis,
+enriched by the fur trade of the Far West and the steamboat traffic of
+the river, grew into a thriving commercial city, including among its
+seventy-five thousand inhabitants in 1850 nearly forty thousand
+foreigners, German immigrants from Pennsylvania and Europe being the
+largest single element.</p>
+
+<p><b>Arkansas.</b>&mdash;Below Missouri lay the territory of Arkansas, which had
+long been the paradise of the swarthy hunter and the restless
+frontiersman fleeing from the advancing borders of farm and town. In
+search of the life, wild and free, where the rifle supplied the game and
+a few acres of ground the corn and potatoes, they had filtered into the
+territory in an unending drift, "squatting" on the land. Without so much
+as asking the leave of any government, territorial or national, they
+claimed as their own the soil on which they first planted their feet.
+Like the Cherokee Indians, whom they had as neighbors, whose very
+customs and dress they sometimes adopted, the squatters spent their days
+in the midst of rough plenty, beset by chills, fevers, and the ills of
+the flesh, but for many years unvexed by political troubles or the
+restrictions of civilized life.<a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a></p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately for them, however, the fertile valleys of the Mississippi
+and Arkansas were well adapted to the cultivation of cotton and tobacco
+and their sylvan peace was soon broken by an invasion of planters. The
+newcomers, with their servile workers, spread upward in the valley
+toward Missouri and along the southern border westward to the Red River.
+In time the slaves in the tier of counties against Louisiana ranged from
+thirty to seventy per cent of the population. This marked the doom of
+the small farmer, swept Arkansas into the main current of planting
+politics, and led to a powerful lobby at Washington in favor of
+admission to the union, a boon granted in 1836.</p>
+
+<p><b>Michigan.</b>&mdash;In accordance with a well-established custom, a free state
+was admitted to the union to balance a slave state. In 1833, the people
+of Michigan, a territory ten times the size of Connecticut, announced
+that the time had come for them to enjoy the privileges of a
+commonwealth. All along the southern border the land had been occupied
+largely by pioneers from New England, who built prim farmhouses and
+adopted the town-meeting plan of self-government after the fashion of
+the old home. The famous post of Detroit was growing into a flourishing
+city as the boats plying on the Great Lakes carried travelers, settlers,
+and freight through the narrows. In all, according to the census, there
+were more than ninety thousand inhabitants in the territory; so it was
+not without warrant that they clamored for statehood. Congress, busy as
+ever with politics, delayed; and the inhabitants of Michigan, unable to
+restrain their impatience, called a convention, drew up a constitution,
+and started a lively quarrel with Ohio over the southern boundary. The
+hand of Congress was now forced. Objections were made to the new
+constitution on the ground that it gave the ballot to all free white
+males, including aliens not yet naturalized; but the protests were
+overborne in a long debate. The boundary was fixed, and Michigan, though
+shorn of some of the land she claimed, came into the union in 1837.<a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Wisconsin.</b>&mdash;Across Lake Michigan to the west lay the territory of
+Wisconsin, which shared with Michigan the interesting history of the
+Northwest, running back into the heroic days when French hunters and
+missionaries were planning a French empire for the great monarch, Louis
+XIV. It will not be forgotten that the French rangers of the woods, the
+black-robed priests, prepared for sacrifice, even to death, the trappers
+of the French agencies, and the French explorers&mdash;Marquette, Joliet, and
+Menard&mdash;were the first white men to paddle their frail barks through the
+northern waters. They first blazed their trails into the black forests
+and left traces of their work in the names of portages and little
+villages. It was from these forests that Red Men in full war paint
+journeyed far to fight under the <i>fleur-de-lis</i> of France when the
+soldiers of King Louis made their last stand at Quebec and Montreal
+against the imperial arms of Britain. It was here that the British flag
+was planted in 1761 and that the great Pontiac conspiracy was formed two
+years later to overthrow British dominion.</p>
+
+<p>When, a generation afterward, the Stars and Stripes supplanted the Union
+Jack, the French were still almost the only white men in the region.
+They were soon joined by hustling Yankee fur traders who did battle
+royal against British interlopers. The traders cut their way through
+forest trails and laid out the routes through lake and stream and over
+portages for the settlers and their families from the states "back
+East." It was the forest ranger who discovered the water power later
+used to turn the busy mills grinding the grain from the spreading farm
+lands. In the wake of the fur hunters, forest men, and farmers came
+miners from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri crowding in to exploit the
+lead ores of the northwest, some of them bringing slaves to work their
+claims. Had it not been for the gold fever of 1849 that drew the
+wielders of pick and shovel to the Far West, Wisconsin would early have
+taken high rank among the mining regions of the country.<a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a></p>
+
+<p>From a favorable point of vantage on Lake Michigan, the village of
+Milwaukee, a center for lumber and grain transport and a place of entry
+for Eastern goods, grew into a thriving city. It claimed twenty thousand
+inhabitants, when in 1848 Congress admitted Wisconsin to the union.
+Already the Germans, Irish, and Scandinavians had found their way into
+the territory. They joined Americans from the older states in clearing
+forests, building roads, transforming trails into highways, erecting
+mills, and connecting streams with canals to make a network of routes
+for the traffic that poured to and from the Great Lakes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Iowa and Minnesota.</b>&mdash;To the southwest of Wisconsin beyond the
+Mississippi, where the tall grass of the prairies waved like the sea,
+farmers from New England, New York, and Ohio had prepared Iowa for
+statehood. A tide of immigration that might have flowed into Missouri
+went northward; for freemen, unaccustomed to slavery and slave markets,
+preferred the open country above the compromise line. With incredible
+swiftness, they spread farms westward from the Mississippi. With Yankee
+ingenuity they turned to trading on the river, building before 1836
+three prosperous centers of traffic: Dubuque, Davenport, and Burlington.
+True to their old traditions, they founded colleges and academies that
+religion and learning might be cherished on the frontier as in the
+states from which they came. Prepared for self-government, the Iowans
+laid siege to the door of Congress and were admitted to the union in
+1846.</p>
+
+<p>Above Iowa, on the Mississippi, lay the territory of Minnesota&mdash;the home
+of the Dakotas, the Ojibways, and the Sioux. Like Michigan and
+Wisconsin, it had been explored early by the French scouts, and the
+first white settlement was the little French village of Mendota. To the
+people of the United States, the resources of the country were first
+revealed by the historic journey of Zebulon Pike in 1805 and by American
+fur traders who were quick to take advantage of the opportunity to ply
+their arts of hunting and bartering in fresh fields. In<a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a> 1839 an
+American settlement was planted at Marina on the St. Croix, the outpost
+of advancing civilization. Within twenty years, the territory, boasting
+a population of 150,000, asked for admission to the union. In 1858 the
+plea was granted and Minnesota showed her gratitude three years later by
+being first among the states to offer troops to Lincoln in the hour of
+peril.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">On to the Pacific&mdash;Texas and the Mexican War</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Uniformity of the Middle West.</b>&mdash;There was a certain monotony about
+pioneering in the Northwest and on the middle border. As the long
+stretches of land were cleared or prepared for the plow, they were laid
+out like checkerboards into squares of forty, eighty, one hundred sixty,
+or more acres, each the seat of a homestead. There was a striking
+uniformity also about the endless succession of fertile fields spreading
+far and wide under the hot summer sun. No majestic mountains relieved
+the sweep of the prairie. Few monuments of other races and antiquity
+were there to awaken curiosity about the region. No sonorous bells in
+old missions rang out the time of day. The chaffering Red Man bartering
+blankets and furs for powder and whisky had passed farther on. The
+population was made up of plain farmers and their families engaged in
+severe and unbroken labor, chopping down trees, draining fever-breeding
+swamps, breaking new ground, and planting from year to year the same
+rotation of crops. Nearly all the settlers were of native American stock
+into whose frugal and industrious lives the later Irish and German
+immigrants fitted, on the whole, with little friction. Even the Dutch
+oven fell before the cast-iron cooking stove. Happiness and sorrow,
+despair and hope were there, but all encompassed by the heavy tedium of
+prosaic sameness.</p>
+
+<div><a name="santa" id="santa" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/303.jpg"><img src="./images/303-tb.jpg" alt="Santa Barbara Mission" title="Santa Barbara Mission" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Santa Barbara Mission</span></div>
+
+<p><b>A Contrast in the Far West and Southwest.</b>&mdash;As George Rogers Clark and
+Daniel Boone had stirred the snug Americans of the seaboard to seek
+their fortunes beyond the Appalachians, so now Kit Carson, James Bowie,
+Sam Houston,<a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a> Davy Crockett, and John C. Fr&eacute;mont were to lead the way
+into a new land, only a part of which was under the American flag. The
+setting for this new scene in the westward movement was thrown out in a
+wide sweep from the headwaters of the Mississippi to the banks of the
+Rio Grande; from the valleys of the Sabine and Red rivers to Montana and
+the Pacific slope. In comparison with the middle border, this region
+presented such startling diversities that only the eye of faith could
+foresee the unifying power of nationalism binding its communities with
+the older sections of the country. What contrasts indeed! The blue grass
+region of Kentucky or the rich, black soil of Illinois&mdash;the painted
+desert, the home of the sage brush and the coyote! The level prairies of
+Iowa&mdash;the mighty Rockies shouldering themselves high against the
+horizon! The long bleak winters of Wisconsin&mdash;California of endless
+summer! The log churches of Indiana or Illinois&mdash;the quaint missions of
+San Antonio, Tucson, and Santa Barbara! The little state of
+Delaware&mdash;the empire of Texas, one hundred and twenty times its area!
+And scattered about through the Southwest were signs of an ancient
+civilization&mdash;fragments of four-and five-story dwellings, ruined dams,
+aqueducts, and broken canals, which told of once prosperous <a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a>peoples
+who, by art and science, had conquered the aridity of the desert and
+lifted themselves in the scale of culture above the savages of the
+plain.</p>
+
+<p>The settlers of this vast empire were to be as diverse in their origins
+and habits as those of the colonies on the coast had been. Americans of
+English, Irish, and Scotch-Irish descent came as usual from the Eastern
+states. To them were added the migratory Germans as well. Now for the
+first time came throngs of Scandinavians. Some were to make their homes
+on quiet farms as the border advanced against the setting sun. Others
+were to be Indian scouts, trappers, fur hunters, miners, cowboys, Texas
+planters, keepers of lonely posts on the plain and the desert, stage
+drivers, pilots of wagon trains, pony riders, fruit growers, "lumber
+jacks," and smelter workers. One common bond united them&mdash;a passion for
+the self-government accorded to states. As soon as a few thousand
+settlers came together in a single territory, there arose a mighty shout
+for a position beside the staid commonwealths of the East and the South.
+Statehood meant to the pioneers self-government, dignity, and the right
+to dispose of land, minerals, and timber in their own way. In the quest
+for this local autonomy there arose many a wordy contest in Congress,
+each of the political parties lending a helping hand in the admission of
+a state when it gave promise of adding new congressmen of the "right
+political persuasion," to use the current phrase.</p>
+
+<p><b>Southern Planters and Texas.</b>&mdash;While the farmers of the North found the
+broad acres of the Western prairies stretching on before them apparently
+in endless expanse, it was far different with the Southern planters.
+Ever active in their search for new fields as they exhausted the virgin
+soil of the older states, the restless subjects of King Cotton quickly
+reached the frontier of Louisiana. There they paused; but only for a
+moment. The fertile land of Texas just across the boundary lured them on
+and the Mexican republic to which it belonged extended to them a more
+than generous welcome. Little realizing the perils lurking in a
+"peaceful penetration," the <a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a>authorities at Mexico City opened wide the
+doors and made large grants of land to American contractors, who agreed
+to bring a number of families into Texas. The omnipresent Yankee, in the
+person of Moses Austin of Connecticut, hearing of this good news in the
+Southwest, obtained a grant in 1820 to settle three hundred Americans
+near Bexar&mdash;a commission finally carried out to the letter by his son
+and celebrated in the name given to the present capital of the state of
+Texas. Within a decade some twenty thousand Americans had crossed the
+border.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mexico Closes the Door.</b>&mdash;The government of Mexico, unaccustomed to
+such enterprise and thoroughly frightened by its extent, drew back in
+dismay. Its fears were increased as quarrels broke out between the
+Americans and the natives in Texas. Fear grew into consternation when
+efforts were made by President Jackson to buy the territory for the
+United States. Mexico then sought to close the flood gates. It stopped
+all American colonization schemes, canceled many of the land grants, put
+a tariff on farming implements, and abolished slavery. These barriers
+were raised too late. A call for help ran through the western border of
+the United States. The sentinels of the frontier answered. Davy
+Crockett, the noted frontiersman, bear hunter, and backwoods politician;
+James Bowie, the dexterous wielder of the knife that to this day bears
+his name; and Sam Houston, warrior and pioneer, rushed to the aid of
+their countrymen in Texas. Unacquainted with the niceties of diplomacy,
+impatient at the formalities of international law, they soon made it
+known that in spite of Mexican sovereignty they would be their own
+masters.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Independence of Texas Declared.</b>&mdash;Numbering only about one-fourth
+of the population in Texas, they raised the standard of revolt in 1836
+and summoned a convention. Following in the footsteps of their
+ancestors, they issued a declaration of independence signed mainly by
+Americans from the slave states. Anticipating that the government of
+Mexico would not quietly accept their word of defiance as final, <a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a>they
+dispatched a force to repel "the invading army," as General Houston
+called the troops advancing under the command of Santa Ana, the Mexican
+president. A portion of the Texan soldiers took their stand in the
+Alamo, an old Spanish mission in the cottonwood trees in the town of San
+Antonio. Instead of obeying the order to blow up the mission and retire,
+they held their ground until they were completely surrounded and cut off
+from all help. Refusing to surrender, they fought to the bitter end, the
+last man falling a victim to the sword. Vengeance was swift. Within
+three months General Houston overwhelmed Santa Ana at the San Jacinto,
+taking him prisoner of war and putting an end to all hopes for the
+restoration of Mexican sovereignty over Texas.</p>
+
+<p>The Lone Star Republic, with Houston at the head, then sought admission
+to the United States. This seemed at first an easy matter. All that was
+required to bring it about appeared to be a treaty annexing Texas to the
+union. Moreover, President Jackson, at the height of his popularity, had
+a warm regard for General Houston and, with his usual sympathy for rough
+and ready ways of doing things, approved the transaction. Through an
+American representative in Mexico, Jackson had long and anxiously
+labored, by means none too nice, to wring from the Mexican republic the
+cession of the coveted territory. When the Texans took matters into
+their own hands, he was more than pleased; but he could not marshal the
+approval of two-thirds of the Senators required for a treaty of
+annexation. Cautious as well as impetuous, Jackson did not press the
+issue; he went out of office in 1837 with Texas uncertain as to her
+future.</p>
+
+<p><b>Northern Opposition to Annexation.</b>&mdash;All through the North the
+opposition to annexation was clear and strong. Anti-slavery agitators
+could hardly find words savage enough to express their feelings.
+"Texas," exclaimed Channing in a letter to Clay, "is but the first step
+of aggression. I trust indeed that Providence will beat back and humble
+our cupidity and ambition. I now ask whether as a people we <a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a>are
+prepared to seize on a neighboring territory for the end of extending
+slavery? I ask whether as a people we can stand forth in the sight of
+God, in the sight of nations, and adopt this atrocious policy? Sooner
+perish! Sooner be our name blotted out from the record of nations!"
+William Lloyd Garrison called for the secession of the Northern states
+if Texas was brought into the union with slavery. John Quincy Adams
+warned his countrymen that they were treading in the path of the
+imperialism that had brought the nations of antiquity to judgment and
+destruction. Henry Clay, the Whig candidate for President, taking into
+account changing public sentiment, blew hot and cold, losing the state
+of New York and the election of 1844 by giving a qualified approval of
+annexation. In the same campaign, the Democrats boldly demanded the
+"Reannexation of Texas," based on claims which the United States once
+had to Spanish territory beyond the Sabine River.</p>
+
+<p><b>Annexation.</b>&mdash;The politicians were disposed to walk very warily. Van
+Buren, at heart opposed to slavery extension, refused to press the issue
+of annexation. Tyler, a pro-slavery Democrat from Virginia, by a strange
+fling of fortune carried into office as a nominal Whig, kept his mind
+firmly fixed on the idea of re&euml;lection and let the troublesome matter
+rest until the end of his administration was in sight. He then listened
+with favor to the voice of the South. Calhoun stated what seemed to be a
+convincing argument: All good Americans have their hearts set on the
+Constitution; the admission of Texas is absolutely essential to the
+preservation of the union; it will give a balance of power to the South
+as against the North growing with incredible swiftness in wealth and
+population. Tyler, impressed by the plea, appointed Calhoun to the
+office of Secretary of State in 1844, authorizing him to negotiate the
+treaty of annexation&mdash;a commission at once executed. This scheme was
+blocked in the Senate where the necessary two-thirds vote could not be
+secured. Balked but not defeated, the advocates of annexation drew up a
+joint resolution which required only a majority vote in both houses,
+<a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>and in February of the next year, just before Tyler gave way to Polk,
+they pushed it through Congress. So Texas, amid the groans of Boston and
+the hurrahs of Charleston, folded up her flag and came into the union.</p>
+
+<div><a name="texas" id="texas"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><a href="./images/308.jpg"><img src="./images/308-tb.jpg" alt="Texas and the Territory in Dispute" title="Texas and the Territory in Dispute" /></a>
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Texas and the Territory in Dispute</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Mexican War.</b>&mdash;The inevitable war with Mexico, foretold by the
+abolitionists and feared by Henry Clay, ensued, the ostensible cause
+being a dispute over the boundaries of the new state. The Texans claimed
+all the lands down to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans placed the border of
+Texas at the Nueces River and a line drawn thence in a northerly
+direction. President Polk, accepting the Texan view of the controversy,
+ordered General Zachary Taylor to move beyond the Nueces in defense of
+American sovereignty. This act of power, deemed by the Mexicans an
+invasion of their territory, was followed by an attack on our troops.</p>
+
+<p>President Polk, not displeased with the turn of events, announced that
+American blood had been "spilled on American soil" and that war existed
+"by the act of Mexico." Congress, in a burst of patriotic fervor,
+brushed aside the protests of those who deplored the conduct of the
+government as wanton aggression on a weaker nation and granted money and
+supplies to prosecute the war. The few Whigs in the House of
+Representatives, who refused to vote in favor of taking up <a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>arms,
+accepted the inevitable with such good grace as they could command. All
+through the South and the West the war was popular. New England
+grumbled, but gave loyal, if not enthusiastic, support to a conflict
+precipitated by policies not of its own choosing. Only a handful of firm
+objectors held out. James Russell Lowell, in his <i>Biglow Papers</i>, flung
+scorn and sarcasm to the bitter end.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Outcome of the War.</b>&mdash;The foregone conclusion was soon reached.
+General Taylor might have delivered the fatal thrust from northern
+Mexico if politics had not intervened. Polk, anxious to avoid raising up
+another military hero for the Whigs to nominate for President, decided
+to divide the honors by sending General Scott to strike a blow at the
+capital, Mexico City. The deed was done with speed and pomp and two
+heroes were lifted into presidential possibilities. In the Far West a
+third candidate was made, John C. Fr&eacute;mont, who, in co&ouml;peration with
+Commodores Sloat and Stockton and General Kearney, planted the Stars and
+Stripes on the Pacific slope.</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1848, the Mexicans came to terms, ceding to the victor
+California, Arizona, New Mexico, and more&mdash;a domain greater in extent
+than the combined areas of France and Germany. As a salve to the wound,
+the vanquished received fifteen million dollars in cash and the
+cancellation of many claims held by American citizens. Five years later,
+through the negotiations of James Gadsden, a further cession of lands
+along the southern border of Arizona and New Mexico was secured on
+payment of ten million dollars.</p>
+
+<p><b>General Taylor Elected President.</b>&mdash;The ink was hardly dry upon the
+treaty that closed the war before "rough and ready" General Taylor, a
+slave owner from Louisiana, "a Whig," as he said, "but not an ultra
+Whig," was put forward as the Whig candidate for President. He himself
+had not voted for years and he was fairly innocent in matters political.
+The tariff, the currency, and internal improvements, with a magnificent
+gesture he referred to the people's representatives in<a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a> Congress,
+offering to enforce the laws as made, if elected. Clay's followers
+mourned. Polk stormed but could not win even a renomination at the hands
+of the Democrats. So it came about that the hero of Buena Vista,
+celebrated for his laconic order, "Give 'em a little more grape, Captain
+Bragg," became President of the United States.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Pacific Coast and Utah</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Oregon.</b>&mdash;Closely associated in the popular mind with the contest about
+the affairs of Texas was a dispute with Great Britain over the
+possession of territory in Oregon. In their presidential campaign of
+1844, the Democrats had coupled with the slogan, "The Reannexation of
+Texas," two other cries, "The Reoccupation of Oregon," and "Fifty-four
+Forty or Fight." The last two slogans were founded on American
+discoveries and explorations in the Far Northwest. Their appearance in
+politics showed that the distant Oregon country, larger in area than New
+England, New York, and Pennsylvania combined, was at last receiving from
+the nation the attention which its importance warranted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Joint Occupation and Settlement.</i>&mdash;Both England and the United States
+had long laid claim to Oregon and in 1818 they had agreed to occupy the
+territory jointly&mdash;a contract which was renewed ten years later for an
+indefinite period. Under this plan, citizens of both countries were free
+to hunt and settle anywhere in the region. The vanguard of British fur
+traders and Canadian priests was enlarged by many new recruits, with
+Americans not far behind them. John Jacob Astor, the resourceful New
+York merchant, sent out trappers and hunters who established a trading
+post at Astoria in 1811. Some twenty years later, American
+missionaries&mdash;among them two very remarkable men, Jason Lee and Marcus
+Whitman&mdash;were preaching the gospel to the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>Through news from the fur traders and missionaries, Eastern farmers
+heard of the fertile lands awaiting their plows on the Pacific slope;
+those with the pioneering spirit made ready to <a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a>take possession of the
+new country. In 1839 a band went around by Cape Horn. Four years later a
+great expedition went overland. The way once broken, others followed
+rapidly. As soon as a few settlements were well established, the
+pioneers held a mass meeting and agreed upon a plan of government. "We,
+the people of Oregon territory," runs the preamble to their compact,
+"for the purposes of mutual protection and to secure peace and
+prosperity among ourselves, agree to adopt the following laws and
+regulations until such time as the United States of America extend their
+jurisdiction over us." Thus self-government made its way across the
+Rocky Mountains.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oregon" id="oregon"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><a href="./images/311.jpg"><img src="./images/311-tb.png" alt="The Oregon Country and the Disputed Boundary" title="The Oregon Country and the Disputed Boundary" /></a>
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The Oregon Country and <br />the Disputed Boundary</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Boundary Dispute with England Adjusted.</i>&mdash;By this time it was
+evident that the boundaries of Oregon must be fixed. Having made the
+question an issue in his campaign, Polk, after his election in 1844,
+pressed it upon the attention of the country. In his inaugural address
+and his first message to Congress he reiterated the claim of the
+Democratic platform that "our title to the whole territory of Oregon is
+clear and unquestionable." This pretension Great Britain firmly
+rejected, leaving the President a choice between war and compromise.<a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a></p>
+
+<p>Polk, already having the contest with Mexico on his hands, sought and
+obtained a compromise. The British government, moved by a hint from the
+American minister, offered a settlement which would fix the boundary at
+the forty-ninth parallel instead of "fifty-four forty," and give it
+Vancouver Island. Polk speedily chose this way out of the dilemma.
+Instead of making the decision himself, however, and drawing up a
+treaty, he turned to the Senate for "counsel." As prearranged with party
+leaders, the advice was favorable to the plan. The treaty, duly drawn in
+1846, was ratified by the Senate after an acrimonious debate. "Oh!
+mountain that was delivered of a mouse," exclaimed Senator Benton, "thy
+name shall be fifty-four forty!" Thirteen years later, the southern part
+of the territory was admitted to the union as the state of Oregon,
+leaving the northern and eastern sections in the status of a territory.</p>
+
+<p><b>California.</b>&mdash;With the growth of the northwestern empire, dedicated by
+nature to freedom, the planting interests might have been content, had
+fortune not wrested from them the fair country of California. Upon this
+huge territory they had set their hearts. The mild climate and fertile
+soil seemed well suited to slavery and the planters expected to extend
+their sway to the entire domain. California was a state of more than
+155,000 square miles&mdash;about seventy times the size of the state of
+Delaware. It could readily be divided into five or six large states, if
+that became necessary to preserve the Southern balance of power.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early American Relations with California.</i>&mdash;Time and tide, it seems,
+were not on the side of the planters. Already Americans of a far
+different type were invading the Pacific slope. Long before Polk ever
+dreamed of California, the Yankee with his cargo of notions had been
+around the Horn. Daring skippers had sailed out of New England harbors
+with a variety of goods, bent their course around South America to
+California, on to China and around the world, trading as they went and
+leaving pots, pans, woolen cloth, guns, boots, shoes, <a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>salt fish, naval
+stores, and rum in their wake. "Home from Californy!" rang the cry in
+many a New England port as a good captain let go his anchor on his
+return from the long trading voyage in the Pacific.</p>
+
+<div><a name="overland" id="overland" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/313.png"><img src="./images/313-tb.png" alt="The Overland Trails" title="The Overland Trails" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The Overland Trails</span></div>
+
+<p><i>The Overland Trails.</i>&mdash;Not to be outdone by the mariners of the deep,
+western scouts searched for overland routes to the Pacific. Zebulon
+Pike, explorer and pathfinder, by his expedition into the Southwest
+during Jefferson's administration, had discovered the resources of New
+Spain and had shown his countrymen how easy it was to reach Santa F&eacute;
+from the upper waters of the Arkansas River. Not long afterward, traders
+laid open the route, making Franklin, Missouri, and later Fort
+Leavenworth the starting point. Along the trail, once surveyed, poured
+caravans heavily guarded by armed men against marauding Indians. Sand
+storms often wiped out all signs of <a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a>the route; hunger and thirst did
+many a band of wagoners to death; but the lure of the game and the
+profits at the end kept the business thriving. Huge stocks of cottons,
+glass, hardware, and ammunition were drawn almost across the continent
+to be exchanged at Santa F&eacute; for furs, Indian blankets, silver, and
+mules; and many a fortune was made out of the traffic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Americans in California.</i>&mdash;Why stop at Santa F&eacute;? The question did not
+long remain unanswered. In 1829, Ewing Young broke the path to Los
+Angeles. Thirteen years later Fr&eacute;mont made the first of his celebrated
+expeditions across plain, desert, and mountain, arousing the interest of
+the entire country in the Far West. In the wake of the pathfinders went
+adventurers, settlers, and artisans. By 1847, more than one-fifth of the
+inhabitants in the little post of two thousand on San Francisco Bay were
+from the United States. The Mexican War, therefore, was not the
+beginning but the end of the American conquest of California&mdash;a conquest
+initiated by Americans who went to till the soil, to trade, or to follow
+some mechanical pursuit.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Discovery of Gold.</i>&mdash;As if to clinch the hold on California already
+secured by the friends of free soil, there came in 1848 the sudden
+discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in the Sacramento Valley. When this
+exciting news reached the East, a mighty rush began to California, over
+the trails, across the Isthmus of Panama, and around Cape Horn. Before
+two years had passed, it is estimated that a hundred thousand people, in
+search of fortunes, had arrived in California&mdash;mechanics, teachers,
+doctors, lawyers, farmers, miners, and laborers from the four corners of
+the earth.</p>
+
+<div><a name="frisco" id="frisco" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/315.jpg" alt="San Francisco in 1849" title="San Francisco in 1849" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">San Francisco in 1849</span></div>
+
+<p><i>California a Free State.</i>&mdash;With this increase in population there
+naturally resulted the usual demand for admission to the union. Instead
+of waiting for authority from Washington, the Californians held a
+convention in 1849 and framed their constitution. With impatience, the
+delegates brushed aside the plea that "the balance of power between the
+North and<a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a> South" required the admission of their state as a slave
+commonwealth. Without a dissenting voice, they voted in favor of freedom
+and boldly made their request for inclusion among the United States.
+President Taylor, though a Southern man, advised Congress to admit the
+applicant. Robert Toombs of Georgia vowed to God that he preferred
+secession. Henry Clay, the great compromiser, came to the rescue and in
+1850 California was admitted as a free state.</p>
+
+<p><b>Utah.</b>&mdash;On the long road to California, in the midst of forbidding and
+barren wastes, a religious sect, the Mormons, had planted a colony
+destined to a stormy career. Founded in 1830 under the leadership of
+Joseph Smith of New York, the sect had suffered from many cruel buffets
+of fortune. From Ohio they had migrated into Missouri where they were
+set upon and beaten. Some of them were murdered by indignant neighbors.
+Harried out of Missouri, they went into Illinois only to see their
+director and prophet, Smith, first imprisoned by the authorities and
+then shot by a mob. Having raised up a cloud of enemies on account of
+both their religious faith and their practice of allowing a man to have
+more than one wife, they fell in heartily with the suggestion of a new
+leader, Brigham Young, that they go into the Far West beyond the plains
+of Kansas&mdash;into the forlorn desert where the wicked would cease from
+troubling and the weary could be at rest, as they read in the Bible. In
+1847, Young, with a company of picked men, searched far and wide until
+he found a suitable spot overlooking the Salt Lake Valley. Returning to
+Illinois, he gathered up his followers, now numbering several thousand,
+and in one mighty wagon caravan they all went to their distant haven.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brigham Young and His Economic System.</i>&mdash;In Brigham Young the Mormons
+had a leader of remarkable power who gave direction to the redemption of
+the arid soil, the management of property, and the upbuilding of
+industry. He promised them to make the desert blossom as the rose, and
+verily he did it. He firmly shaped the enterprise of the colony along
+co-operative lines, holding down the speculator and profiteer with <a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a>one
+hand and giving encouragement to the industrious poor with the other.
+With the shrewdness befitting a good business man, he knew how to draw
+the line between public and private interest. Land was given outright to
+each family, but great care was exercised in the distribution so that
+none should have great advantage over another. The purchase of supplies
+and the sale of produce were carried on through a co&ouml;perative store, the
+profits of which went to the common good. Encountering for the first
+time in the history of the Anglo-Saxon race the problem of aridity, the
+Mormons surmounted the most perplexing obstacles with astounding skill.
+They built irrigation works by co&ouml;perative labor and granted water
+rights to all families on equitable terms.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Growth of Industries.</i>&mdash;Though farming long remained the major
+interest of the colony, the Mormons, eager to be self-supporting in
+every possible way, bent their efforts also to manufacturing and later
+to mining. Their missionaries, who hunted in the highways and byways of
+Europe for converts, never failed to stress the economic advantages of
+the sect. "We want," proclaimed President Young to all the earth, "a
+company of woolen manufacturers to come with machinery and take the wool
+from the sheep and convert it into the best clothes. We want a company
+of potters; we need them; the clay is ready and the dishes wanted.... We
+want some men to start a furnace forthwith; the iron, coal, and molders
+are waiting.... We have a printing press and any one who can take good
+printing and writing paper to the Valley will be a blessing to
+themselves and the church." Roads and bridges were built; millions were
+spent in experiments in agriculture and manufacturing; missionaries at a
+huge cost were maintained in the East and in Europe; an army was kept
+for defense against the Indians; and colonies were planted in the
+outlying regions. A historian of Deseret, as the colony was called by
+the Mormons, estimated in 1895 that by the labor of their hands the
+people had produced nearly half a billion dollars in wealth since the
+coming of the vanguard.<a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Polygamy Forbidden.</i>&mdash;The hope of the Mormons that they might forever
+remain undisturbed by outsiders was soon dashed to earth, for hundreds
+of farmers and artisans belonging to other religious sects came to
+settle among them. In 1850 the colony was so populous and prosperous
+that it was organized into a territory of the United States and brought
+under the supervision of the federal government. Protests against
+polygamy were raised in the colony and at the seat of authority three
+thousand miles away at Washington. The new Republican party in 1856
+proclaimed it "the right and duty of Congress to prohibit in the
+Territories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery." In
+due time the Mormons had to give up their marriage practices which were
+condemned by the common opinion of all western civilization; but they
+kept their religious faith. Monuments to their early enterprise are seen
+in the Temple and the Tabernacle, the irrigation works, and the great
+wealth of the Church.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of Western Development and National Politics</span></h3>
+
+<p>While the statesmen of the old generation were solving the problems of
+their age, hunters, pioneers, and home seekers were preparing new
+problems beyond the Alleghanies. The West was rising in population and
+wealth. Between 1783 and 1829, eleven states were added to the original
+thirteen. All but two were in the West. Two of them were in the
+Louisiana territory beyond the Mississippi. Here the process of
+colonization was repeated. Hardy frontier people cut down the forests,
+built log cabins, laid out farms, and cut roads through the wilderness.
+They began a new civilization just as the immigrants to Virginia or
+Massachusetts had done two centuries earlier.</p>
+
+<p>Like the seaboard colonists before them, they too cherished the spirit
+of independence and power. They had not gone far upon their course
+before they resented the monopoly of the presidency by the East. In 1829
+they actually sent one of <a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a>their own cherished leaders, Andrew Jackson,
+to the White House. Again in 1840, in 1844, in 1848, and in 1860, the
+Mississippi Valley could boast that one of its sons had been chosen for
+the seat of power at Washington. Its democratic temper evoked a cordial
+response in the towns of the East where the old aristocracy had been put
+aside and artisans had been given the ballot.</p>
+
+<p>For three decades the West occupied the interest of the nation. Under
+Jackson's leadership, it destroyed the second United States Bank. When
+he smote nullification in South Carolina, it gave him cordial support.
+It approved his policy of parceling out government offices among party
+workers&mdash;"the spoils system" in all its fullness. On only one point did
+it really dissent. The West heartily favored internal improvements, the
+appropriation of federal funds for highways, canals, and railways.
+Jackson had misgivings on this question and awakened sharp criticism by
+vetoing a road improvement bill.</p>
+
+<p>From their point of vantage on the frontier, the pioneers pressed on
+westward. They pushed into Texas, created a state, declared their
+independence, demanded a place in the union, and precipitated a war with
+Mexico. They crossed the trackless plain and desert, laying out trails
+to Santa F&eacute;, to Oregon, and to California. They were upon the scene when
+the Mexican War brought California under the Stars and Stripes. They had
+laid out their farms in the Willamette Valley when the slogan
+"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" forced a settlement of the Oregon boundary.
+California and Oregon were already in the union when there arose the
+Great Civil War testing whether this nation or any nation so conceived
+and so dedicated could long endure.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>G.P. Brown, <i>Westward Expansion</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>K. Coman, <i>Economic Beginnings of the Far West</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>F. Parkman, <i>California and the Oregon Trail</i>.</p>
+
+<p>R.S. Ripley, <i>The War with Mexico</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.C. Rives, <i>The United States and Mexico, 1821-48</i> (2 vols.).<a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Give some of the special features in the history of Missouri,
+Arkansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota.</p>
+
+<p>2. Contrast the climate and soil of the Middle West and the Far West.</p>
+
+<p>3. How did Mexico at first encourage American immigration?</p>
+
+<p>4. What produced the revolution in Texas? Who led in it?</p>
+
+<p>5. Narrate some of the leading events in the struggle over annexation to
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>6. What action by President Polk precipitated war?</p>
+
+<p>7. Give the details of the peace settlement with Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>8. What is meant by the "joint occupation" of Oregon?</p>
+
+<p>9. How was the Oregon boundary dispute finally settled?</p>
+
+<p>10. Compare the American "invasion" of California with the migration
+into Texas.</p>
+
+<p>11. Explain how California became a free state.</p>
+
+<p>12. Describe the early economic policy of the Mormons.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Independence of Texas.</b>&mdash;McMaster, <i>History of the People of the
+United States</i>, Vol. VI, pp. 251-270. Woodrow Wilson, <i>History of the
+American People</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 102-126.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Annexation of Texas.</b>&mdash;McMaster, Vol. VII. The passages on
+annexation are scattered through this volume and it is an exercise in
+ingenuity to make a connected story of them. Source materials in Hart,
+<i>American History Told by Contemporaries</i>, Vol. III, pp. 637-655; Elson,
+<i>History of the United States</i>, pp. 516-521, 526-527.</p>
+
+<p><b>The War with Mexico.</b>&mdash;Elson, pp. 526-538.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Oregon Boundary Dispute.</b>&mdash;Schafer, <i>History of the Pacific
+Northwest</i> (rev. ed.), pp. 88-104; 173-185.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Migration to Oregon.</b>&mdash;Schafer, pp. 105-172. Coman, <i>Economic
+Beginnings of the Far West</i>, Vol. II, pp. 113-166.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Santa F&eacute; Trail.</b>&mdash;Coman, <i>Economic Beginnings</i>, Vol. II, pp. 75-93.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Conquest of California.</b>&mdash;Coman, Vol. II, pp. 297-319.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gold in California.</b>&mdash;McMaster, Vol. VII, pp. 585-614.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Mormon Migration.</b>&mdash;Coman, Vol. II, pp. 167-206.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;Fr&eacute;mont, Generals Scott and Taylor, Sam
+Houston, and David Crockett.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Romance of Western Exploration.</b>&mdash;J.G. Neihardt, <i>The Splendid
+Wayfaring</i>. J.G. Neihardt, <i>The Song of Hugh Glass</i>.<a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM</h3>
+
+
+<p>If Jefferson could have lived to see the Stars and Stripes planted on
+the Pacific Coast, the broad empire of Texas added to the planting
+states, and the valley of the Willamette waving with wheat sown by
+farmers from New England, he would have been more than fortified in his
+faith that the future of America lay in agriculture. Even a stanch old
+Federalist like Gouverneur Morris or Josiah Quincy would have mournfully
+conceded both the prophecy and the claim. Manifest destiny never seemed
+more clearly written in the stars.</p>
+
+<p>As the farmers from the Northwest and planters from the Southwest poured
+in upon the floor of Congress, the party of Jefferson, christened anew
+by Jackson, grew stronger year by year. Opponents there were, no doubt,
+disgruntled critics and Whigs by conviction; but in 1852 Franklin
+Pierce, the Democratic candidate for President, carried every state in
+the union except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. This
+victory, a triumph under ordinary circumstances, was all the more
+significant in that Pierce was pitted against a hero of the Mexican War,
+General Scott, whom the Whigs, hoping to win by rousing the martial
+ardor of the voters, had nominated. On looking at the election returns,
+the new President calmly assured the planters that "the general
+principle of reduction of duties with a view to revenue may now be
+regarded as the settled policy of the country." With equal confidence,
+he waved aside those agitators who devoted themselves "to <a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a>the supposed
+interests of the relatively few Africans in the United States." Like a
+watchman in the night he called to the country: "All's well."</p>
+
+<p>The party of Hamilton and Clay lay in the dust.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Industrial Revolution</span></h3>
+
+<p>As pride often goeth before a fall, so sanguine expectation is sometimes
+the symbol of defeat. Jackson destroyed the bank. Polk signed the tariff
+bill of 1846 striking an effective blow at the principle of protection
+for manufactures. Pierce promised to silence the abolitionists. His
+successor was to approve a drastic step in the direction of free trade.
+Nevertheless all these things left untouched the springs of power that
+were in due time to make America the greatest industrial nation on the
+earth; namely, vast national resources, business enterprise, inventive
+genius, and the free labor supply of Europe. Unseen by the thoughtless,
+unrecorded in the diaries of wiseacres, rarely mentioned in the speeches
+of statesmen, there was swiftly rising such a tide in the affairs of
+America as Jefferson and Hamilton never dreamed of in their little
+philosophies.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Inventors.</b>&mdash;Watt and Boulton experimenting with steam in England,
+Whitney combining wood and steel into a cotton gin, Fulton and Fitch
+applying the steam engine to navigation, Stevens and Peter Cooper trying
+out the "iron horse" on "iron highways," Slater building spinning mills
+in Pawtucket, Howe attaching the needle to the flying wheel, Morse
+spanning a continent with the telegraph, Cyrus Field linking the markets
+of the new world with the old along the bed of the Atlantic, McCormick
+breaking the sickle under the reaper&mdash;these men and a thousand more were
+destroying in a mighty revolution of industry the world of the
+stagecoach and the tallow candle which Washington and Franklin had
+inherited little changed from the age of C&aelig;sar. Whitney was to make
+cotton king. Watt and Fulton were to make steel and steam masters of the
+world. Agriculture was to fall behind in the race for supremacy.<a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Industry Outstrips Planting.</b>&mdash;The story of invention, that tribute to
+the triumph of mind over matter, fascinating as a romance, need not be
+treated in detail here. The effects of invention on social and political
+life, multitudinous and never-ending, form the very warp and woof of
+American progress from the days of Andrew Jackson to the latest hour.
+Neither the great civil conflict&mdash;the clash of two systems&mdash;nor the
+problems of the modern age can be approached without an understanding of
+the striking phases of industrialism.</p>
+
+<div><a name="mill" id="mill" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/323.png" alt="A New England Mill Built in 1793" title="A New England Mill Built in 1793" /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<span class="smcap">A New England Mill Built in 1793</span></div>
+
+<p>First and foremost among them was the uprush of mills managed by
+captains of industry and manned by labor drawn from farms, cities, and
+foreign lands. For every planter who cleared a domain in the Southwest
+and gathered his army of bondmen about him, there rose in the North a
+magician of steam and steel who collected under his roof an army of free
+workers.</p>
+
+<p>In seven league boots this new giant strode ahead of the Southern giant.
+Between 1850 and 1859, to use dollars and cents as the measure of
+progress, the value of domestic manu<a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>factures including mines and
+fisheries rose from $1,019,106,616 to $1,900,000,000, an increase of
+eighty-six per cent in ten years. In this same period the total
+production of naval stores, rice, sugar, tobacco, and cotton, the
+staples of the South, went only from $165,000,000, in round figures, to
+$204,000,000. At the halfway point of the century, the capital invested
+in industry, commerce, and cities far exceeded the value of all the farm
+land between the Atlantic and the Pacific; thus the course of economy
+had been reversed in fifty years. Tested by figures of production, King
+Cotton had shriveled by 1860 to a petty prince in comparison, for each
+year the captains of industry turned out goods worth nearly twenty times
+all the bales of cotton picked on Southern plantations. Iron, boots and
+shoes, and leather goods pouring from Northern mills surpassed in value
+the entire cotton output.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Agrarian West Turns to Industry.</b>&mdash;Nor was this vast enterprise
+confined to the old Northeast where, as Madison had sagely remarked,
+commerce was early dominant. "Cincinnati," runs an official report in
+1854, "appears to be a great central depot for ready-made clothing and
+its manufacture for the Western markets may be said to be one of the
+great trades of that city." There, wrote another traveler, "I heard the
+crack of the cattle driver's whip and the hum of the factory: the West
+and the East meeting." Louisville and St. Louis were already famous for
+their clothing trades and the manufacture of cotton bagging. Five
+hundred of the two thousand woolen mills in the country in 1860 were in
+the Western states. Of the output of flour and grist mills, which almost
+reached in value the cotton crop of 1850, the Ohio Valley furnished a
+rapidly growing share. The old home of Jacksonian democracy, where
+Federalists had been almost as scarce as monarchists, turned slowly
+backward, as the needle to the pole, toward the principle of protection
+for domestic industry, espoused by Hamilton and defended by Clay.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Extension of Canals and Railways.</b>&mdash;As necessary to mechanical
+industry as steel and steam power was the great market, spread over a
+wide and diversified area and knit to<a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a>gether by efficient means of
+transportation. This service was supplied to industry by the steamship,
+which began its career on the Hudson in 1807; by the canals, of which
+the Erie opened in 1825 was the most noteworthy; and by the railways,
+which came into practical operation about 1830.</p>
+
+<div><a name="railway" id="railway" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/325.jpg" alt="An Early Railway" title="An Early Railway" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">An Early Railway</span></div>
+
+<p>With sure instinct the Eastern manufacturer reached out for the markets
+of the Northwest territory where free farmers were producing annually
+staggering crops of corn, wheat, bacon, and wool. The two great canal
+systems&mdash;the Erie connecting New York City with the waterways of the
+Great Lakes and the Pennsylvania chain linking Philadelphia with the
+headwaters of the Ohio&mdash;gradually turned the tide of trade from New
+Orleans to the Eastern seaboard. The railways followed the same paths.
+By 1860, New York had rail connections with Chicago and St. Louis, one
+of the routes running through the Hudson and Mohawk valleys and along
+the Great Lakes, the other through Philadelphia and Pennsylvania and
+across the rich wheat fields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Baltimore,
+not to be outdone by her two rivals, reached out over the mountains <a name="Page_300" id="Page_300"></a>for
+the Western trade and in 1857 had trains running into St. Louis.</p>
+
+<p>In railway enterprise the South took more interest than in canals, and
+the friends of that section came to its aid. To offset the magnet
+drawing trade away from the Mississippi Valley, lines were built from
+the Gulf to Chicago, the Illinois Central part of the project being a
+monument to the zeal and industry of a Democrat, better known in
+politics than in business, Stephen A. Douglas. The swift movement of
+cotton and tobacco to the North or to seaports was of common concern to
+planters and manufacturers. Accordingly lines were flung down along the
+Southern coast, linking Richmond, Charleston, and Savannah with the
+Northern markets. Other lines struck inland from the coast, giving a
+rail outlet to the sea for Raleigh, Columbia, Atlanta, Chattanooga,
+Nashville, and Montgomery. Nevertheless, in spite of this enterprise,
+the mileage of all the Southern states in 1860 did not equal that of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois combined.</p>
+
+<p><b>Banking and Finance.</b>&mdash;Out of commerce and manufactures and the
+construction and operation of railways came such an accumulation of
+capital in the Northern states as merchants of old never imagined. The
+banks of the four industrial states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New
+York, and Pennsylvania in 1860 had funds greater than the banks in all
+the other states combined. New York City had become the money market of
+America, the center to which industrial companies, railway promoters,
+farmers, and planters turned for capital to initiate and carry on their
+operations. The banks of Louisiana, South Carolina, Georgia, and
+Virginia, it is true, had capital far in excess of the banks of the
+Northwest; but still they were relatively small compared with the
+financial institutions of the East.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Growth of the Industrial Population.</b>&mdash;A revolution of such
+magnitude in industry, transport, and finance, overturning as it did the
+agrarian civilization of the old Northwest and reaching out to the very
+borders of the country, could not fail <a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a>to bring in its train
+consequences of a striking character. Some were immediate and obvious.
+Others require a fullness of time not yet reached to reveal their
+complete significance. Outstanding among them was the growth of an
+industrial population, detached from the land, concentrated in cities,
+and, to use Jefferson's phrase, dependent upon "the caprices and
+casualties of trade" for a livelihood. This was a result, as the great
+Virginian had foreseen, which flowed inevitably from public and private
+efforts to stimulate industry as against agriculture.</p>
+
+<div><a name="lowell" id="lowell" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/327.png" alt="Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1838, an Early Industrial Town" title="Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1838, an Early Industrial Town" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1838, an Early Industrial Town</span></div>
+
+<p>It was estimated in 1860, on the basis of the census figures, that
+mechanical production gave employment to 1,100,000 men and 285,000
+women, making, if the average number of dependents upon them be
+reckoned, nearly six million people or about one-sixth of the population
+of the country sustained from manufactures. "This," runs the official
+record, "was exclusive of the number engaged in the production of many
+of the raw materials and of the food for manufacturers; in the
+distribution of their products, such as merchants, clerks, draymen,
+mariners, the employees of railroads, expresses, and steamboats; of
+capitalists, various artistic and professional classes, as well as
+carpenters, bricklayers, painters, and the members of other mechanical
+trades not classed as manufactures. It is safe to assume, then, that
+one-third of the whole population is supported, directly, or indirectly,
+by manufacturing industry." Taking, however, the number of persons
+directly supported by manu<a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>factures, namely about six millions, reveals
+the astounding fact that the white laboring population, divorced from
+the soil, already exceeded the number of slaves on Southern farms and
+plantations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Immigration.</i>&mdash;The more carefully the rapid growth of the industrial
+population is examined, the more surprising is the fact that such an
+immense body of free laborers could be found, particularly when it is
+recalled to what desperate straits the colonial leaders were put in
+securing immigrants,&mdash;slavery, indentured servitude, and kidnapping
+being the fruits of their necessities. The answer to the enigma is to be
+found partly in European conditions and partly in the cheapness of
+transportation after the opening of the era of steam navigation. Shrewd
+observers of the course of events had long foreseen that a flood of
+cheap labor was bound to come when the way was made easy. Some, among
+them Chief Justice Ellsworth, went so far as to prophesy that white
+labor would in time be so abundant that slavery would disappear as the
+more costly of the two labor systems. The processes of nature were aided
+by the policies of government in England and Germany.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Coming of the Irish.</i>&mdash;The opposition of the Irish people to the
+English government, ever furious and irrepressible, was increased in the
+mid forties by an almost total failure of the potato crop, the main
+support of the peasants. Catholic in religion, they had been compelled
+to support a Protestant church. Tillers of the soil by necessity, they
+were forced to pay enormous tributes to absentee landlords in England
+whose claim to their estates rested upon the title of conquest and
+confiscation. Intensely loyal to their race, the Irish were subjected in
+all things to the Parliament at London, in which their small minority of
+representatives had little influence save in holding a balance of power
+between the two contending English parties. To the constant political
+irritation, the potato famine added physical distress beyond
+description. In cottages and fields and along the highways the victims
+of starvation lay dead by the hundreds, the relief which charity
+afforded only bringing misery more <a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a>sharply to the foreground. Those who
+were fortunate enough to secure passage money sought escape to America.
+In 1844 the total immigration into the United States was less than
+eighty thousand; in 1850 it had risen by leaps and bounds to more than
+three hundred thousand. Between 1820 and 1860 the immigrants from the
+United Kingdom numbered 2,750,000, of whom more than one-half were
+Irish. It has been said with a touch of exaggeration that the American
+canals and railways of those days were built by the labor of Irishmen.</p>
+
+<p><i>The German Migration.</i>&mdash;To political discontent and economic distress,
+such as was responsible for the coming of the Irish, may likewise be
+traced the source of the Germanic migration. The potato blight that fell
+upon Ireland visited the Rhine Valley and Southern Germany at the same
+time with results as pitiful, if less extensive. The calamity inflicted
+by nature was followed shortly by another inflicted by the despotic
+conduct of German kings and princes. In 1848 there had occurred
+throughout Europe a popular uprising in behalf of republics and
+democratic government. For a time it rode on a full tide of success.
+Kings were overthrown, or compelled to promise constitutional
+government, and tyrannical ministers fled from their palaces. Then came
+reaction. Those who had championed the popular cause were imprisoned,
+shot, or driven out of the land. Men of attainments and distinction,
+whose sole offense was opposition to the government of kings and
+princes, sought an asylum in America, carrying with them to the land of
+their adoption the spirit of liberty and democracy. In 1847 over fifty
+thousand Germans came to America, the forerunners of a migration that
+increased, almost steadily, for many years. The record of 1860 showed
+that in the previous twenty years nearly a million and a half had found
+homes in the United States. Far and wide they scattered, from the mills
+and shops of the seacoast towns to the uttermost frontiers of Wisconsin
+and Minnesota.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Labor of Women and Children.</i>&mdash;If the industries, canals, and
+railways of the country were largely manned by foreign <a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>labor, still
+important native sources must not be overlooked; above all, the women
+and children of the New England textile districts. Spinning and weaving,
+by a tradition that runs far beyond the written records of mankind,
+belonged to women. Indeed it was the dexterous housewives, spinsters,
+and boys and girls that laid the foundations of the textile industry in
+America, foundations upon which the mechanical revolution was built. As
+the wheel and loom were taken out of the homes to the factories operated
+by water power or the steam engine, the women and, to use Hamilton's
+phrase, "the children of tender years," followed as a matter of course.
+"The cotton manufacture alone employs six thousand persons in Lowell,"
+wrote a French observer in 1836; "of this number nearly five thousand
+are young women from seventeen to twenty-four years of age, the
+daughters of farmers from the different New England states." It was not
+until after the middle of the century that foreign lands proved to be
+the chief source from which workers were recruited for the factories of
+New England. It was then that the daughters of the Puritans, outdone by
+the competition of foreign labor, both of men and women, left the
+spinning jenny and the loom to other hands.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Rise of Organized Labor.</b>&mdash;The changing conditions of American
+life, marked by the spreading mill towns of New England, New York, and
+Pennsylvania and the growth of cities like Buffalo, Cincinnati,
+Louisville, St. Louis, Detroit, and Chicago in the West, naturally
+brought changes, as Jefferson had prophesied, in "manners and morals." A
+few mechanics, smiths, carpenters, and masons, widely scattered through
+farming regions and rural villages, raise no such problems as tens of
+thousands of workers collected in one center in daily intercourse,
+learning the power of co&ouml;peration and union.</p>
+
+<p>Even before the coming of steam and machinery, in the "good old days" of
+handicrafts, laborers in many trades&mdash;printers, shoemakers, carpenters,
+for example&mdash;had begun to draw together in the towns for the advancement
+of their interests in <a name="Page_305" id="Page_305"></a>the form of higher wages, shorter days, and
+milder laws. The shoemakers of Philadelphia, organized in 1794,
+conducted a strike in 1799 and held together until indicted seven years
+later for conspiracy. During the twenties and thirties, local labor
+unions sprang up in all industrial centers and they led almost
+immediately to city federations of the several crafts.</p>
+
+<p>As the thousands who were dependent upon their daily labor for their
+livelihood mounted into the millions and industries spread across the
+continent, the local unions of craftsmen grew into national craft
+organizations bound together by the newspapers, the telegraph, and the
+railways. Before 1860 there were several such national trade unions,
+including the plumbers, printers, mule spinners, iron molders, and stone
+cutters. All over the North labor leaders arose&mdash;men unknown to general
+history but forceful and resourceful characters who forged links binding
+scattered and individual workers into a common brotherhood. An attempt
+was even made in 1834 to federate all the crafts into a permanent
+national organization; but it perished within three years through lack
+of support. Half a century had to elapse before the American Federation
+of Labor was to accomplish this task.</p>
+
+<p>All the manifestations of the modern labor movement had appeared, in
+germ at least, by the time the mid-century was reached: unions, labor
+leaders, strikes, a labor press, a labor political program, and a labor
+political party. In every great city industrial disputes were a common
+occurrence. The papers recorded about four hundred in two years,
+1853-54, local affairs but forecasting economic struggles in a larger
+field. The labor press seems to have begun with the founding of the
+<i>Mechanics' Free Press</i> in Philadelphia in 1828 and the establishment of
+the New York <i>Workingman's Advocate</i> shortly afterward. These
+semi-political papers were in later years followed by regular trade
+papers designed to weld together and advance the interests of particular
+crafts. Edited by able leaders, these little sheets with limited
+circulation wielded an enormous influence in the ranks of the workers.<a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Labor and Politics.</b>&mdash;As for the political program of labor, the main
+planks were clear and specific: the abolition of imprisonment for debt,
+manhood suffrage in states where property qualifications still
+prevailed, free and universal education, laws protecting the safety and
+health of workers in mills and factories, abolition of lotteries, repeal
+of laws requiring militia service, and free land in the West.</p>
+
+<p>Into the labor papers and platforms there sometimes crept a note of
+hostility to the masters of industry, a sign of bitterness that excited
+little alarm while cheap land in the West was open to the discontented.
+The Philadelphia workmen, in issuing a call for a local convention,
+invited "all those of our fellow citizens who live by their own labor
+and none other." In Newcastle county, Delaware, the association of
+working people complained in 1830: "The poor have no laws; the laws are
+made by the rich and of course for the rich." Here and there an
+extremist went to the length of advocating an equal division of wealth
+among all the people&mdash;the crudest kind of communism.</p>
+
+<p>Agitation of this character produced in labor circles profound distrust
+of both Whigs and Democrats who talked principally about tariffs and
+banks; it resulted in attempts to found independent labor parties. In
+Philadelphia, Albany, New York City, and New England, labor candidates
+were put up for elections in the early thirties and in a few cases were
+victorious at the polls. "The balance of power has at length got into
+the hands of the working people, where it properly belongs,"
+triumphantly exclaimed the <i>Mechanics' Free Press</i> of Philadelphia in
+1829. But the triumph was illusory. Dissensions appeared in the labor
+ranks. The old party leaders, particularly of Tammany Hall, the
+Democratic party organization in New York City, offered concessions to
+labor in return for votes. Newspapers unsparingly denounced "trade union
+politicians" as "demagogues," "levellers," and "rag, tag, and bobtail";
+and some of them, deeming labor unrest the sour fruit of manhood
+suffrage, suggested disfranchisement as a remedy.<a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"></a> Under the influence
+of concessions and attacks the political fever quickly died away, and
+the end of the decade left no remnant of the labor political parties.
+Labor leaders turned to a task which seemed more substantial and
+practical, that of organizing workingmen into craft unions for the
+definite purpose of raising wages and reducing hours.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Industrial Revolution and National Politics</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Southern Plans for Union with the West.</b>&mdash;It was long the design of
+Southern statesmen like Calhoun to hold the West and the South together
+in one political party. The theory on which they based their hope was
+simple. Both sections were agricultural&mdash;the producers of raw materials
+and the buyers of manufactured goods. The planters were heavy purchasers
+of Western bacon, pork, mules, and grain. The Mississippi River and its
+tributaries formed the natural channel for the transportation of heavy
+produce southward to the plantations and outward to Europe. Therefore,
+ran their political reasoning, the interests of the two sections were
+one. By standing together in favor of low tariffs, they could buy their
+manufactures cheaply in Europe and pay for them in cotton, tobacco, and
+grain. The union of the two sections under Jackson's management seemed
+perfect.</p>
+
+<p><b>The East Forms Ties with the West.</b>&mdash;Eastern leaders were not blind to
+the ambitions of Southern statesmen. On the contrary, they also
+recognized the importance of forming strong ties with the agrarian West
+and drawing the produce of the Ohio Valley to Philadelphia and New York.
+The canals and railways were the physical signs of this economic union,
+and the results, commercial and political, were soon evident. By the
+middle of the century, Southern economists noted the change, one of
+them, De Bow, lamenting that "the great cities of the North have
+severally penetrated the interior with artificial lines until they have
+taken from the open and untaxed current of the Mississippi the commerce
+produced on its borders." To this writer it was an astounding thing to
+behold "the number <a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a>of steamers that now descend the upper Mississippi
+River, loaded to the guards with produce, as far as the mouth of the
+Illinois River and then turn up that stream with their cargoes to be
+shipped to New York <i>via</i> Chicago. The Illinois canal has not only swept
+the whole produce along the line of the Illinois River to the East, but
+it is drawing the products of the upper Mississippi through the same
+channel; thus depriving New Orleans and St. Louis of a rich portion of
+their former trade."</p>
+
+<p>If to any shippers the broad current of the great river sweeping down to
+New Orleans offered easier means of physical communication to the sea
+than the canals and railways, the difference could be overcome by the
+credit which Eastern bankers were able to extend to the grain and
+produce buyers, in the first instance, and through them to the farmers
+on the soil. The acute Southern observer just quoted, De Bow, admitted
+with evident regret, in 1852, that "last autumn, the rich regions of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were flooded with the local bank notes of
+the Eastern States, advanced by the New York houses on produce to be
+shipped by way of the canals in the spring.... These moneyed facilities
+enable the packer, miller, and speculator to hold on to their produce
+until the opening of navigation in the spring and they are no longer
+obliged, as formerly, to hurry off their shipments during the winter by
+the way of New Orleans in order to realize funds by drafts on their
+shipments. The banking facilities at the East are doing as much to draw
+trade from us as the canals and railways which Eastern capital is
+constructing." Thus canals, railways, and financial credit were swiftly
+forging bonds of union between the old home of Jacksonian Democracy in
+the West and the older home of Federalism in the East. The nationalism
+to which Webster paid eloquent tribute became more and more real with
+the passing of time. The self-sufficiency of the pioneer was broken down
+as he began to watch the produce markets of New York and Philadelphia
+where the prices of corn and hogs fixed his earnings for the year.<a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The West and Manufactures.</b>&mdash;In addition to the commercial bonds
+between the East and the West there was growing up a common interest in
+manufactures. As skilled white labor increased in the Ohio Valley, the
+industries springing up in the new cities made Western life more like
+that of the industrial East than like that of the planting South.
+Moreover, the Western states produced some important raw materials for
+American factories, which called for protection against foreign
+competition, notably, wool, hemp, and flax. As the South had little or
+no foreign competition in cotton and tobacco, the East could not offer
+protection for her raw materials in exchange for protection for
+industries. With the West, however, it became possible to establish
+reciprocity in tariffs; that is, for example, to trade a high rate on
+wool for a high rate on textiles or iron.</p>
+
+<p><b>The South Dependent on the North.</b>&mdash;While East and West were drawing
+together, the distinctions between North and South were becoming more
+marked; the latter, having few industries and producing little save raw
+materials, was being forced into the position of a dependent section. As
+a result of the protective tariff, Southern planters were compelled to
+turn more and more to Northern mills for their cloth, shoes, hats, hoes,
+plows, and machinery. Nearly all the goods which they bought in Europe
+in exchange for their produce came overseas to Northern ports, whence
+transshipments were made by rail and water to Southern points of
+distribution. Their rice, cotton, and tobacco, in as far as they were
+not carried to Europe in British bottoms, were transported by Northern
+masters. In these ways, a large part of the financial operations
+connected with the sale of Southern produce and the purchase of goods in
+exchange passed into the hands of Northern merchants and bankers who,
+naturally, made profits from their transactions. Finally, Southern
+planters who wanted to buy more land and more slaves on credit borrowed
+heavily in the North where huge accumulations made the rates of interest
+lower than the smaller banks of the South could afford.<a name="Page_310" id="Page_310"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The South Reckons the Cost of Economic Dependence.</b>&mdash;As Southern
+dependence upon Northern capital became more and more marked, Southern
+leaders began to chafe at what they regarded as restraints laid upon
+their enterprise. In a word, they came to look upon the planter as a
+tribute-bearer to the manufacturer and financier. "The South,"
+expostulated De Bow, "stands in the attitude of feeding ... a vast
+population of [Northern] merchants, shipowners, capitalists, and others
+who, without claims on her progeny, drink up the life blood of her
+trade.... Where goes the value of our labor but to those who, taking
+advantage of our folly, ship for us, buy for us, sell to us, and, after
+turning our own capital to their profitable account, return laden with
+our money to enjoy their easily earned opulence at home."</p>
+
+<p>Southern statisticians, not satisfied with generalities, attempted to
+figure out how great was this tribute in dollars and cents. They
+estimated that the planters annually lent to Northern merchants the full
+value of their exports, a hundred millions or more, "to be used in the
+manipulation of foreign imports." They calculated that no less than
+forty millions all told had been paid to shipowners in profits. They
+reckoned that, if the South were to work up her own cotton, she would
+realize from seventy to one hundred millions a year that otherwise went
+North. Finally, to cap the climax, they regretted that planters spent
+some fifteen millions a year pleasure-seeking in the alluring cities and
+summer resorts of the North.</p>
+
+<p><b>Southern Opposition to Northern Policies.</b>&mdash;Proceeding from these
+premises, Southern leaders drew the logical conclusion that the entire
+program of economic measures demanded in the North was without exception
+adverse to Southern interests and, by a similar chain of reasoning,
+injurious to the corn and wheat producers of the West. Cheap labor
+afforded by free immigration, a protective tariff raising prices of
+manufactures for the tiller of the soil, ship subsidies increasing the
+tonnage of carrying trade in Northern hands, internal improvements
+forging new economic bonds between the East <a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a>and the West, a national
+banking system giving strict national control over the currency as a
+safeguard against paper inflation&mdash;all these devices were regarded in
+the South as contrary to the planting interest. They were constantly
+compared with the restrictive measures by which Great Britain more than
+half a century before had sought to bind American interests.</p>
+
+<p>As oppression justified a war for independence once, statesmen argued,
+so it can justify it again. "It is curious as it is melancholy and
+distressing," came a broad hint from South Carolina, "to see how
+striking is the analogy between the colonial vassalage to which the
+manufacturing states have reduced the planting states and that which
+formerly bound the Anglo-American colonies to the British empire....
+England said to her American colonies: 'You shall not trade with the
+rest of the world for such manufactures as are produced in the mother
+country.' The manufacturing states say to their Southern colonies: 'You
+shall not trade with the rest of the world for such manufactures as we
+produce.'" The conclusion was inexorable: either the South must control
+the national government and its economic measures, or it must declare,
+as America had done four score years before, its political and economic
+independence. As Northern mills multiplied, as railways spun their
+mighty web over the face of the North, and as accumulated capital rose
+into the hundreds of millions, the conviction of the planters and their
+statesmen deepened into desperation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Efforts to Start Southern Industries Fail.</b>&mdash;A few of them, seeing the
+predominance of the North, made determined efforts to introduce
+manufactures into the South. To the leaders who were averse to secession
+and nullification this seemed the only remedy for the growing disparity
+in the power of the two sections. Societies for the encouragement of
+mechanical industries were formed, the investment of capital was sought,
+and indeed a few mills were built on Southern soil. The results were
+meager. The natural resources, coal and water power, were <a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a>abundant; but
+the enterprise for direction and the skilled labor were wanting. The
+stream of European immigration flowed North and West, not South. The
+Irish or German laborer, even if he finally made his home in a city, had
+before him, while in the North, the alternative of a homestead on
+Western land. To him slavery was a strange, if not a repelling,
+institution. He did not take to it kindly nor care to fix his home where
+it flourished. While slavery lasted, the economy of the South was
+inevitably agricultural. While agriculture predominated, leadership with
+equal necessity fell to the planting interest. While the planting
+interest ruled, political opposition to Northern economy was destined to
+grow in strength.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Southern Theory of Sectionalism.</b>&mdash;In the opinion of the statesmen
+who frankly represented the planting interest, the industrial system was
+its deadly enemy. Their entire philosophy of American politics was
+summed up in a single paragraph by McDuffie, a spokesman for South
+Carolina: "Owing to the federative character of our government, the
+great geographical extent of our territory, and the diversity of the
+pursuits of our citizens in different parts of the union, it has so
+happened that two great interests have sprung up, standing directly
+opposed to each other. One of these consists of those manufactures which
+the Northern and Middle states are capable of producing but which, owing
+to the high price of labor and the high profits of capital in those
+states, cannot hold competition with foreign manufactures without the
+aid of bounties, directly or indirectly given, either by the general
+government or by the state governments. The other of these interests
+consists of the great agricultural staples of the Southern states which
+can find a market only in foreign countries and which can be
+advantageously sold only in exchange for foreign manufactures which come
+in competition with those of the Northern and Middle states.... These
+interests then stand diametrically and irreconcilably opposed to each
+other. The interest, the pecuniary interest of the<a name="Page_313" id="Page_313"></a> Northern
+manufacturer, is directly promoted by every increase of the taxes
+imposed upon Southern commerce; and it is unnecessary to add that the
+interest of the Southern planter is promoted by every diminution of
+taxes imposed upon the productions of their industry. If, under these
+circumstances, the manufacturers were clothed with the power of imposing
+taxes, at their pleasure, upon the foreign imports of the planter, no
+doubt would exist in the mind of any man that it would have all the
+characteristics of an absolute and unqualified despotism." The economic
+soundness of this reasoning, a subject of interesting speculation for
+the economist, is of little concern to the historian. The historical
+point is that this opinion was widely held in the South and with the
+progress of time became the prevailing doctrine of the planting
+statesmen.</p>
+
+<p>Their antagonism was deepened because they also became convinced, on
+what grounds it is not necessary to inquire, that the leaders of the
+industrial interest thus opposed to planting formed a consolidated
+"aristocracy of wealth," bent upon the pursuit and attainment of
+political power at Washington. "By the aid of various associated
+interests," continued McDuffie, "the manufacturing capitalists have
+obtained a complete and permanent control over the legislation of
+Congress on this subject [the tariff].... Men confederated together upon
+selfish and interested principles, whether in pursuit of the offices or
+the bounties of the government, are ever more active and vigilant than
+the great majority who act from disinterested and patriotic impulses.
+Have we not witnessed it on this floor, sir? Who ever knew the tariff
+men to divide on any question affecting their confederated interests?...
+The watchword is, stick together, right or wrong upon every question
+affecting the common cause. Such, sir, is the concert and vigilance and
+such the combinations by which the manufacturing party, acting upon the
+interests of some and the prejudices of others, have obtained a decided
+and permanent control over public opinion in all the tariff states."
+Thus, <a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a>as the Southern statesman would have it, the North, in matters
+affecting national policies, was ruled by a "confederated interest"
+which menaced the planting interest. As the former grew in magnitude and
+attached to itself the free farmers of the West through channels of
+trade and credit, it followed as night the day that in time the planters
+would be overshadowed and at length overborne in the struggle of giants.
+Whether the theory was sound or not, Southern statesmen believed it and
+acted upon it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>M. Beard, <i>Short History of the American Labor Movement</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.L. Bogart, <i>Economic History of the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.R. Commons, <i>History of Labour in the United States</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>E.R. Johnson, <i>American Railway Transportation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C.D. Wright, <i>Industrial Evolution of the United States</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. What signs pointed to a complete Democratic triumph in 1852?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is the explanation of the extraordinary industrial progress of
+America?</p>
+
+<p>3. Compare the planting system with the factory system.</p>
+
+<p>4. In what sections did industry flourish before the Civil War? Why?</p>
+
+<p>5. Show why transportation is so vital to modern industry and
+agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>6. Explain how it was possible to secure so many people to labor in
+American industries.</p>
+
+<p>7. Trace the steps in the rise of organized labor before 1860.</p>
+
+<p>8. What political and economic reforms did labor demand?</p>
+
+<p>9. Why did the East and the South seek closer ties with the West?</p>
+
+<p>10. Describe the economic forces which were drawing the East and the
+West together.</p>
+
+<p>11. In what way was the South economically dependent upon the North?</p>
+
+<p>12 State the national policies generally favored in the North and
+condemned in the South.</p>
+
+<p>13. Show how economic conditions in the South were unfavorable to
+industry.</p>
+
+<p>14. Give the Southern explanation of the antagonism between the North
+and the South.<a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Inventions.</b>&mdash;Assign one to each student. Satisfactory accounts are
+to be found in any good encyclopedia, especially the Britannica.</p>
+
+<p><b>River and Lake Commerce.</b>&mdash;Callender, <i>Economic History of the United
+States</i>, pp. 313-326.</p>
+
+<p><b>Railways and Canals.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 326-344; 359-387. Coman,
+<i>Industrial History of the United States</i>, pp. 216-225.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Growth of Industry, 1815-1840.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 459-471. From 1850
+to 1860, Callender, pp. 471-486.</p>
+
+<p><b>Early Labor Conditions.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 701-718.</p>
+
+<p><b>Early Immigration.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 719-732.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clay's Home Market Theory of the Tariff.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 498-503.</p>
+
+<p><b>The New England View of the Tariff.</b>&mdash;Callender, pp. 503-514.<a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS</h3>
+
+
+<p>James Madison, the father of the federal Constitution, after he had
+watched for many days the battle royal in the national convention of
+1787, exclaimed that the contest was not between the large and the small
+states, but between the commercial North and the planting South. From
+the inauguration of Washington to the election of Lincoln the sectional
+conflict, discerned by this penetrating thinker, exercised a profound
+influence on the course of American politics. It was latent during the
+"era of good feeling" when the Jeffersonian Republicans adopted
+Federalist policies; it flamed up in the contest between the Democrats
+and Whigs. Finally it raged in the angry political quarrel which
+culminated in the Civil War.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Slavery&mdash;North and South</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Decline of Slavery in the North.</b>&mdash;At the time of the adoption of
+the Constitution, slavery was lawful in all the Northern states except
+Massachusetts. There were almost as many bondmen in New York as in
+Georgia. New Jersey had more than Delaware or Tennessee, indeed nearly
+as many as both combined. All told, however, there were only about forty
+thousand in the North as against nearly seven hundred thousand in the
+South. Moreover, most of the Northern slaves were domestic servants, not
+laborers necessary to keep mills going or fields under cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>There was, in the North, a steadily growing moral sentiment against the
+system. Massachusetts abandoned it in 1780. In the same year,
+Pennsylvania provided for gradual emancipation. New Hampshire, where
+there had been only a hand<a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a>ful, Connecticut with a few thousand
+domestics, and New Jersey early followed these examples. New York, in
+1799, declared that all children born of slaves after July 4 of that
+year should be free, though held for a term as apprentices; and in 1827
+it swept away the last vestiges of slavery. So with the passing of the
+generation that had framed the Constitution, chattel servitude
+disappeared in the commercial states, leaving behind only such
+discriminations as disfranchisement or high property qualifications on
+colored voters.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Growth of Northern Sentiment against Slavery.</b>&mdash;In both sections of
+the country there early existed, among those more or less
+philosophically inclined, a strong opposition to slavery on moral as
+well as economic grounds. In the constitutional convention of 1787,
+Gouverneur Morris had vigorously condemned it and proposed that the
+whole country should bear the cost of abolishing it. About the same time
+a society for promoting the abolition of slavery, under the presidency
+of Benjamin Franklin, laid before Congress a petition that serious
+attention be given to the emancipation of "those unhappy men who alone
+in this land of freedom are degraded into perpetual bondage." When
+Congress, acting on the recommendations of President Jefferson, provided
+for the abolition of the foreign slave trade on January 1, 1808, several
+Northern members joined with Southern members in condemning the system
+as well as the trade. Later, colonization societies were formed to
+encourage the emancipation of slaves and their return to Africa. James
+Madison was president and Henry Clay vice president of such an
+organization.</p>
+
+<p>The anti-slavery sentiment of which these were the signs was
+nevertheless confined to narrow circles and bore no trace of bitterness.
+"We consider slavery your calamity, not your crime," wrote a
+distinguished Boston clergyman to his Southern brethren, "and we will
+share with you the burden of putting an end to it. We will consent that
+the public lands shall be appropriated to this object.... I deprecate
+everything which sows discord and exasperating sectional animosities."<a name="Page_318" id="Page_318"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Uncompromising Abolition.</b>&mdash;In a little while the spirit of generosity
+was gone. Just as Jacksonian Democracy rose to power there appeared a
+new kind of anti-slavery doctrine&mdash;the dogmatism of the abolition
+agitator. For mild speculation on the evils of the system was
+substituted an imperious and belligerent demand for instant
+emancipation. If a date must be fixed for its appearance, the year 1831
+may be taken when William Lloyd Garrison founded in Boston his
+anti-slavery paper, <i>The Liberator</i>. With singleness of purpose and
+utter contempt for all opposing opinions and arguments, he pursued his
+course of passionate denunciation. He apologized for having ever
+"assented to the popular but pernicious doctrine of gradual abolition."
+He chose for his motto: "Immediate and unconditional emancipation!" He
+promised his readers that he would be "harsh as truth and uncompromising
+as justice"; that he would not "think or speak or write with
+moderation." Then he flung out his defiant call: "I am in earnest&mdash;I
+will not equivocate&mdash;I will not excuse&mdash;I will not retreat a single
+inch&mdash;and I will be heard....</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Such is the vow I take, so help me God.'"</p></div>
+
+<p>Though Garrison complained that "the apathy of the people is enough to
+make every statue leap from its pedestal," he soon learned how alive the
+masses were to the meaning of his propaganda. Abolition orators were
+stoned in the street and hissed from the platform. Their meeting places
+were often attacked and sometimes burned to the ground. Garrison himself
+was assaulted in the streets of Boston, finding refuge from the angry
+mob behind prison bars. Lovejoy, a publisher in Alton, Illinois, for his
+willingness to give abolition a fair hearing, was brutally murdered; his
+printing press was broken to pieces as a warning to all those who
+disturbed the nation's peace of mind. The South, doubly frightened by a
+slave revolt in 1831 which ended in the murder of a number of men,
+women, and children, closed all discussion of slavery in <a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>that section.
+"Now," exclaimed Calhoun, "it is a question which admits of neither
+concession nor compromise."</p>
+
+<p>As the opposition hardened, the anti-slavery agitation gathered in force
+and intensity. Whittier blew his blast from the New England hills:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="No slave-hunt">
+<tr><td align='left'><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"No slave-hunt in our borders&mdash;no pirate on our strand;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">No fetters in the Bay State&mdash;no slave upon our land."<br /></span>
+</div></div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Lowell, looking upon the espousal of a great cause as the noblest aim of
+his art, ridiculed and excoriated bondage in the South. Those
+abolitionists, not gifted as speakers or writers, signed petitions
+against slavery and poured them in upon Congress. The flood of them was
+so continuous that the House of Representatives, forgetting its
+traditions, adopted in 1836 a "gag rule" which prevented the reading of
+appeals and consigned them to the waste basket. Not until the Whigs were
+in power nearly ten years later was John Quincy Adams able, after a
+relentless campaign, to carry a motion rescinding the rule.</p>
+
+<p>How deep was the impression made upon the country by this agitation for
+immediate and unconditional emancipation cannot be measured. If the
+popular vote for those candidates who opposed not slavery, but its
+extension to the territories, be taken as a standard, it was slight
+indeed. In 1844, the Free Soil candidate, Birney, polled 62,000 votes
+out of over a million and a half; the Free Soil vote of the next
+campaign went beyond a quarter of a million, but the increase was due to
+the strength of the leader, Martin Van Buren; four years afterward it
+receded to 156,000, affording all the outward signs for the belief that
+the pleas of the abolitionist found no widespread response among the
+people. Yet the agitation undoubtedly ran deeper than the ballot box.
+Young statesmen of the North, in whose hands the destiny of frightful
+years was to lie, found their indifference to slavery broken and their
+consciences stirred by the unending appeal and the tireless reiteration.
+Charles Sumner afterward boasted that <a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a>he read the <i>Liberator</i> two years
+before Wendell Phillips, the young Boston lawyer who cast aside his
+profession to take up the dangerous cause.</p>
+
+<p><b>Early Southern Opposition to Slavery.</b>&mdash;In the South, the sentiment
+against slavery was strong; it led some to believe that it would also
+come to an end there in due time. Washington disliked it and directed in
+his will that his own slaves should be set free after the death of his
+wife. Jefferson, looking into the future, condemned the system by which
+he also lived, saying: "Can the liberties of a nation be thought secure
+when we have removed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of
+the people that their liberties are the gift of God? Are they not to be
+violated but with His wrath? Indeed I tremble for my country when I
+reflect that God is just; that His justice cannot sleep forever." Nor
+did Southern men confine their sentiments to expressions of academic
+opinion. They accepted in 1787 the Ordinance which excluded slavery from
+the Northwest territory forever and also the Missouri Compromise, which
+shut it out of a vast section of the Louisiana territory.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Revolution in the Slave System.</b>&mdash;Among the representatives of
+South Carolina and Georgia, however, the anti-slavery views of
+Washington and Jefferson were by no means approved; and the drift of
+Southern economy was decidedly in favor of extending and perpetuating,
+rather than abolishing, the system of chattel servitude. The invention
+of the cotton gin and textile machinery created a market for cotton
+which the planters, with all their skill and energy, could hardly
+supply. Almost every available acre was brought under cotton culture as
+the small farmers were driven steadily from the seaboard into the
+uplands or to the Northwest.</p>
+
+<p>The demand for slaves to till the swiftly expanding fields was enormous.
+The number of bondmen rose from 700,000 in Washington's day to more than
+three millions in 1850. At the same time slavery itself was transformed.
+Instead of the homestead where the same family of masters kept the same
+<a name="Page_321" id="Page_321"></a>families of slaves from generation to generation, came the plantation
+system of the Far South and Southwest where masters were ever moving and
+ever extending their holdings of lands and slaves. This in turn reacted
+on the older South where the raising of slaves for the market became a
+regular and highly profitable business.</p>
+
+<div><a name="calhoun" id="calhoun" /></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/347.jpg" alt="John C. Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun" />
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i><small>From an old print</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">John C. Calhoun</span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>Slavery Defended as a Positive Good.</b>&mdash;As the abolition agitation
+increased and the planting system expanded, apologies for slavery became
+fainter and fainter in the South. Then apologies were superseded by
+claims that slavery was a beneficial scheme of labor control. Calhoun,
+in a famous speech in the Senate in 1837, sounded the new note by
+declaring slavery "instead of an evil, a good&mdash;a positive good." His
+reasoning was as follows: in every civilized society one portion of the
+community must live on the labor of another; learning, science, and the
+arts are built upon leisure; the African slave, kindly treated by his
+master and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than
+the free laborers of Europe; and under the slave system conflicts
+between capital and labor are avoided. The advantages of slavery in this
+respect, he concluded, "will become more and more manifest, if left
+undisturbed by interference from without, as the country advances in
+wealth and numbers."</p>
+
+<p><b>Slave Owners Dominate Politics.</b>&mdash;The new doctrine of Calhoun was
+eagerly seized by the planters as they came more <a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>and more to overshadow
+the small farmers of the South and as they beheld the menace of
+abolition growing upon the horizon. It formed, as they viewed matters, a
+moral defense for their labor system&mdash;sound, logical, invincible. It
+warranted them in drawing together for the protection of an institution
+so necessary, so inevitable, so beneficent.</p>
+
+<p>Though in 1850 the slave owners were only about three hundred and fifty
+thousand in a national population of nearly twenty million whites, they
+had an influence all out of proportion to their numbers. They were knit
+together by the bonds of a common interest. They had leisure and wealth.
+They could travel and attend conferences and conventions. Throughout the
+South and largely in the North, they had the press, the schools, and the
+pulpits on their side. They formed, as it were, a mighty union for the
+protection and advancement of their common cause. Aided by those
+mechanics and farmers of the North who stuck by Jacksonian Democracy
+through thick and thin, the planters became a power in the federal
+government. "We nominate Presidents," exultantly boasted a Richmond
+newspaper; "the North elects them."</p>
+
+<p>This jubilant Southern claim was conceded by William H. Seward, a
+Republican Senator from New York, in a speech describing the power of
+slavery in the national government. "A party," he said, "is in one sense
+a joint stock association, in which those who contribute most direct the
+action and management of the concern.... The slaveholders, contributing
+in an overwhelming proportion to the strength of the Democratic party,
+necessarily dictate and prescribe its policy." He went on: "The
+slaveholding class has become the governing power in each of the
+slaveholding states and it practically chooses thirty of the sixty-two
+members of the Senate, ninety of the two hundred and thirty-three
+members of the House of Representatives, and one hundred and five of the
+two hundred and ninety-five electors of President and Vice-President of
+the United States." Then he considered the slave power in the Supreme
+Court. "That tribunal," he ex<a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>claimed, "consists of a chief justice and
+eight associate justices. Of these, five were called from slave states
+and four from free states. The opinions and bias of each of them were
+carefully considered by the President and Senate when he was appointed.
+Not one of them was found wanting in soundness of politics, according to
+the slaveholder's exposition of the Constitution." Such was the Northern
+view of the planting interest that, from the arena of national politics,
+challenged the whole country in 1860.</p>
+
+<div><a name="slaves" id="slaves" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/349.jpg"><img src="./images/349-tb.jpg" alt="Distribution of Slaves in the Southern States" title="Distribution of Slaves in the Southern States" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Distribution of Slaves in the Southern States</span></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Slavery in National Politics</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>National Aspects of Slavery.</b>&mdash;It may be asked why it was that slavery,
+founded originally on state law and subject to state government, was
+drawn into the current of national affairs. The answer is simple. There
+were, in the first place, constitutional reasons. The Congress of the
+United States had to make all needful rules for the government of the
+territories, the District of Columbia, the forts and other property
+under national authority; so it was compelled to determine whether
+slavery should exist in the places subject to its jurisdiction. Upon
+Congress was also conferred the power of admitting new states; whenever
+a territory asked for admission, the issue could be raised as to whether
+slavery should be sanctioned or excluded. Under the Constitution,
+provision was made for the return of runaway slaves; Congress had the
+power to enforce this clause by appropriate legislation. Since the
+control of the post office was vested in the federal government, it had
+to face the problem raised by the transmission of abolition literature
+through the mails. Finally citizens had the right of petition; it
+inheres in all free government and it is expressly guaranteed by the
+first amendment to the Constitution. It was therefore legal for
+abolitionists to present to Congress their petitions, even if they asked
+for something which it had no right to grant. It was thus impossible,
+constitutionally, to draw a cordon around the slavery issue and confine
+the discussion of it to state politics.<a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"></a></p>
+
+<p>There were, in the second place, economic reasons why slavery was
+inevitably drawn into the national sphere. It was the basis of the
+planting system which had direct commercial relations with the North and
+European countries; it was affected by federal laws respecting tariffs,
+bounties, ship subsidies, banking, and kindred matters. The planters of
+the South, almost without exception, looked upon the protective tariff
+as a tribute laid upon them for the benefit of Northern industries. As
+heavy borrowers of money in the North, they were generally in favor of
+"easy money," if not paper currency, as an aid in the repayment of their
+debts. This threw most of them into opposition to the Whig program for a
+United States Bank. All financial aids to American shipping they stoutly
+resisted, preferring to rely upon the cheaper service rendered by
+English shippers. Internal improvements, those substantial ties that
+were binding the West to the East and turning the traffic from New
+Orleans to Philadelphia and New York, they viewed with alarm. Free
+homesteads from the public lands, which tended to overbalance the South
+by building free states, became to them a measure dangerous to their
+interests. Thus national economic policies, which could not by any twist
+or turn be confined to state control, drew the slave system and its
+defenders into the political conflict that centered at Washington.</p>
+
+<p><b>Slavery and the Territories&mdash;the Missouri Compromise (1820).</b>&mdash;Though
+men continually talked about "taking slavery out of politics," it could
+not be done. By 1818 slavery had become so entrenched and the
+anti-slavery sentiment so strong, that Missouri's quest for admission
+brought both houses of Congress into a deadlock that was broken only by
+compromise. The South, having half the Senators, could prevent the
+admission of Missouri stripped of slavery; and the North, powerful in
+the House of Representatives, could keep Missouri with slavery out of
+the union indefinitely. An adjustment of pretensions was the last
+resort. Maine, separated from the parent state of Massachusetts, was
+brought into the <a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a>union with freedom and Missouri with bondage. At the
+same time it was agreed that the remainder of the vast Louisiana
+territory north of the parallel of 36&deg; 30' should be, like the old
+Northwest, forever free; while the southern portion was left to slavery.
+In reality this was an immense gain for liberty. The area dedicated to
+free farmers was many times greater than that left to the planters. The
+principle was once more asserted that Congress had full power to prevent
+slavery in the territories.</p>
+
+<div><a name="missouri" id="missouri" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/352.png"><img src="./images/352-tb.png" alt="The Missouri Compromise" title="The Missouri Compromise" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The Missouri Compromise</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Territorial Question Reopened by the Wilmot Proviso.</b>&mdash;To the
+Southern leaders, the annexation of Texas and the conquest of Mexico
+meant renewed security to the planting interest against the increasing
+wealth and population of the North. Texas, it was said, could be divided
+into four slave states. The new territories secured by the treaty of
+peace with Mexico contained the promise of at least three more. Thus, as
+each new free soil state knocked for admission into the union, the<a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a>
+South could demand as the price of its consent a new slave state. No
+wonder Southern statesmen saw, in the annexation of Texas and the
+conquest of Mexico, slavery and King Cotton triumphant&mdash;secure for all
+time against adverse legislation. Northern leaders were equally
+convinced that the Southern prophecy was true. Abolitionists and
+moderate opponents of slavery alike were in despair. Texas, they
+lamented, would fasten slavery upon the country forevermore. "No living
+man," cried one, "will see the end of slavery in the United States!"</p>
+
+<p>It so happened, however, that the events which, it was thought, would
+secure slavery let loose a storm against it. A sign appeared first on
+August 6, 1846, only a few months after war was declared on Mexico. On
+that day, David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, introduced into
+the House of Representatives a resolution to the effect that, as an
+express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory
+from the republic of Mexico, slavery should be forever excluded from
+every part of it. "The Wilmot Proviso," as the resolution was popularly
+called, though defeated on that occasion, was a challenge to the South.</p>
+
+<p>The South answered the challenge. Speaking in the House of
+Representatives, Robert Toombs of Georgia boldly declared: "In the
+presence of the living God, if by your legislation you seek to drive us
+from the territories of California and New Mexico ... I am for
+disunion." South Carolina announced that the day for talk had passed and
+the time had come to join her sister states "in resisting the
+application of the Wilmot Proviso at any and all hazards." A conference,
+assembled at Jackson, Mississippi, in the autumn of 1849, called a
+general convention of Southern states to meet at Nashville the following
+summer. The avowed purpose was to arrest "the course of aggression" and,
+if that was not possible, to provide "in the last resort for their
+separate welfare by the formation of a compact and union that will
+afford protection to their liberties and rights." States that had
+spurned South Carolina's plea <a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a>for nullification in 1832 responded to
+this new appeal with alacrity&mdash;an augury of the secession to come.</p>
+
+<div><a name="clay" id="clay" /></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/354.jpg" alt="Henry Clay" title="Henry Clay" />
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i><small>From an old print</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Henry Clay</span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Great Debate of 1850.</b>&mdash;The temper of the country was white hot
+when Congress convened in December, 1849. It was a memorable session,
+memorable for the great men who took part in the debates and memorable
+for the grand Compromise of 1850 which it produced. In the Senate sat
+for the last time three heroic figures: Webster from the North, Calhoun
+from the South, and Clay from a border state. For nearly forty years
+these three had been leaders of men. All had grown old and gray in
+service. Calhoun was already broken in health and in a few months was to
+be borne from the political arena forever. Clay and Webster had but two
+more years in their allotted span.</p>
+
+<p>Experience, learning, statecraft&mdash;all these things they now marshaled in
+a mighty effort to solve the slavery problem. On January 29, 1850, Clay
+offered to the Senate a compromise granting concessions to both sides;
+and a few days later, in a powerful oration, he made a passionate appeal
+for a union of hearts through mutual sacrifices. Calhoun relentlessly
+demanded the full measure of justice for the South: equal rights in the
+territories bought by common blood; the return of runaway slaves as
+required by the Constitution; the suppression of the abolitionists; and
+the restoration of the balance of power between the North and the South.
+Webster, in his notable "Seventh of March speech," condemned the Wilmot<a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a>
+Proviso, advocated a strict enforcement of the fugitive slave law,
+denounced the abolitionists, and made a final plea for the Constitution,
+union, and liberty. This was the address which called forth from
+Whittier the poem, "Ichabod," deploring the fall of the mighty one whom
+he thought lost to all sense of faith and honor.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Terms of the Compromise of 1850.</b>&mdash;When the debates were closed,
+the results were totaled in a series of compromise measures, all of
+which were signed in September, 1850, by the new President, Millard
+Fillmore, who had taken office two months before on the death of Zachary
+Taylor. By these acts the boundaries of Texas were adjusted and the
+territory of New Mexico created, subject to the provision that all or
+any part of it might be admitted to the union "with or without slavery
+as their constitution may provide at the time of their admission." The
+Territory of Utah was similarly organized with the same conditions as to
+slavery, thus repudiating the Wilmot Proviso without guaranteeing
+slavery to the planters. California was admitted as a free state under a
+constitution in which the people of the territory had themselves
+prohibited slavery.</p>
+
+<p>The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, but slavery
+itself existed as before at the capital of the nation. This concession
+to anti-slavery sentiment was more than offset by a fugitive slave law,
+drastic in spirit and in letter. It placed the enforcement of its terms
+in the hands of federal officers appointed from Washington and so
+removed it from the control of authorities locally elected. It provided
+that masters or their agents, on filing claims in due form, might
+summarily remove their escaped slaves without affording their "alleged
+fugitives" the right of trial by jury, the right to witness, the right
+to offer any testimony in evidence. Finally, to "put teeth" into the
+act, heavy penalties were prescribed for all who obstructed or assisted
+in obstructing the enforcement of the law. Such was the Great Compromise
+of 1850.</p>
+
+<div><a name="thunder" id="thunder" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/356.jpg"><img src="./images/356-tb.jpg" alt="An Old Cartoon Representing Webster &quot;Stealing Clay's Thunder&quot;" title="An Old Cartoon Representing Webster &quot;Stealing Clay's Thunder&quot;" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">An Old Cartoon Representing Webster "Stealing Clay's Thunder"</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Pro-slavery Triumph in the Election of 1852.</b>&mdash;The results of the
+election of 1852 seemed to show conclusively <a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>that the nation was weary
+of slavery agitation and wanted peace. Both parties, Whigs and
+Democrats, endorsed the fugitive slave law and approved the Great
+Compromise. The Democrats, with Franklin Pierce as their leader, swept
+the country against the war hero, General Winfield Scott, on whom the
+Whigs had staked their hopes. Even Webster, broken with grief at his
+failure to receive the nomination, advised his friends to vote for
+Pierce and turned away from politics to meditate upon approaching death.
+The verdict of the voters would seem to indicate that for the time
+everybody, save a handful of disgruntled agitators, looked upon Clay's
+settlement as the last word. "The people, especially the business men of
+the country," says Elson, "were utterly weary of the agitation and they
+gave their suffrages to the party that promised them rest." The Free
+Soil party, condemning slavery as "a sin against God and a crime against
+man," and advocating freedom for the territories, failed to carry a
+single state. In fact it polled fewer votes than it <a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a>had four years
+earlier&mdash;156,000 as against nearly 3,000,000, the combined vote of the
+Whigs and Democrats. It is not surprising, therefore, that President
+Pierce, surrounded in his cabinet by strong Southern sympathizers, could
+promise to put an end to slavery agitation and to crush the abolition
+movement in the bud.</p>
+
+<p><b>Anti-slavery Agitation Continued.</b>&mdash;The promise was more difficult to
+fulfill than to utter. In fact, the vigorous execution of one measure
+included in the Compromise&mdash;the fugitive slave law&mdash;only made matters
+worse. Designed as security for the planters, it proved a powerful
+instrument in their undoing. Slavery five hundred miles away on a
+Louisiana plantation was so remote from the North that only the
+strongest imagination could maintain a constant rage against it. "Slave
+catching," "man hunting" by federal officers on the streets of
+Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Chicago, or Milwaukee and in the hamlets
+and villages of the wide-stretching farm lands of the North was another
+matter. It brought the most odious aspects of slavery home to thousands
+of men and women who would otherwise have been indifferent to the
+system. Law-abiding business men, mechanics, farmers, and women, when
+they saw peaceful negroes, who had resided in their neighborhoods
+perhaps for years, torn away by federal officers and carried back to
+bondage, were transformed into enemies of the law. They helped slaves to
+escape; they snatched them away from officers who had captured them;
+they broke open jails and carried fugitives off to Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Assistance to runaway slaves, always more or less common in the North,
+was by this time organized into a system. Regular routes, known as
+"underground railways," were laid out across the free states into
+Canada, and trusted friends of freedom maintained "underground stations"
+where fugitives were concealed in the daytime between their long night
+journeys. Funds were raised and secret agents sent into the South to
+help negroes to flee. One negro woman, Harriet Tubman, "the Moses of her
+people," with headquarters at Philadelphia, <a name="Page_332" id="Page_332"></a>is accredited with nineteen
+invasions into slave territory and the emancipation of three hundred
+negroes. Those who worked at this business were in constant peril. One
+underground operator, Calvin Fairbank, spent nearly twenty years in
+prison for aiding fugitives from justice. Yet perils and prisons did not
+stay those determined men and women who, in obedience to their
+consciences, set themselves to this lawless work.</p>
+
+<div><a name="stowe" id="stowe"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/358.jpg" alt="Harriet Beecher Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Harriet Beecher Stowe</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From thrilling stories of adventure along the underground railways came
+some of the scenes and themes of the novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe,
+"Uncle Tom's Cabin," published two years after the Compromise of 1850.
+Her stirring tale set forth the worst features of slavery in vivid word
+pictures that caught and held the attention of millions of readers.
+Though the book was unfair to the South and was denounced as a hideous
+distortion of the truth, it was quickly dramatized and played in every
+city and town throughout the North. Topsy, Little Eva, Uncle Tom, the
+fleeing slave, Eliza Harris, and the cruel slave driver, Simon Legree,
+with his baying blood hounds, became living specters in many a home that
+sought to bar the door to the "unpleasant and irritating business of
+slavery agitation."</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Drift of Events toward the Irrepressible Conflict</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.</b>&mdash;To practical men, after all, the
+"rub-a-dub" agitation of a few abolitionists, an occasional riot over
+fugitive slaves, and the vogue of a popular novel seemed of slight or
+transient importance. They could point with satisfaction to the election
+returns of 1852; but their very security was founded upon shifting
+sands. The <a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a>magnificent triumph of the pro-slavery Democrats in 1852
+brought a turn in affairs that destroyed the foundations under their
+feet. Emboldened by their own strength and the weakness of their
+opponents, they now dared to repeal the Missouri Compromise. The leader
+in this fateful enterprise was Stephen A. Douglas, Senator from
+Illinois, and the occasion for the deed was the demand for the
+organization of territorial government in the regions west of Iowa and
+Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>Douglas, like Clay and Webster before him, was consumed by a strong
+passion for the presidency, and, to reach his goal, it was necessary to
+win the support of the South. This he undoubtedly sought to do when he
+introduced on January 4, 1854, a bill organizing the Nebraska territory
+on the principle of the Compromise of 1850; namely, that the people in
+the territory might themselves decide whether they would have slavery or
+not. Unwittingly the avalanche was started.</p>
+
+<p>After a stormy debate, in which important amendments were forced on
+Douglas, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill became a law on May 30, 1854. The
+measure created two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and provided that
+they, or territories organized out of them, could come into the union as
+states "with or without slavery as their constitutions may prescribe at
+the time of their admission." Not content with this, the law went on to
+declare the Missouri Compromise null and void as being inconsistent with
+the principle of non-intervention by Congress with slavery in the states
+and territories. Thus by a single blow the very heart of the continent,
+dedicated to freedom by solemn agreement, was thrown open to slavery. A
+desperate struggle between slave owners and the advocates of freedom was
+the outcome in Kansas.</p>
+
+<p>If Douglas fancied that the North would receive the overthrow of the
+Missouri Compromise in the same temper that it greeted Clay's
+settlement, he was rapidly disillusioned. A blast of rage, terrific in
+its fury, swept from Maine to Iowa. Staid old Boston hanged him in
+effigy with an inscription&mdash;"Stephen A. Douglas, author of the infamous
+Nebraska bill: the Bene<a name="Page_334" id="Page_334"></a>dict Arnold of 1854." City after city burned him
+in effigy until, as he himself said, he could travel from the Atlantic
+coast to Chicago in the light of the fires. Thousands of Whigs and
+Free-soil Democrats deserted their parties which had sanctioned or at
+least tolerated the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, declaring that the startling
+measure showed an evident resolve on the part of the planters to rule
+the whole country. A gage of defiance was thrown down to the
+abolitionists. An issue was set even for the moderate and timid who had
+been unmoved by the agitation over slavery in the Far South. That issue
+was whether slavery was to be confined within its existing boundaries or
+be allowed to spread without interference, thereby placing the free
+states in the minority and surrendering the federal government wholly to
+the slave power.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Rise of the Republican Party.</b>&mdash;Events of terrible significance,
+swiftly following, drove the country like a ship before a gale straight
+into civil war. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill rent the old parties asunder
+and called into being the Republican party. While that bill was pending
+in Congress, many Northern Whigs and Democrats had come to the
+conclusion that a new party dedicated to freedom in the territories must
+follow the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Several places claim to be
+the original home of the Republican party; but historians generally
+yield it to Wisconsin. At Ripon in that state, a mass meeting of Whigs
+and Democrats assembled in February, 1854, and resolved to form a new
+party if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass. At a second meeting a
+fusion committee representing Whigs, Free Soilers, and Democrats was
+formed and the name Republican&mdash;the name of Jefferson's old party&mdash;was
+selected. All over the country similar meetings were held and political
+committees were organized.</p>
+
+<p>When the presidential campaign of 1856 began the Republicans entered the
+contest. After a preliminary conference in Pittsburgh in February, they
+held a convention in Philadelphia at which was drawn up a platform
+opposing the extension of slavery to the territories. John C. Fr&eacute;mont,
+the <a name="Page_335" id="Page_335"></a>distinguished explorer, was named for the presidency. The results
+of the election were astounding as compared with the Free-soil failure
+of the preceding election. Prominent men like Longfellow, Washington
+Irving, William Cullen Bryant, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and George William
+Curtis went over to the new party and 1,341,264 votes were rolled up for
+"free labor, free speech, free men, free Kansas, and Fr&eacute;mont."
+Nevertheless the victory of the Democrats was decisive. Their candidate,
+James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, was elected by a majority of 174 to 114
+electoral votes.</p>
+
+<div><a name="free" id="free" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/361.jpg"><img src="./images/361-tb.png" alt="Slave and Free Soil on Eve of Civil War" title="Slave and Free Soil on Eve of Civil War" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Slave and Free Soil on Eve of Civil War</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Dred Scott Decision (1857).</b>&mdash;In his inaugural, Buchanan vaguely
+hinted that in a forthcoming decision the Supreme Court would settle one
+of the vital questions of the day. This was a reference to the Dred
+Scott case then pending. Scott was a slave who had been taken by his
+master into the upper Louisiana territory, where freedom had been
+established by the Missouri Compromise, and then carried back into his
+old state of Missouri. He brought suit for his liberty on the ground
+that his residence in the free territory made him free. This raised the
+question whether the law of Congress prohibiting <a name="Page_336" id="Page_336"></a>slavery north of 36&deg;
+30' was authorized by the federal Constitution or not. The Court might
+have avoided answering it by saying that even though Scott was free in
+the territory, he became a slave again in Missouri by virtue of the law
+of that state. The Court, however, faced the issue squarely. It held
+that Scott had not been free anywhere and that, besides, the Missouri
+Compromise violated the Constitution and was null and void.</p>
+
+<p>The decision was a triumph for the South. It meant that Congress after
+all had no power to abolish slavery in the territories. Under the decree
+of the highest court in the land, that could be done only by an
+amendment to the Constitution which required a two-thirds vote in
+Congress and the approval of three-fourths of the states. Such an
+amendment was obviously impossible&mdash;the Southern states were too
+numerous; but the Republicans were not daunted. "We know," said Lincoln,
+"the Court that made it has often overruled its own decisions and we
+shall do what we can to have it overrule this." Legislatures of Northern
+states passed resolutions condemning the decision and the Republican
+platform of 1860 characterized the dogma that the Constitution carried
+slavery into the territories as "a dangerous political heresy at
+variance with the explicit provisions of that instrument itself ... with
+legislative and judicial precedent ... revolutionary in tendency and
+subversive of the peace and harmony of the country."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Panic of 1857.</b>&mdash;In the midst of the acrimonious dispute over the
+Dred Scott decision, came one of the worst business panics which ever
+afflicted the country. In the spring and summer of 1857, fourteen
+railroad corporations, including the Erie, Michigan Central, and the
+Illinois Central, failed to meet their obligations; banks and insurance
+companies, some of them the largest and strongest institutions in the
+North, closed their doors; stocks and bonds came down in a crash on the
+markets; manufacturing was paralyzed; tens of thousands of working
+people were thrown out of employment; "hunger meetings" of idle men were
+held in the cities and banners <a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"></a>bearing the inscription, "We want
+bread," were flung out. In New York, working men threatened to invade
+the Council Chamber to demand "work or bread," and the frightened mayor
+called for the police and soldiers. For this distressing state of
+affairs many remedies were offered; none with more zeal and persistence
+than the proposal for a higher tariff to take the place of the law of
+March, 1857, a Democratic measure making drastic reductions in the rates
+of duty. In the manufacturing districts of the North, the panic was
+ascribed to the "Democratic assault on business." So an old issue was
+again vigorously advanced, preparatory to the next presidential
+campaign.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.</b>&mdash;The following year the interest of the
+whole country was drawn to a series of debates held in Illinois by
+Lincoln and Douglas, both candidates for the United States Senate. In
+the course of his campaign Lincoln had uttered his trenchant saying that
+"a house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government
+cannot endure permanently half slave and half free." At the same time he
+had accused Douglas, Buchanan, and the Supreme Court of acting in
+concert to make slavery national. This daring statement arrested the
+attention of Douglas, who was making his campaign on the doctrine of
+"squatter sovereignty;" that is, the right of the people of each
+territory "to vote slavery up or down." After a few long-distance shots
+at each other, the candidates agreed to meet face to face and discuss
+the issues of the day. Never had such crowds been seen at political
+meetings in Illinois. Farmers deserted their plows, smiths their forges,
+and housewives their baking to hear "Honest Abe" and "the Little Giant."</p>
+
+<p>The results of the series of debates were momentous. Lincoln clearly
+defined his position. The South, he admitted, was entitled under the
+Constitution to a fair, fugitive slave law. He hoped that there might be
+no new slave states; but he did not see how Congress could exclude the
+people of a territory from admission as a state if they saw fit to adopt
+a constitution legal<a name="Page_338" id="Page_338"></a>izing the ownership of slaves. He favored the
+gradual abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and the total
+exclusion of it from the territories of the United States by act of
+Congress.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, he drove Douglas into a hole by asking how he squared
+"squatter sovereignty" with the Dred Scott decision; how, in other
+words, the people of a territory could abolish slavery when the Court
+had declared that Congress, the superior power, could not do it under
+the Constitution? To this baffling question Douglas lamely replied that
+the inhabitants of a territory, by "unfriendly legislation," might make
+property in slaves insecure and thus destroy the institution. This
+answer to Lincoln's query alienated many Southern Democrats who believed
+that the Dred Scott decision settled the question of slavery in the
+territories for all time. Douglas won the election to the Senate; but
+Lincoln, lifted into national fame by the debates, beat him in the
+campaign for President two years later.</p>
+
+<p><b>John Brown's Raid.</b>&mdash;To the abolitionists the line of argument pursued
+by Lincoln, including his proposal to leave slavery untouched in the
+states where it existed, was wholly unsatisfactory. One of them, a grim
+and resolute man, inflamed by a hatred for slavery in itself, turned
+from agitation to violence. "These men are all talk; what is needed is
+action&mdash;action!" So spoke John Brown of New York. During the sanguinary
+struggle in Kansas he hurried to the frontier, gun and dagger in hand,
+to help drive slave owners from the free soil of the West. There he
+committed deeds of such daring and cruelty that he was outlawed and a
+price put upon his head. Still he kept on the path of "action." Aided by
+funds from Northern friends, he gathered a small band of his followers
+around him, saying to them: "If God be for us, who can be against us?"
+He went into Virginia in the autumn of 1859, hoping, as he explained,
+"to effect a mighty conquest even though it be like the last victory of
+Samson." He seized the government armory at Harper's Ferry, declared
+free the slaves whom he found, and called upon them to take up arms in
+defense of their liberty. His was a hope as forlorn as it was desperate.
+Armed forces came down <a name="Page_339" id="Page_339"></a>upon him and, after a hard battle, captured him.
+Tried for treason, Brown was condemned to death. The governor of
+Virginia turned a deaf ear to pleas for clemency based on the ground
+that the prisoner was simply a lunatic. "This is a beautiful country,"
+said the stern old Brown glancing upward to the eternal hills on his way
+to the gallows, as calmly as if he were returning home from a long
+journey. "So perish all such enemies of Virginia. All such enemies of
+the Union. All such foes of the human race," solemnly announced the
+executioner as he fulfilled the judgment of the law.</p>
+
+<p>The raid and its grim ending deeply moved the country. Abolitionists
+looked upon Brown as a martyr and tolled funeral bells on the day of his
+execution. Longfellow wrote in his diary: "This will be a great day in
+our history; the date of a new revolution as much needed as the old
+one." Jefferson Davis saw in the affair "the invasion of a state by a
+murderous gang of abolitionists bent on inciting slaves to murder
+helpless women and children"&mdash;a crime for which the leader had met a
+felon's death. Lincoln spoke of the raid as absurd, the deed of an
+enthusiast who had brooded over the oppression of a people until he
+fancied himself commissioned by heaven to liberate them&mdash;an attempt
+which ended in "little else than his own execution." To Republican
+leaders as a whole, the event was very embarrassing. They were taunted
+by the Democrats with responsibility for the deed. Douglas declared his
+"firm and deliberate conviction that the Harper's Ferry crime was the
+natural, logical, inevitable result of the doctrines and teachings of
+the Republican party." So persistent were such attacks that the
+Republicans felt called upon in 1860 to denounce Brown's raid "as among
+the gravest of crimes."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Democrats Divided.</b>&mdash;When the Democratic convention met at
+Charleston in the spring of 1860, a few months after Brown's execution,
+it soon became clear that there was danger ahead. Between the extreme
+slavery advocates of the Far South and the so-called pro-slavery
+Democrats of the Douglas type, there was a chasm which no appeals to
+party loyalty <a name="Page_340" id="Page_340"></a>could bridge. As the spokesman of the West, Douglas knew
+that, while the North was not abolitionist, it was passionately set
+against an extension of slavery into the territories by act of Congress;
+that squatter sovereignty was the mildest kind of compromise acceptable
+to the farmers whose votes would determine the fate of the election.
+Southern leaders would not accept his opinion. Yancey, speaking for
+Alabama, refused to palter with any plan not built on the proposition
+that slavery was in itself right. He taunted the Northern Democrats with
+taking the view that slavery was wrong, but that they could not do
+anything about it. That, he said, was the fatal error&mdash;the cause of all
+discord, the source of "Black Republicanism," as well as squatter
+sovereignty. The gauntlet was thus thrown down at the feet of the
+Northern delegates: "You must not apologize for slavery; you must
+declare it right; you must advocate its extension." The challenge, so
+bluntly put, was as bluntly answered. "Gentlemen of the South,"
+responded a delegate from Ohio, "you mistake us. You mistake us. We will
+not do it."</p>
+
+<p>For ten days the Charleston convention wrangled over the platform and
+balloted for the nomination of a candidate. Douglas, though in the lead,
+could not get the two-thirds vote required for victory. For more than
+fifty times the roll of the convention was called without a decision.
+Then in sheer desperation the convention adjourned to meet later at
+Baltimore. When the delegates again assembled, their passions ran as
+high as ever. The division into two irreconcilable factions was
+unchanged. Uncompromising delegates from the South withdrew to Richmond,
+nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for President, and put forth
+a platform asserting the rights of slave owners in the territories and
+the duty of the federal government to protect them. The delegates who
+remained at Baltimore nominated Douglas and endorsed his doctrine of
+squatter sovereignty.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Constitutional Union Party.</b>&mdash;While the Democratic party was being
+disrupted, a fragment of the former Whig <a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"></a>party, known as the
+Constitutional Unionists, held a convention at Baltimore and selected
+national candidates: John Bell from Tennessee and Edward Everett from
+Massachusetts. A melancholy interest attached to this assembly. It was
+mainly composed of old men whose political views were those of Clay and
+Webster, cherished leaders now dead and gone. In their platform they
+sought to exorcise the evil spirit of partisanship by inviting their
+fellow citizens to "support the Constitution of the country, the union
+of the states, and the enforcement of the laws." The party that
+campaigned on this grand sentiment only drew laughter from the Democrats
+and derision from the Republicans and polled less than one-fourth the
+votes.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Republican Convention.</b>&mdash;With the Whigs definitely forced into a
+separate group, the Republican convention at Chicago was fated to be
+sectional in character, although five slave states did send delegates.
+As the Democrats were split, the party that had led a forlorn hope four
+years before was on the high road to success at last. New and powerful
+recruits were found. The advocates of a high protective tariff and the
+friends of free homesteads for farmers and workingmen mingled with
+enthusiastic foes of slavery. While still firm in their opposition to
+slavery in the territories, the Republicans went on record in favor of a
+homestead law granting free lands to settlers and approved customs
+duties designed "to encourage the development of the industrial
+interests of the whole country." The platform was greeted with cheers
+which, according to the stenographic report of the convention, became
+loud and prolonged as the protective tariff and homestead planks were
+read.</p>
+
+<p>Having skillfully drawn a platform to unite the North in opposition to
+slavery and the planting system, the Republicans were also adroit in
+their selection of a candidate. The tariff plank might carry
+Pennsylvania, a Democratic state; but Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were
+equally essential to success at the polls. The southern counties of
+these states were filled with settlers from Virginia, North Carolina,
+and Kentucky who, <a name="Page_342" id="Page_342"></a>even if they had no love for slavery, were no friends
+of abolition. Moreover, remembering the old fight on the United States
+Bank in Andrew Jackson's day, they were suspicious of men from the East.
+Accordingly, they did not favor the candidacy of Seward, the leading
+Republican statesman and "favorite son" of New York.</p>
+
+<p>After much trading and discussing, the convention came to the conclusion
+that Abraham Lincoln of Illinois was the most "available" candidate. He
+was of Southern origin, born in Kentucky in 1809, a fact that told
+heavily in the campaign in the Ohio Valley. He was a man of the soil,
+the son of poor frontier parents, a pioneer who in his youth had labored
+in the fields and forests, celebrated far and wide as "honest Abe, the
+rail-splitter." It was well-known that he disliked slavery, but was no
+abolitionist. He had come dangerously near to Seward's radicalism in his
+"house-divided-against-itself" speech but he had never committed himself
+to the reckless doctrine that there was a "higher law" than the
+Constitution. Slavery in the South he tolerated as a bitter fact;
+slavery in the territories he opposed with all his strength. Of his
+sincerity there could be no doubt. He was a speaker and writer of
+singular power, commanding, by the use of simple and homely language,
+the hearts and minds of those who heard him speak or read his printed
+words. He had gone far enough in his opposition to slavery; but not too
+far. He was the man of the hour! Amid lusty cheers from ten thousand
+throats, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency by the Republicans. In
+the ensuing election, he carried all the free states except New Jersey.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>P.E. Chadwick, <i>Causes of the Civil War</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>W.E. Dodd, <i>Statesmen of the Old South</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E. Engle, <i>Southern Sidelights</i> (Sympathetic account of the Old South).</p>
+
+<p>A.B. Hart, <i>Slavery and Abolition</i> (American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>J.F. Rhodes, <i>History of the United States</i>, Vols. I and II.</p>
+
+<p>T.C. Smith, <i>Parties and Slavery</i> (American Nation Series).<a name="Page_343" id="Page_343"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Trace the decline of slavery in the North and explain it.</p>
+
+<p>2. Describe the character of early opposition to slavery.</p>
+
+<p>3. What was the effect of abolition agitation?</p>
+
+<p>4. Why did anti-slavery sentiment practically disappear in the South?</p>
+
+<p>5. On what grounds did Calhoun defend slavery?</p>
+
+<p>6. Explain how slave owners became powerful in politics.</p>
+
+<p>7. Why was it impossible to keep the slavery issue out of national
+politics?</p>
+
+<p>8. Give the leading steps in the long controversy over slavery in the
+territories.</p>
+
+<p>9. State the terms of the Compromise of 1850 and explain its failure.</p>
+
+<p>10. What were the startling events between 1850 and 1860?</p>
+
+<p>11. Account for the rise of the Republican party. What party had used
+the title before?</p>
+
+<p>12. How did the Dred Scott decision become a political issue?</p>
+
+<p>13. What were some of the points brought out in the Lincoln-Douglas
+debates?</p>
+
+<p>14. Describe the party division in 1860.</p>
+
+<p>15. What were the main planks in the Republican platform?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Extension of Cotton Planting.</b>&mdash;Callender, <i>Economic History of the
+United States</i>, pp. 760-768.</p>
+
+<p><b>Abolition Agitation.</b>&mdash;McMaster, <i>History of the People of the United
+States</i>, Vol. VI, pp. 271-298.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calhoun's Defense of Slavery.</b>&mdash;Harding, <i>Select Orations Illustrating
+American History</i>, pp. 247-257.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Compromise of 1850.</b>&mdash;Clay's speech in Harding, <i>Select Orations</i>,
+pp. 267-289. The compromise laws in Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source Book
+of American History</i>, pp. 383-394. Narrative account in McMaster, Vol.
+VIII, pp. 1-55; Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>, pp. 540-548.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.</b>&mdash;McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp.
+192-231; Elson, pp. 571-582.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Dred Scott Case.</b>&mdash;McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp. 278-282. Compare the
+opinion of Taney and the dissent of Curtis in Macdonald, <i>Documentary
+Source Book</i>, pp. 405-420; Elson, pp. 595-598.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.</b>&mdash;Analysis of original speeches in
+Harding, <i>Select Orations</i> pp. 309-341; Elson, pp. 598-604.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;Calhoun, Clay, Webster, A.H. Stephens, Douglas,
+W.H. Seward, William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Harriet
+Beecher Stowe.<a name="Page_344" id="Page_344"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION</h3>
+
+
+<p>"The irrepressible conflict is about to be visited upon us through the
+Black Republican nominee and his fanatical, diabolical Republican
+party," ran an appeal to the voters of South Carolina during the
+campaign of 1860. If that calamity comes to pass, responded the governor
+of the state, the answer should be a declaration of independence. In a
+few days the suspense was over. The news of Lincoln's election came
+speeding along the wires. Prepared for the event, the editor of the
+Charleston <i>Mercury</i> unfurled the flag of his state amid wild cheers
+from an excited throng in the streets. Then he seized his pen and wrote:
+"The tea has been thrown overboard; the revolution of 1860 has been
+initiated." The issue was submitted to the voters in the choice of
+delegates to a state convention called to cast off the yoke of the
+Constitution.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Southern Confederacy</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Secession.</b>&mdash;As arranged, the convention of South Carolina assembled in
+December and without a dissenting voice passed the ordinance of
+secession withdrawing from the union. Bells were rung exultantly, the
+roar of cannon carried the news to outlying counties, fireworks lighted
+up the heavens, and champagne flowed. The crisis so long expected had
+come at last; even the conservatives who had prayed that they might
+escape the dreadful crash greeted it with a sigh of relief.</p>
+
+<div><a name="sixty_one" id="sixty_one" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/372.jpg"><img src="./images/372-tb.jpg" alt="The United States in 1861" title="The United States in 1861" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The United States in 1861</span><br />
+The border states (in purple) remained loyal.</div>
+
+<p>South Carolina now sent forth an appeal to her sister states&mdash;states
+that had in Jackson's day repudiated nullification as leading to "the
+dissolution of the union." The answer that came this time was in a
+different vein. A month had hardly elapsed before five other
+states&mdash;Florida, Georgia, Alabama,<a name="Page_345" id="Page_345"></a> Mississippi, and Louisiana&mdash;had
+withdrawn from the union. In February, Texas followed. Virginia,
+hesitating until the bombardment of Fort Sumter forced a conclusion,
+seceded in April; but fifty-five of the one hundred and forty-three
+delegates dissented, foreshadowing the creation of the new state of West
+Virginia which Congress admitted to the union in 1863. In May, North
+Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee announced their independence.</p>
+
+<p><b>Secession and the Theories of the Union.</b>&mdash;In severing their relations
+with the union, the seceding states denied every point in the Northern
+theory of the Constitution. That theory, as every one knows, was
+carefully formulated by Webster and elaborated by Lincoln. According to
+it, the union was older than the states; it was created before the
+Declaration of Independence for the purpose of common defense. The
+Articles of Confederation did but strengthen this national bond and the
+Constitution sealed it forever. The federal government was not a
+creature of state governments. It was erected by the people and derived
+its powers directly from them. "It is," said Webster, "the people's
+Constitution, the people's government; made for the people; made by the
+people; and answerable to the people. The people of the United States
+have declared that this Constitution shall be the supreme law." When a
+state questions the lawfulness of any act of the federal government, it
+cannot nullify that act or withdraw from the union; it must abide by the
+decision of the Supreme Court of the United States. The union of these
+states is perpetual, ran Lincoln's simple argument in the first
+inaugural; the federal Constitution has no provision for its own
+termination; it can be destroyed only by some action not provided for in
+the instrument itself; even if it is a compact among all the states the
+consent of all must be necessary to its dissolution; therefore no state
+can lawfully get out of the union and acts of violence against the
+United States are insurrectionary or revolutionary. This was the system
+which he believed himself bound to defend by his oath of office
+"registered in heaven."<a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"></a></p>
+
+<p>All this reasoning Southern statesmen utterly rejected. In their opinion
+the thirteen original states won their independence as separate and
+sovereign powers. The treaty of peace with Great Britain named them all
+and acknowledged them "to be free, sovereign, and independent states."
+The Articles of Confederation very explicitly declared that "each state
+retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence." The Constitution
+was a "league of nations" formed by an alliance of thirteen separate
+powers, each one of which ratified the instrument before it was put into
+effect. They voluntarily entered the union under the Constitution and
+voluntarily they could leave it. Such was the constitutional doctrine of
+Hayne, Calhoun, and Jefferson Davis. In seceding, the Southern states
+had only to follow legal methods, and the transaction would be correct
+in every particular. So conventions were summoned, elections were held,
+and "sovereign assemblies of the people" set aside the Constitution in
+the same manner as it had been ratified nearly four score years before.
+Thus, said the Southern people, the moral judgment was fulfilled and the
+letter of the law carried into effect.</p>
+
+<div><a name="davis" id="davis"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/374.jpg" alt="Jefferson Davis" title="Jefferson Davis" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Jefferson Davis</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Formation of the Confederacy.</b>&mdash;Acting on the call of Mississippi,
+a congress of delegates from the seceded states met at Montgomery,
+Alabama, and on February 8, 1861, adopted a temporary plan of union. It
+selected, as provisional president, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, a
+man well fitted by experience and moderation for leadership, a graduate
+of West Point, who had rendered distinguished service on the field of
+battle in the Mexican War, in public office, and as a member of
+Congress.<a name="Page_347" id="Page_347"></a></p>
+
+<p>In March, a permanent constitution of the Confederate states was
+drafted. It was quickly ratified by the states; elections were held in
+November; and the government under it went into effect the next year.
+This new constitution, in form, was very much like the famous instrument
+drafted at Philadelphia in 1787. It provided for a President, a Senate,
+and a House of Representatives along almost identical lines. In the
+powers conferred upon them, however, there were striking differences.
+The right to appropriate money for internal improvements was expressly
+withheld; bounties were not to be granted from the treasury nor import
+duties so laid as to promote or foster any branch of industry. The
+dignity of the state, if any might be bold enough to question it, was
+safeguarded in the opening line by the declaration that each acted "in
+its sovereign and independent character" in forming the Southern union.</p>
+
+<p><b>Financing the Confederacy.</b>&mdash;No government ever set out upon its career
+with more perplexing tasks in front of it. The North had a monetary
+system; the South had to create one. The North had a scheme of taxation
+that produced large revenues from numerous sources; the South had to
+formulate and carry out a financial plan. Like the North, the
+Confederacy expected to secure a large revenue from customs duties,
+easily collected and little felt among the masses. To this expectation
+the blockade of Southern ports inaugurated by Lincoln in April, 1861,
+soon put an end. Following the precedent set by Congress under the
+Articles of Confederation, the Southern Congress resorted to a direct
+property tax apportioned among the states, only to meet the failure that
+might have been foretold.</p>
+
+<p>The Confederacy also sold bonds, the first issue bringing into the
+treasury nearly all the specie available in the Southern banks. This
+specie by unhappy management was early sent abroad to pay for supplies,
+sapping the foundations of a sound currency system. Large amounts of
+bonds were sold overseas, commanding at first better terms than <a name="Page_348" id="Page_348"></a>those
+of the North in the markets of London, Paris, and Amsterdam, many an
+English lord and statesman buying with enthusiasm and confidence to
+lament within a few years the proofs of his folly. The difficulties of
+bringing through the blockade any supplies purchased by foreign bond
+issues, however, nullified the effect of foreign credit and forced the
+Confederacy back upon the device of paper money. In all approximately
+one billion dollars streamed from the printing presses, to fall in value
+at an alarming rate, reaching in January, 1863, the astounding figure of
+fifty dollars in paper money for one in gold. Every known device was
+used to prevent its depreciation, without result. To the issues of the
+Confederate Congress were added untold millions poured out by the states
+and by private banks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Human and Material Resources.</b>&mdash;When we measure strength for strength
+in those signs of power&mdash;men, money, and supplies&mdash;it is difficult to
+see how the South was able to embark on secession and war with such
+confidence in the outcome. In the Confederacy at the final reckoning
+there were eleven states in all, to be pitted against twenty-two; a
+population of nine millions, nearly one-half servile, to be pitted
+against twenty-two millions; a land without great industries to produce
+war supplies and without vast capital to furnish war finances, joined in
+battle with a nation already industrial and fortified by property worth
+eleven billion dollars. Even after the Confederate Congress authorized
+conscription in 1862, Southern man power, measured in numbers, was
+wholly inadequate to uphold the independence which had been declared.
+How, therefore, could the Confederacy hope to sustain itself against
+such a combination of men, money, and materials as the North could
+marshal?</p>
+
+<p><b>Southern Expectations.</b>&mdash;The answer to this question is to be found in
+the ideas that prevailed among Southern leaders. First of all, they
+hoped, in vain, to carry the Confederacy up to the Ohio River; and, with
+the aid of Missouri, to gain possession of the Mississippi Valley, the
+granary of the nation.<a name="Page_349" id="Page_349"></a> In the second place, they reckoned upon a large
+and continuous trade with Great Britain&mdash;the exchange of cotton for war
+materials. They likewise expected to receive recognition and open aid
+from European powers that looked with satisfaction upon the breakup of
+the great American republic. In the third place, they believed that
+their control over several staples so essential to Northern industry
+would enable them to bring on an industrial crisis in the manufacturing
+states. "I firmly believe," wrote Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, in
+1860, "that the slave-holding South is now the controlling power of the
+world; that no other power would face us in hostility. Cotton, rice,
+tobacco, and naval stores command the world; and we have the sense to
+know it and are sufficiently Teutonic to carry it out successfully. The
+North without us would be a motherless calf, bleating about, and die of
+mange and starvation."</p>
+
+<p>There were other grounds for confidence. Having seized all of the
+federal military and naval supplies in the South, and having left the
+national government weak in armed power during their possession of the
+presidency, Southern leaders looked to a swift war, if it came at all,
+to put the finishing stroke to independence. "The greasy mechanics of
+the North," it was repeatedly said, "will not fight." As to disparity in
+numbers they drew historic parallels. "Our fathers, a mere handful,
+overcame the enormous power of Great Britain," a saying of ex-President
+Tyler, ran current to reassure the doubtful. Finally, and this point
+cannot be too strongly emphasized, the South expected to see a weakened
+and divided North. It knew that the abolitionists and the Southern
+sympathizers were ready to let the Confederate states go in peace; that
+Lincoln represented only a little more than one-third the voters of the
+country; and that the vote for Douglas, Bell, and Breckinridge meant a
+decided opposition to the Republicans and their policies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Efforts at Compromise.</b>&mdash;Republican leaders, on reviewing the same
+facts, were themselves uncertain as to the outcome of <a name="Page_350" id="Page_350"></a>a civil war and
+made many efforts to avoid a crisis. Thurlow Weed, an Albany journalist
+and politician who had done much to carry New York for Lincoln, proposed
+a plan for extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific.
+Jefferson Davis, warning his followers that a war if it came would be
+terrible, was prepared to accept the offer; but Lincoln, remembering his
+campaign pledges, stood firm as a rock against it. His followers in
+Congress took the same position with regard to a similar settlement
+suggested by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky.</p>
+
+<p>Though unwilling to surrender his solemn promises respecting slavery in
+the territories, Lincoln was prepared to give to Southern leaders a
+strong guarantee that his administration would not interfere directly or
+indirectly with slavery in the states. Anxious to reassure the South on
+this point, the Republicans in Congress proposed to write into the
+Constitution a declaration that no amendment should ever be made
+authorizing the abolition of or interference with slavery in any state.
+The resolution, duly passed, was sent forth on March 4, 1861, with the
+approval of Lincoln; it was actually ratified by three states before the
+storm of war destroyed it. By the irony of fate the thirteenth amendment
+was to abolish, not guarantee, slavery.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The War Measures of the Federal Government</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Raising the Armies.</b>&mdash;The crisis at Fort Sumter, on April 12-14, 1861,
+forced the President and Congress to turn from negotiations to problems
+of warfare. Little did they realize the magnitude of the task before
+them. Lincoln's first call for volunteers, issued on April 15, 1861,
+limited the number to 75,000, put their term of service at three months,
+and prescribed their duty as the enforcement of the law against
+combinations too powerful to be overcome by ordinary judicial process.
+Disillusionment swiftly followed. The terrible defeat of the Federals at
+Bull Run on July 21 revealed the serious character of the task before
+them; and by a series of <a name="Page_351" id="Page_351"></a>measures Congress put the entire man power of
+the country at the President's command. Under these acts, he issued new
+calls for volunteers. Early in August, 1862, he ordered a draft of
+militiamen numbering 300,000 for nine months' service. The results were
+disappointing&mdash;ominous&mdash;for only <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'bout'">about</ins> 87,000 soldiers were added to the
+army. Something more drastic was clearly necessary.</p>
+
+<p>In March, 1863, Lincoln signed the inevitable draft law; it enrolled in
+the national forces liable to military duty all able-bodied male
+citizens and persons of foreign birth who had declared their intention
+to become citizens, between the ages of twenty and forty-five
+years&mdash;with exemptions on grounds of physical weakness and dependency.
+From the men enrolled were drawn by lot those destined to active
+service. Unhappily the measure struck a mortal blow at the principle of
+universal liability by excusing any person who found a substitute for
+himself or paid into the war office a sum, not exceeding three hundred
+dollars, to be fixed by general order. This provision, so crass and so
+obviously favoring the well-to-do, sowed seeds of bitterness which
+sprang up a hundredfold in the North.</p>
+
+<div><a name="draft" id="draft" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/379.jpg"><img src="./images/379-tb.jpg" alt="The Draft Riots in New York City" title="The Draft Riots in New York City" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The Draft Riots in New York City</span></div>
+
+<p>The beginning of the drawings under the draft act in New York City, on
+Monday, July 13, 1863, was the signal for four days of rioting. In the
+course of this uprising, draft headquarters were destroyed; the office
+of the <i>Tribune</i> was gutted; <a name="Page_352" id="Page_352"></a>negroes were seized, hanged, and shot; the
+homes of obnoxious Unionists were burned down; the residence of the
+mayor of the city was attacked; and regular battles were fought in the
+streets between the rioters and the police. Business stopped and a large
+part of the city passed absolutely into the control of the mob. Not
+until late the following Wednesday did enough troops arrive to restore
+order and enable the residents of the city to resume their daily
+activities. At least a thousand people had been killed or wounded and
+more than a million dollars' worth of damage done to property. The draft
+temporarily interrupted by this outbreak was then resumed and carried
+out without further trouble.</p>
+
+<p>The results of the draft were in the end distinctly disappointing to the
+government. The exemptions were numerous and the number who preferred
+and were able to pay $300 rather than serve exceeded all expectations.
+Volunteering, it is true, was stimulated, but even that resource could
+hardly keep the thinning ranks of the army filled. With reluctance
+Congress struck out the $300 exemption clause, but still favored the
+well-to-do by allowing them to hire substitutes if they could find them.
+With all this power in its hands the administration was able by January,
+1865, to construct a union army that outnumbered the Confederates two to
+one.</p>
+
+<p><b>War Finance.</b>&mdash;In the financial sphere the North faced immense
+difficulties. The surplus in the treasury had been dissipated by 1861
+and the tariff of 1857 had failed to produce an income sufficient to
+meet the ordinary expenses of the government. Confronted by military and
+naval expenditures of appalling magnitude, rising from $35,000,000 in
+the first year of the war to $1,153,000,000 in the last year, the
+administration had to tap every available source of income. The duties
+on imports were increased, not once but many times, producing huge
+revenues and also meeting the most extravagant demands of the
+manufacturers for protection. Direct taxes were imposed on the states
+according to their respective populations, but the returns were
+meager&mdash;all out of proportion <a name="Page_353" id="Page_353"></a>to the irritation involved. Stamp taxes
+and taxes on luxuries, occupations, and the earnings of corporations
+were laid with a weight that, in ordinary times, would have drawn forth
+opposition of ominous strength. The whole gamut of taxation was run.
+Even a tax on incomes and gains by the year, the first in the history of
+the federal government, was included in the long list.</p>
+
+<p>Revenues were supplemented by bond issues, mounting in size and interest
+rate, until in October, at the end of the war, the debt stood at
+$2,208,000,000. The total cost of the war was many times the money value
+of all the slaves in the Southern states. To the debt must be added
+nearly half a billion dollars in "greenbacks"&mdash;paper money issued by
+Congress in desperation as bond sales and revenues from taxes failed to
+meet the rising expenditures. This currency issued at par on
+questionable warrant from the Constitution, like all such paper, quickly
+began to decline until in the worst fortunes of 1864 one dollar in gold
+was worth nearly three in greenbacks.</p>
+
+<div><a name="blockade" id="blockade"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/382.jpg" alt="A Blockade Runner" title="A Blockade Runner" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Blockade Runner</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Blockade of Southern Ports.</b>&mdash;Four days after his call for
+volunteers, April 19, 1861, President Lincoln issued a proclamation
+blockading the ports of the Southern Confederacy. Later the blockade was
+extended to Virginia and North Carolina, as they withdrew from the
+union. Vessels attempting to enter or leave these ports, if they
+disregarded the warnings of a blockading ship, were to be captured and
+brought as prizes to the nearest convenient port. To make the order
+effective, immediate steps were taken to increase the naval forces,
+depleted by neglect, until the entire coast line was patrolled with such
+a number of ships that it was a rare captain who ventured to run the
+gantlet. The collision between the <i>Merrimac</i> and the <i>Monitor</i> in
+March, 1862, sealed the fate of the Confederacy. The exploits of the
+union navy are recorded in the falling export of cotton: $202,000,000 in
+1860; $42,000,000 in 1861; and $4,000,000 in 1862.</p>
+
+<p>The deadly effect of this paralysis of trade upon Southern war power may
+be readily imagined. Foreign loans, payable <a name="Page_354" id="Page_354"></a>in cotton, could be
+negotiated but not paid off. Supplies could be purchased on credit but
+not brought through the drag net. With extreme difficulty could the
+Confederate government secure even paper for the issue of money and
+bonds. Publishers, in despair at the loss of supplies, were finally
+driven to the use of brown wrapping paper and wall paper. As the
+railways and rolling stock wore out, it became impossible to renew them
+from England or France. Unable to export their cotton, planters on the
+seaboard burned it in what were called "fires of patriotism." In their
+lurid light the fatal weakness of Southern economy stood revealed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Diplomacy.</b>&mdash;The war had not advanced far before the federal government
+became involved in many perplexing problems of diplomacy in Europe. The
+Confederacy early turned to England and France for financial aid and for
+recognition as an independent power. Davis believed that the industrial
+crisis created by the cotton blockade would in time literally compel
+Europe to intervene in order to get this essential staple. The crisis
+came as he expected but not the result. Thousands of English textile
+workers were thrown out of employment; and yet, while on the point of
+starvation, they adopted resolutions favoring the North instead of
+petitioning their government to aid the South by breaking the blockade.</p>
+
+<p>With the ruling classes it was far otherwise. Napoleon III, the Emperor
+of the French, was eager to help in disrupting the American republic; if
+he could have won England's support, he would have carried out his
+designs. As it turned out he found plenty of sympathy across the Channel
+but not open and official co&ouml;peration. According to the eminent
+historian,<a name="Page_355" id="Page_355"></a> Rhodes, "four-fifths of the British House of Lords and most
+members of the House of Commons were favorable to the Confederacy and
+anxious for its triumph." Late in 1862 the British ministers, thus
+sustained, were on the point of recognizing the independence of the
+Confederacy. Had it not been for their extreme caution, for the constant
+and harassing criticism by English friends of the United States&mdash;like
+John Bright&mdash;and for the victories of Vicksburg and Gettysburg, both
+England and France would have doubtless declared the Confederacy to be
+one of the independent powers of the earth.</p>
+
+<div><a name="bright" id="bright"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/383.jpg" alt="John Bright" title="John Bright" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">John Bright</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>While stopping short of recognizing its independence, England and France
+took several steps that were in favor of the South. In proclaiming
+neutrality, they early accepted the Confederates as "belligerents" and
+accorded them the rights of people at war&mdash;a measure which aroused anger
+in the North at first but was later admitted to be sound. Otherwise
+Confederates taken in battle would have been regarded as "rebels" or
+"traitors" to be hanged or shot. Napoleon III proposed to Russia in 1861
+a coalition of powers against the North, only to meet a firm refusal.
+The next year he suggested intervention to Great Britain, encountering
+this time a conditional rejection of his plans. In 1863, not daunted by
+rebuffs, he offered his services to Lincoln as a mediator, receiving in
+reply a polite letter declining his proposal and a sharp resolution from
+Congress suggesting that he attend to his own affairs.</p>
+
+<p>In both England and France the governments pursued a policy of
+friendliness to the Confederate agents. The British ministry, with
+indifference if not connivance, permitted rams <a name="Page_356" id="Page_356"></a>and ships to be built in
+British docks and allowed them to escape to play havoc under the
+Confederate flag with American commerce. One of them, the <i>Alabama</i>,
+built in Liverpool by a British firm and paid for by bonds sold in
+England, ran an extraordinary career and threatened to break the
+blockade. The course followed by the British government, against the
+protests of the American minister in London, was later regretted. By an
+award of a tribunal of arbitration at Geneva in 1872, Great Britain was
+required to pay the huge sum of $15,500,000 to cover the damages wrought
+by Confederate cruisers fitted out in England.</p>
+
+<div><a name="seward" id="seward"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/384.jpg" alt="William H. Seward" title="William H. Seward" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">William H. Seward</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all fairness it should be said that the conduct of the North
+contributed to the irritation between the two countries. Seward, the
+Secretary of State, was vindictive in dealing with Great Britain; had it
+not been for the moderation of Lincoln, he would have pursued a course
+verging in the direction of open war. The New York and Boston papers
+were severe in their attacks on England. Words were, on one occasion at
+least, accompanied by an act savoring of open hostility. In November,
+1861, Captain Wilkes, commanding a union vessel, overhauled the British
+steamer <i>Trent</i>, and carried off by force two Confederate agents, Mason
+and Slidell, sent by President Davis to represent the Confederacy at
+London and Paris respectively. This was a clear violation of the right
+of merchant vessels to be immune from search and impressment; and, in
+answer to the demand of Great Britain for the release of the two men,
+the United States conceded that it was in the wrong. It surrendered the
+two Confederate agents to a<a name="Page_357" id="Page_357"></a> British vessel for safe conduct abroad, and
+made appropriate apologies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Emancipation.</b>&mdash;Among the extreme war measures adopted by the Northern
+government must be counted the emancipation of the slaves in the states
+in arms against the union. This step was early and repeatedly suggested
+to Lincoln by the abolitionists; but was steadily put aside. He knew
+that the abolitionists were a mere handful, that emancipation might
+drive the border states into secession, and that the Northern soldiers
+had enlisted to save the union. Moreover, he had before him a solemn
+resolution passed by Congress on July 22, 1861, declaring the sole
+purpose of the war to be the salvation of the union and disavowing any
+intention of interfering with slavery.</p>
+
+<p>The federal government, though pledged to the preservation of slavery,
+soon found itself beaten back upon its course and out upon a new tack.
+Before a year had elapsed, namely on April 10, 1862, Congress resolved
+that financial aid should be given to any state that might adopt gradual
+emancipation. Six days later it abolished slavery in the District of
+Columbia. Two short months elapsed. On June 19, 1862, it swept slavery
+forever from the territories of the United States. Chief Justice Taney
+still lived, the Dred Scott decision stood as written in the book, but
+the Constitution had been re-read in the light of the Civil War. The
+drift of public sentiment in the North was being revealed.</p>
+
+<p>While these measures were pending in Congress, Lincoln was slowly making
+up his mind. By July of that year he had come to his great decision.
+Near the end of that month he read to his cabinet the draft of a
+proclamation of emancipation; but he laid it aside until a military
+achievement would make it something more than an idle gesture. In
+September, the severe check administered to Lee at Antietam seemed to
+offer the golden opportunity. On the 22d, the immortal document was
+given to the world announcing that, unless the states in arms returned
+to the union by January 1, 1863, the fatal <a name="Page_358" id="Page_358"></a>blow at their "peculiar
+institution" would be delivered. Southern leaders treated it with slight
+regard, and so on the date set the promise was fulfilled. The
+proclamation was issued as a war measure, adopted by the President as
+commander-in-chief of the armed forces, on grounds of military
+necessity. It did not abolish slavery. It simply emancipated slaves in
+places then in arms against federal authority. Everywhere else slavery,
+as far as the Proclamation was concerned, remained lawful.</p>
+
+<div><a name="lincoln" id="lincoln"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/386.jpg" alt="Abraham Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Abraham Lincoln</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To seal forever the proclamation of emancipation, and to extend freedom
+to the whole country, Congress, in January, 1865, on the urgent
+recommendation of Lincoln, transmitted to the states the thirteenth
+amendment, abolishing slavery throughout the United States. By the end
+of 1865 the amendment was ratified. The house was not divided against
+itself; it did not fall; it was all free.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Restraint of Civil Liberty.</b>&mdash;As in all great wars, particularly
+those in the nature of a civil strife, it was found necessary to use
+strong measures to sustain opinion favorable to the administration's
+military policies and to frustrate the designs of those who sought to
+hamper its action. Within two weeks of his first call for volunteers,
+Lincoln empowered General Scott to suspend the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>
+along the line of <a name="Page_359" id="Page_359"></a>march between Philadelphia and Washington and thus to
+arrest and hold without interference from civil courts any one whom he
+deemed a menace to the union. At a later date the area thus ruled by
+military officers was extended by executive proclamation. By an act of
+March 3, 1863, Congress, desiring to lay all doubts about the
+President's power, authorized him to suspend the writ throughout the
+United States or in any part thereof. It also freed military officers
+from the necessity of surrendering to civil courts persons arrested
+under their orders, or even making answers to writs issued from such
+courts. In the autumn of that year the President, acting under the terms
+of this law, declared this ancient and honorable instrument for the
+protection of civil liberties, the <i>habeas corpus</i>, suspended throughout
+the length and breadth of the land. The power of the government was also
+strengthened by an act defining and punishing certain conspiracies,
+passed on July 31, 1861&mdash;a measure which imposed heavy penalties on
+those who by force, intimidation, or threat interfered with the
+execution of the law.</p>
+
+<p>Thus doubly armed, the military authorities spared no one suspected of
+active sympathy with the Southern cause. Editors were arrested and
+imprisoned, their papers suspended, and their newsboys locked up. Those
+who organized "peace meetings" soon found themselves in the toils of the
+law. Members of the Maryland legislature, the mayor of Baltimore, and
+local editors suspected of entertaining secessionist opinions, were
+imprisoned on military orders although charged with no offense, and were
+denied the privilege of examination before a civil magistrate. A Vermont
+farmer, too outspoken in his criticism of the government, found himself
+behind the bars until the government, in its good pleasure, saw fit to
+release him. These measures were not confined to the theater of war nor
+to the border states where the spirit of secession was strong enough to
+endanger the cause of union. They were applied all through the Northern
+states up to the very boundaries of Canada. Zeal for the national cause,
+too often supple<a name="Page_360" id="Page_360"></a>mented by a zeal for persecution, spread terror among
+those who wavered in the singleness of their devotion to the union.</p>
+
+<p>These drastic operations on the part of military authorities, so foreign
+to the normal course of civilized life, naturally aroused intense and
+bitter hostility. Meetings of protest were held throughout the country.
+Thirty-six members of the House of Representatives sought to put on
+record their condemnation of the suspension of the <i>habeas corpus</i> act,
+only to meet a firm denial by the supporters of the act. Chief Justice
+Taney, before whom the case of a man arrested under the President's
+military authority was brought, emphatically declared, in a long and
+learned opinion bristling with historical examples, that the President
+had no power to suspend the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. In Congress and
+out, Democrats, abolitionists, and champions of civil liberty denounced
+Lincoln and his Cabinet in unsparing terms. Vallandigham, a Democratic
+leader of Ohio, afterward banished to the South for his opposition to
+the war, constantly applied to Lincoln the epithet of "C&aelig;sar." Wendell
+Phillips saw in him "a more unlimited despot than the world knows this
+side of China."</p>
+
+<p>Sensitive to such stinging thrusts and no friend of wanton persecution,
+Lincoln attempted to mitigate the rigors of the law by paroling many
+political prisoners. The general policy, however, he defended in homely
+language, very different in tone and meaning from the involved reasoning
+of the lawyers. "Must I shoot a simple-minded soldier boy who deserts,
+while I must not touch a hair of the wily agitator who induces him to
+desert?" he asked in a quiet way of some spokesmen for those who
+protested against arresting people for "talking against the war." This
+summed up his philosophy. He was engaged in a war to save the union, and
+all measures necessary and proper to accomplish that purpose were
+warranted by the Constitution which he had sworn to uphold.</p>
+
+<p><b>Military Strategy&mdash;North and South.</b>&mdash;The broad outlines of military
+strategy followed by the commanders of the opposing forces are clear
+even to the layman who cannot be <a name="Page_361" id="Page_361"></a>expected to master the details of a
+campaign or, for that matter, the maneuvers of a single great battle.
+The problem for the South was one of defense mainly, though even for
+defense swift and paralyzing strokes at the North were later deemed
+imperative measures. The problem of the North was, to put it baldly, one
+of invasion and conquest. Southern territory had to be invaded and
+Southern armies beaten on their own ground or worn down to exhaustion
+there.</p>
+
+<p>In the execution of this undertaking, geography, as usual, played a
+significant part in the disposition of forces. The Appalachian ranges,
+stretching through the Confederacy to Northern Alabama, divided the
+campaigns into Eastern and Western enterprises. Both were of signal
+importance. Victory in the East promised the capture of the Confederate
+capital of Richmond, a stroke of moral worth, hardly to be
+overestimated. Victory in the West meant severing the Confederacy and
+opening the Mississippi Valley down to the Gulf.</p>
+
+<p>As it turned out, the Western forces accomplished their task first,
+vindicating the military powers of union soldiers and shaking the
+confidence of opposing commanders. In February, 1862, Grant captured
+Fort Donelson on the Tennessee River, rallied wavering unionists in
+Kentucky, forced the evacuation of Nashville, and opened the way for two
+hundred miles into the Confederacy. At Shiloh, Murfreesboro, Vicksburg,
+Chickamauga, Chattanooga, desperate fighting followed and, in spite of
+varying fortunes, it resulted in the discomfiture and retirement of
+Confederate forces to the Southeast into Georgia. By the middle of 1863,
+the Mississippi Valley was open to the Gulf, the initiative taken out of
+the hands of Southern commanders in the West, and the way prepared for
+Sherman's final stroke&mdash;the march from Atlanta to the sea&mdash;a maneuver
+executed with needless severity in the autumn of 1864.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Grant and Lee">
+<tr><td align='left'><div><a name="gengrant" id="gengrant"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/390a.jpg" alt="General Ulysses S. Grant" title="General Ulysses S. Grant" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">General Ulysses S. Grant</span></div>
+</div></td>
+<td align='left'><div><a name="lee" id="lee"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/390b.jpg" alt="General Robert E. Lee" title="General Robert E. Lee" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">General Robert E. Lee</span></div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>For the almost unbroken succession of achievements in the West by
+Generals Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Hooker against<a name="Page_362" id="Page_362"></a> Albert Sidney
+Johnston, Bragg, Pemberton, and Hood, the union forces in the East
+offered at first an almost equally unbroken series of misfortunes and
+disasters. Far from capturing Richmond, they had been thrown on the
+defensive. General after general&mdash;McClellan, Pope, Burnside, Hooker, and
+Meade&mdash;was tried and found wanting. None of them could administer a
+crushing defeat to the Confederate troops and more than once the union
+soldiers were beaten in a fair battle. They did succeed, however, in
+delivering a severe check to advancing Confederates under General Robert
+E. Lee, first at Antietam in September, 1862, and then at Gettysburg in
+July, 1863&mdash;checks reckoned as victories though in each instance the
+Confederates escaped without demoralization. Not until the beginning of
+the next year, when General Grant, supplied with almost unlimited men
+and munitions, began his irresistible hammering at Lee's army, did the
+final phase of the war commence. The pitiless drive told at last.
+General Lee, on April 9, 1865, seeing the futility of further conflict,
+<a name="Page_363" id="Page_363"></a>surrendered an army still capable of hard fighting, at Appomattox, not
+far from the capital of the Confederacy.</p>
+
+<div><a name="hospital" id="hospital" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/391.jpg"><img src="./images/391-tb.jpg" alt="The Federal Military Hospital at Gettysburg" title="The Federal Military Hospital at Gettysburg" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">The Federal Military Hospital at Gettysburg</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Abraham Lincoln.</b>&mdash;The services of Lincoln to the cause of union defy
+description. A judicial scrutiny of the war reveals his thought and
+planning in every part of the varied activity that finally crowned
+Northern arms with victory. Is it in the field of diplomacy? Does
+Seward, the Secretary of State, propose harsh and caustic measures
+likely to draw England's sword into the scale? Lincoln counsels
+moderation. He takes the irritating message and with his own hand
+strikes out, erases, tones down, and interlines, exchanging for <a name="Page_364" id="Page_364"></a>words
+that sting and burn the language of prudence and caution. Is it a matter
+of compromise with the South, so often proposed by men on both sides
+sick of carnage? Lincoln is always ready to listen and turns away only
+when he is invited to surrender principles essential to the safety of
+the union. Is it high strategy of war, a question of the general best
+fitted to win Gettysburg&mdash;Hooker, Sedgwick, or Meade? Lincoln goes in
+person to the War Department in the dead of night to take counsel with
+his Secretary and to make the fateful choice.</p>
+
+<p>Is it a complaint from a citizen, deprived, as he believes, of his civil
+liberties unjustly or in violation of the Constitution? Lincoln is ready
+to hear it and anxious to afford relief, if warrant can be found for it.
+Is a mother begging for the life of a son sentenced to be shot as a
+deserter? Lincoln hears her petition, and grants it even against the
+protests made by his generals in the name of military discipline. Do
+politicians sow dissensions in the army and among civilians? Lincoln
+grandly waves aside their petty personalities and invites them to think
+of the greater cause. Is it a question of securing votes to ratify the
+thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery? Lincoln thinks it not beneath
+his dignity to traffic and huckster with politicians over the trifling
+jobs asked in return by the members who hold out against him. Does a New
+York newspaper call him an ignorant Western boor? Lincoln's reply is a
+letter to a mother who has given her all&mdash;her sons on the field of
+battle&mdash;and an address at Gettysburg, both of which will live as long as
+the tongue in which they were written. These are tributes not only to
+his mastery of the English language but also to his mastery of all those
+sentiments of sweetness and strength which are the finest flowers of
+culture.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the entire span of service, however, Lincoln was beset by
+merciless critics. The fiery apostles of abolition accused him of
+cowardice when he delayed the bold stroke at slavery. Anti-war Democrats
+lashed out at every step he took. Even in his own party he found no
+peace. Charles Sumner complained: "Our President is now dictator,
+<i>imperator</i>&mdash;<a name="Page_365" id="Page_365"></a>whichever you like; but how vain to have the power of a
+god and not to use it godlike." Leaders among the Republicans sought to
+put him aside in 1864 and place Chase in his chair. "I hope we may never
+have a worse man," was Lincoln's quiet answer.</p>
+
+<p>Wide were the dissensions in the North during that year and the
+Republicans, while selecting Lincoln as their candidate again, cast off
+their old name and chose the simple title of the "Union party."
+Moreover, they selected a Southern man, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, to
+be associated with him as candidate for Vice President. This combination
+the Northern Democrats boldly confronted with a platform declaring that
+"after four years of failure to restore the union by the experiment of
+war, during which, under the pretence of military necessity or war power
+higher than the Constitution, the Constitution itself has been
+disregarded in every part and public liberty and private right alike
+trodden down ... justice, humanity, liberty, and public welfare demand
+that immediate efforts be made for a cessation of hostilities, to the
+end that peace may be restored on the basis of the federal union of the
+states." It is true that the Democratic candidate, General McClellan,
+sought to break the yoke imposed upon him by the platform, saying that
+he could not look his old comrades in the face and pronounce their
+efforts vain; but the party call to the nation to repudiate Lincoln and
+his works had gone forth. The response came, giving Lincoln 2,200,000
+votes against 1,800,000 for his opponent. The bitter things said about
+him during the campaign, he forgot and forgave. When in April, 1865, he
+was struck down by the assassin's hand, he above all others in
+Washington was planning measures of moderation and healing.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Results of the Civil War</span></h3>
+
+<p>There is a strong and natural tendency on the part of writers to stress
+the dramatic and heroic aspects of war; but the long judgment of history
+requires us to include all other significant <a name="Page_366" id="Page_366"></a>phases as well. Like every
+great armed conflict, the Civil War outran the purposes of those who
+took part in it. Waged over the nature of the union, it made a
+revolution in the union, changing public policies and constitutional
+principles and giving a new direction to agriculture and industry.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Supremacy of the Union.</b>&mdash;First and foremost, the war settled for
+all time the long dispute as to the nature of the federal system. The
+doctrine of state sovereignty was laid to rest. Men might still speak of
+the rights of states and think of their commonwealths with affection,
+but nullification and secession were destroyed. The nation was supreme.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Destruction of the Slave Power.</b>&mdash;Next to the vindication of
+national supremacy was the destruction of the planting aristocracy of
+the South&mdash;that great power which had furnished leadership of undoubted
+ability and had so long contested with the industrial and commercial
+interests of the North. The first paralyzing blow at the planters was
+struck by the abolition of slavery. The second and third came with the
+fourteenth (1868) and fifteenth (1870) amendments, giving the ballot to
+freedmen and excluding from public office the Confederate
+leaders&mdash;driving from the work of reconstruction the finest talents of
+the South. As if to add bitterness to gall and wormwood, the fourteenth
+amendment forbade the United States or any state to pay any debts
+incurred in aid of the Confederacy or in the emancipation of the
+slaves&mdash;plunging into utter bankruptcy the Southern financiers who had
+stripped their section of capital to support their cause. So the
+Southern planters found themselves excluded from public office and ruled
+over by their former bondmen under the tutelage of Republican leaders.
+Their labor system was wrecked and their money and bonds were as
+worthless as waste paper. The South was subject to the North. That which
+neither the Federalists nor the Whigs had been able to accomplish in the
+realm of statecraft was accomplished on the field of battle.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Triumph of Industry.</b>&mdash;The wreck of the planting system was
+accompanied by a mighty upswing of Northern industry <a name="Page_367" id="Page_367"></a>which made the old
+Whigs of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania stare in wonderment. The demands
+of the federal government for manufactured goods at unrestricted prices
+gave a stimulus to business which more than replaced the lost markets of
+the South. Between 1860 and 1870 the number of manufacturing
+establishments increased 79.6 per cent as against 14.2 for the previous
+decade; while the number of persons employed almost doubled. There was
+no doubt about the future of American industry.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Victory for the Protective Tariff.</b>&mdash;Moreover, it was henceforth to
+be well protected. For many years before the war the friends of
+protection had been on the defensive. The tariff act of 1857 imposed
+duties so low as to presage a tariff for revenue only. The war changed
+all that. The extraordinary military expenditures, requiring heavy taxes
+on all sources, justified tariffs so high that a follower of Clay or
+Webster might well have gasped with astonishment. After the war was over
+the debt remained and both interest and principal had to be paid.
+Protective arguments based on economic reasoning were supported by a
+plain necessity for revenue which admitted no dispute.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Liberal Immigration Policy.</b>&mdash;Linked with industry was the labor
+supply. The problem of manning industries became a pressing matter, and
+Republican leaders grappled with it. In the platform of the Union party
+adopted in 1864 it was declared "that foreign immigration, which in the
+past has added so much to the wealth, the development of resources, and
+the increase of power to this nation&mdash;the asylum of the oppressed of all
+nations&mdash;should be fostered and encouraged by a liberal and just
+policy." In that very year Congress, recognizing the importance of the
+problem, passed a measure of high significance, creating a bureau of
+immigration, and authorizing a modified form of indentured labor, by
+making it legal for immigrants to pledge their wages in advance to pay
+their passage over. Though the bill was soon repealed, the practice
+authorized by it was long continued. The cheapness of the passage
+<a name="Page_368" id="Page_368"></a>shortened the term of service; but the principle was older than the
+days of William Penn.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Homestead Act of 1862.</b>&mdash;In the immigration measure guaranteeing a
+continuous and adequate labor supply, the manufacturers saw an offset to
+the Homestead Act of 1862 granting free lands to settlers. The Homestead
+law they had resisted in a long and bitter congressional battle.
+Naturally, they had not taken kindly to a scheme which lured men away
+from the factories or enabled them to make unlimited demands for higher
+wages as the price of remaining. Southern planters likewise had feared
+free homesteads for the very good reason that they only promised to add
+to the overbalancing power of the North.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the opposition, supporters of a liberal land policy made
+steady gains. Free-soil Democrats,&mdash;Jacksonian farmers and
+mechanics,&mdash;labor reformers, and political leaders, like Stephen A.
+Douglas of Illinois and Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, kept up the
+agitation in season and out. More than once were they able to force a
+homestead bill through the House of Representatives only to have it
+blocked in the Senate where Southern interests were intrenched. Then,
+after the Senate was won over, a Democratic President, James Buchanan,
+vetoed the bill. Still the issue lived. The Republicans, strong among
+the farmers of the Northwest, favored it from the beginning and pressed
+it upon the attention of the country. Finally the manufacturers yielded;
+they received their compensation in the contract labor law. In 1862
+Congress provided for the free distribution of land in 160-acre lots
+among men and women of strong arms and willing hearts ready to build
+their serried lines of homesteads to the Rockies and beyond.</p>
+
+<p><b>Internal Improvements.</b>&mdash;If farmers and manufacturers were early
+divided on the matter of free homesteads, the same could hardly be said
+of internal improvements. The Western tiller of the soil was as eager
+for some easy way of sending his produce to market as the manufacturer
+was for the same means to transport his goods to the consumer on the
+farm. While <a name="Page_369" id="Page_369"></a>the Confederate leaders were writing into their
+constitution a clause forbidding all appropriations for internal
+improvements, the Republican leaders at Washington were planning such
+expenditures from the treasury in the form of public land grants to
+railways as would have dazed the authors of the national road bill half
+a century earlier.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sound Finance&mdash;National Banking.</b>&mdash;From Hamilton's day to Lincoln's,
+business men in the East had contended for a sound system of national
+currency. The experience of the states with paper money, painfully
+impressive in the years before the framing of the Constitution, had been
+convincing to those who understood the economy of business. The
+Constitution, as we have seen, bore the signs of this experience. States
+were forbidden to emit bills of credit: paper money, in short. This
+provision stood clear in the document; but judicial ingenuity had
+circumvented it in the age of Jacksonian Democracy. The states had
+enacted and the Supreme Court, after the death of John Marshall, had
+sustained laws chartering banking companies and authorizing them to
+issue paper money. So the country was beset by the old curse, the banks
+of Western and Southern states issuing reams of paper notes to help
+borrowers pay their debts.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with war finances, the Republicans attacked this ancient
+evil. By act of Congress in 1864, they authorized a series of national
+banks founded on the credit of government bonds and empowered to issue
+notes. The next year they stopped all bank paper sent forth under the
+authority of the states by means of a prohibitive tax. In this way, by
+two measures Congress restored federal control over the monetary system
+although it did not re&euml;stablish the United States Bank so hated by
+Jacksonian Democracy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Destruction of States' Rights by Fourteenth Amendment.</b>&mdash;These acts and
+others not cited here were measures of centralization and consolidation
+at the expense of the powers and dignity of the states. They were all of
+high import, but the crowning act of nationalism was the fourteenth
+amendment <a name="Page_370" id="Page_370"></a>which, among other things, forbade states to "deprive any
+person of life, liberty or property without due process of law." The
+immediate occasion, though not the actual cause of this provision, was
+the need for protecting the rights of freedmen against hostile
+legislatures in the South. The result of the amendment, as was
+prophesied in protests loud and long from every quarter of the
+Democratic party, was the subjection of every act of state, municipal,
+and county authorities to possible annulment by the Supreme Court at
+Washington. The expected happened.</p>
+
+<p>Few negroes ever brought cases under the fourteenth amendment to the
+attention of the courts; but thousands of state laws, municipal
+ordinances, and acts of local authorities were set aside as null and
+void under it. Laws of states regulating railway rates, fixing hours of
+labor in bakeshops, and taxing corporations were in due time to be
+annulled as conflicting with an amendment erroneously supposed to be
+designed solely for the protection of negroes. As centralized power over
+tariffs, railways, public lands, and other national concerns went to
+Congress, so centralized power over the acts of state and local
+authorities involving an infringement of personal and property rights
+was conferred on the federal judiciary, the apex of which was the
+Supreme Court at Washington. Thus the old federation of "independent
+states," all equal in rights and dignity, each wearing the "jewel of
+sovereignty" so celebrated in Southern oratory, had gone the way of all
+flesh under the withering blasts of Civil War.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Reconstruction in the South</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Theories about the Position of the Seceded States.</b>&mdash;On the morning of
+April 9, 1865, when General Lee surrendered his army to General Grant,
+eleven states stood in a peculiar relation to the union now declared
+perpetual. Lawyers and political philosophers were much perturbed and
+had been for some time as to what should be done with the members of the
+former Confederacy. Radical Republicans held that they were<a name="Page_371" id="Page_371"></a> "conquered
+provinces" at the mercy of Congress, to be governed under such laws as
+it saw fit to enact and until in its wisdom it decided to readmit any or
+all of them to the union. Men of more conservative views held that, as
+the war had been waged by the North on the theory that no state could
+secede from the union, the Confederate states had merely attempted to
+withdraw and had failed. The corollary of this latter line of argument
+was simple: "The Southern states are still in the union and it is the
+duty of the President, as commander-in-chief, to remove the federal
+troops as soon as order is restored and the state governments ready to
+function once more as usual."</p>
+
+<p><b>Lincoln's Proposal.</b>&mdash;Some such simple and conservative form of
+reconstruction had been suggested by Lincoln in a proclamation of
+December 8, 1863. He proposed pardon and a restoration of property,
+except in slaves, to nearly all who had "directly or by implication
+participated in the existing rebellion," on condition that they take an
+oath of loyalty to the union. He then announced that when, in any of the
+states named, a body of voters, qualified under the law as it stood
+before secession and equal in number to one-tenth the votes cast in
+1860, took the oath of allegiance, they should be permitted to
+re&euml;stablish a state government. Such a government, he added, should be
+recognized as a lawful authority and entitled to protection under the
+federal Constitution. With reference to the status of the former slaves
+Lincoln made it clear that, while their freedom must be recognized, he
+would not object to any legislation "which may yet be consistent as a
+temporary arrangement with their present condition as a laboring,
+landless, and homeless class."</p>
+
+<p><b>Andrew Johnson's Plan&mdash;His Impeachment.</b>&mdash;Lincoln's successor, Andrew
+Johnson, the Vice President, soon after taking office, proposed to
+pursue a somewhat similar course. In a number of states he appointed
+military governors, instructing them at the earliest possible moment to
+assemble conventions, chosen "by that portion of the people of the said
+states who are loyal to the United States," and proceed to the
+organization <a name="Page_372" id="Page_372"></a>of regular civil government. Johnson, a Southern man and a
+Democrat, was immediately charged by the Republicans with being too
+ready to restore the Southern states. As the months went by, the
+opposition to his measures and policies in Congress grew in size and
+bitterness. The contest resulted in the impeachment of Johnson by the
+House of Representatives in March, 1868, and his acquittal by the Senate
+merely because his opponents lacked one vote of the two-thirds required
+for conviction.</p>
+
+<p><b>Congress Enacts "Reconstruction Laws."</b>&mdash;In fact, Congress was in a
+strategic position. It was the law-making body, and it could, moreover,
+determine the conditions under which Senators and Representatives from
+the South were to be readmitted. It therefore proceeded to pass a series
+of reconstruction acts&mdash;carrying all of them over Johnson's veto. These
+measures, the first of which became a law on March 2, 1867, betrayed an
+animus not found anywhere in Lincoln's plans or Johnson's proclamations.</p>
+
+<p>They laid off the ten states&mdash;the whole Confederacy with the exception
+of Tennessee&mdash;still outside the pale, into five military districts, each
+commanded by a military officer appointed by the President. They ordered
+the commanding general to prepare a register of voters for the election
+of delegates to conventions chosen for the purpose of drafting new
+constitutions. Such voters, however, were not to be, as Lincoln had
+suggested, loyal persons duly qualified under the law existing before
+secession but "the male citizens of said state, twenty-one years old and
+upward, of whatever race, color, or previous condition, ... except such
+as may be disfranchised for participation in the rebellion or for felony
+at common law." This was the death knell to the idea that the leaders of
+the Confederacy and their white supporters might be permitted to share
+in the establishment of the new order. Power was thus arbitrarily thrust
+into the hands of the newly emancipated male negroes and the handful of
+whites who could show a record of loyalty. That was not all. Each state
+was, under the recon<a name="Page_373" id="Page_373"></a>struction acts, compelled to ratify the fourteenth
+amendment to the federal Constitution as a price of restoration to the
+union.</p>
+
+<p>The composition of the conventions thus authorized may be imagined.
+Bondmen without the asking and without preparation found themselves the
+governing power. An army of adventurers from the North, "carpet baggers"
+as they were called, poured in upon the scene to aid in
+"reconstruction." Undoubtedly many men of honor and fine intentions gave
+unstinted service, but the results of their deliberations only
+aggravated the open wound left by the war. Any number of political
+doctors offered their prescriptions; but no effective remedy could be
+found. Under measures admittedly open to grave objections, the Southern
+states were one after another restored to the union by the grace of
+Congress, the last one in 1870. Even this grudging concession of the
+formalities of statehood did not mean a full restoration of honors and
+privileges. The last soldier was not withdrawn from the last Southern
+capital until 1877, and federal control over elections long remained as
+a sign of congressional supremacy.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Status of the Freedmen.</b>&mdash;Even more intricate than the issues
+involved in restoring the seceded states to the union was the question
+of what to do with the newly emancipated slaves. That problem, often put
+to abolitionists before the war, had become at last a real concern. The
+thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery had not touched it at all. It
+declared bondmen free, but did nothing to provide them with work or
+homes and did not mention the subject of political rights. All these
+matters were left to the states, and the legislatures of some of them,
+by their famous "black codes," restored a form of servitude under the
+guise of vagrancy and apprentice laws. Such methods were in fact partly
+responsible for the reaction that led Congress to abandon Lincoln's
+policies and undertake its own program of reconstruction.</p>
+
+<p>Still no extensive effort was made to solve by law the economic problems
+of the bondmen. Radical abolitionists had advocated that the slaves when
+emancipated should be given outright the <a name="Page_374" id="Page_374"></a>fields of their former
+masters; but Congress steadily rejected the very idea of confiscation.
+The necessity of immediate assistance it recognized by creating in 1865
+the Freedmen's Bureau to take care of refugees. It authorized the issue
+of food and clothing to the destitute and the renting of abandoned and
+certain other lands under federal control to former slaves at reasonable
+rates. But the larger problem of the relation of the freedmen to the
+land, it left to the slow working of time.</p>
+
+<p>Against sharp protests from conservative men, particularly among the
+Democrats, Congress did insist, however, on conferring upon the freedmen
+certain rights by national law. These rights fell into broad divisions,
+civil and political. By an act passed in 1866, Congress gave to former
+slaves the rights of white citizens in the matter of making contracts,
+giving testimony in courts, and purchasing, selling, and leasing
+property. As it was doubtful whether Congress had the power to enact
+this law, there was passed and submitted to the states the fourteenth
+amendment which gave citizenship to the freedmen, assured them of the
+privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, and declared
+that no state should deprive any person of his life, liberty, or
+property without due process of law. Not yet satisfied, Congress
+attempted to give social equality to negroes by the second civil rights
+bill of 1875 which promised to them, among other things, the full and
+equal enjoyment of inns, theaters, public conveyances, and places of
+amusement&mdash;a law later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.</p>
+
+<p>The matter of political rights was even more hotly contested; but the
+radical Republicans, like Charles Sumner, asserted that civil rights
+were not secure unless supported by the suffrage. In this same
+fourteenth amendment they attempted to guarantee the ballot to all negro
+men, leaving the women to take care of themselves. The amendment
+declared in effect that when any state deprived adult male citizens of
+the right to vote, its representation in Congress should be reduced in
+the proportion such persons bore to the voting population.<a name="Page_375" id="Page_375"></a></p>
+
+<p>This provision having failed to accomplish its purpose, the fifteenth
+amendment was passed and ratified, expressly declaring that no citizen
+should be deprived of the right to vote "on account of race, color, or
+previous condition of servitude." To make assurance doubly secure,
+Congress enacted in 1870, 1872, and 1873 three drastic laws, sometimes
+known as "force bills," providing for the use of federal authorities,
+civil and military, in supervising elections in all parts of the Union.
+So the federal government, having destroyed chattel slavery, sought by
+legal decree to sweep away all its signs and badges, civil, social, and
+political. Never, save perhaps in some of the civil conflicts of Greece
+or Rome, had there occurred in the affairs of a nation a social
+revolution so complete, so drastic, and far-reaching in its results.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of the Sectional Conflict</span></h3>
+
+<p>Just as the United States, under the impetus of Western enterprise,
+rounded out the continental domain, its very existence as a nation was
+challenged by a fratricidal conflict between two sections. This storm
+had been long gathering upon the horizon. From the very beginning in
+colonial times there had been a marked difference between the South and
+the North. The former by climate and soil was dedicated to a planting
+system&mdash;the cultivation of tobacco, rice, cotton, and sugar cane&mdash;and in
+the course of time slave labor became the foundation of the system. The
+North, on the other hand, supplemented agriculture by commerce, trade,
+and manufacturing. Slavery, though lawful, did not flourish there. An
+abundant supply of free labor kept the Northern wheels turning.</p>
+
+<p>This difference between the two sections, early noted by close
+observers, was increased with the advent of the steam engine and the
+factory system. Between 1815 and 1860 an industrial revolution took
+place in the North. Its signs were gigantic factories, huge aggregations
+of industrial workers, immense cities, a flourishing commerce, and
+prosperous banks. Finding an unfavorable reception in the South, the new
+industrial <a name="Page_376" id="Page_376"></a>system was confined mainly to the North. By canals and
+railways New York, Boston, and Philadelphia were linked with the
+wheatfields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. A steel net wove North and
+Northwest together. A commercial net supplemented it. Western trade was
+diverted from New Orleans to the East and Eastern credit sustained
+Western enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>In time, the industrial North and the planting South evolved different
+ideas of political policy. The former looked with favor on protective
+tariffs, ship subsidies, a sound national banking system, and internal
+improvements. The farmers of the West demanded that the public domain be
+divided up into free homesteads for farmers. The South steadily swung
+around to the opposite view. Its spokesmen came to regard most of these
+policies as injurious to the planting interests.</p>
+
+<p>The economic questions were all involved in a moral issue. The Northern
+states, in which slavery was of slight consequence, had early abolished
+the institution. In the course of a few years there appeared
+uncompromising advocates of universal emancipation. Far and wide the
+agitation spread. The South was thoroughly frightened. It demanded
+protection against the agitators, the enforcement of its rights in the
+case of runaway slaves, and equal privileges for slavery in the new
+territories.</p>
+
+<p>With the passing years the conflict between the two sections increased
+in bitterness. It flamed up in 1820 and was allayed by the Missouri
+compromise. It took on the form of a tariff controversy and
+nullification in 1832. It appeared again after the Mexican war when the
+question of slavery in the new territories was raised. Again
+compromise&mdash;the great settlement of 1850&mdash;seemed to restore peace, only
+to prove an illusion. A series of startling events swept the country
+into war: the repeal of the Missouri compromise in 1854, the rise of the
+Republican party pledged to the prohibition of slavery in the
+territories, the Dred Scott decision of 1857, the Lincoln-Douglas
+debates, John Brown's raid, the election of Lincoln, and secession.</p>
+
+<p>The Civil War, lasting for four years, tested the strength of both North
+and South, in leadership, in finance, in diplomatic <a name="Page_377" id="Page_377"></a>skill, in material
+resources, in industry, and in armed forces. By the blockade of Southern
+ports, by an overwhelming weight of men and materials, and by relentless
+hammering on the field of battle, the North was victorious.</p>
+
+<p>The results of the war were revolutionary in character. Slavery was
+abolished and the freedmen given the ballot. The Southern planters who
+had been the leaders of their section were ruined financially and almost
+to a man excluded from taking part in political affairs. The union was
+declared to be perpetual and the right of a state to secede settled by
+the judgment of battle. Federal control over the affairs of states,
+counties, and cities was established by the fourteenth amendment. The
+power and prestige of the federal government were enhanced beyond
+imagination. The North was now free to pursue its economic policies: a
+protective tariff, a national banking system, land grants for railways,
+free lands for farmers. Planting had dominated the country for nearly a
+generation. Business enterprise was to take its place.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Northern Accounts</span></p>
+
+<p>J.K. Hosmer, <i>The Appeal to Arms</i> and <i>The Outcome of the Civil War</i>
+(American Nation Series).</p>
+
+<p>J. Ropes, <i>History of the Civil War</i> (best account of military
+campaigns).</p>
+
+<p>J.F. Rhodes, <i>History of the United States</i>, Vols. III, IV, and V.</p>
+
+<p>J.T. Morse, <i>Abraham Lincoln</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Southern Accounts</span></h3>
+
+<p>W.E. Dodd, <i>Jefferson Davis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson Davis, <i>Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E. Pollard, <i>The Lost Cause</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.H. Stephens, <i>The War between the States</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Contrast the reception of secession in 1860 with that given to
+nullification in 1832.</p>
+
+<p>2. Compare the Northern and Southern views of the union.</p>
+
+<p>3. What were the peculiar features of the Confederate constitution?<a name="Page_378" id="Page_378"></a></p>
+
+<p>4. How was the Confederacy financed?</p>
+
+<p>5. Compare the resources of the two sections.</p>
+
+<p>6. On what foundations did Southern hopes rest?</p>
+
+<p>7. Describe the attempts at a peaceful settlement.</p>
+
+<p>8. Compare the raising of armies for the Civil War with the methods
+employed in the World War. (See below, chapter <span class="smcap">xxv</span>.)</p>
+
+<p>9. Compare the financial methods of the government in the two wars.</p>
+
+<p>10. Explain why the blockade was such a deadly weapon.</p>
+
+<p>11. Give the leading diplomatic events of the war.</p>
+
+<p>12. Trace the growth of anti-slavery sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>13. What measures were taken to restrain criticism of the government?</p>
+
+<p>14. What part did Lincoln play in all phases of the war?</p>
+
+<p>15. State the principal results of the war.</p>
+
+<p>16. Compare Lincoln's plan of reconstruction with that adopted by
+Congress.</p>
+
+<p>17. What rights did Congress attempt to confer upon the former slaves?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Was Secession Lawful?</b>&mdash;The Southern view by Jefferson Davis in
+Harding, <i>Select Orations Illustrating American History</i>, pp. 364-369.
+Lincoln's view, Harding, pp. 371-381.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Confederate Constitution.</b>&mdash;Compare with the federal Constitution
+in Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>, pp. 424-433 and pp. 271-279.</p>
+
+<p><b>Federal Legislative Measures.</b>&mdash;Prepare a table and brief digest of the
+important laws relating to the war. Macdonald, pp. 433-482.</p>
+
+<p><b>Economic Aspects of the War.</b>&mdash;Coman, <i>Industrial History of the United
+States</i>, pp. 279-301. Dewey, <i>Financial History of the United States</i>,
+Chaps. XII and XIII. Tabulate the economic measures of Congress in
+Macdonald.</p>
+
+<p><b>Military Campaigns.</b>&mdash;The great battles are fully treated in Rhodes,
+<i>History of the Civil War</i>, and teachers desiring to emphasize military
+affairs may assign campaigns to members of the class for study and
+report. A briefer treatment in Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>,
+pp. 641-785.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;Lincoln, Davis, Lee, Grant, Sherman, and other
+leaders in civil and military affairs, with reference to local "war
+governors."</p>
+
+<p><b>English and French Opinion of the War.</b>&mdash;Rhodes, <i>History of the United
+States</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 337-394.</p>
+
+<p><b>The South during the War.</b>&mdash;Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. 343-382.</p>
+
+<p><b>The North during the War.</b>&mdash;Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. 189-342.</p>
+
+<p><b>Reconstruction Measures.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, <i>Source Book</i>, pp. 500-511;
+514-518; 529-530; Elson, pp. 786-799.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Force Bills.</b>&mdash;Macdonald, pp. 547-551; 554-564.<a name="Page_379" id="Page_379"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH</h3>
+
+
+<p>The outcome of the Civil War in the South was nothing short of a
+revolution. The ruling class, the law, and the government of the old
+order had been subverted. To political chaos was added the havoc wrought
+in agriculture, business, and transportation by military operations. And
+as if to fill the cup to the brim, the task of reconstruction was
+committed to political leaders from another section of the country,
+strangers to the life and traditions of the South.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The South at the Close of the War</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>A Ruling Class Disfranchised.</b>&mdash;As the sovereignty of the planters had
+been the striking feature of the old r&eacute;gime, so their ruin was the
+outstanding fact of the new. The situation was extraordinary. The
+American Revolution was carried out by people experienced in the arts of
+self-government, and at its close they were free to follow the general
+course to which they had long been accustomed. The French Revolution
+witnessed the overthrow of the clergy and the nobility; but middle
+classes who took their places had been steadily rising in intelligence
+and wealth.</p>
+
+<p>The Southern Revolution was unlike either of these cataclysms. It was
+not brought about by a social upheaval, but by an external crisis. It
+did not enfranchise a class that sought and understood power, but
+bondmen who had played no part in the struggle. Moreover it struck down
+a class equipped to <a name="Page_380" id="Page_380"></a>rule. The leading planters were almost to a man
+excluded from state and federal offices, and the fourteenth amendment
+was a bar to their return. All civil and military places under the
+authority of the United States and of the states were closed to every
+man who had taken an oath to support the Constitution as a member of
+Congress, as a state legislator, or as a state or federal officer, and
+afterward engaged in "insurrection or rebellion," or "given aid and
+comfort to the enemies" of the United States. This sweeping provision,
+supplemented by the reconstruction acts, laid under the ban most of the
+talent, energy, and spirit of the South.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Condition of the State Governments.</b>&mdash;The legislative, executive,
+and judicial branches of the state governments thus passed into the
+control of former slaves, led principally by Northern adventurers or
+Southern novices, known as "Scalawags." The result was a carnival of
+waste, folly, and corruption. The "reconstruction" assembly of South
+Carolina bought clocks at $480 apiece and chandeliers at $650. To
+purchase land for former bondmen the sum of $800,000 was appropriated;
+and swamps bought at seventy-five cents an acre were sold to the state
+at five times the cost. In the years between 1868 and 1873, the debt of
+the state rose from about $5,800,000 to $24,000,000, and millions of the
+increase could not be accounted for by the authorities responsible for
+it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Economic Ruin&mdash;Urban and Rural.</b>&mdash;No matter where Southern men turned
+in 1865 they found devastation&mdash;in the towns, in the country, and along
+the highways. Atlanta, the city to which Sherman applied the torch, lay
+in ashes; Nashville and Chattanooga had been partially wrecked; Richmond
+and Augusta had suffered severely from fires. Charleston was described
+by a visitor as "a city of ruins, of desolation, of vacant houses, of
+rotten wharves, of deserted warehouses, of weed gardens, of miles of
+grass-grown streets.... How few young men there are, how generally the
+young women are dressed in black! The flower of their proud aristocracy
+is buried on scores of battle fields."<a name="Page_381" id="Page_381"></a></p>
+
+<p>Those who journeyed through the country about the same time reported
+desolation equally widespread and equally pathetic. An English traveler
+who made his way along the course of the Tennessee River in 1870 wrote:
+"The trail of war is visible throughout the valley in burnt-up gin
+houses, ruined bridges, mills, and factories ... and large tracts of
+once cultivated land are stripped of every vestige of fencing. The
+roads, long neglected, are in disorder and, having in many places become
+impassable, new tracks have been made through the woods and fields
+without much respect to boundaries." Many a great plantation had been
+confiscated by the federal authorities while the owner was in
+Confederate service. Many more lay in waste. In the wake of the armies
+the homes of rich and poor alike, if spared the torch, had been
+despoiled of the stock and seeds necessary to renew agriculture.</p>
+
+<p><b>Railways Dilapidated.</b>&mdash;Transportation was still more demoralized. This
+is revealed in the pages of congressional reports based upon first-hand
+investigations. One eloquent passage illustrates all the rest. From
+Pocahontas to Decatur, Alabama, a distance of 114 miles, we are told,
+the railroad was "almost entirely destroyed, except the road bed and
+iron rails, and they were in a very bad condition&mdash;every bridge and
+trestle destroyed, cross-ties rotten, buildings burned, water tanks
+gone, tracks grown up in weeds and bushes, not a saw mill near the line
+and the labor system of the country gone. About forty miles of the track
+were burned, the cross-ties entirely destroyed, and the rails bent and
+twisted in such a manner as to require great labor to straighten and a
+large portion of them requiring renewal."</p>
+
+<p><b>Capital and Credit Destroyed.</b>&mdash;The fluid capital of the South, money
+and credit, was in the same prostrate condition as the material capital.
+The Confederate currency, inflated to the bursting point, had utterly
+collapsed and was as worthless as waste paper. The bonds of the
+Confederate government were equally valueless. Specie had nearly
+disappeared from circulation. The fourteenth amendment to the federal
+Con<a name="Page_382" id="Page_382"></a>stitution had made all "debts, obligations, and claims" incurred in
+aid of the Confederate cause "illegal and void." Millions of dollars
+owed to Northern creditors before the war were overdue and payment was
+pressed upon the debtors. Where such debts were secured by mortgages on
+land, executions against the property could be obtained in federal
+courts.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Restoration of White Supremacy</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Intimidation.</b>&mdash;In both politics and economics, the process of
+reconstruction in the South was slow and arduous. The first battle in
+the political contest for white supremacy was won outside the halls of
+legislatures and the courts of law. It was waged, in the main, by secret
+organizations, among which the Ku Klux Klan and the White Camelia were
+the most prominent. The first of these societies appeared in Tennessee
+in 1866 and held its first national convention the following year. It
+was in origin a social club. According to its announcement, its objects
+were "to protect the weak, the innocent, and the defenceless from the
+indignities, wrongs, and outrages of the lawless, the violent, and the
+brutal; and to succor the suffering, especially the widows and orphans
+of the Confederate soldiers." The whole South was called "the Empire"
+and was ruled by a "Grand Wizard." Each state was a realm and each
+county a province. In the secret orders there were enrolled over half a
+million men.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of the Ku Klux and the White Camelia were similar. Solemn
+parades of masked men on horses decked in long robes were held,
+sometimes in the daytime and sometimes at the dead of night. Notices
+were sent to obnoxious persons warning them to stop certain practices.
+If warning failed, something more convincing was tried. Fright was the
+emotion most commonly stirred. A horseman, at the witching hour of
+midnight, would ride up to the house of some offender, lift his head
+gear, take off a skull, and hand it to the trembling victim with the
+request that he hold it for a few minutes. Frequently violence was
+employed either officially or unofficially by mem<a name="Page_383" id="Page_383"></a>bers of the Klan. Tar
+and feathers were freely applied; the whip was sometimes laid on
+unmercifully, and occasionally a brutal murder was committed. Often the
+members were fired upon from bushes or behind trees, and swift
+retaliation followed. So alarming did the clashes become that in 1870
+Congress forbade interference with electors or going in disguise for the
+purpose of obstructing the exercise of the rights enjoyed under federal
+law.</p>
+
+<p>In anticipation of such a step on the part of the federal government,
+the Ku Klux was officially dissolved by the "Grand Wizard" in 1869.
+Nevertheless, the local societies continued their organization and
+methods. The spirit survived the national association. "On the whole,"
+says a Southern writer, "it is not easy to see what other course was
+open to the South.... Armed resistance was out of the question. And yet
+there must be some control had of the situation.... If force was denied,
+craft was inevitable."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Struggle for the Ballot Box.</b>&mdash;The effects of intimidation were
+soon seen at elections. The freedman, into whose inexperienced hand the
+ballot had been thrust, was ordinarily loath to risk his head by the
+exercise of his new rights. He had not attained them by a long and
+laborious contest of his own and he saw no urgent reason why he should
+battle for the privilege of using them. The mere show of force, the mere
+existence of a threat, deterred thousands of ex-slaves from appearing at
+the polls. Thus the whites steadily recovered their dominance. Nothing
+could prevent it. Congress enacted force bills establishing federal
+supervision of elections and the Northern politicians protested against
+the return of former Confederates to practical, if not official, power;
+but all such opposition was like resistance to the course of nature.</p>
+
+<p><b>Amnesty for Southerners.</b>&mdash;The recovery of white supremacy in this way
+was quickly felt in national councils. The Democratic party in the North
+welcomed it as a sign of its return to power. The more moderate
+Republicans, anxious to heal the breach in American unity, sought to
+encourage rather than <a name="Page_384" id="Page_384"></a>to repress it. So it came about that amnesty for
+Confederates was widely advocated. Yet it must be said that the struggle
+for the removal of disabilities was stubborn and bitter. Lincoln, with
+characteristic generosity, in the midst of the war had issued a general
+proclamation of amnesty to nearly all who had been in arms against the
+Union, on condition that they take an oath of loyalty; but Johnson,
+vindictive toward Southern leaders and determined to make "treason
+infamous," had extended the list of exceptions. Congress, even more
+relentless in its pursuit of Confederates, pushed through the fourteenth
+amendment which worked the sweeping disabilities we have just described.</p>
+
+<p>To appeals for comprehensive clemency, Congress was at first adamant. In
+vain did men like Carl Schurz exhort their colleagues to crown their
+victory in battle with a noble act of universal pardon and oblivion.
+Congress would not yield. It would grant amnesty in individual cases;
+for the principle of proscription it stood fast. When finally in 1872,
+seven years after the surrender at Appomattox, it did pass the general
+amnesty bill, it insisted on certain exceptions. Confederates who had
+been members of Congress just before the war, or had served in other
+high posts, civil or military, under the federal government, were still
+excluded from important offices. Not until the summer of 1898, when the
+war with Spain produced once more a union of hearts, did Congress relent
+and abolish the last of the disabilities imposed on the Confederates.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Force Bills Attacked and Nullified.</b>&mdash;The granting of amnesty
+encouraged the Democrats to redouble their efforts all along the line.
+In 1874 they captured the House of Representatives and declared war on
+the "force bills." As a Republican Senate blocked immediate repeal, they
+resorted to an ingenious parliamentary trick. To the appropriation bill
+for the support of the army they attached a "rider," or condition, to
+the effect that no troops should be used to sustain the Republican
+government in Louisiana. The Senate rejected the proposal. A deadlock
+ensued and Congress ad<a name="Page_385" id="Page_385"></a>journed without making provision for the army.
+Satisfied with the technical victory, the Democrats let the army bill
+pass the next session, but kept up their fight on the force laws until
+they wrung from President Hayes a measure forbidding the use of United
+States troops in supervising elections. The following year they again
+had recourse to a rider on the army bill and carried it through, putting
+an end to the use of money for military control of elections. The
+reconstruction program was clearly going to pieces, and the Supreme
+Court helped along the process of dissolution by declaring parts of the
+laws invalid. In 1878 the Democrats even won a majority in the Senate
+and returned to power a large number of men once prominent in the
+Confederate cause.</p>
+
+<p>The passions of the war by this time were evidently cooling. A new
+generation of men was coming on the scene. The supremacy of the whites
+in the South, if not yet complete, was at least assured. Federal
+marshals, their deputies, and supervisors of elections still possessed
+authority over the polls, but their strength had been shorn by the
+withdrawal of United States troops. The war on the remaining remnants of
+the "force bills" lapsed into desultory skirmishing. When in 1894 the
+last fragment was swept away, the country took little note of the fact.
+The only task that lay before the Southern leaders was to write in the
+constitutions of their respective states the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'provisons'">provisions</ins> of law which
+would clinch the gains so far secured and establish white supremacy
+beyond the reach of outside intervention.</p>
+
+<p><b>White Supremacy Sealed by New State Constitutions.</b>&mdash;The impetus to
+this final step was given by the rise of the Populist movement in the
+South, which sharply divided the whites and in many communities threw
+the balance of power into the hands of the few colored voters who
+survived the process of intimidation. Southern leaders now devised new
+constitutions so constructed as to deprive negroes of the ballot by law.
+Mississippi took the lead in 1890; South Carolina followed five years
+later; Louisiana, in 1898; North Carolina, <a name="Page_386" id="Page_386"></a>in 1900; Alabama and
+Maryland, in 1901; and Virginia, in 1902.</p>
+
+<p>The authors of these measures made no attempt to conceal their purposes.
+"The intelligent white men of the South," said Governor Tillman, "intend
+to govern here." The fifteenth amendment to the federal Constitution,
+however, forbade them to deprive any citizen of the right to vote on
+account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. This made
+necessary the devices of indirection. They were few, simple, and
+effective. The first and most easily administered was the ingenious
+provision requiring each prospective voter to read a section of the
+state constitution or "understand and explain it" when read to him by
+the election officers. As an alternative, the payment of taxes or the
+ownership of a small amount of property was accepted as a qualification
+for voting. Southern leaders, unwilling to disfranchise any of the poor
+white men who had stood side by side with them "in the dark days of
+reconstruction," also resorted to a famous provision known as "the
+grandfather clause." This plan admitted to the suffrage any man who did
+not have either property or educational qualifications, provided he had
+voted on or before 1867 or was the son or grandson of any such person.</p>
+
+<p>The devices worked effectively. Of the 147,000 negroes in Mississippi
+above the age of twenty-one, only about 8600 registered under the
+constitution of 1890. Louisiana had 127,000 colored voters enrolled in
+1896; under the constitution drafted two years later the registration
+fell to 5300. An analysis of the figures for South Carolina in 1900
+indicates that only about one negro out of every hundred adult males of
+that race took part in elections. Thus was closed this chapter of
+reconstruction.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Supreme Court Refuses to Intervene.</b>&mdash;Numerous efforts were made to
+prevail upon the Supreme Court of the United States to declare such laws
+unconstitutional; but the Court, usually on technical grounds, avoided
+coming to a direct decision on the merits of the matter. In one case
+the<a name="Page_387" id="Page_387"></a> Court remarked that it could not take charge of and operate the
+election machinery of Alabama; it concluded that "relief from a great
+political wrong, if done as alleged, by the people of a state and by the
+state itself, must be given by them, or by the legislative and executive
+departments of the government of the United States." Only one of the
+several schemes employed, namely, the "grandfather clause," was held to
+be a violation of the federal Constitution. This blow, effected in 1915
+by the decision in the Oklahoma and Maryland cases, left, however, the
+main structure of disfranchisement unimpaired.</p>
+
+<p><b>Proposals to Reduce Southern Representation in Congress.</b>&mdash;These
+provisions excluding thousands of male citizens from the ballot did not,
+in express terms, deprive any one of the vote on account of race or
+color. They did not, therefore, run counter to the letter of the
+fifteenth amendment; but they did unquestionably make the states which
+adopted them liable to the operations of the fourteenth amendment. The
+latter very explicitly provides that whenever any state deprives adult
+male citizens of the right to vote (except in certain minor cases) the
+representation of the state in Congress shall be reduced in the
+proportion which such number of disfranchised citizens bears to the
+whole number of male citizens over twenty-one years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Mindful of this provision, those who protested against disfranchisement
+in the South turned to the Republican party for relief, asking for
+action by the political branches of the federal government as the
+Supreme Court had suggested. The Republicans responded in their platform
+of 1908 by condemning all devices designed to deprive any one of the
+ballot for reasons of color alone; they demanded the enforcement in
+letter and spirit of the fourteenth as well as all other amendments.
+Though victorious in the election, the Republicans refrained from
+reopening the ancient contest; they made no attempt to reduce Southern
+representation in the House. Southern leaders, while protesting against
+the declarations of their opponents, were able to view them as idle
+threats in no <a name="Page_388" id="Page_388"></a>way endangering the security of the measures by which
+political reconstruction had been undone.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Solid South.</b>&mdash;Out of the thirty-year conflict against "carpet-bag
+rule" there emerged what was long known as the "solid South"&mdash;a South
+that, except occasionally in the border states, never gave an electoral
+vote to a Republican candidate for President. Before the Civil War, the
+Southern people had been divided on political questions. Take, for
+example, the election of 1860. In all the fifteen slave states the
+variety of opinion was marked. In nine of them&mdash;Delaware, Virginia,
+Tennessee, Missouri, Maryland, Louisiana, Kentucky, Georgia, and
+Arkansas&mdash;the combined vote against the representative of the extreme
+Southern point of view, Breckinridge, constituted a safe majority. In
+each of the six states which were carried by Breckinridge, there was a
+large and powerful minority. In North Carolina Breckinridge's majority
+over Bell and Douglas was only 849 votes. Equally astounding to those
+who imagine the South united in defense of extreme views in 1860 was the
+vote for Bell, the Unionist candidate, who stood firmly for the
+Constitution and silence on slavery. In every Southern state Bell's vote
+was large. In Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee it was greater
+than that received by Breckinridge; in Georgia, it was 42,000 against
+51,000; in Louisiana, 20,000 against 22,000; in Mississippi, 25,000
+against 40,000.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the Civil War upon these divisions was immediate and
+decisive, save in the border states where thousands of men continued to
+adhere to the cause of Union. In the Confederacy itself nearly all
+dissent was silenced by war. Men who had been bitter opponents joined
+hands in defense of their homes; when the armed conflict was over they
+remained side by side working against "Republican misrule and negro
+domination." By 1890, after Northern supremacy was definitely broken,
+they boasted that there were at least twelve Southern states in which no
+Republican candidate for President could win a single electoral vote.<a name="Page_389" id="Page_389"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Dissent in the Solid South.</b>&mdash;Though every one grew accustomed to speak
+of the South as "solid," it did not escape close observers that in a
+number of Southern states there appeared from time to time a fairly
+large body of dissenters. In 1892 the Populists made heavy inroads upon
+the Democratic ranks. On other occasions, the contests between factions
+within the Democratic party over the nomination of candidates revealed
+sharp differences of opinion. In some places, moreover, there grew up a
+Republican minority of respectable size. For example, in Georgia, Mr.
+Taft in 1908 polled 41,000 votes against 72,000 for Mr. Bryan; in North
+Carolina, 114,000 against 136,000; in Tennessee, 118,000 against
+135,000; in Kentucky, 235,000 against 244,000. In 1920, Senator Harding,
+the Republican candidate, broke the record by carrying Tennessee as well
+as Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Maryland.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Economic Advance of the South</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Break-up of the Great Estates.</b>&mdash;In the dissolution of chattel
+slavery it was inevitable that the great estate should give way before
+the small farm. The plantation was in fact founded on slavery. It was
+continued and expanded by slavery. Before the war the prosperous
+planter, either by inclination or necessity, invested his surplus in
+more land to add to his original domain. As his slaves increased in
+number, he was forced to increase his acreage or sell them, and he
+usually preferred the former, especially in the Far South. Still another
+element favored the large estate. Slave labor quickly exhausted the soil
+and of its own force compelled the cutting of the forests and the
+extension of the area under cultivation. Finally, the planter took a
+natural pride in his great estate; it was a sign of his prowess and his
+social prestige.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865 the foundations of the planting system were gone. It was
+difficult to get efficient labor to till the vast plantations. The
+planters themselves were burdened with debts and handicapped by lack of
+capital. Negroes commonly preferred till<a name="Page_390" id="Page_390"></a>ing plots of their own, rented
+or bought under mortgage, to the more irksome wage labor under white
+supervision. The land hunger of the white farmer, once checked by the
+planting system, reasserted itself. Before these forces the plantation
+broke up. The small farm became the unit of cultivation in the South as
+in the North. Between 1870 and 1900 the number of farms doubled in every
+state south of the line of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, except in
+Arkansas and Louisiana. From year to year the process of breaking up
+continued, with all that it implied in the creation of land-owning
+farmers.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Diversification of Crops.</b>&mdash;No less significant was the concurrent
+diversification of crops. Under slavery, tobacco, rice, and sugar were
+staples and "cotton was king." These were standard crops. The methods of
+cultivation were simple and easily learned. They tested neither the
+skill nor the ingenuity of the slaves. As the returns were quick, they
+did not call for long-time investments of capital. After slavery was
+abolished, they still remained the staples, but far-sighted
+agriculturists saw the dangers of depending upon a few crops. The mild
+climate all the way around the coast from Virginia to Texas and the
+character of the alluvial soil invited the exercise of more imagination.
+Peaches, oranges, peanuts, and other fruits and vegetables were found to
+grow luxuriantly. Refrigeration for steamships and freight cars put the
+markets of great cities at the doors of Southern fruit and vegetable
+gardeners. The South, which in planting days had relied so heavily upon
+the Northwest for its foodstuffs, began to battle for independence.
+Between 1880 and the close of the century the value of its farm crops
+increased from $660,000,000 to $1,270,000,000.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Industrial and Commercial Revolution.</b>&mdash;On top of the radical
+changes in agriculture came an industrial and commercial revolution. The
+South had long been rich in natural resources, but the slave system had
+been unfavorable to their development. Rivers that would have turned
+millions of spindles tumbled unheeded to the seas. Coal and iron <a name="Page_391" id="Page_391"></a>beds
+lay unopened. Timber was largely sacrificed in clearing lands for
+planting, or fell to earth in decay. Southern enterprise was consumed in
+planting. Slavery kept out the white immigrants who might have supplied
+the skilled labor for industry.</p>
+
+<div><a name="steel" id="steel" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/419-tb.jpg" alt="Steel Mills&mdash;Birmingham, Alabama" title="Steel Mills&mdash;Birmingham, Alabama" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Steel Mills&mdash;Birmingham, Alabama</span></div>
+
+<p>After 1865, achievement and fortune no longer lay on the land alone. As
+soon as the paralysis of the war was over, the South caught the
+industrial spirit that had conquered feudal Europe and the agricultural
+North. In the development of mineral wealth, enormous strides were
+taken. Iron ore of every quality was found, the chief beds being in
+Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, Georgia,
+Alabama, Arkansas, and Texas. Five important coal basins were uncovered:
+in Virginia, North Carolina, the Appalachian chain from Maryland to
+Northern Alabama, Kentucky, Arkan<a name="Page_392" id="Page_392"></a>sas, and Texas. Oil pools were found
+in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Texas. Within two decades, 1880 to 1900, the
+output of mineral wealth multiplied tenfold: from ten millions a year to
+one hundred millions. The iron industries of West Virginia and Alabama
+began to rival those of Pennsylvania. Birmingham became the Pittsburgh
+and Atlanta the Chicago of the South.</p>
+
+<div><a name="cotton" id="cotton" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/420-tb.jpg" alt="A Southern Cotton Mill in a Cotton Field" title="A Southern Cotton Mill in a Cotton Field" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">A Southern Cotton Mill in a Cotton Field</span></div>
+
+<p>In other lines of industry, lumbering and cotton manufacturing took a
+high rank. The development of Southern timber resources was in every
+respect remarkable, particularly in Louisiana, Arkansas, and
+Mississippi. At the end of the first decade of the twentieth century,
+primacy in lumber had passed from the Great Lakes region to the South.
+In 1913 eight Southern states produced nearly four times as much lumber
+as the Lake states and twice as much as the vast forests of Washington
+and Oregon.<a name="Page_393" id="Page_393"></a></p>
+
+<p>The development of the cotton industry, in the meantime, was similarly
+astounding. In 1865 cotton spinning was a negligible matter in the
+Southern states. In 1880 they had one-fourth of the mills of the
+country. At the end of the century they had one-half the mills, the two
+Carolinas taking the lead by consuming more than one-third of their
+entire cotton crop. Having both the raw materials and the power at hand,
+they enjoyed many advantages over the New England rivals, and at the
+opening of the new century were outstripping the latter in the
+proportion of spindles annually put into operation. Moreover, the cotton
+planters, finding a market at the neighboring mills, began to look
+forward to a day when they would be somewhat emancipated from absolute
+dependence upon the cotton exchanges of New York, New Orleans, and
+Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p>Transportation kept pace with industry. In 1860, the South had about ten
+thousand miles of railway. By 1880 the figure had doubled. During the
+next twenty years over thirty thousand miles were added, most of the
+increase being in Texas. About 1898 there opened a period of
+consolidation in which scores of short lines were united, mainly under
+the leadership of Northern capitalists, and new through service opened
+to the North and West. Thus Southern industries were given easy outlets
+to the markets of the nation and brought within the main currents of
+national business enterprise.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Social Effects of the Economic Changes.</b>&mdash;As long as the slave
+system lasted and planting was the major interest, the South was bound
+to be sectional in character. With slavery gone, crops diversified,
+natural resources developed, and industries promoted, the social order
+of the ante-bellum days inevitably dissolved; the South became more and
+more assimilated to the system of the North. In this process several
+lines of development are evident.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place we see the steady rise of the small farmer. Even in
+the old days there had been a large class of white yeomen who owned no
+slaves and tilled the soil with their own <a name="Page_394" id="Page_394"></a>hands, but they labored under
+severe handicaps. They found the fertile lands of the coast and river
+valleys nearly all monopolized by planters, and they were by the force
+of circumstances driven into the uplands where the soil was thin and the
+crops were light. Still they increased in numbers and zealously worked
+their freeholds.</p>
+
+<p>The war proved to be their opportunity. With the break-up of the
+plantations, they managed to buy land more worthy of their plows. By
+intelligent labor and intensive cultivation they were able to restore
+much of the worn-out soil to its original fertility. In the meantime
+they rose with their prosperity in the social and political scale. It
+became common for the sons of white farmers to enter the professions,
+while their daughters went away to college and prepared for teaching.
+Thus a more democratic tone was given to the white society of the South.
+Moreover the migration to the North and West, which had formerly carried
+thousands of energetic sons and daughters to search for new homesteads,
+was materially reduced. The energy of the agricultural population went
+into rehabilitation.</p>
+
+<p>The increase in the number of independent farmers was accompanied by the
+rise of small towns and villages which gave diversity to the life of the
+South. Before 1860 it was possible to travel through endless stretches
+of cotton and tobacco. The social affairs of the planter's family
+centered in the homestead even if they were occasionally interrupted by
+trips to distant cities or abroad. Carpentry, bricklaying, and
+blacksmithing were usually done by slaves skilled in simple handicrafts.
+Supplies were bought wholesale. In this way there was little place in
+plantation economy for villages and towns with their stores and
+mechanics.</p>
+
+<p>The abolition of slavery altered this. Small farms spread out where
+plantations had once stood. The skilled freedmen turned to agriculture
+rather than to handicrafts; white men of a business or mechanical bent
+found an opportunity to serve the needs of their communities. So local
+merchants and me<a name="Page_395" id="Page_395"></a>chanics became an important element in the social
+system. In the county seats, once dominated by the planters, business
+and professional men assumed the leadership.</p>
+
+<p>Another vital outcome of this revolution was the transference of a large
+part of planting enterprise to business. Mr. Bruce, a Southern historian
+of fine scholarship, has summed up this process in a single telling
+paragraph: "The higher planting class that under the old system gave so
+much distinction to rural life has, so far as it has survived at all,
+been concentrated in the cities. The families that in the time of
+slavery would have been found only in the country are now found, with a
+few exceptions, in the towns. The transplantation has been practically
+universal. The talent, the energy, the ambition that formerly sought
+expression in the management of great estates and the control of hosts
+of slaves, now seek a field of action in trade, in manufacturing
+enterprises, or in the general enterprises of development. This was for
+the ruling class of the South the natural outcome of the great economic
+revolution that followed the war."</p>
+
+<p>As in all other parts of the world, the mechanical revolution was
+attended by the growth of a population of industrial workers dependent
+not upon the soil but upon wages for their livelihood. When Jefferson
+Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern Confederacy, there were
+approximately only one hundred thousand persons employed in Southern
+manufactures as against more than a million in Northern mills. Fifty
+years later, Georgia and Alabama alone had more than one hundred and
+fifty thousand wage-earners. Necessarily this meant also a material
+increase in urban population, although the wide dispersion of cotton
+spinning among small centers prevented the congestion that had
+accompanied the rise of the textile industry in New England. In 1910,
+New Orleans, Atlanta, Memphis, Nashville, and Houston stood in the same
+relation to the New South that Cincinnati, Chicago, Cleveland, and
+Detroit had stood to the New West fifty years before. The problems of
+labor and capital and muni<a name="Page_396" id="Page_396"></a>cipal administration, which the earlier
+writers boasted would never perplex the planting South, had come in full
+force.</p>
+
+<div><a name="memphis" id="memphis" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/424.jpg"><img src="./images/424-tb.jpg" alt="A Glimpse of Memphis, Tennessee" title="A Glimpse of Memphis, Tennessee" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">A Glimpse of Memphis, Tennessee</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Revolution in the Status of the Slaves.</b>&mdash;No part of Southern
+society was so profoundly affected by the Civil War and economic
+reconstruction as the former slaves. On the day of emancipation, they
+stood free, but empty-handed, the owners of no tools or property, the
+masters of no trade and wholly inexperienced in the arts of self-help
+that characterized the whites in general. They had never been accustomed
+to <a name="Page_397" id="Page_397"></a>looking out for themselves. The plantation bell had called them to
+labor and released them. Doles of food and clothing had been regularly
+made in given quantities. They did not understand wages, ownership,
+renting, contracts, mortgages, leases, bills, or accounts.</p>
+
+<p>When they were emancipated, four courses were open to them. They could
+flee from the plantation to the nearest town or city, or to the distant
+North, to seek a livelihood. Thousands of them chose this way,
+overcrowding cities where disease mowed them down. They could remain
+where they, were in their cabins and work for daily wages instead of
+food, clothing, and shelter. This second course the major portion of
+them chose; but, as few masters had cash to dispense, the new relation
+was much like the old, in fact. It was still one of barter. The planter
+offered food, clothing, and shelter; the former slaves gave their labor
+in return. That was the best that many of them could do.</p>
+
+<p>A third course open to freedmen was that of renting from the former
+master, paying him usually with a share of the produce of the land. This
+way a large number of them chose. It offered them a chance to become
+land owners in time and it afforded an easier life, the renter being, to
+a certain extent at least, master of his own hours of labor. The final
+and most difficult path was that to ownership of land. Many a master
+helped his former slaves to acquire small holdings by offering easy
+terms. The more enterprising and the more fortunate who started life as
+renters or wage-earners made their way upward to ownership in so many
+cases that by the end of the century, one-fourth of the colored laborers
+on the land owned the soil they tilled.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, the South, though relatively poor, made relatively
+large expenditures for the education of the colored population. By the
+opening of the twentieth century, facilities were provided for more than
+one-half of the colored children of school age. While in many respects
+this progress was disappointing, its significance, to be appreciated,
+must be derived <a name="Page_398" id="Page_398"></a>from a comparison with the total illiteracy which
+prevailed under slavery.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of all that happened, however, the status of the negroes in the
+South continued to give a peculiar character to that section of the
+country. They were almost entirely excluded from the exercise of the
+suffrage, especially in the Far South. Special rooms were set aside for
+them at the railway stations and special cars on the railway lines. In
+the field of industry calling for technical skill, it appears, from the
+census figures, that they lost ground between 1890 and 1900&mdash;a condition
+which their friends ascribed to discriminations against them in law and
+in labor organizations and their critics ascribed to their lack of
+aptitude. Whatever may be the truth, the fact remained that at the
+opening of the twentieth century neither the hopes of the emancipators
+nor the fears of their opponents were realized. The marks of the
+"peculiar institution" were still largely impressed upon Southern
+society.</p>
+
+<p>The situation, however, was by no means unchanging. On the contrary
+there was a decided drift in affairs. For one thing, the proportion of
+negroes in the South had slowly declined. By 1900 they were in a
+majority in only two states, South Carolina and Mississippi. In
+Arkansas, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina the proportion of
+the white population was steadily growing. The colored migration
+northward increased while the westward movement of white farmers which
+characterized pioneer days declined. At the same time a part of the
+foreign immigration into the United States was diverted southward. As
+the years passed these tendencies gained momentum. The already huge
+colored quarters in some Northern cities were widely expanded, as whole
+counties in the South were stripped of their colored laborers. The race
+question, in its political and economic aspects, became less and less
+sectional, more and more national. The South was drawn into the main
+stream of national life. The separatist forces which produced the
+cataclysm of 1861 sank irresistibly into the background.<a name="Page_399" id="Page_399"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>H.W. Grady, <i>The New South</i> (1890).</p>
+
+<p>H.A. Herbert, <i>Why the Solid South</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.G. Brown, <i>The Lower South</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.G. Murphy, <i>Problems of the Present South</i>.</p>
+
+<p>B.T. Washington, <i>The Negro Problem</i>; <i>The Story of the Negro</i>; <i>The
+Future of the Negro</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.B. Hart, <i>The Southern South</i> and R.S. Baker, <i>Following the Color
+Line</i> (two works by Northern writers).</p>
+
+<p>T.N. Page, <i>The Negro, the Southerner's Problem</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Give the three main subdivisions of the chapter.</p>
+
+<p>2. Compare the condition of the South in 1865 with that of the North.
+Compare with the condition of the United States at the close of the
+Revolutionary War. At the close of the World War in 1918.</p>
+
+<p>3. Contrast the enfranchisement of the slaves with the enfranchisement
+of white men fifty years earlier.</p>
+
+<p>4. What was the condition of the planters as compared with that of the
+Northern manufacturers?</p>
+
+<p>5. How does money capital contribute to prosperity? Describe the plight
+of Southern finance.</p>
+
+<p>6. Give the chief steps in the restoration of white supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>7. Do you know of any other societies to compare with the Ku Klux Klan?</p>
+
+<p>8. Give Lincoln's plan for amnesty. What principles do you think should
+govern the granting of amnesty?</p>
+
+<p>9. How were the "Force bills" overcome?</p>
+
+<p>10. Compare the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments with regard to the
+suffrage provisions.</p>
+
+<p>11. Explain how they may be circumvented.</p>
+
+<p>12. Account for the Solid South. What was the situation before 1860?</p>
+
+<p>13. In what ways did Southern agriculture tend to become like that of
+the North? What were the social results?</p>
+
+<p>14. Name the chief results of an "industrial revolution" in general. In
+the South, in particular.</p>
+
+<p>15. What courses were open to freedmen in 1865?</p>
+
+<p>16. Give the main features in the economic and social status of the
+colored population in the South.</p>
+
+<p>17. Explain why the race question is national now, rather than
+sectional.<a name="Page_400" id="Page_400"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Amnesty for Confederates.</b>&mdash;Study carefully the provisions of the
+fourteenth amendment in the <a href='#appendix'>Appendix</a>. Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source
+Book of American History</i>, pp. 470 and 564. A plea for amnesty in
+Harding, <i>Select Orations Illustrating American History</i>, pp. 467-488.</p>
+
+<p><b>Political Conditions in the South in 1868.</b>&mdash;Dunning, <i>Reconstruction,
+Political and Economic</i> (American Nation Series), pp. 109-123; Hart,
+<i>American History Told by Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 445-458,
+497-500; Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>, pp. 799-805.</p>
+
+<p><b>Movement for White Supremacy.</b>&mdash;Dunning, <i>Reconstruction</i>, pp. 266-280;
+Paxson, <i>The New Nation</i> (Riverside Series), pp. 39-58; Beard, <i>American
+Government and Politics</i>, pp. 454-457.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Withdrawal of Federal Troops from the South.</b>&mdash;Sparks, <i>National
+Development</i> (American Nation Series), pp. 84-102; Rhodes, <i>History of
+the United States</i>, Vol. VIII, pp. 1-12.</p>
+
+<p><b>Southern Industry.</b>&mdash;Paxson, <i>The New Nation</i>, pp. 192-207; T.M. Young,
+<i>The American Cotton Industry</i>, pp. 54-99.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Race Question.</b>&mdash;B.T. Washington, <i>Up From Slavery</i> (sympathetic
+presentation); A.H. Stone, <i>Studies in the American Race Problem</i>
+(coldly analytical); Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 647-649,
+652-654, 663-669.<a name="Page_401" id="Page_401"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3>BUSINESS ENTERPRISE AND THE REPUBLICAN PARTY</h3>
+
+
+<p>If a single phrase be chosen to characterize American life during the
+generation that followed the age of Douglas and Lincoln, it must be
+"business enterprise"&mdash;the tremendous, irresistible energy of a virile
+people, mounting in numbers toward a hundred million and applied without
+let or hindrance to the developing of natural resources of unparalleled
+richness. The chief goal of this effort was high profits for the
+captains of industry, on the one hand; and high wages for the workers,
+on the other. Its signs, to use the language of a Republican orator in
+1876, were golden harvest fields, whirling spindles, turning wheels,
+open furnace doors, flaming forges, and chimneys filled with eager fire.
+The device blazoned on its shield and written over its factory doors was
+"prosperity." A Republican President was its "advance agent." Released
+from the hampering interference of the Southern planters and the
+confusing issues of the slavery controversy, business enterprise sprang
+forward to the task of winning the entire country. Then it flung its
+outposts to the uttermost parts of the earth&mdash;Europe, Africa, and the
+Orient&mdash;where were to be found markets for American goods and natural
+resources for American capital to develop.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Railways and Industry</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Outward Signs of Enterprise.</b>&mdash;It is difficult to comprehend all
+the multitudinous activities of American business energy or to appraise
+its effects upon the life and destiny of the American people; for beyond
+the horizon of the twentieth century lie consequences as yet undreamed
+of in our poor philosophy. Statisticians attempt to record its
+achieve<a name="Page_402" id="Page_402"></a>ments in terms of miles of railways built, factories opened, men
+and women employed, fortunes made, wages paid, cities founded, rivers
+spanned, boxes, bales, and tons produced. Historians apply standards of
+comparison with the past. Against the slow and leisurely stagecoach,
+they set the swift express, rushing from New York to San Francisco in
+less time than Washington consumed in his triumphal tour from Mt. Vernon
+to New York for his first inaugural. Against the lazy sailing vessel
+drifting before a genial breeze, they place the turbine steamer crossing
+the Atlantic in five days or the still swifter airplane, in fifteen
+hours. For the old workshop where a master and a dozen workmen and
+apprentices wrought by hand, they offer the giant factory where ten
+thousand persons attend the whirling wheels driven by steam. They write
+of the "romance of invention" and the "captains of industry."</p>
+
+<div><a name="bethlehem" id="bethlehem" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/430.jpg"><img src="./images/430-tb.jpg" alt="A Corner in the Bethlehem Steel Works" title="A Corner in the Bethlehem Steel Works" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">A Corner in the Bethlehem Steel Works</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Service of the Railway.</b>&mdash;All this is fitting in its way. Figures
+and contrasts cannot, however, tell the whole story.<a name="Page_403" id="Page_403"></a> Take, for example,
+the extension of railways. It is easy to relate that there were 30,000
+miles in 1860; 166,000 in 1890; and 242,000 in 1910. It is easy to show
+upon the map how a few straggling lines became a perfect mesh of closely
+knitted railways; or how, like the tentacles of a great monster, the few
+roads ending in the Mississippi Valley in 1860 were extended and
+multiplied until they tapped every wheat field, mine, and forest beyond
+the valley. All this, eloquent of enterprise as it truly is, does not
+reveal the significance of railways for American life. It does not
+indicate how railways made a continental market for American goods; nor
+how they standardized the whole country, giving to cities on the
+advancing frontier the leading features of cities in the old East; nor
+how they carried to the pioneer the comforts of civilization; nor yet
+how in the West they were the forerunners of civilization, the makers of
+homesteads, the builders of states.</p>
+
+<p><b>Government Aid for Railways.</b>&mdash;Still the story is not ended. The
+significant relation between railways and politics must not be
+overlooked. The bounty of a lavish government, for example, made
+possible the work of railway promoters. By the year 1872 the Federal
+government had granted in aid of railways 155,000,000 acres of land&mdash;an
+area estimated as almost equal to Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut,
+Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The
+Union Pacific Company alone secured from the federal government a free
+right of way through the public domain, twenty sections of land with
+each mile of railway, and a loan up to fifty millions of dollars secured
+by a second mortgage on the company's property. More than half of the
+northern tier of states lying against Canada from Lake Michigan to the
+Pacific was granted to private companies in aid of railways and wagon
+roads. About half of New Mexico, Arizona, and California was also given
+outright to railway companies. These vast grants from the federal
+government were supplemented by gifts from the states in land and by
+subscriptions amounting to more than two hundred million dollars. The
+<a name="Page_404" id="Page_404"></a>history of these gifts and their relation to the political leaders that
+engineered them would alone fill a large and interesting volume.</p>
+
+<p><b>Railway Fortunes and Capital.</b>&mdash;Out of this gigantic railway promotion,
+the first really immense American fortunes were made. Henry Adams, the
+grandson of John Quincy Adams, related that his grandfather on his
+mother's side, Peter Brooks, on his death in 1849, left a fortune of two
+million dollars, "supposed to be the largest estate in Boston," then one
+of the few centers of great riches. Compared with the opulence that
+sprang out of the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, the Southern
+Pacific, with their subsidiary and component lines, the estate of Peter
+Brooks was a poor man's heritage.</p>
+
+<p>The capital invested in these railways was enormous beyond the
+imagination of the men of the stagecoach generation. The total debt of
+the United States incurred in the Revolutionary War&mdash;a debt which those
+of little faith thought the country could never pay&mdash;was reckoned at a
+figure well under $75,000,000. When the Union Pacific Railroad was
+completed, there were outstanding against it $27,000,000 in first
+mortgage bonds, $27,000,000 in second mortgage bonds held by the
+government, $10,000,000 in income bonds, $10,000,000 in land grant
+bonds, and, on top of that huge bonded indebtedness, $36,000,000 in
+stock&mdash;making $110,000,000 in all. If the amount due the United States
+government be subtracted, still there remained, in private hands, stocks
+and bonds exceeding in value the whole national debt of Hamilton's
+day&mdash;a debt that strained all the resources of the Federal government in
+1790. Such was the financial significance of the railways.</p>
+
+<div><a name="railroads" id="railroads" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/433.png"><img src="./images/433-tb.png" alt="Railroads of the United States in 1918" title="Railroads of the United States in 1918" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Railroads of the United States in 1918</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Growth and Extension of Industry.</b>&mdash;In the field of manufacturing,
+mining, and metal working, the results of business enterprise far
+outstripped, if measured in mere dollars, the results of railway
+construction. By the end of the century there were about ten billion
+dollars invested in factories alone and five million wage-earners
+employed in them; while the total value of the output, fourteen billion
+dollars, was fifteen <a name="Page_405" id="Page_405"></a><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406"></a>times the figure for 1860. In the Eastern states
+industries multiplied. In the Northwest territory, the old home of
+Jacksonian Democracy, they overtopped agriculture. By the end of the
+century, Ohio had almost reached and Illinois had surpassed
+Massachusetts in the annual value of manufacturing output.</p>
+
+<p>That was not all. Untold wealth in the form of natural resources was
+discovered in the South and West. Coal deposits were found in the
+Appalachians stretching from Pennsylvania down to Alabama, in Michigan,
+in the Mississippi Valley, and in the Western mountains from North
+Dakota to New Mexico. In nearly every coal-bearing region, iron was also
+discovered and the great fields of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota
+soon rivaled those of the Appalachian area. Copper, lead, gold, and
+silver in fabulous quantities were unearthed by the restless prospectors
+who left no plain or mountain fastness unexplored. Petroleum, first
+pumped from the wells of Pennsylvania in the summer of 1859, made new
+fortunes equaling those of trade, railways, and land speculation. It
+scattered its riches with an especially lavish hand through Oklahoma,
+Texas, and California.</p>
+
+<div><a name="rockefeller" id="rockefeller"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/435.jpg" alt="John D. Rockefeller" title="John D. Rockefeller" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">John D. Rockefeller</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Trust&mdash;an Instrument of Industrial Progress.</b>&mdash;Business enterprise,
+under the direction of powerful men working single-handed, or of small
+groups of men pooling their capital for one or more undertakings, had
+not advanced far before there appeared upon the scene still mightier
+leaders of even greater imagination. New constructive genius now brought
+together and combined under one management hundreds of concerns or
+thousands of miles of railways, revealing the magic strength of
+co&ouml;peration on a national scale. Price-cutting in oil, threatening ruin
+to those engaged in the industry, as early as 1879, led a number of
+companies in Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia to unite in
+price-fixing. Three years later a group of oil interests formed a close
+organization, placing all their stocks in the hands of trustees, among
+whom was John D. Rockefeller. The trustees, in <a name="Page_407" id="Page_407"></a>turn, issued
+certificates representing the share to which each participant was
+entitled; and took over the management of the entire business. Such was
+the nature of the "trust," which was to play such an unique r&ocirc;le in the
+progress of America.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of combination was applied in time to iron and steel, copper,
+lead, sugar, cordage, coal, and other commodities, until in each field
+there loomed a giant trust or corporation, controlling, if not most of
+the output, at least enough to determine in a large measure the prices
+charged to consumers. With the passing years, the railways, mills,
+mines, and other business concerns were transferred from individual
+owners to corporations. At the end of the nineteenth century, the whole
+face of American business was changed. Three-fourths of the output from
+industries came from factories under corporate management and only
+one-fourth from individual and partnership undertakings.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Banking Corporation.</b>&mdash;Very closely related to the growth of
+business enterprise on a large scale was the system of banking. In the
+old days before banks, a person with savings either employed them in his
+own undertakings, lent them to a neighbor, or hid them away where they
+set no industry in motion. Even in the early stages of modern business,
+it was common for a manufacturer to rise from small beginnings by
+financing extensions out of his own earnings and profits. This state of
+affairs was profoundly altered by the growth of the huge corporations
+requiring millions and even billions of capital. The banks, once an
+adjunct to business, became the leaders in business.</p>
+
+<div><a name="wallstreet" id="wallstreet" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/436.jpg"><img src="./images/436-tb.jpg" alt="Wall Street, New York City" title="Wall Street, New York City" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Wall Street, New York City</span></div>
+
+<p>It was the banks that undertook to sell the stocks and bonds issued by
+new corporations and trusts and to supply them with credit to carry on
+their operations. Indeed, many of the great <a name="Page_408" id="Page_408"></a>mergers or combinations in
+business were initiated by magnates in the banking world with millions
+and billions under their control. Through their connections with one
+another, the banks formed a perfect network of agencies gathering up the
+pennies and dollars of the masses as well as the thousands of the rich
+<a name="Page_409" id="Page_409"></a>and pouring them all into the channels of business and manufacturing.
+In this growth of banking on a national scale, it was inevitable that a
+few great centers, like Wall Street in New York or State Street in
+Boston, should rise to a position of dominance both in concentrating the
+savings and profits of the nation and in financing new as well as old
+corporations.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Significance of the Corporation.</b>&mdash;The corporation, in fact, became
+the striking feature of American business life, one of the most
+marvelous institutions of all time, comparable in wealth and power and
+the number of its servants with kingdoms and states of old. The effect
+of its rise and growth cannot be summarily estimated; but some special
+facts are obvious. It made possible gigantic enterprises once entirely
+beyond the reach of any individual, no matter how rich. It eliminated
+many of the futile and costly wastes of competition in connection with
+manufacture, advertising, and selling. It studied the cheapest methods
+of production and shut down mills that were poorly equipped or
+disadvantageously located. It established laboratories for research in
+industry, chemistry, and mechanical inventions. Through the sale of
+stocks and bonds, it enabled tens of thousands of people to become
+capitalists, if only in a small way. The corporation made it possible
+for one person to own, for instance, a $50 share in a million dollar
+business concern&mdash;a thing entirely impossible under a r&eacute;gime of
+individual owners and partnerships.</p>
+
+<p>There was, of course, another side to the picture. Many of the
+corporations sought to become monopolies and to make profits, not by
+economies and good management, but by extortion from purchasers.
+Sometimes they mercilessly crushed small business men, their
+competitors, bribed members of legislatures to secure favorable laws,
+and contributed to the campaign funds of both leading parties. Wherever
+a trust approached the position of a monopoly, it acquired a dominion
+over the labor market which enabled it to break even the strongest trade
+unions. In short, the power of the trust in finance, in manufacturing,
+in politics, and in the field of labor control can hardly be measured.<a name="Page_410" id="Page_410"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Corporation and Labor.</b>&mdash;In the development of the corporation
+there was to be observed a distinct severing of the old ties between
+master and workmen, which existed in the days of small industries. For
+the personal bond between the owner and the employees was substituted a
+new relation. "In most parts of our country," as President Wilson once
+said, "men work, not for themselves, not as partners in the old way in
+which they used to work, but generally as employees&mdash;in a higher or
+lower grade&mdash;of great corporations." The owner disappeared from the
+factory and in his place came the manager, representing the usually
+invisible stockholders and dependent for his success upon his ability to
+make profits for the owners. Hence the term "soulless corporation,"
+which was to exert such a deep influence on American thinking about
+industrial relations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cities and Immigration.</b>&mdash;Expressed in terms of human life, this era of
+unprecedented enterprise meant huge industrial cities and an immense
+labor supply, derived mainly from European immigration. Here, too,
+figures tell only a part of the story. In Washington's day nine-tenths
+of the American people were engaged in agriculture and lived in the
+country; in 1890 more than one-third of the population dwelt in towns of
+2500 and over; in 1920 more than half of the population lived in towns
+of over 2500. In forty years, between 1860 and 1900, Greater New York
+had grown from 1,174,000 to 3,437,000; San Francisco from 56,000 to
+342,000; Chicago from 109,000 to 1,698,000. The miles of city tenements
+began to rival, in the number of their residents, the farm homesteads of
+the West. The time so dreaded by Jefferson had arrived. People were
+"piled upon one another in great cities" and the republic of small
+farmers had passed away.</p>
+
+<p>To these industrial centers flowed annually an ever-increasing tide of
+immigration, reaching the half million point in 1880; rising to
+three-quarters of a million three years later; and passing the million
+mark in a single year at the opening of the new century. Immigration was
+as old as America but new elements now entered the situation. In the
+first place, there were radical <a name="Page_411" id="Page_411"></a>changes in the nationality of the
+newcomers. The migration from Northern Europe&mdash;England, Ireland,
+Germany, and Scandinavia&mdash;diminished; that from Italy, Russia, and
+Austria-Hungary increased, more than three-fourths of the entire number
+coming from these three lands between the years 1900 and 1910. These
+later immigrants were Italians, Poles, Magyars, Czechs, Slovaks,
+Russians, and Jews, who came from countries far removed from the
+language and the traditions of England whence came the founders of
+America.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, the reception accorded the newcomers differed from
+that given to the immigrants in the early days. By 1890 all the free
+land was gone. They could not, therefore, be dispersed widely among the
+native Americans to assimilate quickly and unconsciously the habits and
+ideas of American life. On the contrary, they were diverted mainly to
+the industrial centers. There they crowded&mdash;nay, overcrowded&mdash;into
+colonies of their own where they preserved their languages, their
+newspapers, and their old-world customs and views.</p>
+
+<p>So eager were American business men to get an enormous labor supply that
+they asked few questions about the effect of this "alien invasion" upon
+the old America inherited from the fathers. They even stimulated the
+invasion artificially by importing huge armies of foreigners under
+contract to work in specified mines and mills. There seemed to be no
+limit to the factories, forges, refineries, and railways that could be
+built, to the multitudes that could be employed in conquering a
+continent. As for the future, that was in the hands of Providence!</p>
+
+<p><b>Business Theories of Politics.</b>&mdash;As the statesmen of Hamilton's school
+and the planters of Calhoun's had their theories of government and
+politics, so the leaders in business enterprise had theirs. It was
+simple and easily stated. "It is the duty of the government," they
+urged, "to protect American industry against foreign competition by
+means of high tariffs on imported goods, to aid railways by generous
+grants of land, to sell mineral and timber lands at low prices to
+energetic men ready to develop them, and then to leave the rest to the
+initiative and drive of <a name="Page_412" id="Page_412"></a>individuals and companies." All government
+interference with the management, prices, rates, charges, and conduct of
+private business they held to be either wholly pernicious or intolerably
+impertinent. Judging from their speeches and writings, they conceived
+the nation as a great collection of individuals, companies, and labor
+unions all struggling for profits or high wages and held together by a
+government whose principal duty was to keep the peace among them and
+protect industry against the foreign manufacturer. Such was the
+political theory of business during the generation that followed the
+Civil War.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Supremacy of the Republican Party (1861-85)</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Business Men and Republican Policies.</b>&mdash;Most of the leaders in industry
+gravitated to the Republican ranks. They worked in the North and the
+Republican party was essentially Northern. It was moreover&mdash;at least so
+far as the majority of its members were concerned&mdash;committed to
+protective tariffs, a sound monetary and banking system, the promotion
+of railways and industry by land grants, and the development of internal
+improvements. It was furthermore generous in its immigration policy. It
+proclaimed America to be an asylum for the oppressed of all countries
+and flung wide the doors for immigrants eager to fill the factories, man
+the mines, and settle upon Western lands. In a word the Republicans
+stood for all those specific measures which favored the enlargement and
+prosperity of business. At the same time they resisted government
+interference with private enterprise. They did not regulate railway
+rates, prosecute trusts for forming combinations, or prevent railway
+companies from giving lower rates to some shippers than to others. To
+sum it up, the political theories of the Republican party for three
+decades after the Civil War were the theories of American
+business&mdash;prosperous and profitable industries for the owners and "the
+full dinner pail" for the workmen. Naturally a large portion of those
+who flourished under its policies gave their support to it, voted for
+its candidates, and subscribed to its campaign funds.<a name="Page_413" id="Page_413"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Sources of Republican Strength in the North.</b>&mdash;The Republican party was
+in fact a political organization of singular power. It originated in a
+wave of moral enthusiasm, having attracted to itself, if not the
+abolitionists, certainly all those idealists, like James Russell Lowell
+and George William Curtis, who had opposed slavery when opposition was
+neither safe nor popular. To moral principles it added practical
+considerations. Business men had confidence in it. Workingmen, who
+longed for the independence of the farmer, owed to its indulgent land
+policy the opportunity of securing free homesteads in the West. The
+immigrant, landing penniless on these shores, as a result of the same
+beneficent system, often found himself in a little while with an estate
+as large as many a baronial domain in the Old World. Under a Republican
+administration, the union had been saved. To it the veterans of the war
+could turn with confidence for those rewards of service which the
+government could bestow: pensions surpassing in liberality anything that
+the world had ever seen. Under a Republican administration also the
+great debt had been created in the defense of the union, and to the
+Republican party every investor in government bonds could look for the
+full and honorable discharge of the interest and principal. The spoils
+system, inaugurated by Jacksonian Democracy, in turn placed all the
+federal offices in Republican hands, furnishing an army of party workers
+to be counted on for loyal service in every campaign.</p>
+
+<p>Of all these things Republican leaders made full and vigorous use,
+sometimes ascribing to the party, in accordance with ancient political
+usage, merits and achievements not wholly its own. Particularly was this
+true in the case of saving the union. "When in the economy of
+Providence, this land was to be purged of human slavery ... the
+Republican party came into power," ran a declaration in one platform.
+"The Republican party suppressed a gigantic rebellion, emancipated four
+million slaves, decreed the equal citizenship of all, and established
+universal suffrage," ran another. As for the aid rendered by the
+millions of Northern Democrats who stood by <a name="Page_414" id="Page_414"></a>the union and the tens of
+thousands of them who actually fought in the union army, the Republicans
+in their zeal were inclined to be oblivious. They repeatedly charged the
+Democratic party "with being the same in character and spirit as when it
+sympathized with treason."</p>
+
+<p><b>Republican Control of the South.</b>&mdash;To the strength enjoyed in the
+North, the Republicans for a long time added the advantages that came
+from control over the former Confederate states where the newly
+enfranchised negroes, under white leadership, gave a grateful support to
+the party responsible for their freedom. In this branch of politics,
+motives were so mixed that no historian can hope to appraise them all at
+their proper values. On the one side of the ledger must be set the
+vigorous efforts of the honest and sincere friends of the freedmen to
+win for them complete civil and political equality, wiping out not only
+slavery but all its badges of misery and servitude. On the same side
+must be placed the labor of those who had valiantly fought in forum and
+field to save the union and who regarded continued Republican supremacy
+after the war as absolutely necessary to prevent the former leaders in
+secession from coming back to power. At the same time there were
+undoubtedly some men of the baser sort who looked on politics as a game
+and who made use of "carpet-bagging" in the South to win the spoils that
+might result from it. At all events, both by laws and presidential acts,
+the Republicans for many years kept a keen eye upon the maintenance of
+their dominion in the South. Their declaration that neither the law nor
+its administration should admit any discrimination in respect of
+citizens by reason of race, color, or previous condition of servitude
+appealed to idealists and brought results in elections. Even South
+Carolina, where reposed the ashes of John C. Calhoun, went Republican in
+1872 by a vote of three to one!</p>
+
+<p>Republican control was made easy by the force bills described in a
+previous chapter&mdash;measures which vested the supervision of elections in
+federal officers appointed by Republican Presidents. These drastic
+measures, departing from American <a name="Page_415" id="Page_415"></a>tradition, the Republican authors
+urged, were necessary to safeguard the purity of the ballot, not merely
+in the South where the timid freedman might readily be frightened from
+using it; but also in the North, particularly in New York City, where it
+was claimed that fraud was regularly practiced by Democratic leaders.</p>
+
+<p>The Democrats, on their side, indignantly denied the charges, replying
+that the force bills were nothing but devices created by the Republicans
+for the purpose of securing their continued rule through systematic
+interference with elections. Even the measures of reconstruction were
+deemed by Democratic leaders as thinly veiled schemes to establish
+Republican power throughout the country. "Nor is there the slightest
+doubt," exclaimed Samuel J. Tilden, spokesman of the Democrats in New
+York and candidate for President in 1876, "that the paramount object and
+motive of the Republican party is by these means to secure itself
+against a reaction of opinion adverse to it in our great populous
+Northern commonwealths.... When the Republican party resolved to
+establish negro supremacy in the ten states in order to gain to itself
+the representation of those states in Congress, it had to begin by
+governing the people of those states by the sword.... The next was the
+creation of new electoral bodies for those ten states, in which, by
+exclusions, by disfranchisements and proscriptions, by control over
+registration, by applying test oaths ... by intimidation and by every
+form of influence, three million negroes are made to predominate over
+four and a half million whites."</p>
+
+<p><b>The War as a Campaign Issue.</b>&mdash;Even the repeal of force bills could not
+allay the sectional feelings engendered by the war. The Republicans
+could not forgive the men who had so recently been in arms against the
+union and insisted on calling them "traitors" and "rebels." The
+Southerners, smarting under the reconstruction acts, could regard the
+Republicans only as political oppressors. The passions of the war had
+been too strong; the distress too deep to be soon forgotten. The
+generation that went through it all remembered it all. For twenty
+<a name="Page_416" id="Page_416"></a>years, the Republicans, in their speeches and platforms, made "a
+straight appeal to the patriotism of the Northern voters." They
+maintained that their party, which had saved the union and emancipated
+the slaves, was alone worthy of protecting the union and uplifting the
+freedmen.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Democrats, especially in the North, resented this policy and
+dubbed it with the expressive but inelegant phrase, "waving the bloody
+shirt," the Republicans refused to surrender a slogan which made such a
+ready popular appeal. As late as 1884, a leader expressed the hope that
+they might "wring one more President from the bloody shirt." They
+refused to let the country forget that the Democratic candidate, Grover
+Cleveland, had escaped military service by hiring a substitute; and they
+made political capital out of the fact that he had "insulted the
+veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic" by going fishing on
+Decoration Day.</p>
+
+<p><b>Three Republican Presidents.</b>&mdash;Fortified by all these elements of
+strength, the Republicans held the presidency from 1869 to 1885. The
+three Presidents elected in this period, Grant, Hayes, and Garfield, had
+certain striking characteristics in common. They were all of origin
+humble enough to please the most exacting Jacksonian Democrat. They had
+been generals in the union army. Grant, next to Lincoln, was regarded as
+the savior of the Constitution. Hayes and Garfield, though lesser lights
+in the military firmament, had honorable records duly appreciated by
+veterans of the war, now thoroughly organized into the Grand Army of the
+Republic. It is true that Grant was not a politician and had never voted
+the Republican ticket; but this was readily overlooked. Hayes and
+Garfield on the other hand were loyal party men. The former had served
+in Congress and for three terms as governor of his state. The latter had
+long been a member of the House of Representatives and was Senator-elect
+when he received the nomination for President.</p>
+
+<p>All of them possessed, moreover, another important asset, which was not
+forgotten by the astute managers who led in <a name="Page_417" id="Page_417"></a>selecting candidates. All
+of them were from Ohio&mdash;though Grant had been in Illinois when the
+summons to military duties came&mdash;and Ohio was a strategic state. It lay
+between the manufacturing East and the agrarian country to the West.
+Having growing industries and wool to sell it benefited from the
+protective tariff. Yet being mainly agricultural still, it was not
+without sympathy for the farmers who showed low tariff or free trade
+tendencies. Whatever share the East had in shaping laws and framing
+policies, it was clear that the West was to have the candidates. This
+division in privileges&mdash;not uncommon in political management&mdash;was always
+accompanied by a judicious selection of the candidate for Vice
+President. With Garfield, for example, was associated a prominent New
+York politician, Chester A. Arthur, who, as fate decreed, was destined
+to more than three years' service as chief magistrate, on the
+assassination of his superior in office.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Disputed Election of 1876.</b>&mdash;While taking note of the long years of
+Republican supremacy, it must be recorded that grave doubts exist in the
+minds of many historians as to whether one of the three Presidents,
+Hayes, was actually the victor in 1876 or not. His Democratic opponent,
+Samuel J. Tilden, received a popular plurality of a quarter of a million
+and had a plausible claim to a majority of the electoral vote. At all
+events, four states sent in double returns, one set for Tilden and
+another for Hayes; and a deadlock ensued. Both parties vehemently
+claimed the election and the passions ran so high that sober men did not
+shrink from speaking of civil war again. Fortunately, in the end, the
+counsels of peace prevailed. Congress provided for an electoral
+commission of fifteen men to review the contested returns. The
+Democrats, inspired by Tilden's moderation, accepted the judgment in
+favor of Hayes even though they were not convinced that he was really
+entitled to the office.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Growth of Opposition to Republican Rule</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Abuses in American Political Life.</b>&mdash;During their long tenure of
+office, the Republicans could not escape the inevitable con<a name="Page_418" id="Page_418"></a>sequences of
+power; that is, evil practices and corrupt conduct on the part of some
+who found shelter within the party. For that matter neither did the
+Democrats manage to avoid such difficulties in those states and cities
+where they had the majority. In New York City, for instance, the local
+Democratic organization, known as Tammany Hall, passed under the sway of
+a group of politicians headed by "Boss" Tweed. He plundered the city
+treasury until public-spirited citizens, supported by Samuel J. Tilden,
+the Democratic leader of the state, rose in revolt, drove the ringleader
+from power, and sent him to jail. In Philadelphia, the local Republican
+bosses were guilty of offenses as odious as those committed by New York
+politicians. Indeed, the decade that followed the Civil War was marred
+by so many scandals in public life that one acute editor was moved to
+inquire: "Are not all the great communities of the Western World growing
+more corrupt as they grow in wealth?"</p>
+
+<p>In the sphere of national politics, where the opportunities were
+greater, betrayals of public trust were even more flagrant. One
+revelation after another showed officers, high and low, possessed with
+the spirit of peculation. Members of Congress, it was found, accepted
+railway stock in exchange for votes in favor of land grants and other
+concessions to the companies. In the administration as well as the
+legislature the disease was rife. Revenue officers permitted whisky
+distillers to evade their taxes and received heavy bribes in return. A
+probe into the post-office department revealed the malodorous "star
+route frauds"&mdash;the deliberate overpayment of certain mail carriers whose
+lines were indicated in the official record by asterisks or stars. Even
+cabinet officers did not escape suspicion, for the trail of the serpent
+led straight to the door of one of them.</p>
+
+<p>In the lower ranges of official life, the spoils system became more
+virulent as the number of federal employees increased. The holders of
+offices and the seekers after them constituted a veritable political
+army. They crowded into Republican councils, for the Republicans, being
+in power, could alone dispense federal favors. They filled positions in
+the party ranging from <a name="Page_419" id="Page_419"></a>the lowest township committee to the national
+convention. They helped to nominate candidates and draft platforms and
+elbowed to one side the busy citizen, not conversant with party
+intrigues, who could only give an occasional day to political matters.
+Even the Civil Service Act of 1883, wrung from a reluctant Congress two
+years after the assassination of Garfield, made little change for a long
+time. It took away from the spoilsmen a few thousand government
+positions, but it formed no check on the practice of rewarding party
+workers from the public treasury.</p>
+
+<p>On viewing this state of affairs, many a distinguished citizen became
+profoundly discouraged. James Russell Lowell, for example, thought he
+saw a steady decline in public morals. In 1865, hearing of Lee's
+surrender, he had exclaimed: "There is something magnificent in having a
+country to love!" Ten years later, when asked to write an ode for the
+centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, he could think only of a biting
+satire on the nation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Show your state legislatures">
+<tr><td align='left'><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Show your state legislatures; show your Rings;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And challenge Europe to produce such things<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">As high officials sitting half in sight<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">To share the plunder and fix things right.<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">If that don't fetch her, why, you need only<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">To show your latest style in martyrs,&mdash;Tweed:<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">She'll find it hard to hide her spiteful tears<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">At such advance in one poor hundred years."<br /></span>
+</div></div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>When his critics condemned him for this "attack upon his native land,"
+Lowell replied in sadness: "These fellows have no notion of what love of
+country means. It was in my very blood and bones. If I am not an
+American who ever was?... What fills me with doubt and dismay is the
+degradation of the moral tone. Is it or is it not a result of democracy?
+Is ours a 'government of the people, by the people, for the people,' or
+a Kakistocracy [a government of the worst], rather for the benefit of
+knaves at the cost of fools?"<a name="Page_420" id="Page_420"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Reform Movement in Republican Ranks.</b>&mdash;The sentiments expressed by
+Lowell, himself a Republican and for a time American ambassador to
+England, were shared by many men in his party. Very soon after the close
+of the Civil War some of them began to protest vigorously against the
+policies and conduct of their leaders. In 1872, the dissenters, calling
+themselves Liberal Republicans, broke away altogether, nominated a
+candidate of their own, Horace Greeley, and put forward a platform
+indicting the Republican President fiercely enough to please the most
+uncompromising Democrat. They accused Grant of using "the powers and
+opportunities of his high office for the promotion of personal ends."
+They charged him with retaining "notoriously corrupt and unworthy men in
+places of power and responsibility." They alleged that the Republican
+party kept "alive the passions and resentments of the late civil war to
+use them for their own advantages," and employed the "public service of
+the government as a machinery of corruption and personal influence."</p>
+
+<p>It was not apparent, however, from the ensuing election that any
+considerable number of Republicans accepted the views of the Liberals.
+Greeley, though indorsed by the Democrats, was utterly routed and died
+of a broken heart. The lesson of his discomfiture seemed to be that
+independent action was futile. So, at least, it was regarded by most men
+of the rising generation like Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts, and
+Theodore Roosevelt, of New York. Profiting by the experience of Greeley
+they insisted in season and out that reformers who desired to rid the
+party of abuses should remain loyal to it and do their work "on the
+inside."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Mugwumps and Cleveland Democracy in 1884.</b>&mdash;Though aided by
+Republican dissensions, the Democrats were slow in making headway
+against the political current. They were deprived of the energetic and
+capable leadership once afforded by the planters, like Calhoun, Davis,
+and Toombs; they were saddled by their opponents with responsibility for
+secession; and they were stripped of the support of the prostrate
+South.<a name="Page_421" id="Page_421"></a> Not until the last Southern state was restored to the union, not
+until a general amnesty was wrung from Congress, not until white
+supremacy was established at the polls, and the last federal soldier
+withdrawn from Southern capitals did they succeed in capturing the
+presidency.</p>
+
+<p>The opportune moment for them came in 1884 when a number of
+circumstances favored their aspirations. The Republicans, leaving the
+Ohio Valley in their search for a candidate, nominated James G. Blaine
+of Maine, a vigorous and popular leader but a man under fire from the
+reformers in his own party. The Democrats on their side were able to
+find at this juncture an able candidate who had no political enemies in
+the sphere of national politics, Grover Cleveland, then governor of New
+York and widely celebrated as a man of "sterling honesty." At the same
+time a number of dissatisfied Republicans openly espoused the Democratic
+cause,&mdash;among them Carl Schurz, George William Curtis, Henry Ward
+Beecher, and William Everett, men of fine ideals and undoubted
+integrity. Though the "regular" Republicans called them "Mugwumps" and
+laughed at them as the "men milliners, the dilettanti, and carpet
+knights of politics," they had a following that was not to be despised.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign which took place that year was one of the most savage in
+American history. Issues were thrust into the background. The tariff,
+though mentioned, was not taken seriously. Abuse of the opposition was
+the favorite resource of party orators. The Democrats insisted that "the
+Republican party so far as principle is concerned is a reminiscence. In
+practice it is an organization for enriching those who control its
+machinery." For the Republican candidate, Blaine, they could hardly find
+words to express their contempt. The Republicans retaliated in kind.
+They praised their own good works, as of old, in saving the union, and
+denounced the "fraud and violence practiced by the Democracy in the
+Southern states." Seeing little objectionable in the public record of
+Cleveland as mayor of Buffalo and governor of New York, they attacked
+his personal character. Perhaps never in the history of political
+campaigns <a name="Page_422" id="Page_422"></a>did the discussions on the platform and in the press sink to
+so low a level. Decent people were sickened. Even hot partisans shrank
+from their own words when, after the election, they had time to reflect
+on their heedless passions. Moreover, nothing was decided by the
+balloting. Cleveland was elected, but his victory was a narrow one. A
+change of a few hundred votes in New York would have sent his opponent
+to the White House instead.</p>
+
+<p><b>Changing Political Fortunes (1888-96).</b>&mdash;After the Democrats had
+settled down to the enjoyment of their hard-earned victory, President
+Cleveland in his message of 1887 attacked the tariff as "vicious,
+inequitable, and illogical"; as a system of taxation that laid a burden
+upon "every consumer in the land for the benefit of our manufacturers."
+Business enterprise was thoroughly alarmed. The Republicans
+characterized the tariff message as a free-trade assault upon the
+industries of the country. Mainly on that issue they elected in 1888
+Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, a shrewd lawyer, a reticent politician, a
+descendant of the hero of Tippecanoe, and a son of the old Northwest.
+Accepting the outcome of the election as a vindication of their
+principles, the Republicans, under the leadership of William McKinley in
+the House of Representatives, enacted in 1890 a tariff law imposing the
+highest duties yet laid in our history. To their utter surprise,
+however, they were instantly informed by the country that their program
+was not approved. That very autumn they lost in the congressional
+elections, and two years later they were decisively beaten in the
+presidential campaign, Cleveland once more leading his party to victory.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>L.H. Haney, <i>Congressional History of Railways</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>J.P. Davis, <i>Union Pacific Railway</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.M. Swank, <i>History of the Manufacture of Iron</i>.</p>
+
+<p>M.T. Copeland, <i>The Cotton Manufacturing Industry in the United States</i>
+(Harvard Studies).</p>
+
+<p>E.W. Bryce, <i>Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Ida Tarbell, <i>History of the Standard Oil Company</i> (Critical).<a name="Page_423" id="Page_423"></a></p>
+
+<p>G.H. Montague, <i>Rise and Progress of the Standard Oil Company</i>
+(Friendly).</p>
+
+<p>H.P. Fairchild, <i>Immigration</i>, and F.J. Warne, <i>The Immigrant Invasion</i>
+(Both works favor exclusion).</p>
+
+<p>I.A. Hourwich, <i>Immigration</i> (Against exclusionist policies).</p>
+
+<p>J.F. Rhodes, <i>History of the United States, 1877-1896</i>, Vol. VIII.</p>
+
+<p>Edward Stanwood, <i>A History of the Presidency</i>, Vol. I, for the
+presidential elections of the period.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Contrast the state of industry and commerce at the close of the Civil
+War with its condition at the close of the Revolutionary War.</p>
+
+<p>2. Enumerate the services rendered to the nation by the railways.</p>
+
+<p>3. Explain the peculiar relation of railways to government.</p>
+
+<p>4. What sections of the country have been industrialized?</p>
+
+<p>5. How do you account for the rise and growth of the trusts? Explain
+some of the economic advantages of the trust.</p>
+
+<p>6. Are the people in cities more or less independent than the farmers?
+What was Jefferson's view?</p>
+
+<p>7. State some of the problems raised by unrestricted immigration.</p>
+
+<p>8. What was the theory of the relation of government to business in this
+period? Has it changed in recent times?</p>
+
+<p>9. State the leading economic policies sponsored by the Republican
+party.</p>
+
+<p>10. Why were the Republicans especially strong immediately after the
+Civil War?</p>
+
+<p>11. What illustrations can you give showing the influence of war in
+American political campaigns?</p>
+
+<p>12. Account for the strength of middle-western candidates.</p>
+
+<p>13. Enumerate some of the abuses that appeared in American political
+life after 1865.</p>
+
+<p>14. Sketch the rise and growth of the reform movement.</p>
+
+<p>15. How is the fluctuating state of public opinion reflected in the
+elections from 1880 to 1896?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Invention, Discovery, and Transportation.</b>&mdash;Sparks, <i>National
+Development</i> (American Nation Series), pp. 37-67; Bogart, <i>Economic
+History of the United States</i>, Chaps. XXI, XXII, and XXIII.</p>
+
+<p><b>Business and Politics.</b>&mdash;Paxson, <i>The New Nation</i> (Riverside Series),
+pp. 92-107; Rhodes, <i>History of the United States</i>, Vol. VII, pp. 1-29,<a name="Page_424" id="Page_424"></a>
+64-73, 175-206; Wilson, <i>History of the American People</i>, Vol. IV, pp.
+78-96.</p>
+
+<p><b>Immigration.</b>&mdash;Coman, <i>Industrial History of the United States</i> (2d
+ed.), pp. 369-374; E.L. Bogart, <i>Economic History of the United States</i>,
+pp. 420-422, 434-437; Jenks and Lauck, <i>Immigration Problems</i>, Commons,
+<i>Races and Immigrants</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Disputed Election of 1876.</b>&mdash;Haworth, <i>The United States in Our Own
+Time</i>, pp. 82-94; Dunning, <i>Reconstruction, Political and Economic</i>
+(American Nation Series), pp. 294-341; Elson, <i>History of the United
+States</i>, pp. 835-841.</p>
+
+<p><b>Abuses in Political Life.</b>&mdash;Dunning, <i>Reconstruction</i>, pp. 281-293; see
+criticisms in party platforms in Stanwood, <i>History of the Presidency</i>,
+Vol. I; Bryce, <i>American Commonwealth</i> (1910 ed.), Vol. II, pp. 379-448;
+136-167.</p>
+
+<p><b>Studies of Presidential Administrations.</b>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Grant, (<i>b</i>) Hayes,
+(<i>c</i>) Garfield-Arthur, (<i>d</i>) Cleveland, and (<i>e</i>) Harrison, in Haworth,
+<i>The United States in Our Own Time</i>, or in Paxson, <i>The New Nation</i>
+(Riverside Series), or still more briefly in Elson.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cleveland Democracy.</b>&mdash;Haworth, <i>The United States</i>, pp. 164-183;
+Rhodes, <i>History of the United States</i>, Vol. VIII, pp. 240-327; Elson,
+pp. 857-887.</p>
+
+<p><b>Analysis of Modern Immigration Problems.</b>&mdash;<i>Syllabus in History</i> (New
+York State, 1919), pp. 110-112.<a name="Page_425" id="Page_425"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT WEST</h3>
+
+
+<p>At the close of the Civil War, Kansas and Texas were sentinel states on
+the middle border. Beyond the Rockies, California, Oregon, and Nevada
+stood guard, the last of them having been just admitted to furnish
+another vote for the fifteenth amendment abolishing slavery. Between the
+near and far frontiers lay a vast reach of plain, desert, plateau, and
+mountain, almost wholly undeveloped. A broad domain, extending from
+Canada to Mexico, and embracing the regions now included in Washington,
+Idaho, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, the Dakotas, and
+Oklahoma, had fewer than half a million inhabitants. It was laid out
+into territories, each administered under a governor appointed by the
+President and Senate and, as soon as there was the requisite number of
+inhabitants, a legislature elected by the voters. No railway line
+stretched across the desert. St. Joseph on the Missouri was the terminus
+of the Eastern lines. It required twenty-five days for a passenger to
+make the overland journey to California by the stagecoach system,
+established in 1858, and more than ten days for the swift pony express,
+organized in 1860, to carry a letter to San Francisco. Indians still
+roamed the plain and desert and more than one powerful tribe disputed
+the white man's title to the soil.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Railways As Trail Blazers</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Opening Railways to the Pacific.</b>&mdash;A decade before the Civil War the
+importance of rail connection between the East and the Pacific Coast had
+been recognized. Pressure had already <a name="Page_426" id="Page_426"></a>been brought to bear on Congress
+to authorize the construction of a line and to grant land and money in
+its aid. Both the Democrats and Republicans approved the idea, but it
+was involved in the slavery controversy. Indeed it was submerged in it.
+Southern statesmen wanted connections between the Gulf and the Pacific
+through Texas, while Northerners stood out for a central route.</p>
+
+<p>The North had its way during the war. Congress, by legislation initiated
+in 1862, provided for the immediate organization of companies to build a
+line from the Missouri River to California and made grants of land and
+loans of money to aid in the enterprise. The Western end, the Central
+Pacific, was laid out under the supervision of Leland Stanford. It was
+heavily financed by the Mormons of Utah and also by the state
+government, the ranchmen, miners, and business men of California; and it
+was built principally by Chinese labor. The Eastern end, the Union
+Pacific, starting at Omaha, was constructed mainly by veterans of the
+Civil War and immigrants from Ireland and Germany. In 1869 the two
+companies met near Ogden in Utah and the driving of the last spike,
+uniting the Atlantic and the Pacific, was the occasion of a great
+demonstration.</p>
+
+<p>Other lines to the Pacific were projected at the same time; but the
+panic of 1873 checked railway enterprise for a while. With the revival
+of prosperity at the end of that decade, construction was renewed with
+vigor and the year 1883 marked a series of railway triumphs. In February
+trains were running from New Orleans through Houston, San Antonio, and
+Yuma to San Francisco, as a result of a union of the Texas Pacific with
+the Southern Pacific and its subsidiary corporations. In September the
+last spike was driven in the Northern Pacific at Helena, Montana. Lake
+Superior was connected with Puget Sound. The waters explored by Joliet
+and Marquette were joined to the waters plowed by Sir Francis Drake
+while he was searching for a route around the world. That same year also
+a third line was opened to the Pacific by way of the Atchison, Topeka
+and Santa F&eacute;, making connections through Albuquerque <a name="Page_427" id="Page_427"></a>and Needles with
+San Francisco. The fondest hopes of railway promoters seemed to be
+realized.</p>
+
+<div><a name="seventy" id="seventy" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/456.jpg"><img src="./images/456-tb.jpg" alt="United States in 1870" title="United States in 1870" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">United States in 1870</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Western Railways Precede Settlement.</b>&mdash;In the Old World and on our
+Atlantic seaboard, railways followed population and markets. In the Far
+West, railways usually preceded the people. Railway builders planned
+cities on paper before they laid tracks connecting them. They sent
+missionaries to spread the gospel of "Western opportunity" to people in
+the Middle West, in the Eastern cities, and in Southern states. Then
+they carried their enthusiastic converts bag and baggage in long trains
+to the distant Dakotas and still farther afield. So the development of
+the Far West was not left to the tedious processes of time. It was
+pushed by men of imagination&mdash;adventurers who made a romance of
+money-making and who had dreams of empire unequaled by many kings of the
+past.</p>
+
+<p>These empire builders bought railway lands in huge tracts; they got more
+from the government; they overcame every obstacle of ca&ntilde;on, mountain,
+and stream with the aid of science; they built cities according to the
+plans made by the engineers. Having the towns ready and railway and
+steamboat connections formed with the rest of the world, they carried
+out the people to use the railways, the steamships, the houses, and the
+land. It was in this way that "the frontier speculator paved the way for
+the frontier agriculturalist who had to be near a market before he could
+farm." The spirit of this imaginative enterprise, which laid out
+railways and towns in advance of the people, is seen in an advertisement
+of that day: "This extension will run 42 miles from York, northeast
+through the Island Lake country, and will have five good North Dakota
+towns. The stations on the line will be well equipped with elevators and
+will be constructed and ready for operation at the commencement of the
+grain season. Prospective merchants have been active in securing
+desirable locations at the different towns on the line. There are still
+opportunities for hotels, general merchandise, hardware, furniture, and
+drug stores, etc."</p>
+
+<div><a name="prairie" id="prairie" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/458.jpg"><img src="./images/458-tb.jpg" alt="A Town on the Prairie" title="A Town on the Prairie" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">A Town on the Prairie</span></div>
+
+<p>Among the railway promoters and builders in the West, James<a name="Page_428" id="Page_428"></a><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429"></a> J. Hill,
+of the Great Northern and allied lines, was one of the most forceful
+figures. He knew that tracks and trains were useless without passengers
+and freight; without a population of farmers and town dwellers. He
+therefore organized publicity in the Virginias, Iowa, Ohio, Indiana,
+Illinois, Wisconsin, and Nebraska especially. He sent out agents to tell
+the story of Western opportunity in this vein: "You see your children
+come out of school with no chance to get farms of their own because the
+cost of land in your older part of the country is so high that you can't
+afford to buy land to start your sons out in life around you. They have
+to go to the cities to make a living or become laborers in the mills or
+hire out as farm hands. There is no future for them there. If you are
+doing well where you are and can safeguard the future of your children
+and see them prosper around you, don't leave here. But if you want
+independence, if you are renting your land, if the money-lender is
+carrying you along and you are running behind year after year, you can
+do no worse by moving.... You farmers talk of free trade and protection
+and what this or that political party will do for you. Why don't you
+vote a homestead for yourself? That is the only thing Uncle Sam will
+ever give you. Jim Hill hasn't an acre of land to sell you. We are not
+in the real estate business. We don't want you to go out West and make a
+failure of it because the rates at which we haul you and your goods make
+the first transaction a loss.... We must have landless men for a manless
+land."</p>
+
+<p>Unlike steamship companies stimulating immigration to get the fares,
+Hill was seeking permanent settlers who would produce, manufacture, and
+use the railways as the means of exchange. Consequently he fixed low
+rates and let his passengers take a good deal of live stock and
+household furniture free. By doing this he made an appeal that was
+answered by eager families. In 1894 the vanguard of home seekers left
+Indiana in fourteen passenger coaches, filled with men, women, and
+children, and forty-eight freight cars carrying their household goods
+and live stock. In the ten years that followed,<a name="Page_430" id="Page_430"></a> 100,000 people from the
+Middle West and the South, responding to his call, went to the Western
+country where they brought eight million acres of prairie land under
+cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>When Hill got his people on the land, he took an interest in everything
+that increased the productivity of their labor. Was the output of food
+for his freight cars limited by bad drainage on the farms? Hill then
+interested himself in practical ways of ditching and tiling. Were
+farmers hampered in hauling their goods to his trains by bad roads? In
+that case, he urged upon the states the improvement of highways. Did the
+traffic slacken because the food shipped was not of the best quality?
+Then live stock must be improved and scientific farming promoted. Did
+the farmers need credit? Banks must be established close at hand to
+advance it. In all conferences on scientific farm management,
+conservation of natural resources, banking and credit in relation to
+agriculture and industry, Hill was an active participant. His was the
+long vision, seeing in conservation and permanent improvements the
+foundation of prosperity for the railways and the people.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, he neglected no opportunity to increase the traffic on the
+lines. He wanted no empty cars running in either direction and no wheat
+stored in warehouses for the lack of markets. So he looked to the Orient
+as well as to Europe as an outlet for the surplus of the farms. He sent
+agents to China and Japan to discover what American goods and produce
+those countries would consume and what manufactures they had to offer to
+Americans in exchange. To open the Pacific trade he bought two ocean
+monsters, the <i>Minnesota</i> and the <i>Dakota</i>, thus preparing for
+emergencies West as well as East. When some Japanese came to the United
+States on their way to Europe to buy steel rails, Hill showed them how
+easy it was for them to make their purchase in this country and ship by
+way of American railways and American vessels. So the railway builder
+and promoter, who helped to break the virgin soil of the prairies, lived
+through the pioneer epoch and into the age of great finance. Before he
+died he saw the wheat fields of North Dakota linked <a name="Page_431" id="Page_431"></a>with the spinning
+jennies of Manchester and the docks of Yokohama.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Evolution of Grazing and Agriculture</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Removal of the Indians.</b>&mdash;Unlike the frontier of New England in
+colonial days or that of Kentucky later, the advancing lines of home
+builders in the Far West had little difficulty with warlike natives.
+Indian attacks were made on the railway construction gangs; General
+Custer had his fatal battle with the Sioux in 1876 and there were minor
+brushes; but they were all of relatively slight consequence. The former
+practice of treating with the Indians as independent nations was
+abandoned in 1871 and most of them were concentrated in reservations
+where they were mainly supported by the government. The supervision of
+their affairs was vested in a board of commissioners created in 1869 and
+instructed to treat them as wards of the nation&mdash;a trust which
+unfortunately was often betrayed. A further step in Indian policy was
+taken in 1887 when provision was made for issuing lands to individual
+Indians, thus permitting them to become citizens and settle down among
+their white neighbors as farmers or cattle raisers. The disappearance of
+the buffalo, the main food supply of the wild Indians, had made them
+more tractable and more willing to surrender the freedom of the hunter
+for the routine of the reservation, ranch, or wheat field.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Cowboy and Cattle Ranger.</b>&mdash;Between the frontier of farms and the
+mountains were plains and semi-arid regions in vast reaches suitable for
+grazing. As soon as the railways were open into the Missouri Valley,
+affording an outlet for stock, there sprang up to the westward cattle
+and sheep raising on an immense scale. The far-famed American cowboy was
+the hero in this scene. Great herds of cattle were bred in Texas; with
+the advancing spring and summer seasons, they were driven northward
+across the plains and over the buffalo trails. In a single year, 1884,
+it is estimated that nearly one million head of cattle were moved out of
+Texas to the North <a name="Page_432" id="Page_432"></a>by four thousand cowboys, supplied with 30,000
+horses and ponies.</p>
+
+<p>During the two decades from 1870 to 1890 both the cattle men and the
+sheep raisers had an almost free run of the plains, using public lands
+without paying for the privilege and waging war on one another over the
+possession of ranges. At length, however, both had to go, as the
+homesteaders and land companies came and fenced in the plain and desert
+with endless lines of barbed wire. Already in 1893 a writer familiar
+with the frontier lamented the passing of the picturesque days: "The
+unique position of the cowboys among the Americans is jeopardized in a
+thousand ways. Towns are growing up on their pasture lands; irrigation
+schemes of a dozen sorts threaten to turn bunch-grass scenery into
+farm-land views; farmers are pre-empting valleys and the sides of
+waterways; and the day is not far distant when stock-raising must be
+done mainly in small herds, with winter corrals, and then the cowboy's
+days will end. Even now his condition disappoints those who knew him
+only half a dozen years ago. His breed seems to have deteriorated and
+his ranks are filling with men who work for wages rather than for the
+love of the free life and bold companionship that once tempted men into
+that calling. Splendid Cheyenne saddles are less and less numerous in
+the outfits; the distinctive hat that made its way up from Mexico may or
+may not be worn; all the civil authorities in nearly all towns in the
+grazing country forbid the wearing of side arms; nobody shoots up these
+towns any more. The fact is the old simon-pure cowboy days are gone
+already."</p>
+
+<p><b>Settlement under the Homestead Act of 1862.</b>&mdash;Two factors gave a
+special stimulus to the rapid settlement of Western lands which swept
+away the Indians and the cattle rangers. The first was the policy of the
+railway companies in selling large blocks of land received from the
+government at low prices to induce immigration. The second was the
+operation of the Homestead law passed in 1862. This measure practically
+closed the long controversy over the disposition of the public <a name="Page_433" id="Page_433"></a>domain
+that was suitable for agriculture. It provided for granting, without any
+cost save a small registration fee, public lands in lots of 160 acres
+each to citizens and aliens who declared their intention of becoming
+citizens. The one important condition attached was that the settler
+should occupy the farm for five years before his title was finally
+confirmed. Even this stipulation was waived in the case of the Civil War
+veterans who were allowed to count their term of military service as a
+part of the five years' occupancy required. As the soldiers of the
+Revolutionary and Mexican wars had advanced in great numbers to the
+frontier in earlier days, so now veterans led in the settlement of the
+middle border. Along with them went thousands of German, Irish, and
+Scandinavian immigrants, fresh from the Old World. Between 1867 and
+1874, 27,000,000 acres were staked out in quarter-section farms. In
+twenty years (1860-80), the population of Nebraska leaped from 28,000 to
+almost half a million; Kansas from 100,000 to a million; Iowa from
+600,000 to 1,600,000; and the Dakotas from 5000 to 140,000.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Diversity of Western Agriculture.</b>&mdash;In soil, produce, and
+management, Western agriculture presented many contrasts to that of the
+East and South. In the region of arable and watered lands the typical
+American unit&mdash;the small farm tilled by the owner&mdash;appeared as usual;
+but by the side of it many a huge domain owned by foreign or Eastern
+companies and tilled by hired labor. Sometimes the great estate took the
+shape of the "bonanza farm" devoted mainly to wheat and corn and
+cultivated on a large scale by machinery. Again it assumed the form of
+the cattle ranch embracing tens of thousands of acres. Again it was a
+vast holding of diversified interest, such as the Santa Anita ranch near
+Los Angeles, a domain of 60,000 acres "cultivated in a glorious sweep of
+vineyards and orange and olive orchards, rich sheep and cattle pastures
+and horse ranches, their life and customs handed down from the Spanish
+owners of the various ranches which were swept into one estate."<a name="Page_434" id="Page_434"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Irrigation.</b>&mdash;In one respect agriculture in the Far West was unique. In
+a large area spreading through eight states, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming,
+Utah, Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of adjoining
+states, the rainfall was so slight that the ordinary crops to which the
+American farmer was accustomed could not be grown at all. The Mormons
+were the first Anglo-Saxons to encounter aridity, and they were baffled
+at first; but they studied it and mastered it by magnificent irrigation
+systems. As other settlers poured into the West the problem of the
+desert was attacked with a will, some of them replying to the
+commiseration of Eastern farmers by saying that it was easier to scoop
+out an irrigation ditch than to cut forests and wrestle with stumps and
+stones. Private companies bought immense areas at low prices, built
+irrigation works, and disposed of their lands in small plots. Some
+ranchers with an instinct for water, like that of the miner for metal,
+sank wells into the dry sand and were rewarded with gushers that "soused
+the thirsty desert and turned its good-for-nothing sand into
+good-for-anything loam." The federal government came to the aid of the
+arid regions in 1894 by granting lands to the states to be used for
+irrigation purposes. In this work Wyoming took the lead with a law which
+induced capitalists to invest in irrigation and at the same time
+provided for the sale of the redeemed lands to actual settlers. Finally
+in 1902 the federal government by its liberal Reclamation Act added its
+strength to that of individuals, companies, and states in conquering
+"arid America."</p>
+
+<p>"Nowhere," writes Powell, a historian of the West, in his picturesque
+<i>End of the Trail</i>, "has the white man fought a more courageous fight or
+won a more brilliant victory than in Arizona. His weapons have been the
+transit and the level, the drill and the dredge, the pick and the spade;
+and the enemy which he has conquered has been the most stubborn of all
+foes&mdash;the hostile forces of Nature.... The story of how the white man
+within the space of less than thirty years penetrated, explored, and
+mapped this almost unknown region; of how he <a name="Page_435" id="Page_435"></a>carried law, order, and
+justice into a section which had never had so much as a speaking
+acquaintance with any one of the three before; of how, realizing the
+necessity for means of communication, he built highways of steel across
+this territory from east to west and from north to south; of how,
+undismayed by the savageness of the countenance which the desert turned
+upon him, he laughed and rolled up his sleeves, and spat upon his hands,
+and slashed the face of the desert with canals and irrigating ditches,
+and filled those ditches with water brought from deep in the earth or
+high in the mountains; and of how, in the conquered and submissive soil,
+he replaced the aloe with alfalfa, the mesquite with maize, the cactus
+with cotton, forms one of the most inspiring chapters in our history. It
+is one of the epics of civilization, this reclamation of the Southwest,
+and its heroes, thank God, are Americans.</p>
+
+<p>"Other desert regions have been redeemed by irrigation&mdash;Egypt, for
+example, and Mesopotamia and parts of the Sudan&mdash;but the people of all
+those regions lay stretched out in the shade of a convenient palm,
+metaphorically speaking, and waited for some one with more energy than
+themselves to come along and do the work. But the Arizonians, mindful of
+the fact that God, the government, and Carnegie help those who help
+themselves, spent their days wielding the pick and shovel, and their
+evenings in writing letters to Washington with toil-hardened hands.
+After a time the government was prodded into action and the great dams
+at Laguna and Roosevelt are the result. Then the people, organizing
+themselves into co&ouml;perative leagues and water-users' associations, took
+up the work of reclamation where the government left off; it is to these
+energetic, persevering men who have drilled wells, plowed fields, and
+dug ditches through the length and breadth of that great region which
+stretches from Yuma to Tucson, that the metamorphosis of Arizona is
+due."</p>
+
+<p>The effect of irrigation wherever introduced was amazing. Stretches of
+sand and sagebrush gave way to fertile fields bearing crops of wheat,
+corn, fruits, vegetables, and grass. Huge <a name="Page_436" id="Page_436"></a>ranches grazed by browsing
+sheep were broken up into small plots. The cowboy and ranchman vanished.
+In their place rose the prosperous community&mdash;a community unlike the
+township of Iowa or the industrial center of the East. Its intensive
+tillage left little room for hired labor. Its small holdings drew
+families together in village life rather than dispersing them on the
+lonely plain. Often the development of water power in connection with
+irrigation afforded electricity for labor-saving devices and lifted many
+a burden that in other days fell heavily upon the shoulders of the
+farmer and his family.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Mining and Manufacturing in the West</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Mineral Resources.</b>&mdash;In another important particular the Far West
+differed from the Mississippi Valley states. That was in the
+predominance of mining over agriculture throughout a vast section.
+Indeed it was the minerals rather than the land that attracted the
+pioneers who first opened the country. The discovery of gold in
+California in 1848 was the signal for the great rush of prospectors,
+miners, and promoters who explored the valleys, climbed the hills,
+washed the sands, and dug up the soil in their feverish search for gold,
+silver, copper, coal, and other minerals. In Nevada and Montana the
+development of mineral resources went on all during the Civil War. Alder
+Gulch became Virginia City in 1863; Last Chance Gulch was named Helena
+in 1864; and Confederate Gulch was christened Diamond City in 1865. At
+Butte the miners began operations in 1864 and within five years had
+washed out eight million dollars' worth of gold. Under the gold they
+found silver; under silver they found copper.</p>
+
+<p>Even at the end of the nineteenth century, after agriculture was well
+advanced and stock and sheep raising introduced on a large scale,
+minerals continued to be the chief source of wealth in a number of
+states. This was revealed by the figures for 1910. The gold, silver,
+iron, and copper of Colorado were worth more than the wheat, corn, and
+oats combined; the <a name="Page_437" id="Page_437"></a>copper of Montana sold for more than all the cereals
+and four times the price of the wheat. The interest of Nevada was also
+mainly mining, the receipts from the mineral output being $43,000,000 or
+more than one-half the national debt of Hamilton's day. The yield of the
+mines of Utah was worth four or five times the wheat crop; the coal of
+Wyoming brought twice as much as the great wool clip; the minerals of
+Arizona were totaled at $43,000,000 as against a wool clip reckoned at
+$1,200,000; while in Idaho alone of this group of states did the wheat
+crop exceed in value the output of the mines.</p>
+
+<div><a name="logging" id="logging" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/467.jpg"><img src="./images/467-tb.jpg" alt="Logging" title="Logging" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Logging</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Timber Resources.</b>&mdash;The forests of the great West, unlike those of the
+Ohio Valley, proved a boon to the pioneers rather than a foe to be
+attacked. In Ohio and Indiana, for example, the frontier line of
+homemakers had to cut, roll, and burn thousands of trees before they
+could put out a crop of any size.<a name="Page_438" id="Page_438"></a> Beyond the Mississippi, however,
+there were all ready for the breaking plow great reaches of almost
+treeless prairie, where every stick of timber was precious. In the other
+parts, often rough and mountainous, where stood primeval forests of the
+finest woods, the railroads made good use of the timber. They consumed
+acres of forests themselves in making ties, bridge timbers, and
+telegraph poles, and they laid a heavy tribute upon the forests for
+their annual upkeep. The surplus trees, such as had burdened the
+pioneers of the Northwest Territory a hundred years before, they carried
+off to markets on the east and west coasts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Western Industries.</b>&mdash;The peculiar conditions of the Far West
+stimulated a rise of industries more rapid than is usual in new country.
+The mining activities which in many sections preceded agriculture called
+for sawmills to furnish timber for the mines and smelters to reduce and
+refine ores. The ranches supplied sheep and cattle for the packing
+houses of Kansas City as well as Chicago. The waters of the Northwest
+afforded salmon for 4000 cases in 1866 and for 1,400,000 cases in 1916.
+The fruits and vegetables of California brought into existence
+innumerable canneries. The lumber industry, starting with crude sawmills
+to furnish rough timbers for railways and mines, ended in specialized
+factories for paper, boxes, and furniture. As the railways preceded
+settlement and furnished a ready outlet for local manufactures, so they
+encouraged the early establishment of varied industries, thus creating a
+state of affairs quite unlike that which obtained in the Ohio Valley in
+the early days before the opening of the Erie Canal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Social Effects of Economic Activities.</b>&mdash;In many respects the social
+life of the Far West also differed from that of the Ohio Valley. The
+treeless prairies, though open to homesteads, favored the great estate
+tilled in part by tenant labor and in part by migratory seasonal labor,
+summoned from all sections of the country for the harvests. The mineral
+resources created hundreds of huge fortunes which made the accumulations
+of eastern mercantile families look trivial by comparison. Other
+<a name="Page_439" id="Page_439"></a>millionaires won their fortunes in the railway business and still more
+from the cattle and sheep ranges. In many sections the "cattle king," as
+he was called, was as dominant as the planter had been in the old South.
+Everywhere in the grazing country he was a conspicuous and important
+person. He "sometimes invested money in banks, in railroad stocks, or in
+city property.... He had his rating in the commercial reviews and could
+hobnob with bankers, railroad presidents, and metropolitan merchants....
+He attended party caucuses and conventions, ran for the state
+legislature, and sometimes defeated a lawyer or metropolitan 'business
+man' in the race for a seat in Congress. In proportion to their numbers,
+the ranchers ... have constituted a highly impressive class."</p>
+
+<p>Although many of the early capitalists of the great West, especially
+from Nevada, spent their money principally in the East, others took
+leadership in promoting the sections in which they had made their
+fortunes. A railroad pioneer, General Palmer, built his home at Colorado
+Springs, founded the town, and encouraged local improvements. Denver
+owed its first impressive buildings to the civic patriotism of Horace
+Tabor, a wealthy mine owner. Leland Stanford paid his tribute to
+California in the endowment of a large university. Colonel W.F. Cody,
+better known as "Buffalo Bill," started his career by building a "boom
+town" which collapsed, and made a large sum of money supplying buffalo
+meat to construction hands (hence his popular name). By his famous Wild
+West Show, he increased it to a fortune which he devoted mainly to the
+promotion of a western reclamation scheme.</p>
+
+<p>While the Far West was developing this vigorous, aggressive leadership
+in business, a considerable industrial population was springing up. Even
+the cattle ranges and hundreds of farms were conducted like factories in
+that they were managed through overseers who hired plowmen, harvesters,
+and cattlemen at regular wages. At the same time there appeared other
+peculiar features which made a lasting impression on western economic
+life. Mining, lumbering, and fruit growing, for instance, em<a name="Page_440" id="Page_440"></a>ployed
+thousands of workers during the rush months and turned them out at other
+times. The inevitable result was an army of migratory laborers wandering
+from camp to camp, from town to town, and from ranch to ranch, without
+fixed homes or established habits of life. From this extraordinary
+condition there issued many a long and lawless conflict between capital
+and labor, giving a distinct color to the labor movement in whole
+sections of the mountain and coast states.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Admission of New States</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Spirit of Self-Government.</b>&mdash;The instinct of self-government was
+strong in the western communities. In the very beginning, it led to the
+organization of volunteer committees, known as "vigilantes," to suppress
+crime and punish criminals. As soon as enough people were settled
+permanently in a region, they took care to form a more stable kind of
+government. An illustration of this process is found in the Oregon
+compact made by the pioneers in 1843, the spirit of which is reflected
+in an editorial in an old copy of the <i>Rocky Mountain News</i>: "We claim
+that any body or community of American citizens which from any cause or
+under any circumstances is cut off from or from isolation is so situated
+as not to be under any active and protecting branch of the central
+government, have a right, if on American soil, to frame a government and
+enact such laws and regulations as may be necessary for their own
+safety, protection, and happiness, always with the condition precedent,
+that they shall, at the earliest moment when the central government
+shall extend an effective organization and laws over them, give it their
+unqualified support and obedience."</p>
+
+<p>People who turned so naturally to the organization of local
+administration were equally eager for admission to the union as soon as
+any shadow of a claim to statehood could be advanced. As long as a
+region was merely one of the territories of the United States, the
+appointment of the governor and other officers was controlled by
+politics at Washington.<a name="Page_441" id="Page_441"></a> Moreover the disposition of land, mineral
+rights, forests, and water power was also in the hands of national
+leaders. Thus practical considerations were united with the spirit of
+independence in the quest for local autonomy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nebraska and Colorado.</b>&mdash;Two states, Nebraska and Colorado, had little
+difficulty in securing admission to the union. The first, Nebraska, had
+been organized as a territory by the famous Kansas-Nebraska bill which
+did so much to precipitate the Civil War. Lying to the north of Kansas,
+which had been admitted in 1861, it escaped the invasion of slave owners
+from Missouri and was settled mainly by farmers from the North. Though
+it claimed a population of only 67,000, it was regarded with kindly
+interest by the Republican Congress at Washington and, reduced to its
+present boundaries, it received the coveted statehood in 1867.</p>
+
+<p>This was hardly accomplished before the people of Colorado to the
+southwest began to make known their demands. They had been organized
+under territorial government in 1861 when they numbered only a handful;
+but within ten years the aspect of their affairs had completely changed.
+The silver and gold deposits of the Leadville and Cripple Creek regions
+had attracted an army of miners and prospectors. The city of Denver,
+founded in 1858 and named after the governor of Kansas whence came many
+of the early settlers, had grown from a straggling camp of log huts into
+a prosperous center of trade. By 1875 it was reckoned that the
+population of the territory was not less than one hundred thousand; the
+following year Congress, yielding to the popular appeal, made Colorado a
+member of the American union.</p>
+
+<p><b>Six New States (1889-1890).</b>&mdash;For many years there was a deadlock in
+Congress over the admission of new states. The spell was broken in 1889
+under the leadership of the Dakotas. For a long time the Dakota
+territory, organized in 1861, had been looked upon as the home of the
+powerful Sioux Indians whose enormous reservation blocked the advance of
+the frontier. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills, however, marked
+<a name="Page_442" id="Page_442"></a>their doom. Even before Congress could open their lands to prospectors,
+pioneers were swarming over the country. Farmers from the adjoining
+Minnesota and the Eastern states, Scandinavians, Germans, and Canadians,
+came in swelling waves to occupy the fertile Dakota lands, now famous
+even as far away as the fjords of Norway. Seldom had the plow of man cut
+through richer soil than was found in the bottoms of the Red River
+Valley, and it became all the more precious when the opening of the
+Northern Pacific in 1883 afforded a means of transportation east and
+west. The population, which had numbered 135,000 in 1880, passed the
+half million mark before ten years had elapsed.</p>
+
+<p>Remembering that Nebraska had been admitted with only 67,000
+inhabitants, the Dakotans could not see why they should be kept under
+federal tutelage. At the same time Washington, far away on the Pacific
+Coast, Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming, boasting of their populations and
+their riches, put in their own eloquent pleas. But the members of
+Congress were busy with politics. The Democrats saw no good reason for
+admitting new Republican states until after their defeat in 1888. Near
+the end of their term the next year they opened the door for North and
+South Dakota, Washington, and Montana. In 1890, a Republican Congress
+brought Idaho and Wyoming into the union, the latter with woman
+suffrage, which had been granted twenty-one years before.</p>
+
+<p><b>Utah.</b>&mdash;Although Utah had long presented all the elements of a
+well-settled and industrious community, its admission to the union was
+delayed on account of popular hostility to the practice of polygamy. The
+custom, it is true, had been prohibited by act of Congress in 1862; but
+the law had been systematically evaded. In 1882 Congress made another
+and more effective effort to stamp out polygamy. Five years later it
+even went so far as to authorize the confiscation of the property of the
+Mormon Church in case the practice of plural marriages was not stopped.
+Meanwhile the Gentile or non-Mormon population was steadily increasing
+and the leaders in <a name="Page_443" id="Page_443"></a>the Church became convinced that the battle
+against the sentiment of the country was futile. At last in 1896 Utah
+was admitted as a state under a constitution which forbade plural
+marriages absolutely and forever. Horace Greeley, who visited Utah in
+1859, had prophesied that the Pacific Railroad would work a revolution
+in the land of Brigham Young. His prophecy had come true.</p>
+
+<div><a name="twelve" id="twelve" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/474.jpg"><img src="./images/474-tb.jpg" alt="The United States in 1912" title="The United States in 1912" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The United States in 1912</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Rounding out the Continent.</b>&mdash;Three more territories now remained out
+of the Union. Oklahoma, long an Indian reservation, had been opened for
+settlement to white men in 1889. The rush upon the fertile lands of this
+region, the last in the history of America, was marked by all the frenzy
+of the final, desperate chance. At a signal from a bugle an army of men
+with families in wagons, men and women on horseback and on foot, burst
+into the territory. During the first night a city of tents was raised at
+Guthrie and Oklahoma City. In ten days wooden houses rose on the plains.
+In a single year there were schools, churches, business blocks, and
+newspapers. Within fifteen years there was a population of more than
+half a million. To the west, Arizona with a population of about 125,000
+and New Mexico with 200,000 inhabitants joined Oklahoma in asking for
+statehood. Congress, then Republican, looked with reluctance upon the
+addition of more Democratic states; but in 1907 it was literally
+compelled by public sentiment and a sense of justice to admit Oklahoma.
+In 1910 the House of Representatives went to the Democrats and within
+two years Arizona and New Mexico were "under the roof." So the
+continental domain was rounded out.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Influence of the Far West on National Life</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Last of the Frontier.</b>&mdash;When Horace Greeley made his trip west in
+1859 he thus recorded the progress of civilization in his journal:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"May 12th, Chicago.&mdash;Chocolate and morning journals last
+seen on the hotel breakfast table.<a name="Page_444" id="Page_444"></a></p>
+
+<p>23rd, Leavenworth (Kansas).&mdash;Room bells and bath tubs make
+their final appearance.</p>
+
+<p>26th, Manhattan.&mdash;Potatoes and eggs last recognized among
+the blessings that 'brighten as they take their flight.'</p>
+
+<p>27th, Junction City.&mdash;Last visitation of a boot-black, with
+dissolving views of a board bedroom. Beds bid us good-by."</p></div>
+
+<div><a name="canadian" id="canadian" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/476.jpg"><img src="./images/476-tb.jpg" alt="The Canadian Building at the Panama-California International Exposition, San Diego, 1915" title="The Canadian Building at the Panama-California International Exposition, San Diego, 1915" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Panama-California Exposition</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">The Canadian Building at the Panama-California International Exposition, San Diego, 1915</span></div>
+
+<p>Within thirty years travelers were riding across that country in Pullman
+cars and enjoying at the hotels all the comforts of a standardized
+civilization. The "wild west" was gone, <a name="Page_445" id="Page_445"></a>and with it that frontier of
+pioneers and settlers who had long given such a bent and tone to
+American life and had "poured in upon the floor of Congress" such a long
+line of "backwoods politicians," as they were scornfully styled.</p>
+
+<p><b>Free Land and Eastern Labor.</b>&mdash;It was not only the picturesque features
+of the frontier that were gone. Of far more consequence was the
+disappearance of free lands with all that meant for American labor. For
+more than a hundred years, any man of even moderate means had been able
+to secure a homestead of his own and an independent livelihood. For a
+hundred years America had been able to supply farms to as many
+immigrants as cared to till the soil. Every new pair of strong arms
+meant more farms and more wealth. Workmen in Eastern factories, mines,
+or mills who did not like their hours, wages, or conditions of labor,
+could readily find an outlet to the land. Now all that was over. By
+about 1890 most of the desirable land available under the Homestead act
+had disappeared. American industrial workers confronted a new situation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Grain Supplants King Cotton.</b>&mdash;In the meantime a revolution was taking
+place in agriculture. Until 1860 the chief staples sold by America were
+cotton and tobacco. With the advance of the frontier, corn and wheat
+supplanted them both in agrarian economy. The West became the granary of
+the East and of Western Europe. The scoop shovel once used to handle
+grain was superseded by the towering elevator, loading and unloading
+thousands of bushels every hour. The refrigerator car and ship made the
+packing industry as stable as the production of cotton or corn, and gave
+an immense impetus to cattle raising and sheep farming. So the meat of
+the West took its place on the English dinner table by the side of bread
+baked from Dakotan wheat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aid in American Economic Independence.</b>&mdash;The effects of this economic
+movement were manifold and striking. Billions of dollars' worth of
+American grain, dairy produce, and meat were poured into European
+markets where they paid <a name="Page_446" id="Page_446"></a>off debts due money lenders and acquired
+capital to develop American resources. Thus they accelerated the
+progress of American financiers toward national independence. The
+country, which had timidly turned to the Old World for capital in
+Hamilton's day and had borrowed at high rates of interest in London in
+Lincoln's day, moved swiftly toward the time when it would be among the
+world's first bankers and money lenders itself. Every grain of wheat and
+corn pulled the balance down on the American side of the scale.</p>
+
+<p><b>Eastern Agriculture Affected.</b>&mdash;In the East as well as abroad the
+opening of the western granary produced momentous results. The
+agricultural economy of that part of the country was changed in many
+respects. Whole sections of the poorest land went almost out of
+cultivation, the abandoned farms of the New England hills bearing solemn
+witness to the competing power of western wheat fields. Sheep and cattle
+raising, as well as wheat and corn production, suffered at least a
+relative decline. Thousands of farmers cultivating land of the lower
+grade were forced to go West or were driven to the margin of
+subsistence. Even the herds that supplied Eastern cities with milk were
+fed upon grain brought halfway across the continent.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Expansion of the American Market.</b>&mdash;Upon industry as well as
+agriculture, the opening of vast food-producing regions told in a
+thousand ways. The demand for farm machinery, clothing, boots, shoes,
+and other manufactures gave to American industries such a market as even
+Hamilton had never foreseen. Moreover it helped to expand far into the
+Mississippi Valley the industrial area once confined to the Northern
+seaboard states and to transform the region of the Great Lakes into an
+industrial empire. Herein lies the explanation of the growth of
+mid-western cities after 1865. Chicago, with its thirty-five railways,
+tapped every locality of the West and South. To the railways were added
+the water routes of the Lakes, thus creating a strategic center for
+industries. Long foresight carried the McCormick reaper works <a name="Page_447" id="Page_447"></a>to
+Chicago before 1860. From Troy, New York, went a large stove plant. That
+was followed by a shoe factory from Massachusetts. The packing industry
+rose as a matter of course at a point so advantageous for cattle raisers
+and shippers and so well connected with Eastern markets.</p>
+
+<p>To the opening of the Far West also the Lake region was indebted for a
+large part of that water-borne traffic which made it "the Mediterranean
+basin of North America." The produce of the West and the manufactures of
+the East poured through it in an endless stream. The swift growth of
+shipbuilding on the Great Lakes helped to compensate for the decline of
+the American marine on the high seas. In response to this stimulus
+Detroit could boast that her shipwrights were able to turn out a ten
+thousand ton Leviathan for ore or grain about "as quickly as carpenters
+could put up an eight-room house." Thus in relation to the Far West the
+old Northwest territory&mdash;the wilderness of Jefferson's time&mdash;had taken
+the position formerly occupied by New England alone. It was supplying
+capital and manufactures for a vast agricultural empire West and South.</p>
+
+<p><b>America on the Pacific.</b>&mdash;It has been said that the Mediterranean Sea
+was the center of ancient civilization; that modern civilization has
+developed on the shores of the Atlantic; and that the future belongs to
+the Pacific. At any rate, the sweep of the United States to the shores
+of the Pacific quickly exercised a powerful influence on world affairs
+and it undoubtedly has a still greater significance for the future.</p>
+
+<p>Very early regular traffic sprang up between the Pacific ports and the
+Hawaiian Islands, China, and Japan. Two years before the adjustment of
+the Oregon controversy with England, namely in 1844, the United States
+had established official and trading relations with China. Ten years
+later, four years after the admission of California to the union, the
+barred door of Japan was forced open by Commodore Perry. The commerce
+which had long before developed between the Pacific ports and Hawaii,
+China, and Japan now flourished under <a name="Page_448" id="Page_448"></a>official care. In 1865 a ship
+from Honolulu carried sugar, molasses, and fruits from Hawaii to the
+Oregon port of Astoria. The next year a vessel from Hongkong brought
+rice, mats, and tea from China. An era of lucrative trade was opened.
+The annexation of Hawaii in 1898, the addition of the Philippines at the
+same time, and the participation of American troops in the suppression
+of the Boxer rebellion in Peking in 1900, were but signs and symbols of
+American power on the Pacific.</p>
+
+<div><a name="commodore" id="commodore" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="./images/480.jpg" alt="Commodore Perry's Men Making Presents to the Japanese" title="Commodore Perry's Men Making Presents to the Japanese" /></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>From an old print</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Commodore Perry's Men Making Presents to the Japanese</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Conservation and the Land Problem.</b>&mdash;The disappearance of the frontier
+also brought new and serious problems to the governments of the states
+and the nation. The people of the whole United States suddenly were
+forced to realize that there was a limit to the rich, new land to
+exploit and to the forests and minerals awaiting the ax and the pick.
+Then arose in<a name="Page_449" id="Page_449"></a> America the questions which had long perplexed the
+countries of the Old World&mdash;the scientific use of the soils and
+conservation of natural resources. Hitherto the government had followed
+the easy path of giving away arable land and selling forest and mineral
+lands at low prices. Now it had to face far more difficult and complex
+problems. It also had to consider questions of land tenure again,
+especially if the ideal of a nation of home-owning farmers was to be
+maintained. While there was plenty of land for every man or woman who
+wanted a home on the soil, it made little difference if single landlords
+or companies got possession of millions of acres, if a hundred men in
+one western river valley owned 17,000,000 acres; but when the good land
+for small homesteads was all gone, then was raised the real issue. At
+the opening of the twentieth century the nation, which a hundred years
+before had land and natural resources apparently without limit, was
+compelled to enact law after law conserving its forests and minerals.
+Then it was that the great state of California, on the very border of
+the continent, felt constrained to enact a land settlement measure
+providing government assistance in an effort to break up large holdings
+into small lots and to make it easy for actual settlers to acquire small
+farms. America was passing into a new epoch.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>Henry Inman, <i>The Old Santa F&eacute; Trail</i>.</p>
+
+<p>R.I. Dodge, <i>The Plains of the Great West</i> (1877).</p>
+
+<p>C.H. Shinn, <i>The Story of the Mine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Cy Warman, <i>The Story of the Railroad</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Emerson Hough, <i>The Story of the Cowboy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H.H. Bancroft is the author of many works on the West but his writings
+will be found only in the larger libraries.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph Schafer, <i>History of the Pacific Northwest</i> (ed. 1918).</p>
+
+<p>T.H. Hittel, <i>History of California</i> (4 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>W.H. Olin, <i>American Irrigation Farming</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.E. Smythe, <i>The Conquest of Arid America</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H.A. Millis, <i>The American-Japanese Problem</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.S. Meany, <i>History of the State of Washington</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H.K. Norton, <i>The Story of California</i>.<a name="Page_450" id="Page_450"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Name the states west of the Mississippi in 1865.</p>
+
+<p>2. In what manner was the rest of the western region governed?</p>
+
+<p>3. How far had settlement been carried?</p>
+
+<p>4. What were the striking physical features of the West?</p>
+
+<p>5. How was settlement promoted after 1865?</p>
+
+<p>6. Why was admission to the union so eagerly sought?</p>
+
+<p>7. Explain how politics became involved in the creation of new states.</p>
+
+<p>8. Did the West rapidly become like the older sections of the country?</p>
+
+<p>9. What economic peculiarities did it retain or develop?</p>
+
+<p>10. How did the federal government aid in western agriculture?</p>
+
+<p>11. How did the development of the West affect the East? The South?</p>
+
+<p>12. What relation did the opening of the great grain areas of the West
+bear to the growth of America's commercial and financial power?</p>
+
+<p>13. State some of the new problems of the West.</p>
+
+<p>14. Discuss the significance of American expansion to the Pacific Ocean.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Passing of the Wild West.</b>&mdash;Haworth, <i>The United States in Our Own
+Times</i>, pp. 100-124.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Indian Question.</b>&mdash;Sparks, <i>National Development</i> (American Nation
+Series), pp. 265-281.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Chinese Question.</b>&mdash;Sparks, <i>National Development</i>, pp. 229-250;
+Rhodes, <i>History of the United States</i>, Vol. VIII, pp. 180-196.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Railway Age.</b>&mdash;Schafer, <i>History of the Pacific Northwest</i>, pp.
+230-245; E.V. Smalley, <i>The Northern Pacific Railroad</i>; Paxson, <i>The New
+Nation</i> (Riverside Series), pp. 20-26, especially the map on p. 23, and
+pp. 142-148.</p>
+
+<p><b>Agriculture and Business.</b>&mdash;Schafer, <i>Pacific Northwest</i>, pp. 246-289.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ranching in the Northwest.</b>&mdash;Theodore Roosevelt, <i>Ranch Life</i>, and
+<i>Autobiography</i>, pp. 103-143.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Conquest of the Desert.</b>&mdash;W.E. Smythe, <i>The Conquest of Arid
+America</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Studies of Individual Western States.</b>&mdash;Consult any good encyclopedia.<a name="Page_451" id="Page_451"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h3>DOMESTIC ISSUES BEFORE THE COUNTRY (1865-1897)</h3>
+
+
+<p>For thirty years after the Civil War the leading political parties,
+although they engaged in heated presidential campaigns, were not sharply
+and clearly opposed on many matters of vital significance. During none
+of that time was there a clash of opinion over specific issues such as
+rent the country in 1800 when Jefferson rode a popular wave to victory,
+or again in 1828 when Jackson's western hordes came sweeping into power.
+The Democrats, who before 1860 definitely opposed protective tariffs,
+federal banking, internal improvements, and heavy taxes, now spoke
+cautiously on all these points. The Republicans, conscious of the fact
+that they had been a minority of the voters in 1860 and warned by the
+early loss of the House of Representatives in 1874, also moved with
+considerable prudence among the perplexing problems of the day. Again
+and again the votes in Congress showed that no clear line separated all
+the Democrats from all the Republicans. There were Republicans who
+favored tariff reductions and "cheap money." There were Democrats who
+looked with partiality upon high protection or with indulgence upon the
+contraction of the currency. Only on matters relating to the coercion of
+the South was the division between the parties fairly definite; this
+could be readily accounted for on practical as well as sentimental
+grounds.</p>
+
+<p>After all, the vague criticisms and proposals that found their way into
+the political platforms did but reflect the confusion of mind prevailing
+in the country. The fact that, out of the eighteen years between 1875
+and 1893, the Democrats held the House of Representatives for fourteen
+years while the<a name="Page_452" id="Page_452"></a> Republicans had every President but one showed that the
+voters, like the politicians, were in a state of indecision. Hayes had a
+Democratic House during his entire term and a Democratic Senate for two
+years of the four. Cleveland was confronted by a belligerent Republican
+majority in the Senate during his first administration; and at the same
+time was supported by a Democratic majority in the House. Harrison was
+sustained by continuous Republican successes in Senatorial elections;
+but in the House he had the barest majority from 1889 to 1891 and lost
+that altogether at the election held in the middle of his term. The
+opinion of the country was evidently unsettled and fluctuating. It was
+still distracted by memories of the dead past and uncertain as to the
+trend of the future.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Currency Question</span></h3>
+
+<p>Nevertheless these years of muddled politics and nebulous issues proved
+to be a period in which social forces were gathering for the great
+campaign of 1896. Except for three new features&mdash;the railways, the
+trusts, and the trade unions&mdash;the subjects of debate among the people
+were the same as those that had engaged their attention since the
+foundation of the republic: the currency, the national debt, banking,
+the tariff, and taxation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Debtors and the Fall in Prices.</b>&mdash;For many reasons the currency
+question occupied the center of interest. As of old, the farmers and
+planters of the West and South were heavily in debt to the East for
+borrowed money secured by farm mortgages; and they counted upon the sale
+of cotton, corn, wheat, and hogs to meet interest and principal when
+due. During the war, the Western farmers had been able to dispose of
+their produce at high prices and thus discharge their debts with
+comparative ease; but after the war prices declined. Wheat that sold at
+two dollars a bushel in 1865 brought sixty-four cents twenty years
+later. The meaning of this for the farmers in debt&mdash;and nearly
+three-fourths of them were in <a name="Page_453" id="Page_453"></a>that class&mdash;can be shown by a single
+illustration. A thousand-dollar mortgage on a Western farm could be paid
+off by five hundred bushels of wheat when prices were high; whereas it
+took about fifteen hundred bushels to pay the same debt when wheat was
+at the bottom of the scale. For the farmer, it must be remembered, wheat
+was the measure of his labor, the product of his toil under the summer
+sun; and in its price he found the test of his prosperity.</p>
+
+<p><b>Creditors and Falling Prices.</b>&mdash;To the bondholders or creditors, on the
+other hand, falling prices were clear gain. If a fifty-dollar coupon on
+a bond bought seventy or eighty bushels of wheat instead of twenty or
+thirty, the advantage to the owner of the coupon was obvious. Moreover
+the advantage seemed to him entirely just. Creditors had suffered heavy
+losses when the Civil War carried prices skyward while the interest
+rates on their old bonds remained stationary. For example, if a man had
+a $1000 bond issued before 1860 and paying interest at five per cent, he
+received fifty dollars a year from it. Before the war each dollar would
+buy a bushel of wheat; in 1865 it would only buy half a bushel. When
+prices&mdash;that is, the cost of living&mdash;began to go down, creditors
+therefore generally regarded the change with satisfaction as a return to
+normal conditions.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Cause of Falling Prices.</b>&mdash;The fall in prices was due, no doubt, to
+many factors. Among them must be reckoned the discontinuance of
+government buying for war purposes, labor-saving farm machinery,
+immigration, and the opening of new wheat-growing regions. The currency,
+too, was an element in the situation. Whatever the cause, the
+discontented farmers believed that the way to raise prices was to issue
+more money. They viewed it as a case of supply and demand. If there was
+a small volume of currency in circulation, prices would be low; if there
+was a large volume, prices would be high. Hence they looked with favor
+upon all plans to increase the amount of money in circulation. First
+they advocated more paper notes&mdash;greenbacks&mdash;and then they turned to
+silver <a name="Page_454" id="Page_454"></a>as the remedy. The creditors, on the other hand, naturally
+approved the reduction of the volume of currency. They wished to see the
+greenbacks withdrawn from circulation and gold&mdash;a metal more limited in
+volume than silver&mdash;made the sole basis of the national monetary system.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Battle over the Greenbacks.</b>&mdash;The contest between these factions
+began as early as 1866. In that year, Congress enacted a law authorizing
+the Treasury to withdraw the greenbacks from circulation. The paper
+money party set up a shrill cry of protest, and kept up the fight until,
+in 1878, it forced Congress to provide for the continuous re-issue of
+the legal tender notes as they came into the Treasury in payment of
+taxes and other dues. Then could the friends of easy money rejoice:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Thou, Greenback">
+<tr><td align='left'><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Thou, Greenback, 'tis of thee<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Fair money of the free,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Of thee we sing."<br /></span>
+</div></div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>Resumption of Specie Payment.</b>&mdash;There was, however, another side to
+this victory. The opponents of the greenbacks, unable to stop the
+circulation of paper, induced Congress to pass a law in 1875 providing
+that on and after January 1, 1879, "the Secretary of the Treasury shall
+redeem in coin the United States legal tender notes then outstanding on
+their presentation at the office of the Assistant Treasurer of the
+United States in the City of New York in sums of not less than fifty
+dollars." "The way to resume," John Sherman had said, "is to resume."
+When the hour for redemption arrived, the Treasury was prepared with a
+large hoard of gold. "On the appointed day," wrote the assistant
+secretary, "anxiety reigned in the office of the Treasury. Hour after
+hour passed; no news from New York. Inquiry by wire showed that all was
+quiet. At the close of the day this message came: '$135,000 of notes
+presented for coin&mdash;$400,000 of gold for notes.' That was all.
+Resumption was accomplished with no disturbance. By five o'clock the
+news was all over the land, and the New York bankers were sipping their
+tea in absolute safety."<a name="Page_455" id="Page_455"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Specie Problem&mdash;the Parity of Gold and Silver.</b>&mdash;Defeated in their
+efforts to stop "the present suicidal and destructive policy of
+contraction," the advocates of an abundant currency demanded an increase
+in the volume of silver in circulation. This precipitated one of the
+sharpest political battles in American history. The issue turned on
+legal as well as economic points. The Constitution gave Congress the
+power to coin money and it forbade the states to make anything but gold
+and silver legal tender in the payment of debts. It evidently
+contemplated the use of both metals in the currency system. Such, at
+least, was the view of many eminent statesmen, including no less a
+personage than James G. Blaine. The difficulty, however, lay in
+maintaining gold and silver coins on a level which would permit them to
+circulate with equal facility. Obviously, if the gold in a gold dollar
+exceeds the value of the silver in a silver dollar on the open market,
+men will hoard gold money and leave silver money in circulation. When,
+for example, Congress in 1792 fixed the ratio of the two metals at one
+to fifteen&mdash;one ounce of gold declared worth fifteen of silver&mdash;it was
+soon found that gold had been undervalued. When again in 1834 the ratio
+was put at one to sixteen, it was found that silver was undervalued.
+Consequently the latter metal was not brought in for coinage and silver
+almost dropped out of circulation. Many a silver dollar was melted down
+by silverware factories.</p>
+
+<p><b>Silver Demonetized in 1873.</b>&mdash;So things stood in 1873. At that time,
+Congress, in enacting a mintage law, discontinued the coinage of the
+standard silver dollar, then practically out of circulation. This act
+was denounced later by the friends of silver as "the crime of '73," a
+conspiracy devised by the money power and secretly carried out. This
+contention the debates in Congress do not seem to sustain. In the course
+of the argument on the mint law it was distinctly said by one speaker at
+least: "This bill provides for the making of changes in the legal tender
+coin of the country and for substituting as legal tender, coin of only
+one metal instead of two as heretofore."<a name="Page_456" id="Page_456"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Decline in the Value of Silver.</b>&mdash;Absorbed in the greenback
+controversy, the people apparently did not appreciate, at the time, the
+significance of the "demonetization" of silver; but within a few years
+several events united in making it the center of a political storm.
+Germany, having abandoned silver in 1871, steadily increased her demand
+for gold. Three years later, the countries of the Latin Union followed
+this example, thus helping to enhance the price of the yellow metal. All
+the while, new silver lodes, discovered in the Far West, were pouring
+into the market great streams of the white metal, bearing down the
+price. Then came the resumption of specie payment, which, in effect,
+placed the paper money on a gold basis. Within twenty years silver was
+worth in gold only about half the price of 1870.</p>
+
+<p>That there had been a real decline in silver was denied by the friends
+of that metal. They alleged that gold had gone up because it had been
+given a monopoly in the coinage markets of civilized governments. This
+monopoly, they continued, was the fruit of a conspiracy against the
+people conceived by the bankers of the world. Moreover, they went on,
+the placing of the greenbacks on a gold basis had itself worked a
+contraction of the currency; it lowered the prices of labor and produce
+to the advantage of the holders of long-term investments bearing a fixed
+rate of interest. When wheat sold at sixty-four cents a bushel, their
+search for relief became desperate, and they at last concentrated their
+efforts on opening the mints of the government for the free coinage of
+silver at the ratio of sixteen to one.</p>
+
+<p><b>Republicans and Democrats Divided.</b>&mdash;On this question both Republicans
+and Democrats were divided, the line being drawn between the East on the
+one hand and the South and West on the other, rather than between the
+two leading parties. So trusted a leader as James G. Blaine avowed, in a
+speech delivered in the Senate in 1878, that, as the Constitution
+required Congress to make both gold and silver the money of the land,
+the only question left was that of fixing the ratio between <a name="Page_457" id="Page_457"></a>them. He
+affirmed, moreover, the main contention of the silver faction that a
+reopening of the government mints of the world to silver would bring it
+up to its old relation with gold. He admitted also that their most
+ominous warnings were well founded, saying: "I believe the struggle now
+going on in this country and in other countries for a single gold
+standard would, if successful, produce widespread disaster throughout
+the commercial world. The destruction of silver as money and the
+establishment of gold as the sole unit of value must have a ruinous
+effect on all forms of property, except those investments which yield a
+fixed return."</p>
+
+<p>This was exactly the concession that the silver party wanted.
+"Three-fourths of the business enterprises of this country are conducted
+on borrowed capital," said Senator Jones, of Nevada. "Three-fourths of
+the homes and farms that stand in the names of the actual occupants have
+been bought on time and a very large proportion of them are mortgaged
+for the payment of some part of the purchase money. Under the operation
+of a shrinkage in the volume of money, this enormous mass of borrowers,
+at the maturity of their respective debts, though nominally paying no
+more than the amount borrowed, with interest, are in reality, in the
+amount of the principal alone, returning a percentage of value greater
+than they received&mdash;more in equity than they contracted to pay.... In
+all discussions of the subject the creditors attempt to brush aside the
+equities involved by sneering at the debtors."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Silver Purchase Act (1878).</b>&mdash;Even before the actual resumption of
+specie payment, the advocates of free silver were a power to be reckoned
+with, particularly in the Democratic party. They had a majority in the
+House of Representatives in 1878 and they carried a silver bill through
+that chamber. Blocked by the Republican Senate they accepted a
+compromise in the Bland-Allison bill, which provided for huge monthly
+purchases of silver by the government for coinage into dollars. So
+strong was the sentiment that a two-thirds majority was mustered after
+President Hayes vetoed the measure.<a name="Page_458" id="Page_458"></a></p>
+
+<p>The effect of this act, as some had anticipated, was disappointing. It
+did not stay silver on its downward course. Thereupon the silver faction
+pressed through Congress in 1886 a bill providing for the issue of paper
+certificates based on the silver accumulated in the Treasury. Still
+silver continued to fall. Then the advocates of inflation declared that
+they would be content with nothing short of free coinage at the ratio of
+sixteen to one. If the issue had been squarely presented in 1890, there
+is good reason for believing that free silver would have received a
+majority in both houses of Congress; but it was not presented.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sherman Silver Purchase Act and the Bond Sales.</b>&mdash;Republican
+leaders, particularly from the East, stemmed the silver tide by a
+diversion of forces. They passed the Sherman Act of 1890 providing for
+large monthly purchases of silver and for the issue of notes redeemable
+in gold or silver at the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury. In
+a clause of superb ambiguity they announced that it was "the established
+policy of the United States to maintain the two metals on a parity with
+each other upon the present legal ratio or such other ratio as may be
+provided by law." For a while silver was buoyed up. Then it turned once
+more on its downward course. In the meantime the Treasury was in a sad
+plight. To maintain the gold reserve, President Cleveland felt compelled
+to sell government bonds; and to his dismay he found that as soon as the
+gold was brought in at the front door of the Treasury, notes were
+presented for redemption and the gold was quickly carried out at the
+back door. Alarmed at the vicious circle thus created, he urged upon
+Congress the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. For this he was
+roundly condemned by many of his own followers who branded his conduct
+as "treason to the party"; but the Republicans, especially from the
+East, came to his rescue and in 1893 swept the troublesome sections of
+the law from the statute book. The anger of the silver faction knew no
+bounds, and the leaders made ready for the approaching presidential
+campaign.<a name="Page_459" id="Page_459"></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Protective Tariff and Taxation</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Fluctuation in Tariff Policy.</b>&mdash;As each of the old parties was divided
+on the currency question, it is not surprising that there was some
+confusion in their ranks over the tariff. Like the silver issue, the
+tariff tended to align the manufacturing East against the agricultural
+West and South rather than to cut directly between the two parties.
+Still the Republicans on the whole stood firmly by the rates imposed
+during the Civil War. If we except the reductions of 1872 which were
+soon offset by increases, we may say that those rates were substantially
+unchanged for nearly twenty years. When a revision was brought about,
+however, it was initiated by Republican leaders. Seeing a huge surplus
+of revenue in the Treasury in 1883, they anticipated popular clamor by
+revising the tariff on the theory that it ought to be reformed by its
+friends rather than by its enemies. On the other hand, it was the
+Republicans also who enacted the McKinley tariff bill of 1890, which
+carried protection to its highest point up to that time.</p>
+
+<p>The Democrats on their part were not all confirmed free traders or even
+advocates of tariff for revenue only. In Cleveland's first
+administration they did attack the protective system in the House, where
+they had a majority, and in this they were vigorously supported by the
+President. The assault, however, proved to be a futile gesture for it
+was blocked by the Republicans in the Senate. When, after the sweeping
+victory of 1892, the Democrats in the House again attempted to bring
+down the tariff by the Wilson bill of 1894, they were checkmated by
+their own party colleagues in the upper chamber. In the end they were
+driven into a compromise that looked more like a McKinley than a Calhoun
+tariff. The Republicans taunted them with being "babes in the woods."
+President Cleveland was so dissatisfied with the bill that he refused to
+sign it, allowing it to become a law, on the lapse of ten days, without
+his approval.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Income Tax of 1894.</b>&mdash;The advocates of tariff reduction usually
+associated with their proposal a tax on incomes. The <a name="Page_460" id="Page_460"></a>argument which
+they advanced in support of their program was simple. Most of the
+industries, they said, are in the East and the protective tariff which
+taxes consumers for the benefit of manufacturers is, in effect, a
+tribute laid upon the rest of the country. As an offset they offered a
+tax on large incomes; this owing to the heavy concentration of rich
+people in the East, would fall mainly upon the beneficiaries of
+protection. "We propose," said one of them, "to place a part of the
+burden upon the accumulated wealth of the country instead of placing it
+all upon the consumption of the people." In this spirit the sponsors of
+the Wilson tariff bill laid a tax upon all incomes of $4000 a year or
+more.</p>
+
+<p>In taking this step, the Democrats encountered opposition in their own
+party. Senator Hill, of New York, turned fiercely upon them, exclaiming:
+"The professors with their books, the socialists with their schemes, the
+anarchists with their bombs are all instructing the people in the ...
+principles of taxation." Even the Eastern Republicans were hardly as
+savage in their denunciation of the tax. But all this labor was wasted.
+The next year the Supreme Court of the United States declared the income
+tax to be a direct tax, and therefore null and void because it was laid
+on incomes wherever found and not apportioned among the states according
+to population. The fact that four of the nine judges dissented from this
+decision was also an index to the diversity of opinion that divided both
+parties.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Railways and Trusts</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Grangers and State Regulation.</b>&mdash;The same uncertainty about the
+railways and trusts pervaded the ranks of the Republicans and Democrats.
+As to the railways, the first firm and consistent demand for their
+regulation came from the West. There the farmers, in the early
+seventies, having got control in state legislatures, particularly in
+Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois, enacted drastic laws prescribing the
+maximum charges which companies could make for carrying freight and
+passengers. The <a name="Page_461" id="Page_461"></a>application of these measures, however, was limited
+because the state could not fix the rates for transporting goods and
+passengers beyond its own borders. The power of regulating interstate
+commerce, under the Constitution, belonged to Congress.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.</b>&mdash;Within a few years, the movement
+which had been so effective in western legislatures appeared at
+Washington in the form of demands for the federal regulation of
+interstate rates. In 1887, the pressure became so strong that Congress
+created the interstate commerce commission and forbade many abuses on
+the part of railways; such as discriminating in charges between one
+shipper and another and granting secret rebates to favored persons. This
+law was a significant beginning; but it left the main question of
+rate-fixing untouched, much to the discontent of farmers and shippers.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sherman Anti-Trust Law of 1890.</b>&mdash;As in the case of the railways,
+attacks upon the trusts were first made in state legislatures, where it
+became the fashion to provide severe penalties for those who formed
+monopolies and "conspired to enhance prices." Republicans and Democrats
+united in the promotion of measures of this kind. As in the case of the
+railways also, the movement to curb the trusts soon had spokesmen at
+Washington. Though Blaine had declared that "trusts were largely a
+private affair with which neither the President nor any private citizen
+had any particular right to interfere," it was a Republican Congress
+that enacted in 1890 the first measure&mdash;the Sherman Anti-Trust
+Law&mdash;directed against great combinations in business. This act declared
+illegal "every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise,
+or conspiracy in restraint of trade and commerce among the several
+states or with foreign nations."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Futility of the Anti-Trust Law.</b>&mdash;Whether the Sherman law was
+directed against all combinations or merely those which placed an
+"unreasonable restraint" on trade and competition was not apparent.
+Senator Platt of Connecticut, a careful statesman of the old school,
+averred: "The questions of whether <a name="Page_462" id="Page_462"></a>the bill would be operative, of how
+it would operate, or whether it was within the power of Congress to
+enact it, have been whistled down the wind in this Senate as idle talk
+and the whole effort has been to get some bill headed: 'A bill to punish
+trusts,' with which to go to the country." Whatever its purpose, its
+effect upon existing trusts and upon the formation of new combinations
+was negligible. It was practically unenforced by President Harrison and
+President Cleveland, in spite of the constant demand for harsh action
+against "monopolies." It was patent that neither the Republicans nor the
+Democrats were prepared for a war on the trusts to the bitter end.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Minor Parties and Unrest</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Demands of Dissenting Parties.</b>&mdash;From the election of 1872, when
+Horace Greeley made his ill-fated excursion into politics, onward, there
+appeared in each presidential campaign one, and sometimes two or more
+parties, stressing issues that appealed mainly to wage-earners and
+farmers. Whether they chose to call themselves Labor Reformers,
+Greenbackers, or Anti-monopolists, their slogans and their platforms all
+pointed in one direction. Even the Prohibitionists, who in 1872 started
+on their career with a single issue, the abolition of the liquor
+traffic, found themselves making declarations of faith on other matters
+and hopelessly split over the money question in 1896.</p>
+
+<p>A composite view of the platforms put forth by the dissenting parties
+from the administration of Grant to the close of Cleveland's second term
+reveals certain notions common to them all. These included among many
+others: the earliest possible payment of the national debt; regulation
+of the rates of railways and telegraph companies; repeal of the specie
+resumption act of 1875; the issue of legal tender notes by the
+government convertible into interest-bearing obligations on demand;
+unlimited coinage of silver as well as gold; a graduated inheritance
+tax; legislation to take from "land, railroad, money, and other gigantic
+corporate monopolies ... the powers they have so corruptly and unjustly
+usurped"; popular or direct election <a name="Page_463" id="Page_463"></a>of United States Senators; woman
+suffrage; and a graduated income tax, "placing the burden of government
+on those who can best afford to pay instead of laying it on the farmers
+and producers."</p>
+
+<p><b>Criticism of the Old Parties.</b>&mdash;To this long program of measures the
+reformers added harsh and acrid criticism of the old parties and
+sometimes, it must be said, of established institutions of government.
+"We denounce," exclaimed the Labor party in 1888, "the Democratic and
+Republican parties as hopelessly and shamelessly corrupt and by reason
+of their affiliation with monopolies equally unworthy of the suffrages
+of those who do not live upon public plunder." "The United States
+Senate," insisted the Greenbackers, "is a body composed largely of
+aristocratic millionaires who according to their own party papers
+generally purchased their elections in order to protect the great
+monopolies which they represent." Indeed, if their platforms are to be
+accepted at face value, the Greenbackers believed that the entire
+government had passed out of the hands of the people.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Grangers.</b>&mdash;This unsparing, not to say revolutionary, criticism of
+American political life, appealed, it seems, mainly to farmers in the
+Middle West. Always active in politics, they had, before the Civil War,
+cast their lot as a rule with one or the other of the leading parties.
+In 1867, however, there grew up among them an association known as the
+"Patrons of Husbandry," which was destined to play a large r&ocirc;le in the
+partisan contests of the succeeding decades. This society, which
+organized local lodges or "granges" on principles of secrecy and
+fraternity, was originally designed to promote in a general way the
+interests of the farmers. Its political bearings were apparently not
+grasped at first by its promoters. Yet, appealing as it did to the most
+active and independent spirits among the farmers and gathering to itself
+the strength that always comes from organization, it soon found itself
+in the hands of leaders more or less involved in politics. Where a few
+votes are marshaled together in a democracy, there is power.<a name="Page_464" id="Page_464"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Greenback Party.</b>&mdash;The first extensive activity of the Grangers was
+connected with the attack on the railways in the Middle West which
+forced several state legislatures to reduce freight and passenger rates
+by law. At the same time, some leaders in the movement, no doubt
+emboldened by this success, launched in 1876 a new political party,
+popularly known as the Greenbackers, favoring a continued re-issue of
+the legal tenders. The beginnings were disappointing; but two years
+later, in the congressional elections, the Greenbackers swept whole
+sections of the country. Their candidates polled more than a million
+votes and fourteen of them were returned to the House of
+Representatives. To all outward signs a new and formidable party had
+entered the lists.</p>
+
+<p>The sanguine hopes of the leaders proved to be illusory. The quiet
+operations of the resumption act the following year, a revival of
+industry from a severe panic which had set in during 1873, the Silver
+Purchase Act, and the re-issue of Greenbacks cut away some of the
+grounds of agitation. There was also a diversion of forces to the silver
+faction which had a substantial support in the silver mine owners of the
+West. At all events the Greenback vote fell to about 300,000 in the
+election of 1880. A still greater drop came four years later and the
+party gave up the ghost, its sponsors returning to their former
+allegiance or sulking in their tents.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Rise of the Populist Party.</b>&mdash;Those leaders of the old parties who
+now looked for a happy future unvexed by new factions were doomed to
+disappointment. The funeral of the Greenback party was hardly over
+before there arose two other political specters in the agrarian
+sections: the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union,
+particularly strong in the South and West; and the Farmers' Alliance,
+operating in the North. By 1890 the two orders claimed over three
+million members. As in the case of the Grangers many years before, the
+leaders among them found an easy way into politics. In 1892 they held a
+convention, nominated a candidate for President, and adopted the name of
+"People's Party," from which they were known <a name="Page_465" id="Page_465"></a>as Populists. Their
+platform, in every line, breathed a spirit of radicalism. They declared
+that "the newspapers are largely subsidized or muzzled; public opinion
+silenced; business prostrate; our homes covered with mortgages; and the
+land concentrating in the hands of capitalists.... The fruits of the
+toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a
+few." Having delivered this sweeping indictment, the Populists put
+forward their remedies: the free coinage of silver, a graduated income
+tax, postal savings banks, and government ownership of railways and
+telegraphs. At the same time they approved the initiative, referendum,
+and popular election of Senators, and condemned the use of federal
+troops in labor disputes. On this platform, the Populists polled over a
+million votes, captured twenty-two presidential electors, and sent a
+powerful delegation to Congress.</p>
+
+<p><b>Industrial Distress Augments Unrest.</b>&mdash;The four years intervening
+between the campaign of 1892 and the next presidential election brought
+forth many events which aggravated the ill-feeling expressed in the
+portentous platform of Populism. Cleveland, a consistent enemy of free
+silver, gave his powerful support to the gold standard and insisted on
+the repeal of the Silver Purchase Act, thus alienating an increasing
+number of his own party. In 1893 a grave industrial crisis fell upon the
+land: banks and business houses went into bankruptcy with startling
+rapidity; factories were closed; idle men thronged the streets hunting
+for work; and the prices of wheat and corn dropped to a ruinous level.
+Labor disputes also filled the crowded record. A strike at the Pullman
+car works in Chicago spread to the railways. Disorders ensued. President
+Cleveland, against the protests of the governor of Illinois, John P.
+Altgeld, dispatched troops to the scene of action. The United States
+district court at Chicago issued an injunction forbidding the president
+of the Railway Union, Eugene V. Debs, or his assistants to interfere
+with the transmission of the mails or interstate commerce in any form.
+For refusing to obey the order, Debs was arrested and imprisoned. With
+federal troops in <a name="Page_466" id="Page_466"></a>possession of the field, with their leader in jail,
+the strikers gave up the battle, defeated but not subdued. To cap the
+climax the Supreme Court of the United States, the following year (1895)
+declared null and void the income tax law just enacted by Congress, thus
+fanning the flames of Populist discontent all over the West and South.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Sound Money Battle of 1896</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Conservative Men Alarmed.</b>&mdash;Men of conservative thought and leaning in
+both parties were by this time thoroughly disturbed. They looked upon
+the rise of Populism and the growth of labor disputes as the signs of a
+revolutionary spirit, indeed nothing short of a menace to American
+institutions and ideals. The income tax law of 1894, exclaimed the
+distinguished New York advocate, Joseph H. Choate, in an impassioned
+speech before the Supreme Court, "is communistic in its purposes and
+tendencies and is defended here upon principles as communistic,
+socialistic&mdash;what shall I call them&mdash;populistic as ever have been
+addressed to any political assembly in the world." Mr. Justice Field in
+the name of the Court replied: "The present assault upon capital is but
+the beginning. It will be but the stepping stone to others larger and
+more sweeping till our political conditions will become a war of the
+poor against the rich." In declaring the income tax unconstitutional, he
+believed that he was but averting greater evils lurking under its guise.
+As for free silver, nearly all conservative men were united in calling
+it a measure of confiscation and repudiation; an effort of the debtors
+to pay their obligations with money worth fifty cents on the dollar; the
+climax of villainies openly defended; a challenge to law, order, and
+honor.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Republicans Come Out for the Gold Standard.</b>&mdash;It was among the
+Republicans that this opinion was most widely shared and firmly held. It
+was they who picked up the gauge thrown down by the Populists, though a
+host of Democrats, like Cleveland and Hill of New York, also battled
+against the growing Populist defection in Democratic ranks. When the
+Republican <a name="Page_467" id="Page_467"></a>national convention assembled in 1896, the die was soon
+cast; a declaration of opposition to free silver save by international
+agreement was carried by a vote of eight to one. The Republican party,
+to use the vigorous language of Mr. Lodge, arrayed itself against "not
+only that organized failure, the Democratic party, but all the wandering
+forces of political chaos and social disorder ... in these bitter times
+when the forces of disorder are loose and the wreckers with their false
+lights gather at the shore to lure the ship of state upon the rocks."
+Yet it is due to historic truth to state that McKinley, whom the
+Republicans nominated, had voted in Congress for the free coinage of
+silver, was widely known as a bimetallist, and was only with difficulty
+persuaded to accept the unequivocal indorsement of the gold standard
+which was pressed upon him by his counselors. Having accepted it,
+however, he proved to be a valiant champion, though his major interest
+was undoubtedly in the protective tariff. To him nothing was more
+reprehensible than attempts "to array class against class, 'the classes
+against the masses,' section against section, labor against capital,
+'the poor against the rich,' or interest against interest." Such was the
+language of his acceptance speech. The whole program of Populism he now
+viewed as a "sudden, dangerous, and revolutionary assault upon law and
+order."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Democratic Convention at Chicago.</b>&mdash;Never, save at the great
+disruption on the eve of the Civil War, did a Democratic national
+convention display more feeling than at Chicago in 1896. From the
+opening prayer to the last motion before the house, every act, every
+speech, every scene, every resolution evoked passions and sowed
+dissensions. Departing from long party custom, it voted down in anger a
+proposal to praise the administration of the Democratic President,
+Cleveland. When the platform with its radical planks, including free
+silver, was reported, a veritable storm broke. Senator Hill, trembling
+with emotion, protested against the departure from old tests of
+Democratic allegiance; against principles that must drive out of the
+party men who had grown gray in its service; against <a name="Page_468" id="Page_468"></a>revolutionary,
+unwise, and unprecedented steps in the history of the party. Senator
+Vilas of Wisconsin, in great fervor, avowed that there was no difference
+in principle between the free coinage of silver&mdash;"the confiscation of
+one-half of the credits of the nation for the benefit of debtors"&mdash;and
+communism itself&mdash;"a universal distribution of property." In the triumph
+of that cause he saw the beginning of "the overthrow of all law, all
+justice, all security and repose in the social order."</p>
+
+<div><a name="bryan" id="bryan" /></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/121.jpg" alt="William J. Bryan in 1898" title="William J. Bryan in 1898" />
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">William J. Bryan in 1898</span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Crown of Thorns Speech.</b>&mdash;The champions of free silver replied in
+strident tones. They accused the gold advocates of being the aggressors
+who had assailed the labor and the homes of the people. William Jennings
+Bryan, of Nebraska, voiced their sentiments in a memorable oration. He
+declared that their cause "was as holy as the cause of liberty&mdash;the
+cause of humanity." He exclaimed that the contest was between the idle
+holders of idle capital and the toiling millions. Then he named those
+for whom he spoke&mdash;the wage-earner, the country lawyer, the small
+merchant, the farmer, and the miner. "The man who is employed for wages
+is as much a business man as his employer. The attorney in a country
+town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great
+metropolis. The merchant at the cross roads store is as much a business
+man as the merchant of New York. The farmer ... is as much a business
+<a name="Page_469" id="Page_469"></a>man as the man who goes upon the board of trade and bets upon the price
+of grain. The miners who go a thousand feet into the earth or climb two
+thousand feet upon the cliffs ... are as much business men as the few
+financial magnates who in a back room corner the money of the world....
+It is for these that we speak. We do not come as aggressors. Ours is not
+a war of conquest. We are fighting in defense of our homes, our
+families, and our posterity. We have petitioned and our petitions have
+been scorned. We have entreated and our entreaties have been
+disregarded. We have begged and they have mocked when our calamity came.
+We beg no longer; we entreat no more; we petition no more. We defy
+them.... We shall answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to
+them, 'You shall not press upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns.
+You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.'"</p>
+
+<p><b>Bryan Nominated.</b>&mdash;In all the history of national conventions never had
+an orator so completely swayed a multitude; not even Yancey in his
+memorable plea in the Charleston convention of 1860 when, with grave and
+moving eloquence, he espoused the Southern cause against the impending
+fates. The delegates, after cheering Mr. Bryan until they could cheer no
+more, tore the standards from the floor and gathered around the Nebraska
+delegation to renew the deafening applause. The platform as reported was
+carried by a vote of two to one and the young orator from the West,
+hailed as America's Tiberius Gracchus, was nominated as the Democratic
+candidate for President. The South and West had triumphed over the East.
+The division was sectional, admittedly sectional&mdash;the old combination of
+power which Calhoun had so anxiously labored to build up a century
+earlier. The Gold Democrats were repudiated in terms which were clear to
+all. A few, unable to endure the thought of voting the Republican
+ticket, held a convention at Indianapolis where, with the sanction of
+Cleveland, they nominated candidates of their own and endorsed the gold
+standard in a forlorn hope.<a name="Page_470" id="Page_470"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Democratic Platform.</b>&mdash;It was to the call from Chicago that the
+Democrats gave heed and the Republicans made answer. The platform on
+which Mr. Bryan stood, unlike most party manifestoes, was explicit in
+its language and its appeal. It denounced the practice of allowing
+national banks to issue notes intended to circulate as money on the
+ground that it was "in derogation of the Constitution," recalling
+Jackson's famous attack on the Bank in 1832. It declared that tariff
+duties should be laid "for the purpose of revenue"&mdash;Calhoun's doctrine.
+In demanding the free coinage of silver, it recurred to the practice
+abandoned in 1873. The income tax came next on the program. The platform
+alleged that the law of 1894, passed by a Democratic Congress, was "in
+strict pursuance of the uniform decisions of the Supreme Court for
+nearly a hundred years," and then hinted that the decision annulling the
+law might be reversed by the same body "as it may hereafter be
+constituted."</p>
+
+<p>The appeal to labor voiced by Mr. Bryan in his "crown of thorns" speech
+was reinforced in the platform. "As labor creates the wealth of the
+country," ran one plank, "we demand the passage of such laws as may be
+necessary to protect it in all its rights." Referring to the recent
+Pullman strike, the passions of which had not yet died away, the
+platform denounced "arbitrary interference by federal authorities in
+local affairs as a violation of the Constitution of the United States
+and a crime against free institutions." A special objection was lodged
+against "government by injunction as a new and highly dangerous form of
+oppression by which federal judges, in contempt of the laws of states
+and rights of citizens, become at once legislators, judges, and
+executioners." The remedy advanced was a federal law assuring trial by
+jury in all cases of contempt in labor disputes. Having made this
+declaration of faith, the Democrats, with Mr. Bryan at the head, raised
+their standard of battle.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Heated Campaign.</b>&mdash;The campaign which ensued outrivaled in the
+range of its educational activities and the bitter<a name="Page_471" id="Page_471"></a>ness of its tone all
+other political conflicts in American history, not excepting the fateful
+struggle of 1860. Immense sums of money were contributed to the funds of
+both parties. Railway, banking, and other corporations gave generously
+to the Republicans; the silver miners, less lavishly but with the same
+anxiety, supported the Democrats. The country was flooded with
+pamphlets, posters, and handbills. Every public forum, from the great
+auditoriums of the cities to the "red schoolhouses" on the countryside,
+was occupied by the opposing forces.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bryan took the stump himself, visiting all parts of the country in
+special trains and addressing literally millions of people in the open
+air. Mr. McKinley chose the older and more formal plan. He received
+delegations at his home in Canton and discussed the issues of the
+campaign from his front porch, leaving to an army of well-organized
+orators the task of reaching the people in their home towns. Parades,
+processions, and monster demonstrations filled the land with politics.
+Whole states were polled in advance by the Republicans and the doubtful
+voters personally visited by men equipped with arguments and literature.
+Manufacturers, frightened at the possibility of disordered public
+credit, announced that they would close their doors if the Democrats won
+the election. Men were dismissed from public and private places on
+account of their political views, one eminent college president being
+forced out for advocating free silver. The language employed by
+impassioned and embittered speakers on both sides roused the public to a
+state of frenzy, once more showing the lengths to which men could go in
+personal and political abuse.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Republican Victory.</b>&mdash;The verdict of the nation was decisive.
+McKinley received 271 of the 447 electoral votes, and 7,111,000 popular
+votes as against Bryan's 6,509,000. The congressional elections were
+equally positive although, on account of the composition of the Senate,
+the "hold-over" Democrats and Populists still enjoyed a power out of
+proportion to their strength as measured at the polls. Even as it was,
+the Republicans got full control of both houses&mdash;a dominion of the
+<a name="Page_472" id="Page_472"></a>entire government which they were to hold for fourteen years&mdash;until the
+second half of Mr. Taft's administration, when they lost possession of
+the House of Representatives. The yoke of indecision was broken. The
+party of sound finance and protective tariffs set out upon its lease of
+power with untroubled assurance.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Republican Measures and Results</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Gold Standard and the Tariff.</b>&mdash;Yet strange as it may seem, the
+Republicans did not at once enact legislation making the gold dollar the
+standard for the national currency. Not until 1900 did they take that
+positive step. In his first inaugural President McKinley, as if still
+uncertain in his own mind or fearing a revival of the contest just
+closed, placed the tariff, not the money question, in the forefront.
+"The people have decided," he said, "that such legislation should be had
+as will give ample protection and encouragement to the industries and
+development of our country." Protection for American industries,
+therefore, he urged, is the task before Congress. "With adequate revenue
+secured, but not until then, we can enter upon changes in our fiscal
+laws." As the Republicans had only forty-six of the ninety Senators, and
+at least four of them were known advocates of free silver, the
+discretion exercised by the President in selecting the tariff for
+congressional debate was the better part of valor.</p>
+
+<p>Congress gave heed to the warning. Under the direction of Nelson P.
+Dingley, whose name was given to the bill, a tariff measure levying the
+highest rates yet laid in the history of American imposts was prepared
+and driven through the House of Representatives. The opposition
+encountered in the Senate, especially from the West, was overcome by
+concessions in favor of that section; but the duties on sugar, tin,
+steel, lumber, hemp, and in fact all of the essential commodities
+handled by combinations and trusts, were materially raised.</p>
+
+<div><a name="mckinley" id="mckinley" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/505.jpg"><img src="./images/505-tb.jpg" alt="President McKinley and His Cabinet" title="President McKinley and His Cabinet" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">President McKinley and His Cabinet</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Growth of Combinations.</b>&mdash;The years that followed the enactment of the
+Dingley law were, whatever the cause, the <a name="Page_473" id="Page_473"></a><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474"></a>most prosperous the country
+had witnessed for many a decade. Industries of every kind were soon
+running full blast; labor was employed; commerce spread more swiftly
+than ever to the markets of the world. Coincident with this progress was
+the organization of the greatest combinations and trusts the world had
+yet seen. In 1899 the smelters formed a trust with a capital of
+$65,000,000; in the same year the Standard Oil Company with a capital of
+over one hundred millions took the place of the old trust; and the
+Copper Trust was incorporated under the laws of New Jersey, its par
+value capital being fixed shortly afterward at $175,000,000. A year
+later the National Sugar Refining Company, of New Jersey, started with a
+capital of $90,000,000, adopting the policy of issuing to the
+stockholders no public statement of its earnings or financial condition.
+Before another twelvemonth had elapsed all previous corporate financing
+was reduced to small proportions by the flotation of the United States
+Steel Corporation with a capital of more than a billion dollars, an
+enterprise set in motion by the famous Morgan banking house of New York.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly all these gigantic undertakings, the same great leaders in
+finance were more or less intimately associated. To use the language of
+an eminent authority: "They are all allied and intertwined by their
+various mutual interests. For instance, the Pennsylvania Railroad
+interests are on the one hand allied with the Vanderbilts and on the
+other with the Rockefellers. The Vanderbilts are closely allied with the
+Morgan group.... Viewed as a whole we find the dominating influences in
+the trusts to be made up of a network of large and small capitalists,
+many allied to one another by ties of more or less importance, but all
+being appendages to or parts of the greater groups which are themselves
+dependent on and allied with the two mammoth or Rockefeller and Morgan
+groups. These two mammoth groups jointly ... constitute the heart of the
+business and commercial life of the nation." Such was the picture of
+triumphant business enterprise drawn by a financier within a few years
+after the memorable campaign of 1896.<a name="Page_475" id="Page_475"></a></p>
+
+<p>America had become one of the first workshops of the world. It was, by
+virtue of the closely knit organization of its business and finance, one
+of the most powerful and energetic leaders in the struggle of the giants
+for the business of the earth. The capital of the Steel Corporation
+alone was more than ten times the total national debt which the apostles
+of calamity in the days of Washington and Hamilton declared the nation
+could never pay. American industry, filling domestic markets to
+overflowing, was ready for new worlds to conquer.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>F.W. Taussig, <i>Tariff History of the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.L. Laughlin, <i>Bimetallism in the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.B. Hepburn, <i>History of Coinage and Currency in the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.R.A. Seligman, <i>The Income Tax</i>.</p>
+
+<p>S.J. Buck, <i>The Granger Movement</i> (Harvard Studies).</p>
+
+<p>F.H. Dixon, <i>State Railroad Control</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H.R. Meyer, <i>Government Regulation of Railway Rates</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.Z. Ripley (editor), <i>Trusts, Pools, and Corporations</i>.</p>
+
+<p>R.T. Ely, <i>Monopolies and Trusts</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.B. Clark, <i>The Control of Trusts</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. What proof have we that the political parties were not clearly
+divided over issues between 1865 and 1896?</p>
+
+<p>2. Why is a fall in prices a loss to farmers and a gain to holders of
+fixed investments?</p>
+
+<p>3. Explain the theory that the quantity of money determines the prices
+of commodities.</p>
+
+<p>4. Why was it difficult, if not impossible, to keep gold and silver at a
+parity?</p>
+
+<p>5. What special conditions favored a fall in silver between 1870 and
+1896?</p>
+
+<p>6. Describe some of the measures taken to raise the value of silver.</p>
+
+<p>7. Explain the relation between the tariff and the income tax in 1894.</p>
+
+<p>8. How did it happen that the farmers led in regulating railway rates?</p>
+
+<p>9. Give the terms of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. What was its immediate
+effect?</p>
+
+<p>10. Name some of the minor parties. Enumerate the reforms they
+advocated.<a name="Page_476" id="Page_476"></a></p>
+
+<p>11. Describe briefly the experiments of the farmers in politics.</p>
+
+<p>12. How did industrial conditions increase unrest?</p>
+
+<p>13. Why were conservative men disturbed in the early nineties?</p>
+
+<p>14. Explain the Republican position in 1896.</p>
+
+<p>15. Give Mr. Bryan's doctrines in 1896. Enumerate the chief features of
+the Democratic platform.</p>
+
+<p>16. What were the leading measures adopted by the Republicans after
+their victory in 1896?</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Greenbacks and Resumption.</b>&mdash;Dewey, <i>Financial History of the United
+States</i> (6th ed.), Sections 122-125, 154, and 378; MacDonald,
+<i>Documentary Source Book of American History</i>, pp. 446, 566; Hart,
+<i>American History Told by Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 531-533; Rhodes,
+<i>History of the United States</i>, Vol. VIII, pp. 97-101.</p>
+
+<p><b>Demonetization and Coinage of Silver.</b>&mdash;Dewey, <i>Financial History</i>,
+Sections 170-173, 186, 189, 194; MacDonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>,
+pp. 174, 573, 593, 595; Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 529-531;
+Rhodes, <i>History</i>, Vol. VIII, pp. 93-97.</p>
+
+<p><b>Free Silver and the Campaign of 1896.</b>&mdash;Dewey, <i>National Problems</i>
+(American Nation Series), pp. 220-237, 314-328; Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>,
+Vol. IV, pp. 533-538.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tariff Revision.</b>&mdash;Dewey, <i>Financial History</i>, Sections 167, 180, 181,
+187, 192, 196; Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 518-525; Rhodes,
+<i>History</i>, Vol. VIII, pp. 168-179, 346-351, 418-422.</p>
+
+<p><b>Federal Regulation of Railways.</b>&mdash;Dewey, <i>National Problems</i>, pp.
+91-111; MacDonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>, pp. 581-590; Hart,
+<i>Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 521-523; Rhodes, <i>History</i>, Vol. VIII,
+pp. 288-292.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Rise and Regulation of Trusts.</b>&mdash;Dewey, <i>National Problems</i>, pp.
+188-202; MacDonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>, pp. 591-593.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Grangers and Populism.</b>&mdash;Paxson, <i>The New Nation</i> (Riverside
+Series), pp. 20-37, 177-191, 208-223.</p>
+
+<p><b>General Analysis of Domestic Problems.</b>&mdash;<i>Syllabus in History</i> (New
+York State, 1920), pp. 137-142.<a name="Page_477" id="Page_477"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h3>AMERICA A WORLD POWER (1865-1900)</h3>
+
+
+<p>It has now become a fashion, sanctioned by wide usage and by eminent
+historians, to speak of America, triumphant over Spain and possessed of
+new colonies, as entering the twentieth century in the r&ocirc;le of "a world
+power," for the first time. Perhaps at this late day, it is useless to
+protest against the currency of the idea. Nevertheless, the truth is
+that from the fateful moment in March, 1775, when Edmund Burke unfolded
+to his colleagues in the British Parliament the resources of an
+invincible America, down to the settlement at Versailles in 1919 closing
+the drama of the World War, this nation has been a world power,
+influencing by its example, by its institutions, by its wealth, trade,
+and arms the course of international affairs. And it should be said also
+that neither in the field of commercial enterprise nor in that of
+diplomacy has it been wanting in spirit or ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>When John Hay, Secretary of State, heard that an American citizen,
+Perdicaris, had been seized by Raisuli, a Moroccan bandit, in 1904, he
+wired his brusque message: "We want Perdicaris alive or Raisuli dead."
+This was but an echo of Commodore Decatur's equally characteristic
+answer, "Not a minute," given nearly a hundred years before to the
+pirates of Algiers begging for time to consider whether they would cease
+preying upon American merchantmen. Was it not as early as 1844 that the
+American commissioner, Caleb Cushing, taking advantage of the British
+Opium War on China, negotiated with the Celestial Empire a successful
+commercial treaty? Did he not then exultantly exclaim: "The laws of the
+Union follow its citizens and its banner protects them even within the
+domain of the Chinese Empire"? Was it not almost half a <a name="Page_478" id="Page_478"></a>century before
+the battle of Manila Bay in 1898, that Commodore Perry with an adequate
+naval force "gently coerced Japan into friendship with us," leading all
+the nations of the earth in the opening of that empire to the trade of
+the Occident? Nor is it inappropriate in this connection to recall the
+fact that the Monroe Doctrine celebrates in 1923 its hundredth
+<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'aniversary'">anniversary</ins>.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">American Foreign Relations (1865-98)</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>French Intrigues in Mexico Blocked.</b>&mdash;Between the war for the union and
+the war with Spain, the Department of State had many an occasion to
+present the rights of America among the powers of the world. Only a
+little while after the civil conflict came to a close, it was called
+upon to deal with a dangerous situation created in Mexico by the
+ambitions of Napoleon III. During the administration of Buchanan, Mexico
+had fallen into disorder through the strife of the Liberal and the
+Clerical parties; the President asked for authority to use American
+troops to bring to a peaceful haven "a wreck upon the ocean, drifting
+about as she is impelled by different factions." Our own domestic crisis
+then intervened.</p>
+
+<p>Observing the United States heavily involved in its own problems, the
+great powers, England, France, and Spain, decided in the autumn of 1861
+to take a hand themselves in restoring order in Mexico. They entered
+into an agreement to enforce the claims of their citizens against Mexico
+and to protect their subjects residing in that republic. They invited
+the United States to join them, and, on meeting a polite refusal, they
+prepared for a combined military and naval demonstration on their own
+account. In the midst of this action England and Spain, discovering the
+sinister purposes of Napoleon, withdrew their troops and left the field
+to him.</p>
+
+<p>The French Emperor, it was well known, looked with jealousy upon the
+growth of the United States and dreamed of establishing in the Western
+hemisphere an imperial power to offset the American republic.
+Intervention to collect debts was only a cloak for his deeper designs.
+Throwing off that guise in <a name="Page_479" id="Page_479"></a>due time, he made the Archduke Maximilian, a
+brother of the ruler of Austria, emperor in Mexico, and surrounded his
+throne by French soldiers, in spite of all protests.</p>
+
+<p>This insolent attack upon the Mexican republic, deeply resented in the
+United States, was allowed to drift in its course until 1865. At that
+juncture General Sheridan was dispatched to the Mexican border with a
+large armed force; General Grant urged the use of the American army to
+expel the French from this continent. The Secretary of State, Seward,
+counseled negotiation first, and, applying the Monroe Doctrine, was able
+to prevail upon Napoleon III to withdraw his troops. Without the support
+of French arms, the sham empire in Mexico collapsed like a house of
+cards and the unhappy Maximilian, the victim of French ambition and
+intrigue, met his death at the hands of a Mexican firing squad.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alaska Purchased.</b>&mdash;The Mexican affair had not been brought to a close
+before the Department of State was busy with negotiations which resulted
+in the purchase of Alaska from Russia. The treaty of cession, signed on
+March 30, 1867, added to the United States a domain of nearly six
+hundred thousand square miles, a territory larger than Texas and nearly
+three-fourths the size of the Louisiana purchase. Though it was a
+distant colony separated from our continental domain by a thousand miles
+of water, no question of "imperialism" or "colonization foreign to
+American doctrines" seems to have been raised at the time. The treaty
+was ratified promptly by the Senate. The purchase price, $7,200,000, was
+voted by the House of Representatives after the display of some
+resentment against a system that compelled it to appropriate money to
+fulfill an obligation which it had no part in making. Seward, who
+formulated the treaty, rejoiced, as he afterwards said, that he had kept
+Alaska out of the hands of England.</p>
+
+<p><b>American Interest in the Caribbean.</b>&mdash;Having achieved this diplomatic
+triumph, Seward turned to the increase of American power in another
+direction. He negotiated, with Denmark, a treaty providing for the
+purchase of the islands of St. John <a name="Page_480" id="Page_480"></a>and St. Thomas in the West Indies,
+strategic points in the Caribbean for sea power. This project, long
+afterward brought to fruition by other men, was defeated on this
+occasion by the refusal of the Senate to ratify the treaty. Evidently it
+was not yet prepared to exercise colonial dominion over other races.</p>
+
+<p>Undaunted by the misadventure in Caribbean policies, President Grant
+warmly advocated the acquisition of Santo Domingo. This little republic
+had long been in a state of general disorder. In 1869 a treaty of
+annexation was concluded with its president. The document Grant
+transmitted to the Senate with his cordial approval, only to have it
+rejected. Not at all changed in his opinion by the outcome of his
+effort, he continued to urge the subject of annexation. Even in his last
+message to Congress he referred to it, saying that time had only proved
+the wisdom of his early course. The addition of Santo Domingo to the
+American sphere of protection was the work of a later generation. The
+State Department, temporarily checked, had to bide its time.</p>
+
+<p><b>The <i>Alabama</i> Claims Arbitrated.</b>&mdash;Indeed, it had in hand a far more
+serious matter, a vexing issue that grew out of Civil War diplomacy. The
+British government, as already pointed out in other connections, had
+permitted Confederate cruisers, including the famous <i>Alabama</i>, built in
+British ports, to escape and prey upon the commerce of the Northern
+states. This action, denounced at the time by our government as a grave
+breach of neutrality as well as a grievous injury to American citizens,
+led first to remonstrances and finally to repeated claims for damages
+done to American ships and goods. For a long time Great Britain was
+firm. Her foreign secretary denied all obligations in the premises,
+adding somewhat curtly that "he wished to say once for all that Her
+Majesty's government disclaimed any responsibility for the losses and
+hoped that they had made their position perfectly clear." Still
+President Grant was not persuaded that the door of diplomacy, though
+closed, was barred. Hamilton Fish, his Secretary of State, renewed the
+demand. Finally he secured from the British govern<a name="Page_481" id="Page_481"></a>ment in 1871 the
+treaty of Washington providing for the arbitration not merely of the
+<i>Alabama</i> and other claims but also all points of serious controversy
+between the two countries.</p>
+
+<p>The tribunal of arbitration thus authorized sat at Geneva in
+Switzerland, and after a long and careful review of the arguments on
+both sides awarded to the United States the lump sum of $15,500,000 to
+be distributed among the American claimants. The damages thus allowed
+were large, unquestionably larger than strict justice required and it is
+not surprising that the decision excited much adverse comment in
+England. Nevertheless, the prompt payment by the British government
+swept away at once a great cloud of ill-feeling in America. Moreover,
+the spectacle of two powerful nations choosing the way of peaceful
+arbitration to settle an angry dispute seemed a happy, if illusory, omen
+of a modern method for avoiding the arbitrament of war.</p>
+
+<p><b>Samoa.</b>&mdash;If the Senate had its doubts at first about the wisdom of
+acquiring strategic points for naval power in distant seas, the same
+could not be said of the State Department or naval officers. In 1872
+Commander Meade, of the United States navy, alive to the importance of
+coaling stations even in mid-ocean, made a commercial agreement with the
+chief of Tutuila, one of the Samoan Islands, far below the equator, in
+the southern Pacific, nearer to Australia than to California. This
+agreement, providing among other things for our use of the harbor of
+Pago Pago as a naval base, was six years later changed into a formal
+treaty ratified by the Senate.</p>
+
+<p>Such enterprise could not escape the vigilant eyes of England and
+Germany, both mindful of the course of the sea power in history. The
+German emperor, seizing as a pretext a quarrel between his consul in the
+islands and a native king, laid claim to an interest in the Samoan
+group. England, aware of the dangers arising from German outposts in the
+southern seas so near to Australia, was not content to stand aside. So
+it happened that all three countries sent battleships to the Samoan
+waters, threatening a crisis that was fortunately averted by <a name="Page_482" id="Page_482"></a>friendly
+settlement. If, as is alleged, Germany entertained a notion of
+challenging American sea power then and there, the presence of British
+ships must have dispelled that dream.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the affair was a tripartite agreement by which the three
+powers in 1889 undertook a protectorate over the islands. But joint
+control proved unsatisfactory. There was constant friction between the
+Germans and the English. The spheres of authority being vague and open
+to dispute, the plan had to be abandoned at the end of ten years.
+England withdrew altogether, leaving to Germany all the islands except
+Tutuila, which was ceded outright to the United States. Thus one of the
+finest harbors in the Pacific, to the intense delight of the American
+navy, passed permanently under American dominion. Another triumph in
+diplomacy was set down to the credit of the State Department.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cleveland and the Venezuela Affair.</b>&mdash;In the relations with South
+America, as well as in those with the distant Pacific, the diplomacy of
+the government at Washington was put to the test. For some time it had
+been watching a dispute between England and Venezuela over the western
+boundary of British Guiana and, on an appeal from Venezuela, it had
+taken a lively interest in the contest. In 1895 President Cleveland saw
+that Great Britain would yield none of her claims. After hearing the
+arguments of Venezuela, his Secretary of State, Richard T. Olney, in a
+note none too conciliatory, asked the British government whether it was
+willing to arbitrate the points in controversy. This inquiry he
+accompanied by a warning to the effect that the United States could not
+permit any European power to contest its mastery in this hemisphere.
+"The United States," said the Secretary, "is practically sovereign on
+this continent and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it
+confines its interposition.... Its infinite resources, combined with its
+isolated position, render it master of the situation and practically
+invulnerable against any or all other powers."</p>
+
+<p>The reply evoked from the British government by this strong statement
+was firm and clear. The Monroe Doctrine, it said, <a name="Page_483" id="Page_483"></a>even if not so widely
+stretched by interpretation, was not binding in international law; the
+dispute with Venezuela was a matter of interest merely to the parties
+involved; and arbitration of the question was impossible. This response
+called forth President Cleveland's startling message of 1895. He asked
+Congress to create a commission authorized to ascertain by researches
+the true boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. He added that it
+would be the duty of this country "to resist by every means in its
+power, as a willful aggression upon its rights and interests, the
+appropriation by Great Britain of any lands or the exercise of
+governmental jurisdiction over any territory which, after investigation,
+we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela." The serious character
+of this statement he thoroughly understood. He declared that he was
+conscious of his responsibilities, intimating that war, much as it was
+to be deplored, was not comparable to "a supine submission to wrong and
+injustice and the consequent loss of national self-respect and honor."</p>
+
+<div><a name="cleveland" id="cleveland"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><img src="./images/515.jpg" alt="Grover Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Grover Cleveland</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The note of defiance which ran through this message, greeted by shrill
+cries of enthusiasm in many circles, was viewed in other quarters as a
+portent of war. Responsible newspapers in both countries spoke of an
+armed settlement of the dispute as inevitable. Congress created the
+commission and appropriated money for the investigation; a body of
+learned men was <a name="Page_484" id="Page_484"></a>appointed to determine the merits of the conflicting
+boundary claims. The British government, deaf to the clamor of the
+bellicose section of the London press, deplored the incident,
+courteously replied in the affirmative to a request for assistance in
+the search for evidence, and finally agreed to the proposition that the
+issue be submitted to arbitration. The outcome of this somewhat perilous
+dispute contributed not a little to Cleveland's reputation as "a
+sterling representative of the true American spirit." This was not
+diminished when the tribunal of arbitration found that Great Britain was
+on the whole right in her territorial claims against Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Annexation of Hawaii.</b>&mdash;While engaged in the dangerous Venezuela
+controversy, President Cleveland was compelled by a strange turn in
+events to consider the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands in the
+mid-Pacific. For more than half a century American missionaries had been
+active in converting the natives to the Christian faith and enterprising
+American business men had been developing the fertile sugar plantations.
+Both the Department of State and the Navy Department were fully
+conscious of the strategic relation of the islands to the growth of sea
+power and watched with anxiety any developments likely to bring them
+under some other Dominion.</p>
+
+<p>The country at large was indifferent, however, until 1893, when a
+revolution, headed by Americans, broke out, ending in the overthrow of
+the native government, the abolition of the primitive monarchy, and the
+retirement of Queen Liliuokalani to private life. This crisis, a
+repetition of the Texas affair in a small theater, was immediately
+followed by a demand from the new Hawaiian government for annexation to
+the United States. President Harrison looked with favor on the proposal,
+negotiated the treaty of annexation, and laid it before the Senate for
+approval. There it still rested when his term of office was brought to a
+close.</p>
+
+<p>Harrison's successor, Cleveland, it was well known, had doubts about the
+propriety of American action in Hawaii. For the purpose of making an
+inquiry into the matter, he sent <a name="Page_485" id="Page_485"></a>a special commissioner to the islands.
+On the basis of the report of his agent, Cleveland came to the
+conclusion that "the revolution in the island kingdom had been
+accomplished by the improper use of the armed forces of the United
+States and that the wrong should be righted by a restoration of the
+queen to her throne." Such being his matured conviction, though the
+facts upon which he rested it were warmly controverted, he could do
+nothing but withdraw the treaty from the Senate and close the incident.</p>
+
+<p>To the Republicans this sharp and cavalier disposal of their plans,
+carried out in a way that impugned the motives of a Republican
+President, was nothing less than "a betrayal of American interests." In
+their platform of 1896 they made clear their position: "Our foreign
+policy should be at all times firm, vigorous, and dignified and all our
+interests in the Western hemisphere carefully watched and guarded. The
+Hawaiian Islands should be controlled by the United States and no
+foreign power should be permitted to interfere with them." There was no
+mistaking this view of the issue. As the vote in the election gave
+popular sanction to Republican policies, Congress by a joint resolution,
+passed on July 6, 1898, annexed the islands to the United States and
+later conferred upon them the ordinary territorial form of government.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cuba and the Spanish War</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Early American Relations with Cuba.</b>&mdash;The year that brought Hawaii
+finally under the American flag likewise drew to a conclusion another
+long controversy over a similar outpost in the Atlantic, one of the last
+remnants of the once glorious Spanish empire&mdash;the island of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>For a century the Department of State had kept an anxious eye upon this
+base of power, knowing full well that both France and England, already
+well established in the West Indies, had their attention also fixed upon
+Cuba. In the administration of President Fillmore they had united in
+proposing to the United States a tripartite treaty guaranteeing Spain in
+her <a name="Page_486" id="Page_486"></a>none too certain ownership. This proposal, squarely rejected,
+furnished the occasion for a statement of American policy which stood
+the test of all the years that followed; namely, that the affair was one
+between Spain and the United States alone.</p>
+
+<div><a name="cuba" id="cuba"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><a href="./images/518.jpg"><img src="./images/518-tb.jpg" alt="A Sight Too Bad" title="A Sight Too Bad" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>In that long contest in the United States for the balance of power
+between the North and South, leaders in the latter section often thought
+of bringing Cuba into the union to offset the free states. An
+opportunity to announce their purposes publicly was afforded in 1854 by
+a controversy over the seizure of an American ship by Cuban authorities.
+On that occasion three American ministers abroad, stationed at Madrid,
+Paris, and London respectively, held a conference and issued the
+celebrated "Ostend Manifesto." They united in declaring that Cuba, by
+her geographical position, formed a part of the United States, that
+possession by a foreign power was inimical to American interests, and
+that an effort should be made to purchase the island from Spain. In case
+the owner refused to sell, they concluded, with a menacing flourish, "by
+every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting it from
+Spain if we possess the power." This startling proclamation to the world
+was promptly disowned by the United States government.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487"></a><b>Revolutions in Cuba.</b>&mdash;For nearly twenty years afterwards the Cuban
+question rested. Then it was revived in another form during President
+Grant's administrations, when the natives became engaged in a
+destructive revolt against Spanish officials. For ten years&mdash;1868-78&mdash;a
+guerrilla warfare raged in the island. American citizens, by virtue of
+their ancient traditions of democracy, naturally sympathized with a war
+for independence and self-government. Expeditions to help the insurgents
+were fitted out secretly in American ports. Arms and supplies were
+smuggled into Cuba. American soldiers of fortune joined their ranks. The
+enforcement of neutrality against the friends of Cuban independence, no
+pleasing task for a sympathetic President, the protection of American
+lives and property in the revolutionary area, and similar matters kept
+our government busy with Cuba for a whole decade.</p>
+
+<p>A brief lull in Cuban disorders was followed in 1895 by a renewal of the
+revolutionary movement. The contest between the rebels and the Spanish
+troops, marked by extreme cruelty and a total disregard for life and
+property, exceeded all bounds of decency, and once more raised the old
+questions that had tormented Grant's administration. Gomez, the leader
+of the revolt, intent upon provoking American interference, laid waste
+the land with fire and sword. By a proclamation of November 6, 1895, he
+ordered the destruction of sugar plantations and railway connections and
+the closure of all sugar factories. The work of ruin was completed by
+the ruthless Spanish general, Weyler, who concentrated the inhabitants
+from rural regions into military camps, where they died by the hundreds
+of disease and starvation. Stories of the atrocities, bad enough in
+simple form, became lurid when transmuted into American news and deeply
+moved the sympathies of the American people. Sermons were preached about
+Spanish misdeeds; orators demanded that the Cubans be sustained "in
+their heroic struggle for independence"; newspapers, scouting the
+ordinary forms of diplomatic negotiation, spurned mediation and demanded
+intervention and war if necessary.<a name="Page_488" id="Page_488"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="cuban" id="cuban" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/520.jpg"><img src="./images/520-tb.jpg" alt="Cuban Revolutionists" title="Cuban Revolutionists" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cuban Revolutionists</span></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489"></a>
+<b>President Cleveland's Policy.</b>&mdash;Cleveland chose the way of peace. He
+ordered the observance of the rule of neutrality. He declined to act on
+a resolution of Congress in favor of giving to the Cubans the rights of
+belligerents. Anxious to bring order to the distracted island, he
+tendered to Spain the good offices of the United States as mediator in
+the contest&mdash;a tender rejected by the Spanish government with the broad
+hint that President Cleveland might be more vigorous in putting a stop
+to the unlawful aid in money, arms, and supplies, afforded to the
+insurgents by American sympathizers. Thereupon the President returned to
+the course he had marked out for himself, leaving "the public nuisance"
+to his successor, President McKinley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Republican Policies.</b>&mdash;The Republicans in 1897 found themselves in a
+position to employ that "firm, vigorous, and dignified" foreign policy
+which they had approved in their platform. They had declared: "The
+government of Spain having lost control of Cuba and being unable to
+protect the property or lives of resident American citizens or to comply
+with its treaty obligations, we believe that the government of the
+United States should actively use its influence and good offices to
+restore peace and give independence to the island." The American
+property in Cuba to which the Republicans referred in their platform
+amounted by this time to more than fifty million dollars; the commerce
+with the island reached more than one hundred millions annually; and the
+claims of American citizens against Spain for property destroyed totaled
+sixteen millions. To the pleas of humanity which made such an effective
+appeal to the hearts of the American people, there were thus added
+practical considerations of great weight.</p>
+
+<p><b>President McKinley Negotiates.</b>&mdash;In the face of the swelling tide of
+popular opinion in favor of quick, drastic, and positive action,
+McKinley chose first the way of diplomacy. A short time after his
+inauguration he lodged with the Spanish government a dignified protest
+against its policies in Cuba, thus opening a game of thrust and parry
+with the suave min<a name="Page_490" id="Page_490"></a>isters at Madrid. The results of the exchange of
+notes were the recall of the obnoxious General Weyler, the appointment
+of a governor-general less bloodthirsty in his methods, a change in the
+policy of concentrating civilians in military camps, and finally a
+promise of "home rule" for Cuba. There is no doubt that the Spanish
+government was eager to avoid a war that could have but one outcome. The
+American minister at Madrid, General Woodford, was convinced that firm
+and patient pressure would have resulted in the final surrender of Cuba
+by the Spanish government.</p>
+
+<p><b>The De Lome and the <i>Maine</i> Incidents.</b>&mdash;Such a policy was defeated by
+events. In February, 1898, a private letter written by Se&ntilde;or de Lome,
+the Spanish ambassador at Washington, expressing contempt for the
+President of the United States, was filched from the mails and passed
+into the hands of a journalist, William R. Hearst, who published it to
+the world. In the excited state of American opinion, few gave heed to
+the grave breach of diplomatic courtesy committed by breaking open
+private correspondence. The Spanish government was compelled to recall
+De Lome, thus officially condemning his conduct.</p>
+
+<p>At this point a far more serious crisis put the pacific relations of the
+two negotiating countries in dire peril. On February 15, the battleship
+<i>Maine</i>, riding in the harbor of Havana, was blown up and sunk, carrying
+to death two officers and two hundred and fifty-eight members of the
+crew. This tragedy, ascribed by the American public to the malevolence
+of Spanish officials, profoundly stirred an already furious nation.
+When, on March 21, a commission of inquiry reported that the ill-fated
+ship had been blown up by a submarine mine which had in turn set off
+some of the ship's magazines, the worst suspicions seemed confirmed. If
+any one was inclined to be indifferent to the Cuban war for
+independence, he was now met by the vehement cry: "Remember the
+<i>Maine</i>!"</p>
+
+<p><b>Spanish Concessions.</b>&mdash;Still the State Department, under McKinley's
+steady hand, pursued the path of negotiation, Spain proving more pliable
+and more ready with promises of reform in <a name="Page_491" id="Page_491"></a>the island. Early in April,
+however, there came a decided change in the tenor of American diplomacy.
+On the 4th, McKinley, evidently convinced that promises did not mean
+performances, instructed our minister at Madrid to warn the Spanish
+government that as no effective armistice had been offered to the
+Cubans, he would lay the whole matter before Congress. This decision,
+every one knew, from the temper of Congress, meant war&mdash;a prospect which
+excited all the European powers. The Pope took an active interest in the
+crisis. France and Germany, foreseeing from long experience in world
+politics an increase of American power and prestige through war, sought
+to prevent it. Spain, hopeless and conscious of her weakness, at last
+dispatched to the President a note promising to suspend hostilities, to
+call a Cuban parliament, and to grant all the autonomy that could be
+reasonably asked.</p>
+
+<p><b>President McKinley Calls for War.</b>&mdash;For reasons of his own&mdash;reasons
+which have never yet been fully explained&mdash;McKinley ignored the final
+program of concessions presented by Spain. At the very moment when his
+patient negotiations seemed to bear full fruit, he veered sharply from
+his course and launched the country into the war by sending to Congress
+his militant message of April 11, 1898. Without making public the last
+note he had received from Spain, he declared that he was brought to the
+end of his effort and the cause was in the hands of Congress. Humanity,
+the protection of American citizens and property, the injuries to
+American commerce and business, the inability of Spain to bring about
+permanent peace in the island&mdash;these were the grounds for action that
+induced him to ask for authority to employ military and naval forces in
+establishing a stable government in Cuba. They were sufficient for a
+public already straining at the leash.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Resolution of Congress.</b>&mdash;There was no doubt of the outcome when
+the issue was withdrawn from diplomacy and placed in charge of Congress.
+Resolutions were soon introduced into the House of Representatives
+authorizing the Presi<a name="Page_492" id="Page_492"></a>dent to employ armed force in securing peace and
+order in the island and "establishing by the free action of the people
+thereof a stable and independent government of their own." To the form
+and spirit of this proposal the Democrats and Populists took exception.
+In the Senate, where they were stronger, their position had to be
+reckoned with by the narrow Republican majority. As the resolution
+finally read, the independence of Cuba was recognized; Spain was called
+upon to relinquish her authority and withdraw from the island; and the
+President was empowered to use force to the extent necessary to carry
+the resolutions into effect. Furthermore the United States disclaimed
+"any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or
+control over said island except for the pacification thereof." Final
+action was taken by Congress on April 19, 1898, and approved by the
+President on the following day.</p>
+
+<p><b>War and Victory.</b>&mdash;Startling events then followed in swift succession.
+The navy, as a result in no small measure of the alertness of Theodore
+Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Department, was ready for the
+trial by battle. On May 1, Commodore Dewey at Manila Bay shattered the
+Spanish fleet, marking the doom of Spanish dominion in the Philippines.
+On July 3, the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, in attempting to
+escape from Havana, was utterly destroyed by American forces under
+Commodore Schley. On July 17, Santiago, invested by American troops
+under General Shafter and shelled by the American ships, gave up the
+struggle. On July 25 General Miles landed in Porto Rico. On August 13,
+General Merritt and Admiral Dewey carried Manila by storm. The war was
+over.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Peace Protocol.</b>&mdash;Spain had already taken cognizance of stern
+facts. As early as July 26, 1898, acting through the French ambassador,
+M. Cambon, the Madrid government approached President McKinley for a
+statement of the terms on which hostilities could be brought to a close.
+After some skirmishing Spain yielded reluctantly to the ultimatum. On
+August 12, the preliminary peace protocol was signed, stipulat<a name="Page_493" id="Page_493"></a>ing that
+Cuba should be free, Porto Rico ceded to the United States, and Manila
+occupied by American troops pending the formal treaty of peace. On
+October 1, the commissioners of the two countries met at Paris to bring
+about the final settlement.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peace Negotiations.</b>&mdash;When the day for the first session of the
+conference arrived, the government at Washington apparently had not made
+up its mind on the final disposition of the Philippines. Perhaps, before
+the battle of Manila Bay, not ten thousand people in the United States
+knew or cared where the Philippines were. Certainly there was in the
+autumn of 1898 no decided opinion as to what should be done with the
+fruits of Dewey's victory. President McKinley doubtless voiced the
+sentiment of the people when he stated to the peace commissioners on the
+eve of their departure that there had originally been no thought of
+conquest in the Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>The march of events, he added, had imposed new duties on the country.
+"Incidental to our tenure in the Philippines," he said, "is the
+commercial opportunity to which American statesmanship cannot be
+indifferent. It is just to use every legitimate means for the
+enlargement of American trade." On this ground he directed the
+commissioners to accept not less than the cession of the island of
+Luzon, the chief of the Philippine group, with its harbor of Manila. It
+was not until the latter part of October that he definitely instructed
+them to demand the entire archipelago, on the theory that the occupation
+of Luzon alone could not be justified "on political, commercial, or
+humanitarian grounds." This departure from the letter of the peace
+protocol was bitterly resented by the Spanish agents. It was with
+heaviness of heart that they surrendered the last sign of Spain's
+ancient dominion in the far Pacific.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Final Terms of Peace.</b>&mdash;The treaty of peace, as finally agreed
+upon, embraced the following terms: the independence of Cuba; the
+cession of Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States;
+the settlement of claims filed by the citizens of both countries; the
+payment of twenty million <a name="Page_494" id="Page_494"></a>dollars to Spain by the United States for the
+Philippines; and the determination of the status of the inhabitants of
+the ceded territories by Congress. The great decision had been made. Its
+issue was in the hands of the Senate where the Democrats and the
+Populists held the balance of power under the requirement of the
+two-thirds vote for ratification.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Contest in America over the Treaty of Peace.</b>&mdash;The publication of
+the treaty committing the United States to the administration of distant
+colonies directed the shifting tides of public opinion into two distinct
+channels: support of the policy and opposition to it. The trend in
+Republican leadership, long in the direction marked out by the treaty,
+now came into the open. Perhaps a majority of the men highest in the
+councils of that party had undergone the change of heart reflected in
+the letters of John Hay, Secretary of State. In August of 1898 he had
+hinted, in a friendly letter to Andrew Carnegie, that he sympathized
+with the latter's opposition to "imperialism"; but he had added quickly:
+"The only question in my mind is how far it is now possible for us to
+withdraw from the Philippines." In November of the same year he wrote to
+Whitelaw Reid, one of the peace commissioners at Paris: "There is a wild
+and frantic attack now going on in the press against the whole
+Philippine transaction. Andrew Carnegie really seems to be off his
+head.... But all this confusion of tongues will go its way. The country
+will applaud the resolution that has been reached and you will return in
+the r&ocirc;le of conquering heroes with your 'brows bound with oak.'"</p>
+
+<p>Senator Beveridge of Indiana and Senator Platt of Connecticut, accepting
+the verdict of history as the proof of manifest destiny, called for
+unquestioning support of the administration in its final step. "Every
+expansion of our territory," said the latter, "has been in accordance
+with the irresistible law of growth. We could no more resist the
+successive expansions by which we have grown to be the strongest nation
+on earth than a tree can resist its growth. The history of territorial
+ex<a name="Page_495" id="Page_495"></a>pansion is the history of our nation's progress and glory. It is a
+matter to be proud of, not to lament. We should rejoice that Providence
+has given us the opportunity to extend our influence, our institutions,
+and our civilization into regions hitherto closed to us, rather than
+contrive how we can thwart its designs."</p>
+
+<p>This doctrine was savagely attacked by opponents of McKinley's policy,
+many a stanch Republican joining with the majority of Democrats in
+denouncing the treaty as a departure from the ideals of the republic.
+Senator Vest introduced in the Senate a resolution that "under the
+Constitution of the United States, no power is given to the federal
+Government to acquire territory to be held and governed permanently as
+colonies." Senator Hoar, of Massachusetts, whose long and honorable
+career gave weight to his lightest words, inveighed against the whole
+procedure and to the end of his days believed that the new drift into
+rivalry with European nations as a colonial power was fraught with
+genuine danger. "Our imperialistic friends," he said, "seem to have
+forgotten the use of the vocabulary of liberty. They talk about giving
+good government. 'We shall give them such a government as we think they
+are fitted for.' 'We shall give them a better government than they had
+before.' Why, Mr. President, that one phrase conveys to a free man and a
+free people the most stinging of insults. In that little phrase, as in a
+seed, is contained the germ of all despotism and of all tyranny.
+Government is not a gift. Free government is not to be given by all the
+blended powers of earth and heaven. It is a birthright. It belongs, as
+our fathers said, and as their children said, as Jefferson said, and as
+President McKinley said, to human nature itself."</p>
+
+<p>The Senate, more conservative on the question of annexation than the
+House of Representatives composed of men freshly elected in the stirring
+campaign of 1896, was deliberate about ratification of the treaty. The
+Democrats and Populists were especially recalcitrant. Mr. Bryan hurried
+to<a name="Page_496" id="Page_496"></a> Washington and brought his personal influence to bear in favor of
+speedy action. Patriotism required ratification, it was said in one
+quarter. The country desires peace and the Senate ought not to delay, it
+was urged in another. Finally, on February 6, 1899, the requisite
+majority of two-thirds was mustered, many a Senator who voted for the
+treaty, however, sharing the misgivings of Senator Hoar as to the
+"dangers of imperialism." Indeed at the time, the Senators passed a
+resolution declaring that the policy to be adopted in the Philippines
+was still an open question, leaving to the future, in this way, the
+possibility of retracing their steps.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Attitude of England.</b>&mdash;The Spanish war, while accomplishing the
+simple objects of those who launched the nation on that course, like all
+other wars, produced results wholly unforeseen. In the first place, it
+exercised a profound influence on the drift of opinion among European
+powers. In England, sympathy with the United States was from the first
+positive and outspoken. "The state of feeling here," wrote Mr. Hay, then
+ambassador in London, "is the best I have ever known. From every quarter
+the evidences of it come to me. The royal family by habit and tradition
+are most careful not to break the rules of strict neutrality, but even
+among them I find nothing but hearty kindness and&mdash;so far as is
+consistent with propriety&mdash;sympathy. Among the political leaders on both
+sides I find not only sympathy but a somewhat eager desire that 'the
+other fellows' shall not seem more friendly."</p>
+
+<p>Joseph Chamberlain, the distinguished Liberal statesman, thinking no
+doubt of the continental situation, said in a political address at the
+very opening of the war that the next duty of Englishmen "is to
+establish and maintain bonds of permanent unity with our kinsmen across
+the Atlantic.... I even go so far as to say that, terrible as war may
+be, even war would be cheaply purchased if, in a great and noble cause,
+the Stars and Stripes and the Union Jack should wave together over an
+Anglo-Saxon alliance." To the American ambas<a name="Page_497" id="Page_497"></a>sador he added
+significantly that he did not "care a hang what they say about it on the
+continent," which was another way of expressing the hope that the
+warning to Germany and France was sufficient. This friendly English
+opinion, so useful to the United States when a combination of powers to
+support Spain was more than possible, removed all fears as to the
+consequences of the war. Henry Adams, recalling days of humiliation in
+London during the Civil War, when his father was the American
+ambassador, coolly remarked that it was "the sudden appearance of
+Germany as the grizzly terror" that "frightened England into America's
+arms"; but the net result in keeping the field free for an easy triumph
+of American arms was none the less appreciated in Washington where,
+despite outward calm, fears of European complications were never absent.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">American Policies in the Philippines and the Orient</span></h3>
+
+<div><a name="home" id="home"></a></div>
+<div class="figright"><a href="./images/531.jpg"><img src="./images/531-tb.jpg" alt="A Philippine Home" title="A Philippine Home" /></a>
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">A Philippine Home</span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Filipino Revolt against American Rule.</b>&mdash;In the sphere of domestic
+politics, as well as in the field of foreign relations, the outcome of
+the Spanish war exercised a marked influence. It introduced at once
+problems of colonial administration and difficulties in adjusting trade
+relations with the outlying dominions. These were furthermore
+complicated in the very beginning by the outbreak of an insurrection
+against American sovereignty in the Philippines. The leader of the
+revolt, Aguinaldo, had been invited to join the American forces in
+overthrowing Spanish dominion, and he had assumed, apparently without
+warrant, that independence would be the result of the joint operations.
+When the news reached him that the American flag had been substituted
+for the Spanish flag, his resentment was keen. In February, 1899, there
+occurred a slight collision between his men and some American soldiers.
+The conflict thus begun was followed by serious fighting which finally
+dwindled into a vexatious guerrilla warfare lasting three years and
+costing heavily in men and money. Atrocities were committed by the
+native insurrectionists and, sad to relate, <a name="Page_498" id="Page_498"></a>they were repaid in kind;
+it was argued in defense of the army that the ordinary rules of warfare
+were without terror to men accustomed to fighting like savages. In vain
+did McKinley assure the Filipinos that the institutions and laws
+established in the islands would be designed "not for our satisfaction
+or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness,
+peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands." Nothing
+short of military pressure could bring the warring revolutionists to
+terms.</p>
+
+<p><b>Attacks on Republican "Imperialism."</b>&mdash;The Filipino insurrection,
+following so quickly upon the ratification of the treaty with Spain,
+moved the American opponents of McKinley's colonial policies to redouble
+their denunciation of what they were pleased to call "imperialism."
+Senator Hoar was more than usually caustic in his indictment of the new
+course. The revolt against American rule did but convince him of the
+folly hidden in the first fateful measures. Everywhere he saw a
+conspiracy of silence and injustice. "I have failed to discover in the
+speeches, public or private, of the advocates of this war," he contended
+in the Senate, "or in the press which supports it and them, a single
+expression anywhere of a desire to do justice to the people of the
+Philippine Islands, or of a desire to make known to the people of the
+United States the truth of the case.... The catchwords, the cries, the
+pithy and pregnant phrases of which their speech is full, all mean
+dominion. They mean perpetual dominion.... There is not one of these
+gentlemen who will rise in his place and affirm that if he were a
+Filipino he would not do exactly as the Filipinos are doing; that he
+would not despise them if they were to do otherwise. So much at least
+they owe of respect to the dead and buried history&mdash;the dead and buried
+history so far as they can slay and bury it&mdash;of their country." In the
+way of practical suggestions, the Senator offered as a solution of the
+problem: the recognition of independence, assistance in establishing
+self-government, and an invitation to all powers to join in a guarantee
+of freedom to the islands.<a name="Page_499" id="Page_499"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Republican Answer.</b>&mdash;To McKinley and his supporters, engaged in a
+sanguinary struggle to maintain American supremacy, such talk was more
+than quixotic; it was scarcely short of treasonable. They pointed out
+the practical obstacles in the way of uniform self-government for a
+collection of seven million people ranging in civilization from the most
+ignorant hill men to the highly cultivated inhabitants of Manila. The
+incidents of the revolt and its repression, they admitted, were painful
+enough; but still nothing as compared with the chaos that would follow
+the attempt of a people who had never had experience in such matters to
+set up and sustain democratic institutions. They preferred rather the
+gradual process of fitting the inhabitants of the islands for
+self-government. This course, in their eyes, though less poetic, was
+more in harmony with the ideals of humanity. Having set out upon it,
+they pursued it steadfastly to the end. First, they applied force
+without stint to the suppression of the revolt. Then they devoted such
+genius for colonial administration as they could command to the
+development of civil government, commerce, and industry.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Boxer Rebellion in China.</b>&mdash;For a nation with a world-wide trade,
+steadily growing, as the progress of home industries redoubled the zeal
+for new markets, isolation was obviously impossible. Never was this
+clearer than in 1900 when a native revolt against foreigners in China,
+known as the Boxer uprising, compelled the United States to join with
+the powers <a name="Page_500" id="Page_500"></a>of Europe in a military expedition and a diplomatic
+settlement. The Boxers, a Chinese association, had for some time carried
+on a campaign of hatred against all aliens in the Celestial empire,
+calling upon the natives to rise in patriotic wrath and drive out the
+foreigners who, they said, "were lacerating China like tigers." In the
+summer of 1900 the revolt flamed up in deeds of cruelty. Missionaries
+and traders were murdered in the provinces; foreign legations were
+stoned; the German ambassador, one of the most cordially despised
+foreigners, was killed in the streets of Peking; and to all appearances
+a frightful war of extermination had begun. In the month of June nearly
+five hundred men, women, and children, representing all nations, were
+besieged in the British quarters in Peking under constant fire of
+Chinese guns and in peril of a terrible death.</p>
+
+<p><b>Intervention in China.</b>&mdash;Nothing but the arrival of armed forces, made
+up of Japanese, Russian, British, American, French, and German soldiers
+and marines, prevented the destruction of the beleaguered aliens. When
+once the foreign troops were in possession of the Chinese capital,
+diplomatic questions of the most delicate character arose. For more than
+half a century, the imperial powers of Europe had been carving up the
+Chinese empire, taking to themselves territory, railway concessions,
+mining rights, ports, and commercial privileges at the expense of the
+huge but helpless victim. The United States alone among the great
+nations, while as zealous as any in the pursuit of peaceful trade, had
+refrained from seizing Chinese territory or ports. Moreover, the
+Department of State had been urging European countries to treat China
+with fairness, to respect her territorial integrity, and to give her
+equal trading privileges with all nations.</p>
+
+<p><b>The American Policy of the "Open Door."</b>&mdash;In the autumn of 1899,
+Secretary Hay had addressed to London, Berlin, Rome, Paris, Tokyo, and
+St. Petersburg his famous note on the "open door" policy in China. In
+this document he proposed that existing treaty ports and vested
+interests of the several <a name="Page_501" id="Page_501"></a>foreign countries should be respected; that
+the Chinese government should be permitted to extend its tariffs to all
+ports held by alien powers except the few free ports; and that there
+should be no discrimination in railway and port charges among the
+citizens of foreign countries operating in the empire. To these
+principles the governments addressed by Mr. Hay, finally acceded with
+evident reluctance.</p>
+
+<div><a name="pacific" id="pacific" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/533.jpg"><img src="./images/533-tb.jpg" alt="American Dominions in the Pacific" title="American Dominions in the Pacific" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">American Dominions in the Pacific</span></div>
+
+<p>On this basis he then proposed the settlement that had to follow the
+Boxer uprising. "The policy of the Government of the United States," he
+said to the great powers, in the summer of 1900, "is to seek a solution
+which may bring about permanent safety and peace to China, preserve
+Chinese territorial and administrative entity, protect all rights
+guaranteed to friendly powers by treaty and international law, and
+safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impartial trade with
+all parts of the Chinese empire." This was a friendly warning to the
+world that the United States would not join in a scramble to punish the
+Chinese by carving out more territory. "The moment we acted," said Mr.
+Hay, "the rest of the world paused and finally came over to our ground;
+and the German government, which is generally brutal but seldom silly,
+recovered its senses, and climbed down off its perch."</p>
+
+<p>In taking this position, the Secretary of State did but reflect the
+common sense of America. "We are, of course," he explained, "opposed to
+the dismemberment of that empire and we do not think that the public
+opinion of the United States would justify this government in taking
+part in the great game of spoliation now going on." Heavy damages were
+collected by the European powers from China for the injuries inflicted
+upon their citizens by the Boxers; but the United States, finding the
+sum awarded in excess of the legitimate claims, returned the balance in
+the form of a fund to be applied to the education of Chinese students in
+American universities. "I would rather be, I think," said Mr. Hay, "the
+dupe of China than the chum of the Kaiser." By pursuing a liberal
+policy, he strengthened the hold of the United States upon the
+af<a name="Page_502" id="Page_502"></a>fections of the Chinese people and, in the long run, as he remarked
+himself, safeguarded "our great commercial interests in that Empire."</p>
+
+<p><b>Imperialism in the Presidential Campaign of 1900.</b>&mdash;It is not strange
+that the policy pursued by the Republican administration in disposing of
+the questions raised by the Spanish War became one of the first issues
+in the presidential campaign of 1900. Anticipating attacks from every
+quarter, the Republicans, in renominating McKinley, set forth their
+position in clear and ringing phrases: "In accepting by the treaty of
+Paris the just responsibility of our victories in the Spanish War the
+President and Senate won the undoubted approval of the American people.
+No other course was possible than to destroy Spain's sovereignty
+throughout the West Indies and in the Philippine Islands. That course
+created our responsibility, before the world and with the unorganized
+population whom our intervention had freed from Spain, to provide for
+the maintenance of law and order, and for the establishment of good
+government and for the performance of international obligations. Our
+authority could not be less than our responsibility, and wherever
+sovereign rights were extended it became the high duty of the government
+to maintain its authority, to put down armed insurrection, and to confer
+the blessings of liberty and civilization upon all the rescued peoples.
+The largest measure of self-government consistent with their welfare and
+our duties shall be secured to them by law." To give more strength to
+their ticket, the Republican convention, in a whirlwind of enthusiasm,
+nominated for the vice presidency, against his protest, Theodore
+Roosevelt, the governor of New York and the hero of the Rough Riders, so
+popular on account of their Cuban campaign.</p>
+
+<p>The Democrats, as expected, picked up the gauntlet thrown down with such
+defiance by the Republicans. Mr. Bryan, whom they selected as their
+candidate, still clung to the currency issue; but the main emphasis,
+both of the platform and the appeal for votes, was on the "imperialistic
+program"<a name="Page_503" id="Page_503"></a> of the Republican administration. The Democrats denounced the
+treatment of Cuba and Porto Rico and condemned the Philippine policy in
+sharp and vigorous terms. "As we are not willing," ran the platform, "to
+surrender our civilization or to convert the Republic into an empire, we
+favor an immediate declaration of the Nation's purpose to give to the
+Filipinos, first, a stable form of government; second, independence;
+third, protection from outside interference.... The greedy commercialism
+which dictated the Philippine policy of the Republican administration
+attempts to justify it with the plea that it will pay, but even this
+sordid and unworthy plea fails when brought to the test of facts. The
+war of 'criminal aggression' against the Filipinos entailing an annual
+expense of many millions has already cost more than any possible profit
+that could accrue from the entire Philippine trade for years to come....
+We oppose militarism. It means conquest abroad and intimidation and
+oppression at home. It means the strong arm which has ever been fatal to
+free institutions. It is what millions of our citizens have fled from in
+Europe. It will impose upon our peace-loving people a large standing
+army, an unnecessary burden of taxation, and would be a constant menace
+to their liberties." Such was the tenor of their appeal to the voters.</p>
+
+<p>With the issues clearly joined, the country rejected the Democratic
+candidate even more positively than four years before. The popular vote
+cast for McKinley was larger and that cast for Bryan smaller than in the
+silver election. Thus vindicated at the polls, McKinley turned with
+renewed confidence to the development of the policies he had so far
+advanced. But fate cut short his designs. In the September following his
+second inauguration, he was shot by an anarchist while attending the
+Buffalo exposition. "What a strange and tragic fate it has been of
+mine," wrote the Secretary of State, John Hay, on the day of the
+President's death, "to stand by the bier of three of my dearest friends,
+Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley, three of the gentlest of men, all risen
+to the head of the state and all done to death by assassins." On
+September<a name="Page_504" id="Page_504"></a> 14, 1901, the Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, took up the
+lines of power that had fallen from the hands of his distinguished
+chief, promising to continue "absolutely unbroken" the policies he had
+inherited.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of National Growth and World Politics</span></h3>
+
+<p>The economic aspects of the period between 1865 and 1900 may be readily
+summed up: the recovery of the South from the ruin of the Civil War, the
+extension of the railways, the development of the Great West, and the
+triumph of industry and business enterprise. In the South many of the
+great plantations were broken up and sold in small farms, crops were
+diversified, the small farming class was raised in the scale of social
+importance, the cotton industry was launched, and the coal, iron,
+timber, and other resources were brought into use. In the West the free
+arable land was practically exhausted by 1890 under the terms of the
+Homestead Act; gold, silver, copper, coal and other minerals were
+discovered in abundance; numerous rail connections were formed with the
+Atlantic seaboard; the cowboy and the Indian were swept away before a
+standardized civilization of electric lights and bathtubs. By the end of
+the century the American frontier had disappeared. The wild, primitive
+life so long associated with America was gone. The unity of the nation
+was established.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of business enterprise, progress was most marked. The
+industrial system, which had risen and flourished before the Civil War,
+grew into immense proportions and the industrial area was extended from
+the Northeast into all parts of the country. Small business concerns
+were transformed into huge corporations. Individual plants were merged
+under the management of gigantic trusts. Short railway lines were
+consolidated into national systems. The industrial population of
+wage-earners rose into the tens of millions. The immigration of aliens
+increased by leaps and bounds. The cities overshadowed the country. The
+nation that had once depended <a name="Page_505" id="Page_505"></a>upon Europe for most of its manufactured
+goods became a competitor of Europe in the markets of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>In the sphere of politics, the period witnessed the recovery of white
+supremacy in the South; the continued discussion of the old questions,
+such as the currency, the tariff, and national banking; and the
+injection of new issues like the trusts and labor problems. As of old,
+foreign affairs were kept well at the front. Alaska was purchased from
+Russia; attempts were made to extend American influence in the Caribbean
+region; a Samoan island was brought under the flag; and the Hawaiian
+islands were annexed. The Monroe Doctrine was applied with vigor in the
+dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Assistance was given to the Cubans in their revolutionary struggle
+against Spain and thus there was precipitated a war which ended in the
+annexation of Porto Rico and the Philippines. American influence in the
+Pacific and the Orient was so enlarged as to be a factor of great weight
+in world affairs. Thus questions connected with foreign and "imperial"
+policies were united with domestic issues to make up the warp and woof
+of politics. In the direction of affairs, the Republicans took the
+leadership, for they held the presidency during all the years, except
+eight, between 1865 and 1900.</p>
+
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>J.W. Foster, <i>A Century of American Diplomacy</i>; <i>American Diplomacy in
+the Orient</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.F. Reddaway, <i>The Monroe Doctrine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.H. Latan&eacute;, <i>The United States and Spanish America</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.C. Coolidge, <i>United States as a World Power</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.T. Mahan, <i>Interest of the United States in the Sea Power</i>.</p>
+
+<p>F.E. Chadwick, <i>Spanish-American War</i>.</p>
+
+<p>D.C. Worcester, <i>The Philippine Islands and Their People</i>.</p>
+
+<p>M.M. Kalaw, <i>Self-Government in the Philippines</i>.</p>
+
+<p>L.S. Rowe, <i>The United States and Porto Rico</i>.</p>
+
+<p>F.E. Chadwick, <i>The Relations of the United States and Spain</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.R. Shepherd, <i>Latin America</i>; <i>Central and South America</i>.<a name="Page_506" id="Page_506"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Tell the story of the international crisis that developed soon after
+the Civil War with regard to Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>2. Give the essential facts relating to the purchase of Alaska.</p>
+
+<p>3. Review the early history of our interest in the Caribbean.</p>
+
+<p>4. Amid what circumstances was the Monroe Doctrine applied in
+Cleveland's administration?</p>
+
+<p>5. Give the causes that led to the war with Spain.</p>
+
+<p>6. Tell the leading events in that war.</p>
+
+<p>7. What was the outcome as far as Cuba was concerned? The outcome for
+the United States?</p>
+
+<p>8. Discuss the attitude of the Filipinos toward American sovereignty in
+the islands.</p>
+
+<p>9. Describe McKinley's colonial policy.</p>
+
+<p>10. How was the Spanish War viewed in England? On the Continent?</p>
+
+<p>11. Was there a unified American opinion on American expansion?</p>
+
+<p>12. Was this expansion a departure from our traditions?</p>
+
+<p>13. What events led to foreign intervention in China?</p>
+
+<p>14. Explain the policy of the "open door."</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Hawaii and Venezuela.</b>&mdash;Dewey, <i>National Problems</i> (American Nation
+Series), pp. 279-313; Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>, pp. 600-602;
+Hart, <i>American History Told by Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 612-616.</p>
+
+<p><b>Intervention in Cuba.</b>&mdash;Latan&eacute;, <i>America as a World Power</i> (American
+Nation Series), pp. 3-28; Macdonald, <i>Documentary Source Book</i>, pp.
+597-598; Roosevelt, <i>Autobiography</i>, pp. 223-277; Haworth, <i>The United
+States in Our Own Time</i>, pp. 232-256; Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV,
+pp. 573-578.</p>
+
+<p><b>The War with Spain.</b>&mdash;Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>, pp.
+889-896.</p>
+
+<p><b>Terms of Peace with Spain.</b>&mdash;Latan&eacute;, pp. 63-81; Macdonald, pp. 602-608;
+Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 588-590.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Philippine Insurrection.</b>&mdash;Latan&eacute;, pp. 82-99.</p>
+
+<p><b>Imperialism as a Campaign Issue.</b>&mdash;Latan&eacute;, pp. 120-132; Haworth, pp.
+257-277; Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>, Vol. IV, pp. 604-611.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biographical Studies.</b>&mdash;William McKinley, M.A. Hanna, John Hay;
+Admirals, George Dewey, W.T. Sampson, and W.S. Schley; and Generals,
+W.R. Shafter, Joseph Wheeler, and H.W. Lawton.</p>
+
+<p><b>General Analysis of American Expansion.</b>&mdash;<i>Syllabus in History</i> (New
+York State, 1920), pp. 142-147.<a name="Page_507" id="Page_507"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE EVOLUTION OF REPUBLICAN POLICIES (1901-13)</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The Personality and Early Career of Roosevelt.</b>&mdash;On September 14, 1901,
+when Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office, the presidency passed
+to a new generation and a leader of a new type recalling, if comparisons
+must be made, Andrew Jackson rather than any Republican predecessor.
+Roosevelt was brusque, hearty, restless, and fond of action&mdash;"a young
+fellow of infinite dash and originality," as John Hay remarked of him;
+combining the spirit of his old college, Harvard, with the breezy
+freedom of the plains; interested in everything&mdash;a new species of game,
+a new book, a diplomatic riddle, or a novel theory of history or
+biology. Though only forty-three years old he was well versed in the art
+of practical politics. Coming upon the political scene in the early
+eighties, he had associated himself with the reformers in the Republican
+party; but he was no Mugwump. From the first he vehemently preached the
+doctrine of party loyalty; if beaten in the convention, he voted the
+straight ticket in the election. For twenty years he adhered to this
+rule and during a considerable portion of that period he held office as
+a spokesman of his party. He served in the New York legislature, as head
+of the metropolitan police force, as federal civil service commissioner
+under President Harrison, as assistant secretary of the navy under
+President McKinley, and as governor of the Empire state. Political
+managers of the old school spoke of him as "brilliant but erratic"; they
+soon found him equal to the shrewdest in negotiation and action.<a name="Page_508" id="Page_508"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="engineer" id="engineer" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/542.jpg"><img src="./images/542-tb.jpg" alt="Roosevelt Talking to the Engineer of a Railroad Train" title="Roosevelt Talking to the Engineer of a Railroad Train" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Roosevelt Talking to the Engineer of a Railroad Train</span></div>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Foreign Affairs</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Panama Canal.</b>&mdash;The most important foreign question confronting
+President Roosevelt on the day of his inauguration, that of the Panama
+Canal, was a heritage from his predecessor. The idea of a water route
+across the isthmus, <a name="Page_509" id="Page_509"></a>long a dream of navigators, had become a living
+issue after the historic voyage of the battleship <i>Oregon</i> around South
+America during the Spanish War. But before the United States could act
+it had to undo the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, made with Great Britain in
+1850, providing for the construction of the canal under joint
+supervision. This was finally effected by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty of
+1901 authorizing the United States to proceed alone, on condition that
+there should be no discriminations against other nations in the matter
+of rates and charges.</p>
+
+<p>This accomplished, it was necessary to decide just where the canal
+should be built. One group in Congress favored the route through
+Nicaragua; in fact, two official commissions had already approved that
+location. Another group favored cutting the way through Panama after
+purchasing the rights of the old French company which, under the
+direction of De Lesseps, the hero of the Suez Canal, had made a costly
+failure some twenty years before. After a heated argument over the
+merits of the two plans, preference was given to the Panama route. As
+the isthmus was then a part of Colombia, President Roosevelt proceeded
+to negotiate with the government at Bogota a treaty authorizing the
+United States to cut a canal through its territory. The treaty was
+easily framed, but it was rejected by the Colombian senate, much to the
+President's exasperation. "You could no more make an agreement with the
+Colombian rulers," he exclaimed, "than you could nail jelly to a wall."
+He was spared the necessity by a timely revolution. On November 3, 1903,
+Panama renounced its allegiance to Colombia and three days later the
+United States recognized its independence.</p>
+
+<div><a name="canal" id="canal" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/544.jpg"><img src="./images/544-tb.jpg" alt="Panama Canal" title="Panama Canal" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Courtesy of Panama Canal, Washington, D.C.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Deepest Excavated Portion of Panama Canal, Showing Gold Hill on
+Right and Contractor's Hill on Left. June, 1913</span></div>
+
+<p>This amazing incident was followed shortly by the signature of a treaty
+between Panama and the United States in which the latter secured the
+right to construct the long-discussed canal, in return for a guarantee
+of independence and certain cash payments. The rights and property of
+the French concern were then bought, and the final details settled. A
+lock <a name="Page_510" id="Page_510"></a>rather than a sea-level canal was agreed upon. Construction by the
+government directly instead of by private contractors was adopted.
+Scientific medicine was summoned to stamp out the tropical diseases that
+had made Panama a plague spot. Finally, in 1904, as the President said,
+"the dirt began to fly." After surmounting formidable
+difficulties&mdash;engineering, labor, and sanitary&mdash;the American forces in
+1913 joined the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific. Nearly eight
+thousand miles were cut off the sea voyage from New York to San
+Francisco. If any were inclined to criticize<a name="Page_511" id="Page_511"></a> President Roosevelt for
+the way in which he snapped off negotiations with Colombia and
+recognized the Panama revolutionists, their attention was drawn to the
+magnificent outcome of the affair. Notwithstanding the treaty with Great
+Britain, Congress passed a tolls bill discriminating in rates in favor
+of American ships. It was only on the urgent insistence of President
+Wilson that the measure was later repealed.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War.</b>&mdash;The applause which greeted
+the President's next diplomatic stroke was unmarred by censure of any
+kind. In the winter of 1904 there broke out between Japan and Russia a
+terrible conflict over the division of spoils in Manchuria. The fortunes
+of war were with the agile forces of Nippon. In this struggle, it seems,
+President Roosevelt's sympathies were mainly with the Japanese, although
+he observed the proprieties of neutrality. At all events, Secretary Hay
+wrote in his diary on New Year's Day, 1905, that the President was
+"quite firm in his view that we cannot permit Japan to be robbed a
+second time of her victory," referring to the fact that Japan, ten years
+before, after defeating China on the field of battle, had been forced by
+Russia, Germany, and France to forego the fruits of conquest.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the President's personal feelings may have been, he was aware
+that Japan, despite her triumphs over Russia, was staggering under a
+heavy burden of debt. At a suggestion from Tokyo, he invited both
+belligerents in the summer of 1905 to join in a peace conference. The
+celerity of their reply was aided by the pressure of European bankers,
+who had already come to a substantial agreement that the war must stop.
+After some delay, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, was chosen as the meeting
+place for the spokesmen of the two warring powers. Roosevelt presided
+over the opening ceremonies with fine urbanity, thoroughly enjoying the
+justly earned honor of being for the moment at the center of the world's
+interest. He had the satisfaction of seeing the conference end in a
+treaty of peace and amity.<a name="Page_512" id="Page_512"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Monroe Doctrine Applied to Germany.</b>&mdash;Less spectacular than the
+Russo-Japanese settlement but not less important was a diplomatic
+passage-at-arms with Germany over the Monroe Doctrine. This clash grew
+out of the inability or unwillingness of the Venezuelan government to
+pay debts due foreign creditors. Having exhausted their patience in
+negotiations, England and Germany, in December 1901, sent battleships to
+establish what they characterized as "a peaceful blockade" of Venezuelan
+ports. Their action was followed by the rupture of diplomatic relations;
+there was a possibility that war and the occupation of Venezuelan
+territory might result.</p>
+
+<p>While unwilling to stand between a Latin-American country and its
+creditors, President Roosevelt was determined that debt collecting
+should not be made an excuse for European countries to seize territory.
+He therefore urged arbitration of the dispute, winning the assent of
+England and Italy. Germany, with a somewhat haughty air, refused to take
+the milder course. The President, learning of this refusal, called the
+German ambassador to the White House and informed him in very precise
+terms that, unless the Imperial German Government consented to
+arbitrate, Admiral Dewey would be ordered to the scene with instructions
+to prevent Germany from seizing any Venezuelan territory. A week passed
+and no answer came from Berlin. Not baffled, the President again took
+the matter up with the ambassador, this time with even more firmness; he
+stated in language admitting of but one meaning that, unless within
+forty-eight hours the Emperor consented to arbitration, American
+battleships, already coaled and cleared, would sail for Venezuelan
+waters. The hint was sufficient. The Kaiser accepted the proposal and
+the President, with the fine irony of diplomacy, complimented him
+publicly on "being so stanch an advocate of arbitration." In terms of
+the Monroe Doctrine this action meant that the United States, while not
+denying the obligations of debtors, would not permit any move on the
+part of European powers that <a name="Page_513" id="Page_513"></a>might easily lead to the temporary or
+permanent occupation of Latin-American territory.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Santo Domingo Affair.</b>&mdash;The same issue was involved in a
+controversy over Santo Domingo which arose in 1904. The Dominican
+republic, like Venezuela, was heavily in debt, and certain European
+countries declared that, unless the United States undertook to look
+after the finances of the embarrassed debtor, they would resort to armed
+coercion. What was the United States to do? The danger of having some
+European power strongly intrenched in Santo Domingo was too imminent to
+be denied. President Roosevelt acted with characteristic speed, and
+notwithstanding strong opposition in the Senate was able, in 1907, to
+effect a treaty arrangement which placed Dominican finances under
+American supervision.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the debate over this settlement, a number of
+interesting questions arose. It was pertinently asked whether the
+American navy should be used to help creditors collect their debts
+anywhere in Latin-America. It was suggested also that no sanction should
+be given to the practice among European governments of using armed force
+to collect private claims. Opponents of President Roosevelt's policy,
+and they were neither few nor insignificant, urged that such matters
+should be referred to the Hague Court or to special international
+commissions for arbitration. To this the answer was made that the United
+States could not surrender any question coming under the terms of the
+Monroe Doctrine to the decision of an international tribunal. The
+position of the administration was very clearly stated by President
+Roosevelt himself. "The country," he said, "would certainly decline to
+go to war to prevent a foreign government from collecting a just debt;
+on the other hand, it is very inadvisable to permit any foreign power to
+take possession, even temporarily, of the customs houses of an American
+republic in order to enforce the payment of its obligations; for such a
+temporary occupation might turn into a permanent occupation. The only
+escape <a name="Page_514" id="Page_514"></a>from these alternatives may at any time be that we must
+ourselves undertake to bring about some arrangement by which so much as
+possible of a just obligation shall be paid." The Monroe Doctrine was
+negative. It denied to European powers a certain liberty of operation in
+this hemisphere. The positive obligations resulting from its application
+by the United States were points now emphasized and developed.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Hague Conference.</b>&mdash;The controversies over Latin-American relations
+and his part in bringing the Russo-Japanese War to a close naturally
+made a deep impression upon Roosevelt, turning his mind in the direction
+of the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The subject was
+moreover in the air. As if conscious of impending calamity, the
+statesmen of the Old World, to all outward signs at least, seemed
+searching for a way to reduce armaments and avoid the bloody and costly
+trial of international causes by the ancient process of battle. It was
+the Czar, Nicholas II, fated to die in one of the terrible holocausts
+which he helped to bring upon mankind, who summoned the delegates of the
+nations in the first Hague Peace Conference in 1899. The conference did
+nothing to reduce military burdens or avoid wars but it did recognize
+the right of friendly nations to offer the services of mediation to
+countries at war and did establish a Court at the Hague for the
+arbitration of international disputes.</p>
+
+<p>Encouraged by this experiment, feeble as it was, President Roosevelt in
+1904 proposed a second conference, yielding to the Czar the honor of
+issuing the call. At this great international assembly, held at the
+Hague in 1907, the representatives of the United States proposed a plan
+for the compulsory arbitration of certain matters of international
+dispute. This was rejected with contempt by Germany. Reduction of
+armaments, likewise proposed in the conference, was again deferred. In
+fact, nothing was accomplished beyond agreement upon certain rules for
+the conduct of "civilized warfare," casting a somewhat lurid light upon
+the "pacific" intentions of most of the powers assembled.<a name="Page_515" id="Page_515"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The World Tour of the Fleet.</b>&mdash;As if to assure the world then that the
+United States placed little reliance upon the frail reed of peace
+conferences, Roosevelt the following year (1908) made an imposing
+display of American naval power by sending a fleet of sixteen
+battleships on a tour around the globe. On his own authority, he ordered
+the ships to sail out of Hampton Roads and circle the earth by way of
+the Straits of Magellan, San Francisco, Australia, the Philippines,
+China, Japan, and the Suez Canal. This enterprise was not, as some
+critics claimed, a "mere boyish flourish." President Roosevelt knew how
+deep was the influence of sea power on the fate of nations. He was aware
+that no country could have a wide empire of trade and dominion without
+force adequate to sustain it. The voyage around the world therefore
+served a double purpose. It interested his own country in the naval
+program of the government, and it reminded other powers that the
+American giant, though quiet, was not sleeping in the midst of
+international rivalries.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Colonial Administration</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>A Constitutional Question Settled.</b>&mdash;In colonial administration, as in
+foreign policy, President Roosevelt advanced with firm step in a path
+already marked out. President McKinley had defined the principles that
+were to control the development of Porto Rico and the Philippines. The
+Republican party had announced a program of pacification, gradual
+self-government, and commercial improvement. The only remaining question
+of importance, to use the popular phrase,&mdash;"Does the Constitution follow
+the flag?"&mdash;had been answered by the Supreme Court of the United States.
+Although it was well known that the Constitution did not contemplate the
+government of dependencies, such as the Philippines and Porto Rico, the
+Court, by generous and ingenious interpretations, found a way for
+Congress to apply any reasonable rules required by the occasion.</p>
+
+<div><a name="sugar" id="sugar" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/550.jpg"><img src="./images/550-tb.jpg" alt="A Sugar Mill, Porto Rico" title="A Sugar Mill, Porto Rico" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Photograph from Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">A Sugar Mill, Porto Rico</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Porto Rico.</b>&mdash;The government of Porto Rico was a relatively simple
+matter. It was a single island with a fairly homogeneous <a name="Page_516" id="Page_516"></a>population
+apart from the Spanish upper class. For a time after military occupation
+in 1898, it was administered under military rule. This was succeeded by
+the establishment of civil government under the "organic act" passed by
+Congress in 1900. The law assured to the Porto Ricans American
+protection but withheld American citizenship&mdash;a boon finally granted in
+1917. It provided for a governor and six executive secretaries appointed
+by the President with the approval of the Senate; and for a legislature
+of two houses&mdash;one elected by popular native vote, and an upper chamber
+composed of the executive secretaries and five other persons appointed
+in the same manner. Thus the United States turned back to the provincial
+system maintained by England in Virginia or New York in old colonial
+days. The natives were given a voice in their government and the power
+of initiating laws; but the final word both in law-making and
+administration was vested in officers appointed in Washington. Such was
+the plan under which the affairs of Porto Rico were conducted by
+President Roosevelt. It lasted until the new organic act of 1917.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Philippines.</b>&mdash;The administration of the Philippines presented far
+more difficult questions. The number of islands, <a name="Page_517" id="Page_517"></a>the variety of
+languages and races, the differences in civilization all combined to
+challenge the skill of the government. Moreover, there was raging in
+1901 a stubborn revolt against American authority, which had to be
+faced. Following the lines laid down by President McKinley, the
+evolution of<a name="Page_518" id="Page_518"></a> American policy fell into three stages. At first the
+islands were governed directly by the President under his supreme
+military power. In 1901 a civilian commission, headed by William Howard
+Taft, was selected by the President and charged with the government of
+the provinces in which order had been restored. Six years later, under
+the terms of an organic act, passed by Congress in 1902, the third stage
+was reached. The local government passed into the hands of a governor
+and commission, appointed by the President and Senate, and a
+legislature&mdash;one house elected by popular vote and an upper chamber
+composed of the commission. This scheme, like that obtaining in Porto
+Rico, remained intact until a Democratic Congress under President
+Wilson's leadership carried the colonial administration into its fourth
+phase by making both houses elective. Thus, by the steady pursuit of a
+liberal policy, self-government was extended to the dependencies; but it
+encouraged rather than extinguished the vigorous movement among the
+Philippine natives for independence.</p>
+
+<div><a name="taft" id="taft" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/551.jpg"><img src="./images/551-tb.jpg" alt="Mr Taft in the Philippines" title="Mr Taft in the Philippines" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mr Taft in the Philippines</span></div>
+
+
+<p><b>Cuban Relations.</b>&mdash;Within the
+sphere of colonial affairs, Cuba, though nominally independent, also
+presented problems to the government at Washington. In the fine
+enthusiasm that accompanied the declaration of war on Spain, Congress,
+unmindful of practical considerations, recognized the independence of
+Cuba and disclaimed "any disposition or intention to exercise
+sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island except for the
+pacification thereof." In the settlement that followed the war, however,
+it was deemed undesirable to set the young republic adrift upon the
+stormy sea of international politics without a guiding hand. Before
+withdrawing American troops from the island, Congress, in March, 1901,
+enacted, and required Cuba to approve, a series of restrictions known as
+the Platt amendment, limiting her power to incur indebtedness, securing
+the right of the United States to intervene whenever necessary to
+protect life and property, and reserving to the United States coaling
+stations at certain points to be agreed upon. The Cubans made strong
+protests against what they <a name="Page_519" id="Page_519"></a>deemed "infringements of their sovereignty";
+but finally with good grace accepted their fate. Even when in 1906
+President Roosevelt landed American troops in the island to quell a
+domestic dissension, they acquiesced in the action, evidently regarding
+it as a distinct warning that they should learn to manage their
+elections in an orderly manner.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Roosevelt Domestic Policies</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Social Questions to the Front.</b>&mdash;From the day of his inauguration to
+the close of his service in 1909, President Roosevelt, in messages,
+speeches, and interviews, kept up a lively and interesting discussion of
+trusts, capital, labor, poverty, riches, lawbreaking, good citizenship,
+and kindred themes. Many a subject previously touched upon only by
+representatives of the minor and dissenting parties, he dignified by a
+careful examination. That he did this with any fixed design or policy in
+mind does not seem to be the case. He admitted himself that when he
+became President he did not have in hand any settled or far-reaching
+plan of social betterment. He did have, however, serious convictions on
+general principles. "I was bent upon making the government," he wrote,
+"the most efficient possible instrument in helping the people of the
+United States to better themselves in every way, politically, socially,
+and industrially. I believed with all my heart in real and
+thorough-going democracy and I wished to make the democracy industrial
+as well as political, although I had only partially formulated the
+method I believed we should follow." It is thus evident at least that he
+had departed a long way from the old idea of the government as nothing
+but a great policeman keeping order among the people in a struggle over
+the distribution of the nation's wealth and resources.</p>
+
+<p><b>Roosevelt's View of the Constitution.</b>&mdash;Equally significant was
+Roosevelt's attitude toward the Constitution and the office of
+President. He utterly repudiated the narrow construction of our national
+charter. He held that the Constitution "should be treated as the
+greatest document ever devised by the wit of <a name="Page_520" id="Page_520"></a>man to aid a people in
+exercising every power necessary for its own betterment, not as a
+strait-jacket cunningly fashioned to strangle growth." He viewed the
+presidency as he did the Constitution. Strict constructionists of the
+Jeffersonian school, of whom there were many on occasion even in the
+Republican party, had taken a view that the President could do nothing
+that he was not specifically authorized by the Constitution to do.
+Roosevelt took exactly the opposite position. It was his opinion that it
+was not only the President's right but his duty "to do anything that the
+needs of the nation demanded unless such action was forbidden by the
+Constitution or the laws." He went on to say that he acted "for the
+common well-being of all our people whenever and in whatever manner was
+necessary, unless prevented by direct constitutional or legislative
+prohibition."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Trusts and Railways.</b>&mdash;To the trust question, Roosevelt devoted
+especial attention. This was unavoidable. By far the larger part of the
+business of the country was done by corporations as distinguished from
+partnerships and individual owners. The growth of these gigantic
+aggregations of capital had been the leading feature in American
+industrial development during the last two decades of the nineteenth
+century. In the conquest of business by trusts and "the resulting
+private fortunes of great magnitude," the Populists and the Democrats
+had seen a grievous danger to the republic. "Plutocracy has taken the
+place of democracy; the tariff breeds trusts; let us destroy therefore
+the tariff and the trusts"&mdash;such was the battle cry which had been taken
+up by Bryan and his followers.</p>
+
+<p>President Roosevelt countered vigorously. He rejected the idea that the
+trusts were the product of the tariff or of governmental action of any
+kind. He insisted that they were the outcome of "natural economic
+forces": (1) destructive competition among business men compelling them
+to avoid ruin by co&ouml;peration in fixing prices; (2) the growth of markets
+on a national scale and even international scale calling for vast
+accumulations of capital to carry on such business; (3) the possibil<a name="Page_521" id="Page_521"></a>ity
+of immense savings by the union of many plants under one management. In
+the corporation he saw a new stage in the development of American
+industry. Unregulated competition he regarded as "the source of evils
+which all men concede must be remedied if this civilization of ours is
+to survive." The notion, therefore, that these immense business concerns
+should be or could be broken up by a decree of law, Roosevelt considered
+absurd.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time he proposed that "evil trusts" should be prevented from
+"wrong-doing of any kind"; that is, punished for plain swindling, for
+making agreements to limit output, for refusing to sell to customers who
+dealt with rival firms, and for conspiracies with railways to ruin
+competitors by charging high freight rates and for similar abuses.
+Accordingly, he proposed, not the destruction of the trusts, but their
+regulation by the government. This, he contended, would preserve the
+advantages of business on a national scale while preventing the evils
+that accompanied it. The railway company he declared to be a public
+servant. "Its rates should be just to and open to all shippers alike."
+So he answered those who thought that trusts and railway combinations
+were private concerns to be managed solely by their owners without let
+or hindrance and also those who thought trusts and railway combinations
+could be abolished by tariff reduction or criminal prosecution.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Labor Question.</b>&mdash;On the labor question, then pressing to the front
+in public interest, President Roosevelt took advanced ground for his
+time. He declared that the working-man, single-handed and empty-handed,
+threatened with starvation if unemployed, was no match for the employer
+who was able to bargain and wait. This led him, accordingly, to accept
+the principle of the trade union; namely, that only by collective
+bargaining can labor be put on a footing to measure its strength equally
+with capital. While he severely arraigned labor leaders who advocated
+violence and destructive doctrines, he held that "the organization of
+labor into trade unions and federations is necessary, is beneficent, and
+is one of the greatest <a name="Page_522" id="Page_522"></a>possible agencies in the attainment of a true
+industrial, as well as a true political, democracy in the United
+States." The last resort of trade unions in labor disputes, the strike,
+he approved in case negotiations failed to secure "a fair deal."</p>
+
+<p>He thought, however, that labor organizations, even if wisely managed,
+could not solve all the pressing social questions of the time. The aid
+of the government at many points he believed to be necessary to
+eliminate undeserved poverty, industrial diseases, unemployment, and the
+unfortunate consequences of industrial accidents. In his first message
+of 1901, for instance, he urged that workers injured in industry should
+have certain and ample compensation. From time to time he advocated
+other legislation to obtain what he called "a larger measure of social
+and industrial justice."</p>
+
+<p><b>Great Riches and Taxation.</b>&mdash;Even the challenge of the radicals, such
+as the Populists, who alleged that "the toil of millions is boldly
+stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a few"&mdash;challenges which his
+predecessors did not consider worthy of notice&mdash;President Roosevelt
+refused to let pass without an answer. In his first message he denied
+the truth of the common saying that the rich were growing richer and the
+poor were growing poorer. He asserted that, on the contrary, the average
+man, wage worker, farmer, and small business man, was better off than
+ever before in the history of our country. That there had been abuses in
+the accumulation of wealth he did not pretend to ignore, but he believed
+that even immense fortunes, on the whole, represented positive benefits
+conferred upon the country. Nevertheless he felt that grave dangers to
+the safety and the happiness of the people lurked in great inequalities
+of wealth. In 1906 he wrote that he wished it were in his power to
+prevent the heaping up of enormous fortunes. The next year, to the
+astonishment of many leaders in his own party, he boldly announced in a
+message to Congress that he approved both income and inheritance taxes,
+then generally viewed as Populist or Democratic measures. He even took
+the stand that such taxes should be laid in order to bring about a more
+equitable <a name="Page_523" id="Page_523"></a>distribution of wealth and greater equality of opportunity
+among citizens.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Legislative and Executive Activities</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Economic Legislation.</b>&mdash;When President Roosevelt turned from the field
+of opinion he found himself in a different sphere. Many of his views
+were too advanced for the members of his party in Congress, and where
+results depended upon the making of new laws, his progress was slow.
+Nevertheless, in his administrations several measures were enacted that
+bore the stamp of his theories, though it could hardly be said that he
+dominated Congress to the same degree as did some other Presidents. The
+Hepburn Railway Act of 1906 enlarged the interstate commerce commission;
+it extended the commission's power over oil pipe lines, express
+companies, and other interstate carriers; it gave the commission the
+right to reduce rates found to be unreasonable and discriminatory; it
+forbade "midnight tariffs," that is, sudden changes in rates favoring
+certain shippers; and it prohibited common carriers from transporting
+goods owned by themselves, especially coal, except for their own proper
+use. Two important pure food and drug laws, enacted during the same
+year, were designed to protect the public against diseased meats and
+deleterious foods and drugs. A significant piece of labor legislation
+was an act of the same Congress making interstate railways liable to
+damages for injuries sustained by their employees. When this measure was
+declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court it was re&euml;nacted with the
+objectionable clauses removed. A second installment of labor legislation
+was offered in the law of 1908 limiting the hours of railway employees
+engaged as trainmen or telegraph operators.</p>
+
+<div><a name="dam" id="dam" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/558.jpg"><img src="./images/558-tb.jpg" alt="The Roosevelt Dam, Phoenix, Arizona" title="The Roosevelt Dam, Phoenix, Arizona" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Courtesy United States Reclamation Service.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">The Roosevelt Dam, Phoenix, Arizona</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Reclamation and Conservation.</b>&mdash;The open country&mdash;the deserts, the
+forests, waterways, and the public lands&mdash;interested President Roosevelt
+no less than railway and industrial questions. Indeed, in his first
+message to Congress he placed the conservation of natural resources
+among "the most vital internal problems" of the age, and forcibly
+emphasized an issue <a name="Page_524" id="Page_524"></a><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525"></a>that had been discussed in a casual way since
+Cleveland's first administration. The suggestion evoked an immediate
+response in Congress. Under the leadership of Senator Newlands, of
+Nevada, the Reclamation Act of 1902 was passed, providing for the
+redemption of the desert areas of the West. The proceeds from the sale
+of public lands were dedicated to the construction of storage dams and
+sluiceways to hold water and divert it as needed to the thirsty sands.
+Furthermore it was stipulated that the rents paid by water users should
+go into a reclamation fund to continue the good work forever.
+Construction was started immediately under the terms of the law. Within
+seventeen years about 1,600,000 acres had been reclaimed and more than a
+million were actually irrigated. In the single year 1918, the crops of
+the irrigated districts were valued at approximately $100,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>In his first message, also, President Roosevelt urged the transfer of
+all control over national forests to trained men in the Bureau of
+Forestry&mdash;a recommendation carried out in 1907 when the Forestry Service
+was created. In every direction noteworthy advances were made in the
+administration of the national domain. The science of forestry was
+improved and knowledge of the subject spread among the people. Lands in
+the national forest available for agriculture were opened to settlers.
+Water power sites on the public domain were leased for a term of years
+to private companies instead of being sold outright. The area of the
+national forests was enlarged from 43 million acres to 194 million acres
+by presidential proclamation&mdash;more than 43 million acres being added in
+one year, 1907. The men who turned sheep and cattle to graze on the
+public lands were compelled to pay a fair rental, much to their
+dissatisfaction. Fire prevention work was undertaken in the forests on a
+large scale, reducing the appalling, annual destruction of timber.
+Millions of acres of coal land, such as the government had been
+carelessly selling to mining companies at low figures, were withdrawn
+from sale and held until Congress was prepared to enact laws for the
+disposition of them in the <a name="Page_526" id="Page_526"></a>public interest. Prosecutions were
+instituted against men who had obtained public lands by fraud and vast
+tracts were recovered for the national domain. An agitation was begun
+which bore fruit under the administrations of Taft and Wilson in laws
+reserving to the federal government the ownership of coal, water power,
+phosphates, and other natural resources while authorizing corporations
+to develop them under leases for a period of years.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Prosecution of the Trusts.</b>&mdash;As an executive, President Roosevelt
+was also a distinct "personality." His discrimination between "good" and
+"bad" trusts led him to prosecute some of them with vigor. On his
+initiative, the Northern Securities Company, formed to obtain control of
+certain great western railways, was dissolved by order of the Supreme
+Court. Proceedings were instituted against the American Tobacco Company
+and the Standard Oil Company as monopolies in violation of the Sherman
+Anti-Trust law. The Sugar Trust was found guilty of cheating the New
+York customs house and some of the minor officers were sent to prison.
+Frauds in the Post-office Department were uncovered and the offenders
+brought to book. In fact hardly a week passed without stirring news of
+"wrong doers" and "malefactors" haled into federal courts.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Great Coal Strike.</b>&mdash;The Roosevelt theory that the President could
+do anything for public welfare not forbidden by the Constitution and the
+laws was put to a severe test in 1902. A strike of the anthracite coal
+miners, which started in the summer, ran late into the autumn.
+Industries were paralyzed for the want of coal; cities were threatened
+with the appalling menace of a winter without heat. Governors and mayors
+were powerless and appealed for aid. The mine owners rejected the
+demands of the men and refused to permit the arbitration of the points
+in dispute, although John Mitchell, the leader of the miners, repeatedly
+urged it. After observing closely the course affairs, President
+Roosevelt made up his mind that the situation was intolerable. He
+arranged to have the federal troops, if <a name="Page_527" id="Page_527"></a>necessary, take possession of
+the mines and operate them until the strike could be settled. He then
+invited the contestants to the White House and by dint of hard labor
+induced them to accept, as a substitute or compromise, arbitration by a
+commission which he appointed. Thus, by stepping outside the
+Constitution and acting as the first citizen of the land, President
+Roosevelt averted a crisis of great magnitude.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Election of 1904.</b>&mdash;The views and measures which he advocated with
+such vigor aroused deep hostility within as well as without his party.
+There were rumors of a Republican movement to defeat his nomination in
+1904 and it was said that the "financial and corporation interests" were
+in arms against him. A prominent Republican paper in New York City
+accused him of having "stolen Mr. Bryan's thunder," by harrying the
+trusts and favoring labor unions. When the Republican convention
+assembled in Chicago, however, the opposition disappeared and Roosevelt
+was nominated by acclamation.</p>
+
+<p>This was the signal for a change on the part of Democratic leaders. They
+denounced the President as erratic, dangerous, and radical and decided
+to assume the moderate r&ocirc;le themselves. They put aside Mr. Bryan and
+selected as their candidate, Judge Alton B. Parker, of New York, a man
+who repudiated free silver and made a direct appeal for the conservative
+vote. The outcome of the reversal was astounding. Judge Parker's vote
+fell more than a million below that cast for Bryan in 1900; of the 476
+electoral votes he received only 140. Roosevelt, in addition to sweeping
+the Republican sections, even invaded Democratic territory, carrying the
+state of Missouri. Thus vindicated at the polls, he became more
+outspoken than ever. His leadership in the party was so widely
+recognized that he virtually selected his own successor.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Administration of President Taft</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Campaign of 1908.</b>&mdash;Long before the end of his elective term,
+President Roosevelt let it be known that he favored as his successor,
+William Howard Taft, of Ohio, his Secretary of War.<a name="Page_528" id="Page_528"></a> To attain this end
+he used every shred of his powerful influence. When the Republican
+convention assembled, Mr. Taft easily won the nomination. Though the
+party platform was conservative in tone, he gave it a progressive tinge
+by expressing his personal belief in the popular election of United
+States Senators, an income tax, and other liberal measures. President
+Roosevelt announced his faith in the Republican candidate and appealed
+to the country for his election.</p>
+
+<p>The turn in Republican affairs now convinced Mr. Bryan that the signs
+were propitious for a third attempt to win the presidency. The disaster
+to Judge Parker had taught the party that victory did not lie in a
+conservative policy. With little difficulty, therefore, the veteran
+leader from Nebraska once more rallied the Democrats around his
+standard, won the nomination, and wrote a platform vigorously attacking
+the tariff, trusts, and monopolies. Supported by a loyal following, he
+entered the lists, only to meet another defeat. Though he polled almost
+a million and a half more votes than did Judge Parker in 1904, the palm
+went to Mr. Taft.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Tariff Revision and Party Dissensions.</b>&mdash;At the very beginning of
+his term, President Taft had to face the tariff issue. He had met it in
+the campaign. Moved by the Democratic demand for a drastic reduction, he
+had expressed opinions which were thought to imply a "downward
+revision." The Democrats made much of the implication and the
+Republicans from the Middle West rejoiced in it. Pressure was coming
+from all sides. More than ten years had elapsed since the enactment of
+the Dingley bill and the position of many industries had been altered
+with the course of time. Evidently the day for revision&mdash;at best a
+thankless task&mdash;had arrived. Taft accepted the inevitable and called
+Congress in a special session. Until the midsummer of 1909, Republican
+Senators and Representatives wrangled over tariff schedules, the
+President making little effort to influence their decisions. When on
+August 5 the Payne-Aldrich bill became a law, a breach had been made in
+Republican ranks. Powerful Senators from the Middle West <a name="Page_529" id="Page_529"></a>had spoken
+angrily against many of the high rates imposed by the bill. They had
+even broken with their party colleagues to vote against the entire
+scheme of tariff revision.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Income Tax Amendment.</b>&mdash;The rift in party harmony was widened by
+another serious difference of opinion. During the debate on the tariff
+bill, there was a concerted movement to include in it an income tax
+provision&mdash;this in spite of the decision of the Supreme Court in 1895
+declaring it unconstitutional. Conservative men were alarmed by the
+evident willingness of some members to flout a solemn decree of that
+eminent tribunal. At the same time they saw a powerful combination of
+Republicans and Democrats determined upon shifting some of the burden of
+taxation to large incomes. In the press of circumstances, a compromise
+was reached. The income tax bill was dropped for the present; but
+Congress passed the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution, authorizing
+taxes upon incomes from whatever source they might be derived, without
+reference to any apportionment among the states on the basis of
+population. The states ratified the amendment and early in 1913 it was
+proclaimed.</p>
+
+<p><b>President Taft's Policies.</b>&mdash;After the enactment of the tariff bill,
+Taft continued to push forward with his legislative program. He
+recommended, and Congress created, a special court of commerce with
+jurisdiction, among other things, over appeals from the interstate
+commerce commission, thus facilitating judicial review of the railway
+rates fixed and the orders issued by that body. This measure was quickly
+followed by an act establishing a system of postal savings banks in
+connection with the post office&mdash;a scheme which had long been opposed by
+private banks. Two years later, Congress defied the lobby of the express
+companies and supplemented the savings banks with a parcels post system,
+thus enabling the American postal service to catch up with that of other
+progressive nations. With a view to improving the business
+administration of the federal government, the President obtained from
+Congress a large appropriation for an economy and efficiency commission
+charged <a name="Page_530" id="Page_530"></a>with the duty of inquiring into wasteful and obsolete methods
+and recommending improved devices and practices. The chief result of
+this investigation was a vigorous report in favor of a national budget
+system, which soon found public backing.</p>
+
+<p>President Taft negotiated with England and France general treaties
+providing for the arbitration of disputes which were "justiciable" in
+character even though they might involve questions of "vital interest
+and national honor." They were coldly received in the Senate and so
+amended that Taft abandoned them altogether. A tariff reciprocity
+agreement with Canada, however, he forced through Congress in the face
+of strong opposition from his own party. After making a serious breach
+in Republican ranks, he was chagrined to see the whole scheme come to
+naught by the overthrow of the Liberals in the Canadian elections of
+1911.</p>
+
+<p><b>Prosecution of the Trusts.</b>&mdash;The party schism was even enlarged by what
+appeared to be the successful prosecution of several great combinations.
+In two important cases, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the
+Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company on the ground that
+they violated the Sherman Anti-Trust law. In taking this step Chief
+Justice White was at some pains to state that the law did not apply to
+combinations which did not "unduly" restrain trade. His remark,
+construed to mean that the Court would not interfere with corporations
+as such, became the subject of a popular outcry against the President
+and the judges.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Progressive Insurgency and the Election of 1912</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Growing Dissensions.</b>&mdash;All in all, Taft's administration from the first
+day had been disturbed by party discord. High words had passed over the
+tariff bill and disgruntled members of Congress could not forget them.
+To differences over issues were added quarrels between youth and old
+age. In the House of Representatives there developed a group of young
+"insurgent" Republicans who resented the dominance of the Speaker,
+Joseph G. Cannon, and other members of the "old guard," as <a name="Page_531" id="Page_531"></a>they named
+the men of long service and conservative minds. In 1910, the insurgents
+went so far as to join with the Democrats in a movement to break the
+Speaker's sway by ousting him from the rules committee and depriving him
+of the power to appoint its members. The storm was brewing. In the
+autumn of that year the Democrats won a clear majority in the House of
+Representatives and began an open battle with President Taft by
+demanding an immediate downward revision of the tariff.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Rise of the Progressive Republicans.</b>&mdash;Preparatory to the campaign
+of 1912, the dissenters within the Republican party added the prefix
+"Progressive" to their old title and began to organize a movement to
+prevent the renomination of Mr. Taft. As early as January 21, 1911, they
+formed a Progressive Republican League at the home of Senator La
+Follette of Wisconsin and launched an attack on the Taft measures and
+policies. In October they indorsed Mr. La Follette as "the logical
+Republican candidate" and appealed to the party for support. The
+controversy over the tariff had grown into a formidable revolt against
+the occupant of the White House.</p>
+
+<p><b>Roosevelt in the Field.</b>&mdash;After looking on for a while, ex-President
+Roosevelt took a hand in the fray. Soon after his return in 1910 from a
+hunting trip in Africa and a tour in Europe, he made a series of
+addresses in which he formulated a progressive program. In a speech in
+Kansas, he favored regulation of the trusts, a graduated income tax
+bearing heavily on great fortunes, tariff revision schedule by schedule,
+conservation of natural resources, labor legislation, the direct
+primary, and the recall of elective officials. In an address before the
+Ohio state constitutional convention in February, 1912, he indorsed the
+initiative and referendum and announced a doctrine known as the "recall
+of judicial decisions." This was a new and radical note in American
+politics. An ex-President of the United States proposed that the people
+at the polls should have the right to reverse the decision of a judge
+who set aside <a name="Page_532" id="Page_532"></a>any act of a state legislature passed in the interests of
+social welfare. The Progressive Republicans, impressed by these
+addresses, turned from La Follette to Roosevelt and on February 24,
+induced him to come out openly as a candidate against Taft for the
+Republican nomination.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Split in the Republican Party.</b>&mdash;The country then witnessed the
+strange spectacle of two men who had once been close companions engaged
+in a bitter rivalry to secure a majority of the delegates to the
+Republican convention to be held at Chicago. When the convention
+assembled, about one-fourth of the seats were contested, the delegates
+for both candidates loudly proclaiming the regularity of their election.
+In deciding between the contestants the national committee, after the
+usual hearings, settled the disputes in such a way that Taft received a
+safe majority. After a week of negotiation, Roosevelt and his followers
+left the Republican party. Most of his supporters withdrew from the
+convention and the few who remained behind refused to answer the roll
+call. Undisturbed by this formidable bolt, the regular Republicans went
+on with their work. They renominated Mr. Taft and put forth a platform
+roundly condemning such Progressive doctrines as the recall of judges.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Formation of the Progressive Party.</b>&mdash;The action of the Republicans
+in seating the Taft delegates was vigorously denounced by Roosevelt. He
+declared that the convention had no claim to represent the voters of the
+Republican party; that any candidate named by it would be "the
+beneficiary of a successful fraud"; and that it would be deeply
+discreditable to any man to accept the convention's approval under such
+circumstances. The bitterness of his followers was extreme. On July 8, a
+call went forth for a "Progressive" convention to be held in Chicago on
+August 5. The assembly which duly met on that day was a unique political
+conference. Prominence was given to women delegates, and "politicians"
+were notably absent. Roosevelt himself, who was cheered as a conquering
+hero, made an impassioned speech setting forth his "confession <a name="Page_533" id="Page_533"></a>of
+faith." He was nominated by acclamation; Governor Hiram Johnson of
+California was selected as his companion candidate for Vice President.
+The platform endorsed such political reforms as woman suffrage, direct
+primaries, the initiative, referendum, and recall, popular election of
+United States Senators, and the short ballot. It favored a program of
+social legislation, including the prohibition of child labor and minimum
+wages for women. It approved the regulation, rather than the
+dissolution, of the trusts. Like apostles in a new and lofty cause, the
+Progressives entered a vigorous campaign for the election of their
+distinguished leader.</p>
+
+<p><b>Woodrow Wilson and the Election of 1912.</b>&mdash;With the Republicans
+divided, victory loomed up before the Democrats. Naturally, a terrific
+contest over the nomination occurred at their convention in Baltimore.
+Champ Clark, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and Governor
+Woodrow Wilson, of New Jersey, were the chief contestants. After tossing
+to and fro for seven long, hot days, and taking forty-six ballots, the
+delegates, powerfully influenced by Mr. Bryan, finally decided in favor
+of the governor. As a professor, a writer on historical and political
+subjects, and the president of Princeton University, Mr. Wilson had
+become widely known in public life. As the governor of New Jersey he had
+attracted the support of the progressives in both parties. With grim
+determination he had "waged war on the bosses," and pushed through the
+legislature measures establishing direct primaries, regulating public
+utilities, and creating a system of workmen's compensation in
+industries. During the presidential campaign that followed Governor
+Wilson toured the country and aroused great enthusiasm by a series of
+addresses later published under the title of <i>The New Freedom</i>. He
+declared that "the government of the United States is at present the
+foster child of the special interests." He proposed to free the country
+by breaking the dominance of "the big bankers, the big manufacturers,
+the big masters of commerce, the heads of railroad corporations and of
+steamship corporations."<a name="Page_534" id="Page_534"></a></p>
+
+<p>In the election Governor Wilson easily secured a majority of the
+electoral votes, and his party, while retaining possession of the House
+of Representatives, captured the Senate as well. The popular verdict,
+however, indicated a state of confusion in the country. The combined
+Progressive and Republican vote exceeded that of the Democrats by
+1,300,000. The Socialists, with Eugene V. Debs as their candidate again,
+polled about 900,000 votes, more than double the number received four
+years before. Thus, as the result of an extraordinary upheaval the
+Republicans, after holding the office of President for sixteen years,
+passed out of power, and the government of the country was intrusted to
+the Democrats under the leadership of a man destined to be one of the
+outstanding figures of the modern age, Woodrow Wilson.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>General References</b></p>
+
+<p>J.B. Bishop, <i>Theodore Roosevelt and His Time</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>Theodore Roosevelt, <i>Autobiography</i>; <i>New Nationalism</i>; <i>Progressive
+Principles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.H. Taft, <i>Popular Government</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Walter Weyl, <i>The New Democracy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H. Croly, <i>The Promise of American Life</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.B. Bishop, <i>The Panama Gateway</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.B. Scott, <i>The Hague Peace Conferences</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.B. Munro (ed.), <i>Initiative, Referendum, and Recall</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C.R. Van Hise, <i>The Conservation of Natural Resources</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Gifford Pinchot, <i>The Fight for Conservation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.F. Willoughby, <i>Territories and Dependencies of the United States</i>
+(1905).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>Roosevelt and "Big Business."</b>&mdash;Haworth, <i>The United States in Our Own
+Time</i>, pp. 281-289; F.A. Ogg, <i>National Progress</i> (American Nation
+Series), pp. 40-75; Paxson, <i>The New Nation</i> (Riverside Series), pp.
+293-307.</p>
+
+<p><b>Our Insular Possessions.</b>&mdash;Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>, pp.
+896-904.</p>
+
+<p><b>Latin-American Relations.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 294-299; Ogg, pp. 254-257.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Panama Canal.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 300-309; Ogg, pp. 266-277; Paxson, pp.
+286-292; Elson, pp. 906-911.<a name="Page_535" id="Page_535"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Conservation.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 331-334; Ogg, pp. 96-115; Beard, <i>American
+Government and Politics</i> (3d ed.), pp. 401-416.</p>
+
+<p><b>Republican Dissensions under Taft's Administration.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp.
+351-360; Ogg, pp. 167-186; Paxson, pp. 324-342; Elson, pp. 916-924.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Campaign of 1912.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 360-379; Ogg, pp. 187-208.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Compare the early career of Roosevelt with that of some other
+President.</p>
+
+<p>2. Name the chief foreign and domestic questions of the Roosevelt-Taft
+administrations.</p>
+
+<p>3. What international complications were involved in the Panama Canal
+problem?</p>
+
+<p>4. Review the Monroe Doctrine. Discuss Roosevelt's applications of it.</p>
+
+<p>5. What is the strategic importance of the Caribbean to the United
+States?</p>
+
+<p>6. What is meant by the sea power? Trace the voyage of the fleet around
+the world and mention the significant imperial and commercial points
+touched.</p>
+
+<p>7. What is meant by the question: "Does the Constitution follow the
+flag?"</p>
+
+<p>8. Trace the history of self-government in Porto Rico. In the
+Philippines.</p>
+
+<p>9. What is Cuba's relation to the United States?</p>
+
+<p>10. What was Roosevelt's theory of our Constitution?</p>
+
+<p>11. Give Roosevelt's views on trusts, labor, taxation.</p>
+
+<p>12. Outline the domestic phases of Roosevelt's administrations.</p>
+
+<p>13. Account for the dissensions under Taft.</p>
+
+<p>14. Trace the rise of the Progressive movement.</p>
+
+<p>15. What was Roosevelt's progressive program?</p>
+
+<p>16. Review Wilson's early career and explain the underlying theory of
+<i>The New Freedom</i>.<a name="Page_536" id="Page_536"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XXII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SPIRIT OF REFORM IN AMERICA</h3>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">An Age of Criticism</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Attacks on Abuses in American Life.</b>&mdash;The crisis precipitated by the
+Progressive uprising was not a sudden and unexpected one. It had been
+long in preparation. The revolt against corruption in politics which
+produced the Liberal Republican outbreak in the seventies and the
+Mugwump movement of the eighties was followed by continuous criticism of
+American political and economic development. From 1880 until his death
+in 1892, George William Curtis, as president of the Civil Service Reform
+Association, kept up a running fire upon the abuses of the spoils
+system. James Bryce, an observant English scholar and man of affairs, in
+his great work, <i>The American Commonwealth</i>, published in 1888, by
+picturing fearlessly the political rings and machines which dominated
+the cities, gave the whole country a fresh shock. Six years later Henry
+D. Lloyd, in a powerful book entitled <i>Wealth against Commonwealth</i>,
+attacked in scathing language certain trusts which had destroyed their
+rivals and bribed public officials. In 1903 Miss Ida Tarbell, an author
+of established reputation in the historical field, gave to the public an
+account of the Standard Oil Company, revealing the ruthless methods of
+that corporation in crushing competition. About the same time Lincoln
+Steffens exposed the sordid character of politics in several
+municipalities in a series of articles bearing the painful heading: <i>The
+Shame of the Cities</i>. The critical spirit appeared in almost every form;
+in weekly and monthly magazines, in essays and pamphlets, in editorials
+and news stories, in novels like Churchill's <i>Coniston</i> and Sinclair's
+<i>The Jungle</i>. It became so savage <a name="Page_537" id="Page_537"></a>and so wanton that the opening years
+of the twentieth century were well named "the age of the muckrakers."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Subjects of the Criticism.</b>&mdash;In this outburst of invective, nothing
+was spared. It was charged that each of the political parties had fallen
+into the hands of professional politicians who devoted their time to
+managing conventions, making platforms, nominating candidates, and
+dictating to officials; in return for their "services" they sold offices
+and privileges. It was alleged that mayors and councils had bargained
+away for private benefit street railway and other franchises. It was
+asserted that many powerful labor unions were dominated by men who
+blackmailed employers. Some critics specialized in descriptions of the
+poverty, slums, and misery of great cities. Others took up "frenzied
+finance" and accused financiers of selling worthless stocks and bonds to
+an innocent public. Still others professed to see in the accumulations
+of millionaires the downfall of our republic.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Attack on "Invisible Government."</b>&mdash;Some even maintained that the
+control of public affairs had passed from the people to a sinister
+minority called "the invisible government." So eminent and conservative
+a statesman as the Hon. Elihu Root lent the weight of his great name to
+such an imputation. Speaking of his native state, New York, he said:
+"What is the government of this state? What has it been during the forty
+years of my acquaintance with it? The government of the Constitution?
+Oh, no; not half the time or half way.... From the days of Fenton and
+Conkling and Arthur and Cornell and Platt, from the days of David B.
+Hill down to the present time, the government of the state has presented
+two different lines of activity: one, of the constitutional and
+statutory officers of the state and the other of the party leaders; they
+call them party bosses. They call the system&mdash;I don't coin the
+phrase&mdash;the system they call 'invisible government.' For I don't know
+how many years Mr. Conkling was the supreme ruler in this state. The
+governor did not count, the legislature did not count, comptrollers and
+secretaries of state <a name="Page_538" id="Page_538"></a>and what not did not count. It was what Mr.
+Conkling said, and in a great outburst of public rage he was pulled
+down. Then Mr. Platt ruled the state; for nigh upon twenty years he
+ruled it. It was not the governor; it was not the legislature; it was
+Mr. Platt. And the capital was not here [in Albany]; it was at 49
+Broadway; Mr. Platt and his lieutenants. It makes no difference what
+name you give, whether you call it Fenton or Conkling or Cornell or
+Arthur or Platt or by the names of men now living. The ruler of the
+state during the greater part of the forty years of my acquaintance with
+the state government has not been any man authorized by the constitution
+or by law.... The party leader is elected by no one, accountable to no
+one, bound by no oath of office, removable by no one."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Nation Aroused.</b>&mdash;With the spirit of criticism came also the spirit
+of reform. The charges were usually exaggerated; often wholly false; but
+there was enough truth in them to warrant renewed vigilance on the part
+of American democracy. President Roosevelt doubtless summed up the
+sentiment of the great majority of citizens when he demanded the
+punishment of wrong-doers in 1907, saying: "It makes not a particle of
+difference whether these crimes are committed by a capitalist or by a
+laborer, by a leading banker or manufacturer or railroad man or by a
+leading representative of a labor union. Swindling in stocks, corrupting
+legislatures, making fortunes by the inflation of securities, by
+wrecking railroads, by destroying competitors through rebates&mdash;these
+forms of wrong-doing in the capitalist are far more infamous than any
+ordinary form of embezzlement or forgery." The time had come, he added,
+to stop "muckraking" and proceed to the constructive work of removing
+the abuses that had grown up.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Political Reforms</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Public Service.</b>&mdash;It was a wise comprehension of the needs of
+American democracy that led the friends of reform to launch and to
+sustain for more than half a century a movement to <a name="Page_539" id="Page_539"></a>improve the public
+service. On the one side they struck at the spoils system; at the right
+of the politicians to use public offices as mere rewards for partisan
+work. The federal civil service act of 1883 opened the way to reform by
+establishing five vital principles in law: (1) admission to office, not
+on the recommendation of party workers, but on the basis of competitive
+examinations; (2) promotion for meritorious service of the government
+rather than of parties; (3) no assessment of office holders for campaign
+funds; (4) permanent tenure during good behavior; and (5) no dismissals
+for political reasons. The act itself at first applied to only 14,000
+federal offices, but under the constant pressure from the reformers it
+was extended until in 1916 it covered nearly 300,000 employees out of an
+executive force of approximately 414,000. While gaining steadily at
+Washington, civil service reformers carried their agitation into the
+states and cities. By 1920 they were able to report ten states with
+civil service commissions and the merit system well intrenched in more
+than three hundred municipalities.</p>
+
+<p>In excluding spoilsmen from public office, the reformers were, in a
+sense, engaged in a negative work: that of "keeping the rascals out."
+But there was a second and larger phase to their movement, one
+constructive in character: that of getting skilled, loyal, and efficient
+servants into the places of responsibility. Everywhere on land and sea,
+in town and country, new burdens were laid upon public officers. They
+were called upon to supervise the ships sailing to and from our ports;
+to inspect the water and milk supplies of our cities; to construct and
+operate great public works, such as the Panama and Erie canals; to
+regulate the complicated rates of railway companies; to safeguard health
+and safety in a thousand ways; to climb the mountains to fight forest
+fires; and to descend into the deeps of the earth to combat the deadly
+coal gases that assail the miners. In a word, those who labored to
+master the secrets and the powers of nature were summoned to the aid of
+the government: chemists, engineers, architects, nurses, surgeons,
+foresters&mdash;the skilled in all the sciences, arts, and crafts.<a name="Page_540" id="Page_540"></a></p>
+
+<p>Keeping rascals out was no task at all compared with the problem of
+finding competent people for all the technical offices. "Now," said the
+reformers, "we must make attractive careers in the government work for
+the best American talent; we must train those applying for admission and
+increase the skill of those already in positions of trust; we must see
+to it that those entering at the bottom have a chance to rise to the
+top; in short, we must work for a government as skilled and efficient as
+it is strong, one commanding all the wisdom and talent of America that
+public welfare requires."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Australian Ballot.</b>&mdash;A second line of attack on the political
+machines was made in connection with the ballot. In the early days
+elections were frequently held in the open air and the poll was taken by
+a show of hands or by the enrollment of the voters under names of their
+favorite candidates. When this ancient practice was abandoned in favor
+of the printed ballot, there was still no secrecy about elections. Each
+party prepared its own ballot, often of a distinctive color, containing
+the names of its candidates. On election day, these papers were handed
+out to the voters by party workers. Any one could tell from the color of
+the ballot dropped into the box, or from some mark on the outside of the
+folded ballot, just how each man voted. Those who bought votes were sure
+that their purchases were "delivered." Those who intimidated voters
+could know when their intimidation was effective. In this way the party
+ballot strengthened the party machine.</p>
+
+<p>As a remedy for such abuses, reformers, learning from the experience of
+Australia, urged the adoption of the "Australian ballot." That ballot,
+though it appeared in many forms, had certain constant features. It was
+official, that is, furnished by the government, not by party workers; it
+contained the names of all candidates of all parties; it was given out
+only in the polling places; and it was marked in secret. The first state
+to introduce it was Massachusetts. The year was 1888. Before the end of
+the century it had been adopted by nearly all the states in the union.
+The salutary effect of the reform in reduc<a name="Page_541" id="Page_541"></a>ing the amount of cheating
+and bribery in elections was beyond all question.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Direct Primary.</b>&mdash;In connection with the uprising against machine
+politics, came a call for the abolition of the old method of nominating
+candidates by conventions. These time-honored party assemblies, which
+had come down from the days of Andrew Jackson, were, it was said, merely
+conclaves of party workers, sustained by the spoils system, and
+dominated by an inner circle of bosses. The remedy offered in this case
+was again "more democracy," namely, the abolition of the party
+convention and the adoption of the direct primary. Candidates were no
+longer to be chosen by secret conferences. Any member of a party was to
+be allowed to run for any office, to present his name to his party by
+securing signatures to a petition, and to submit his candidacy to his
+fellow partisans at a direct primary&mdash;an election within the party. In
+this movement Governor La Follette of Wisconsin took the lead and his
+state was the first in the union to adopt the direct primary for
+state-wide purposes. The idea spread, rapidly in the West, more slowly
+in the East. The public, already angered against "the bosses," grasped
+eagerly at it. Governor Hughes in New York pressed it upon the unwilling
+legislature. State after state accepted it until by 1918 Rhode Island,
+Delaware, Connecticut, and New Mexico were the only states that had not
+bowed to the storm. Still the results were disappointing and at that
+very time the pendulum was beginning to swing backward.</p>
+
+<p><b>Popular Election of Federal Senators.</b>&mdash;While the movement for direct
+primaries was still advancing everywhere, a demand for the popular
+election of Senators, usually associated with it, swept forward to
+victory. Under the original Constitution, it had been expressly provided
+that Senators should be chosen by the legislatures of the states. In
+practice this rule transferred the selection of Senators to secret
+caucuses of party members in the state legislatures. In connection with
+these caucuses there had been many scandals, some direct proofs of
+brazen bribery and corruption, and dark hints besides. The<a name="Page_542" id="Page_542"></a> Senate was
+called by its detractors "a millionaires' club" and it was looked upon
+as the "citadel of conservatism." The prescription in this case was
+likewise "more democracy"&mdash;direct election of Senators by popular vote.</p>
+
+<p>This reform was not a new idea. It had been proposed in Congress as
+early as 1826. President Johnson, an ardent advocate, made it the
+subject of a special message in 1868 Not long afterward it appeared in
+Congress. At last in 1893, the year after the great Populist upheaval,
+the House of Representatives by the requisite two-thirds vote
+incorporated it in an amendment to the federal Constitution. Again and
+again it passed the House; but the Senate itself was obdurate. Able
+Senators leveled their batteries against it. Mr. Hoar of Massachusetts
+declared that it would transfer the seat of power to the "great cities
+and masses of population"; that it would "overthrow the whole scheme of
+the Senate and in the end the whole scheme of the national Constitution
+as designed and established by the framers of the Constitution and the
+people who adopted it."</p>
+
+<p>Failing in the Senate, advocates of popular election made a rear assault
+through the states. They induced state legislatures to enact laws
+requiring the nomination of candidates for the Senate by the direct
+primary, and then they bound the legislatures to abide by the popular
+choice. Nevada took the lead in 1899. Shortly afterward Oregon, by the
+use of the initiative and referendum, practically bound legislators to
+accept the popular nominee and the country witnessed the spectacle of a
+Republican legislature "electing" a Democrat to represent the state in
+the Senate at Washington. By 1910 three-fourths of the states had
+applied the direct primary in some form to the choice of Senators. Men
+selected by that method began to pour in upon the floors of Congress;
+finally in 1912 the two-thirds majority was secured for an amendment to
+the federal Constitution providing for the popular election of Senators.
+It was quickly ratified by the states. The following year it was
+proclaimed in effect.<a name="Page_543" id="Page_543"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Initiative and Referendum.</b>&mdash;As a corrective for the evils which
+had grown up in state legislatures there arose a demand for the
+introduction of a Swiss device known as the initiative and referendum.
+The initiative permits any one to draw up a proposed bill; and, on
+securing a certain number of signatures among the voters, to require the
+submission of the measure to the people at an election. If the bill thus
+initiated receives a sufficient majority, it becomes a law. The
+referendum allows citizens who disapprove any act passed by the
+legislature to get up a petition against it and thus bring about a
+reference of the measure to the voters at the polls for approval or
+rejection. These two practices constitute a form of "direct government."</p>
+
+<p>These devices were prescribed "to restore the government to the people."
+The Populists favored them in their platform of 1896. Mr. Bryan, two
+years later, made them a part of his program, and in the same year South
+Dakota adopted them. In 1902 Oregon, after a strenuous campaign, added a
+direct legislation amendment to the state constitution. Within ten years
+all the Southwestern, Mountain, and Pacific states, except Texas and
+Wyoming, had followed this example. To the east of the Mississippi,
+however, direct legislation met a chilly reception. By 1920 only five
+states in this section had accepted it: Maine, Massachusetts, Ohio,
+Michigan, and Maryland, the last approving the referendum only.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Recall.</b>&mdash;Executive officers and judges, as well as legislatures,
+had come in for their share of criticism, and it was proposed that they
+should likewise be subjected to a closer scrutiny by the public. For
+this purpose there was advanced a scheme known as the recall&mdash;which
+permitted a certain percentage of the voters to compel any officer, at
+any time during his term, to go before the people at a new election.
+This feature of direct government, tried out first in the city of Los
+Angeles, was extended to state-wide uses in Oregon in 1908. It failed,
+however, to capture popular imagination to the same degree as the
+initiative and referendum. At the end of ten <a name="Page_544" id="Page_544"></a>years' agitation, only ten
+states, mainly in the West, had adopted it for general purposes, and
+four of them did not apply it to the judges of the courts. Still it was
+extensively acclaimed in cities and incorporated into hundreds of
+municipal laws and charters.</p>
+
+<p>As a general proposition, direct government in all its forms was
+bitterly opposed by men of a conservative cast of mind. It was denounced
+by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge as "nothing less than a complete revolution
+in the fabric of our government and in the fundamental principles upon
+which that government rests." In his opinion, it promised to break down
+the representative principle and "undermine and overthrow the bulwarks
+of ordered liberty and individual freedom." Mr. Taft shared Mr. Lodge's
+views and spoke of direct government with scorn. "Votes," he exclaimed,
+"are not bread ... referendums do not pay rent or furnish houses,
+recalls do not furnish clothes, initiatives do not supply employment or
+relieve inequalities of condition or of opportunity."</p>
+
+<p><b>Commission Government for Cities.</b>&mdash;In the restless searching out of
+evils, the management of cities early came under critical scrutiny. City
+government, Mr. Bryce had remarked, was the one conspicuous failure in
+America. This sharp thrust, though resented by some, was accepted as a
+warning by others. Many prescriptions were offered by doctors of the
+body politic. Chief among them was the idea of simplifying the city
+government so that the light of public scrutiny could shine through it.
+"Let us elect only a few men and make them clearly responsible for the
+city government!" was the new cry in municipal reform. So, many city
+councils were reduced in size; one of the two houses, which several
+cities had adopted in imitation of the federal government, was
+abolished; and in order that the mayor could be held to account, he was
+given the power to appoint all the chief officials. This made the mayor,
+in some cases, the only elective city official and gave the voters a
+"short ballot" containing only a few names&mdash;an idea which some proposed
+to apply also to the state government.<a name="Page_545" id="Page_545"></a></p>
+
+<p>A further step in the concentration of authority was taken in Galveston,
+Texas, where the people, looking upon the ruin of their city wrought by
+the devastating storm of 1901, and confronted by the difficult problems
+of reconstruction, felt the necessity for a more businesslike management
+of city affairs and instituted a new form of local administration. They
+abolished the old scheme of mayor and council and vested all power in
+five commissioners, <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'on'">one</ins> of whom, without any special prerogatives, was
+assigned to the office of "mayor president." In 1908, the commission
+form of government, as it was soon characterized, was adopted by Des
+Moines, Iowa. The attention of all municipal reformers was drawn to it
+and it was hailed as the guarantee of a better day. By 1920, more than
+four hundred cities, including Memphis, Spokane, Birmingham, Newark, and
+Buffalo, had adopted it. Still the larger cities like New York and
+Chicago kept their boards of aldermen.</p>
+
+<p><b>The City Manager Plan.</b>&mdash;A few years' experience with commission
+government revealed certain patent defects. The division of the work
+among five men was frequently found to introduce dissensions and
+irresponsibility. Commissioners were often lacking in the technical
+ability required to manage such difficult matters as fire and police
+protection, public health, public works, and public utilities. Some one
+then proposed to carry over into city government an idea from the
+business world. In that sphere the stockholders of each corporation
+elect the directors and the directors, in turn, choose a business
+manager to conduct the affairs of the company. It was suggested that the
+city commissioners, instead of attempting to supervise the details of
+the city administration, should select a manager to do this. The scheme
+was put into effect in Sumter, South Carolina, in 1912. Like the
+commission plan, it became popular. Within eight years more than one
+hundred and fifty towns and cities had adopted it. Among the larger
+municipalities were Dayton, Springfield (Ohio), Akron, Kalamazoo, and
+Phoenix. It promised to create a new public service profession, that of
+city manager.<a name="Page_546" id="Page_546"></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Measures of Economic Reform</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Spirit of American Reform.</b>&mdash;The purification of the ballot, the
+restriction of the spoils system, the enlargement of direct popular
+control over the organs of government were not the sole answers made by
+the reformers to the critics of American institutions. Nor were they the
+most important. In fact, they were regarded not as ends in themselves,
+but as means to serve a wider purpose. That purpose was the promotion of
+the "general welfare." The concrete objects covered by that broad term
+were many and varied; but they included the prevention of extortion by
+railway and other corporations, the protection of public health, the
+extension of education, the improvement of living conditions in the
+cities, the elimination of undeserved poverty, the removal of gross
+inequalities in wealth, and more equality of opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>All these things involved the use of the powers of government. Although
+a few clung to the ancient doctrine that the government should not
+interfere with private business at all, the American people at large
+rejected that theory as vigorously as they rejected the doctrines of an
+extreme socialism which exalts the state above the individual. Leaders
+representing every shade of opinion proclaimed the government an
+instrument of common welfare to be used in the public interest. "We must
+abandon definitely," said Roosevelt, "the <i>laissez-faire</i> theory of
+political economy and fearlessly champion a system of increased
+governmental control, paying no attention to the cries of worthy people
+who denounce this as socialistic." This view was shared by Mr. Taft, who
+observed: "Undoubtedly the government can wisely do much more ... to
+relieve the oppressed, to create greater equality of opportunity, to
+make reasonable terms for labor in employment, and to furnish vocational
+education." He was quick to add his caution that "there is a line beyond
+which the government cannot go with any good practical results in
+seeking to make men and society better."<a name="Page_547" id="Page_547"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>The Regulation of Railways.</b>&mdash;The first attempts to use the government
+in a large way to control private enterprise in the public interest were
+made by the Northwestern states in the decade between 1870 and 1880.
+Charges were advanced by the farmers, particularly those organized into
+Granges, that the railways extorted the highest possible rates for
+freight and passengers, that favoritism was shown to large shippers,
+that fraudulent stocks and bonds were sold to the innocent public. It
+was claimed that railways were not like other enterprises, but were
+"quasi-public" concerns, like the roads and ferries, and thus subject to
+government control. Accordingly laws were enacted bringing the railroads
+under state supervision. In some cases the state legislature fixed the
+maximum rates to be charged by common carriers, and in other cases
+commissions were created with the power to establish the rates after an
+investigation. This legislation was at first denounced in the East as
+nothing less than the "confiscation" of the railways in the interest of
+the farmers. Attempts to have the Supreme Court of the United States
+declare it unconstitutional were made without avail; still a principle
+was finally laid down to the effect that in fixing rates state
+legislatures and commissions must permit railway companies to earn a
+"fair" return on the capital invested.</p>
+
+<p>In a few years the Granger spirit appeared in Congress. An investigation
+revealed a long list of abuses committed by the railways against
+shippers and travelers. The result was the interstate commerce act of
+1887, which created the Interstate Commerce Commission, forbade
+discriminations in rates, and prohibited other objectionable practices
+on the part of railways. This measure was loosely enforced and the
+abuses against which it was directed continued almost unabated. A demand
+for stricter control grew louder and louder. Congress was forced to
+heed. In 1903 it enacted the Elkins law, forbidding railways to charge
+rates other than those published, and laid penalties upon the officers
+and agents of companies, who granted secret favors to shippers, and upon
+shippers who accepted them. Three years <a name="Page_548" id="Page_548"></a>later a still more drastic step
+was taken by the passage of the Hepburn act. The Interstate Commerce
+Commission was authorized, upon complaint of some party aggrieved, and
+after a public hearing, to determine whether just and reasonable rates
+had been charged by the companies. In effect, the right to fix freight
+and passenger rates was taken out of the hands of the owners of the
+railways engaged in interstate commerce and vested in the hands of the
+Interstate Commerce Commission. Thus private property to the value of
+$20,000,000,000 or more was declared to be a matter of public concern
+and subject to government regulation in the common interest.</p>
+
+<p><b>Municipal Utilities.</b>&mdash;Similar problems arose in connection with the
+street railways, electric light plants, and other utilities in the great
+cities. In the beginning the right to construct such undertakings was
+freely, and often corruptly, granted to private companies by city
+councils. Distressing abuses arose in connection with such practices.
+Many grants or franchises were made perpetual, or perhaps for a term of
+999 years. The rates charged and services rendered were left largely to
+the will of the companies holding the franchises. Mergers or unions of
+companies were common and the public was deluged with stocks and bonds
+of doubtful value; bankruptcies were frequent. The connection between
+the utility companies and the politicians was, to say the least, not
+always in the public interest.</p>
+
+<p>American ingenuity was quick to devise methods for eliminating such
+evils. Three lines of progress were laid out by the reformers. One group
+proposed that such utilities should be subject to municipal or state
+regulation, that the formation of utility companies should be under
+public control, and that the issue of stocks and bonds must be approved
+by public authority. In some cases state, and in other cases municipal,
+commissions were created to exercise this great power over "quasi-public
+corporations." Wisconsin, by laws enacted in 1907, put all heat, light,
+water works, telephone, and street railway companies under the
+supervision of a single railway commission. Other states followed this
+example rapidly. By 1920 the <a name="Page_549" id="Page_549"></a>principle of public control over municipal
+utilities was accepted in nearly every section of the union.</p>
+
+<p>A second line of reform appeared in the "model franchise" for utility
+corporations. An illustration of this tendency was afforded by the
+Chicago street railway settlement of 1906. The total capital of the
+company was fixed at a definite sum, its earnings were agreed upon, and
+the city was given the right to buy and operate the system if it desired
+to do so. In many states, about the same time, it was provided that no
+franchises to utility companies could run more than twenty-five years.</p>
+
+<p>A third group of reformers were satisfied with nothing short of
+municipal ownership. They proposed to drive private companies entirely
+out of the field and vest the ownership and management of municipal
+plants in the city itself. This idea was extensively applied to electric
+light and water works plants, but to street railways in only a few
+cities, including San Francisco and Seattle. In New York the subways are
+owned by the city but leased for operation.</p>
+
+<div><a name="street" id="street" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/584.jpg"><img src="./images/584-tb.jpg" alt="An East Side Street in New York" title="An East Side Street in New York" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">An East Side Street in New York</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Tenement House Control.</b>&mdash;Among the other pressing problems of the
+cities was the overcrowding in houses unfit for habitation. An inquiry
+in New York City made under the authority of the state in 1902 revealed
+poverty, misery, slums, dirt, and disease almost beyond imagination. The
+immediate answer was the enactment of a tenement house law prescribing
+in great detail the size of the rooms, the air space, the light and the
+sanitary arrangement for all new buildings. An immense improvement
+followed and the idea was quickly taken up in other states having large
+industrial centers. In 1920 New York made a further invasion of the
+rights of landlords by assuring to the public "reasonable rents" for
+flats and apartments.</p>
+
+<p><b>Workmen's Compensation.</b>&mdash;No small part of the poverty in cities was
+due to the injury of wage-earners while at their trade. Every year the
+number of men and women killed or wounded in industry mounted higher.
+Under the old law, the workman or his family had to bear the loss unless
+the employer had been guilty of some extraordinary negligence. Even in
+that <a name="Page_550" id="Page_550"></a>case an expensive lawsuit was usually necessary to recover
+"damages." In short, although employers insured their buildings and
+machinery against necessary risks from fire and storm, they allowed
+their employees to assume the heavy losses due to accidents. The
+injustice of this, though apparent enough now, was once not generally
+recognized. It was said to be unfair to make the employer pay for
+injuries for which he was not personally responsible; but the argument
+was overborne.</p>
+
+<p>About 1910 there set in a decided movement in the direction of lifting
+the burden of accidents from the unfortunate victims. In the first
+place, laws were enacted requiring employers to pay damages in certain
+amounts according to the nature of the case, no matter how the accident
+occurred, as long as the injured <a name="Page_551" id="Page_551"></a>person was not guilty of willful
+negligence. By 1914 more than one-half the states had such laws. In the
+second place, there developed schemes of industrial insurance in the
+form of automatic grants made by state commissions to persons injured in
+industries, the funds to be provided by the employers or the state or by
+both. By 1917 thirty-six states had legislation of this type.</p>
+
+<p><b>Minimum Wages and Mothers' Pensions.</b>&mdash;Another source of poverty,
+especially among women and children, was found to be the low wages paid
+for their labor. Report after report showed this. In 1912 Massachusetts
+took a significant step in the direction of declaring the minimum wages
+which might be paid to women and children. Oregon, the following year,
+created a commission with power to prescribe minimum wages in certain
+industries, based on the cost of living, and to enforce the rates fixed.
+Within a short time one-third of the states had legislation of this
+character. To cut away some of the evils of poverty and enable widows to
+keep their homes intact and bring up their children, a device known as
+mothers' pensions became popular during the second decade of the
+twentieth century. At the opening of 1913 two states, Colorado and
+Illinois, had laws authorizing the payment from public funds of definite
+sums to widows with children. Within four years, thirty-five states had
+similar legislation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Taxation and Great Fortunes.</b>&mdash;As a part of the campaign waged against
+poverty by reformers there came a demand for heavy taxes upon great
+fortunes, particularly taxes upon inheritances or estates passing to
+heirs on the decease of the owners. Roosevelt was an ardent champion of
+this type of taxation and dwelt upon it at length in his message to
+Congress in 1907. "Such a tax," he said, "would help to preserve a
+measurable equality of opportunity for the people of the generations
+growing to manhood.... Our aim is to recognize what Lincoln pointed out:
+the fact that there are some respects in which men are obviously not
+equal; but also to insist that there should be equality of self-respect
+and of mutual respect, an equality of <a name="Page_552" id="Page_552"></a>rights before the law, and at
+least an approximate equality in the conditions under which each man
+obtains the chance to show the stuff that is in him when compared with
+his fellows."</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of the new age was, therefore, one of reform, not of
+revolution. It called for no evolutionary or utopian experiments, but
+for the steady and progressive enactment of measures aimed at admitted
+abuses and designed to accomplish tangible results in the name of public
+welfare.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>General References</b></p>
+
+<p>J. Bryce, <i>The American Commonwealth</i>.</p>
+
+<p>R.C. Brooks, <i>Corruption in American Life</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.A. Ross, <i>Changing America</i>.</p>
+
+<p>P.L. Haworth, <i>America in Ferment</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.R.A. Seligman, <i>The Income Tax</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.Z. Ripley, <i>Railroads: Rates and Regulation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.S. Bradford, <i>Commission Government in American Cities</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H.R. Seager, <i>A Program of Social Reform</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C. Zueblin, <i>American Municipal Progress</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.E. Walling, <i>Progressivism and After</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The American Year Book</i> (an annual publication which contains reviews
+of reform legislation).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>"The Muckrakers."</b>&mdash;Paxson, <i>The New Nation</i> (Riverside Series), pp.
+309-323.</p>
+
+<p><b>Civil Service Reform.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>American Government and Politics</i> (3d
+ed.), pp. 222-230; Ogg, <i>National Progress</i> (American Nation Series),
+pp. 135-142.</p>
+
+<p><b>Direct Government.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>American Government</i>, pp. 461-473; Ogg,
+pp. 160-166.</p>
+
+<p><b>Popular Election of Senators.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>American Government</i>, pp.
+241-244; Ogg, pp. 149-150.</p>
+
+<p><b>Party Methods.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>American Government</i>, pp. 656-672.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ballot Reform.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>American Government</i>, pp. 672-705.</p>
+
+<p><b>Social and Economic Legislation.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>American Government</i>, pp.
+721-752.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Who were some of the critics of abuses in American life?</p>
+
+<p>2. What particular criticisms were advanced?<a name="Page_553" id="Page_553"></a></p>
+
+<p>3. How did Elihu Root define "invisible government"?</p>
+
+<p>4. Discuss the use of criticism as an aid to progress in a democracy.</p>
+
+<p>5. Explain what is meant by the "merit system" in the civil service.
+Review the rise of the spoils system.</p>
+
+<p>6. Why is the public service of increasing importance? Give some of its
+new problems.</p>
+
+<p>7. Describe the Australian ballot and the abuses against which it is
+directed.</p>
+
+<p>8. What are the elements of direct government? Sketch their progress in
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>9. Trace the history of popular election of Senators.</p>
+
+<p>10. Explain the direct primary. Commission government. The city manager
+plan.</p>
+
+<p>11. How does modern reform involve government action? On what theory is
+it justified?</p>
+
+<p>12. Enumerate five lines of recent economic reform.<a name="Page_554" id="Page_554"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE NEW POLITICAL DEMOCRACY</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Women in Public Affairs.</b>&mdash;The social legislation enacted in response
+to the spirit of reform vitally affected women in the home and in
+industry and was promoted by their organizations. Where they did not
+lead, they were affiliated with movements for social improvement. No
+cause escaped their attention; no year passed without widening the range
+of their interests. They served on committees that inquired into the
+problems of the day; they appeared before legislative assemblies to
+advocate remedies for the evils they discovered. By 1912 they were a
+force to be reckoned with in national politics. In nine states complete
+and equal suffrage had been established, and a widespread campaign for a
+national suffrage amendment was in full swing. On every hand lay
+evidences that their sphere had been broadened to include public
+affairs. This was the culmination of forces that had long been
+operating.</p>
+
+<p><b>A New Emphasis in History.</b>&mdash;A movement so deeply affecting important
+interests could not fail to find a place in time in the written record
+of human progress. History often began as a chronicle of kings and
+queens, knights and ladies, written partly to amuse and partly to
+instruct the classes that appeared in its pages. With the growth of
+commerce, parliaments, and international relations, politics and
+diplomacy were added to such chronicles of royal and princely doings.
+After the rise of democracy, industry, and organized labor, the
+transactions of everyday life were deemed worthy of a place in the pages
+of history. In each case history was rewritten and the past rediscovered
+in the light of the new age. So it will be with the rise and growth of
+women's political power. The history of <a name="Page_555" id="Page_555"></a>their labor, their education,
+their status in society, their influence on the course of events will be
+explored and given its place in the general record.</p>
+
+<p>It will be a history of change. The superior position which women enjoy
+in America to-day is the result of a slow evolution from an almost
+rightless condition in colonial times. The founders of America brought
+with them the English common law. Under that law, a married woman's
+personal property&mdash;jewels, money, furniture, and the like&mdash;became her
+husband's property; the management of her lands passed into his control.
+Even the wages she earned, if she worked for some one else, belonged to
+him. Custom, if not law, prescribed that women should not take part in
+town meetings or enter into public discussions of religious questions.
+Indeed it is a far cry from the banishment of Anne Hutchinson from
+Massachusetts in 1637, for daring to dispute with the church fathers, to
+the political conventions of 1920 in which women sat as delegates, made
+nominating speeches, and served on committees. In the contrast between
+these two scenes may be measured the change in the privileges of women
+since the landing of the Pilgrims. The account of this progress is a
+narrative of individual effort on the part of women, of organizations
+among them, of generous aid from sympathetic men in the long agitation
+for the removal of civil and political disabilities. It is in part also
+a narrative of irresistible economic change which drew women into
+industry, created a leisure class, gave women wages and incomes, and
+therewith economic independence.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Rise of the Woman Movement</span></h3>
+
+<div><a name="abigail" id="abigail"></a></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/590.jpg" alt="Abigail Adams" title="Abigail Adams" /><div class='center'><span class="smcap">Abigail Adams</span></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Protests of Colonial Women.</b>&mdash;The republican spirit which produced
+American independence was of slow and steady growth. It did not spring
+up full-armed in a single night. It was, on the contrary, nourished
+during a long period of time by fireside discussions as well as by
+debates in the public forum. Women shared that fireside sifting of
+political principles and passed on the findings of that scrutiny in
+letters to their friends, <a name="Page_556" id="Page_556"></a>newspaper articles, and every form of written
+word. How widespread was this potent, though not spectacular force, is
+revealed in the collections of women's letters, articles, songs, dramas,
+and satirical "skits" on English rule that have come down to us. In this
+search into the reasons of government, some women began to take thought
+about laws that excluded them from the ballot. Two women at least left
+their protests on record. Abigail, the ingenious and witty wife of John
+Adams, wrote to her husband, in March, 1776, that women objected "to all
+arbitrary power whether of state or males" and demanded political
+privileges in the new order then being created. Hannah Lee Corbin, the
+sister of "Lighthorse" Harry Lee, protested to her brother against the
+taxation of women without representation.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Stir among European Women.</b>&mdash;Ferment in America, in the case of
+women as of men, was quickened by events in Europe. In 1792, Mary
+Wollstonecraft published in England the <i>Vindication of the Rights of
+Women</i>&mdash;a book that was destined to serve the cause of liberty among
+women as the writings of Locke and Paine had served that of men. The
+specific grievances which stirred English women were men's invasion of
+women's industries, such as spinning and weaving; the denial of equal
+educational opportunities; and political disabilities. In France also
+the great Revolution raised questionings about the status of women. The
+rights of "citizenesses" as well as the rights of "citizens" were
+examined by the boldest thinkers. This in turn reacted upon women in the
+United States.<a name="Page_557" id="Page_557"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Leadership in America.</b>&mdash;The origins of the American woman movement are
+to be found in the writings of a few early intellectual leaders. During
+the first decades of the nineteenth century, books, articles, and
+pamphlets about women came in increasing numbers from the press. Lydia
+Maria Child wrote a history of women; Margaret Fuller made a critical
+examination of the status of women in her time; and Mrs. Elizabeth Ellet
+supplemented the older histories by showing what an important part women
+had played in the American Revolution.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Struggle for Education.</b>&mdash;Along with criticism, there was carried
+on a constructive struggle for better educational facilities for women
+who had been from the beginning excluded from every college in the
+country. In this long battle, Emma Willard and Mary Lyon led the way;
+the former founded a seminary at Troy, New York; and the latter made the
+beginnings of Mount Holyoke College in Massachusetts. Oberlin College in
+Ohio, established in 1833, opened its doors to girls and from it were
+graduated young students to lead in the woman movement. Sarah J. Hale,
+who in 1827 became the editor of a "Ladies' Magazine," published in
+Boston, conducted a campaign for equal educational opportunities which
+helped to bear fruit in the founding of Vassar College shortly after the
+Civil War.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Desire to Effect Reforms.</b>&mdash;As they came to study their own history
+and their own part in civilization, women naturally became deeply
+interested in all the controversies going on around them. The temperance
+question made a special appeal to them and they organized to demand the
+right to be heard on it. In 1846 the "Daughters of Temperance" formed a
+secret society favoring prohibition. They dared to criticize the
+churches for their indifference and were so bold as to ask that
+drunkenness be made a ground for divorce.</p>
+
+<p>The slavery issue even more than temperance called women into public
+life. The Grimk&eacute; sisters of South Carolina eman<a name="Page_558" id="Page_558"></a>cipated their bondmen,
+and one of these sisters, exiled from Charleston for her "Appeal to the
+Christian Women of the South," went North to work against the slavery
+system. In 1837 the National Women's Anti-Slavery Convention met in New
+York; seventy-one women delegates represented eight states. Three years
+later eight American women, five of them in Quaker costume, attended the
+World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, much to the horror of the men,
+who promptly excluded them from the sessions on the ground that it was
+not fitting for women to take part in such meetings.</p>
+
+<p>In other spheres of activity, especially social service, women steadily
+enlarged their interest. Nothing human did they consider alien to them.
+They inveighed against cruel criminal laws and unsanitary prisons. They
+organized poor relief and led in private philanthropy. Dorothea Dix
+directed the movement that induced the New York legislature to establish
+in 1845 a separate asylum for the criminal insane. In the same year
+Sarah G. Bagley organized the Lowell Female Reform Association for the
+purpose of reducing the long hours of labor for women, safeguarding "the
+constitutions of future generations." Mrs. Eliza Woodson Farnham, matron
+in Sing Sing penitentiary, was known throughout the nation for her
+social work, especially prison reform. Wherever there were misery and
+suffering, women were preparing programs of relief.</p>
+
+<p><b>Freedom of Speech for Women.</b>&mdash;In the advancement of their causes, of
+whatever kind, women of necessity had to make public appeals and take
+part in open meetings. Here they encountered difficulties. The
+appearance of women on the platform was new and strange. Naturally it
+was widely resented. Antoinette Brown, although she had credentials as a
+delegate, was driven off the platform of a temperance convention in New
+York City simply because she was a woman. James Russell Lowell, editor
+of the "Atlantic Monthly," declined a poem from Julia Ward Howe on the
+theory that no woman could write a poem; but he added on second thought
+that he might consider an article in prose. Nathaniel Hawthorne,
+<a name="Page_559" id="Page_559"></a>another editor, even objected to something in prose because to him "all
+ink-stained women were equally detestable." To the natural resentment
+against their intrusion into new fields was added that aroused by their
+ideas and methods. As temperance reformers, they criticized in a caustic
+manner those who would not accept their opinions. As opponents of
+slavery they were especially bitter. One of their conventions, held at
+Philadelphia in 1833, passed a resolution calling on all women to leave
+those churches that would not condemn every form of human bondage. This
+stirred against them many of the clergy who, accustomed to having women
+sit silent during services, were in no mood to treat such a revolt
+leniently. Then came the last straw. Women decided that they would
+preach&mdash;out of the pulpit first, and finally in it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Women in Industry.</b>&mdash;The period of this ferment was also the age of the
+industrial revolution in America, the rise of the factory system, and
+the growth of mill towns. The labor of women was transferred from the
+homes to the factories. Then arose many questions: the hours of labor,
+the sanitary conditions of the mills, the pressure of foreign
+immigration on native labor, the wages of women as compared with those
+of men, and the right of married women to their own earnings. Labor
+organizations sprang up among working women. The mill girls of Lowell,
+Massachusetts, mainly the daughters of New England farmers, published a
+magazine, "The Lowell Offering." So excellent were their writings that
+the French statesman, Thiers, carried a copy of their paper into the
+Chamber of Deputies to show what working women could achieve in a
+republic. As women were now admittedly earning their own way in the
+world by their own labor, they began to talk of their "economic
+independence."</p>
+
+<p><b>The World Shaken by Revolution.</b>&mdash;Such was the quickening of women's
+minds in 1848 when the world was startled once more by a revolution in
+France which spread to Germany, Poland, Austria, Hungary, and Italy.
+Once more the people of the earth began to explore the principles of
+democ<a name="Page_560" id="Page_560"></a>racy and expound human rights. Women, now better educated and more
+"advanced" in their ideas, played a r&ocirc;le of still greater importance in
+that revolution. They led in agitations and uprisings. They suffered
+from reaction and persecution. From their prison in France, two of them
+who had been jailed for too much insistence on women's rights exchanged
+greetings with American women who were raising the same issue here. By
+this time the women had more supporters among the men. Horace Greeley,
+editor of the New York <i>Tribune</i>, though he afterwards recanted, used
+his powerful pen in their behalf. Anti-slavery leaders welcomed their
+aid and repaid them by urging the enfranchisement of women.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Woman's Rights Convention of 1848.</b>&mdash;The forces, moral and
+intellectual, which had been stirring among women, crystallized a few
+months after the outbreak of the European revolution in the first
+Woman's Rights Convention in the history of America. It met at Seneca
+Falls, New York, in 1848, on the call of Lucretia Mott, Martha Wright,
+Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Mary Ann McClintock, three of them Quakers.
+Accustomed to take part in church meetings with men, the Quakers
+naturally suggested that men as well as women be invited to attend the
+convention. Indeed, a man presided over the conference, for that
+position seemed too presumptuous even for such stout advocates of
+woman's rights.</p>
+
+<p>The deliberations of the Seneca Falls convention resulted in a
+Declaration of Rights modeled after the Declaration of Independence. For
+example, the preamble began: "When in the course of human events it
+becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to assume among
+the people of the earth a position different from that which they have
+hitherto occupied...." So also it closed: "Such has been the patient
+suffering of women under this government and such is now the necessity
+which constrains them to demand the equal station to which they are
+entitled." Then followed the list of grievances, the same number which
+had been exhibited to George III in 1776. Especially did they assail the
+disabilities im<a name="Page_561" id="Page_561"></a>posed upon them by the English common law imported into
+America&mdash;the law which denied married women their property, their wages,
+and their legal existence as separate persons. All these grievances they
+recited to "a candid world." The remedies for the evils which they
+endured were then set forth in detail. They demanded "equal rights" in
+the colleges, trades, and professions; equal suffrage; the right to
+share in all political offices, honors, and emoluments; the right to
+complete equality in marriage, including equal guardianship of the
+children; and for married women the right to own property, to keep
+wages, to make contracts, to transact business, and to testify in the
+courts of justice. In short, they declared women to be persons as men
+are persons and entitled to all the rights and privileges of human
+beings. Such was the clarion call which went forth to the world in
+1848&mdash;to an amused and contemptuous world, it must be admitted&mdash;but to a
+world fated to heed and obey.</p>
+
+<p><b>The First Gains in Civil Liberty.</b>&mdash;The convention of 1848 did not make
+political enfranchisement the leading issue. Rather did it emphasize the
+civil disabilities of women which were most seriously under discussion
+at the time. Indeed, the New York legislature of that very year, as the
+result of a twelve years' agitation, passed the Married Woman's Property
+Act setting aside the general principles of the English common law as
+applied to women and giving them many of the "rights of man." California
+and Wisconsin followed in 1850; Massachusetts in 1854; and Kansas in
+1859. Other states soon fell into line. Women's earnings and
+inheritances were at last their own in some states at least. In a little
+while laws were passed granting women rights as equal guardians of their
+children and permitting them to divorce their husbands on the grounds of
+cruelty and drunkenness.</p>
+
+<p>By degrees other steps were taken. The Woman's Medical College of
+Pennsylvania was founded in 1850, and the Philadelphia School of Design
+for Women three years later. In 1852 the American Women's Educational
+Association was <a name="Page_562" id="Page_562"></a>formed to initiate an agitation for enlarged
+educational opportunities for women. Other colleges soon emulated the
+example of Oberlin: the University of Utah in 1850; Hillsdale College in
+Michigan in 1855; Baker University in Kansas in 1858; and the University
+of Iowa in 1860. New trades and professions were opened to women and old
+prejudices against their activities and demands slowly gave way.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The National Struggle for Woman Suffrage</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Beginnings of Organization.</b>&mdash;As women surmounted one obstacle
+after another, the agitation for equal suffrage came to the front. If
+any year is to be fixed as the date of its beginning, it may very well
+be 1850, when the suffragists of Ohio urged the state constitutional
+convention to confer the vote upon them. With apparent spontaneity there
+were held in the same year state suffrage conferences in Indiana,
+Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts; and connections were formed among the
+leaders of these meetings. At the same time the first national suffrage
+convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts, on the call of
+eighty-nine leading men and women representing six states. Accounts of
+the convention were widely circulated in this country and abroad.
+English women,&mdash;for instance, Harriet Martineau,&mdash;sent words of
+appreciation for the work thus inaugurated. It inspired a leading
+article in the "Westminster Review," which deeply interested the
+distinguished economist, John Stuart Mill. Soon he was the champion of
+woman suffrage in the British Parliament and the author of a powerful
+tract <i>The Subjection of Women</i>, widely read throughout the
+English-speaking world. Thus do world movements grow. Strange to relate
+the women of England were enfranchised before the adoption of the
+federal suffrage amendment in America.</p>
+
+<p>The national suffrage convention of 1850 was followed by an
+extraordinary outburst of agitation. Pamphlets streamed from the press.
+Petitions to legislative bodies were drafted, signed, and presented.
+There were addresses by favorite ora<a name="Page_563" id="Page_563"></a>tors like Garrison, Phillips, and
+Curtis, and lectures and poems by men like Emerson, Longfellow, and
+Whittier. In 1853 the first suffrage paper was founded by the wife of a
+member of Congress from Rhode Island. By this time the last barrier to
+white manhood suffrage in the North had been swept away and the woman's
+movement was gaining momentum every year.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Suffrage Movement Checked by the Civil War.</b>&mdash;Advocates of woman
+suffrage believed themselves on the high road to success when the Civil
+War engaged the energies and labors of the nation. Northern women became
+absorbed in the struggle to preserve the union. They held no suffrage
+conventions for five years. They transformed their associations into
+Loyalty Leagues. They banded together to buy only domestic goods when
+foreign imports threatened to ruin American markets. They rolled up
+monster petitions in favor of the emancipation of slaves. In hospitals,
+in military prisons, in agriculture, and in industry they bore their
+full share of responsibility. Even when the New York legislature took
+advantage of their unguarded moments and repealed the law giving the
+mother equal rights with the father in the guardianship of children,
+they refused to lay aside war work for agitation. As in all other wars,
+their devotion was unstinted and their sacrifices equal to the
+necessities of the hour.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Federal Suffrage Amendment.</b>&mdash;Their plans and activities, when the
+war closed, were shaped by events beyond their control. The emancipation
+of the slaves and their proposed enfranchisement made prominent the
+question of a national suffrage for the first time in our history.
+Friends of the colored man insisted that his civil liberties would not
+be safe unless he was granted the right to vote. The woman suffragists
+very pertinently asked why the same principle did not apply to women.
+The answer which they received was negative. The fourteenth amendment to
+the federal Constitution, adopted in 1868, definitely put women aside by
+limiting the scope of its <a name="Page_564" id="Page_564"></a>application, so far as the suffrage was
+concerned, to the male sex. In making manhood suffrage national,
+however, it nationalized the issue.</p>
+
+<div><a name="anthony" id="anthony" /></div>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="./images/598.jpg" alt="Susan B. Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony" />
+<div class='center'><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Susan B. Anthony</span></div></div>
+
+<p>This was the signal for the advocates of woman suffrage. In March, 1869,
+their proposed amendment was introduced in Congress by George W. Julian
+of Indiana. It provided that no citizen should be deprived of the vote
+on account of sex, following the language of the fifteenth amendment
+which forbade disfranchisement on account of race. Support for the
+amendment, coming from many directions, led the suffragists to believe
+that their case was hopeful. In their platform of 1872, for example, the
+Republicans praised the women for their loyal devotion to freedom,
+welcomed them to spheres of wider usefulness, and declared that the
+demand of any class of citizens for additional rights deserved
+"respectful consideration."</p>
+
+<p>Experience soon demonstrated, however, that praise was not the ballot.
+Indeed the suffragists already had realized that a tedious contest lay
+before them. They had revived in 1866 their regular national convention.
+They gave the name of "The Revolution" to their paper, edited by
+Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. They formed a national
+suffrage association and organized annual pilgrimages to Congress to
+present their claims. Such activities bore some results. Many eminent
+congressmen were converted to their cause and presented it ably to their
+colleagues of both chambers.<a name="Page_565" id="Page_565"></a> Still the subject was ridiculed by the
+newspapers and looked upon as freakish by the masses.</p>
+
+<p><b>The State Campaigns.</b>&mdash;Discouraged by the outcome of the national
+campaign, suffragists turned to the voters of the individual states and
+sought the ballot at their hands. Gains by this process were painfully
+slow. Wyoming, it is true, while still a territory, granted suffrage to
+women in 1869 and continued it on becoming a state twenty years later,
+in spite of strong protests in Congress. In 1893 Colorado established
+complete political equality. In Utah, the third suffrage state, the
+cause suffered many vicissitudes. Women were enfranchised by the
+territorial legislature; they were deprived of the ballot by Congress in
+1887; finally in 1896 on the admission of Utah to the union they
+recovered their former rights. During the same year, 1896, Idaho
+conferred equal suffrage upon the women. This was the last suffrage
+victory for more than a decade.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Suffrage Cause in Congress.</b>&mdash;In the midst of the meager gains
+among the states there were occasional flurries of hope for immediate
+action on the federal amendment. Between 1878 and 1896 the Senate
+committee reported the suffrage resolution by a favorable majority on
+five different occasions. During the same period, however, there were
+nine unfavorable reports and only once did the subject reach the point
+of a general debate. At no time could anything like the required
+two-thirds vote be obtained.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Changing Status of Women.</b>&mdash;While the suffrage movement was
+lagging, the activities of women in other directions were steadily
+multiplying. College after college&mdash;Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Smith, Wellesley,
+to mention a few&mdash;was founded to give them the advantages of higher
+education. Other institutions, especially the state universities of the
+West, opened their doors to women, and women were received into the
+professions of law and medicine. By the rapid growth of public high
+schools in which girls enjoyed the same rights as boys, education was
+extended still more widely. The number of women teachers increased by
+leaps and bounds.<a name="Page_566" id="Page_566"></a></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile women were entering nearly every branch of industry and
+business. How many of them worked at gainful occupations before 1870 we
+do not know; but from that year forward we have the records of the
+census. Between 1870 and 1900 the proportion of women in the professions
+rose from less than two per cent to more than ten per cent; in trade and
+transportation from 24.8 per cent to 43.2 per cent; and in manufacturing
+from 13 to 19 per cent. In 1910, there were over 8,000,000 women
+gainfully employed as compared with 30,000,000 men. When, during the war
+on Germany, the government established the principle of equal pay for
+equal work and gave official recognition to the value of their services
+in industry, it was discovered how far women had traveled along the road
+forecast by the leaders of 1848.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Club Movement among Women.</b>&mdash;All over the country women's societies
+and clubs were started to advance this or that reform or merely to study
+literature, art, and science. In time these women's organizations of all
+kinds were federated into city, state, and national associations and
+drawn into the consideration of public questions. Under the leadership
+of Frances Willard they made temperance reform a vital issue. They took
+an interest in legislation pertaining to prisons, pure food, public
+health, and municipal government, among other things. At their sessions
+and conferences local, state, and national issues were discussed until
+finally, it seems, everything led to the quest of the franchise. By
+solemn resolution in 1914 the National Federation of Women's Clubs,
+representing nearly two million club women, formally endorsed woman
+suffrage. In the same year the National Education Association, speaking
+for the public school teachers of the land, added its seal of approval.</p>
+
+<div><a name="conference" id="conference" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/601.jpg"><img src="./images/601-tb.jpg" alt="Conference of Men and Women Delegates at a National Convention in 1920" title="Conference of Men and Women Delegates at a National Convention in 1920" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap"> Conference of Men and Women Delegates at a National Convention in
+1920</span></div>
+
+<p><b>State and National Action.</b>&mdash;Again the suffrage movement was in full
+swing in the states. Washington in 1910, California in 1911, Oregon,
+Kansas, and Arizona in 1912, Nevada and Montana in 1914 by popular vote
+enfranchised their women. Illinois in 1913 conferred upon them the right
+to vote for Presi<a name="Page_567" id="Page_567"></a>dent of the United States. The time had arrived for a
+new movement. A number of younger suffragists sought to use the votes of
+women in the equal suffrage states to compel one or both of the national
+political parties to endorse and carry through Congress the federal
+suffrage amendment. Pressure then came upon Congress from every
+direction: from the suffragists who made a straight appeal on the
+grounds of justice; and from the suffragists who besought the women of
+the West to vote against candidates for President, who would not approve
+the federal amendment. In 1916, for the first time, a leading
+presidential candidate, Mr. Charles E. Hughes, speaking for the
+Republicans, endorsed the federal amendment and a distinguished
+ex-President, Roosevelt, exerted a powerful influence to keep it an
+issue in the campaign.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568"></a>
+<b>National Enfranchisement.</b>&mdash;After that, events moved rapidly. The great
+state of New York adopted equal suffrage in 1917. Oklahoma, South
+Dakota, and Michigan swung into line the following year; several other
+states, by legislative action, gave women the right to vote for
+President. In the meantime the suffrage battle at Washington grew
+intense. Appeals and petitions poured in upon Congress and the
+President. Militant suffragists held daily demonstrations in Washington.
+On September 30, 1918, President Wilson, who, two years before, had
+opposed federal action and endorsed suffrage by state adoption only,
+went before Congress and urged the passage of the suffrage amendment to
+the Constitution. In June, 1919, the requisite two-thirds vote was
+secured; the resolution was carried and transmitted to the states for
+ratification. On August 28, 1920, the thirty-sixth state, Tennessee,
+approved the amendment, making three-fourths of the states as required
+by the Constitution. Thus woman suffrage became the law of the land. A
+new political democracy had been created. The age of agitation was
+closed and the epoch of responsible citizenship opened.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>General References</b></p>
+
+<p>Edith Abbott, <i>Women in Industry</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C.P. Gilman, <i>Woman and Economics</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I.H. Harper, <i>Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.R. Hecker, <i>Short History of Woman's Rights</i>.</p>
+
+<p>S.B. Anthony and I.H. Harper, <i>History of Woman Suffrage</i> (4 vols.).</p>
+
+<p>J.W. Taylor, <i>Before Vassar Opened</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.H. Shaw, <i>The Story of a Pioneer</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Rise of the Woman Suffrage Movement.</b>&mdash;McMaster, <i>History of the
+People of the United States</i>, Vol. VIII, pp. 116-121; K. Porter,
+<i>History of Suffrage in the United States</i>, pp. 135-145.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Development of the Suffrage Movement.</b>&mdash;Porter, pp. 228-254; Ogg,
+<i>National Progress</i> (American Nation Series), pp. 151-156 and p. 382.</p>
+
+<p><b>Women's Labor in the Colonial Period.</b>&mdash;E. Abbott, <i>Women in Industry</i>,
+pp. 10-34.<a name="Page_569" id="Page_569"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Women and the Factory System.</b>&mdash;Abbott, pp. 35-62.</p>
+
+<p><b>Early Occupations for Women.</b>&mdash;Abbott, pp. 63-85.</p>
+
+<p><b>Women's Wages.</b>&mdash;Abbott, pp. 262-316.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Why were women involved in the reform movements of the new century?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is history? What determines the topics that appear in written
+history?</p>
+
+<p>3. State the position of women under the old common law.</p>
+
+<p>4. What part did women play in the intellectual movement that preceded
+the American Revolution?</p>
+
+<p>5. Explain the rise of the discussion of women's rights.</p>
+
+<p>6. What were some of the early writings about women?</p>
+
+<p>7. Why was there a struggle for educational opportunities?</p>
+
+<p>8. How did reform movements draw women into public affairs and what were
+the chief results?</p>
+
+<p>9. Show how the rise of the factory affected the life and labor of
+women.</p>
+
+<p>10. Why is the year 1848 an important year in the woman movement?
+Discuss the work of the Seneca Falls convention.</p>
+
+<p>11. Enumerate some of the early gains in civil liberty for women.</p>
+
+<p>12. Trace the rise of the suffrage movement. Show the effect of the
+Civil War.</p>
+
+<p>13. Review the history of the federal suffrage amendment.</p>
+
+<p>14. Summarize the history of the suffrage in the states.<a name="Page_570" id="Page_570"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIV</h2>
+
+<h3>INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The New Economic Age.</b>&mdash;The spirit of criticism and the measures of
+reform designed to meet it, which characterized the opening years of the
+twentieth century, were merely the signs of a new age. The nation had
+definitely passed into industrialism. The number of city dwellers
+employed for wages as contrasted with the farmers working on their own
+land was steadily mounting. The free land, once the refuge of restless
+workingmen of the East and the immigrants from Europe, was a thing of
+the past. As President Roosevelt later said in speaking of the great
+coal strike, "a few generations ago, the American workman could have
+saved money, gone West, and taken up a homestead. Now the free lands
+were gone. In earlier days, a man who began with a pick and shovel might
+come to own a mine. That outlet was now closed as regards the immense
+majority.... The majority of men who earned wages in the coal industry,
+if they wished to progress at all, were compelled to progress not by
+ceasing to be wage-earners but by improving the conditions under which
+all the wage-earners of the country lived and worked."</p>
+
+<p>The disappearance of the free land, President Roosevelt went on to say,
+also produced "a crass inequality in the bargaining relation of the
+employer and the individual employee standing alone. The great
+coal-mining and coal-carrying companies which employed their tens of
+thousands could easily dispense with the services of any particular
+miner. The miner, on the other hand, however expert, could not dispense
+with the companies. He needed a job; his wife and children would starve
+if he did not get one.... Individually the miners <a name="Page_571" id="Page_571"></a>were impotent when
+they sought to enter a wage contract with the great companies; they
+could make fair terms only by uniting into trade unions to bargain
+collectively." It was of this state of affairs that President Taft spoke
+when he favored the modification of the common law "so as to put
+employees of little power and means on a level with their employers in
+adjusting and agreeing upon their mutual obligations."</p>
+
+<p>John D. Rockefeller, Jr., on the side of the great captains of industry,
+recognized the same facts. He said: "In the early days of the
+development of industry, the employer and capital investor were
+frequently one. Daily contact was had between him and his employees, who
+were his friends and neighbors.... Because of the proportions which
+modern industry has attained, employers and employees are too often
+strangers to each other.... Personal relations can be revived only
+through adequate representation of the employees. Representation is a
+principle which is fundamentally just and vital to the successful
+conduct of industry.... It is not consistent for us as Americans to
+demand democracy in government and practice autocracy in industry....
+With the developments what they are in industry to-day, there is sure to
+come a progressive evolution from aristocratic single control, whether
+by capital, labor, or the state, to democratic, co&ouml;perative control by
+all three."</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Co&ouml;peration between Employers and Employees</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Company Unions.</b>&mdash;The changed economic life described by the three
+eminent men just quoted was acknowledged by several great companies and
+business concerns. All over the country decided efforts were made to
+bridge the gulf which industry and the corporation had created. Among
+the devices adopted was that of the "company union." In one of the
+Western lumber mills, for example, all the employees were invited to
+join a company organization; they held monthly meetings to discuss
+matters of common concern; they elected a "shop committee" to confer
+with the representatives of the <a name="Page_572" id="Page_572"></a>company; and periodically the agents of
+the employers attended the conferences of the men to talk over matters
+of mutual interest. The function of the shop committee was to consider
+wages, hours, safety rules, sanitation, recreation and other problems.
+Whenever any employee had a grievance he took it up with the foreman
+and, if it was not settled to his satisfaction, he brought it before the
+shop committee. If the members of the shop committee decided in favor of
+the man with a grievance, they attempted to settle the matter with the
+company's agents. All these things failing, the dispute was transferred
+to a grand meeting of all the employees with the employers'
+representatives, in common council. A deadlock, if it ensued from such a
+conference, was broken by calling in impartial arbitrators selected by
+both sides from among citizens outside the mill. Thus the employees were
+given a voice in all decisions affecting their work and welfare; rights
+and grievances were treated as matters of mutual interest rather than
+individual concern. Representatives of trade unions from outside,
+however, were rigidly excluded from all negotiations between employers
+and the employees.</p>
+
+<p><b>Profit-sharing.</b>&mdash;Another proposal for drawing capital and labor
+together was to supplement the wage system by other ties. Sometimes lump
+sums were paid to employees who remained in a company's service for a
+definite period of years. Again they were given a certain percentage of
+the annual profits. In other instances, employees were allowed to buy
+stock on easy terms and thus become part owners in the concern. This
+last plan was carried so far by a large soap manufacturing company that
+the employees, besides becoming stockholders, secured the right to elect
+representatives to serve on the board of directors who managed the
+entire business. So extensive had profit-sharing become by 1914 that the
+Federal Industrial Relations Committee, appointed by the President,
+deemed it worthy of a special study. Though opposed by regular trade
+unions, it was undoubtedly growing in popularity.<a name="Page_573" id="Page_573"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Labor Managers and Welfare Work.</b>&mdash;Another effort of employers to meet
+the problems of the new age appeared in the appointment of specialists,
+known as employment managers, whose task it was to study the relations
+existing between masters and workers and discover practical methods for
+dealing with each grievance as it arose. By 1918, hundreds of big
+companies had recognized this modern "profession" and universities were
+giving courses of instruction on the subject to young men and women. In
+that year a national conference of employment managers was held at
+Rochester, New York. The discussion revealed a wide range of duties
+assigned to managers, including questions of wages, hours, sanitation,
+rest rooms, recreational facilities, and welfare work of every kind
+designed to make the conditions in mills and factories safer and more
+humane. Thus it was evident that hundreds of employers had abandoned the
+old idea that they were dealing merely with individual employees and
+that their obligations ended with the payment of any wages they saw fit
+to fix. In short, they were seeking to develop a spirit of co&ouml;peration
+to take the place of competition and enmity; and to increase the
+production of commodities by promoting the efficiency and happiness of
+the producers.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Rise and Growth of Organized Labor</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The American Federation of Labor.</b>&mdash;Meanwhile a powerful association of
+workers representing all the leading trades and crafts, organized into
+unions of their own, had been built up outside the control of employers.
+This was the American Federation of Labor, a nation-wide union of
+unions, founded in 1886 on the basis of beginnings made five years
+before. At the time of its establishment it had approximately 150,000
+members. Its growth up to the end of the century was slow, for the total
+enrollment in 1900 was only 300,000. At that point the increase became
+marked. The membership reached 1,650,000 in 1904 and more than 3,000,000
+in 1919. To be counted in the ranks of organized labor were several
+strong <a name="Page_574" id="Page_574"></a>unions, friendly to the Federation, though not affiliated with
+it. Such, for example, were the Railway Brotherhoods with more than half
+a million members. By the opening of 1920 the total strength of
+organized labor was put at about 4,000,000 members, meaning, if we
+include their families, that nearly one-fifth of the people of the
+United States were in some positive way dependent upon the operations of
+trade unions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Historical Background.</b>&mdash;This was the culmination of a long and
+significant history. Before the end of the eighteenth century, the
+skilled workmen&mdash;printers, shoemakers, tailors, and carpenters&mdash;had, as
+we have seen, formed local unions in the large cities. Between 1830 and
+1860, several aggressive steps were taken in the American labor
+movement. For one thing, the number of local unions increased by leaps
+and bounds in all the industrial towns. For another, there was
+established in every large manufacturing city a central labor body
+composed of delegates from the unions of the separate trades. In the
+local union the printers or the cordwainers, for example, considered
+only their special trade problems. In the central labor union, printers,
+cordwainers, iron molders, and other craftsmen considered common
+problems and learned to co&ouml;perate with one another in enforcing the
+demands of each craft. A third step was the federation of the unions of
+the same craftsmen in different cities. The printers of New York,
+Philadelphia, Boston, and other towns, for instance, drew together and
+formed a national trade union of printers built upon the local unions of
+that craft. By the eve of the Civil War there were four or five powerful
+national unions of this character. The expansion of the railway made
+travel and correspondence easier and national conventions possible even
+for workmen of small means. About 1834 an attempt was made to federate
+the unions of all the different crafts into a national organization; but
+the effort was premature.</p>
+
+<p><i>The National Labor Union.</i>&mdash;The plan which failed in 1834 was tried
+again in the sixties. During the war, industries <a name="Page_575" id="Page_575"></a>and railways had
+flourished as never before; prices had risen rapidly; the demand for
+labor had increased; wages had mounted slowly, but steadily. Hundreds of
+new local unions had been founded and eight or ten national trade unions
+had sprung into being. The time was ripe, it seemed, for a national
+consolidation of all labor's forces; and in 1866, the year after the
+surrender of General Lee at Appomattox, the "National Labor Union" was
+formed at Baltimore under the leadership of an experienced organizer,
+W.H. Sylvis of the iron molders. The purpose of the National Labor Union
+was not merely to secure labor's standard demands touching hours, wages,
+and conditions of work or to maintain the gains already won. It leaned
+toward political action and radical opinions. Above all, it sought to
+eliminate the conflict between capital and labor by making workingmen
+the owners of shops through the formation of co&ouml;perative industries. For
+six years the National Labor Union continued to hold conferences and
+carry on its propaganda; but most of the co&ouml;perative enterprises failed,
+political dissensions arose, and by 1872 the experiment had come to an
+end.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Knights of Labor.</i>&mdash;While the National Labor Union was
+experimenting, there grew up in the industrial world a more radical
+organization known as the "Noble Order of the Knights of Labor." It was
+founded in Philadelphia in 1869, first as a secret society with rituals,
+signs, and pass words; "so that no spy of the boss can find his way into
+the lodge room to betray his fellows," as the Knights put it. In form
+the new organization was simple. It sought to bring all laborers,
+skilled and unskilled, men and women, white and colored, into a mighty
+body of local and national unions without distinction of trade or craft.
+By 1885, ten years after the national organization was established, it
+boasted a membership of over 700,000. In philosophy, the Knights of
+Labor were socialistic, for they advocated public ownership of the
+railways and other utilities and the formation of co&ouml;perative societies
+to own and manage stores and factories.<a name="Page_576" id="Page_576"></a></p>
+
+<p>As the Knights were radical in spirit and their strikes, numerous and
+prolonged, were often accompanied by violence, the organization alarmed
+employers and the general public, raising up against itself a vigorous
+opposition. Weaknesses within, as well as foes from without, started the
+Knights on the path to dissolution. They waged more strikes than they
+could carry on successfully; their co&ouml;perative experiments failed as
+those of other labor groups before them had failed; and the rank and
+file could not be kept in line. The majority of the members wanted
+immediate gains in wages or the reduction of hours; when their hopes
+were not realized they drifted away from the order. The troubles were
+increased by the appearance of the American Federation of Labor, a still
+mightier organization composed mainly of skilled workers who held
+strategic positions in industry. When they failed to secure the
+effective support of the Federation in their efforts to organize the
+unskilled, the employers closed in upon them; then the Knights declined
+rapidly in power. By 1890 they were a negligible factor and in a short
+time they passed into the limbo of dead experiments.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Policies of the American Federation.</b>&mdash;Unlike the Knights of Labor,
+the American Federation of Labor sought, first of all, to be very
+practical in its objects and methods. It avoided all kinds of
+socialistic theories and attended strictly to the business of organizing
+unions for the purpose of increasing wages, shortening hours, and
+improving working conditions for its members. It did not try to include
+everybody in one big union but brought together the employees of each
+particular craft whose interests were clearly the same. To prepare for
+strikes and periods of unemployment, it raised large funds by imposing
+heavy dues and created a benefit system to hold men loyally to the
+union. In order to permit action on a national scale, it gave the
+superior officers extensive powers over local unions.</p>
+
+<p>While declaring that employers and employees had much in common, the
+Federation strongly opposed company unions.<a name="Page_577" id="Page_577"></a> Employers, it argued, were
+affiliated with the National Manufacturers' Association or with similar
+employers' organizations; every important industry was now national in
+scope; and wages and hours, in view of competition with other shops,
+could not be determined in a single factory, no matter how amicable
+might be the relations of the company and its workers in that particular
+plant. For these reasons, the Federation declared company unions and
+local shop committees inherently weak; it insisted that hours, wages,
+and other labor standards should be fixed by general trade agreements
+applicable to all the plants of a given industry, even if subject to
+local modifications.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, the Federation, far from deliberately antagonizing
+employers, sought to enlist their co&ouml;peration and support. It affiliated
+with the National Civic Federation, an association of business men,
+financiers, and professional men, founded in 1900 to promote friendly
+relations in the industrial world. In brief, the American Federation of
+Labor accepted the modern industrial system and, by organization within
+it, endeavored to secure certain definite terms and conditions for trade
+unionists.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Wider Relations of Organized Labor</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Socialists.</b>&mdash;The trade unionism "pure and simple," espoused by the
+American Federation of Labor, seemed to involve at first glance nothing
+but businesslike negotiations with employers. In practice it did not
+work out that way. The Federation was only six years old when a new
+organization, appealing directly for the labor vote&mdash;namely, the
+Socialist Labor Party&mdash;nominated a candidate for President, launched
+into a national campaign, and called upon trade unionists to desert the
+older parties and enter its fold.</p>
+
+<p>The socialistic idea, introduced into national politics in 1892, had
+been long in germination. Before the Civil War, a number of reformers,
+including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Horace Greeley, and Wendell Phillips,
+deeply moved by the poverty of the <a name="Page_578" id="Page_578"></a>great industrial cities, had
+earnestly sought relief in the establishment of co&ouml;perative or
+communistic colonies. They believed that people should go into the
+country, secure land and tools, own them in common so that no one could
+profit from exclusive ownership, and produce by common labor the food
+and clothing necessary for their support. For a time this movement
+attracted wide interest, but it had little vitality. Nearly all the
+colonies failed. Selfishness and indolence usually disrupted the best of
+them.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of time this "Utopian" idea was abandoned, and another set
+of socialist doctrines, claiming to be more "scientific," appeared
+instead. The new school of socialists, adopting the principles of a
+German writer and agitator, Karl Marx, appealed directly to workingmen.
+It urged them to unite against the capitalists, to get possession of the
+machinery of government, and to introduce collective or public ownership
+of railways, land, mines, mills, and other means of production. The
+Marxian socialists, therefore, became political. They sought to organize
+labor and to win elections. Like the other parties they put forward
+candidates and platforms. The Socialist Labor party in 1892, for
+example, declared in favor of government ownership of utilities, free
+school books, woman suffrage, heavy income taxes, and the referendum.
+The Socialist party, founded in 1900, with Eugene V. Debs, the leader of
+the Pullman strike, as its candidate, called for public ownership of all
+trusts, monopolies, mines, railways; and the chief means of production.
+In the course of time the vote of the latter organization rose to
+considerable proportions, reaching almost a million in 1912. It declined
+four years later and then rose in 1920 to about the same figure.</p>
+
+<p>In their appeal for votes, the socialists of every type turned first to
+labor. At the annual conventions of the American Federation of Labor
+they besought the delegates to endorse socialism. The president of the
+Federation, Samuel Gompers, on each occasion took the floor against
+them. He repudiated socialism and the socialists, on both theoretical
+and practical <a name="Page_579" id="Page_579"></a>grounds. He opposed too much public ownership, declaring
+that the government was as likely as any private employer to oppress
+labor. The approval of socialism, he maintained, would split the
+Federation on the rock of politics, weaken it in its fight for higher
+wages and shorter hours, and prejudice the public against it. At every
+turn he was able to vanquish the socialists in the Federation, although
+he could not prevent it from endorsing public ownership of the railways
+at the convention of 1920.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Extreme Radicals.</b>&mdash;Some of the socialists, defeated in their
+efforts to capture organized labor and seeing that the gains in
+elections were very meager, broke away from both trade unionism and
+politics. One faction, the Industrial Workers of the World, founded in
+1905, declared themselves opposed to all capitalists, the wages system,
+and craft unions. They asserted that the "working class and the
+employing class have nothing in common" and that trade unions only
+pitted one set of workers against another set. They repudiated all
+government ownership and the government itself, boldly proclaiming their
+intention to unite all employees into one big union and seize the
+railways, mines, and mills of the country. This doctrine, so
+revolutionary in tone, called down upon the extremists the condemnation
+of the American Federation of Labor as well as of the general public. At
+its convention in 1919, the Federation went on record as "opposed to
+Bolshevism, I.W.W.-ism, and the irresponsible leadership that encourages
+such a policy." It announced its "firm adherence to American ideals."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Federation and Political Issues.</b>&mdash;The hostility of the Federation
+to the socialists did not mean, however, that it was indifferent to
+political issues or political parties. On the contrary, from time to
+time, at its annual conventions, it endorsed political and social
+reforms, such as the initiative, referendum, and recall, the abolition
+of child labor, the exclusion of Oriental labor, old-age pensions, and
+government ownership. Moreover it adopted the policy of "rewarding
+friends and punishing enemies" by advising members to vote for or
+against <a name="Page_580" id="Page_580"></a>candidates according to their stand on the demands of organized
+labor.</p>
+
+<div><a name="gompers" id="gompers" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/614.jpg"><img src="./images/614-tb.jpg" alt="Samuel Gompers and Other Labor Leaders" title="Samuel Gompers and Other Labor Leaders" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Samuel Gompers and Other Labor Leaders</span></div>
+
+<p>This policy was pursued with especial zeal in connection with disputes
+over the use of injunctions in labor controversies. An injunction is a
+bill or writ issued by a judge ordering some person or corporation to do
+or to refrain from doing something. For example, a judge may order a
+trade union to refrain from interfering with non-union men or to
+continue at work handling goods made by non-union labor; and he may fine
+or imprison those who disobey his injunction, the penalty being
+inflicted for "contempt of court." This ancient legal device came into
+<a name="Page_581" id="Page_581"></a>prominence in connection with nation-wide railway strikes in 1877. It
+was applied with increasing frequency after its effective use against
+Eugene V. Debs in the Pullman strike of 1894.</p>
+
+<p>Aroused by the extensive use of the writ, organized labor demanded that
+the power of judges to issue injunctions in labor disputes be limited by
+law. Representatives of the unions sought support from the Democrats and
+the Republicans; they received from the former very specific and cordial
+endorsement. In 1896 the Democratic platform denounced "government by
+injunction as a new and highly dangerous form of oppression." Mr.
+Gompers, while refusing to commit the Federation to Democratic politics,
+privately supported Mr. Bryan. In 1908, he came out openly and boasted
+that eighty per cent of the votes of the Federation had been cast for
+the Democratic candidate. Again in 1912 the same policy was pursued. The
+reward was the enactment in 1914 of a federal law exempting trade unions
+from prosecution as combinations in restraint of trade, limiting the use
+of the injunction in labor disputes, and prescribing trial by jury in
+case of contempt of court. This measure was hailed by Mr. Gompers as the
+"Magna Carta of Labor" and a vindication of his policy. As a matter of
+fact, however, it did not prevent the continued use of injunctions
+against trade unions. Nevertheless Mr. Gompers was unshaken in his
+conviction that organized labor should not attempt to form an
+independent political party or endorse socialist or other radical
+economic theories.</p>
+
+<p><b>Organized Labor and the Public.</b>&mdash;Besides its relations to employers,
+radicals within its own ranks, and political questions, the Federation
+had to face responsibilities to the general public. With the passing of
+time these became heavy and grave. While industries were small and
+conflicts were local in character, a strike seldom affected anybody but
+the employer and the employees immediately involved in it. When,
+however, industries and trade unions became organized on a national
+scale and a strike could paralyze a basic enterprise like coal mining or
+railways, the vital interests of all citizens were put in jeopardy.<a name="Page_582" id="Page_582"></a>
+Moreover, as increases in wages and reductions in hours often added
+directly to the cost of living, the action of the unions affected the
+well-being of all&mdash;the food, clothing, and shelter of the whole people.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of meeting the issue raised by this state of affairs, it
+was suggested that employers and employees should lay their disputes
+before commissions of arbitration for decision and settlement. President
+Cleveland, in a message of April 2, 1886, proposed such a method for
+disposing of industrial controversies, and two years later Congress
+enacted a voluntary arbitration law applicable to the railways. The
+principle was extended in 1898 and again in 1913, and under the
+authority of the federal government many contentions in the railway
+world were settled by arbitration.</p>
+
+<p>The success of such legislation induced some students of industrial
+questions to urge that unions and employers should be compelled to
+submit all disputes to official tribunals of arbitration. Kansas
+actually passed such a law in 1920. Congress in the Esch-Cummins railway
+bill of the same year created a federal board of nine members to which
+all railway controversies, not settled by negotiation, must be
+submitted. Strikes, however, were not absolutely forbidden. Generally
+speaking, both employers and employees opposed compulsory adjustments
+without offering any substitute in case voluntary arbitration should not
+be accepted by both parties to a dispute.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Immigration and Americanization</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Problems of Immigration.</b>&mdash;From its very inception, the American
+Federation of Labor, like the Knights of Labor before it, was confronted
+by numerous questions raised by the ever swelling tide of aliens coming
+to our shores. In its effort to make each trade union all-inclusive, it
+had to wrestle with a score or more languages. When it succeeded in
+thoroughly organizing a craft, it often found its purposes defeated by
+an influx of foreigners ready to work for lower wages and thus undermine
+the foundations of the union.<a name="Page_583" id="Page_583"></a></p>
+
+<p>At the same time, persons outside the labor movement began to be
+apprehensive as they contemplated the undoubted evil, as well as the
+good, that seemed to be associated with the "alien invasion." They saw
+whole sections of great cities occupied by people speaking foreign
+tongues, reading only foreign newspapers, and looking to the Old World
+alone for their ideas and their customs. They witnessed an expanding
+army of total illiterates, men and women who could read and write no
+language at all; while among those aliens who could read few there were
+who knew anything of American history, traditions, and ideals. Official
+reports revealed that over twenty per cent of the men of the draft army
+during the World War could not read a newspaper or write a letter home.
+Perhaps most alarming of all was the discovery that thousands of alien
+men are in the United States only on a temporary sojourn, solely to make
+money and return home with their savings. These men, willing to work for
+low wages and live in places unfit for human beings, have no stake in
+this country and do not care what becomes of it.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Restriction of Immigration.</b>&mdash;In all this there was, strictly
+speaking, no cause for surprise. Since the foundation of our republic
+the policy of the government had been to encourage the coming of the
+alien. For nearly one hundred years no restraining act was passed by
+Congress, while two important laws positively encouraged it; namely, the
+homestead act of 1862 and the contract immigration law of 1864. Not
+until American workingmen came into open collision with cheap Chinese
+labor on the Pacific Coast did the federal government spread the first
+measure of limitation on the statute books. After the discovery of gold,
+and particularly after the opening of the railway construction era, a
+horde of laborers from China descended upon California. Accustomed to
+starvation wages and indifferent to the conditions of living, they
+threatened to cut the American standard to the point of subsistence. By
+1876 the protest of American labor was loud and long and both the
+Republicans and the Democrats gave heed to it. In 1882<a name="Page_584" id="Page_584"></a> Congress enacted
+a law prohibiting the admission of Chinese laborers to the United States
+for a term of ten years&mdash;later extended by legislation. In a little
+while the demand arose for the exclusion of the Japanese as well. In
+this case no exclusion law was passed; but an understanding was reached
+by which Japan agreed not to issue passports to her laborers authorizing
+them to come to the United States. By act of Congress in 1907 the
+President was empowered to exclude any laborers who, having passports to
+Canada, Hawaii, or Mexico, attempted to enter our country.</p>
+
+<p>These laws and agreements, however, did not remove all grounds for the
+agitation of the subject. They were difficult to enforce and it was
+claimed by residents of the Coast that in spite of federal authority
+Oriental laborers were finding their way into American ports. Moreover,
+several Western states, anxious to preserve the soil for American
+ownership, enacted laws making it impossible for Chinese and Japanese to
+buy land outright; and in other ways they discriminated against
+Orientals. Such proceedings placed the federal government in an
+embarrassing position. By treaty it had guaranteed specific rights to
+Japanese citizens in the United States, and the government at Tokyo
+contended that the state laws just cited violated the terms of the
+international agreement. The Western states were fixed in their
+determination to control Oriental residents; Japan was equally
+persistent in asking that no badge of inferiority be attached to her
+citizens. Subjected to pressure on both sides, the federal government
+sought a way out of the deadlock.</p>
+
+<p>Having embarked upon the policy of restriction in 1882, Congress readily
+extended it. In that same year it barred paupers, criminals, convicts,
+and the insane. Three years later, mainly owing to the pressure of the
+Knights of Labor, it forbade any person, company, or association to
+import aliens under contract. By an act of 1887, the contract labor
+restriction was made even more severe. In 1903, anarchists were excluded
+and the bureau of immigration was transferred from the Treasury
+Department to the Department of Commerce <a name="Page_585" id="Page_585"></a>and Labor, in order to provide
+for a more rigid execution of the law. In 1907 the classes of persons
+denied admission were widened to embrace those suffering from physical
+and mental defects and otherwise unfit for effective citizenship. When
+the Department of Labor was established in 1913 the enforcement of the
+law was placed in the hands of the Secretary of Labor, W.B. Wilson, who
+was a former leader in the American Federation of Labor.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Literacy Test.</b>&mdash;Still the advocates of restriction were not
+satisfied. Still organized labor protested and demanded more protection
+against the competition of immigrants. In 1917 it won a thirty-year
+battle in the passage of a bill excluding "all aliens over sixteen years
+of age, physically capable of reading, who cannot read the English
+language or some other language or dialect, including Hebrew or
+Yiddish." Even President Wilson could not block it, for a two-thirds
+vote to overcome his veto was mustered in Congress.</p>
+
+<p>This act, while it served to exclude illiterates, made no drastic cut in
+the volume of immigration. Indeed a material reduction was resolutely
+opposed in many quarters. People of certain nationalities already in the
+United States objected to every barrier that shut out their own kinsmen.
+Some Americans of the old stock still held to the idea that the United
+States should continue to be an asylum for "the oppressed of the earth."
+Many employers looked upon an increased labor supply as the means of
+escaping what they called "the domination of trade unions." In the babel
+of countless voices, the discussion of these vital matters went on in
+town and country.</p>
+
+<p><b>Americanization.</b>&mdash;Intimately connected with the subject of immigration
+was a call for the "Americanization" of the alien already within our
+gates. The revelation of the illiteracy in the army raised the cry and
+the demand was intensified when it was found that many of the leaders
+among the extreme radicals were foreign in birth and citizenship.
+Innumerable programs for assimilating the alien to American life were
+drawn up, and in 1919 a national conference on the subject was held in
+Wash<a name="Page_586" id="Page_586"></a>ington under the auspices of the Department of the Interior. All
+were agreed that the foreigner should be taught to speak and write the
+language and understand the government of our country. Congress was
+urged to lend aid in this vast undertaking. America, as ex-President
+Roosevelt had said, was to find out "whether it was a nation or a
+boarding-house."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>General References</b></p>
+
+<p>J.R. Commons and Associates, <i>History of Labor in the United States</i> (2
+vols.).</p>
+
+<p>Samuel Gompers, <i>Labor and the Common Welfare</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.E. Walling, <i>Socialism as It Is</i>.</p>
+
+<p>W.E. Walling (and Others), <i>The Socialism of Today</i>.</p>
+
+<p>R.T. Ely, <i>The Labor Movement in America</i>.</p>
+
+<p>T.S. Adams and H. Sumner, <i>Labor Problems</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.G. Brooks, <i>American Syndicalism</i> and <i>Social Unrest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>P.F. Hall, <i>Immigration and Its Effects on the United States</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>The Rise of Trade Unionism.</b>&mdash;Mary Beard, <i>Short History of the
+American Labor Movement</i>, pp. 10-18, 47-53, 62-79; Carlton, <i>Organized
+Labor in American History</i>, pp. 11-44.</p>
+
+<p><b>Labor and Politics.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 33-46, 54-61,
+103-112; Carlton, pp. 169-197; Ogg, <i>National Progress</i> (American Nation
+Series), pp. 76-85.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Knights of Labor.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>Short History</i>, pp. 116-126; Dewey,
+<i>National Problems</i> (American Nation Series), pp. 40-49.</p>
+
+<p><b>The American Federation of Labor&mdash;Organization and Policies.</b>&mdash;Beard,
+<i>Short History</i>, pp. 86-112.</p>
+
+<p><b>Organized Labor and the Socialists.</b>&mdash;Beard, <i>Short History</i>, pp.
+126-149.</p>
+
+<p><b>Labor and the Great War.</b>&mdash;Carlton, pp. 282-306; Beard, <i>Short
+History</i>, pp. 150-170.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. What are the striking features of the new economic age?</p>
+
+<p>2. Give Mr. Rockefeller's view of industrial democracy.</p>
+
+<p>3. Outline the efforts made by employers to establish closer relations
+with their employees.</p>
+
+<p>4. Sketch the rise and growth of the American Federation of Labor.</p>
+
+<p>5. How far back in our history does the labor movement extend?<a name="Page_587" id="Page_587"></a></p>
+
+<p>6. Describe the purposes and outcome of the National Labor Union and the
+Knights of Labor.</p>
+
+<p>7. State the chief policies of the American Federation of Labor.</p>
+
+<p>8. How does organized labor become involved with outside forces?</p>
+
+<p>9. Outline the rise of the socialist movement. How did it come into
+contact with the American Federation?</p>
+
+<p>10. What was the relation of the Federation to the extreme radicals? To
+national politics? To the public?</p>
+
+<p>11. Explain the injunction.</p>
+
+<p>12. Why are labor and immigration closely related?</p>
+
+<p>13. Outline the history of restrictions on immigration.</p>
+
+<p>14. What problems arise in connection with the assimilation of the alien
+to American life?<a name="Page_588" id="Page_588"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XXV</h2>
+
+<h3>PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR</h3>
+
+
+<p>"The welfare, the happiness, the energy, and the spirit of the men and
+women who do the daily work in our mines and factories, on our
+railroads, in our offices and ports of trade, on our farms, and on the
+sea are the underlying necessity of all prosperity." Thus spoke Woodrow
+Wilson during his campaign for election. In this spirit, as President,
+he gave the signal for work by summoning Congress in a special session
+on April 7, 1913. He invited the co&ouml;peration of all "forward-looking
+men" and indicated that he would assume the r&ocirc;le of leadership. As an
+evidence of his resolve, he appeared before Congress in person to read
+his first message, reviving the old custom of Washington and Adams. Then
+he let it be known that he would not give his party any rest until it
+fulfilled its pledges to the country. When Democratic Senators balked at
+tariff reductions, they were sharply informed that the party had
+plighted its word and that no excuses or delays would be tolerated.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Domestic Legislation</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Financial Measures.</b>&mdash;Under this spirited leadership Congress went to
+work, passing first the Underwood tariff act of 1913, which made a
+downward revision in the rates of duty, fixing them on the average about
+twenty-six per cent lower than the figures of 1907. The protective
+principle was retained, but an effort was made to permit a moderate
+element of foreign competition. As a part of the revenue act Congress
+levied a tax on incomes as authorized by the sixteenth amendment to the
+Constitution. The tax which roused such party passions twenty years
+before was now accepted as a matter of course.<a name="Page_589" id="Page_589"></a></p>
+
+<p>Having disposed of the tariff, Congress took up the old and vexatious
+currency question and offered a new solution in the form of the federal
+reserve law of December, 1913. This measure, one of the most interesting
+in the history of federal finance, embraced four leading features. In
+the first place, it continued the prohibition on the issuance of notes
+by state banks and provided for a national currency. In the second
+place, it put the new banking system under the control of a federal
+reserve board composed entirely of government officials. To prevent the
+growth of a "central money power," it provided, in the third place, for
+the creation of twelve federal reserve banks, one in each of twelve
+great districts into which the country is divided. All local national
+banks were required and certain other banks permitted to become members
+of the new system and share in its control. Finally, with a view to
+expanding the currency, a step which the Democrats had long urged upon
+the country, the issuance of paper money, under definite safeguards, was
+authorized.</p>
+
+<p>Mindful of the agricultural interest, ever dear to the heart of
+Jefferson's followers, the Democrats supplemented the reserve law by the
+Farm Loan Act of 1916, creating federal agencies to lend money on farm
+mortgages at moderate rates of interest. Within a year $20,000,000 had
+been lent to farmers, the heaviest borrowing being in nine Western and
+Southern states, with Texas in the lead.</p>
+
+<p><b>Anti-trust Legislation.</b>&mdash;The tariff and currency laws were followed by
+three significant measures relative to trusts. Rejecting utterly the
+Progressive doctrine of government regulation, President Wilson
+announced that it was the purpose of the Democrats "to destroy monopoly
+and maintain competition as the only effective instrument of business
+liberty." The first step in this direction, the Clayton Anti-trust Act,
+carried into great detail the Sherman law of 1890 forbidding and
+penalizing combinations in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. In
+every line it revealed a determined effort to tear apart the great
+trusts and to put all business on a competitive basis. Its <a name="Page_590" id="Page_590"></a>terms were
+reinforced in the same year by a law creating a Federal Trade Commission
+empowered to inquire into the methods of corporations and lodge
+complaints against concerns "using any unfair method of competition." In
+only one respect was the severity of the Democratic policy relaxed. An
+act of 1918 provided that the Sherman law should not apply to companies
+engaged in export trade, the purpose being to encourage large
+corporations to enter foreign commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of this whole body of anti-trust legislation, in spite of
+much labor on it, remained problematical. Very few combinations were
+dissolved as a result of it. Startling investigations were made into
+alleged abuses on the part of trusts; but it could hardly be said that
+huge business concerns had lost any of their predominance in American
+industry.</p>
+
+<p><b>Labor Legislation.</b>&mdash;By no mere coincidence, the Clayton Anti-trust law
+of 1914 made many concessions to organized labor. It declared that "the
+labor of a human being is not a commodity or an article of commerce,"
+and it exempted unions from prosecution as "combinations in restraint of
+trade." It likewise defined and limited the uses which the federal
+courts might make of injunctions in labor disputes and guaranteed trial
+by jury to those guilty of disobedience (<a href='#Page_581'>see p. 581</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The Clayton law was followed the next year by the Seamen's Act giving
+greater liberty of contract to American sailors and requiring an
+improvement of living conditions on shipboard. This was such a drastic
+law that shipowners declared themselves unable to meet foreign
+competition under its terms, owing to the low labor standards of other
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>Still more extraordinary than the Seamen's Act was the Adamson law of
+1916 fixing a standard eight-hour work-day for trainmen on railroads&mdash;a
+measure wrung from Congress under a threat of a great strike by the four
+Railway Brotherhoods. This act, viewed by union leaders as a triumph,
+called forth a bitter denunciation of "trade union domination," but it
+was easier to criticize than to find another solution of the problem.<a name="Page_591" id="Page_591"></a></p>
+
+<p>Three other laws enacted during President Wilson's administration were
+popular in the labor world. One of them provided compensation for
+federal employees injured in the discharge of their duties. Another
+prohibited the labor of children under a certain age in the industries
+of the nation. A third prescribed for coal miners in Alaska an
+eight-hour day and modern safeguards for life and health. There were
+positive proofs that organized labor had obtained a large share of power
+in the councils of the country.</p>
+
+<p><b>Federal and State Relations.</b>&mdash;If the interference of the government
+with business and labor represented a departure from the old idea of
+"the less government the better," what can be said of a large body of
+laws affecting the rights of states? The prohibition of child labor
+everywhere was one indication of the new tendency. Mr. Wilson had once
+declared such legislation unconstitutional; the Supreme Court declared
+it unconstitutional; but Congress, undaunted, carried it into effect
+under the guise of a tax on goods made by children below the age limit.
+There were other indications of the drift. Large sums of money were
+appropriated by Congress in 1916 to assist the states in building and
+maintaining highways. The same year the Farm Loan Act projected the
+federal government into the sphere of local money lending. In 1917
+millions of dollars were granted to states in aid of vocational
+education, incidentally imposing uniform standards throughout the
+country. Evidently the government was no longer limited to the duties of
+the policeman.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Prohibition Amendment.</b>&mdash;A still more significant form of
+intervention in state affairs was the passage, in December, 1917, of an
+amendment to the federal Constitution establishing national prohibition
+of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as beverages. This
+was the climax of a historical movement extending over half a century.
+In 1872, a National Prohibition party, launched three years before,
+nominated its first presidential candidate and inaugurated a campaign of
+agitation. Though its vote was never large, the cause for <a name="Page_592" id="Page_592"></a>which it
+stood found increasing favor among the people. State after state by
+popular referendum abolished the liquor traffic within its borders. By
+1917 at least thirty-two of the forty-eight were "dry." When the federal
+amendment was submitted for approval, the ratification was surprisingly
+swift. In a little more than a year, namely, on January 16, 1919, it was
+proclaimed. Twelve months later the amendment went into effect.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Colonial and Foreign Policies</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Philippines and Porto Rico.</b>&mdash;Independence for the Philippines and
+larger self-government for Porto Rico had been among the policies of the
+Democratic party since the campaign of 1900. President Wilson in his
+annual messages urged upon Congress more autonomy for the Filipinos and
+a definite promise of final independence. The result was the Jones
+Organic Act for the Philippines passed in 1916. This measure provided
+that the upper as well as the lower house of the Philippine legislature
+should be elected by popular vote, and declared it to be the intention
+of the United States to grant independence "as soon as a stable
+government can be established." This, said President Wilson on signing
+the bill, is "a very satisfactory advance in our policy of extending to
+them self-government and control of their own affairs." The following
+year Congress, yielding to President Wilson's insistence, passed a new
+organic act for Porto Rico, making both houses of the legislature
+elective and conferring American citizenship upon the inhabitants of the
+island.</p>
+
+<div><a name="caribbean" id="caribbean" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/627.jpg"><img src="./images/627-tb.jpg" alt="The Caribbean Region" title="The Caribbean Region" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">The Caribbean Region</span></div>
+
+<p><b>American Power in the Caribbean.</b>&mdash;While extending more self-government
+to its dominions, the United States enlarged its sphere of influence in
+the Caribbean. The supervision of finances in Santo Domingo, inaugurated
+in Roosevelt's administration, was transformed into a protectorate under
+Wilson. In 1914 dissensions in the republic led to the landing of
+American marines to "supervise" the elections. Two years later, an
+officer in the American navy, with authority from Washington, <a name="Page_593" id="Page_593"></a>placed
+the entire republic "in a state of military occupation." He proceeded to
+suspend the government and laws of the country, exile the president,
+suppress the congress, and substitute American military authority. In
+1919 a consulting board of four prominent Dominicans was appointed to
+aid the American military governor; but it resigned the next year after
+making a plea for the restoration of independence to the republic. For
+all practical purposes, it seemed, the sovereignty of Santo Domingo had
+been transferred to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In the neighboring republic of Haiti, a similar state of affairs
+existed. In the summer of 1915 a revolution broke out there&mdash;one of a
+long series beginning in 1804&mdash;and our marines were landed to restore
+order. Elections were held under the supervision of American officers,
+and a treaty was drawn up placing the management of Haitian finances and
+the local constabulary under American authority. In taking this action,
+our Secretary of State was careful to announce: "The United States
+government has no purpose of aggression and is entirely disinterested in
+promoting this protectorate." Still it must be said that there were
+vigorous protests on the part of natives and American citizens against
+the conduct of our agents in the island. In 1921 President Wilson was
+considering withdrawal.</p>
+
+<p>In line with American policy in the West Indian waters was the purchase
+in 1917 of the Danish Islands just off the coast of Porto Rico. The
+strategic position of the islands, especially in relation to Haiti and
+Porto Rico, made them an object of American concern as early as 1867,
+when a treaty of purchase was negotiated only to be rejected by the
+Senate of the United States. In 1902 a second arrangement was made, but
+this time it was defeated by the upper house of the Danish parliament.
+The third treaty brought an end to fifty years of bargaining and the
+Stars and Stripes were raised over St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John, and
+numerous minor islands scattered about in the neighborhood. "It would be
+suicidal," commented a New York newspaper, "for America, on the
+threshold of a great commercial expansion in South America, to suffer a
+Heligo<a name="Page_594" id="Page_594"></a>land, or a Gibraltar, or an Aden to be erected by her rivals at
+the mouth of her Suez." On the mainland American power was strengthened
+by the establishment of a protectorate over Nicaragua in 1916.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mexican Relations.</b>&mdash;The extension of American enterprise southward
+into Latin America, of which the operations in the Caribbean regions
+were merely one phase, naturally carried Americans into Mexico to
+develop the natural resources of that country. Under the iron rule of
+General Porfirio Diaz, established in 1876 and maintained with only a
+short break until 1911, Mexico had become increasingly attractive to our
+business men. On the invitation of President Diaz, they had invested
+huge sums in Mexican lands, oil fields, and mines, and had laid the
+foundations of a new industrial order. The severe r&eacute;gime instituted by
+Diaz, however, stirred popular discontent. The peons, or serfs, demanded
+the break-up of the great estates, some of which had come down from the
+days of Cortez. Their clamor for "the restoration of the land to the
+people could not be silenced." In 1911 Diaz was forced to resign and
+left the country.</p>
+
+<p>Mexico now slid down the path to disorder. Revolutions and civil
+commotions followed in swift succession. A liberal president, Madero,
+installed as the successor to Diaz, was deposed in 1913 and brutally
+murdered. Huerta, a military adventurer, hailed for a time as another
+"strong man," succeeded Madero whose murder he was accused of
+instigating. Although Great Britain and nearly all the powers of Europe
+accepted the new government as lawful, the United States steadily
+withheld recognition. In the meantime Mexico was torn by insurrections
+under the leadership of Carranza, a friend of Madero, Villa, a bandit of
+generous pretensions, and Zapata, a radical leader of the peons. Without
+the support of the United States, Huerta was doomed.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1914, the dictator resigned and fled from the capital,
+leaving the field to Carranza. For six years the new president,
+recognized by the United States, held a pre<a name="Page_595" id="Page_595"></a>carious position which he
+vigorously strove to strengthen against various revolutionary movements.
+At length in 1920, he too was deposed and murdered, and another military
+chieftain, Obregon, installed in power.</p>
+
+<p>These events right at our door could not fail to involve the government
+of the United States. In the disorders many American citizens lost their
+lives. American property was destroyed and land owned by Americans was
+confiscated. A new Mexican constitution, in effect nationalizing the
+natural resources of the country, struck at the rights of foreign
+investors. Moreover the Mexican border was in constant turmoil. Even in
+the last days of his administration, Mr. Taft felt compelled to issue a
+solemn warning to the Mexican government protesting against the
+violation of American rights.</p>
+
+<p>President Wilson, soon after his inauguration, sent a commissioner to
+Mexico to inquire into the situation. Although he declared a general
+policy of "watchful waiting," he twice came to blows with Mexican
+forces. In 1914 some American sailors at Tampico were arrested by a
+Mexican officer; the Mexican government, although it immediately
+released the men, refused to make the required apology for the incident.
+As a result President Wilson ordered the landing of American forces at
+Vera Cruz and the occupation of the city. A clash of arms followed in
+which several Americans were killed. War seemed inevitable, but at this
+juncture the governments of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile tendered their
+good offices as mediators. After a few weeks of negotiation, during
+which Huerta was forced out of power, American forces were withdrawn
+from Vera Cruz and the incident closed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1916 a second break in amicable relations occurred. In the spring of
+that year a band of Villa's men raided the town of Columbus, New Mexico,
+killing several citizens and committing robberies. A punitive expedition
+under the command of General Pershing was quickly sent out to capture
+the offenders. Against the protests of President Carranza, American
+forces penetrated deeply into Mexico without effecting the object <a name="Page_596" id="Page_596"></a>of
+the undertaking. This operation lasted until January, 1917, when the
+imminence of war with Germany led to the withdrawal of the American
+soldiers. Friendly relations were resumed with the Mexican government
+and the policy of "watchful waiting" was continued.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The United States and the European War</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Outbreak of the War.</b>&mdash;In the opening days of August, 1914, the
+age-long jealousies of European nations, sharpened by new imperial
+ambitions, broke out in another general conflict such as had shaken the
+world in the days of Napoleon. On June 28, the heir to the
+Austro-Hungarian throne was assassinated at Serajevo, the capital of
+Bosnia, an Austrian province occupied mainly by Serbs. With a view to
+stopping Serbian agitation for independence, Austria-Hungary laid the
+blame for this incident on the government of Serbia and made humiliating
+demands on that country. Germany at once proposed that the issue should
+be regarded as "an affair which should be settled solely between
+Austria-Hungary and Serbia"; meaning that the small nation should be
+left to the tender mercies of a great power. Russia refused to take this
+view. Great Britain proposed a settlement by mediation. Germany backed
+up Austria to the limit. To use the language of the German authorities:
+"We were perfectly aware that a possible warlike attitude of
+Austria-Hungary against Serbia might bring Russia upon the field and
+that it might therefore involve us in a war, in accordance with our
+duties as allies. We could not, however, in these vital interests of
+Austria-Hungary which were at stake, advise our ally to take a yielding
+attitude not compatible with his dignity nor deny him our assistance."
+That made the war inevitable.</p>
+
+<p>Every day of the fateful August, 1914, was crowded with momentous
+events. On the 1st, Germany declared war on Russia. On the 2d, the
+Germans invaded the little duchy of Luxemburg and notified the King of
+Belgium that they were preparing to violate the neutrality of his realm
+on their way to<a name="Page_597" id="Page_597"></a> Paris. On the same day, Great Britain, anxiously
+besought by the French government, promised the aid of the British navy
+if German warships made hostile demonstrations in the Channel. August
+3d, the German government declared war on France. The following day,
+Great Britain demanded of Germany respect for Belgian neutrality and,
+failing to receive the guarantee, broke off diplomatic relations. On the
+5th, the British prime minister announced that war had opened between
+England and Germany. The storm now broke in all its pitiless fury.</p>
+
+<p><b>The State of American Opinion.</b>&mdash;Although President Wilson promptly
+proclaimed the neutrality of the United States, the sympathies of a
+large majority of the American people were without doubt on the side of
+Great Britain and France. To them the invasion of the little kingdom of
+Belgium and the horrors that accompanied German occupation were odious
+in the extreme. Moreover, they regarded the German imperial government
+as an autocratic power wielded in the interest of an ambitious military
+party. The Kaiser, William II, and the Crown Prince were the symbols of
+royal arrogance. On the other hand, many Americans of German descent, in
+memory of their ties with the Fatherland, openly sympathized with the
+Central Powers; and many Americans of Irish descent, recalling their
+long and bitter struggle for home rule in Ireland, would have regarded
+British defeat as a merited redress of ancient grievances.</p>
+
+<p>Extremely sensitive to American opinion, but ill informed about it, the
+German government soon began systematic efforts to present its cause to
+the people of the United States in the most favorable light possible.
+Dr. Bernhard Dernburg, the former colonial secretary of the German
+empire, was sent to America as a special agent. For months he filled the
+newspapers, magazines, and periodicals with interviews, articles, and
+notes on the justice of the Teutonic cause. From a press bureau in New
+York flowed a stream of pamphlets, leaflets, and cartoons. A magazine,
+"The Fatherland," was founded to se<a name="Page_598" id="Page_598"></a>cure "fair play for Germany and
+Austria." Several professors in American universities, who had received
+their training in Germany, took up the pen in defense of the Central
+Empires. The German language press, without exception it seems, the
+National German Alliance, minor German societies, and Lutheran churches
+came to the support of the German cause. Even the English language
+papers, though generally favorable to the Entente Allies, opened their
+columns in the interest of equal justice to the spokesmen for all the
+contending powers of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Before two weeks had elapsed the controversy had become so intense that
+President Wilson (August 18, 1914) was moved to caution his countrymen
+against falling into angry disputes. "Every man," he said, "who really
+loves America will act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality which
+is the spirit of impartiality and fairness and friendliness to all
+concerned.... We must be impartial in thought as well as in action, must
+put a curb upon our sentiments as well as upon every transaction that
+might be construed as a preference of one party to the struggle before
+another."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Clash over American Trade.</b>&mdash;As in the time of the Napoleonic wars,
+the conflict in Europe raised fundamental questions respecting rights of
+Americans trading with countries at peace as well as those at war. On
+this point there existed on August 1, 1914, a fairly definite body of
+principles by which nations were bound. Among them the following were of
+vital significance. In the first place, it was recognized that an enemy
+merchant ship caught on the high seas was a legitimate prize of war
+which might be seized and confiscated. In the second place, it was
+agreed that "contraband of war" found on an enemy or neutral ship was a
+lawful prize; any ship suspected of carrying it was liable to search and
+if caught with forbidden goods was subject to seizure. In the third
+place, international law prescribed that a peaceful merchant ship,
+whether belonging to an enemy or to a neutral country, should not be
+destroyed or sunk without provision for the safety of crew and
+passengers.<a name="Page_599" id="Page_599"></a> In the fourth place, it was understood that a belligerent
+had the right, if it could, to blockade the ports of an enemy and
+prevent the ingress and egress of all ships; but such a blockade, to be
+lawful, had to be effective.</p>
+
+<p>These general principles left undetermined two important matters: "What
+is an effective blockade?" and "What is contraband of war?" The task of
+answering these questions fell to Great Britain as mistress of the seas.
+Although the German submarines made it impossible for her battleships to
+maintain a continuous patrol of the waters in front of blockaded ports,
+she declared the blockade to be none the less "effective" because her
+navy was supreme. As to contraband of war Great Britain put such a broad
+interpretation upon the term as to include nearly every important
+article of commerce. Early in 1915 she declared even cargoes of grain
+and flour to be contraband, defending the action on the ground that the
+German government had recently taken possession of all domestic stocks
+of corn, wheat, and flour.</p>
+
+<p>A new question arose in connection with American trade with the neutral
+countries surrounding Germany. Great Britain early began to intercept
+ships carrying oil, gasoline, and copper&mdash;all war materials of prime
+importance&mdash;on the ground that they either were destined ultimately to
+Germany or would release goods for sale to Germans. On November 2, 1914,
+the English government announced that the Germans wore sowing mines in
+open waters and that therefore the whole of the North Sea was a military
+zone. Ships bound for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were ordered to come
+by the English Channel for inspection and sailing directions. In effect,
+Americans were now licensed by Great Britain to trade in certain
+commodities and in certain amounts with neutral countries.</p>
+
+<p>Against these extraordinary measures, the State Department at Washington
+lodged pointed objections, saying: "This government is reluctantly
+forced to the conclusion that the present policy of His Majesty's
+government toward neutral ships and cargoes exceeds the manifest
+necessity of a belligerent <a name="Page_600" id="Page_600"></a>and constitutes restrictions upon the rights
+of American citizens on the high seas, which are not justified by the
+rules of international law or required under the principle of
+self-preservation."</p>
+
+<p><b>Germany Begins the Submarine Campaign.</b>&mdash;Germany now announced that, on
+and after February 18, 1915, the whole of the English Channel and the
+waters around Great Britain would be deemed a war zone and that every
+enemy ship found therein would be destroyed. The German decree added
+that, as the British admiralty had ordered the use of neutral flags by
+English ships in time of distress, neutral vessels would be in danger of
+destruction if found in the forbidden area. It was clear that Germany
+intended to employ submarines to destroy shipping. A new factor was thus
+introduced into naval warfare, one not provided for in the accepted laws
+of war. A warship overhauling a merchant vessel could easily take its
+crew and passengers on board for safe keeping as prescribed by
+international law; but a submarine ordinarily could do nothing of the
+sort. Of necessity the lives and the ships of neutrals, as well as of
+belligerents, were put in mortal peril. This amazing conduct Germany
+justified on the ground that it was mere retaliation against Great
+Britain for her violations of international law.</p>
+
+<p>The response of the United States to the ominous German order was swift
+and direct. On February 10, 1915, it warned Germany that if her
+commanders destroyed American lives and ships in obedience to that
+decree, the action would "be very hard indeed to reconcile with the
+friendly relations happily subsisting between the two governments." The
+American note added that the German imperial government would be held to
+"strict accountability" and all necessary steps would be taken to
+safeguard American lives and American rights. This was firm and clear
+language, but the only response which it evoked from Germany was a
+suggestion that, if Great Britain would allow food supplies to pass
+through the blockade, the submarine campaign would be dropped.<a name="Page_601" id="Page_601"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Violations of American Rights.</b>&mdash;Meanwhile Germany continued to ravage
+shipping on the high seas. On January 28, a German raider sank the
+American ship, <i>William P. Frye</i>, in the South Atlantic; on March 28, a
+British ship, the <i>Falaba</i>, was sunk by a submarine and many on board,
+including an American citizen, were killed; and on April 28, a German
+airplane dropped bombs on the American steamer <i>Cushing</i>. On the morning
+of May 1, 1915, Americans were astounded to see in the newspapers an
+advertisement, signed by the German Imperial Embassy, warning travelers
+of the dangers in the war zone and notifying them that any who ventured
+on British ships into that area did so at their own risk. On that day,
+the <i>Lusitania</i>, a British steamer, sailed from New York for Liverpool.
+On May 7, without warning, the ship was struck by two torpedoes and in a
+few minutes went down by the bow, carrying to death 1153 persons
+including 114 American men, women, and children. A cry of horror ran
+through the country. The German papers in America and a few American
+people argued that American citizens had been duly warned of the danger
+and had deliberately taken their lives into their own hands; but the
+terrible deed was almost universally condemned by public opinion.</p>
+
+<p><b>The <i>Lusitania</i> Notes.</b>&mdash;On May 14, the Department of State at
+Washington made public the first of three famous notes on the
+<i>Lusitania</i> case. It solemnly informed the German government that "no
+warning that an unlawful and inhumane act will be committed can possibly
+be accepted as an excuse or palliation for that act or as an abatement
+of the responsibility for its commission." It called upon the German
+government to disavow the act, make reparation as far as possible, and
+take steps to prevent "the recurrence of anything so obviously
+subversive of the principles of warfare." The note closed with a clear
+caution to Germany that the government of the United States would not
+"omit any word or any act necessary to the performance of its sacred
+duty of maintaining the rights of the United States and its citizens and
+of safe<a name="Page_602" id="Page_602"></a>guarding their free exercise and enjoyment." The die was cast;
+but Germany in reply merely temporized.</p>
+
+<p>In a second note, made public on June 11, the position of the United
+States was again affirmed. William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of
+State, had resigned because the drift of President Wilson's policy was
+not toward mediation but the strict maintenance of American rights, if
+need be, by force of arms. The German reply was still evasive and German
+naval commanders continued their course of sinking merchant ships. In a
+third and final note of July 21, 1915, President Wilson made it clear to
+Germany that he meant what he said when he wrote that he would maintain
+the rights of American citizens. Finally after much discussion and
+shifting about, the German ambassador on September 1, 1915, sent a brief
+note to the Secretary of State: "Liners will not be sunk by our
+submarines without warning and without safety of the lives of
+non-combatants, provided the liners do not try to escape or offer
+resistance." Editorially, the New York <i>Times</i> declared: "It is a
+triumph not only of diplomacy but of reason, of humanity, of justice,
+and of truth." The Secretary of State saw in it "a recognition of the
+fundamental principles for which we have contended."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Presidential Election of 1916.</b>&mdash;In the midst of this crisis came
+the presidential campaign. On the Republican side everything seemed to
+depend upon the action of the Progressives. If the breach created in
+1912 could be closed, victory was possible; if not, defeat was certain.
+A promise of unity lay in the fact that the conventions of the
+Republicans and Progressives were held simultaneously in Chicago. The
+friends of Roosevelt hoped that both parties would select him as their
+candidate; but this hope was not realized. The Republicans chose, and
+the Progressives accepted, Charles E. Hughes, an associate justice of
+the federal Supreme Court who, as governor of New York, had won a
+national reputation by waging war on "machine politicians."</p>
+
+<p>In the face of the clamor for expressions of sympathy with <a name="Page_603" id="Page_603"></a>one or the
+other of the contending powers of Europe, the Republicans chose a middle
+course, declaring that they would uphold all American rights "at home
+and abroad, by land and by sea." This sentiment Mr. Hughes echoed in his
+acceptance speech. By some it was interpreted to mean a firmer policy in
+dealing with Great Britain; by others, a more vigorous handling of the
+submarine menace. The Democrats, on their side, renominated President
+Wilson by acclamation, reviewed with pride the legislative achievements
+of the party, and commended "the splendid diplomatic victories of our
+great President who has preserved the vital interests of our government
+and its citizens and kept us out of war."</p>
+
+<p>In the election which ensued President Wilson's popular vote exceeded
+that cast for Mr. Hughes by more than half a million, while his
+electoral vote stood 277 to 254. The result was regarded, and not
+without warrant, as a great personal triumph for the President. He had
+received the largest vote yet cast for a presidential candidate. The
+Progressive party practically disappeared, and the Socialists suffered a
+severe set-back, falling far behind the vote of 1912.</p>
+
+<p><b>President Wilson Urges Peace upon the Warring Nations.</b>&mdash;Apparently
+convinced that his pacific policies had been profoundly approved by his
+countrymen, President Wilson, soon after the election, addressed "peace
+notes" to the European belligerents. On December 16, the German Emperor
+proposed to the Allied Powers that they enter into peace negotiations, a
+suggestion that was treated as a mere political maneuver by the opposing
+governments. Two days later President Wilson sent a note to the warring
+nations asking them to avow "the terms upon which war might be
+concluded." To these notes the Central Powers replied that they were
+ready to meet their antagonists in a peace conference; and Allied Powers
+answered by presenting certain conditions precedent to a satisfactory
+settlement. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson in an address before
+the Senate, declared it to be a duty of the United States to take part
+in the establishment of a stable <a name="Page_604" id="Page_604"></a>peace on the basis of certain
+principles. These were, in short: "peace without victory"; the right of
+nationalities to freedom and self-government; the independence of
+Poland; freedom of the seas; the reduction of armaments; and the
+abolition of entangling alliances. The whole world was discussing the
+President's remarkable message, when it was dumbfounded to hear, on
+January 31, that the German ambassador at Washington had announced the
+official renewal of ruthless submarine warfare.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The United States at War</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>Steps toward War.</b>&mdash;Three days after the receipt of the news that the
+German government intended to return to its former submarine policy,
+President Wilson severed diplomatic relations with the German empire. At
+the same time he explained to Congress that he desired no conflict with
+Germany and would await an "overt act" before taking further steps to
+preserve American rights. "God grant," he concluded, "that we may not be
+challenged to defend them by acts of willful injustice on the part of
+the government of Germany." Yet the challenge came. Between February 26
+and April 2, six American merchant vessels were torpedoed, in most cases
+without any warning and without regard to the loss of American lives.
+President Wilson therefore called upon Congress to answer the German
+menace. The reply of Congress on April 6 was a resolution, passed with
+only a few dissenting votes, declaring the existence of a state of war
+with Germany. Austria-Hungary at once severed diplomatic relations with
+the United States; but it was not until December 7 that Congress, acting
+on the President's advice, declared war also on that "vassal of the
+German government."</p>
+
+<p><b>American War Aims.</b>&mdash;In many addresses at the beginning and during the
+course of the war, President Wilson stated the purposes which actuated
+our government in taking up arms. He first made it clear that it was a
+war of self-defense. "The military masters of Germany," he exclaimed,
+"denied us the <a name="Page_605" id="Page_605"></a>right to be neutral." Proof of that lay on every hand.
+Agents of the German imperial government had destroyed American lives
+and American property on the high seas. They had filled our communities
+with spies. They had planted bombs in ships and munition works. They had
+fomented divisions among American citizens.</p>
+
+<p>Though assailed in many ways and compelled to resort to war, the United
+States sought no material rewards. "The world must be made safe for
+democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of
+political liberty. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no
+conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves."</p>
+
+<p>In a very remarkable message read to Congress on January 8, 1918,
+President Wilson laid down his famous "fourteen points" summarizing the
+ideals for which we were fighting. They included open treaties of peace,
+openly arrived at; absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas; the
+removal, as far as possible, of trade barriers among nations; reduction
+of armaments; adjustment of colonial claims in the interest of the
+populations concerned; fair and friendly treatment of Russia; the
+restoration of Belgium; righting the wrong done to France in 1871 in the
+matter of Alsace-Lorraine; adjustment of Italian frontiers along the
+lines of nationality; more liberty for the peoples of Austria-Hungary;
+the restoration of Serbia and Rumania; the readjustment of the Turkish
+Empire; an independent Poland; and an association of nations to afford
+mutual guarantees to all states great and small. On a later occasion
+President Wilson elaborated the last point, namely, the formation of a
+league of nations to guarantee peace and establish justice among the
+powers of the world. Democracy, the right of nations to determine their
+own fate, a covenant of enduring peace&mdash;these were the ideals for which
+the American people were to pour out their blood and treasure.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Selective Draft.</b>&mdash;The World War became a war of nations. The
+powers against which we were arrayed had every able-bodied man in
+service and all their resources, human <a name="Page_606" id="Page_606"></a>and material, thrown into the
+scale. For this reason, President Wilson summoned the whole people of
+the United States to make every sacrifice necessary for victory.
+Congress by law decreed that the national army should be chosen from all
+male citizens and males not enemy aliens who had declared their
+intention of becoming citizens. By the first act of May 18, 1917, it
+fixed the age limits at twenty-one to thirty-one inclusive. Later, in
+August, 1918, it extended them to eighteen and forty-five. From the men
+of the first group so enrolled were chosen by lot the soldiers for the
+World War who, with the regular army and the national guard, formed the
+American Expeditionary Force upholding the American cause on the
+battlefields of Europe. "The whole nation," said the President, "must be
+a team in which each man shall play the part for which he is best
+fitted."</p>
+
+<p><b>Liberty Loans and Taxes.</b>&mdash;In order that the military and naval forces
+should be stinted in no respect, the nation was called upon to place its
+financial resources at the service of the government. Some urged the
+"conscription of wealth as well as men," meaning the support of the war
+out of taxes upon great fortunes; but more conservative counsels
+prevailed. Four great Liberty Loans were floated, all the agencies of
+modern publicity being employed to enlist popular interest. The first
+loan had four and a half million subscribers; the fourth more than
+twenty million. Combined with loans were heavy taxes. A progressive tax
+was laid upon incomes beginning with four per cent on incomes in the
+lower ranges and rising to sixty-three per cent of that part of any
+income above $2,000,000. A progressive tax was levied upon inheritances.
+An excess profits tax was laid upon all corporations and partnerships,
+rising in amount to sixty per cent of the net income in excess of
+thirty-three per cent on the invested capital. "This," said a
+distinguished economist, "is the high-water mark in the history of
+taxation. Never before in the annals of civilization has an attempt been
+made to take as much as two-thirds of a man's income by taxation."<a name="Page_607" id="Page_607"></a></p>
+
+<p><b>Mobilizing Material Resources.</b>&mdash;No stone was left unturned to provide
+the arms, munitions, supplies, and transportation required in the
+gigantic undertaking. Between the declaration of war and the armistice,
+Congress enacted law after law relative to food supplies, raw materials,
+railways, mines, ships, forests, and industrial enterprises. No power
+over the lives and property of citizens, deemed necessary to the
+prosecution of the armed conflict, was withheld from the government. The
+farmer's wheat, the housewife's sugar, coal at the mines, labor in the
+factories, ships at the wharves, trade with friendly countries, the
+railways, banks, stores, private fortunes&mdash;all were mobilized and laid
+under whatever obligations the government deemed imperative. Never was a
+nation more completely devoted to a single cause.</p>
+
+<p>A law of August 10, 1917, gave the President power to fix the prices of
+wheat and coal and to take almost any steps necessary to prevent
+monopoly and excessive prices. By a series of measures, enlarging the
+principles of the shipping act of 1916, ships and shipyards were brought
+under public control and the government was empowered to embark upon a
+great ship-building program. In December, 1917, the government assumed
+for the period of the war the operation of the railways under a
+presidential proclamation which was elaborated in March, 1918, by act of
+Congress. In the summer of 1918 the express, telephone, and telegraph
+business of the entire country passed under government control. By war
+risk insurance acts allowances were made for the families of enlisted
+men, compensation for injuries was provided, death benefits were
+instituted, and a system of national insurance was established in the
+interest of the men in service. Never before in the history of the
+country had the government taken such a wise and humane view of its
+obligations to those who served on the field of battle or on the seas.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Espionage and Sedition Acts.</b>&mdash;By the Espionage law of June 15,
+1917, and the amending law, known as the Sedition act, passed in May of
+the following year, the gov<a name="Page_608" id="Page_608"></a>ernment was given a drastic power over the
+expression of opinion. The first measure penalized those who conveyed
+information to a foreign country to be used to the injury of the United
+States; those who made false statements designed to interfere with the
+military or naval forces of the United States; those who attempted to
+stir up insubordination or disloyalty in the army and navy; and those
+who willfully obstructed enlistment. The Sedition act was still more
+severe and sweeping in its terms. It imposed heavy penalties upon any
+person who used "abusive language about the government or institutions
+of the country." It authorized the dismissal of any officer of the
+government who committed "disloyal acts" or uttered "disloyal language,"
+and empowered the Postmaster General to close the mails to persons
+violating the law. This measure, prepared by the Department of Justice,
+encountered vigorous opposition in the Senate, where twenty-four
+Republicans and two Democrats voted against it. Senator Johnson of
+California denounced it as a law "to suppress the freedom of the press
+in the United States and to prevent any man, no matter who he is, from
+expressing legitimate criticism concerning the present government." The
+constitutionality of the acts was attacked; but they were sustained by
+the Supreme Court and stringently enforced.</p>
+
+<div><a name="launch" id="launch" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/645.jpg"><img src="./images/645-tb.jpg" alt="The Launching of a Ship at the Great Naval Yards, Newark, N.J." title="The Launching of a Ship at the Great Naval Yards, Newark, N.J." /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">The Launching of a Ship at the Great Naval Yards, Newark, N.J.</span></div>
+
+<p><b>Labor and the War.</b>&mdash;In view of the restlessness of European labor
+during the war and especially the proletarian revolution in Russia in
+November, 1917, some anxiety was early expressed as to the stand which
+organized labor might take in the United States. It was, however, soon
+dispelled. Samuel Gompers, speaking for the American Federation of
+Labor, declared that "this is labor's war," and pledged the united
+support of all the unions. There was some dissent. The Socialist party
+denounced the war as a capitalist quarrel; but all the protests combined
+were too slight to have much effect. American labor leaders were sent to
+Europe to strengthen the wavering ranks of trade unionists in war-worn
+England, France, and Italy. Labor was given representation on the
+important <a name="Page_609" id="Page_609"></a>boards and commissions dealing with industrial questions.
+Trade union standards were accepted by the government and generally
+applied in industry. The Department of Labor became one of the powerful
+war centers of the nation. In a memorable address to the American
+Federation of Labor, President Wilson assured the trade unionists that
+labor conditions should not be made unduly onerous by the war and
+received in return a pledge of loyalty from the Federation. Recognition
+of labor's contribution to winning the war was embodied in the treaty of
+peace, which provided for a permanent international organization to
+promote the world-wide effort of labor to improve social conditions.
+"The league of nations has for its object the establishment of universal
+peace," runs the preamble to the labor section of the treaty, "and such
+a peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice....
+The failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of <a name="Page_610" id="Page_610"></a>labor is an
+obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve the
+conditions in their own countries."</p>
+
+<p><b>The American Navy in the War.</b>&mdash;As soon as Congress declared war the
+fleet was mobilized, American ports were thrown open to the warships of
+the Allies, immediate provision was made for increasing the number of
+men and ships, and a contingent of war vessels was sent to co&ouml;perate
+with the British and French in their life-and-death contest with
+submarines. Special effort was made to stimulate the production of
+"submarine chasers" and "scout cruisers" to be sent to the danger zone.
+Convoys were provided to accompany the transports conveying soldiers to
+France. Before the end of the war more than three hundred American
+vessels and 75,000 officers and men were operating in European waters.
+Though the German fleet failed to come out and challenge the sea power
+of the Allies, the battleships of the United States were always ready to
+do their full duty in such an event. As things turned out, the service
+of the American navy was limited mainly to helping in the campaign that
+wore down the submarine menace to Allied shipping.</p>
+
+<p><b>The War in France.</b>&mdash;Owing to the peculiar character of the warfare in
+France, it required a longer time for American military forces to get
+into action; but there was no unnecessary delay. Soon after the
+declaration of war, steps were taken to give military assistance to the
+Allies. The regular army was enlarged and the troops of the national
+guard were brought into national service. On June 13, General John J.
+Pershing, chosen head of the American Expeditionary Forces, reached
+Paris and began preparations for the arrival of our troops. In June, the
+vanguard of the army reached France. A slow and steady stream followed.
+As soon as the men enrolled under the draft were ready, it became a
+flood. During the period of the war the army was enlarged from about
+190,000 men to 3,665,000, of whom more than 2,000,000 were in France
+when the armistice was signed.</p>
+
+<p>Although American troops did not take part on a large <a name="Page_611" id="Page_611"></a>scale until the
+last phase of the war in 1918, several battalions of infantry were in
+the trenches by October, 1917, and had their first severe encounter with
+the Germans early in November. In January, 1918, they took over a part
+of the front line as an American sector. In March, General Pershing
+placed our forces at the disposal of General Foch, commander-in-chief of
+the Allied armies. The first division, which entered the Montdidier
+salient in April, soon was engaged with the enemy, "taking with splendid
+dash the town of Cantigny and all other objectives, which were organized
+and held steadfastly against vicious counter attacks and galling
+artillery fire."</p>
+
+<div><a name="troops" id="troops" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/647.jpg"><img src="./images/647-tb.jpg" alt="Troops Returning from France" title="Troops Returning from France" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='caption'><i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</small></i><br />
+<span class="smcap">Troops Returning from France</span></div>
+
+<p>When the Germans launched their grand drives toward the Marne and Paris,
+in June and July, 1918, every available man was placed at General Foch's
+command. At Belleau Wood, at Ch&acirc;teau-Thierry, and other points along the
+deep salient made by the Germans into the French lines, American
+soldiers <a name="Page_612" id="Page_612"></a>distinguished themselves by heroic action. They also played an
+important r&ocirc;le in the counter attack that "smashed" the salient and
+drove the Germans back.</p>
+
+<p>In September, American troops, with French aid, "wiped out" the German
+salient at St. Mihiel. By this time General Pershing was ready for the
+great American drive to the northeast in the Argonne forest, while he
+also co&ouml;perated with the British in the assault on the Hindenburg line.
+In the Meuse-Argonne battle, our soldiers encountered some of the most
+severe fighting of the war and pressed forward steadily against the most
+stubborn resistance from the enemy. On the 6th of November, reported
+General Pershing, "a division of the first corps reached a point on the
+Meuse opposite Sedan, twenty-five miles from our line of departure. The
+strategical goal which was our highest hope was gained. We had cut the
+enemy's main line of communications and nothing but a surrender or an
+armistice could save his army from complete disaster." Five days later
+the end came. On the morning of November 11, the order to cease firing
+went into effect. The German army was in rapid retreat and
+demoralization had begun. The Kaiser had abdicated and fled into
+Holland. The Hohenzollern dreams of empire were shattered. In the
+fifty-second month, the World War, involving nearly every civilized
+nation on the globe, was brought to a close. More than 75,000 American
+soldiers and sailors had given their lives. More than 250,000 had been
+wounded or were missing or in German prison camps.</p>
+
+<div><a name="lines" id="lines" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/649.jpg"><img src="./images/649-tb.jpg" alt="Western Battle Lines of the Various Years of the World War" title="Western Battle Lines of the Various Years of the World War" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Western Battle Lines of the Various Years of the World War</span></div>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Settlement at Paris</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Peace Conference.</b>&mdash;On January 18, 1919, a conference of the Allied
+and Associated Powers assembled to pronounce judgment upon the German
+empire and its defeated satellites: Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and
+Turkey. It was a moving spectacle. Seventy-two delegates spoke for
+thirty-two states. The United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and
+Japan had five delegates each. Belgium, Brazil, and<a name="Page_613" id="Page_613"></a><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614"></a> Serbia were each
+assigned three. Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, China, Greece,
+Hedjaz, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Siam, and Czechoslovakia were
+allotted two apiece. The remaining states of New Zealand, Bolivia, Cuba,
+Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru,
+and Uruguay each had one delegate. President Wilson spoke in person for
+the United States. England, France, and Italy were represented by their
+premiers: David Lloyd George, Georges Cl&eacute;menceau, and Vittorio Orlando.</p>
+
+<div><a name="paris" id="paris" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/650.jpg"><img src="./images/650-tb.jpg" alt="Premiers Lloyd George, Orlando and Cl&eacute;menceau and President Wilson at Paris" title="Premiers Lloyd George, Orlando and Cl&eacute;menceau and President Wilson at Paris" /></a></div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Premiers Lloyd George, Orlando and Cl&eacute;menceau and President Wilson at Paris</span></div>
+
+<p><b>The Supreme Council.</b>&mdash;The real work of the settlement was first
+committed to a Supreme Council of ten representing the United States,
+Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. This was later reduced to five
+members. Then Japan dropped out and finally Italy, leaving only
+President Wilson <a name="Page_615" id="Page_615"></a>and the Premiers, Lloyd George and Cl&eacute;menceau, the
+"Big Three," who assumed the burden of mighty decisions. On May 6, their
+work was completed and in a secret session of the full conference the
+whole treaty of peace was approved, though a few of the powers made
+reservations or objections. The next day the treaty was presented to the
+Germans who, after prolonged protests, signed on the last day of grace,
+June 28. This German treaty was followed by agreements with Austria,
+Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Collectively these great documents formed
+the legal basis of the general European settlement.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Terms of the Settlement.</b>&mdash;The combined treaties make a huge
+volume. The German treaty alone embraces about 80,000 words.
+Collectively they cover an immense range of subjects which may be
+summarized under five heads: (1) The territorial settlement in Europe;
+(2) the destruction of German military power; (3) reparations for
+damages done by Germany and her allies; (4) the disposition of German
+colonies and protectorates; and (5) the League of Nations.</p>
+
+<p>Germany was reduced by the cession of Alsace-Lorraine to France and the
+loss of several other provinces. Austria-Hungary was dissolved and
+dismembered. Russia was reduced by the creation of new states on the
+west. Bulgaria was stripped of her gains in the recent Balkan wars.
+Turkey was dismembered. Nine new independent states were created:
+Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Esthonia, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia,
+Armenia, and Hedjaz. Italy, Greece, Rumania, and Serbia were enlarged by
+cessions of territory and Serbia was transformed into the great state of
+Jugoslavia.</p>
+
+<p>The destruction of German military power was thorough. The entire navy,
+with minor exceptions, was turned over to the Allied and Associated
+Powers; Germany's total equipment for the future was limited to six
+battleships and six light cruisers, with certain small vessels but no
+submarines. The number of enlisted men and officers for the army was
+fixed at not more than 100,000; the General Staff was dissolved; and the
+manufacture of munitions restricted.<a name="Page_616" id="Page_616"></a></p>
+
+<p>Germany was compelled to accept full responsibility for all damages; to
+pay five billion dollars in cash and goods, and to make certain other
+payments which might be ordered from time to time by an inter-allied
+reparations commission. She was also required to deliver to Belgium,
+France, and Italy, millions of tons of coal every year for ten years;
+while by way of additional compensation to France the rich coal basin of
+the Saar was placed under inter-allied control to be exploited under
+French administration for a period of at least fifteen years. Austria
+and the other associates of Germany were also laid under heavy
+obligations to the victors. Damages done to shipping by submarines and
+other vessels were to be paid for on the basis of ton for ton.</p>
+
+<p>The disposition of the German colonies and the old Ottoman empire
+presented knotty problems. It was finally agreed that the German
+colonies and Turkish provinces which were in a backward stage of
+development should be placed under the tutelage of certain powers acting
+as "mandatories" holding them in "a sacred trust of civilization." An
+exception to the mandatory principle arose in the case of German rights
+in Shantung, all of which were transferred directly to Japan. It was
+this arrangement that led the Chinese delegation to withhold their
+signatures from the treaty.</p>
+
+<p><b>The League of Nations.</b>&mdash;High among the purposes which he had in mind
+in summoning the nation to arms, President Wilson placed the desire to
+put an end to war. All through the United States the people spoke of the
+"war to end war." No slogan called forth a deeper response from the
+public. The President himself repeatedly declared that a general
+association of nations must be formed to guard the peace and protect all
+against the ambitions of the few. "As I see it," he said in his address
+on opening the Fourth Liberty Loan campaign, "the constitution of the
+League of Nations and the clear definition of its objects must be a
+part, in a sense the most essential part, of the peace settlement
+itself."</p>
+
+<p>Nothing was more natural, therefore, than Wilson's insistence <a name="Page_617" id="Page_617"></a>at Paris
+upon the formation of an international association. Indeed he had gone
+to Europe in person largely to accomplish that end. Part One of the
+treaty with Germany, the Covenant of the League of Nations, was due to
+his labors more than to any other influence. Within the League thus
+created were to be embraced all the Allied and Associated Powers and
+nearly all the neutrals. By a two-thirds vote of the League Assembly the
+excluded nations might be admitted.</p>
+
+<p>The agencies of the League of Nations were to be three in number: (1) a
+permanent secretariat located at Geneva; (2) an Assembly consisting of
+one delegate from each country, dominion, or self-governing colony
+(including Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and India); (3)
+and a Council consisting of representatives of the United States, Great
+Britain, France, Italy, and Japan, and four other representatives
+selected by the Assembly from time to time.</p>
+
+<p>The duties imposed on the League and the obligations accepted by its
+members were numerous and important. The Council was to take steps to
+formulate a scheme for the reduction of armaments and to submit a plan
+for the establishment of a permanent Court of International Justice. The
+members of the League (Article X) were to respect and preserve as
+against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing
+political independence of all the associated nations. They were to
+submit to arbitration or inquiry by the Council all disputes which could
+not be adjusted by diplomacy and in no case to resort to war until three
+months after the award. Should any member disregard its covenants, its
+action would be considered an act of war against the League, which would
+accordingly cut off the trade and business of the hostile member and
+recommend through the Council to the several associated governments the
+military measures to be taken. In case the decision in any arbitration
+of a dispute was unanimous, the members of the League affected by it
+were to abide by it.<a name="Page_618" id="Page_618"></a></p>
+
+<p>Such was the settlement at Paris and such was the association of nations
+formed to promote the peace of the world. They were quickly approved by
+most of the powers, and the first Assembly of the League of Nations met
+at Geneva late in 1920.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Treaty in the United States.</b>&mdash;When the treaty was presented to the
+United States Senate for approval, a violent opposition appeared. In
+that chamber the Republicans had a slight majority and a two-thirds vote
+was necessary for ratification. The sentiment for and against the treaty
+ran mainly along party lines; but the Republicans were themselves
+divided. The major portion, known as "reservationists," favored
+ratification with certain conditions respecting American rights; while a
+small though active minority rejected the League of Nations in its
+entirety, announcing themselves to be "irreconcilables." The grounds of
+this Republican opposition lay partly in the terms of peace imposed on
+Germany and partly in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Exception
+was taken to the clauses which affected the rights of American citizens
+in property involved in the adjustment with Germany, but the burden of
+criticism was directed against the League. Article X guaranteeing
+against external aggression the political independence and territorial
+integrity of the members of the League was subjected to a specially
+heavy fire; while the treatment accorded to China and the sections
+affecting American internal affairs were likewise attacked as "unjust
+and dangerous." As an outcome of their deliberations, the Republicans
+proposed a long list of reservations which touched upon many of the
+vital parts of the treaty. These were rejected by President Wilson as
+amounting in effect to a "nullification of the treaty." As a deadlock
+ensued the treaty was definitely rejected, owing to the failure of its
+sponsors to secure the requisite two-thirds vote.</p>
+
+<div><a name="europe" id="europe" /></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="./images/656.jpg"><img src="./images/656-tb.jpg" alt="Europe" title="Europe" /></a></div>
+
+<p><b>The League of Nations in the Campaign of 1920.</b>&mdash;At this juncture the
+presidential campaign of 1920 opened. The Republicans, while condemning
+the terms of the proposed League, endorsed the general idea of an
+international agree<a name="Page_619" id="Page_619"></a>ment to prevent war. Their candidate, Senator
+Warren G. Harding of Ohio, maintained a similar position without saying
+definitely whether the League devised at Paris could be recast in such a
+manner as to meet his requirements. The Democrats, on the other hand,
+while not opposing limitations clarifying the obligations of the United
+States, demanded "the immediate ratification of the treaty without
+reservations which would impair its essential integrity." The Democratic
+candidate, Governor James M. Cox, of Ohio, announced his firm conviction
+that the United States should "go into the League," without closing the
+door to mild reservations; he appealed to the country largely on that
+issue. The election of Senator Harding, in an extraordinary "landslide,"
+coupled with the return of a majority of Republicans to the Senate, made
+uncertain American participation in the League of Nations.</p>
+
+<p><b>The United States and International Entanglements.</b>&mdash;Whether America
+entered the League or not, it could not close its doors to the world and
+escape perplexing international complications. It had ever-increasing
+financial and commercial connections with all other countries. Our
+associates in the recent war were heavily indebted to our government.
+The prosperity of American industries depended to a considerable extent
+upon the recovery of the impoverished and battle-torn countries of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>There were other complications no less specific. The United States was
+compelled by force of circumstances to adopt a Russian policy. The
+government of the Czar had been overthrown by a liberal revolution,
+which in turn had been succeeded by an extreme, communist
+"dictatorship." The Bolsheviki, or majority faction of the socialists,
+had obtained control of the national council of peasants, workingmen,
+and soldiers, called the soviet, and inaugurated a radical r&eacute;gime. They
+had made peace with Germany in March, 1918. Thereupon the United States
+joined England, France, and Japan in an unofficial war upon them. After
+the general settlement <a name="Page_620" id="Page_620"></a>at Paris in 1919, our government, while
+withdrawing troops from Siberia and Archangel, continued in its refusal
+to recognize the Bolshevists or to permit unhampered trade with them.
+President Wilson repeatedly denounced them as the enemies of
+civilization and undertook to lay down for all countries the principles
+which should govern intercourse with Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Further international complications were created in connection with the
+World War, wholly apart from the terms of peace or the League of
+Nations. The United States had participated in a general European
+conflict which changed the boundaries of countries, called into being
+new nations, and reduced the power and territories of the vanquished.
+Accordingly, it was bound to face the problem of how far it was prepared
+to <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'cooperate'">co&ouml;perate</ins>
+ with the victors in any settlement of Europe's
+difficulties. By no conceivable process, therefore, could America be
+disentangled from the web of world affairs. Isolation, if desirable, had
+become impossible. Within three hundred years from the founding of the
+tiny settlements at Jamestown and Plymouth, America, by virtue of its
+institutions, its population, its wealth, and its commerce, had become
+first among the nations of the earth. By moral obligations and by
+practical interests its fate was thus linked with the destiny of all
+mankind.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of Democracy and the World War</span></h3>
+
+<p>The astounding industrial progress that characterized the period
+following the Civil War bequeathed to the new generation many perplexing
+problems connected with the growth of trusts and railways, the
+accumulation of great fortunes, the increase of poverty in the
+industrial cities, the exhaustion of the free land, and the acquisition
+of dominions in distant seas. As long as there was an abundance of land
+in the West any able-bodied man with initiative and industry could
+become an independent farmer. People from the cities and immigrants from
+Europe had always before them that gateway to property and prosperity.
+When the land was all gone, American <a name="Page_621" id="Page_621"></a>economic conditions inevitably
+became more like those of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Though the new economic questions had been vigorously debated in many
+circles before his day, it was President Roosevelt who first discussed
+them continuously from the White House. The natural resources of the
+country were being exhausted; he advocated their conservation. Huge
+fortunes were being made in business creating inequalities in
+opportunity; he favored reducing them by income and inheritance taxes.
+Industries were disturbed by strikes; he pressed arbitration upon
+capital and labor. The free land was gone; he declared that labor was in
+a less favorable position to bargain with capital and therefore should
+organize in unions for collective bargaining. There had been wrong-doing
+on the part of certain great trusts; those responsible should be
+punished.</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of reform was abroad in the land. The spoils system was
+attacked. It was alleged that the political parties were dominated by
+"rings and bosses." The United States Senate was called "a millionaires'
+club." Poverty and misery were observed in the cities. State
+legislatures and city governments were accused of corruption.</p>
+
+<p>In answer to the charges, remedies were proposed and adopted. Civil
+service reform was approved. The Australian ballot, popular election of
+Senators, the initiative, referendum, and recall, commission and city
+manager plans for cities, public regulation of railways, compensation
+for those injured in industries, minimum wages for women and children,
+pensions for widows, the control of housing in the cities&mdash;these and a
+hundred other reforms were adopted and tried out. The national watchword
+became: "America, Improve Thyself."</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of reform broke into both political parties. It appeared in
+many statutes enacted by Congress under President Taft's leadership. It
+disrupted the Republicans temporarily in 1912 when the Progressive party
+entered the field. It led the Democratic candidate in that year,
+Governor Wilson, to make a "progressive appeal" to the voters. It
+inspired a con<a name="Page_622" id="Page_622"></a>siderable program of national legislation under President
+Wilson's two administrations.</p>
+
+<p>In the age of change, four important amendments to the federal
+constitution, the first in more than forty years, were adopted. The
+sixteenth empowered Congress to lay an income tax. The seventeenth
+assured popular election of Senators. The eighteenth made prohibition
+national. The nineteenth, following upon the adoption of woman suffrage
+in many states, enfranchised the women of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>In the sphere of industry, equally great changes took place. The major
+portion of the nation's business passed into the hands of corporations.
+In all the leading industries of the country labor was organized into
+trade unions and federated in a national organization. The power of
+organized capital and organized labor loomed upon the horizon. Their
+struggles, their rights, and their place in the economy of the nation
+raised problems of the first magnitude.</p>
+
+<p>While the country was engaged in a heated debate upon its domestic
+issues, the World War broke out in Europe in 1914. As a hundred years
+before, American rights upon the high seas became involved at once. They
+were invaded on both sides; but Germany, in addition to assailing
+American ships and property, ruthlessly destroyed American lives. She
+set at naught the rules of civilized warfare upon the sea. Warnings from
+President Wilson were without avail. Nothing could stay the hand of the
+German war party.</p>
+
+<p>After long and patient negotiations, President Wilson in 1917 called
+upon the nation to take up arms against an assailant that had in effect
+declared war upon America. The answer was swift and firm. The national
+resources, human and material, were mobilized. The navy was enlarged, a
+draft army created, huge loans floated, heavy taxes laid, and the spirit
+of sacrifice called forth in a titanic struggle against an autocratic
+power that threatened to dominate Europe and the World.</p>
+
+<p>In the end, American financial, naval, and military assistance counted
+heavily in the scale. American sailors scoured the seas <a name="Page_623" id="Page_623"></a>searching for
+the terrible submarines. American soldiers took part in the last great
+drives that broke the might of Germany's army. Such was the nation's
+response to the President's summons to arms in a war "for democracy" and
+"to end war."</p>
+
+<p>When victory crowned the arms of the powers united against Germany,
+President Wilson in person took part in the peace council. He sought to
+redeem his pledge to end wars by forming a League of Nations to keep the
+peace. In the treaty drawn at the close of the war the first part was a
+covenant binding the nations in a permanent association for the
+settlement of international disputes. This treaty, the President offered
+to the United States Senate for ratification and to his country for
+approval.</p>
+
+<p>Once again, as in the days of the Napoleonic wars, the people seriously
+discussed the place of America among the powers of the earth. The Senate
+refused to ratify the treaty. World politics then became an issue in the
+campaign of 1920. Though some Americans talked as if the United States
+could close its doors and windows against all mankind, the victor in the
+election, Senator Harding, of Ohio, knew better. The election returns
+were hardly announced before he began to ask the advice of his
+countrymen on the pressing theme that would not be downed: "What part
+shall America&mdash;first among the nations of the earth in wealth and
+power&mdash;assume at the council table of the world?"</p>
+
+
+<p><b>General References</b></p>
+
+<p>Woodrow Wilson, <i>The New Freedom</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C.L. Jones, <i>The Caribbean Interests of the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H.P. Willis, <i>The Federal Reserve</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C.W. Barron, <i>The Mexican Problem</i> (critical toward Mexico).</p>
+
+<p>L.J. de Bekker, <i>The Plot against Mexico</i> (against American
+intervention).</p>
+
+<p>Theodore Roosevelt, <i>America and the World War</i>.</p>
+
+<p>E.E. Robinson and V.J. West, <i>The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.S. Bassett, <i>Our War with Germany</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Carlton J.H. Hayes, <i>A Brief History of the Great War</i>.</p>
+
+<p>J.B. McMaster, <i>The United States in the World War</i>.<a name="Page_624" id="Page_624"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Research Topics</h4>
+
+<p><b>President Wilson's First Term.</b>&mdash;Elson, <i>History of the United States</i>,
+pp. 925-941.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Underwood Tariff Act.</b>&mdash;Ogg, <i>National Progress</i> (The American
+Nation Series), pp. 209-226.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Federal Reserve System.</b>&mdash;Ogg, pp. 228-232.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trust and Labor Legislation.</b>&mdash;Ogg, pp. 232-236.</p>
+
+<p><b>Legislation Respecting the Territories.</b>&mdash;Ogg, pp. 236-245.</p>
+
+<p><b>American Interests in the Caribbean.</b>&mdash;Ogg, pp. 246-265.</p>
+
+<p><b>American Interests in the Pacific.</b>&mdash;Ogg, pp. 304-324.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mexican Affairs.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 388-395; Ogg, pp. 284-304.</p>
+
+<p><b>The First Phases of the European War.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 395-412; Ogg, pp.
+325-343.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Campaign of 1916.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 412-418; Ogg, pp. 364-383.</p>
+
+<p><b>America Enters the War.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 422-440; pp. 454-475. Ogg, pp.
+384-399; Elson, pp. 951-970.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mobilizing the Nation.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 441-453.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Peace Settlement.</b>&mdash;Haworth, pp. 475-497; Elson, pp. 971-982.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Questions</h4>
+
+<p>1. Enumerate the chief financial measures of the Wilson administration.
+Review the history of banks and currency and give the details of the
+Federal reserve law.</p>
+
+<p>2. What was the Wilson policy toward trusts? Toward labor?</p>
+
+<p>3. Review again the theory of states' rights. How has it fared in recent
+years?</p>
+
+<p>4. What steps were taken in colonial policies? In the Caribbean?</p>
+
+<p>5. Outline American-Mexican relations under Wilson.</p>
+
+<p>6. How did the World War break out in Europe?</p>
+
+<p>7. Account for the divided state of opinion in America.</p>
+
+<p>8. Review the events leading up to the War of 1812. Compare them with
+the events from 1914 to 1917.</p>
+
+<p>9. State the leading principles of international law involved and show
+how they were violated.</p>
+
+<p>10. What American rights were assailed in the submarine campaign?</p>
+
+<p>11. Give Wilson's position on the <i>Lusitania</i> affair.</p>
+
+<p>12. How did the World War affect the presidential campaign of 1916?</p>
+
+<p>13. How did Germany finally drive the United States into war?</p>
+
+<p>14. State the American war aims given by the President.</p>
+
+<p>15. Enumerate the measures taken by the government to win the war.</p>
+
+<p>16. Review the part of the navy in the war. The army.<a name="Page_625" id="Page_625"></a></p>
+
+<p>17. How were the terms of peace formulated?</p>
+
+<p>18. Enumerate the principal results of the war.</p>
+
+<p>19. Describe the League of Nations.</p>
+
+<p>20. Trace the fate of the treaty in American politics.</p>
+
+<p>21. Can there be a policy of isolation for America?<a name="Page_626" id="Page_626"></a><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="appendix" id="appendix"></a>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="constitution" id="constitution"></a>CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> the people of the United States, in order to form a more
+perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide
+for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the
+blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
+establish this Constitution for the United States of America.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article I</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be
+vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a
+Senate and House of Representatives.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 2. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of
+members chosen every second year by the people of the several States,
+and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite
+for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature.</p>
+
+<p>2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to
+the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
+United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
+State in which he shall be chosen.</p>
+
+<p>3. Representatives and direct taxes<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> shall be apportioned among the
+several States which may be included within this Union, according to
+their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
+whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
+term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all
+other persons.<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The actual enumeration shall be made within three
+years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
+within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall
+by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for
+every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one
+representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of
+New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight,
+Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York
+six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six,
+Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia
+three.<a name="Page_628" id="Page_628"></a></p>
+
+<p>4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the
+executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such
+vacancies.</p>
+
+<p>5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other
+officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 3. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed
+of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for
+six years; and each senator shall have one vote.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first
+election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes.
+The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the
+expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of
+the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth
+year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if
+vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the
+legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary
+appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then
+fill such vacancies.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age
+of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and
+who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he
+shall be chosen.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the
+Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.</p>
+
+<p>5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President
+<i>pro tempore</i>, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall
+exercise the office of President of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When
+sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the
+President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall
+preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of
+two-thirds of the members present.</p>
+
+<p>7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to
+removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office
+of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: but the party
+convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial,
+judgment, and punishment, according to law.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 4. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding
+elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each
+State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by
+law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing
+senators.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such
+meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by
+law appoint a different day.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_629" id="Page_629"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 5. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections,
+returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each
+shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may
+adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance
+of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each
+House may provide.</p>
+
+<p>2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its
+members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the concurrence of
+two-thirds, expel a member.</p>
+
+<p>3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to
+time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment
+require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on
+any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be
+entered on the journal.</p>
+
+<p>4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the
+consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other
+place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 6. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a
+compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out
+of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except
+treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
+during their attendance at the sessions of their respective Houses, and
+in going to and returning from the same; and, for any speech or debate
+in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.</p>
+
+<p>2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was
+elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the
+United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof
+shall have been increased during such time; and no person, holding any
+office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during
+his continuance in office.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 7. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in
+the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with
+amendments as on other bills.</p>
+
+<p>2. Every bill, which shall have passed the House of Representatives; and
+the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President
+of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he
+shall return it with his objections to that House, in which it shall
+have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their
+journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration
+two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent,
+together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall
+likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House,
+it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses
+shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names <a name="Page_630" id="Page_630"></a>of the persons
+voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each
+House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President
+within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to
+him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it,
+unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which
+case it shall not be a law.</p>
+
+<p>3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the
+Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a
+question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the
+United States and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved
+by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of
+the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and
+limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 8. The Congress shall have power: 1. To lay and collect
+taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for
+the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all
+duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United
+States;</p>
+
+<p>2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;</p>
+
+<p>3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several
+States, and with the Indian tribes;</p>
+
+<p>4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on
+the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;</p>
+
+<p>5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and
+fix the standard of weights and measures;</p>
+
+<p>6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and
+current coin of the United States;</p>
+
+<p>7. To establish post offices and post roads;</p>
+
+<p>8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for
+limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
+respective writings and discoveries;</p>
+
+<p>9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;</p>
+
+<p>10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high
+seas, and offences against the law of nations;</p>
+
+<p>11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules
+concerning captures on land and water;</p>
+
+<p>12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that
+use shall be for a longer term than two years;</p>
+
+<p>13. To provide and maintain a navy;</p>
+
+<p>14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and
+naval forces;</p>
+
+<p>15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the
+Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions;</p>
+
+<p>16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia,
+<a name="Page_631" id="Page_631"></a>and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service
+of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the
+appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia
+according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.</p>
+
+<p>17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such
+district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
+particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the
+government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all
+places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which
+the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals,
+dock-yards, and other needful buildings;&mdash;and</p>
+
+<p>18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying
+into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this
+Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
+department or officer thereof.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 9. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as
+any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be
+prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred
+and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not
+exceeding ten dollars for each person.</p>
+
+<p>2. The privilege of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> shall not be suspended,
+unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may
+require it.</p>
+
+<p>3. No bill of attainder or <i>ex post facto</i> law shall be passed.</p>
+
+<p>4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in
+proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be
+taken.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State.</p>
+
+<p>6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue
+to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall vessels bound
+to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in
+another.</p>
+
+<p>7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of
+appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the
+receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from
+time to time.</p>
+
+<p>8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no
+person, holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without
+the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office,
+or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section</span> 10. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance,
+or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit
+bills of <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'credit,'">credit;</ins> make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in
+payment <a name="Page_632" id="Page_632"></a>of debts; pass any bill of attainder, <i>ex post facto</i> law, or
+law impairing the obligation of <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'contracts,'">contracts;</ins> or grant any title of
+nobility.</p>
+
+<p>2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts
+or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary
+for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and
+imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use
+of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject
+to the revision and control of the Congress.</p>
+
+<p>3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of
+tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any
+agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or
+engage in war unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as
+will not admit of delay.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article II</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 1.</span> 1. The executive power shall be vested in a
+President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office
+during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President,
+chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof
+may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators
+and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress;
+but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust
+or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The
+electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for
+two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same
+State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons
+voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall
+sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of
+the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The
+President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House
+of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then
+be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the
+President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors
+appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and
+have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall
+immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person
+have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House
+shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the
+President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from
+each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a
+member or members from two-thirds of the States and a majority of all
+the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the
+<a name="Page_633" id="Page_633"></a>choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes
+of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain
+two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by
+ballot the Vice-President.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the
+day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same
+throughout the United States.</p>
+
+<p>4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United
+States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be
+eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be
+eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
+thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death,
+resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said
+office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress
+may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or
+inability both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what
+officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act
+accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be
+elected.</p>
+
+<p>6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
+compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the
+period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive
+within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of
+them.</p>
+
+<p>7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the
+following oath or affirmation:&mdash;"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I
+will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States,
+and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the
+Constitution of the United States."</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 2.</span> 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the
+army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several
+States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may
+require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the
+executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their
+respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and
+pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of
+impeachment.</p>
+
+<p>2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
+Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present
+concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of
+the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the
+United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for,
+and which shall <a name="Page_634" id="Page_634"></a>be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest
+the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the
+President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.</p>
+
+<p>3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen
+during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall
+expire at the end of their next session.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 3.</span> He shall from time to time give to the Congress
+information on the state of the Union, and recommend to their
+consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient;
+he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of
+them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time
+of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think
+proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he
+shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall
+commission all the officers of the United States.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 4.</span> The President, Vice-President, and all civil
+officers of the United States shall be removed from office on
+impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high
+crimes and misdemeanors.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article III</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 1.</span> The judicial power of the United States shall be
+vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress
+may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the
+Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good
+behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a
+compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in
+office.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 2.</span> 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in
+law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United
+States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their
+authority;&mdash;to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers
+and consuls;&mdash;to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;&mdash;to
+controversies to which the United States shall be a party;&mdash;to
+controversies between two or more States;&mdash;between a State and citizens
+of another State;<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>&mdash;between citizens of different States;&mdash;between
+citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different
+States;&mdash;and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign
+States, citizens, or subjects.</p>
+
+<p>2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court
+shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before
+mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as
+to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the
+Congress shall make.<a name="Page_635" id="Page_635"></a></p>
+
+<p>3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by
+jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes
+shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the
+trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have
+directed.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 3.</span> 1. Treason against the United States shall consist
+only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies,
+giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason
+unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on
+confession in open court.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason,
+but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture
+except during the life of the person attainted.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article IV</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 1.</span> Full faith and credit shall be given in each State
+to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other
+State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in
+which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the
+effect thereof.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 2.</span> 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to
+all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.</p>
+
+<p>2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime,
+who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on
+demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be
+delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the
+crime.</p>
+
+<p>3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws
+thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or
+regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall
+be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may
+be due.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 3.</span> 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into
+this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the
+jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction
+of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the
+legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful
+rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
+belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall
+be so construed as to prejudice any claims, of the United States, or of
+any particular State.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 4.</span> The United States shall guarantee to every State in
+this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of
+them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the
+executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic
+violence.<a name="Page_636" id="Page_636"></a></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article V</span></h3>
+
+<p>The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
+necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
+application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States,
+shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case,
+shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution,
+when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several
+States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the
+other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided
+that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight
+hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth
+clauses in the ninth Section of the first article; and that no State,
+without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the
+Senate.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article VI</span></h3>
+
+<p>1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the
+adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
+States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.</p>
+
+<p>2. This Constitution and the laws of the United States which shall be
+made in pursuance thereof and all treaties made, or which shall be made,
+under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of
+the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything
+in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary
+notwithstanding.</p>
+
+<p>3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of
+the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers,
+both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by
+oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test
+shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust
+under the United States.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article VII</span></h3>
+
+<p>The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient
+for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so
+ratifying the same.</p>
+
+<p>Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the
+seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven
+hundred and eighty-seven and of the independence of the United States of
+America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our
+names,</p>
+
+<div class='right'>
+G<sup>o</sup>. <span class="smcap">Washington</span>&mdash;<br />
+Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia
+</div>
+
+<p>[and thirty-eight members from all the States except Rhode Island.]</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' /><p><a name="Page_637" id="Page_637"></a></p>
+
+
+<p>Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the
+United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the
+legislatures of the several States pursuant to the fifth article of the
+original Constitution.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article I</span><a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></h3>
+
+<p>Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
+prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of
+speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
+assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article II</span></h3>
+
+<p>A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free
+State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
+infringed.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article III</span></h3>
+
+<p>No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without
+the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
+prescribed by law.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article IV</span></h3>
+
+<p>The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
+and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
+violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause,
+supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place
+to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article V</span></h3>
+
+<p>No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous
+crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in
+cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in
+actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be
+subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or
+limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness
+against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
+due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
+without just compensation.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article VI</span></h3>
+
+<p>In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a
+speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district
+wherein the <a name="Page_638" id="Page_638"></a>crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
+been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and
+cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against
+him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor,
+and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article VII</span></h3>
+
+<p>In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
+twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no
+fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the
+United States, than according to the rules of the common law.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article VIII</span></h3>
+
+<p>Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor
+cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article IX</span></h3>
+
+<p>The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be
+construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article X</span></h3>
+
+<p>The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
+prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively,
+or to the people.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XI</span><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></h3>
+
+<p>The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend
+to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the
+United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects
+of any foreign State.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XII</span><a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></h3>
+
+<p>The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot
+for President and Vice-President, one of whom at least shall not be an
+inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their
+ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the
+person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists
+of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as
+Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they
+shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the
+government of the United States, directed to<a name="Page_639" id="Page_639"></a> the President of the
+Senate;&mdash;The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate
+and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes
+shall then be counted;&mdash;The person having the greatest number of votes
+for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of
+the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such
+majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding
+three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of
+Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But
+in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the
+representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this
+purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the
+States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice.
+And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President
+whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth
+day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as
+President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional
+disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of
+votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be
+a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person
+have a majority, then from the two highest members on the list, the
+Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall
+consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of
+the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person
+constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible
+to that of Vice-President of the United States.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XIII</span><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 1.</span> Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as
+a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted,
+shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
+jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 2.</span> Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
+appropriate legislation.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XIV</span><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 1.</span> All persons born or naturalized in the United
+States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the
+United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make
+or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of
+citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of
+life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor deny to any
+person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 2.</span> Representatives shall be apportioned among the
+several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole
+number <a name="Page_640" id="Page_640"></a>of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when
+the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for
+President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in
+Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members
+of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of
+such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United
+States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or
+other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the
+proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the
+whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 3.</span> No person shall be a senator or representative in
+Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any
+office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State,
+who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an
+officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature,
+or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the
+Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or
+rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies
+thereof. But Congress may by two-thirds vote of each House, remove such
+disability.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 4.</span> The validity of the public debt of the United
+States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of
+pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or
+rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor
+any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of
+insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for
+the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations,
+and claims shall be held illegal and void.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 5.</span> The Congress shall have power to enforce, by
+appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XV</span><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 1.</span> The right of citizens of the United States to vote
+shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on
+account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 2.</span> The Congress shall have power to enforce this
+article by appropriate legislation.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XVI</span><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></h3>
+
+<p>The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from
+whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States,
+and without regard to any census or enumeration.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_641" id="Page_641"></a></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XVII</span><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></h3>
+
+<p>The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from
+each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each
+senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the
+qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the
+State legislature.</p>
+
+<p>When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate,
+the executive authority of each State shall issue writs of election to
+fill such vacancies: <i>Provided</i> that the legislature of any State may
+empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the
+people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.</p>
+
+<p>This amendment shall not be so construed as to effect the election or
+term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the
+Constitution.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XVIII</span><a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 1.</span> After one year from the ratification of this article
+the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within,
+the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United
+States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for
+beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 2.</span> The Congress and the several States shall have
+concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section 3.</span> This article shall be inoperative unless it shall
+have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the
+legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution,
+within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States
+by the Congress.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Article XIX</span><a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></h3>
+
+<p>The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied
+or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex.</p>
+
+<p>The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
+legislation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES: 1920, 1910, 1900</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Population">
+<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">States</span></td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Population</span></td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>1920</td><td align='center'>1910</td><td align='center'>1900</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>United States</td><td align='left'>105,708,771</td><td align='left'>91,972,266</td><td align='left'>75,994,575</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Alabama<br />
+Arizona<br />
+Arkansas<br />
+California<br />
+Colorado<br />
+Connecticut<br />
+Delaware<br />
+District of Columbia<br />
+Florida<br />
+Georgia<br />
+Idaho<br />
+Illinois<br />
+Indiana<br />
+Iowa<br />
+Kansas<br />
+Kentucky<br />
+Louisiana<br />
+Maine<br />
+Maryland<br />
+Massachusetts<br />
+Michigan<br />
+Minnesota<br />
+Mississippi<br />
+Missouri<br />
+Montana<br />
+Nebraska<br />
+Nevada<br />
+New Hampshire<br />
+New Jersey<br />
+New Mexico<br />
+New York<br />
+North Carolina<br />
+North Dakota<br />
+Ohio<br />
+Oklahoma<br />
+Oregon<br />
+Pennsylvania<br />
+Rhode Island<br />
+South Carolina<br />
+South Dakota<br />
+Tennessee<br />
+Texas<br />
+Utah<br />
+Vermont<br />
+Virginia<br />
+Washington<br />
+West Virginia<br />
+Wisconsin<br />
+Wyoming<br />
+</td>
+
+<td align='right'>2,348,174<br />
+333,903<br />
+1,752,204<br />
+3,426,861<br />
+939,629<br />
+1,380,631<br />
+223,003<br />
+437,571<br />
+968,470<br />
+2,895,832<br />
+431,866<br />
+6,485,280<br />
+2,930,390<br />
+2,404,021<br />
+1,769,257<br />
+2,416,630<br />
+1,798,509<br />
+768,014<br />
+1,449,661<br />
+3,852,356<br />
+3,668,412<br />
+2,387,125<br />
+1,790,618<br />
+3,404,055<br />
+548,889<br />
+1,296,372<br />
+77,407<br />
+443,407<br />
+3,155,900<br />
+360,350<br />
+10,384,829<br />
+2,559,123<br />
+645,680<br />
+5,759,394<br />
+2,028,283<br />
+783,389<br />
+8,720,017<br />
+604,397<br />
+1,683,724<br />
+636,547<br />
+2,337,885<br />
+4,663,228<br />
+449,396<br />
+352,428<br />
+2,309,187<br />
+1,356,621<br />
+1,463,701<br />
+2,632,067<br />
+194,402</td>
+
+<td align='right'>2,138,093<br />
+204,354<br />
+1,574,449<br />
+2,377,549<br />
+799,024<br />
+1,114,756<br />
+202,322<br />
+331,069<br />
+752,619<br />
+2,609,121<br />
+325,594<br />
+5,638,591<br />
+2,700,876<br />
+2,224,771<br />
+1,690,949<br />
+2,289,905<br />
+1,656,388<br />
+742,371<br />
+1,295,346<br />
+3,366,416<br />
+2,810,173<br />
+2,075,708<br />
+1,797,114<br />
+3,293,335<br />
+376,053<br />
+1,192,214<br />
+81,875<br />
+430,572<br />
+2,537,167<br />
+327,301<br />
+9,113,614<br />
+2,206,287<br />
+577,056<br />
+4,767,121<br />
+1,657,155<br />
+672,765<br />
+7,665,111<br />
+542,610<br />
+1,515,400<br />
+583,888<br />
+2,184,789<br />
+3,896,542<br />
+373,351<br />
+355,956<br />
+2,061,612<br />
+1,141,990<br />
+1,221,119<br />
+2,333,860<br />
+145,965<br /></td>
+
+<td align='right'>1,828,697<br />
+122,931<br />
+1,311,564<br />
+1,485,053<br />
+539,700<br />
+908,420<br />
+184,735<br />
+278,718<br />
+528,542<br />
+2,216,331<br />
+161,772<br />
+4,821,550<br />
+2,516,462<br />
+2,231,853<br />
+1,470,495<br />
+2,147,174<br />
+1,381,625<br />
+694,466<br />
+1,188,044<br />
+2,805,346<br />
+2,420,982<br />
+1,751,394<br />
+1,551,270<br />
+3,106,665<br />
+243,329<br />
+1,066,300<br />
+42,335<br />
+411,588<br />
+1,883,669<br />
+195,310<br />
+7,268,894<br />
+1,893,810<br />
+319,146<br />
+4,157,545<br />
+790,391<br />
+413,536<br />
+6,302,115<br />
+428,556<br />
+1,340,316<br />
+401,570<br />
+2,020,616<br />
+3,048,710<br />
+276,749<br />
+343,641<br />
+1,854,184<br />
+518,103<br />
+958,800<br />
+2,069,042<br />
+92,531</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_643" id="Page_643"></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+<h3>TABLE OF PRESIDENTS</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Presidents">
+<tr><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Name</span></td><td align='center'><span class="smcap">State</span></td><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Party</span></td><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Year in</span><br /><span class="smcap">Office</span></td><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Vice-President</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>George Washington</td><td align='left'>Va.</td><td align='left'>Fed.</td><td align='left'>1789-1797</td><td align='left'>John Adams</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>John Adams</td><td align='left'>Mass.</td><td align='left'>Fed.</td><td align='left'>1797-1801</td><td align='left'>Thomas Jefferson</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>Thomas Jefferson</td><td align='left'>Va.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1801-1809</td><td align='left'>Aaron Burr<br />George Clinton</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>4</td><td align='left'>James Madison</td><td align='left'>Va.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1809-1817</td><td align='left'>George Clinton<br />Elbridge Gerry</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>5</td><td align='left'>James Monroe</td><td align='left'>Va.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1817-1825</td><td align='left'>Daniel D. Tompkins</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>6</td><td align='left'>John Q. Adams</td><td align='left'>Mass.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1825-1829</td><td align='left'>John C. Calhoun</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>7</td><td align='left'>Andrew Jackson</td><td align='left'>Tenn.</td><td align='left'>Dem.</td><td align='left'>1829-1837</td><td align='left'>John C. Calhoun<br />Martin Van Buren</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>8</td><td align='left'>Martin Van Buren</td><td align='left'>N.Y.</td><td align='left'>Dem.</td><td align='left'>1837-1841</td><td align='left'>Richard M. Johnson</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>9</td><td align='left'>Wm. H. Harrison</td><td align='left'>Ohio</td><td align='left'>Whig</td><td align='left'>1841-1841</td><td align='left'>John Tyler</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>10</td><td align='left'>John Tyler<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></td><td align='left'>Va.</td><td align='left'>Whig</td><td align='left'>1841-1845</td><td align='left'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>11</td><td align='left'>James K. Polk</td><td align='left'>Tenn.</td><td align='left'>Dem.</td><td align='left'>1845-1849</td><td align='left'>George M. Dallas</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>12</td><td align='left'>Zachary Taylor</td><td align='left'>La.</td><td align='left'>Whig</td><td align='left'>1849-1850</td><td align='left'>Millard Fillmore</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>13</td><td align='left'>Millard Fillmore<a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></td><td align='left'>N.Y.</td><td align='left'>Whig</td><td align='left'>1850-1853</td><td align='left'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>14</td><td align='left'>Franklin Pierce</td><td align='left'>N.H.</td><td align='left'>Dem.</td><td align='left'>1853-1857</td><td align='left'>William R. King</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>15</td><td align='left'>James Buchanan</td><td align='left'>Pa.</td><td align='left'>Dem.</td><td align='left'>1857-1861</td><td align='left'>J.C. Breckinridge</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>16</td><td align='left'>Abraham Lincoln</td><td align='left'>Ill.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1861-1865</td><td align='left'>Hannibal Hamlin<br />Andrew Johnson</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>17</td><td align='left'>Andrew Johnson<a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></td><td align='left'>Tenn.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1865-1869</td><td align='left'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>18</td><td align='left'>Ulysses S. Grant</td><td align='left'>Ill.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1869-1877</td><td align='left'>Schuyler Colfax<br />Henry Wilson</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>19</td><td align='left'>Rutherford B. Hayes</td><td align='left'>Ohio</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1877-1881</td><td align='left'>Wm. A. Wheeler</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>20</td><td align='left'>James A. Garfield</td><td align='left'>Ohio</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1881-1881</td><td align='left'>Chester A. Arthur</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>21</td><td align='left'>Chester A. Arthur<a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></td><td align='left'>N.Y.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1881-1885</td><td align='left'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>22</td><td align='left'>Grover Cleveland</td><td align='left'>N.Y.</td><td align='left'>Dem.</td><td align='left'>1885-1889</td><td align='left'>Thomas A. Hendricks</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>23</td><td align='left'>Benjamin Harrison</td><td align='left'>Ind.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1889-1893</td><td align='left'>Levi P. Morton</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>24</td><td align='left'>Grover Cleveland</td><td align='left'>N.Y.</td><td align='left'>Dem.</td><td align='left'>1893-1897</td><td align='left'>Adlai E. Stevenson</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>25</td><td align='left'>William McKinley</td><td align='left'>Ohio</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1897-1901</td><td align='left'>Garrett A. Hobart<br />Theodore Roosevelt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>26</td><td align='left'>Theodore Roosevelt<a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></td><td align='left'>N.Y.</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1901-1909</td><td align='left'>Chas. W. Fairbanks</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>27</td><td align='left'>William H. Taft</td><td align='left'>Ohio</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1909-1913</td><td align='left'>James S. Sherman</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>28</td><td align='left'>Woodrow Wilson</td><td align='left'>N.J.</td><td align='left'>Dem.</td><td align='left'>1913-1921</td><td align='left'>Thomas R. Marshall</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>29</td><td align='left'>Warren G. Harding</td><td align='left'>Ohio</td><td align='left'>Rep.</td><td align='left'>1921-</td><td align='left'>Calvin Coolidge</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><a name="Page_644" id="Page_644"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>POPULATION OF THE OUTLYING POSSESSIONS: 1920 AND 1910</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Population Outlying Areas">
+<tr><td align='center'>AREA</td><td align='center'>1920</td><td align='center'>1910</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>United States with outlying possessions</td><td align='right'>117,857,509</td><td align='right'>101,146,530</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Continental United States</td><td align='right'>105,708,771</td><td align='right'>91,972,266</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Outlying Possessions</td><td align='right'>12,148,738</td><td align='right'>9,174 264</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alaska</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American Samoa</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guam</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawaii</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panama Canal Zone</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Military and naval, etc., service  abroad</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philippine Islands</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Virgin Islands of the United States</span><br /></td>
+
+<td align='right'>54,899&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+8,056&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+13,275&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+255,912&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+22,858&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+1,299,809&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+117,238&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+10,350,640<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a><br />
+26,051<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></td>
+
+<td align='right'>64,356&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+7,251<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a><br />
+11,806&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+191,909&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+62,810<a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a><br />
+1,118,012&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+55,608&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />
+7,635,426<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a><br />
+27,086<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a><br /></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_645" id="Page_645"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>A TOPICAL SYLLABUS</h2>
+
+
+<p>As a result of a wholesome reaction against the purely chronological
+treatment of history, there is now a marked tendency in the direction of
+a purely topical handling of the subject. The topical method, however,
+may also be pushed too far. Each successive stage of any topic can be
+understood only in relation to the forces of the time. For that reason,
+the best results are reached when there is a combination of the
+chronological and the topical methods. It is therefore suggested that
+the teacher first follow the text closely and then review the subject
+with the aid of this topical syllabus. The references are to pages.</p>
+
+
+<div><b><a name="immigration" id="immigration"></a>Immigration</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'>I. Causes: religious (<a href='#Page_1'>1</a>-<a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>-<a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>), economic (<a href='#Page_12'>12</a>-<a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>-<a href='#Page_303'>303</a>), and political (<a href='#Page_302'>302</a>-<a href='#Page_303'>303</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>II. Colonial immigration.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Diversified character: English, Scotch-Irish, Irish, Jews, Germans and other peoples (<a href='#Page_6'>6</a>-<a href='#Page_12'>12</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Assimilation to an American type; influence of the land system (<a href='#Page_23'>23</a>-<a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Enforced immigration: indentured servitude, slavery, etc. (<a href='#Page_13'>13</a>-<a href='#Page_17'>17</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>III. Immigration between 1789-1890</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Nationalities: English, Irish, Germans, and Scandinavians (<a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>-<a href='#Page_303'>303</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Relations to American life (<a href='#Page_432'>432</a>-<a href='#Page_433'>433</a>, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>IV. Immigration and immigration questions after 1890.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Change in nationalities (<a href='#Page_410'>410</a>-<a href='#Page_411'>411</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Changes in economic opportunities (<a href='#Page_411'>411</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Problems of congestion and assimilation (<a href='#Page_410'>410</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. Relations to labor and illiteracy (<a href='#Page_582'>582</a>-<a href='#Page_586'>586</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. Oriental immigration (<a href='#Page_583'>583</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. The restriction of immigration (<a href='#Page_583'>583</a>-<a href='#Page_585'>585</a>).<br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div><b>Expansion of the United States</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div>
+<div class='hang1'>I. Territorial growth.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Territory of the United States in 1783 (<a href='#Page_134'>134</a> and <a href='#treaty'>color map</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Louisiana purchase, 1803 (<a href='#Page_188'>188</a>-<a href='#Page_193'>193</a> and <a href='#o-five'>color map</a>).</div><a name="Page_646" id="Page_646"></a>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Florida purchase, 1819 (<a href='#Page_204'>204</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. Annexation of Texas, 1845 (<a href='#Page_278'>278</a>-<a href='#Page_281'>281</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. Acquisition of Arizona, New Mexico, California, and other territory at close of Mexican War, 1848 (<a href='#Page_282'>282</a>-<a href='#Page_283'>283</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. The Gadsden purchase, 1853 (<a href='#Page_283'>283</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>7. Settlement of the Oregon boundary question, 1846 (<a href='#Page_284'>284</a>-<a href='#Page_286'>286</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>8. Purchase of Alaska from Russia, 1867 (<a href='#Page_479'>479</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>9. Acquisition of Tutuila in Samoan group, 1899 (<a href='#Page_481'>481</a>-<a href='#Page_482'>482</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>10. Annexation of Hawaii, 1898 (<a href='#Page_484'>484</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>11. Acquisition of Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam at close of Spanish War, 1898 (<a href='#Page_493'>493</a>-<a href='#Page_494'>494</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>12. Acquisition of Panama Canal strip, 1904 (<a href='#Page_508'>508</a>-<a href='#Page_510'>510</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>13. Purchase of Danish West Indies, 1917 (<a href='#Page_593'>593</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>14. Extension of protectorate over Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Nicaragua (<a href='#Page_593'>593</a>-<a href='#Page_594'>594</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>II. Development of colonial self-government.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Hawaii (<a href='#Page_485'>485</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Philippines (<a href='#Page_516'>516</a>-<a href='#Page_518'>518</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Porto Rico (<a href='#Page_515'>515</a>-<a href='#Page_516'>516</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>III. Sea power.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. In American Revolution (<a href='#Page_118'>118</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. In the War of 1812 (<a href='#Page_193'>193</a>-<a href='#Page_201'>201</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. In the Civil War (<a href='#Page_353'>353</a>-<a href='#Page_354'>354</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. In the Spanish-American War (<a href='#Page_492'>492</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. In the Caribbean region (<a href='#Page_512'>512</a>-<a href='#Page_519'>519</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. In the Pacific (<a href='#Page_447'>447</a>-<a href='#Page_448'>448</a>, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>7. The r&ocirc;le of the American navy (<a href='#Page_515'>515</a>).</div>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div><b>The Westward Advance of the People</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div>
+<div class='hang1'>I. Beyond the Appalachians.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Government and land system (<a href='#Page_217'>217</a>-<a href='#Page_231'>231</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. The routes (<a href='#Page_222'>222</a>-<a href='#Page_224'>224</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. The settlers (<a href='#Page_221'>221</a>-<a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>-<a href='#Page_230'>230</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. Relations with the East (<a href='#Page_230'>230</a>-<a href='#Page_236'>236</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>II. Beyond the Mississippi.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. The lower valley (<a href='#Page_271'>271</a>-<a href='#Page_273'>273</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. The upper valley (<a href='#Page_275'>275</a>-<a href='#Page_276'>276</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>III. Prairies, plains, and desert.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Cattle ranges and cowboys (<a href='#Page_276'>276</a>-<a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>-<a href='#Page_432'>432</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. The free homesteads (<a href='#Page_432'>432</a>-<a href='#Page_433'>433</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Irrigation (<a href='#Page_434'>434</a>-<a href='#Page_436'>436</a>, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>-<a href='#Page_525'>525</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>IV. The Far West.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Peculiarities of the West (<a href='#Page_433'>433</a>-<a href='#Page_440'>440</a>).</div><a name="Page_647" id="Page_647"></a>
+<div class='hang2'>2. The railways (<a href='#Page_425'>425</a>-<a href='#Page_431'>431</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Relations to the East and Europe (<a href='#Page_443'>443</a>-<a href='#Page_447'>447</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. American power in the Pacific (<a href='#Page_447'>447</a>-<a href='#Page_449'>449</a>).</div>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div><b>The Wars of American History</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div>
+<div class='hang1'>I. Indian wars (<a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-<a href='#Page_59'>59</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>II. Early colonial wars: King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's (<a href='#Page_59'>59</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>III. French and Indian War (Seven Years' War), 1754-1763 (<a href='#Page_59'>59</a>-<a href='#Page_61'>61</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>IV. Revolutionary War, 1775-1783 (<a href='#Page_99'>99</a>-<a href='#Page_135'>135</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>V. The War of 1812, 1812-1815 (<a href='#Page_193'>193</a>-<a href='#Page_201'>201</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>VI. The Mexican War, 1845-1848 (<a href='#Page_276'>276</a>-<a href='#Page_284'>284</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>VII. The Civil War, 1861-1865 (<a href='#Page_344'>344</a>-<a href='#Page_375'>375</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>VIII. The Spanish War, 1898 (<a href='#Page_485'>485</a>-<a href='#Page_497'>497</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>IX. The World War, 1914-1918 [American participation, 1917-1918] (<a href='#Page_596'>596</a>-<a href='#Page_625'>625</a>).</div>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div><b>Government</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class="hang1">I. Development of the American system of government.</div>
+<div class="hang2">1. Origin and growth of state government.</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> The trading corporation (<a href='#Page_2'>2</a>-<a href='#Page_4'>4</a>), religious congregation (<a href='#Page_4'>4</a>-<a href='#Page_5'>5</a>), and proprietary system (<a href='#Page_5'>5</a>-<a href='#Page_6'>6</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> Government of the colonies (<a href='#Page_48'>48</a>-<a href='#Page_53'>53</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> Formation of the first state constitutions (<a href='#Page_108'>108</a>-<a href='#Page_110'>110</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> The admission of new states (<i>see</i> <a href='#index'>Index</a> under each state).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>e.</i> Influence of Jacksonian Democracy (<a href='#Page_238'>238</a>-<a href='#Page_247'>247</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>f.</i> Growth of manhood suffrage (<a href='#Page_238'>238</a>-<a href='#Page_244'>244</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>g.</i> Nullification and state sovereignty (<a href='#Page_180'>180</a>-<a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>-<a href='#Page_257'>257</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>h.</i> The doctrine of secession (<a href='#Page_345'>345</a>-<a href='#Page_346'>346</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>i.</i> Effects of the Civil War on position of states (<a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>-<a href='#Page_375'>375</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>j.</i> Political reform&mdash;direct government&mdash;initiative, referendum, and recall (<a href='#Page_540'>540</a>-<a href='#Page_544'>544</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang2">2. Origin and growth of national government.</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> British imperial control over the colonies (<a href='#Page_64'>64</a>-<a href='#Page_72'>72</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> Attempts at intercolonial union&mdash;New England Confederation, Albany plan (<a href='#Page_61'>61</a>-<a href='#Page_62'>62</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> The Stamp Act Congress (<a href='#Page_85'>85</a>-<a href='#Page_86'>86</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> The Continental Congresses (<a href='#Page_99'>99</a>-<a href='#Page_101'>101</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>e.</i> The Articles of Confederation (<a href='#Page_110'>110</a>-<a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>-<a href='#Page_143'>143</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>f.</i> The formation of the federal Constitution (<a href='#Page_143'>143</a>-<a href='#Page_160'>160</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>g.</i> Development of the federal Constitution.</div>
+<div class="hang4">(1) Amendments 1-11&mdash;rights of persons and states (<a href='#Page_163'>163</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang4">(2) Twelfth amendment&mdash;election of President (<a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Footnote_2_2'>note</a>).<a name="Page_648" id="Page_648"></a></div>
+<div class="hang4">(3) Amendments 13-15&mdash;Civil War settlement (<a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang4"><a name="sixteenth" id="sixteenth"></a>(4) Sixteenth amendment&mdash;income tax (<a href='#Page_528'>528</a>-<a href='#Page_529'>529</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang4">(5) Seventeenth amendment&mdash;election of Senators (<a href='#Page_541'>541</a>-<a href='#Page_542'>542</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang4">(6) Eighteenth amendment&mdash;prohibition (<a href='#Page_591'>591</a>-<a href='#Page_592'>592</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang4">(7) Nineteenth amendment&mdash;woman suffrage (<a href='#Page_563'>563</a>-<a href='#Page_568'>568</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang2">3. Development of the suffrage.</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> Colonial restrictions (<a href='#Page_51'>51</a>-<a href='#Page_52'>52</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> Provisions of the first state constitutions (<a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>-<a href='#Page_240'>240</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> Position under federal Constitution of 1787(<a href='#Page_149'>149</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> Extension of manhood suffrage (<a href='#Page_241'>241</a>-<a href='#Page_244'>244</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>e.</i> Extension and limitation of negro suffrage (<a href='#Page_373'>373</a>-<a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>-<a href='#Page_387'>387</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>f.</i> Woman suffrage (<a href='#Page_560'>560</a>-<a href='#Page_568'>568</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang1">II. Relation of government to economic and social welfare.</div>
+<div class="hang2">1. Debt and currency.</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> Colonial paper money (<a href='#Page_80'>80</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> Revolutionary currency and debt (<a href='#Page_125'>125</a>-<a href='#Page_127'>127</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> Disorders under Articles of Confederation (<a href='#Page_140'>140</a>-<a href='#Page_141'>141</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> Powers of Congress under the Constitution to coin money (<i>see</i> <a href='#constitution'>Constitution</a> in the <a href='#appendix'>Appendix</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>e.</i> First United States bank notes (<a href='#Page_167'>167</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>f.</i> Second United States bank notes (<a href='#Page_257'>257</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>g.</i> State bank notes (<a href='#Page_258'>258</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>h.</i> Civil War greenbacks and specie payment (<a href='#Page_352'>352</a>-<a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>i.</i> The Civil War debt (<a href='#Page_252'>252</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>j.</i> Notes of National Banks under act of 1864 (<a href='#Page_369'>369</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>k.</i> Demonetization of silver and silver legislation (<a href='#Page_452'>452</a>-<a href='#Page_458'>458</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>l.</i> The gold standard (<a href='#Page_472'>472</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>m.</i> The federal reserve notes (<a href='#Page_589'>589</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>n.</i> Liberty bonds (<a href='#Page_606'>606</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang2">2. Banking systems.</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> The first United States bank (<a href='#Page_167'>167</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> The second United States bank&mdash;origin and destruction (<a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>-<a href='#Page_259'>259</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> United States treasury system (<a href='#Page_263'>263</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> State banks (<a href='#Page_258'>258</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>e.</i> The national banking system of 1864 (<a href='#Page_369'>369</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>f.</i> Services of banks (<a href='#Page_407'>407</a>-<a href='#Page_409'>409</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>g.</i> Federal reserve system (<a href='#Page_589'>589</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang2">3. <a name="tariff" id="tariff"></a>The tariff.</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> British colonial system (<a href='#Page_69'>69</a>-<a href='#Page_72'>72</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> Disorders under Articles of Confederation (<a href='#Page_140'>140</a>).<a name="Page_649" id="Page_649"></a></div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> The first tariff under the Constitution (<a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>-<a href='#Page_168'>168</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> Development of the tariff, 1816-1832 (<a href='#Page_252'>252</a>-<a href='#Page_254'>254</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>f.</i> Tariff and nullification (<a href='#Page_254'>254</a>-<a href='#Page_256'>256</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>g.</i> Development to the Civil War&mdash;attitude of South and West (<a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>-<a href='#Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>h.</i> Republicans and Civil War tariffs (<a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>i.</i> Revival of the tariff controversy under Cleveland (<a href='#Page_422'>422</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>j.</i> Tariff legislation after 1890&mdash;McKinley bill (<a href='#Page_422'>422</a>), Wilson bill (<a href='#Page_459'>459</a>), Dingley bill (<a href='#Page_472'>472</a>), Payne-Aldrich bill (<a href='#Page_528'>528</a>), Underwood bill (<a href='#Page_588'>588</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang2">4. Foreign and domestic commerce and transportation (<i>see</i> <a href='#tariff'>Tariff</a>, <a href='#immigration'>Immigration</a>, and <a href='#foreign'>Foreign Relations</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> British imperial regulations (<a href='#Page_69'>69</a>-<a href='#Page_72'>72</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> Confusion under Articles of Confederation (<a href='#Page_140'>140</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> Provisions of federal Constitution (<a href='#Page_150'>150</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> Internal improvements&mdash;aid to roads, canals, etc. (<a href='#Page_230'>230</a>-<a href='#Page_236'>236</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>e.</i> Aid to railways (<a href='#Page_403'>403</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>f.</i> Service of railways (<a href='#Page_402'>402</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>g.</i> Regulation of railways (<a href='#Page_460'>460</a>-<a href='#Page_461'>461</a>, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a>-<a href='#Page_548'>548</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>h.</i> Control of trusts and corporations (<a href='#Page_461'>461</a>-<a href='#Page_462'>462</a>, <a href='#Page_589'>589</a>-<a href='#Page_590'>590</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang2">5. Land and natural resources.</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> British control over lands (<a href='#Page_80'>80</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> Early federal land measures (<a href='#Page_219'>219</a>-<a href='#Page_221'>221</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> The Homestead act (<a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>-<a href='#Page_445'>445</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> Irrigation and reclamation (<a href='#Page_434'>434</a>-<a href='#Page_436'>436</a>, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>-<a href='#Page_525'>525</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>e.</i> Conservation of natural resources (<a href='#Page_523'>523</a>-<a href='#Page_526'>526</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang2">6. Legislation advancing human rights and general welfare (<i>see</i> <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>a.</i> Abolition of slavery: civil and political rights of negroes (<a href='#Page_357'>357</a>-<a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>-<a href='#Page_375'>375</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>b.</i> Extension of civil and political rights to women (<a href='#Page_554'>554</a>-<a href='#Page_568'>568</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>c.</i> Legislation relative to labor conditions (<a href='#Page_549'>549</a>-<a href='#Page_551'>551</a>, <a href='#Page_579'>579</a>-<a href='#Page_581'>581</a>, <a href='#Page_590'>590</a>-<a href='#Page_591'>591</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>d.</i> Control of public utilities (<a href='#Page_547'>547</a>-<a href='#Page_549'>549</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>e.</i> Social reform and the war on poverty (<a href='#Page_549'>549</a>-<a href='#Page_551'>551</a>).</div>
+<div class="hang3"><i>f.</i> Taxation and equality of opportunity (<a href='#Page_551'>551</a>-<a href='#Page_552'>552</a>).<br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div><b>Political Parties and Political Issues</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div>
+<div class='hang1'>I. The Federalists <i>versus</i> the Anti-Federalists [Jeffersonian Republicans] from about 1790 to about 1816 (<a href='#Page_168'>168</a>-<a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>-<a href='#Page_203'>203</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Federalist leaders: Hamilton, John Adams, John Marshall, Robert Morris.</div><a name="Page_650" id="Page_650"></a>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Anti-Federalist leaders: Jefferson, Madison, Monroe.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Issues: funding the debt, assumption of state debts, first United States bank, taxation, tariff, strong central government <i>versus</i> states' rights, and the Alien and Sedition acts.</div>
+<div class='hang1'>II. Era of "Good Feeling" from about 1816 to about 1824, a period of no organized party opposition (<a href='#Page_248'>248</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>III. The Democrats [former Jeffersonian Republicans] <i>versus</i>&nbsp; the Whigs [or National Republicans] from about 1832 to 1856 (<a href='#Page_238'>238</a>-<a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>-<a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>-<a href='#Page_334'>334</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Democratic leaders: Jackson, Van Buren, Calhoun, Benton.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Whig leaders: Webster and Clay.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Issues: second United States bank, tariff, nullification, Texas, internal improvements, and disposition of Western lands.</div>
+<div class='hang1'>IV. The Democrats <i>versus</i> the Republicans from about 1856 to the present time (<a href='#Page_334'>334</a>-<a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>-<a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>-<a href='#Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a>-<a href='#Page_475'>475</a>, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a>-<a href='#Page_534'>534</a>, <a href='#Page_588'>588</a>-<a href='#Page_620'>620</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Democratic leaders: Jefferson Davis, Tilden, Cleveland, Bryan, and Wilson.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Republican leaders: Lincoln, Blaine, McKinley, Roosevelt.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Issues: Civil War and reconstruction, currency, tariff, taxation, trusts, railways, foreign policies, imperialism, labor questions, and policies with regard to land and conservation.</div>
+<div class='hang1'>V. Minor political parties.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Before the Civil War: Free Soil (<a href='#Page_319'>319</a>) and Labor Parties (<a href='#Page_306'>306</a>-<a href='#Page_307'>307</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Since the Civil War: Greenback (<a href='#Page_463'>463</a>-<a href='#Page_464'>464</a>), Populist (<a href='#Page_464'>464</a>), Liberal Republican (<a href='#Page_420'>420</a>), Socialistic (<a href='#Page_577'>577</a>-<a href='#Page_579'>579</a>), Progressive (<a href='#Page_531'>531</a>-<a href='#Page_534'>534</a>, <a href='#Page_602'>602</a>-<a href='#Page_603'>603</a>).</div>
+<br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div><b>The Economic Development of the United States</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div>
+<div class='hang1'>I. The land and natural resources.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. The colonial land system: freehold, plantation, and manor (<a href='#Page_20'>20</a>-<a href='#Page_25'>25</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Development of the freehold in the West (<a href='#Page_220'>220</a>-<a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>-<a href='#Page_230'>230</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. The Homestead act and its results (<a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>-<a href='#Page_433'>433</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. The cattle range and cowboy (<a href='#Page_431'>431</a>-<a href='#Page_432'>432</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. Disappearance of free land (<a href='#Page_443'>443</a>-<a href='#Page_445'>445</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. Irrigation and reclamation (<a href='#Page_434'>434</a>-<a href='#Page_436'>436</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>7. Movement for the conservation of resources (<a href='#Page_523'>523</a>-<a href='#Page_526'>526</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>II. Industry.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. The rise of local and domestic industries (<a href='#Page_28'>28</a>-<a href='#Page_32'>32</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. British restrictions on American enterprise (<a href='#Page_67'>67</a>-<a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>-<a href='#Page_72'>72</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Protective tariffs (see above, <a href='#Page_648'>648</a>-<a href='#Page_649'>649</a>).</div><a name="Page_651" id="Page_651"></a>
+<div class='hang2'>4. Development of industry previous to the Civil War (<a href='#Page_295'>295</a>-<a href='#Page_307'>307</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. Great progress of industry after the war (<a href='#Page_401'>401</a>-<a href='#Page_406'>406</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. Rise and growth of trusts and combinations (<a href='#Page_406'>406</a>-<a href='#Page_412'>412</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>-<a href='#Page_474'>474</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>III. Commerce and transportation.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Extent of colonial trade and commerce (<a href='#Page_32'>32</a>-<a href='#Page_35'>35</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. British regulation (<a href='#Page_69'>69</a>-<a href='#Page_70'>70</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Effects of the Revolution and the Constitution (<a href='#Page_139'>139</a>-<a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. Growth of American shipping (<a href='#Page_195'>195</a>-<a href='#Page_196'>196</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. Waterways and canals (<a href='#Page_230'>230</a>-<a href='#Page_236'>236</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. Rise and extension of the railway system (<a href='#Page_298'>298</a>-<a href='#Page_300'>300</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>7. Growth of American foreign trade (<a href='#Page_445'>445</a>-<a href='#Page_449'>449</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>IV. Rise of organized labor.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Early phases before the Civil War: local unions, city federations, and national unions in specific trades (<a href='#Page_304'>304</a>-<a href='#Page_307'>307</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. The National Trade Union, 1866-1872 (<a href='#Page_574'>574</a>-<a href='#Page_575'>575</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. The Knights of Labor (<a href='#Page_575'>575</a>-<a href='#Page_576'>576</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. The American Federation of Labor (<a href='#Page_573'>573</a>-<a href='#Page_574'>574</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>a.</i> Policies of the Federation (<a href='#Page_576'>576</a>-<a href='#Page_577'>577</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>b.</i> Relations to politics (<a href='#Page_579'>579</a>-<a href='#Page_581'>581</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>c.</i> Contests with socialists and radicals (<a href='#Page_577'>577</a>-<a href='#Page_579'>579</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>d.</i> Problems of immigration (<a href='#Page_582'>582</a>-<a href='#Page_585'>585</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. The relations of capital and labor.</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>a.</i> The corporation and labor (<a href='#Page_410'>410</a>, <a href='#Page_570'>570</a>-<a href='#Page_571'>571</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>b.</i> Company unions and profit-sharing (<a href='#Page_571'>571</a>-<a href='#Page_572'>572</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>c.</i> Welfare work (<a href='#Page_573'>573</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>d.</i> Strikes (<a href='#Page_465'>465</a>, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a>, <a href='#Page_580'>580</a>-<a href='#Page_581'>581</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>e.</i> Arbitration (<a href='#Page_581'>581</a>-<a href='#Page_582'>582</a>).</div>
+<br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div><a name="foreign" id="foreign"></a><b>American Foreign Relations</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div>
+<div class='hang1'>I. Colonial period.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Indian relations (<a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-<a href='#Page_59'>59</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. French relations (<a href='#Page_59'>59</a>-<a href='#Page_61'>61</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>II. Period of conflict and independence.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Relations with Great Britain (<a href='#Page_77'>77</a>-<a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>-<a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>-<a href='#Page_135'>135</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Establishment of connections with European powers (<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. The French alliance of 1778 (<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>-<a href='#Page_130'>130</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. Assistance of Holland and Spain (<a href='#Page_130'>130</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>III. Relations with Great Britain since 1783.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Commercial settlement in Jay treaty of 1794 (<a href='#Page_177'>177</a>-<a href='#Page_178'>178</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Questions arising out of European wars [1793-1801] (<a href='#Page_176'>176</a>-<a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Blockade and embargo problems (<a href='#Page_193'>193</a>-<a href='#Page_199'>199</a>).</div><a name="Page_652" id="Page_652"></a>
+<div class='hang2'>4. War of 1812 (<a href='#Page_199'>199</a>-<a href='#Page_201'>201</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. Monroe Doctrine and Holy Alliance (<a href='#Page_205'>205</a>-<a href='#Page_207'>207</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. Maine boundary&mdash;Webster-Ashburton treaty (<a href='#Page_265'>265</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>7. Oregon boundary (<a href='#Page_284'>284</a>-<a href='#Page_286'>286</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>8. Attitude of Great Britain during Civil War (<a href='#Page_354'>354</a>-<a href='#Page_355'>355</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>9. Arbitration of <i>Alabama</i> claims (<a href='#Page_480'>480</a>-<a href='#Page_481'>481</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>10. The Samoan question (<a href='#Page_481'>481</a>-<a href='#Page_482'>482</a>)</div>
+<div class='hang2'>11. The Venezuelan question (<a href='#Page_482'>482</a>-<a href='#Page_484'>484</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>12. British policy during Spanish-American War (<a href='#Page_496'>496</a>-<a href='#Page_497'>497</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>13. Controversy over blockade, 1914-1917 (<a href='#Page_598'>598</a>-<a href='#Page_600'>600</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>14. The World War (<a href='#Page_603'>603</a>-<a href='#Page_620'>620</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>IV. Relations with France.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. The colonial wars (<a href='#Page_59'>59</a>-<a href='#Page_61'>61</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. The French alliance of 1778 (<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>-<a href='#Page_130'>130</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Controversies over the French Revolution (<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>-<a href='#Page_130'>130</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. Commercial questions arising out of the European wars (<a href='#Page_176'>176</a>-<a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>-<a href='#Page_199'>199</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. Attitude of Napoleon III toward the Civil War (<a href='#Page_354'>354</a>-<a href='#Page_355'>355</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. The Mexican entanglement (<a href='#Page_478'>478</a>-<a href='#Page_479'>479</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>7. The World War (<a href='#Page_596'>596</a>-<a href='#Page_620'>620</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>V. Relations with Germany.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Negotiations with Frederick, king of Prussia (<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. The Samoan controversy (<a href='#Page_481'>481</a>-<a href='#Page_482'>482</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Spanish-American War (<a href='#Page_491'>491</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. The Venezuelan controversy (<a href='#Page_512'>512</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. The World War (<a href='#Page_596'>596</a>-<a href='#Page_620'>620</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>VI. Relations with the Orient.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Early trading connections (<a href='#Page_486'>486</a>-<a href='#Page_487'>487</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. The opening of China (<a href='#Page_447'>447</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. The opening of Japan (<a href='#Page_448'>448</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>4. The Boxer rebellion and the "open door" policy (<a href='#Page_499'>499</a>-<a href='#Page_502'>502</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>5. Roosevelt and the close of the Russo-Japanese War (<a href='#Page_511'>511</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>6. The Oriental immigration question (<a href='#Page_583'>583</a>-<a href='#Page_584'>584</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang1'>VII. The United States and Latin America.</div>
+<div class='hang2'>1. Mexican relations.</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>a.</i> Mexican independence and the Monroe Doctrine (<a href='#Page_205'>205</a>-<a href='#Page_207'>207</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>b.</i> Mexico and French intervention&mdash;policy of the United States (<a href='#Page_478'>478</a>-<a href='#Page_479'>479</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>c.</i> The overthrow of Diaz (1911) and recent questions (<a href='#Page_594'>594</a>-<a href='#Page_596'>596</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>2. Cuban relations.</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>a.</i> Slavery and the "Ostend Manifesto" (<a href='#Page_485'>485</a>-<a href='#Page_486'>486</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>b.</i> The revolutionary period, 1867-1877 (<a href='#Page_487'>487</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>c.</i> The revival of revolution (<a href='#Page_487'>487</a>-<a href='#Page_491'>491</a>).</div><a name="Page_653" id="Page_653"></a>
+<div class='hang3'><i>d.</i> American intervention and the Spanish War (<a href='#Page_491'>491</a>-<a href='#Page_496'>496</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>e.</i> The Platt amendment and American protection (<a href='#Page_518'>518</a>-<a href='#Page_519'>519</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang2'>3. Caribbean and other relations.</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>a.</i> Acquisition of Porto Rico (<a href='#Page_493'>493</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>b.</i> The acquisition of the Panama Canal strip (<a href='#Page_508'>508</a>-<a href='#Page_510'>510</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>c.</i> Purchase of Danish West Indies (<a href='#Page_593'>593</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>d.</i> Venezuelan controversies (<a href='#Page_482'>482</a>-<a href='#Page_484'>484</a>, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a>).</div>
+<div class='hang3'><i>e.</i> Extension of protectorate over Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Nicaragua (<a href='#Page_513'>513</a>-<a href='#Page_514'>514</a>, <a href='#Page_592'>592</a>-<a href='#Page_594'>594</a>).</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_654" id="Page_654"></a><a name="Page_655" id="Page_655"></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="index" id="index"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<div>
+<a name="abolition" id="abolition"></a>Abolition, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a><br />
+<br />
+Adams, Abigail, <a href='#Page_556'>556</a><br />
+<br />
+Adams, John, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Adams, J.Q., <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a><br />
+<br />
+Adams, Samuel, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a><br />
+<br />
+Adamson law, <a href='#Page_590'>590</a><br />
+<br />
+Aguinaldo, <a href='#Page_497'>497</a><br />
+<br />
+Alabama, admission, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Alabama</i> claims, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a><br />
+<br />
+Alamance, battle, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a><br />
+<br />
+Alamo, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a><br />
+<br />
+Alaska, purchase, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a><br />
+<br />
+Albany, plan of union, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a><br />
+<br />
+Algonquins, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a><br />
+<br />
+Alien law, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="amendment" id="amendment"></a>Amendment, method of, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a><br />
+<br />
+Amendments to federal Constitution: first eleven, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">twelfth, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a> note</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">thirteenth, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fourteenth, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fifteenth, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sixteenth, <a href='#Page_528'>528</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seventeenth, <a href='#Page_542'>542</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eighteenth, <a href='#Page_591'>591</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nineteenth, <a href='#Page_563'>563</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+American expeditionary force, <a href='#Page_610'>610</a><br />
+<br />
+American  Federation  of  Labor, <a href='#Page_573'>573</a>, <a href='#Page_608'>608</a><br />
+<br />
+Americanization, <a href='#Page_585'>585</a><br />
+<br />
+Amnesty, for Confederates, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a><br />
+<br />
+Andros, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+Annapolis, convention, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a><br />
+<br />
+Antietam, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="afederalists" id="afederalists"></a>Anti-Federalists, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a><br />
+<br />
+Anti-slavery. <i>See</i> <a href='#abolition'>Abolition</a><br />
+<br />
+Anthony, Susan, <a href='#Page_564'>564</a><br />
+<br />
+Appomattox, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a><br />
+<br />
+Arbitration:  international, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a> <a href='#Page_514'>514</a>, <a href='#Page_617'>617</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">labor disputes, <a href='#Page_582'>582</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Arizona, admission, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a><br />
+<br />
+Arkansas, admission, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a><br />
+<br />
+Arnold, Benedict, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="articles" id="articles"></a>Articles of Confederation, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>ff., <a href='#Page_146'>146</a><br />
+<br />
+Ashburton, treaty, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a><br />
+<br />
+Assembly, colonial, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>f., <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Assumption, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Atlanta, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a><br />
+<br />
+Australian ballot, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Nathaniel, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a><br />
+<br />
+Ballot:  Australian, <a href='#Page_540'>540</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">short, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Baltimore, Lord, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br />
+<br />
+Bank: first U.S., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="banking" id="banking"></a>Banking system:  state, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. national, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">services of, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#federal'>Federal reserve</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Barry, John, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a><br />
+<br />
+Bastille, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a><br />
+<br />
+Bell, John, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a><br />
+<br />
+Belleau Wood, <a href='#Page_611'>611</a><br />
+<br />
+Berlin decree, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a><br />
+<br />
+Blockade: by England and France, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Southern ports, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">law and practice in 1914, <a href='#Page_598'>598</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bond servants, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Boone, Daniel, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a><br />
+<br />
+Boston:  massacre, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">evacuation, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">port bill, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bowdoin, Governor, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a><br />
+<br />
+Boxer rebellion, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a><br />
+<br />
+Brandywine, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a><br />
+<br />
+Breckinridge, J.C., <a href='#Page_340'>340</a><br />
+<br />
+Bright, John, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a><br />
+<br />
+Brown, John, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a><br />
+<br />
+Brown University, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<br />
+Bryan, W.J., <a href='#Page_468'>468</a>f., <a href='#Page_495'>495</a>, <a href='#Page_502'>502</a>, <a href='#Page_503'>503</a>, <a href='#Page_527'>527</a><br />
+<br />
+Buchanan, James, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a><br />
+<br />
+Budget system, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a><br />
+<br />
+Bull Run, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a><br />
+<br />
+Bunker Hill, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a><br />
+<br />
+Burgoyne, General, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a><br /> <a name="Page_656" id="Page_656"></a>
+<br />
+Burke, Edmund, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>ff., <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a><br />
+<br />
+Burr, Aaron, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a><br />
+<br />
+Business. <i>See</i> <a href='#industry'>Industry</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Calhoun, J.C., <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>f., <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a><br />
+<br />
+California, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Canada, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_530'>530</a><br />
+<br />
+Canals, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a><br />
+<br />
+Canning, British premier, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a><br />
+<br />
+Cannon, J.G., <a href='#Page_530'>530</a><br />
+<br />
+Cantigny, <a href='#Page_611'>611</a><br />
+<br />
+Caribbean, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a><br />
+<br />
+Carpet baggers, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a><br />
+<br />
+Cattle ranger, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Caucus, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a><br />
+<br />
+Censorship. <i>See</i> <a href='#newspapers'>Newspapers</a><br />
+<br />
+Charles I, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<br />
+Charles II, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+Charleston, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a><br />
+<br />
+Charters, colonial, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>ff., <a href='#Page_41'>41</a><br />
+<br />
+Chase, Justice, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a><br />
+<br />
+Ch&acirc;teau-Thierry, <a href='#Page_611'>611</a><br />
+<br />
+Checks and balances, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Chesapeake</i>, the, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a><br />
+<br />
+Chickamauga, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a><br />
+<br />
+Child labor law, <a href='#Page_591'>591</a><br />
+<br />
+China, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>, <a href='#Page_499'>499</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+Chinese labor, <a href='#Page_583'>583</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="churches" id="churches"></a>Churches, colonial, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>f., <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a><br />
+<br />
+Cities, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>f., <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a><br />
+<br />
+City manager plan, <a href='#Page_545'>545</a><br />
+<br />
+Civil liberty, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>f., <a href='#Page_561'>561</a><br />
+<br />
+Civil service, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a>, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Clarendon, Lord, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br />
+<br />
+Clark, G.R., <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a><br />
+<br />
+Clay, Henry, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a><br />
+<br />
+Clayton anti-trust act, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a><br />
+<br />
+Clergy. <i>See</i> <a href='#churches'>Churches</a><br />
+<br />
+Cleveland, Grover, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a>, <a href='#Page_489'>489</a>, <a href='#Page_582'>582</a><br />
+<br />
+Clinton, Sir Henry, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a><br />
+<br />
+Colorado, admission, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a><br />
+<br />
+Combination. <i>See</i> <a href='#trusts'>Trusts</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="commerce" id="commerce"></a>Commerce, colonial, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disorders after 1781, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitutional provisions on, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleonic wars, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>ff.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">domestic growth of, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">congressional regulation of, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>f., <a href='#Page_547'>547</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#trusts'>Trusts</a> and <a href='#railways'>Railways</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Commission government, <a href='#Page_544'>544</a><br />
+<br />
+Committees of correspondence, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Commonsense</i>, pamphlet, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a><br />
+<br />
+Communism, colonial, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Company, trading, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Compromises: of Constitution, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Missouri, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1850, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crittenden, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Conciliation, with England, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Concord, battle, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a><br />
+<br />
+Confederacy, Southern, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Confederation: New England, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#articles'>Articles of</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Congregation, religious, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a><br />
+<br />
+Congress:  stamp act, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">continental, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Articles, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Constitution, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">powers of, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Connecticut: founded, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">self-government, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, <a href='#sconst'>constitutions, state</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Conservation, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Constitution: formation of, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#amendment'>Amendment</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Constitution</i>, the, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="sconst" id="sconst"></a>Constitutions, state, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>f., <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>f., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Constitutional union party, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a><br />
+<br />
+Contract labor law, <a href='#Page_584'>584</a><br />
+<br />
+Convention: 1787, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominating, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Convicts, colonial, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a><br />
+<br />
+Conway Cabal, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+Cornwallis, General, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Corporation and labor, <a href='#Page_571'>571</a> <i>See also</i> <a href='#trusts'>Trusts</a><br />
+<br />
+Cotton. <i>See</i> <a href='#planting'>Planting system</a><br />
+<br />
+Cowboy, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Cowpens, battle, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a><br />
+<br />
+Cox, J.M., <a href='#Page_619'>619</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Crisis, The</i>, pamphlet, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a><br />
+<br />
+Crittenden Compromise, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuba, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>f., <a href='#Page_518'>518</a><br />
+<br />
+Cumberland Gap, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a><br />
+<br />
+Currency. <i>See</i> <a href='#banking'>Banking</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Danish West Indies, purchased, <a href='#Page_593'>593</a><br />
+<br />
+Dartmouth College, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<br />
+Daughters of liberty, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a><br />
+<br />
+Davis, Jefferson, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Deane, Silas, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Debs, E.V., <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>, <a href='#Page_534'>534</a><br /><a name="Page_657" id="Page_657"></a>
+<br />
+Debt, national, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Decatur, Commodore, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a><br />
+<br />
+Declaration of Independence, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Defense, national, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a><br />
+<br />
+De Kalb, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+Delaware, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a><br />
+<br />
+De Lome affair, <a href='#Page_490'>490</a><br />
+<br />
+Democratic party, name assumed, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#afederalists'>Anti-Federalists</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Dewey, Admiral, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a><br />
+<br />
+Diplomacy: of the Revolution, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Domestic industry, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a><br />
+<br />
+Donelson, Fort, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a><br />
+<br />
+Dorr Rebellion, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a><br />
+<br />
+Douglas, Stephen A., <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a><br />
+<br />
+Draft: Civil War, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World War, <a href='#Page_605'>605</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Draft riots, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a><br />
+<br />
+Dred Scott case, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a><br />
+<br />
+Drug act, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a><br />
+<br />
+Duquesne, Fort, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="dutch2" id="dutch2"></a>Dutch, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+East India Company, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="education" id="education"></a>Education, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>f., <a href='#Page_557'>557</a>, <a href='#Page_591'>591</a><br />
+<br />
+Electors, popular election of, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a><br />
+<br />
+Elkins law, <a href='#Page_547'>547</a><br />
+<br />
+Emancipation, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Embargo acts, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="england" id="england"></a>England: Colonial policy of, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Revolutionary War, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jay treaty, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">War of 1812, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Monroe Doctrine, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ashburton treaty, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Alabama</i> claims, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Samoa, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela question, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish War, <a href='#Page_496'>496</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World War, <a href='#Page_596'>596</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Erie Canal, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a><br />
+<br />
+Esch-Cummins bill, <a href='#Page_582'>582</a><br />
+<br />
+Espionage act, <a href='#Page_607'>607</a><br />
+<br />
+Excess profits tax, <a href='#Page_606'>606</a><br />
+<br />
+Executive, federal, plans for, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a><br />
+<br />
+Expunging resolution, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Farm loan act, <a href='#Page_589'>589</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="federal" id="federal"></a>Federal reserve act, <a href='#Page_589'>589</a><br />
+<br />
+Federal trade commission, <a href='#Page_590'>590</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Federalist</i>, the, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a><br />
+<br />
+Federalists, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>f., <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Feudal elements in colonies, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Filipino revolt. <i>See</i> <a href='#philippines'>Philippines</a><br />
+<br />
+Fillmore, President, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a><br />
+<br />
+Finances: colonial, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disorders, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>ff.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World War, <a href='#Page_606'>606</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#banking'>Banking</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fishing industry, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a><br />
+<br />
+Fleet, world tour, <a href='#Page_515'>515</a><br />
+<br />
+Florida, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a><br />
+<br />
+Foch, General, <a href='#Page_611'>611</a><br />
+<br />
+Food and fuel law, <a href='#Page_607'>607</a><br />
+<br />
+Force bills, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>ff., <a href='#Page_375'>375</a><br />
+<br />
+Forests, national, <a href='#Page_525'>525</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Fourteen points, <a href='#Page_605'>605</a><br />
+<br />
+Fox, C.J., <a href='#Page_132'>132</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="france" id="france"></a>France: colonization, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French and Indian War, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American Revolution, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Revolution, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quarrel with, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleonic wars, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louisiana purchase, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Revolution of 1830, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexican affair, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World War, <a href='#Page_596'>596</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Franchises, utility, <a href='#Page_548'>548</a><br />
+<br />
+Franklin, Benjamin, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a><br />
+<br />
+Freedmen. <i>See</i> <a href='#negro'>Negro</a><br />
+<br />
+Freehold. <i>See</i> <a href='#land'>Land</a><br />
+<br />
+<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Freesoil'">Free-soil</ins> party, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a><br />
+<br />
+Fr&eacute;mont, J.C., <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a><br />
+<br />
+French. <i>See</i> <a href='#france'>France</a><br />
+<br />
+Friends, the, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a><br />
+<br />
+Frontier. <i>See</i> <a href='#land'>Land</a><br />
+<br />
+Fugitive slave act, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a><br />
+<br />
+Fulton, Robert, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a><br />
+<br />
+Fundamental articles, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a><br />
+<br />
+Fundamental orders, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Gage, General, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a><br />
+<br />
+Garfield, President, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a><br />
+<br />
+Garrison, William Lloyd, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Gaspee</i>, the, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a><br />
+<br />
+Gates, General, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Gen&ecirc;t, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a><br />
+<br />
+George I, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a><br />
+<br />
+George II, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a><br />
+<br />
+George III, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>f.<br /><a name="Page_658" id="Page_658"></a>
+<br />
+Georgia: founded, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">royal province, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">state constitution, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#secession'>Secession</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="germans" id="germans"></a>Germans: colonial immigration, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Revolutionary War, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later immigration, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Germany: Samoa, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela affair, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World War, <a href='#Page_596'>596</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Gerry, Elbridge, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a><br />
+<br />
+Gettysburg, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a><br />
+<br />
+Gibbon, Edward, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a><br />
+<br />
+Gold: discovery, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standard, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Gompers, Samuel, <a href='#Page_573'>573</a>, <a href='#Page_608'>608</a><br />
+<br />
+Governor, royal, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Grandfather clause, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grangers, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Grant, General, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a><br />
+<br />
+Great Britain. <i>See</i> <a href='#england'>England</a><br />
+<br />
+Greeley, Horace, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a><br />
+<br />
+Greenbacks, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Greenbackers, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Greene, General, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+Grenville, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Guilford, battle, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Habeas corpus, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a><br />
+<br />
+Hague conferences, <a href='#Page_514'>514</a><br />
+<br />
+Haiti, <a href='#Page_593'>593</a><br />
+<br />
+Hamilton, Alexander, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>f., <a href='#Page_231'>231</a><br />
+<br />
+Harding, W.G., <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_619'>619</a><br />
+<br />
+Harlem Heights, battle, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Harper's Ferry, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a><br />
+<br />
+Harrison, Benjamin, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a><br />
+<br />
+Harrison, W.H., <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Hartford convention, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>f., <a href='#Page_238'>238</a><br />
+<br />
+Harvard, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a><br />
+<br />
+Hawaii, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hay, John, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>, <a href='#Page_500'>500</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+Hayne, Robert, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a><br />
+<br />
+Hays, President, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Henry, Patrick, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a><br />
+<br />
+Hepburn act, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a><br />
+<br />
+Hill, James J., <a href='#Page_429'>429</a><br />
+<br />
+Holland, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a><br />
+<br />
+Holy Alliance, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="homestead" id="homestead"></a>Homestead act, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a><br />
+<br />
+Hooker, Thomas, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a><br />
+<br />
+Houston, Sam, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Howe, General, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a><br />
+<br />
+Hughes, Charles E., <a href='#Page_602'>602</a><br />
+<br />
+Huguenots, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a><br />
+<br />
+Hume, David, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a><br />
+<br />
+Hutchinson, Anne, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Idaho, admission, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a><br />
+<br />
+Income tax, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a>, <a href='#Page_528'>528</a>, <a href='#Page_588'>588</a>, <a href='#Page_606'>606</a><br />
+<br />
+Inheritance tax, <a href='#Page_606'>606</a><br />
+<br />
+Illinois, admission, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a><br />
+<br />
+Illiteracy, <a href='#Page_585'>585</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="immigration2" id="immigration2"></a>Immigration: colonial, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>-<a href='#Page_17'>17</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">before Civil War, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Civil War, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">problems of, <a href='#Page_582'>582</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Imperialism, <a href='#Page_494'>494</a>f., <a href='#Page_498'>498</a>., <a href='#Page_502'>502</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Implied powers, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a><br />
+<br />
+Impressment of seamen, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a><br />
+<br />
+Indentured servants, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Independence, Declaration of, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a><br />
+<br />
+Indiana, admission, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a><br />
+<br />
+Indians, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>f., <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="industry" id="industry"></a>Industry: colonial, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">during Civil War, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after 1865, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>f., <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>f., <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>f., <a href='#Page_559'>559</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#trusts'>Trusts</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Initiative, the, <a href='#Page_543'>543</a><br />
+<br />
+Injunction, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>, <a href='#Page_580'>580</a><br />
+<br />
+Internal improvements, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a><br />
+<br />
+Interstate commerce act, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a><br />
+<br />
+Intolerable acts, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<br />
+Invisible government, <a href='#Page_537'>537</a><br />
+<br />
+Iowa, admission, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a><br />
+<br />
+Irish, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a><br />
+<br />
+Iron. <i>See</i> <a href='#industry'>Industry</a><br />
+<br />
+Irrigation, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>f., <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jackson, Andrew, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a><br />
+<br />
+Jacobins, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a><br />
+<br />
+James I, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<br />
+James II, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+Jamestown, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a><br />
+<br />
+Japan, relations with, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a>, <a href='#Page_583'>583</a><br />
+<br />
+Jay, John, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a><br />
+<br />
+Jefferson, Thomas: Declaration of Independence, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of State, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political leader, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as President, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Monroe Doctrine, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Jews, migration of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a><br />
+<br />
+Johnson, Andrew, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Johnson, Samuel, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a><br />
+<br />
+Joliet, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br /><a name="Page_659" id="Page_659"></a>
+<br />
+Jones, John Paul, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a><br />
+<br />
+Judiciary: British system, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">federal, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kansas, admission, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a><br />
+<br />
+Kansas-Nebraska bill, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a><br />
+<br />
+Kentucky: admission, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Resolutions, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></span><br />
+<br />
+King George's War, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+King Philip's War, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a><br />
+<br />
+King William's War, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+King's College (Columbia), <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<br />
+Knights of Labor, <a href='#Page_575'>575</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Kosciusko, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+Ku Klux Klan, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="labor" id="labor"></a>Labor:  rise of organized, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parties, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question, <a href='#Page_521'>521</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American Federation, <a href='#Page_573'>573</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legislation, <a href='#Page_590'>590</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World War, <a href='#Page_608'>608</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lafayette, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+La Follette, Senator, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="land" id="land"></a>Land: tenure<a href='#Page_20'>20</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sales restricted, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Western survey, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">federal sales policy, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Western tenure, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disappearance of free, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new problems, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#homestead'>Homestead act</a></span><br />
+<br />
+La Salle, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+Lawrence, Captain, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a><br />
+<br />
+League of Nations, <a href='#Page_616'>616</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Le Boeuf'">Le B&oelig;uf</ins>, Fort, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+Lee, General Charles, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Lee, R.E., <a href='#Page_357'>357</a><br />
+<br />
+Lewis and Clark expedition, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a><br />
+<br />
+Lexington, battle, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a><br />
+<br />
+Liberal Republicans, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a><br />
+<br />
+Liberty loan, <a href='#Page_606'>606</a><br />
+<br />
+Lincoln: Mexican War, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Douglas debates, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">election, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reconstruction, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Literacy test, <a href='#Page_585'>585</a><br />
+<br />
+Livingston, R.R., <a href='#Page_191'>191</a><br />
+<br />
+Locke, John, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a><br />
+<br />
+London Company, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<br />
+Long Island, battle, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Lords of trade, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Louis XVI, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Louisiana: ceded to Spain, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">purchase, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">admission, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Loyalists, <i>See</i> <a href='#tories'>Tories</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Lusitania</i>, the, <a href='#Page_601'>601</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+McClellan, General, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a><br />
+<br />
+McCulloch <i>vs.</i> Maryland, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="mckinley2" id="mckinley2"></a>McKinley, William, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>ff., <a href='#Page_489'>489</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Macaulay, Catherine, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a><br />
+<br />
+Madison, James, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+Maine, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Maine</i>, the, <a href='#Page_490'>490</a><br />
+<br />
+Manila Bay, battle, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a><br />
+<br />
+Manors, colonial, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a><br />
+<br />
+Manufactures, <i>See</i> <a href='#industry'>Industry</a><br />
+<br />
+Marbury <i>vs.</i> Madison, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a><br />
+<br />
+Marietta, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a><br />
+<br />
+Marion, Francis, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+Marquette, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+Marshall, John, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Martineau, Harriet, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a><br />
+<br />
+Maryland, founded, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a><br />
+<br />
+Massachusetts: founded, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#immigration2'>Immigration</a>, <a href='#province'>Royal province</a>, <a href='#industry'>Industry</a>, <a href='#revolutionary'>Revolutionary War</a>, <a href='#sconst'>Constitutions, state</a>, <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, <a href='#commerce'>Commerce</a>, and <a href='#industry'>Industry</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Massachusetts Bay Company, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>ff.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#immigration2'>Immigration</a>, <a href='#province'>Royal province</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Mayflower</i> compact, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a><br />
+<br />
+Mercantile theory, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a><br />
+<br />
+Merchants. <i>See</i> <a href='#commerce'>Commerce</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Merrimac</i>, the, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a><br />
+<br />
+Meuse-Argonne, battle, <a href='#Page_612'>612</a><br />
+<br />
+Mexico: and Texas, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later relations, <a href='#Page_594'>594</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Michigan, admission, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a><br />
+<br />
+Midnight appointees, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a><br />
+<br />
+Milan Decree, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a><br />
+<br />
+Militia, Revolutionary War, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a><br />
+<br />
+Minimum wages, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a><br />
+<br />
+Minnesota, admission, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a><br />
+<br />
+Mississippi River, and West, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Missouri Compromise, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a><br />
+<br />
+Molasses act, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a><br />
+<br />
+Money, paper, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Monitor</i>, the, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a><br />
+<br />
+Monroe, James, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>f., <a href='#Page_191'>191</a><br />
+<br />
+Monroe Doctrine, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_512'>512</a><br />
+<br />
+Montana, admission, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a><br />
+<br />
+Montgomery, General, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br /><a name="Page_660" id="Page_660"></a>
+<br />
+Morris, Robert, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a><br />
+<br />
+Mothers' pensions, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a><br />
+<br />
+Mohawks, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a><br />
+<br />
+Muckraking, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mugwumps, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a><br />
+<br />
+Municipal ownership, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Napoleon I, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a><br />
+<br />
+Napoleon III: Civil War, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a></span><br />
+<br />
+National Labor Union, <a href='#Page_574'>574</a><br />
+<br />
+National road, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a><br />
+<br />
+Nationalism, colonial, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Natural rights, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a><br />
+<br />
+Navigation acts, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a><br />
+<br />
+Navy: in Revolution, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">War of 1812, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World War, <a href='#Page_610'>610</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#seapower'>Sea Power</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Nebraska, admission, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="negro" id="negro"></a>Negro: Civil rights, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in agriculture, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">status of, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a><ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads '396 ff.'">ff.</ins></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#slavery'>Slavery</a></span><br />
+<br />
+New England: colonial times, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>ff., <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#industry'>Industry</a>, <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, <a href='#commerce'>Commerce</a>, and <a href='#wars'>Wars</a></span><br />
+<br />
+New Hampshire: founded, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#immigration2'>Immigration</a>, <a href='#province'>Royal province</a>, <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, and <a href='#sconst'>Constitutions, state</a></span><br />
+<br />
+New Jersey, founded, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#immigration2'>Immigration</a>, <a href='#province'>Royal province</a>, <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, and <a href='#sconst'>Constitutions, state</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Newlands, Senator, <a href='#Page_524'>524</a><br />
+<br />
+New Mexico, admission, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a><br />
+<br />
+New Orleans, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="newspapers" id="newspapers"></a>Newspapers, colonial, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+New York: founded by Dutch, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transferred to English, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#dutch2'>Dutch</a>, <a href='#immigration2'>Immigration</a>, <a href='#province'>Royal province</a>, <a href='#commerce'>Commerce</a>, <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, and <a href='#sconst'>Constitutions, state</a></span><br />
+<br />
+New York City, colonial, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a><br />
+<br />
+Niagara, Fort, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+Nicaragua protectorate, <a href='#Page_594'>594</a><br />
+<br />
+Non-intercourse act, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Non-importation, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>f., <a href='#Page_99'>99</a><br />
+<br />
+North, Lord, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a><br />
+<br />
+North Carolina: founded, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#province'>Royal province</a>, <a href='#immigration2'>Immigration</a>, <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, and <a href='#sconst'>Constitutions, state</a></span><br />
+<br />
+North Dakota, admission, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a><br />
+<br />
+Northwest Ordinance, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="nullification" id="nullification"></a>Nullification, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Oglethorpe, James, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<br />
+Ohio, admission, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a><br />
+<br />
+Oklahoma, admission, <a href='#Page_443'>443</a><br />
+<br />
+Open door policy, <a href='#Page_500'>500</a><br />
+<br />
+Oregon, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Ostend Manifesto, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a><br />
+<br />
+Otis, James, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Pacific, American influence, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a><br />
+<br />
+Paine, Thomas, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a><br />
+<br />
+Panama Canal, <a href='#Page_508'>508</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Panics: 1837, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1857, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1873, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1893, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Parcel post, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a><br />
+<br />
+Parker, A.B., <a href='#Page_527'>527</a><br />
+<br />
+Parties: rise of, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federalists, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anti-Federalists (Jeffersonian Republicans), <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Democrats, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Whigs, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Republicans, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberal Republicans, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitutional union, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">minor parties, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Paterson, William, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="penn2" id="penn2"></a>Penn, William, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br />
+<br />
+Pennsylvania: founded, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#penn2'>Penn</a>, <a href='#germans'>Germans</a>, <a href='#immigration2'>Immigration</a>, <a href='#industry'>Industry</a>, <a href='#revolutionary'>Revolutionary War</a>, <a href='#sconst'>Constitutions, state</a>, <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pennsylvania University, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<br />
+Pensions, soldiers and sailors, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>, <a href='#Page_607'>607</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mothers', <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pequots, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a><br />
+<br />
+Perry, O.H., <a href='#Page_200'>200</a><br />
+<br />
+Pershing, General, <a href='#Page_610'>610</a><br />
+<br />
+Philadelphia, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="philippines" id="philippines"></a>Philippines, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a>f., <a href='#Page_516'>516</a>f., <a href='#Page_592'>592</a><br />
+<br />
+Phillips, Wendell, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a><br />
+<br />
+Pierce, Franklin, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a><br />
+<br />
+Pike, Z., <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a><br />
+<br />
+Pilgrims, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a><br />
+<br />
+Pinckney, Charles, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a><br /><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661"></a>
+<br />
+Pitt, William, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="planting" id="planting"></a>Planting system, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>., <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+Plymouth, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a><br />
+<br />
+Polk, J.K., <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Polygamy, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Populist party, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a><br />
+<br />
+Porto Rico, <a href='#Page_515'>515</a>, <a href='#Page_592'>592</a><br />
+<br />
+Postal savings bank, <a href='#Page_529'>529</a><br />
+<br />
+Preble, Commodore, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a><br />
+<br />
+Press. <i>See</i> <a href='#newspapers'>Newspapers</a><br />
+<br />
+Primary, direct, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a><br />
+<br />
+Princeton, battle, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">University, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Profit sharing, <a href='#Page_572'>572</a><br />
+<br />
+Progressive party, <a href='#Page_531'>531</a><br />
+<br />
+Prohibition, <a href='#Page_591'>591</a><br />
+<br />
+Proprietary colonies, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br />
+<br />
+Provinces, royal, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Public service, <a href='#Page_538'>538</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Pulaski, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+Pullman strike, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a><br />
+<br />
+Pure food act, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a><br />
+<br />
+Puritans, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Quakers, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+Quartering act, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a><br />
+<br />
+Quebec act, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a><br />
+<br />
+Queen Anne's War, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+Quit rents, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Radicals, <a href='#Page_579'>579</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="railways" id="railways"></a>Railways, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>ff., <a href='#Page_547'>547</a>, <a href='#Page_621'>621</a><br />
+<br />
+Randolph, Edmund, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a><br />
+<br />
+Ratification, of Constitution, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Recall, <a href='#Page_543'>543</a><br />
+<br />
+Reclamation, <a href='#Page_523'>523</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="reconstruction" id="reconstruction"></a>Reconstruction, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Referendum, the, <a href='#Page_543'>543</a><br />
+<br />
+Reign of terror, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a><br />
+<br />
+Republicans: Jeffersonian, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of present party, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">supremacy of, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#mckinley2'>McKinley</a>, <a href='#roosevelt2'>Roosevelt</a>, and <a href='#taft2'>Taft</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Resumption, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a><br />
+<br />
+Revolution: American, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>f.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russian, <a href='#Page_619'>619</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Rhode Island: founded, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">self-government, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="roosevelt2" id="roosevelt2"></a>Roosevelt, Theodore, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a>, <a href='#Page_500'>500</a>ff., <a href='#Page_531'>531</a>, <a href='#Page_570'>570</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="province" id="province"></a>Royal province, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Russia, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>, <a href='#Page_619'>619</a><br />
+<br />
+Russo-Japanese War, <a href='#Page_511'>511</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Saint Mihiel, <a href='#Page_612'>612</a><br />
+<br />
+Samoa, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a><br />
+<br />
+San Jacinto, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a><br />
+<br />
+Santa F&eacute; trail, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a><br />
+<br />
+Santo Domingo, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>, <a href='#Page_513'>513</a>, <a href='#Page_592'>592</a><br />
+<br />
+Saratoga, battle, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a><br />
+<br />
+Savannah, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Scandinavians, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a><br />
+<br />
+Schools. <i>See</i> <a href='#education'>Education</a><br />
+<br />
+Scott, General, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a><br />
+<br />
+Scotch-Irish, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+Seamen's act, <a href='#Page_590'>590</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="seapower" id="seapower"></a>Sea power: American Revolution, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleonic wars, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caribbean, <a href='#Page_593'>593</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pacific, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World War, <a href='#Page_610'>610</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="secession" id="secession"></a>Secession, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Sedition: act of 1798, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>f., <a href='#Page_187'>187</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1918, <a href='#Page_608'>608</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Senators, popular election, <a href='#Page_527'>527</a>, <a href='#Page_541'>541</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+Seven Years' War, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Sevier, John, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a><br />
+<br />
+Seward, W.H., <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a><br />
+<br />
+Shafter, General, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a><br />
+<br />
+Shays's rebellion, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a><br />
+<br />
+Sherman, General, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a><br />
+<br />
+Sherman: anti-trust law, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silver act, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Shiloh, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a><br />
+<br />
+Shipping. <i>See</i> <a href='#commerce'>Commerce</a><br />
+<br />
+Shipping act, <a href='#Page_607'>607</a><br />
+<br />
+Silver, free, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="slavery" id="slavery"></a>Slavery: colonial, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Northwest, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decline in North, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth in South, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the Constitution, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and territories, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>f.</span><br />
+<a name="scompromise" id="scompromise"></a><span style="margin-left: 1em;">compromises, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Smith, Joseph, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a><br />
+<br />
+Socialism, <a href='#Page_577'>577</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Solid South, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a><br />
+<br />
+Solomon, Hayn, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a><br />
+<br />
+Sons of liberty, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a><br />
+<br />
+South: economic and political views, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>f.<br /><a name="Page_662" id="Page_662"></a>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#slavery'>Slavery</a> and <a href='#planting'>Planting system</a>, and <a href='#reconstruction'>Reconstruction</a></span><br />
+<br />
+South Carolina: founded, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nullification, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#sconst'>Constitutions, state</a>, <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, <a href='#slavery'>Slavery</a>, and <a href='#secession'>Secession</a></span><br />
+<br />
+South Dakota, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a><br />
+<br />
+Spain: and Revolution, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louisiana, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Monroe Doctrine, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish War, <a href='#Page_490'>490</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Spoils system, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>, <a href='#Page_536'>536</a>ff.<br />
+<br />
+Stamp act, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, <a href='#Page_564'>564</a><br />
+<br />
+States: disorders under Articles of Confederation, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutions, federal limits on, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position after Civil War, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#suffrage'>Suffrage</a>, <a href='#nullification'>Nullification</a>, and <a href='#secession'>Secession</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Steamboat, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a><br />
+<br />
+Stowe, H.B., <a href='#Page_332'>332</a><br />
+<br />
+Strikes: of 1877, <a href='#Page_581'>581</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pullman, <a href='#Page_581'>581</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coal, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#labor'>Labor</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Submarine campaign, <a href='#Page_600'>600</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="suffrage" id="suffrage"></a>Suffrage: colonial, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first state constitutions, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">White manhood, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Negro, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>f., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Woman, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_562'>562</a>ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Sugar act, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a><br />
+<br />
+Sumner, Charles, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a><br />
+<br />
+Sumter, Fort, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a><br />
+<br />
+Swedes, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="taft2" id="taft2"></a>Taft, W.H., <a href='#Page_527'>527</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Tammany Hall, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a><br />
+<br />
+Taney, Chief Justice, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a><br />
+<br />
+Tariff: first, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1816, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abominations, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nullification, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1842, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Southern views of, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1857, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wilson bill, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">McKinley bill, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dingley bill, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Payne-Aldrich, <a href='#Page_528'>528</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Underwood, <a href='#Page_588'>588</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Taxation: and representation, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Constitution, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil War, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and wealth, <a href='#Page_522'>522</a>, <a href='#Page_551'>551</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and World War, <a href='#Page_606'>606</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tea act, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a><br />
+<br />
+Tea party, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a><br />
+<br />
+Tenement house reform, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a><br />
+<br />
+Tennessee, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a><br />
+<br />
+Territories, Northwest, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">South of the Ohio, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#scompromise'>Slavery and Compromise</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Texas, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>f.<br />
+<br />
+Tippecanoe, battle, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a><br />
+<br />
+Tocqueville, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a><br />
+<br />
+Toleration, religious, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="tories" id="tories"></a>Tories, colonial, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Revolution, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Townshend acts, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a><br />
+<br />
+Trade, colonial, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legislation, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a> <i>See</i> <a href='#commerce'>Commerce</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Transylvania company, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a><br />
+<br />
+Treasury, independent, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a><br />
+<br />
+Treaties, of 1763, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alliance with France, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1783 with England, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jay, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louisiana purchase, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1815, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ashburton, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1848 with Mexico, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Washington with England, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Spain, <a href='#Page_492'>492</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Versailles (1919), <a href='#Page_612'>612</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Trenton, battle, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a><br />
+<br />
+Trollope, Mrs., <a href='#Page_268'>268</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="trusts" id="trusts"></a>Trusts, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>f., <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>ff., <a href='#Page_521'>521</a>, <a href='#Page_526'>526</a>, <a href='#Page_530'>530</a><br />
+<br />
+Tweed, W.M., <a href='#Page_418'>418</a><br />
+<br />
+Tyler, President, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>f., <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+"Uncle Tom's Cabin," <a href='#Page_332'>332</a><br />
+<br />
+Union party, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a><br />
+<br />
+Unions. <i>See</i> <a href='#labor'>Labor</a><br />
+<br />
+Utah, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>f., <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a><br />
+<br />
+Utilities, municipal, <a href='#Page_548'>548</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Vallandigham, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a><br />
+<br />
+Valley Forge, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a><br />
+<br />
+Van Buren, Martin, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a><br />
+<br />
+Venango, Fort, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+Venezuela, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>f., <a href='#Page_512'>512</a><br />
+<br />
+Vermont, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a><br /><a name="Page_663" id="Page_663"></a>
+<br />
+Vicksburg, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a><br />
+<br />
+Virginia: founded, <a href='#Page_3'>6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href='#province'>Royal province</a>, <a href='#sconst'>Constitutions, state</a>, <a href='#planting'>Planting system</a>, <a href='#slavery'>Slavery</a>, <a href='#secession'>Secession</a>, and <a href='#immigration2'>Immigration</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Walpole, Sir Robert, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="wars" id="wars"></a>Wars: colonial, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>f.<br />
+<a name="revolutionary" id="revolutionary"></a><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Revolutionary, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1812, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexican, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish, <a href='#Page_490'>490</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World, <a href='#Page_596'>596</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Washington: warns French, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in French war, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander-in-chief, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and movement for Constitution, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as President, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Farewell Address, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Washington City, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a><br />
+<br />
+Washington State, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a><br />
+<br />
+Webster, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a><br />
+<br />
+Welfare work, <a href='#Page_573'>573</a><br />
+<br />
+Whigs: English, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonial, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of party, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>f., <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Whisky Rebellion, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a><br />
+<br />
+White Camelia, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a><br />
+<br />
+White Plains, battle, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Whitman, Marcus, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a><br />
+<br />
+William and Mary College, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<br />
+Williams, Roger, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilmot Proviso, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilson, James, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilson, Woodrow, election, <a href='#Page_533'>533</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">administrations, <a href='#Page_588'>588</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Winthrop, John, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<br />
+Wisconsin, admission, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a><br />
+<br />
+Witchcraft, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a><br />
+<br />
+Wollstonecraft, Mary, <a href='#Page_556'>556</a><br />
+<br />
+Women: colonial, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Revolutionary War, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">labor, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education and civil rights, <a href='#Page_554'>554</a>f.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suffrage, <a href='#Page_562'>562</a>f.</span><br />
+<br />
+Workmen's compensation, <a href='#Page_549'>549</a><br />
+<br />
+Writs of assistance, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a><br />
+<br />
+Wyoming, admission, <a href='#Page_442'>442</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+X, Y, Z affair, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Yale, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a><br />
+<br />
+Young, Brigham, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Zenger, Peter, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+</div>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<div class='center'>Printed in the United States of America.</div>
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> North Carolina ratified in November, 1789, and Rhode Island
+in May, 1790.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> To prevent a repetition of such an unfortunate affair, the
+twelfth amendment of the Constitution was adopted in 1804, changing
+slightly the method of electing the President.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Partly superseded by the 14th Amendment, p. <a href='#Page_639'>639</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See the 17th Amendment, p. <a href='#Page_641'>641</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. <a href='#Page_641'>641</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See the 16th Amendment, p. <a href='#Page_640'>640</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The following paragraph was in force only from 1788 to
+1803.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Superseded by the 12th Amendment, p. <a href='#Page_638'>638</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See the 11th Amendment, p. <a href='#Page_638'>638</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> First ten amendments proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 1789.
+Proclaimed to be in force Dec. 15, 1791.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Proposed Sept. 5, 1794. Declared in force January 8,
+1798.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Adopted in 1804.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Adopted in 1865.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Adopted in 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Proposed February 27, 1869. Declared in force March 30,
+1870.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Passed July, 1909; proclaimed February 25, 1913.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Passed May, 1912, in lieu of paragraph one, Section 3,
+Article I, of the Constitution and so much of paragraph two of the same
+Section as relates to the filling of vacancies; proclaimed May 31,
+1913.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Ratified January 16, 1919.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Ratified August 26, 1920.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Promoted from the vice-presidency on the death of the
+president.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Population in 1912.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Population in 1918.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Population in 1903.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Population in 1917.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Population in 1911.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<div class='tnote'><h3><span class="smcap">Transcriber's Notes:</span></h3>
+
+<p>Punctuation normalized in all <i>Underwood and Underwood, N.Y.</i></p>
+
+<p>Period added after Mass on verso page. Original read "Mass, U.S.A."</p>
+
+<p>Chapter I, page 19, period added to pp. 55-159 and pp. 242-244.</p>
+
+<p>Chapter VIII, page 185, period added to "Vol." Original read "Vol III,"</p>
+
+<p>Chapter XII, page 269 added period after "Vol" Vol. II</p>
+
+<p>Chapter XII, page 270. Title of work reads "<i>Selected Documents of
+United States History, 1776-1761</i>". Research shows the document does
+have this title.</p>
+
+<p>Topical Syllabus. Missing periods added to normalize punctuation in
+entries such as on page 648 <a href='#sixteenth'>(4) Sixteenth</a> Amendment&mdash;income tax
+(528-529).</p>
+
+<p>Index, Page 662, added comma to States: disorders under Articles of
+Constitution, 141</p>
+
+<p>The remaining corrections made are indicated by dotted lines under the corrections.
+Scroll the cursor over the word and the original text will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States
+by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,24398 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States
+by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of the United States
+
+Author: Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
+
+Release Date: October 28, 2005 [EBook #16960]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, M and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+OF THE
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+
+BY
+
+
+CHARLES A. BEARD
+
+AND
+
+MARY R. BEARD
+
+
+
+New York
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+1921
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1921,
+
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1921.
+
+
+
+
+Norwood Press
+
+J.S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+
+NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+As things now stand, the course of instruction in American history in
+our public schools embraces three distinct treatments of the subject.
+Three separate books are used. First, there is the primary book, which
+is usually a very condensed narrative with emphasis on biographies and
+anecdotes. Second, there is the advanced text for the seventh or eighth
+grade, generally speaking, an expansion of the elementary book by the
+addition of forty or fifty thousand words. Finally, there is the high
+school manual. This, too, ordinarily follows the beaten path, giving
+fuller accounts of the same events and characters. To put it bluntly, we
+do not assume that our children obtain permanent possessions from their
+study of history in the lower grades. If mathematicians followed the
+same method, high school texts on algebra and geometry would include the
+multiplication table and fractions.
+
+There is, of course, a ready answer to the criticism advanced above. It
+is that teachers have learned from bitter experience how little history
+their pupils retain as they pass along the regular route. No teacher of
+history will deny this. Still it is a standing challenge to existing
+methods of historical instruction. If the study of history cannot be
+made truly progressive like the study of mathematics, science, and
+languages, then the historians assume a grave responsibility in adding
+their subject to the already overloaded curriculum. If the successive
+historical texts are only enlarged editions of the first text--more
+facts, more dates, more words--then history deserves most of the sharp
+criticism which it is receiving from teachers of science, civics, and
+economics.
+
+In this condition of affairs we find our justification for offering a
+new high school text in American history. Our first contribution is one
+of omission. The time-honored stories of exploration and the
+biographies of heroes are left out. We frankly hold that, if pupils know
+little or nothing about Columbus, Cortes, Magellan, or Captain John
+Smith by the time they reach the high school, it is useless to tell the
+same stories for perhaps the fourth time. It is worse than useless. It
+is an offense against the teachers of those subjects that are
+demonstrated to be progressive in character.
+
+In the next place we have omitted all descriptions of battles. Our
+reasons for this are simple. The strategy of a campaign or of a single
+battle is a highly technical, and usually a highly controversial, matter
+about which experts differ widely. In the field of military and naval
+operations most writers and teachers of history are mere novices. To
+dispose of Gettysburg or the Wilderness in ten lines or ten pages is
+equally absurd to the serious student of military affairs. Any one who
+compares the ordinary textbook account of a single Civil War campaign
+with the account given by Ropes, for instance, will ask for no further
+comment. No youth called upon to serve our country in arms would think
+of turning to a high school manual for information about the art of
+warfare. The dramatic scene or episode, so useful in arousing the
+interest of the immature pupil, seems out of place in a book that
+deliberately appeals to boys and girls on the very threshold of life's
+serious responsibilities.
+
+It is not upon negative features, however, that we rest our case. It is
+rather upon constructive features.
+
+_First._ We have written a topical, not a narrative, history. We have
+tried to set forth the important aspects, problems, and movements of
+each period, bringing in the narrative rather by way of illustration.
+
+_Second._ We have emphasized those historical topics which help to
+explain how our nation has come to be what it is to-day.
+
+_Third._ We have dwelt fully upon the social and economic aspects of our
+history, especially in relation to the politics of each period.
+
+_Fourth._ We have treated the causes and results of wars, the problems
+of financing and sustaining armed forces, rather than military strategy.
+These are the subjects which belong to a history for civilians. These
+are matters which civilians can understand--matters which they must
+understand, if they are to play well their part in war and peace.
+
+_Fifth._ By omitting the period of exploration, we have been able to
+enlarge the treatment of our own time. We have given special attention
+to the history of those current questions which must form the subject
+matter of sound instruction in citizenship.
+
+_Sixth._ We have borne in mind that America, with all her unique
+characteristics, is a part of a general civilization. Accordingly we
+have given diplomacy, foreign affairs, world relations, and the
+reciprocal influences of nations their appropriate place.
+
+_Seventh._ We have deliberately aimed at standards of maturity. The
+study of a mere narrative calls mainly for the use of the memory. We
+have aimed to stimulate habits of analysis, comparison, association,
+reflection, and generalization--habits calculated to enlarge as well as
+inform the mind. We have been at great pains to make our text clear,
+simple, and direct; but we have earnestly sought to stretch the
+intellects of our readers--to put them upon their mettle. Most of them
+will receive the last of their formal instruction in the high school.
+The world will soon expect maturity from them. Their achievements will
+depend upon the possession of other powers than memory alone. The
+effectiveness of their citizenship in our republic will be measured by
+the excellence of their judgment as well as the fullness of their
+information.
+
+     C.A.B.
+     M.R.B.
+
+     NEW YORK CITY,
+     February 8, 1921.
+
+
+
+
+=A SMALL LIBRARY IN AMERICAN HISTORY=
+
+
+_=SINGLE VOLUMES:=_
+
+BASSETT, J.S. _A Short History of the United States_
+ELSON, H.W. _History of the United States of America_
+
+
+_=SERIES:=_
+
+"EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY," EDITED BY A.B. HART
+
+HART, A.B. _Formation of the Union_
+THWAITES, R.G. _The Colonies_
+WILSON, WOODROW. _Division and Reunion_
+
+"RIVERSIDE SERIES," EDITED BY W.E. DODD
+
+BECKER, C.L. _Beginnings of the American People_
+DODD, W.E. _Expansion and Conflict_
+JOHNSON, A. _Union and Democracy_
+PAXSON, F.L. _The New Nation_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+    I.  THE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA                               1
+          The Agencies of American Colonization                      2
+          The Colonial Peoples                                       6
+          The Process of Colonization                               12
+
+   II.  COLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE                20
+          The Land and the Westward Movement                        20
+          Industrial and Commercial Development                     28
+
+  III.  SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS                               38
+          The Leadership of the Churches                            39
+          Schools and Colleges                                      43
+          The Colonial Press                                        46
+          The Evolution in Political Institutions                   48
+
+   IV.  THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM                     56
+          Relations with the Indians and the French                 57
+          The Effects of Warfare on the Colonies                    61
+          Colonial Relations with the British Government            64
+          Summary of Colonial Period                                73
+
+
+PART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE
+
+    V.  THE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY                   77
+          George III and His System                                 77
+          George III's Ministers and Their Colonial Policies        79
+          Colonial Resistance Forces Repeal                         83
+          Resumption of British Revenue and Commercial Policies     87
+          Renewed Resistance in America                             90
+          Retaliation by the British Government                     93
+          From Reform to Revolution in America                      95
+
+   VI.  THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION                                     99
+          Resistance and Retaliation                                99
+          American Independence                                    101
+          The Establishment of Government and the New Allegiance   108
+          Military Affairs                                         116
+          The Finances of the Revolution                           125
+          The Diplomacy of the Revolution                          127
+          Peace at Last                                            132
+          Summary of the Revolutionary Period                      135
+
+
+PART III. FOUNDATIONS OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+  VII.  THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION                          139
+          The Promise and the Difficulties of America              139
+          The Calling of a Constitutional Convention               143
+          The Framing of the Constitution                          146
+          The Struggle over Ratification                           157
+
+ VIII.  THE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES                             162
+          The Men and Measures of the New Government               162
+          The Rise of Political Parties                            168
+          Foreign Influences and Domestic Politics                 171
+
+   IX.  THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER                      186
+          Republican Principles and Policies                       186
+          The Republicans and the Great West                       188
+          The Republican War for Commercial Independence           193
+          The Republicans Nationalized                             201
+          The National Decisions of Chief Justice Marshall         208
+          Summary of Union and National Politics                   212
+
+
+PART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
+
+    X.  THE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS                        217
+          Preparation for Western Settlement                       217
+          The Western Migration and New States                     221
+          The Spirit of the Frontier                               228
+          The West and the East Meet                               230
+
+   XI.  JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY                                       238
+          The Democratic Movement in the East                      238
+          The New Democracy Enters the Arena                       244
+          The New Democracy at Washington                          250
+          The Rise of the Whigs                                    260
+          The Interaction of American and European Opinion         265
+
+  XII.  THE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST                       271
+          The Advance of the Middle Border                         271
+          On to the Pacific--Texas and the Mexican War             276
+          The Pacific Coast and Utah                               284
+          Summary of Western Development and National Politics     292
+
+
+PART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION
+
+ XIII.  THE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM                          295
+          The Industrial Revolution                                296
+          The Industrial Revolution and National Politics          307
+
+  XIV.  THE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS                  316
+          Slavery--North and South                                 316
+          Slavery in National Politics                             324
+          The Drift of Events toward the Irrepressible Conflict    332
+
+   XV.  THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION                           344
+          The Southern Confederacy                                 344
+          The War Measures of the Federal Government               350
+          The Results of the Civil War                             365
+          Reconstruction in the South                              370
+          Summary of the Sectional Conflict                        375
+
+
+PART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS
+
+  XVI.  THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH          379
+          The South at the Close of the War                        379
+          The Restoration of White Supremacy                       382
+          The Economic Advance of the South                        389
+
+ XVII.  BUSINESS ENTERPRISE AND THE REPUBLICAN PARTY               401
+          Railways and Industry                                    401
+          The Supremacy of the Republican Party (1861-1885)        412
+          The Growth of Opposition to Republican Rule              417
+
+XVIII.  THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT WEST                          425
+          The Railways as Trail Blazers                            425
+          The Evolution of Grazing and Agriculture                 431
+          Mining and Manufacturing in the West                     436
+          The Admission of New States                              440
+          The Influence of the Far West on National Life           443
+
+  XIX.  DOMESTIC ISSUES BEFORE THE COUNTRY (1865-1897)             451
+          The Currency Question                                    452
+          The Protective Tariff and Taxation                       459
+          The Railways and Trusts                                  460
+          The Minor Parties and Unrest                             462
+          The Sound Money Battle of 1896                           466
+          Republican Measures and Results                          472
+
+   XX.  AMERICA A WORLD POWER (1865-1900)                          477
+          American Foreign Relations (1865-1898)                   478
+          Cuba and the Spanish War                                 485
+          American Policies in the Philippines and the Orient      497
+          Summary of National Growth and World Politics            504
+
+
+PART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR
+
+  XXI.  THE EVOLUTION OF REPUBLICAN POLICIES (1901-1913)           507
+          Foreign Affairs                                          508
+          Colonial Administration                                  515
+          The Roosevelt Domestic Policies                          519
+          Legislative and Executive Activities                     523
+          The Administration of President Taft                     527
+          Progressive Insurgency and the Election of 1912          530
+
+ XXII.  THE SPIRIT OF REFORM IN AMERICA                            536
+          An Age of Criticism                                      536
+          Political Reforms                                        538
+          Measures of Economic Reform                              546
+
+XXIII.  THE NEW POLITICAL DEMOCRACY                                554
+          The Rise of the Woman Movement                           555
+          The National Struggle for Woman Suffrage                 562
+
+ XXIV.  INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY                                       570
+          Cooeperation between Employers and Employees              571
+          The Rise and Growth of Organized Labor                   575
+          The Wider Relations of Organized Labor                   577
+          Immigration and Americanization                          582
+
+  XXV.  PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR                         588
+          Domestic Legislation                                     588
+          Colonial and Foreign Policies                            592
+          The United States and the European War                   596
+          The United States at War                                 604
+          The Settlement at Paris                                  612
+          Summary of Democracy and the World War                   620
+
+APPENDIX                                                           627
+
+A TOPICAL SYLLABUS                                                 645
+
+INDEX                                                              655
+
+
+
+
+MAPS
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+The Original Grants (color map)                         _Facing_     4
+
+German and Scotch-Irish Settlements                                  8
+
+Distribution of Population in 1790                                  27
+
+English, French, and Spanish Possessions in America, 1750
+      (color map)                                      _Facing_     59
+
+The Colonies at the Time of the Declaration of Independence
+      (color map)                                     _Facing_     108
+
+North America according to the Treaty of 1783
+      (color map)                                     _Facing_     134
+
+The United States in 1805 (color map)                 _Facing_     193
+
+Roads and Trails into Western Territory (color map)   _Facing_     224
+
+The Cumberland Road                                                233
+
+Distribution of Population in 1830                                 235
+
+Texas and the Territory in Dispute                                 282
+
+The Oregon Country and the Disputed Boundary                       285
+
+The Overland Trails                                                287
+
+Distribution of Slaves in Southern States                          323
+
+The Missouri Compromise                                            326
+
+Slave and Free Soil on the Eve of the Civil War                    335
+
+The United States in 1861 (color map)                 _Facing_     345
+
+Railroads of the United States in 1918                             405
+
+The United States in 1870 (color map)                _Facing_      427
+
+The United States in 1912 (color map)                _Facing_      443
+
+American Dominions in the Pacific (color map)        _Facing_      500
+
+The Caribbean Region (color map)                     _Facing_      592
+
+Battle Lines of the Various Years of the World War                 613
+
+Europe in 1919 (color map)                         _Between_   618-619
+
+     "THE NATIONS OF THE WEST" (popularly called "The
+     Pioneers"), designed by A. Stirling Calder and modeled by
+     Mr. Calder, F.G.R. Roth, and Leo Lentelli, topped the Arch
+     of the Setting Sun at the Panama-Pacific Exposition held at
+     San Francisco in 1915. Facing the Court of the Universe
+     moves a group of men and women typical of those who have
+     made our civilization. From left to right appear the
+     French-Canadian, the Alaskan, the Latin-American, the
+     German, the Italian, the Anglo-American, and the American
+     Indian, squaw and warrior. In the place of honor in the
+     center of the group, standing between the oxen on the tongue
+     of the prairie schooner, is a figure, beautiful and almost
+     girlish, but strong, dignified, and womanly, the Mother of
+     To-morrow. Above the group rides the Spirit of Enterprise,
+     flanked right and left by the Hopes of the Future in the
+     person of two boys. The group as a whole is beautifully
+     symbolic of the westward march of American civilization.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Cardinell-Vincent Co., San Francisco_
+
+"THE NATIONS OF THE WEST"]
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+
+
+PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA
+
+
+The tide of migration that set in toward the shores of North America
+during the early years of the seventeenth century was but one phase in
+the restless and eternal movement of mankind upon the surface of the
+earth. The ancient Greeks flung out their colonies in every direction,
+westward as far as Gaul, across the Mediterranean, and eastward into
+Asia Minor, perhaps to the very confines of India. The Romans, supported
+by their armies and their government, spread their dominion beyond the
+narrow lands of Italy until it stretched from the heather of Scotland to
+the sands of Arabia. The Teutonic tribes, from their home beyond the
+Danube and the Rhine, poured into the empire of the Caesars and made the
+beginnings of modern Europe. Of this great sweep of races and empires
+the settlement of America was merely a part. And it was, moreover, only
+one aspect of the expansion which finally carried the peoples, the
+institutions, and the trade of Europe to the very ends of the earth.
+
+In one vital point, it must be noted, American colonization differed
+from that of the ancients. The Greeks usually carried with them
+affection for the government they left behind and sacred fire from the
+altar of the parent city; but thousands of the immigrants who came to
+America disliked the state and disowned the church of the mother
+country. They established compacts of government for themselves and set
+up altars of their own. They sought not only new soil to till but also
+political and religious liberty for themselves and their children.
+
+
+THE AGENCIES OF AMERICAN COLONIZATION
+
+It was no light matter for the English to cross three thousand miles of
+water and found homes in the American wilderness at the opening of the
+seventeenth century. Ships, tools, and supplies called for huge outlays
+of money. Stores had to be furnished in quantities sufficient to sustain
+the life of the settlers until they could gather harvests of their own.
+Artisans and laborers of skill and industry had to be induced to risk
+the hazards of the new world. Soldiers were required for defense and
+mariners for the exploration of inland waters. Leaders of good judgment,
+adept in managing men, had to be discovered. Altogether such an
+enterprise demanded capital larger than the ordinary merchant or
+gentleman could amass and involved risks more imminent than he dared to
+assume. Though in later days, after initial tests had been made, wealthy
+proprietors were able to establish colonies on their own account, it was
+the corporation that furnished the capital and leadership in the
+beginning.
+
+=The Trading Company.=--English pioneers in exploration found an
+instrument for colonization in companies of merchant adventurers, which
+had long been employed in carrying on commerce with foreign countries.
+Such a corporation was composed of many persons of different ranks of
+society--noblemen, merchants, and gentlemen--who banded together for a
+particular undertaking, each contributing a sum of money and sharing in
+the profits of the venture. It was organized under royal authority; it
+received its charter, its grant of land, and its trading privileges from
+the king and carried on its operations under his supervision and
+control. The charter named all the persons originally included in the
+corporation and gave them certain powers in the management of its
+affairs, including the right to admit new members. The company was in
+fact a little government set up by the king. When the members of the
+corporation remained in England, as in the case of the Virginia Company,
+they operated through agents sent to the colony. When they came over the
+seas themselves and settled in America, as in the case of Massachusetts,
+they became the direct government of the country they possessed. The
+stockholders in that instance became the voters and the governor, the
+chief magistrate.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN WINTHROP, GOVERNOR OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY
+COMPANY]
+
+Four of the thirteen colonies in America owed their origins to the
+trading corporation. It was the London Company, created by King James I,
+in 1606, that laid during the following year the foundations of Virginia
+at Jamestown. It was under the auspices of their West India Company,
+chartered in 1621, that the Dutch planted the settlements of the New
+Netherland in the valley of the Hudson. The founders of Massachusetts
+were Puritan leaders and men of affairs whom King Charles I incorporated
+in 1629 under the title: "The governor and company of the Massachusetts
+Bay in New England." In this case the law did but incorporate a group
+drawn together by religious ties. "We must be knit together as one man,"
+wrote John Winthrop, the first Puritan governor in America. Far to the
+south, on the banks of the Delaware River, a Swedish commercial company
+in 1638 made the beginnings of a settlement, christened New Sweden; it
+was destined to pass under the rule of the Dutch, and finally under the
+rule of William Penn as the proprietary colony of Delaware.
+
+In a certain sense, Georgia may be included among the "company
+colonies." It was, however, originally conceived by the moving spirit,
+James Oglethorpe, as an asylum for poor men, especially those imprisoned
+for debt. To realize this humane purpose, he secured from King George
+II, in 1732, a royal charter uniting several gentlemen, including
+himself, into "one body politic and corporate," known as the "Trustees
+for establishing the colony of Georgia in America." In the structure of
+their organization and their methods of government, the trustees did not
+differ materially from the regular companies created for trade and
+colonization. Though their purposes were benevolent, their transactions
+had to be under the forms of law and according to the rules of business.
+
+=The Religious Congregation.=--A second agency which figured largely in
+the settlement of America was the religious brotherhood, or
+congregation, of men and women brought together in the bonds of a common
+religious faith. By one of the strange fortunes of history, this
+institution, founded in the early days of Christianity, proved to be a
+potent force in the origin and growth of self-government in a land far
+away from Galilee. "And the multitude of them that believed were of one
+heart and of one soul," we are told in the Acts describing the Church at
+Jerusalem. "We are knit together as a body in a most sacred covenant of
+the Lord ... by virtue of which we hold ourselves strictly tied to all
+care of each other's good and of the whole," wrote John Robinson, a
+leader among the Pilgrims who founded their tiny colony of Plymouth in
+1620. The Mayflower Compact, so famous in American history, was but a
+written and signed agreement, incorporating the spirit of obedience to
+the common good, which served as a guide to self-government until
+Plymouth was annexed to Massachusetts in 1691.
+
+[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL GRANTS]
+
+Three other colonies, all of which retained their identity until the eve
+of the American Revolution, likewise sprang directly from the
+congregations of the faithful: Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New
+Hampshire, mainly offshoots from Massachusetts. They were founded by
+small bodies of men and women, "united in solemn covenants with the
+Lord," who planted their settlements in the wilderness. Not until many a
+year after Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson conducted their followers
+to the Narragansett country was Rhode Island granted a charter of
+incorporation (1663) by the crown. Not until long after the congregation
+of Thomas Hooker from Newtown blazed the way into the Connecticut River
+Valley did the king of England give Connecticut a charter of its own
+(1662) and a place among the colonies. Half a century elapsed before the
+towns laid out beyond the Merrimac River by emigrants from Massachusetts
+were formed into the royal province of New Hampshire in 1679.
+
+Even when Connecticut was chartered, the parchment and sealing wax of
+the royal lawyers did but confirm rights and habits of self-government
+and obedience to law previously established by the congregations. The
+towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield had long lived happily
+under their "Fundamental Orders" drawn up by themselves in 1639; so had
+the settlers dwelt peacefully at New Haven under their "Fundamental
+Articles" drafted in the same year. The pioneers on the Connecticut
+shore had no difficulty in agreeing that "the Scriptures do hold forth a
+perfect rule for the direction and government of all men."
+
+=The Proprietor.=--A third and very important colonial agency was the
+proprietor, or proprietary. As the name, associated with the word
+"property," implies, the proprietor was a person to whom the king
+granted property in lands in North America to have, hold, use, and enjoy
+for his own benefit and profit, with the right to hand the estate down
+to his heirs in perpetual succession. The proprietor was a rich and
+powerful person, prepared to furnish or secure the capital, collect the
+ships, supply the stores, and assemble the settlers necessary to found
+and sustain a plantation beyond the seas. Sometimes the proprietor
+worked alone. Sometimes two or more were associated like partners in the
+common undertaking.
+
+Five colonies, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Carolinas,
+owe their formal origins, though not always their first settlements, nor
+in most cases their prosperity, to the proprietary system. Maryland,
+established in 1634 under a Catholic nobleman, Lord Baltimore, and
+blessed with religious toleration by the act of 1649, flourished under
+the mild rule of proprietors until it became a state in the American
+union. New Jersey, beginning its career under two proprietors, Berkeley
+and Carteret, in 1664, passed under the direct government of the crown
+in 1702. Pennsylvania was, in a very large measure, the product of the
+generous spirit and tireless labors of its first proprietor, the leader
+of the Friends, William Penn, to whom it was granted in 1681 and in
+whose family it remained until 1776. The two Carolinas were first
+organized as one colony in 1663 under the government and patronage of
+eight proprietors, including Lord Clarendon; but after more than half a
+century both became royal provinces governed by the king.
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM PENN, PROPRIETOR OF PENNSYLVANIA]
+
+
+THE COLONIAL PEOPLES
+
+=The English.=--In leadership and origin the thirteen colonies, except
+New York and Delaware, were English. During the early days of all, save
+these two, the main, if not the sole, current of immigration was from
+England. The colonists came from every walk of life. They were men,
+women, and children of "all sorts and conditions." The major portion
+were yeomen, or small land owners, farm laborers, and artisans. With
+them were merchants and gentlemen who brought their stocks of goods or
+their fortunes to the New World. Scholars came from Oxford and
+Cambridge to preach the gospel or to teach. Now and then the son of an
+English nobleman left his baronial hall behind and cast his lot with
+America. The people represented every religious faith--members of the
+Established Church of England; Puritans who had labored to reform that
+church; Separatists, Baptists, and Friends, who had left it altogether;
+and Catholics, who clung to the religion of their fathers.
+
+New England was almost purely English. During the years between 1629 and
+1640, the period of arbitrary Stuart government, about twenty thousand
+Puritans emigrated to America, settling in the colonies of the far
+North. Although minor additions were made from time to time, the greater
+portion of the New England people sprang from this original stock.
+Virginia, too, for a long time drew nearly all her immigrants from
+England alone. Not until the eve of the Revolution did other
+nationalities, mainly the Scotch-Irish and Germans, rival the English in
+numbers.
+
+The populations of later English colonies--the Carolinas, New York,
+Pennsylvania, and Georgia--while receiving a steady stream of
+immigration from England, were constantly augmented by wanderers from
+the older settlements. New York was invaded by Puritans from New England
+in such numbers as to cause the Anglican clergymen there to lament that
+"free thinking spreads almost as fast as the Church." North Carolina was
+first settled toward the northern border by immigrants from Virginia.
+Some of the North Carolinians, particularly the Quakers, came all the
+way from New England, tarrying in Virginia only long enough to learn how
+little they were wanted in that Anglican colony.
+
+=The Scotch-Irish.=--Next to the English in numbers and influence were
+the Scotch-Irish, Presbyterians in belief, English in tongue. Both
+religious and economic reasons sent them across the sea. Their Scotch
+ancestors, in the days of Cromwell, had settled in the north of Ireland
+whence the native Irish had been driven by the conqueror's sword. There
+the Scotch nourished for many years enjoying in peace their own form of
+religion and growing prosperous in the manufacture of fine linen and
+woolen cloth. Then the blow fell. Toward the end of the seventeenth
+century their religious worship was put under the ban and the export of
+their cloth was forbidden by the English Parliament. Within two decades
+twenty thousand Scotch-Irish left Ulster alone, for America; and all
+during the eighteenth century the migration continued to be heavy.
+Although no exact record was kept, it is reckoned that the Scotch-Irish
+and the Scotch who came directly from Scotland, composed one-sixth of
+the entire American population on the eve of the Revolution.
+
+[Illustration: SETTLEMENTS OF GERMAN AND SCOTCH-IRISH
+IMMIGRANTS]
+
+These newcomers in America made their homes chiefly in New Jersey,
+Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Coming late upon
+the scene, they found much of the land immediately upon the seaboard
+already taken up. For this reason most of them became frontier people
+settling the interior and upland regions. There they cleared the land,
+laid out their small farms, and worked as "sturdy yeomen on the soil,"
+hardy, industrious, and independent in spirit, sharing neither the
+luxuries of the rich planters nor the easy life of the leisurely
+merchants. To their agriculture they added woolen and linen
+manufactures, which, flourishing in the supple fingers of their tireless
+women, made heavy inroads upon the trade of the English merchants in
+the colonies. Of their labors a poet has sung:
+
+        "O, willing hands to toil;
+    Strong natures tuned to the harvest-song and bound to the kindly soil;
+    Bold pioneers for the wilderness, defenders in the field."
+
+=The Germans.=--Third among the colonists in order of numerical
+importance were the Germans. From the very beginning, they appeared in
+colonial records. A number of the artisans and carpenters in the first
+Jamestown colony were of German descent. Peter Minuit, the famous
+governor of New Motherland, was a German from Wesel on the Rhine, and
+Jacob Leisler, leader of a popular uprising against the provincial
+administration of New York, was a German from Frankfort-on-Main. The
+wholesale migration of Germans began with the founding of Pennsylvania.
+Penn was diligent in searching for thrifty farmers to cultivate his
+lands and he made a special effort to attract peasants from the Rhine
+country. A great association, known as the Frankfort Company, bought
+more than twenty thousand acres from him and in 1684 established a
+center at Germantown for the distribution of German immigrants. In old
+New York, Rhinebeck-on-the-Hudson became a similar center for
+distribution. All the way from Maine to Georgia inducements were offered
+to the German farmers and in nearly every colony were to be found, in
+time, German settlements. In fact the migration became so large that
+German princes were frightened at the loss of so many subjects and
+England was alarmed by the influx of foreigners into her overseas
+dominions. Yet nothing could stop the movement. By the end of the
+colonial period, the number of Germans had risen to more than two
+hundred thousand.
+
+The majority of them were Protestants from the Rhine region, and South
+Germany. Wars, religious controversies, oppression, and poverty drove
+them forth to America. Though most of them were farmers, there were also
+among them skilled artisans who contributed to the rapid growth of
+industries in Pennsylvania. Their iron, glass, paper, and woolen mills,
+dotted here and there among the thickly settled regions, added to the
+wealth and independence of the province.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+A GLIMPSE OF OLD GERMANTOWN]
+
+Unlike the Scotch-Irish, the Germans did not speak the language of the
+original colonists or mingle freely with them. They kept to themselves,
+built their own schools, founded their own newspapers, and published
+their own books. Their clannish habits often irritated their neighbors
+and led to occasional agitations against "foreigners." However, no
+serious collisions seem to have occurred; and in the days of the
+Revolution, German soldiers from Pennsylvania fought in the patriot
+armies side by side with soldiers from the English and Scotch-Irish
+sections.
+
+=Other Nationalities.=--Though the English, the Scotch-Irish, and the
+Germans made up the bulk of the colonial population, there were other
+racial strains as well, varying in numerical importance but contributing
+their share to colonial life.
+
+From France came the Huguenots fleeing from the decree of the king which
+inflicted terrible penalties upon Protestants.
+
+From "Old Ireland" came thousands of native Irish, Celtic in race and
+Catholic in religion. Like their Scotch-Irish neighbors to the north,
+they revered neither the government nor the church of England imposed
+upon them by the sword. How many came we do not know, but shipping
+records of the colonial period show that boatload after boatload left
+the southern and eastern shores of Ireland for the New World.
+Undoubtedly thousands of their passengers were Irish of the native
+stock. This surmise is well sustained by the constant appearance of
+Celtic names in the records of various colonies.
+
+[Illustration:_From an old print_
+
+OLD DUTCH FORT AND ENGLISH CHURCH NEAR ALBANY]
+
+The Jews, then as ever engaged in their age-long battle for religious
+and economic toleration, found in the American colonies, not complete
+liberty, but certainly more freedom than they enjoyed in England,
+France, Spain, or Portugal. The English law did not actually recognize
+their right to live in any of the dominions, but owing to the easy-going
+habits of the Americans they were allowed to filter into the seaboard
+towns. The treatment they received there varied. On one occasion the
+mayor and council of New York forbade them to sell by retail and on
+another prohibited the exercise of their religious worship. Newport,
+Philadelphia, and Charleston were more hospitable, and there large
+Jewish colonies, consisting principally of merchants and their families,
+flourished in spite of nominal prohibitions of the law.
+
+Though the small Swedish colony in Delaware was quickly submerged
+beneath the tide of English migration, the Dutch in New York continued
+to hold their own for more than a hundred years after the English
+conquest in 1664. At the end of the colonial period over one-half of the
+170,000 inhabitants of the province were descendants of the original
+Dutch--still distinct enough to give a decided cast to the life and
+manners of New York. Many of them clung as tenaciously to their mother
+tongue as they did to their capacious farmhouses or their Dutch ovens;
+but they were slowly losing their identity as the English pressed in
+beside them to farm and trade.
+
+The melting pot had begun its historic mission.
+
+
+THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION
+
+Considered from one side, colonization, whatever the motives of the
+emigrants, was an economic matter. It involved the use of capital to pay
+for their passage, to sustain them on the voyage, and to start them on
+the way of production. Under this stern economic necessity, Puritans,
+Scotch-Irish, Germans, and all were alike laid.
+
+=Immigrants Who Paid Their Own Way.=--Many of the immigrants to America
+in colonial days were capitalists themselves, in a small or a large way,
+and paid their own passage. What proportion of the colonists were able
+to finance their voyage across the sea is a matter of pure conjecture.
+Undoubtedly a very considerable number could do so, for we can trace the
+family fortunes of many early settlers. Henry Cabot Lodge is authority
+for the statement that "the settlers of New England were drawn from the
+country gentlemen, small farmers, and yeomanry of the mother
+country.... Many of the emigrants were men of wealth, as the old lists
+show, and all of them, with few exceptions, were men of property and
+good standing. They did not belong to the classes from which emigration
+is usually supplied, for they all had a stake in the country they left
+behind." Though it would be interesting to know how accurate this
+statement is or how applicable to the other colonies, no study has as
+yet been made to gratify that interest. For the present it is an
+unsolved problem just how many of the colonists were able to bear the
+cost of their own transfer to the New World.
+
+=Indentured Servants.=--That at least tens of thousands of immigrants
+were unable to pay for their passage is established beyond the shadow of
+a doubt by the shipping records that have come down to us. The great
+barrier in the way of the poor who wanted to go to America was the cost
+of the sea voyage. To overcome this difficulty a plan was worked out
+whereby shipowners and other persons of means furnished the passage
+money to immigrants in return for their promise, or bond, to work for a
+term of years to repay the sum advanced. This system was called
+indentured servitude.
+
+It is probable that the number of bond servants exceeded the original
+twenty thousand Puritans, the yeomen, the Virginia gentlemen, and the
+Huguenots combined. All the way down the coast from Massachusetts to
+Georgia were to be found in the fields, kitchens, and workshops, men,
+women, and children serving out terms of bondage generally ranging from
+five to seven years. In the proprietary colonies the proportion of bond
+servants was very high. The Baltimores, Penns, Carterets, and other
+promoters anxiously sought for workers of every nationality to till
+their fields, for land without labor was worth no more than land in the
+moon. Hence the gates of the proprietary colonies were flung wide open.
+Every inducement was offered to immigrants in the form of cheap land,
+and special efforts were made to increase the population by importing
+servants. In Pennsylvania, it was not uncommon to find a master with
+fifty bond servants on his estate. It has been estimated that two-thirds
+of all the immigrants into Pennsylvania between the opening of the
+eighteenth century and the outbreak of the Revolution were in bondage.
+In the other Middle colonies the number was doubtless not so large; but
+it formed a considerable part of the population.
+
+The story of this traffic in white servants is one of the most striking
+things in the history of labor. Bondmen differed from the serfs of the
+feudal age in that they were not bound to the soil but to the master.
+They likewise differed from the negro slaves in that their servitude had
+a time limit. Still they were subject to many special disabilities. It
+was, for instance, a common practice to impose on them penalties far
+heavier than were imposed upon freemen for the same offense. A free
+citizen of Pennsylvania who indulged in horse racing and gambling was
+let off with a fine; a white servant guilty of the same unlawful conduct
+was whipped at the post and fined as well.
+
+The ordinary life of the white servant was also severely restricted. A
+bondman could not marry without his master's consent; nor engage in
+trade; nor refuse work assigned to him. For an attempt to escape or
+indeed for any infraction of the law, the term of service was extended.
+The condition of white bondmen in Virginia, according to Lodge, "was
+little better than that of slaves. Loose indentures and harsh laws put
+them at the mercy of their masters." It would not be unfair to add that
+such was their lot in all other colonies. Their fate depended upon the
+temper of their masters.
+
+Cruel as was the system in many ways, it gave thousands of people in the
+Old World a chance to reach the New--an opportunity to wrestle with fate
+for freedom and a home of their own. When their weary years of servitude
+were over, if they survived, they might obtain land of their own or
+settle as free mechanics in the towns. For many a bondman the gamble
+proved to be a losing venture because he found himself unable to rise
+out of the state of poverty and dependence into which his servitude
+carried him. For thousands, on the contrary, bondage proved to be a real
+avenue to freedom and prosperity. Some of the best citizens of America
+have the blood of indentured servants in their veins.
+
+=The Transported--Involuntary Servitude.=--In their anxiety to secure
+settlers, the companies and proprietors having colonies in America
+either resorted to or connived at the practice of kidnapping men, women,
+and children from the streets of English cities. In 1680 it was
+officially estimated that "ten thousand persons were spirited away" to
+America. Many of the victims of the practice were young children, for
+the traffic in them was highly profitable. Orphans and dependents were
+sometimes disposed of in America by relatives unwilling to support them.
+In a single year, 1627, about fifteen hundred children were shipped to
+Virginia.
+
+In this gruesome business there lurked many tragedies, and very few
+romances. Parents were separated from their children and husbands from
+their wives. Hundreds of skilled artisans--carpenters, smiths, and
+weavers--utterly disappeared as if swallowed up by death. A few thus
+dragged off to the New World to be sold into servitude for a term of
+five or seven years later became prosperous and returned home with
+fortunes. In one case a young man who was forcibly carried over the sea
+lived to make his way back to England and establish his claim to a
+peerage.
+
+Akin to the kidnapped, at least in economic position, were convicts
+deported to the colonies for life in lieu of fines and imprisonment. The
+Americans protested vigorously but ineffectually against this practice.
+Indeed, they exaggerated its evils, for many of the "criminals" were
+only mild offenders against unduly harsh and cruel laws. A peasant
+caught shooting a rabbit on a lord's estate or a luckless servant girl
+who purloined a pocket handkerchief was branded as a criminal along with
+sturdy thieves and incorrigible rascals. Other transported offenders
+were "political criminals"; that is, persons who criticized or opposed
+the government. This class included now Irish who revolted against
+British rule in Ireland; now Cavaliers who championed the king against
+the Puritan revolutionists; Puritans, in turn, dispatched after the
+monarchy was restored; and Scotch and English subjects in general who
+joined in political uprisings against the king.
+
+=The African Slaves.=--Rivaling in numbers, in the course of time, the
+indentured servants and whites carried to America against their will
+were the African negroes brought to America and sold into slavery. When
+this form of bondage was first introduced into Virginia in 1619, it was
+looked upon as a temporary necessity to be discarded with the increase
+of the white population. Moreover it does not appear that those planters
+who first bought negroes at the auction block intended to establish a
+system of permanent bondage. Only by a slow process did chattel slavery
+take firm root and become recognized as the leading source of the labor
+supply. In 1650, thirty years after the introduction of slavery, there
+were only three hundred Africans in Virginia.
+
+The great increase in later years was due in no small measure to the
+inordinate zeal for profits that seized slave traders both in Old and in
+New England. Finding it relatively easy to secure negroes in Africa,
+they crowded the Southern ports with their vessels. The English Royal
+African Company sent to America annually between 1713 and 1743 from five
+to ten thousand slaves. The ship owners of New England were not far
+behind their English brethren in pushing this extraordinary traffic.
+
+As the proportion of the negroes to the free white population steadily
+rose, and as whole sections were overrun with slaves and slave traders,
+the Southern colonies grew alarmed. In 1710, Virginia sought to curtail
+the importation by placing a duty of L5 on each slave. This effort was
+futile, for the royal governor promptly vetoed it. From time to time
+similar bills were passed, only to meet with royal disapproval. South
+Carolina, in 1760, absolutely prohibited importation; but the measure
+was killed by the British crown. As late as 1772, Virginia, not daunted
+by a century of rebuffs, sent to George III a petition in this vein:
+"The importation of slaves into the colonies from the coast of Africa
+hath long been considered as a trade of great inhumanity and under its
+present encouragement, we have too much reason to fear, will endanger
+the very existence of Your Majesty's American dominions.... Deeply
+impressed with these sentiments, we most humbly beseech Your Majesty to
+remove all those restraints on Your Majesty's governors of this colony
+which inhibit their assenting to such laws as might check so very
+pernicious a commerce."
+
+All such protests were without avail. The negro population grew by leaps
+and bounds, until on the eve of the Revolution it amounted to more than
+half a million. In five states--Maryland, Virginia, the two Carolinas,
+and Georgia--the slaves nearly equalled or actually exceeded the whites
+in number. In South Carolina they formed almost two-thirds of the
+population. Even in the Middle colonies of Delaware and Pennsylvania
+about one-fifth of the inhabitants were from Africa. To the North, the
+proportion of slaves steadily diminished although chattel servitude was
+on the same legal footing as in the South. In New York approximately one
+in six and in New England one in fifty were negroes, including a few
+freedmen.
+
+The climate, the soil, the commerce, and the industry of the North were
+all unfavorable to the growth of a servile population. Still, slavery,
+though sectional, was a part of the national system of economy. Northern
+ships carried slaves to the Southern colonies and the produce of the
+plantations to Europe. "If the Northern states will consult their
+interest, they will not oppose the increase in slaves which will
+increase the commodities of which they will become the carriers," said
+John Rutledge, of South Carolina, in the convention which framed the
+Constitution of the United States. "What enriches a part enriches the
+whole and the states are the best judges of their particular interest,"
+responded Oliver Ellsworth, the distinguished spokesman of Connecticut.
+
+=References=
+
+E. Charming, _History of the United States_, Vols. I and II.
+
+J.A. Doyle, _The English Colonies in America_ (5 vols.).
+
+J. Fiske, _Old Virginia and Her Neighbors_ (2 vols.).
+
+A.B. Faust, _The German Element in the United States_ (2 vols.).
+
+H.J. Ford, _The Scotch-Irish in America_.
+
+L. Tyler, _England in America_ (American Nation Series).
+
+R. Usher, _The Pilgrims and Their History_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. America has been called a nation of immigrants. Explain why.
+
+2. Why were individuals unable to go alone to America in the beginning?
+What agencies made colonization possible? Discuss each of them.
+
+3. Make a table of the colonies, showing the methods employed in their
+settlement.
+
+4. Why were capital and leadership so very important in early
+colonization?
+
+5. What is meant by the "melting pot"? What nationalities were
+represented among the early colonists?
+
+6. Compare the way immigrants come to-day with the way they came in
+colonial times.
+
+7. Contrast indentured servitude with slavery and serfdom.
+
+8. Account for the anxiety of companies and proprietors to secure
+colonists.
+
+9. What forces favored the heavy importation of slaves?
+
+10. In what way did the North derive advantages from slavery?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Chartered Company.=--Compare the first and third charters of
+Virginia in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book of American History_,
+1606-1898, pp. 1-14. Analyze the first and second Massachusetts charters
+in Macdonald, pp. 22-84. Special reference: W.A.S. Hewins, _English
+Trading Companies_.
+
+=Congregations and Compacts for Self-government.=--A study of the
+Mayflower Compact, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and the
+Fundamental Articles of New Haven in Macdonald, pp. 19, 36, 39.
+Reference: Charles Borgeaud, _Rise of Modern Democracy_, and C.S.
+Lobingier, _The People's Law_, Chaps. I-VII.
+
+=The Proprietary System.=--Analysis of Penn's charter of 1681, in
+Macdonald, p. 80. Reference: Lodge, _Short History of the English
+Colonies in America_, p. 211.
+
+=Studies of Individual Colonies.=--Review of outstanding events in
+history of each colony, using Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+55-159, as the basis.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--John Smith, John Winthrop, William Penn, Lord
+Baltimore, William Bradford, Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, Thomas
+Hooker, and Peter Stuyvesant, using any good encyclopedia.
+
+=Indentured Servitude.=--In Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. 69-72;
+in Pennsylvania, pp. 242-244. Contemporary account in Callender,
+_Economic History of the United States_, pp. 44-51. Special reference:
+Karl Geiser, _Redemptioners and Indentured Servants_ (Yale Review, X,
+No. 2 Supplement).
+
+=Slavery.=--In Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. 67-69; in the
+Northern colonies, pp. 241, 275, 322, 408, 442.
+
+=The People of the Colonies.=--Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp.
+67-73; New England, pp. 406-409, 441-450; Pennsylvania, pp. 227-229,
+240-250; New York, pp. 312-313, 322-335.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+COLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE
+
+THE LAND AND THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT
+
+
+=The Significance of Land Tenure.=--The way in which land may be
+acquired, held, divided among heirs, and bought and sold exercises a
+deep influence on the life and culture of a people. The feudal and
+aristocratic societies of Europe were founded on a system of landlordism
+which was characterized by two distinct features. In the first place,
+the land was nearly all held in great estates, each owned by a single
+proprietor. In the second place, every estate was kept intact under the
+law of primogeniture, which at the death of a lord transferred all his
+landed property to his eldest son. This prevented the subdivision of
+estates and the growth of a large body of small farmers or freeholders
+owning their own land. It made a form of tenantry or servitude
+inevitable for the mass of those who labored on the land. It also
+enabled the landlords to maintain themselves in power as a governing
+class and kept the tenants and laborers subject to their economic and
+political control. If land tenure was so significant in Europe, it was
+equally important in the development of America, where practically all
+the first immigrants were forced by circumstances to derive their
+livelihood from the soil.
+
+=Experiments in Common Tillage.=--In the New World, with its broad
+extent of land awaiting the white man's plow, it was impossible to
+introduce in its entirety and over the whole area the system of lords
+and tenants that existed across the sea. So it happened that almost
+every kind of experiment in land tenure, from communism to feudalism,
+was tried. In the early days of the Jamestown colony, the land, though
+owned by the London Company, was tilled in common by the settlers. No
+man had a separate plot of his own. The motto of the community was:
+"Labor and share alike." All were supposed to work in the fields and
+receive an equal share of the produce. At Plymouth, the Pilgrims
+attempted a similar experiment, laying out the fields in common and
+distributing the joint produce of their labor with rough equality among
+the workers.
+
+In both colonies the communistic experiments were failures. Angry at the
+lazy men in Jamestown who idled their time away and yet expected regular
+meals, Captain John Smith issued a manifesto: "Everyone that gathereth
+not every day as much as I do, the next day shall be set beyond the
+river and forever banished from the fort and live there or starve." Even
+this terrible threat did not bring a change in production. Not until
+each man was given a plot of his own to till, not until each gathered
+the fruits of his own labor, did the colony prosper. In Plymouth, where
+the communal experiment lasted for five years, the results were similar
+to those in Virginia, and the system was given up for one of separate
+fields in which every person could "set corn for his own particular."
+Some other New England towns, refusing to profit by the experience of
+their Plymouth neighbor, also made excursions into common ownership and
+labor, only to abandon the idea and go in for individual ownership of
+the land. "By degrees it was seen that even the Lord's people could not
+carry the complicated communist legislation into perfect and wholesome
+practice."
+
+=Feudal Elements in the Colonies--Quit Rents, Manors, and
+Plantations.=--At the other end of the scale were the feudal elements of
+land tenure found in the proprietary colonies, in the seaboard regions
+of the South, and to some extent in New York. The proprietor was in fact
+a powerful feudal lord, owning land granted to him by royal charter. He
+could retain any part of it for his personal use or dispose of it all in
+large or small lots. While he generally kept for himself an estate of
+baronial proportions, it was impossible for him to manage directly any
+considerable part of the land in his dominion. Consequently he either
+sold it in parcels for lump sums or granted it to individuals on
+condition that they make to him an annual payment in money, known as
+"quit rent." In Maryland, the proprietor sometimes collected as high as
+L9000 (equal to about $500,000 to-day) in a single year from this
+source. In Pennsylvania, the quit rents brought a handsome annual
+tribute into the exchequer of the Penn family. In the royal provinces,
+the king of England claimed all revenues collected in this form from the
+land, a sum amounting to L19,000 at the time of the Revolution. The quit
+rent,--"really a feudal payment from freeholders,"--was thus a material
+source of income for the crown as well as for the proprietors. Wherever
+it was laid, however, it proved to be a burden, a source of constant
+irritation; and it became a formidable item in the long list of
+grievances which led to the American Revolution.
+
+Something still more like the feudal system of the Old World appeared in
+the numerous manors or the huge landed estates granted by the crown, the
+companies, or the proprietors. In the colony of Maryland alone there
+were sixty manors of three thousand acres each, owned by wealthy men and
+tilled by tenants holding small plots under certain restrictions of
+tenure. In New York also there were many manors of wide extent, most of
+which originated in the days of the Dutch West India Company, when
+extensive concessions were made to patroons to induce them to bring over
+settlers. The Van Rensselaer, the Van Cortlandt, and the Livingston
+manors were so large and populous that each was entitled to send a
+representative to the provincial legislature. The tenants on the New
+York manors were in somewhat the same position as serfs on old European
+estates. They were bound to pay the owner a rent in money and kind; they
+ground their grain at his mill; and they were subject to his judicial
+power because he held court and meted out justice, in some instances
+extending to capital punishment.
+
+The manors of New York or Maryland were, however, of slight consequence
+as compared with the vast plantations of the Southern seaboard--huge
+estates, far wider in expanse than many a European barony and tilled by
+slaves more servile than any feudal tenants. It must not be forgotten
+that this system of land tenure became the dominant feature of a large
+section and gave a decided bent to the economic and political life of
+America.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTHERN PLANTATION MANSION]
+
+=The Small Freehold.=--In the upland regions of the South, however, and
+throughout most of the North, the drift was against all forms of
+servitude and tenantry and in the direction of the freehold; that is,
+the small farm owned outright and tilled by the possessor and his
+family. This was favored by natural circumstances and the spirit of the
+immigrants. For one thing, the abundance of land and the scarcity of
+labor made it impossible for the companies, the proprietors, or the
+crown to develop over the whole continent a network of vast estates. In
+many sections, particularly in New England, the climate, the stony soil,
+the hills, and the narrow valleys conspired to keep the farms within a
+moderate compass. For another thing, the English, Scotch-Irish, and
+German peasants, even if they had been tenants in the Old World, did not
+propose to accept permanent dependency of any kind in the New. If they
+could not get freeholds, they would not settle at all; thus they forced
+proprietors and companies to bid for their enterprise by selling land in
+small lots. So it happened that the freehold of modest proportions
+became the cherished unit of American farmers. The people who tilled the
+farms were drawn from every quarter of western Europe; but the freehold
+system gave a uniform cast to their economic and social life in America.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+A NEW ENGLAND FARMHOUSE]
+
+=Social Effects of Land Tenure.=--Land tenure and the process of western
+settlement thus developed two distinct types of people engaged in the
+same pursuit--agriculture. They had a common tie in that they both
+cultivated the soil and possessed the local interest and independence
+which arise from that occupation. Their methods and their culture,
+however, differed widely.
+
+The Southern planter, on his broad acres tilled by slaves, resembled the
+English landlord on his estates more than he did the colonial farmer who
+labored with his own hands in the fields and forests. He sold his rice
+and tobacco in large amounts directly to English factors, who took his
+entire crop in exchange for goods and cash. His fine clothes,
+silverware, china, and cutlery he bought in English markets. Loving the
+ripe old culture of the mother country, he often sent his sons to Oxford
+or Cambridge for their education. In short, he depended very largely for
+his prosperity and his enjoyment of life upon close relations with the
+Old World. He did not even need market towns in which to buy native
+goods, for they were made on his own plantation by his own artisans who
+were usually gifted slaves.
+
+The economic condition of the small farmer was totally different. His
+crops were not big enough to warrant direct connection with English
+factors or the personal maintenance of a corps of artisans. He needed
+local markets, and they sprang up to meet the need. Smiths, hatters,
+weavers, wagon-makers, and potters at neighboring towns supplied him
+with the rough products of their native skill. The finer goods, bought
+by the rich planter in England, the small farmer ordinarily could not
+buy. His wants were restricted to staples like tea and sugar, and
+between him and the European market stood the merchant. His community
+was therefore more self-sufficient than the seaboard line of great
+plantations. It was more isolated, more provincial, more independent,
+more American. The planter faced the Old East. The farmer faced the New
+West.
+
+=The Westward Movement.=--Yeoman and planter nevertheless were alike in
+one respect. Their land hunger was never appeased. Each had the eye of
+an expert for new and fertile soil; and so, north and south, as soon as
+a foothold was secured on the Atlantic coast, the current of migration
+set in westward, creeping through forests, across rivers, and over
+mountains. Many of the later immigrants, in their search for cheap
+lands, were compelled to go to the border; but in a large part the path
+breakers to the West were native Americans of the second and third
+generations. Explorers, fired by curiosity and the lure of the
+mysterious unknown, and hunters, fur traders, and squatters, following
+their own sweet wills, blazed the trail, opening paths and sending back
+stories of the new regions they traversed. Then came the regular
+settlers with lawful titles to the lands they had purchased, sometimes
+singly and sometimes in companies.
+
+In Massachusetts, the westward movement is recorded in the founding of
+Springfield in 1636 and Great Barrington in 1725. By the opening of the
+eighteenth century the pioneers of Connecticut had pushed north and west
+until their outpost towns adjoined the Hudson Valley settlements. In New
+York, the inland movement was directed by the Hudson River to Albany,
+and from that old Dutch center it radiated in every direction,
+particularly westward through the Mohawk Valley. New Jersey was early
+filled to its borders, the beginnings of the present city of New
+Brunswick being made in 1681 and those of Trenton in 1685. In
+Pennsylvania, as in New York, the waterways determined the main lines of
+advance. Pioneers, pushing up through the valley of the Schuylkill,
+spread over the fertile lands of Berks and Lancaster counties, laying
+out Reading in 1748. Another current of migration was directed by the
+Susquehanna, and, in 1726, the first farmhouse was built on the bank
+where Harrisburg was later founded. Along the southern tier of counties
+a thin line of settlements stretched westward to Pittsburgh, reaching
+the upper waters of the Ohio while the colony was still under the Penn
+family.
+
+In the South the westward march was equally swift. The seaboard was
+quickly occupied by large planters and their slaves engaged in the
+cultivation of tobacco and rice. The Piedmont Plateau, lying back from
+the coast all the way from Maryland to Georgia, was fed by two streams
+of migration, one westward from the sea and the other southward from the
+other colonies--Germans from Pennsylvania and Scotch-Irish furnishing
+the main supply. "By 1770, tide-water Virginia was full to overflowing
+and the 'back country' of the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah was fully
+occupied. Even the mountain valleys ... were claimed by sturdy pioneers.
+Before the Declaration of Independence, the oncoming tide of
+home-seekers had reached the crest of the Alleghanies."
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1790]
+
+Beyond the mountains pioneers had already ventured, harbingers of an
+invasion that was about to break in upon Kentucky and Tennessee. As
+early as 1769 that mighty Nimrod, Daniel Boone, curious to hunt
+buffaloes, of which he had heard weird reports, passed through the
+Cumberland Gap and brought back news of a wonderful country awaiting the
+plow. A hint was sufficient. Singly, in pairs, and in groups, settlers
+followed the trail he had blazed. A great land corporation, the
+Transylvania Company, emulating the merchant adventurers of earlier
+times, secured a huge grant of territory and sought profits in quit
+rents from lands sold to farmers. By the outbreak of the Revolution
+there were several hundred people in the Kentucky region. Like the older
+colonists, they did not relish quit rents, and their opposition wrecked
+the Transylvania Company. They even carried their protests into the
+Continental Congress in 1776, for by that time they were our "embryo
+fourteenth colony."
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+Though the labor of the colonists was mainly spent in farming, there was
+a steady growth in industrial and commercial pursuits. Most of the
+staple industries of to-day, not omitting iron and textiles, have their
+beginnings in colonial times. Manufacturing and trade soon gave rise to
+towns which enjoyed an importance all out of proportion to their
+numbers. The great centers of commerce and finance on the seaboard
+originated in the days when the king of England was "lord of these
+dominions."
+
+[Illustration: DOMESTIC INDUSTRY: DIPPING TALLOW CANDLES]
+
+=Textile Manufacture as a Domestic Industry.=--Colonial women, in
+addition to sharing every hardship of pioneering, often the heavy labor
+of the open field, developed in the course of time a national industry
+which was almost exclusively their own. Wool and flax were raised in
+abundance in the North and South. "Every farm house," says Coman, the
+economic historian, "was a workshop where the women spun and wove the
+serges, kerseys, and linsey-woolseys which served for the common wear."
+By the close of the seventeenth century, New England manufactured cloth
+in sufficient quantities to export it to the Southern colonies and to
+the West Indies. As the industry developed, mills were erected for the
+more difficult process of dyeing, weaving, and fulling, but carding and
+spinning continued to be done in the home. The Dutch of New Netherland,
+the Swedes of Delaware, and the Scotch-Irish of the interior "were not
+one whit behind their Yankee neighbors."
+
+The importance of this enterprise to British economic life can hardly be
+overestimated. For many a century the English had employed their fine
+woolen cloth as the chief staple in a lucrative foreign trade, and the
+government had come to look upon it as an object of special interest and
+protection. When the colonies were established, both merchants and
+statesmen naturally expected to maintain a monopoly of increasing value;
+but before long the Americans, instead of buying cloth, especially of
+the coarser varieties, were making it to sell. In the place of
+customers, here were rivals. In the place of helpless reliance upon
+English markets, here was the germ of economic independence.
+
+If British merchants had not discovered it in the ordinary course of
+trade, observant officers in the provinces would have conveyed the news
+to them. Even in the early years of the eighteenth century the royal
+governor of New York wrote of the industrious Americans to his home
+government: "The consequence will be that if they can clothe themselves
+once, not only comfortably, but handsomely too, without the help of
+England, they who already are not very fond of submitting to government
+will soon think of putting in execution designs they have long harboured
+in their breasts. This will not seem strange when you consider what sort
+of people this country is inhabited by."
+
+=The Iron Industry.=--Almost equally widespread was the art of iron
+working--one of the earliest and most picturesque of colonial
+industries. Lynn, Massachusetts, had a forge and skilled artisans within
+fifteen years after the founding of Boston. The smelting of iron began
+at New London and New Haven about 1658; in Litchfield county,
+Connecticut, a few years later; at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in
+1731; and near by at Lenox some thirty years after that. New Jersey had
+iron works at Shrewsbury within ten years after the founding of the
+colony in 1665. Iron forges appeared in the valleys of the Delaware and
+the Susquehanna early in the following century, and iron masters then
+laid the foundations of fortunes in a region destined to become one of
+the great iron centers of the world. Virginia began iron working in the
+year that saw the introduction of slavery. Although the industry soon
+lapsed, it was renewed and flourished in the eighteenth century.
+Governor Spotswood was called the "Tubal Cain" of the Old Dominion
+because he placed the industry on a firm foundation. Indeed it seems
+that every colony, except Georgia, had its iron foundry. Nails, wire,
+metallic ware, chains, anchors, bar and pig iron were made in large
+quantities; and Great Britain, by an act in 1750, encouraged the
+colonists to export rough iron to the British Islands.
+
+=Shipbuilding.=--Of all the specialized industries in the colonies,
+shipbuilding was the most important. The abundance of fir for masts, oak
+for timbers and boards, pitch for tar and turpentine, and hemp for rope
+made the way of the shipbuilder easy. Early in the seventeenth century a
+ship was built at New Amsterdam, and by the middle of that century
+shipyards were scattered along the New England coast at Newburyport,
+Salem, New Bedford, Newport, Providence, New London, and New Haven.
+Yards at Albany and Poughkeepsie in New York built ships for the trade
+of that colony with England and the Indies. Wilmington and Philadelphia
+soon entered the race and outdistanced New York, though unable to equal
+the pace set by New England. While Maryland, Virginia, and South
+Carolina also built ships, Southern interest was mainly confined to the
+lucrative business of producing ship materials: fir, cedar, hemp, and
+tar.
+
+=Fishing.=--The greatest single economic resource of New England outside
+of agriculture was the fisheries. This industry, started by hardy
+sailors from Europe, long before the landing of the Pilgrims, flourished
+under the indomitable seamanship of the Puritans, who labored with the
+net and the harpoon in almost every quarter of the Atlantic. "Look,"
+exclaimed Edmund Burke, in the House of Commons, "at the manner in
+which the people of New England have of late carried on the whale
+fishery. Whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice and
+behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay
+and Davis's Straits, while we are looking for them beneath the arctic
+circle, we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar
+cold, that they are at the antipodes and engaged under the frozen
+serpent of the south.... Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging
+to them than the accumulated winter of both poles. We know that, whilst
+some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of
+Africa, others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game along
+the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed by their fisheries. No
+climate that is not witness to their toils. Neither the perseverance of
+Holland nor the activity of France nor the dexterous and firm sagacity
+of English enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of hard
+industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by this recent
+people."
+
+The influence of the business was widespread. A large and lucrative
+European trade was built upon it. The better quality of the fish caught
+for food was sold in the markets of Spain, Portugal, and Italy, or
+exchanged for salt, lemons, and raisins for the American market. The
+lower grades of fish were carried to the West Indies for slave
+consumption, and in part traded for sugar and molasses, which furnished
+the raw materials for the thriving rum industry of New England. These
+activities, in turn, stimulated shipbuilding, steadily enlarging the
+demand for fishing and merchant craft of every kind and thus keeping the
+shipwrights, calkers, rope makers, and other artisans of the seaport
+towns rushed with work. They also increased trade with the mother
+country for, out of the cash collected in the fish markets of Europe and
+the West Indies, the colonists paid for English manufactures. So an
+ever-widening circle of American enterprise centered around this single
+industry, the nursery of seamanship and the maritime spirit.
+
+=Oceanic Commerce and American Merchants.=--All through the eighteenth
+century, the commerce of the American colonies spread in every direction
+until it rivaled in the number of people employed, the capital engaged,
+and the profits gleaned, the commerce of European nations. A modern
+historian has said: "The enterprising merchants of New England developed
+a network of trade routes that covered well-nigh half the world." This
+commerce, destined to be of such significance in the conflict with the
+mother country, presented, broadly speaking, two aspects.
+
+On the one side, it involved the export of raw materials and
+agricultural produce. The Southern colonies produced for shipping,
+tobacco, rice, tar, pitch, and pine; the Middle colonies, grain, flour,
+furs, lumber, and salt pork; New England, fish, flour, rum, furs, shoes,
+and small articles of manufacture. The variety of products was in fact
+astounding. A sarcastic writer, while sneering at the idea of an
+American union, once remarked of colonial trade: "What sort of dish will
+you make? New England will throw in fish and onions. The middle states,
+flax-seed and flour. Maryland and Virginia will add tobacco. North
+Carolina, pitch, tar, and turpentine. South Carolina, rice and indigo,
+and Georgia will sprinkle the whole composition with sawdust. Such an
+absurd jumble will you make if you attempt to form a union among such
+discordant materials as the thirteen British provinces."
+
+On the other side, American commerce involved the import trade,
+consisting principally of English and continental manufactures, tea, and
+"India goods." Sugar and molasses, brought from the West Indies,
+supplied the flourishing distilleries of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
+and Connecticut. The carriage of slaves from Africa to the Southern
+colonies engaged hundreds of New England's sailors and thousands of
+pounds of her capital.
+
+The disposition of imported goods in the colonies, though in part
+controlled by English factors located in America, employed also a large
+and important body of American merchants like the Willings and Morrises
+of Philadelphia; the Amorys, Hancocks, and Faneuils of Boston; and the
+Livingstons and Lows of New York. In their zeal and enterprise, they
+were worthy rivals of their English competitors, so celebrated for
+world-wide commercial operations. Though fully aware of the advantages
+they enjoyed in British markets and under the protection of the British
+navy, the American merchants were high-spirited and mettlesome, ready to
+contend with royal officers in order to shield American interests
+against outside interference.
+
+[Illustration: THE DUTCH WEST INDIA WAREHOUSE IN NEW AMSTERDAM
+(NEW YORK CITY)]
+
+Measured against the immense business of modern times, colonial commerce
+seems perhaps trivial. That, however, is not the test of its
+significance. It must be considered in relation to the growth of English
+colonial trade in its entirety--a relation which can be shown by a few
+startling figures. The whole export trade of England, including that to
+the colonies, was, in 1704, L6,509,000. On the eve of the American
+Revolution, namely, in 1772, English exports to the American colonies
+alone amounted to L6,024,000; in other words, almost as much as the
+whole foreign business of England two generations before. At the first
+date, colonial trade was but one-twelfth of the English export business;
+at the second date, it was considerably more than one-third. In 1704,
+Pennsylvania bought in English markets goods to the value of L11,459; in
+1772 the purchases of the same colony amounted to L507,909. In short,
+Pennsylvania imports increased fifty times within sixty-eight years,
+amounting in 1772 to almost the entire export trade of England to the
+colonies at the opening of the century. The American colonies were
+indeed a great source of wealth to English merchants.
+
+=Intercolonial Commerce.=--Although the bad roads of colonial times made
+overland transportation difficult and costly, the many rivers and
+harbors along the coast favored a lively water-borne trade among the
+colonies. The Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna rivers in
+the North and the many smaller rivers in the South made it possible for
+goods to be brought from, and carried to, the interior regions in little
+sailing vessels with comparative ease. Sloops laden with manufactures,
+domestic and foreign, collected at some city like Providence, New York,
+or Philadelphia, skirted the coasts, visited small ports, and sailed up
+the navigable rivers to trade with local merchants who had for exchange
+the raw materials which they had gathered in from neighboring farms.
+Larger ships carried the grain, live stock, cloth, and hardware of New
+England to the Southern colonies, where they were traded for tobacco,
+leather, tar, and ship timber. From the harbors along the Connecticut
+shores there were frequent sailings down through Long Island Sound to
+Maryland, Virginia, and the distant Carolinas.
+
+=Growth of Towns.=--In connection with this thriving trade and industry
+there grew up along the coast a number of prosperous commercial centers
+which were soon reckoned among the first commercial towns of the whole
+British empire, comparing favorably in numbers and wealth with such
+ports as Liverpool and Bristol. The statistical records of that time are
+mainly guesses; but we know that Philadelphia stood first in size among
+these towns. Serving as the port of entry for Pennsylvania, Delaware,
+and western Jersey, it had drawn within its borders, just before the
+Revolution, about 25,000 inhabitants. Boston was second in rank, with
+somewhat more than 20,000 people. New York, the "commercial capital of
+Connecticut and old East Jersey," was slightly smaller than Boston, but
+growing at a steady rate. The fourth town in size was Charleston, South
+Carolina, with about 10,000 inhabitants. Newport in Rhode Island, a
+center of rum manufacture and shipping, stood fifth, with a population
+of about 7000. Baltimore and Norfolk were counted as "considerable
+towns." In the interior, Hartford in Connecticut, Lancaster and York in
+Pennsylvania, and Albany in New York, with growing populations and
+increasing trade, gave prophecy of an urban America away from the
+seaboard. The other towns were straggling villages. Williamsburg,
+Virginia, for example, had about two hundred houses, in which dwelt a
+dozen families of the gentry and a few score of tradesmen. Inland county
+seats often consisted of nothing more than a log courthouse, a prison,
+and one wretched inn to house judges, lawyers, and litigants during the
+sessions of the court.
+
+The leading towns exercised an influence on colonial opinion all out of
+proportion to their population. They were the centers of wealth, for one
+thing; of the press and political activity, for another. Merchants and
+artisans could readily take concerted action on public questions arising
+from their commercial operations. The towns were also centers for news,
+gossip, religious controversy, and political discussion. In the market
+places the farmers from the countryside learned of British policies and
+laws, and so, mingling with the townsmen, were drawn into the main
+currents of opinion which set in toward colonial nationalism and
+independence.
+
+
+=References=
+
+J. Bishop, _History of American Manufactures_ (2 vols.).
+
+E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_.
+
+P.A. Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_ (2 vols.).
+
+E. Semple, _American History and Its Geographical Conditions_.
+
+W. Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_. (2 vols.).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Is land in your community parceled out into small farms? Contrast the
+system in your community with the feudal system of land tenure.
+
+2. Are any things owned and used in common in your community? Why did
+common tillage fail in colonial times?
+
+3. Describe the elements akin to feudalism which were introduced in the
+colonies.
+
+4. Explain the success of freehold tillage.
+
+5. Compare the life of the planter with that of the farmer.
+
+6. How far had the western frontier advanced by 1776?
+
+7. What colonial industry was mainly developed by women? Why was it very
+important both to the Americans and to the English?
+
+8. What were the centers for iron working? Ship building?
+
+9. Explain how the fisheries affected many branches of trade and
+industry.
+
+10. Show how American trade formed a vital part of English business.
+
+11. How was interstate commerce mainly carried on?
+
+12. What were the leading towns? Did they compare in importance with
+British towns of the same period?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Land Tenure.=--Coman, _Industrial History_ (rev. ed.), pp. 32-38.
+Special reference: Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_, Vol. I, Chap.
+VIII.
+
+=Tobacco Planting in Virginia.=--Callender, _Economic History of the
+United States_, pp. 22-28.
+
+=Colonial Agriculture.=--Coman, pp. 48-63. Callender, pp. 69-74.
+Reference: J.R.H. Moore, _Industrial History of the American People_,
+pp. 131-162.
+
+=Colonial Manufactures.=--Coman, pp. 63-73. Callender, pp. 29-44.
+Special reference: Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_.
+
+=Colonial Commerce.=--Coman, pp. 73-85. Callender, pp. 51-63, 78-84.
+Moore, pp. 163-208. Lodge, _Short History of the English Colonies_, pp.
+409-412, 229-231, 312-314.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS
+
+
+Colonial life, crowded as it was with hard and unremitting toil, left
+scant leisure for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. There was
+little money in private purses or public treasuries to be dedicated to
+schools, libraries, and museums. Few there were with time to read long
+and widely, and fewer still who could devote their lives to things that
+delight the eye and the mind. And yet, poor and meager as the
+intellectual life of the colonists may seem by way of comparison, heroic
+efforts were made in every community to lift the people above the plane
+of mere existence. After the first clearings were opened in the forests
+those efforts were redoubled, and with lengthening years told upon the
+thought and spirit of the land. The appearance, during the struggle with
+England, of an extraordinary group of leaders familiar with history,
+political philosophy, and the arts of war, government, and diplomacy
+itself bore eloquent testimony to the high quality of the American
+intellect. No one, not even the most critical, can run through the
+writings of distinguished Americans scattered from Massachusetts to
+Georgia--the Adamses, Ellsworth, the Morrises, the Livingstons,
+Hamilton, Franklin, Washington, Madison, Marshall, Henry, the Randolphs,
+and the Pinckneys--without coming to the conclusion that there was
+something in American colonial life which fostered minds of depth and
+power. Women surmounted even greater difficulties than the men in the
+process of self-education, and their keen interest in public issues is
+evident in many a record like the _Letters_ of Mrs. John Adams to her
+husband during the Revolution; the writings of Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren,
+the sister of James Otis, who measured her pen with the British
+propagandists; and the patriot newspapers founded and managed by women.
+
+
+THE LEADERSHIP OF THE CHURCHES
+
+In the intellectual life of America, the churches assumed a role of high
+importance. There were abundant reasons for this. In many of the
+colonies--Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New England--the religious impulse
+had been one of the impelling motives in stimulating immigration. In all
+the colonies, the clergy, at least in the beginning, formed the only
+class with any leisure to devote to matters of the spirit. They preached
+on Sundays and taught school on week days. They led in the discussion of
+local problems and in the formation of political opinion, so much of
+which was concerned with the relation between church and state. They
+wrote books and pamphlets. They filled most of the chairs in the
+colleges; under clerical guidance, intellectual and spiritual, the
+Americans received their formal education. In several of the provinces
+the Anglican Church was established by law. In New England the Puritans
+were supreme, notwithstanding the efforts of the crown to overbear their
+authority. In the Middle colonies, particularly, the multiplication of
+sects made the dominance of any single denomination impossible; and in
+all of them there was a growing diversity of faith, which promised in
+time a separation of church and state and freedom of opinion.
+
+=The Church of England.=--Virginia was the stronghold of the English
+system of church and state. The Anglican faith and worship were
+prescribed by law, sustained by taxes imposed on all, and favored by the
+governor, the provincial councilors, and the richest planters. "The
+Established Church," says Lodge, "was one of the appendages of the
+Virginia aristocracy. They controlled the vestries and the ministers,
+and the parish church stood not infrequently on the estate of the
+planter who built and managed it." As in England, Catholics and
+Protestant Dissenters were at first laid under heavy disabilities. Only
+slowly and on sufferance were they admitted to the province; but when
+once they were even covertly tolerated, they pressed steadily in, until,
+by the Revolution, they outnumbered the adherents of the established
+order.
+
+The Church was also sanctioned by law and supported by taxes in the
+Carolinas after 1704, and in Georgia after that colony passed directly
+under the crown in 1754--this in spite of the fact that the majority of
+the inhabitants were Dissenters. Against the protests of the Catholics
+it was likewise established in Maryland. In New York, too,
+notwithstanding the resistance of the Dutch, the Established Church was
+fostered by the provincial officials, and the Anglicans, embracing about
+one-fifteenth of the population, exerted an influence all out of
+proportion to their numbers.
+
+Many factors helped to enhance the power of the English Church in the
+colonies. It was supported by the British government and the official
+class sent out to the provinces. Its bishops and archbishops in England
+were appointed by the king, and its faith and service were set forth by
+acts of Parliament. Having its seat of power in the English monarchy, it
+could hold its clergy and missionaries loyal to the crown and so
+counteract to some extent the independent spirit that was growing up in
+America. The Church, always a strong bulwark of the state, therefore had
+a political role to play here as in England. Able bishops and far-seeing
+leaders firmly grasped this fact about the middle of the eighteenth
+century and redoubled their efforts to augment the influence of the
+Church in provincial affairs. Unhappily for their plans they failed to
+calculate in advance the effect of their methods upon dissenting
+Protestants, who still cherished memories of bitter religious conflicts
+in the mother country.
+
+=Puritanism in New England.=--If the established faith made for imperial
+unity, the same could not be said of Puritanism. The Plymouth Pilgrims
+had cast off all allegiance to the Anglican Church and established a
+separate and independent congregation before they came to America. The
+Puritans, essaying at first the task of reformers within the Church,
+soon after their arrival in Massachusetts, likewise flung off their yoke
+of union with the Anglicans. In each town a separate congregation was
+organized, the male members choosing the pastor, the teachers, and the
+other officers. They also composed the voters in the town meeting, where
+secular matters were determined. The union of church and government was
+thus complete, and uniformity of faith and life prescribed by law and
+enforced by civil authorities; but this worked for local autonomy
+instead of imperial unity.
+
+The clergy became a powerful class, dominant through their learning and
+their fearful denunciations of the faithless. They wrote the books for
+the people to read--the famous Cotton Mather having three hundred and
+eighty-three books and pamphlets to his credit. In cooeperation with the
+civil officers they enforced a strict observance of the Puritan
+Sabbath--a day of rest that began at six o'clock on Saturday evening and
+lasted until sunset on Sunday. All work, all trading, all amusement, and
+all worldly conversation were absolutely prohibited during those hours.
+A thoughtless maid servant who for some earthly reason smiled in church
+was in danger of being banished as a vagabond. Robert Pike, a devout
+Puritan, thinking the sun had gone to rest, ventured forth on horseback
+one Sunday evening and was luckless enough to have a ray of light strike
+him through a rift in the clouds. The next day he was brought into court
+and fined for "his ungodly conduct." With persons accused of witchcraft
+the Puritans were still more ruthless. When a mania of persecution swept
+over Massachusetts in 1692, eighteen people were hanged, one was pressed
+to death, many suffered imprisonment, and two died in jail.
+
+Just about this time, however, there came a break in the uniformity of
+Puritan rule. The crown and church in England had long looked upon it
+with disfavor, and in 1684 King Charles II annulled the old charter of
+the Massachusetts Bay Company. A new document issued seven years later
+wrested from the Puritans of the colony the right to elect their own
+governor and reserved the power of appointment to the king. It also
+abolished the rule limiting the suffrage to church members, substituting
+for it a simple property qualification. Thus a royal governor and an
+official family, certain to be Episcopalian in faith and monarchist in
+sympathies, were forced upon Massachusetts; and members of all religious
+denominations, if they had the required amount of property, were
+permitted to take part in elections. By this act in the name of the
+crown, the Puritan monopoly was broken down in Massachusetts, and that
+province was brought into line with Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New
+Hampshire, where property, not religious faith, was the test for the
+suffrage.
+
+=Growth of Religious Toleration.=--Though neither the Anglicans of
+Virginia nor the Puritans of Massachusetts believed in toleration for
+other denominations, that principle was strictly applied in Rhode
+Island. There, under the leadership of Roger Williams, liberty in
+matters of conscience was established in the beginning. Maryland, by
+granting in 1649 freedom to those who professed to believe in Jesus
+Christ, opened its gates to all Christians; and Pennsylvania, true to
+the tenets of the Friends, gave freedom of conscience to those "who
+confess and acknowledge the one Almighty and Eternal God to be the
+creator, upholder, and ruler of the World." By one circumstance or
+another, the Middle colonies were thus early characterized by diversity
+rather than uniformity of opinion. Dutch Protestants, Huguenots,
+Quakers, Baptists, Presbyterians, New Lights, Moravians, Lutherans,
+Catholics, and other denominations became too strongly intrenched and
+too widely scattered to permit any one of them to rule, if it had
+desired to do so. There were communities and indeed whole sections where
+one or another church prevailed, but in no colony was a legislature
+steadily controlled by a single group. Toleration encouraged diversity,
+and diversity, in turn, worked for greater toleration.
+
+The government and faith of the dissenting denominations conspired with
+economic and political tendencies to draw America away from the English
+state. Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and Puritans had no hierarchy
+of bishops and archbishops to bind them to the seat of power in London.
+Neither did they look to that metropolis for guidance in interpreting
+articles of faith. Local self-government in matters ecclesiastical
+helped to train them for local self-government in matters political. The
+spirit of independence which led Dissenters to revolt in the Old World,
+nourished as it was amid favorable circumstances in the New World, made
+them all the more zealous in the defense of every right against
+authority imposed from without.
+
+
+SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
+
+=Religion and Local Schools.=--One of the first cares of each Protestant
+denomination was the education of the children in the faith. In this
+work the Bible became the center of interest. The English version was
+indeed the one book of the people. Farmers, shopkeepers, and artisans,
+whose life had once been bounded by the daily routine of labor, found in
+the Scriptures not only an inspiration to religious conduct, but also a
+book of romance, travel, and history. "Legend and annal," says John
+Richard Green, "war-song and psalm, state-roll and biography, the mighty
+voices of prophets, the parables of Evangelists, stories of mission
+journeys, of perils by sea and among the heathen, philosophic arguments,
+apocalyptic visions, all were flung broadcast over minds unoccupied for
+the most part by any rival learning.... As a mere literary monument, the
+English version of the Bible remains the noblest example of the English
+tongue." It was the King James version just from the press that the
+Pilgrims brought across the sea with them.
+
+For the authority of the Established Church was substituted the
+authority of the Scriptures. The Puritans devised a catechism based upon
+their interpretation of the Bible, and, very soon after their arrival in
+America, they ordered all parents and masters of servants to be diligent
+in seeing that their children and wards were taught to read religious
+works and give answers to the religious questions. Massachusetts was
+scarcely twenty years old before education of this character was
+declared to be compulsory, and provision was made for public schools
+where those not taught at home could receive instruction in reading and
+writing.
+
+[Illustration: A PAGE FROM A FAMOUS SCHOOLBOOK
+
+
+     A In ADAM'S Fall
+       We sinned all.
+
+     B Heaven to find,
+       The Bible Mind.
+
+     C Christ crucify'd
+       For sinners dy'd.
+
+     D The Deluge drown'd
+       The Earth around.
+
+     E ELIJAH hid
+       by Ravens fed.
+
+     F The judgment made
+       FELIX afraid.]
+
+
+
+Outside of New England the idea of compulsory education was not regarded
+with the same favor; but the whole land was nevertheless dotted with
+little schools kept by "dames, itinerant teachers, or local parsons."
+Whether we turn to the life of Franklin in the North or Washington in
+the South, we read of tiny schoolhouses, where boys, and sometimes
+girls, were taught to read and write. Where there were no schools,
+fathers and mothers of the better kind gave their children the rudiments
+of learning. Though illiteracy was widespread, there is evidence to show
+that the diffusion of knowledge among the masses was making steady
+progress all through the eighteenth century.
+
+=Religion and Higher Learning.=--Religious motives entered into the
+establishment of colleges as well as local schools. Harvard, founded in
+1636, and Yale, opened in 1718, were intended primarily to train
+"learned and godly ministers" for the Puritan churches of New England.
+To the far North, Dartmouth, chartered in 1769, was designed first as a
+mission to the Indians and then as a college for the sons of New England
+farmers preparing to preach, teach, or practice law. The College of New
+Jersey, organized in 1746 and removed to Princeton eleven years later,
+was sustained by the Presbyterians. Two colleges looked to the
+Established Church as their source of inspiration and support: William
+and Mary, founded in Virginia in 1693, and King's College, now Columbia
+University, chartered by King George II in 1754, on an appeal from the
+New York Anglicans, alarmed at the growth of religious dissent and the
+"republican tendencies" of the age. Two colleges revealed a drift away
+from sectarianism. Brown, established in Rhode Island in 1764, and the
+Philadelphia Academy, forerunner of the University of Pennsylvania,
+organized by Benjamin Franklin, reflected the spirit of toleration by
+giving representation on the board of trustees to several religious
+sects. It was Franklin's idea that his college should prepare young men
+to serve in public office as leaders of the people and ornaments to
+their country.
+
+=Self-education in America.=--Important as were these institutions of
+learning, higher education was by no means confined within their walls.
+Many well-to-do families sent their sons to Oxford or Cambridge in
+England. Private tutoring in the home was common. In still more families
+there were intelligent children who grew up in the great colonial school
+of adversity and who trained themselves until, in every contest of mind
+and wit, they could vie with the sons of Harvard or William and Mary or
+any other college. Such, for example, was Benjamin Franklin, whose
+charming autobiography, in addition to being an American classic, is a
+fine record of self-education. His formal training in the classroom was
+limited to a few years at a local school in Boston; but his
+self-education continued throughout his life. He early manifested a zeal
+for reading, and devoured, he tells us, his father's dry library on
+theology, Bunyan's works, Defoe's writings, Plutarch's _Lives_, Locke's
+_On the Human Understanding_, and innumerable volumes dealing with
+secular subjects. His literary style, perhaps the best of his time,
+Franklin acquired by the diligent and repeated analysis of the
+_Spectator_. In a life crowded with labors, he found time to read widely
+in natural science and to win single-handed recognition at the hands of
+European savants for his discoveries in electricity. By his own efforts
+he "attained an acquaintance" with Latin, Italian, French, and Spanish,
+thus unconsciously preparing himself for the day when he was to speak
+for all America at the court of the king of France.
+
+Lesser lights than Franklin, educated by the same process, were found
+all over colonial America. From this fruitful source of native ability,
+self-educated, the American cause drew great strength in the trials of
+the Revolution.
+
+
+THE COLONIAL PRESS
+
+=The Rise of the Newspaper.=--The evolution of American democracy into a
+government by public opinion, enlightened by the open discussion of
+political questions, was in no small measure aided by a free press. That
+too, like education, was a matter of slow growth. A printing press was
+brought to Massachusetts in 1639, but it was put in charge of an
+official censor and limited to the publication of religious works. Forty
+years elapsed before the first newspaper appeared, bearing the curious
+title, _Public Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestic_, and it had not
+been running very long before the government of Massachusetts suppressed
+it for discussing a political question.
+
+Publishing, indeed, seemed to be a precarious business; but in 1704
+there came a second venture in journalism, _The Boston News-Letter_,
+which proved to be a more lasting enterprise because it refrained from
+criticizing the authorities. Still the public interest languished. When
+Franklin's brother, James, began to issue his _New England Courant_
+about 1720, his friends sought to dissuade him, saying that one
+newspaper was enough for America. Nevertheless he continued it; and his
+confidence in the future was rewarded. In nearly every colony a gazette
+or chronicle appeared within the next thirty years or more. Benjamin
+Franklin was able to record in 1771 that America had twenty-five
+newspapers. Boston led with five. Philadelphia had three: two in English
+and one in German.
+
+=Censorship and Restraints on the Press.=--The idea of printing,
+unlicensed by the government and uncontrolled by the church, was,
+however, slow in taking form. The founders of the American colonies had
+never known what it was to have the free and open publication of books,
+pamphlets, broadsides, and newspapers. When the art of printing was
+first discovered, the control of publishing was vested in clerical
+authorities. After the establishment of the State Church in England in
+the reign of Elizabeth, censorship of the press became a part of royal
+prerogative. Printing was restricted to Oxford, Cambridge, and London;
+and no one could publish anything without previous approval of the
+official censor. When the Puritans were in power, the popular party,
+with a zeal which rivaled that of the crown, sought, in turn, to silence
+royalist and clerical writers by a vigorous censorship. After the
+restoration of the monarchy, control of the press was once more placed
+in royal hands, where it remained until 1695, when Parliament, by
+failing to renew the licensing act, did away entirely with the official
+censorship. By that time political parties were so powerful and so
+active and printing presses were so numerous that official review of all
+published matter became a sheer impossibility.
+
+In America, likewise, some troublesome questions arose in connection
+with freedom of the press. The Puritans of Massachusetts were no less
+anxious than King Charles or the Archbishop of London to shut out from
+the prying eyes of the people all literature "not mete for them to
+read"; and so they established a system of official licensing for
+presses, which lasted until 1755. In the other colonies where there was
+more diversity of opinion and publishers could set up in business with
+impunity, they were nevertheless constantly liable to arrest for
+printing anything displeasing to the colonial governments. In 1721 the
+editor of the _Mercury_ in Philadelphia was called before the
+proprietary council and ordered to apologize for a political article,
+and for a later offense of a similar character he was thrown into jail.
+A still more famous case was that of Peter Zenger, a New York publisher,
+who was arrested in 1735 for criticising the administration. Lawyers who
+ventured to defend the unlucky editor were deprived of their licenses to
+practice, and it became necessary to bring an attorney all the way from
+Philadelphia. By this time the tension of feeling was high, and the
+approbation of the public was forthcoming when the lawyer for the
+defense exclaimed to the jury that the very cause of liberty itself, not
+that of the poor printer, was on trial! The verdict for Zenger, when it
+finally came, was the signal for an outburst of popular rejoicing.
+Already the people of King George's province knew how precious a thing
+is the freedom of the press.
+
+Thanks to the schools, few and scattered as they were, and to the
+vigilance of parents, a very large portion, perhaps nearly one-half, of
+the colonists could read. Through the newspapers, pamphlets, and
+almanacs that streamed from the types, the people could follow the
+course of public events and grasp the significance of political
+arguments. An American opinion was in the process of making--an
+independent opinion nourished by the press and enriched by discussions
+around the fireside and at the taverns. When the day of resistance to
+British rule came, government by opinion was at hand. For every person
+who could hear the voice of Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, there were a
+thousand who could see their appeals on the printed page. Men who had
+spelled out their letters while poring over Franklin's _Poor Richard's
+Almanac_ lived to read Thomas Paine's thrilling call to arms.
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION IN POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
+
+Two very distinct lines of development appeared in colonial politics.
+The one, exalting royal rights and aristocratic privileges, was the
+drift toward provincial government through royal officers appointed in
+England. The other, leading toward democracy and self-government, was
+the growth in the power of the popular legislative assembly. Each
+movement gave impetus to the other, with increasing force during the
+passing years, until at last the final collision between the two ideals
+of government came in the war of independence.
+
+=The Royal Provinces.=--Of the thirteen English colonies eight were
+royal provinces in 1776, with governors appointed by the king. Virginia
+passed under the direct rule of the crown in 1624, when the charter of
+the London Company was annulled. The Massachusetts Bay corporation lost
+its charter in 1684, and the new instrument granted seven years later
+stripped the colonists of the right to choose their chief executive. In
+the early decades of the eighteenth century both the Carolinas were
+given the provincial instead of the proprietary form. New Hampshire,
+severed from Massachusetts in 1679, and Georgia, surrendered by the
+trustees in 1752, went into the hands of the crown. New York,
+transferred to the Duke of York on its capture from the Dutch in 1664,
+became a province when he took the title of James II in 1685. New
+Jersey, after remaining for nearly forty years under proprietors, was
+brought directly under the king in 1702. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
+Delaware, although they retained their proprietary character until the
+Revolution, were in some respects like the royal colonies, for their
+governors were as independent of popular choice as were the appointees
+of King George. Only two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut,
+retained full self-government on the eve of the Revolution. They alone
+had governors and legislatures entirely of their own choosing.
+
+The chief officer of the royal province was the governor, who enjoyed
+high and important powers which he naturally sought to augment at every
+turn. He enforced the laws and, usually with the consent of a council,
+appointed the civil and military officers. He granted pardons and
+reprieves; he was head of the highest court; he was commander-in-chief
+of the militia; he levied troops for defense and enforced martial law in
+time of invasion, war, and rebellion. In all the provinces, except
+Massachusetts, he named the councilors who composed the upper house of
+the legislature and was likely to choose those who favored his claims.
+He summoned, adjourned, and dissolved the popular assembly, or the lower
+house; he laid before it the projects of law desired by the crown; and
+he vetoed measures which he thought objectionable. Here were in America
+all the elements of royal prerogative against which Hampden had
+protested and Cromwell had battled in England.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROYAL GOVERNOR'S PALACE AT NEW BERNE]
+
+The colonial governors were generally surrounded by a body of
+office-seekers and hunters for land grants. Some of them were noblemen
+of broken estates who had come to America to improve their fortunes. The
+pretensions of this circle grated on colonial nerves, and privileges
+granted to them, often at the expense of colonists, did much to deepen
+popular antipathy to the British government. Favors extended to
+adherents of the Established Church displeased Dissenters. The
+reappearance of this formidable union of church and state, from which
+they had fled, stirred anew the ancient wrath against that combination.
+
+=The Colonial Assembly.=--Coincident with the drift toward
+administration through royal governors was the second and opposite
+tendency, namely, a steady growth in the practice of self-government.
+The voters of England had long been accustomed to share in taxation and
+law-making through representatives in Parliament, and the idea was early
+introduced in America. Virginia was only twelve years old (1619) when
+its first representative assembly appeared. As the towns of
+Massachusetts multiplied and it became impossible for all the members of
+the corporation to meet at one place, the representative idea was
+adopted, in 1633. The river towns of Connecticut formed a representative
+system under their "Fundamental Orders" of 1639, and the entire colony
+was given a royal charter in 1662. Generosity, as well as practical
+considerations, induced such proprietors as Lord Baltimore and William
+Penn to invite their colonists to share in the government as soon as any
+considerable settlements were made. Thus by one process or another every
+one of the colonies secured a popular assembly.
+
+It is true that in the provision for popular elections, the suffrage was
+finally restricted to property owners or taxpayers, with a leaning
+toward the freehold qualification. In Virginia, the rural voter had to
+be a freeholder owning at least fifty acres of land, if there was no
+house on it, or twenty-five acres with a house twenty-five feet square.
+In Massachusetts, the voter for member of the assembly under the charter
+of 1691 had to be a freeholder of an estate worth forty shillings a year
+at least or of other property to the value of forty pounds sterling. In
+Pennsylvania, the suffrage was granted to freeholders owning fifty acres
+or more of land well seated, twelve acres cleared, and to other persons
+worth at least fifty pounds in lawful money.
+
+Restrictions like these undoubtedly excluded from the suffrage a very
+considerable number of men, particularly the mechanics and artisans of
+the towns, who were by no means content with their position.
+Nevertheless, it was relatively easy for any man to acquire a small
+freehold, so cheap and abundant was land; and in fact a large proportion
+of the colonists were land owners. Thus the assemblies, in spite of the
+limited suffrage, acquired a democratic tone.
+
+The popular character of the assemblies increased as they became engaged
+in battles with the royal and proprietary governors. When called upon by
+the executive to make provision for the support of the administration,
+the legislature took advantage of the opportunity to make terms in the
+interest of the taxpayers. It made annual, not permanent, grants of
+money to pay official salaries and then insisted upon electing a
+treasurer to dole it out. Thus the colonists learned some of the
+mysteries of public finance, as well as the management of rapacious
+officials. The legislature also used its power over money grants to
+force the governor to sign bills which he would otherwise have vetoed.
+
+=Contests between Legislatures and Governors.=--As may be imagined, many
+and bitter were the contests between the royal and proprietary governors
+and the colonial assemblies. Franklin relates an amusing story of how
+the Pennsylvania assembly held in one hand a bill for the executive to
+sign and, in the other hand, the money to pay his salary. Then, with sly
+humor, Franklin adds: "Do not, my courteous reader, take pet at our
+proprietary constitution for these our bargain and sale proceedings in
+legislation. It is a happy country where justice and what was your own
+before can be had for ready money. It is another addition to the value
+of money and of course another spur to industry. Every land is not so
+blessed."
+
+It must not be thought, however, that every governor got off as easily
+as Franklin's tale implies. On the contrary, the legislatures, like
+Caesar, fed upon meat that made them great and steadily encroached upon
+executive prerogatives as they tried out and found their strength. If
+we may believe contemporary laments, the power of the crown in America
+was diminishing when it was struck down altogether. In New York, the
+friends of the governor complained in 1747 that "the inhabitants of
+plantations are generally educated in republican principles; upon
+republican principles all is conducted. Little more than a shadow of
+royal authority remains in the Northern colonies." "Here," echoed the
+governor of South Carolina, the following year, "levelling principles
+prevail; the frame of the civil government is unhinged; a governor, if
+he would be idolized, must betray his trust; the people have got their
+whole administration in their hands; the election of the members of the
+assembly is by ballot; not civil posts only, but all ecclesiastical
+preferments, are in the disposal or election of the people."
+
+Though baffled by the "levelling principles" of the colonial assemblies,
+the governors did not give up the case as hopeless. Instead they evolved
+a system of policy and action which they thought could bring the
+obstinate provincials to terms. That system, traceable in their letters
+to the government in London, consisted of three parts: (1) the royal
+officers in the colonies were to be made independent of the legislatures
+by taxes imposed by acts of Parliament; (2) a British standing army was
+to be maintained in America; (3) the remaining colonial charters were to
+be revoked and government by direct royal authority was to be enlarged.
+
+Such a system seemed plausible enough to King George III and to many
+ministers of the crown in London. With governors, courts, and an army
+independent of the colonists, they imagined it would be easy to carry
+out both royal orders and acts of Parliament. This reasoning seemed both
+practical and logical. Nor was it founded on theory, for it came fresh
+from the governors themselves. It was wanting in one respect only. It
+failed to take account of the fact that the American people were growing
+strong in the practice of self-government and could dispense with the
+tutelage of the British ministry, no matter how excellent it might be or
+how benevolent its intentions.
+
+
+=References=
+
+A.M. Earle, _Home Life in Colonial Days_.
+
+A.L. Cross, _The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies_ (Harvard
+Studies).
+
+E.G. Dexter, _History of Education in the United States_.
+
+C.A. Duniway, _Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts_.
+
+Benjamin Franklin, _Autobiography_.
+
+E.B. Greene, _The Provincial Governor_ (Harvard Studies).
+
+A.E. McKinley, _The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English Colonies_
+(Pennsylvania University Studies).
+
+M.C. Tyler, _History of American Literature during the Colonial Times_
+(2 vols.).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Why is leisure necessary for the production of art and literature?
+How may leisure be secured?
+
+2. Explain the position of the church in colonial life.
+
+3. Contrast the political roles of Puritanism and the Established
+Church.
+
+4. How did diversity of opinion work for toleration?
+
+5. Show the connection between religion and learning in colonial times.
+
+6. Why is a "free press" such an important thing to American democracy?
+
+7. Relate some of the troubles of early American publishers.
+
+8. Give the undemocratic features of provincial government.
+
+9. How did the colonial assemblies help to create an independent
+American spirit, in spite of a restricted suffrage?
+
+10. Explain the nature of the contests between the governors and the
+legislatures.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Religious and Intellectual Life.=--Lodge, _Short History of the English
+Colonies_: (1) in New England, pp. 418-438, 465-475; (2) in Virginia,
+pp. 54-61, 87-89; (3) in Pennsylvania, pp. 232-237, 253-257; (4) in New
+York, pp. 316-321. Interesting source materials in Hart, _American
+History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 255-275, 276-290.
+
+=The Government of a Royal Province, Virginia.=--Lodge, pp. 43-50.
+Special Reference: E.B. Greene, _The Provincial Governor_ (Harvard
+Studies).
+
+=The Government of a Proprietary Colony, Pennsylvania.=--Lodge, pp.
+230-232.
+
+=Government in New England.=--Lodge, pp. 412-417.
+
+=The Colonial Press.=--Special Reference: G.H. Payne, _History of
+Journalism in the United States_ (1920).
+
+=Colonial Life in General.=--John Fiske, _Old Virginia and Her
+Neighbors_, Vol. II, pp. 174-269; Elson, _History of the United States_,
+pp. 197-210.
+
+=Colonial Government in General.=--Elson, pp. 210-216.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM
+
+
+It is one of the well-known facts of history that a people loosely
+united by domestic ties of a political and economic nature, even a
+people torn by domestic strife, may be welded into a solid and compact
+body by an attack from a foreign power. The imperative call to common
+defense, the habit of sharing common burdens, the fusing force of common
+service--these things, induced by the necessity of resisting outside
+interference, act as an amalgam drawing together all elements, except,
+perhaps, the most discordant. The presence of the enemy allays the most
+virulent of quarrels, temporarily at least. "Politics," runs an old
+saying, "stops at the water's edge."
+
+This ancient political principle, so well understood in diplomatic
+circles, applied nearly as well to the original thirteen American
+colonies as to the countries of Europe. The necessity for common
+defense, if not equally great, was certainly always pressing. Though it
+has long been the practice to speak of the early settlements as founded
+in "a wilderness," this was not actually the case. From the earliest
+days of Jamestown on through the years, the American people were
+confronted by dangers from without. All about their tiny settlements
+were Indians, growing more and more hostile as the frontier advanced and
+as sharp conflicts over land aroused angry passions. To the south and
+west was the power of Spain, humiliated, it is true, by the disaster to
+the Armada, but still presenting an imposing front to the British
+empire. To the north and west were the French, ambitious, energetic,
+imperial in temper, and prepared to contest on land and water the
+advance of British dominion in America.
+
+
+RELATIONS WITH THE INDIANS AND THE FRENCH
+
+=Indian Affairs.=--It is difficult to make general statements about the
+relations of the colonists to the Indians. The problem was presented in
+different shape in different sections of America. It was not handled
+according to any coherent or uniform plan by the British government,
+which alone could speak for all the provinces at the same time. Neither
+did the proprietors and the governors who succeeded one another, in an
+irregular train, have the consistent policy or the matured experience
+necessary for dealing wisely with Indian matters. As the difficulties
+arose mainly on the frontiers, where the restless and pushing pioneers
+were making their way with gun and ax, nearly everything that happened
+was the result of chance rather than of calculation. A personal quarrel
+between traders and an Indian, a jug of whisky, a keg of gunpowder, the
+exchange of guns for furs, personal treachery, or a flash of bad temper
+often set in motion destructive forces of the most terrible character.
+
+On one side of the ledger may be set innumerable generous records--of
+Squanto and Samoset teaching the Pilgrims the ways of the wilds; of
+Roger Williams buying his lands from the friendly natives; or of William
+Penn treating with them on his arrival in America. On the other side of
+the ledger must be recorded many a cruel and bloody conflict as the
+frontier rolled westward with deadly precision. The Pequots on the
+Connecticut border, sensing their doom, fell upon the tiny settlements
+with awful fury in 1637 only to meet with equally terrible punishment. A
+generation later, King Philip, son of Massasoit, the friend of the
+Pilgrims, called his tribesmen to a war of extermination which brought
+the strength of all New England to the field and ended in his own
+destruction. In New York, the relations with the Indians, especially
+with the Algonquins and the Mohawks, were marked by periodic and
+desperate wars. Virginia and her Southern neighbors suffered as did New
+England. In 1622 Opecacano, a brother of Powhatan, the friend of the
+Jamestown settlers, launched a general massacre; and in 1644 he
+attempted a war of extermination. In 1675 the whole frontier was ablaze.
+Nathaniel Bacon vainly attempted to stir the colonial governor to put up
+an adequate defense and, failing in that plea, himself headed a revolt
+and a successful expedition against the Indians. As the Virginia
+outposts advanced into the Kentucky country, the strife with the natives
+was transferred to that "dark and bloody ground"; while to the
+southeast, a desperate struggle with the Tuscaroras called forth the
+combined forces of the two Carolinas and Virginia.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+VIRGINIANS DEFENDING THEMSELVES AGAINST THE INDIANS]
+
+From such horrors New Jersey and Delaware were saved on account of their
+geographical location. Pennsylvania, consistently following a policy of
+conciliation, was likewise spared until her western vanguard came into
+full conflict with the allied French and Indians. Georgia, by clever
+negotiations and treaties of alliance, managed to keep on fair terms
+with her belligerent Cherokees and Creeks. But neither diplomacy nor
+generosity could stay the inevitable conflict as the frontier advanced,
+especially after the French soldiers enlisted the Indians in their
+imperial enterprises. It was then that desultory fighting became general
+warfare.
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND SPANISH POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA,
+1750]
+
+=Early Relations with the French.=--During the first decades of French
+exploration and settlement in the St. Lawrence country, the English
+colonies, engrossed with their own problems, gave little or no thought
+to their distant neighbors. Quebec, founded in 1608, and Montreal, in
+1642, were too far away, too small in population, and too slight in
+strength to be much of a menace to Boston, Hartford, or New York. It was
+the statesmen in France and England, rather than the colonists in
+America, who first grasped the significance of the slowly converging
+empires in North America. It was the ambition of Louis XIV of France,
+rather than the labors of Jesuit missionaries and French rangers, that
+sounded the first note of colonial alarm.
+
+Evidence of this lies in the fact that three conflicts between the
+English and the French occurred before their advancing frontiers met on
+the Pennsylvania border. King William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's
+War (1701-1713), and King George's War (1744-1748) owed their origins
+and their endings mainly to the intrigues and rivalries of European
+powers, although they all involved the American colonies in struggles
+with the French and their savage allies.
+
+=The Clash in the Ohio Valley.=--The second of these wars had hardly
+closed, however, before the English colonists themselves began to be
+seriously alarmed about the rapidly expanding French dominion in the
+West. Marquette and Joliet, who opened the Lake region, and La Salle,
+who in 1682 had gone down the Mississippi to the Gulf, had been followed
+by the builders of forts. In 1718, the French founded New Orleans, thus
+taking possession of the gateway to the Mississippi as well as the St.
+Lawrence. A few years later they built Fort Niagara; in 1731 they
+occupied Crown Point; in 1749 they formally announced their dominion
+over all the territory drained by the Ohio River. Having asserted this
+lofty claim, they set out to make it good by constructing in the years
+1752-1754 Fort Le Boeuf near Lake Erie, Fort Venango on the upper
+waters of the Allegheny, and Fort Duquesne at the junction of the
+streams forming the Ohio. Though they were warned by George Washington,
+in the name of the governor of Virginia, to keep out of territory "so
+notoriously known to be property of the crown of Great Britain," the
+French showed no signs of relinquishing their pretensions.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+BRADDOCK'S RETREAT]
+
+=The Final Phase--the French and Indian War.=--Thus it happened that the
+shot which opened the Seven Years' War, known in America as the French
+and Indian War, was fired in the wilds of Pennsylvania. There began the
+conflict that spread to Europe and even Asia and finally involved
+England and Prussia, on the one side, and France, Austria, Spain, and
+minor powers on the other. On American soil, the defeat of Braddock in
+1755 and Wolfe's exploit in capturing Quebec four years later were the
+dramatic features. On the continent of Europe, England subsidized
+Prussian arms to hold France at bay. In India, on the banks of the
+Ganges, as on the banks of the St. Lawrence, British arms were
+triumphant. Well could the historian write: "Conquests equaling in
+rapidity and far surpassing in magnitude those of Cortes and Pizarro had
+been achieved in the East." Well could the merchants of London declare
+that under the administration of William Pitt, the imperial genius of
+this world-wide conflict, commerce had been "united with and made to
+flourish by war."
+
+From the point of view of the British empire, the results of the war
+were momentous. By the peace of 1763, Canada and the territory east of
+the Mississippi, except New Orleans, passed under the British flag. The
+remainder of the Louisiana territory was transferred to Spain and French
+imperial ambitions on the American continent were laid to rest. In
+exchange for Havana, which the British had seized during the war, Spain
+ceded to King George the colony of Florida. Not without warrant did
+Macaulay write in after years that Pitt "was the first Englishman of his
+time; and he had made England the first country in the world."
+
+
+THE EFFECTS OF WARFARE ON THE COLONIES
+
+The various wars with the French and the Indians, trivial in detail as
+they seem to-day, had a profound influence on colonial life and on the
+destiny of America. Circumstances beyond the control of popular
+assemblies, jealous of their individual powers, compelled cooeperation
+among them, grudging and stingy no doubt, but still cooeperation. The
+American people, more eager to be busy in their fields or at their
+trades, were simply forced to raise and support armies, to learn the
+arts of warfare, and to practice, if in a small theater, the science of
+statecraft. These forces, all cumulative, drove the colonists, so
+tenaciously provincial in their habits, in the direction of nationalism.
+
+=The New England Confederation.=--It was in their efforts to deal with
+the problems presented by the Indian and French menace that the
+Americans took the first steps toward union. Though there were many
+common ties among the settlers of New England, it required a deadly
+fear of the Indians to produce in 1643 the New England Confederation,
+composed of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. The
+colonies so united were bound together in "a firm and perpetual league
+of friendship and amity for offense and defense, mutual service and
+succor, upon all just occasions." They made provision for distributing
+the burdens of wars among the members and provided for a congress of
+commissioners from each colony to determine upon common policies. For
+some twenty years the Confederation was active and it continued to hold
+meetings until after the extinction of the Indian peril on the immediate
+border.
+
+Virginia, no less than Massachusetts, was aware of the importance of
+intercolonial cooeperation. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the
+Old Dominion began treaties of commerce and amity with New York and the
+colonies of New England. In 1684 delegates from Virginia met at Albany
+with the agents of New York and Massachusetts to discuss problems of
+mutual defense. A few years later the Old Dominion cooeperated loyally
+with the Carolinas in defending their borders against Indian forays.
+
+=The Albany Plan of Union.=--An attempt at a general colonial union was
+made in 1754. On the suggestion of the Lords of Trade in England, a
+conference was held at Albany to consider Indian relations, to devise
+measures of defense against the French, and to enter into "articles of
+union and confederation for the general defense of his Majesty's
+subjects and interests in North America as well in time of peace as of
+war." New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,
+Pennsylvania, and Maryland were represented. After a long discussion, a
+plan of union, drafted mainly, it seems, by Benjamin Franklin, was
+adopted and sent to the colonies and the crown for approval. The
+colonies, jealous of their individual rights, refused to accept the
+scheme and the king disapproved it for the reason, Franklin said, that
+it had "too much weight in the democratic part of the constitution."
+Though the Albany union failed, the document is still worthy of study
+because it forecast many of the perplexing problems that were not solved
+until thirty-three years afterward, when another convention of which
+also Franklin was a member drafted the Constitution of the United
+States.
+
+[Illustration: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN]
+
+=The Military Education of the Colonists.=--The same wars that showed
+the provincials the meaning of union likewise instructed them in the art
+of defending their institutions. Particularly was this true of the last
+French and Indian conflict, which stretched all the way from Maine to
+the Carolinas and made heavy calls upon them all for troops. The answer,
+it is admitted, was far from satisfactory to the British government and
+the conduct of the militiamen was far from professional; but thousands
+of Americans got a taste, a strong taste, of actual fighting in the
+field. Men like George Washington and Daniel Morgan learned lessons that
+were not forgotten in after years. They saw what American militiamen
+could do under favorable circumstances and they watched British regulars
+operating on American soil. "This whole transaction," shrewdly remarked
+Franklin of Braddock's campaign, "gave us Americans the first suspicion
+that our exalted ideas of the prowess of British regular troops had not
+been well founded." It was no mere accident that the Virginia colonel
+who drew his sword under the elm at Cambridge and took command of the
+army of the Revolution was the brave officer who had "spurned the
+whistle of bullets" at the memorable battle in western Pennsylvania.
+
+=Financial Burdens and Commercial Disorder.=--While the provincials were
+learning lessons in warfare they were also paying the bills. All the
+conflicts were costly in treasure as in blood. King Philip's war left
+New England weak and almost bankrupt. The French and Indian struggle was
+especially expensive. The twenty-five thousand men put in the field by
+the colonies were sustained only by huge outlays of money. Paper
+currency streamed from the press and debts were accumulated. Commerce
+was driven from its usual channels and prices were enhanced. When the
+end came, both England and America were staggering under heavy
+liabilities, and to make matters worse there was a fall of prices
+accompanied by a commercial depression which extended over a period of
+ten years. It was in the midst of this crisis that measures of taxation
+had to be devised to pay the cost of the war, precipitating the quarrel
+which led to American independence.
+
+=The Expulsion of French Power from North America.=--The effects of the
+defeat administered to France, as time proved, were difficult to
+estimate. Some British statesmen regarded it as a happy circumstance
+that the colonists, already restive under their administration, had no
+foreign power at hand to aid them in case they struck for independence.
+American leaders, on the other hand, now that the soldiers of King Louis
+were driven from the continent, thought that they had no other country
+to fear if they cast off British sovereignty. At all events, France,
+though defeated, was not out of the sphere of American influence; for,
+as events proved, it was the fortunate French alliance negotiated by
+Franklin that assured the triumph of American arms in the War of the
+Revolution.
+
+
+COLONIAL RELATIONS WITH THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT
+
+It was neither the Indian wars nor the French wars that finally brought
+forth American nationality. That was the product of the long strife
+with the mother country which culminated in union for the war of
+independence. The forces that created this nation did not operate in the
+colonies alone. The character of the English sovereigns, the course of
+events in English domestic politics, and English measures of control
+over the colonies--executive, legislative, and judicial--must all be
+taken into account.
+
+=The Last of the Stuarts.=--The struggles between Charles I (1625-49)
+and the parliamentary party and the turmoil of the Puritan regime
+(1649-60) so engrossed the attention of Englishmen at home that they had
+little time to think of colonial policies or to interfere with colonial
+affairs. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660, accompanied by
+internal peace and the increasing power of the mercantile classes in the
+House of Commons, changed all that. In the reign of Charles II
+(1660-85), himself an easy-going person, the policy of regulating trade
+by act of Parliament was developed into a closely knit system and
+powerful agencies to supervise the colonies were created. At the same
+time a system of stricter control over the dominions was ushered in by
+the annulment of the old charter of Massachusetts which conferred so
+much self-government on the Puritans.
+
+Charles' successor, James II, a man of sterner stuff and jealous of his
+authority in the colonies as well as at home, continued the policy thus
+inaugurated and enlarged upon it. If he could have kept his throne, he
+would have bent the Americans under a harsh rule or brought on in his
+dominions a revolution like that which he precipitated at home in 1688.
+He determined to unite the Northern colonies and introduce a more
+efficient administration based on the pattern of the royal provinces. He
+made a martinet, Sir Edmund Andros, governor of all New England, New
+York, and New Jersey. The charter of Massachusetts, annulled in the last
+days of his brother's reign, he continued to ignore, and that of
+Connecticut would have been seized if it had not been spirited away and
+hidden, according to tradition, in a hollow oak.
+
+For several months, Andros gave the Northern colonies a taste of
+ill-tempered despotism. He wrung quit rents from land owners not
+accustomed to feudal dues; he abrogated titles to land where, in his
+opinion, they were unlawful; he forced the Episcopal service upon the
+Old South Church in Boston; and he denied the writ of _habeas corpus_ to
+a preacher who denounced taxation without representation. In the middle
+of his arbitrary course, however, his hand was stayed. The news came
+that King James had been dethroned by his angry subjects, and the people
+of Boston, kindling a fire on Beacon Hill, summoned the countryside to
+dispose of Andros. The response was prompt and hearty. The hated
+governor was arrested, imprisoned, and sent back across the sea under
+guard.
+
+The overthrow of James, followed by the accession of William and Mary
+and by assured parliamentary supremacy, had an immediate effect in the
+colonies. The new order was greeted with thanksgiving. Massachusetts was
+given another charter which, though not so liberal as the first,
+restored the spirit if not the entire letter of self-government. In the
+other colonies where Andros had been operating, the old course of
+affairs was resumed.
+
+=The Indifference of the First Two Georges.=--On the death in 1714 of
+Queen Anne, the successor of King William, the throne passed to a
+Hanoverian prince who, though grateful for English honors and revenues,
+was more interested in Hanover than in England. George I and George II,
+whose combined reigns extended from 1714 to 1760, never even learned to
+speak the English language, at least without an accent. The necessity of
+taking thought about colonial affairs bored both of them so that the
+stoutest defender of popular privileges in Boston or Charleston had no
+ground to complain of the exercise of personal prerogatives by the king.
+Moreover, during a large part of this period, the direction of affairs
+was in the hands of an astute leader, Sir Robert Walpole, who betrayed
+his somewhat cynical view of politics by adopting as his motto: "Let
+sleeping dogs lie." He revealed his appreciation of popular sentiment
+by exclaiming: "I will not be the minister to enforce taxes at the
+expense of blood." Such kings and such ministers were not likely to
+arouse the slumbering resistance of the thirteen colonies across the
+sea.
+
+=Control of the Crown over the Colonies.=--While no English ruler from
+James II to George III ventured to interfere with colonial matters
+personally, constant control over the colonies was exercised by royal
+officers acting under the authority of the crown. Systematic supervision
+began in 1660, when there was created by royal order a committee of the
+king's council to meet on Mondays and Thursdays of each week to consider
+petitions, memorials, and addresses respecting the plantations. In 1696
+a regular board was established, known as the "Lords of Trade and
+Plantations," which continued, until the American Revolution, to
+scrutinize closely colonial business. The chief duties of the board were
+to examine acts of colonial legislatures, to recommend measures to those
+assemblies for adoption, and to hear memorials and petitions from the
+colonies relative to their affairs.
+
+The methods employed by this board were varied. All laws passed by
+American legislatures came before it for review as a matter of routine.
+If it found an act unsatisfactory, it recommended to the king the
+exercise of his veto power, known as the royal disallowance. Any person
+who believed his personal or property rights injured by a colonial law
+could be heard by the board in person or by attorney; in such cases it
+was the practice to hear at the same time the agent of the colony so
+involved. The royal veto power over colonial legislation was not,
+therefore, a formal affair, but was constantly employed on the
+suggestion of a highly efficient agency of the crown. All this was in
+addition to the powers exercised by the governors in the royal
+provinces.
+
+=Judicial Control.=--Supplementing this administrative control over the
+colonies was a constant supervision by the English courts of law. The
+king, by virtue of his inherent authority, claimed and exercised high
+appellate powers over all judicial tribunals in the empire. The right
+of appeal from local courts, expressly set forth in some charters, was,
+on the eve of the Revolution, maintained in every colony. Any subject in
+England or America, who, in the regular legal course, was aggrieved by
+any act of a colonial legislature or any decision of a colonial court,
+had the right, subject to certain regulations, to carry his case to the
+king in council, forcing his opponent to follow him across the sea. In
+the exercise of appellate power, the king in council acting as a court
+could, and frequently did, declare acts of colonial legislatures duly
+enacted and approved, null and void, on the ground that they were
+contrary to English law.
+
+=Imperial Control in Operation.=--Day after day, week after week, year
+after year, the machinery for political and judicial control over
+colonial affairs was in operation. At one time the British governors in
+the colonies were ordered not to approve any colonial law imposing a
+duty on European goods imported in English vessels. Again, when North
+Carolina laid a tax on peddlers, the council objected to it as
+"restrictive upon the trade and dispersion of English manufactures
+throughout the continent." At other times, Indian trade was regulated in
+the interests of the whole empire or grants of lands by a colonial
+legislature were set aside. Virginia was forbidden to close her ports to
+North Carolina lest there should be retaliation.
+
+In short, foreign and intercolonial trade were subjected to a control
+higher than that of the colony, foreshadowing a day when the
+Constitution of the United States was to commit to Congress the power to
+regulate interstate and foreign commerce and commerce with the Indians.
+A superior judicial power, towering above that of the colonies, as the
+Supreme Court at Washington now towers above the states, kept the
+colonial legislatures within the metes and bounds of established law. In
+the thousands of appeals, memorials, petitions, and complaints, and the
+rulings and decisions upon them, were written the real history of
+British imperial control over the American colonies.
+
+So great was the business before the Lords of Trade that the colonies
+had to keep skilled agents in London to protect their interests. As
+common grievances against the operation of this machinery of control
+arose, there appeared in each colony a considerable body of men, with
+the merchants in the lead, who chafed at the restraints imposed on their
+enterprise. Only a powerful blow was needed to weld these bodies into a
+common mass nourishing the spirit of colonial nationalism. When to the
+repeated minor irritations were added general and sweeping measures of
+Parliament applying to every colony, the rebound came in the Revolution.
+
+=Parliamentary Control over Colonial Affairs.=--As soon as Parliament
+gained in power at the expense of the king, it reached out to bring the
+American colonies under its sway as well. Between the execution of
+Charles I and the accession of George III, there was enacted an immense
+body of legislation regulating the shipping, trade, and manufactures of
+America. All of it, based on the "mercantile" theory then prevalent in
+all countries of Europe, was designed to control the overseas
+plantations in such a way as to foster the commercial and business
+interests of the mother country, where merchants and men of finance had
+got the upper hand. According to this theory, the colonies of the
+British empire should be confined to agriculture and the production of
+raw materials, and forced to buy their manufactured goods of England.
+
+_The Navigation Acts._--In the first rank among these measures of
+British colonial policy must be placed the navigation laws framed for
+the purpose of building up the British merchant marine and navy--arms so
+essential in defending the colonies against the Spanish, Dutch, and
+French. The beginning of this type of legislation was made in 1651 and
+it was worked out into a system early in the reign of Charles II
+(1660-85).
+
+The Navigation Acts, in effect, gave a monopoly of colonial commerce to
+British ships. No trade could be carried on between Great Britain and
+her dominions save in vessels built and manned by British subjects. No
+European goods could be brought to America save in the ships of the
+country that produced them or in English ships. These laws, which were
+almost fatal to Dutch shipping in America, fell with severity upon the
+colonists, compelling them to pay higher freight rates. The adverse
+effect, however, was short-lived, for the measures stimulated
+shipbuilding in the colonies, where the abundance of raw materials gave
+the master builders of America an advantage over those of the mother
+country. Thus the colonists in the end profited from the restrictive
+policy written into the Navigation Acts.
+
+_The Acts against Manufactures._--The second group of laws was
+deliberately aimed to prevent colonial industries from competing too
+sharply with those of England. Among the earliest of these measures may
+be counted the Woolen Act of 1699, forbidding the exportation of woolen
+goods from the colonies and even the woolen trade between towns and
+colonies. When Parliament learned, as the result of an inquiry, that New
+England and New York were making thousands of hats a year and sending
+large numbers annually to the Southern colonies and to Ireland, Spain,
+and Portugal, it enacted in 1732 a law declaring that "no hats or felts,
+dyed or undyed, finished or unfinished" should be "put upon any vessel
+or laden upon any horse or cart with intent to export to any place
+whatever." The effect of this measure upon the hat industry was almost
+ruinous. A few years later a similar blow was given to the iron
+industry. By an act of 1750, pig and bar iron from the colonies were
+given free entry to England to encourage the production of the raw
+material; but at the same time the law provided that "no mill or other
+engine for slitting or rolling of iron, no plating forge to work with a
+tilt hammer, and no furnace for making steel" should be built in the
+colonies. As for those already built, they were declared public
+nuisances and ordered closed. Thus three important economic interests of
+the colonists, the woolen, hat, and iron industries, were laid under the
+ban.
+
+_The Trade Laws._--The third group of restrictive measures passed by the
+British Parliament related to the sale of colonial produce. An act of
+1663 required the colonies to export certain articles to Great Britain
+or to her dominions alone; while sugar, tobacco, and ginger consigned to
+the continent of Europe had to pass through a British port paying custom
+duties and through a British merchant's hands paying the usual
+commission. At first tobacco was the only one of the "enumerated
+articles" which seriously concerned the American colonies, the rest
+coming mainly from the British West Indies. In the course of time,
+however, other commodities were added to the list of enumerated
+articles, until by 1764 it embraced rice, naval stores, copper, furs,
+hides, iron, lumber, and pearl ashes. This was not all. The colonies
+were compelled to bring their European purchases back through English
+ports, paying duties to the government and commissions to merchants
+again.
+
+_The Molasses Act._--Not content with laws enacted in the interest of
+English merchants and manufacturers, Parliament sought to protect the
+British West Indies against competition from their French and Dutch
+neighbors. New England merchants had long carried on a lucrative trade
+with the French islands in the West Indies and Dutch Guiana, where sugar
+and molasses could be obtained in large quantities at low prices. Acting
+on the protests of English planters in the Barbadoes and Jamaica,
+Parliament, in 1733, passed the famous Molasses Act imposing duties on
+sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from foreign
+countries--rates which would have destroyed the American trade with the
+French and Dutch if the law had been enforced. The duties, however, were
+not collected. The molasses and sugar trade with the foreigners went on
+merrily, smuggling taking the place of lawful traffic.
+
+=Effect of the Laws in America.=--As compared with the strict monopoly
+of her colonial trade which Spain consistently sought to maintain, the
+policy of England was both moderate and liberal. Furthermore, the
+restrictive laws were supplemented by many measures intended to be
+favorable to colonial prosperity. The Navigation Acts, for example,
+redounded to the advantage of American shipbuilders and the producers
+of hemp, tar, lumber, and ship stores in general. Favors in British
+ports were granted to colonial producers as against foreign competitors
+and in some instances bounties were paid by England to encourage
+colonial enterprise. Taken all in all, there is much justification in
+the argument advanced by some modern scholars to the effect that the
+colonists gained more than they lost by British trade and industrial
+legislation. Certainly after the establishment of independence, when
+free from these old restrictions, the Americans found themselves
+handicapped by being treated as foreigners rather than favored traders
+and the recipients of bounties in English markets.
+
+Be that as it may, it appears that the colonists felt little irritation
+against the mother country on account of the trade and navigation laws
+enacted previous to the close of the French and Indian war. Relatively
+few were engaged in the hat and iron industries as compared with those
+in farming and planting, so that England's policy of restricting America
+to agriculture did not conflict with the interests of the majority of
+the inhabitants. The woolen industry was largely in the hands of women
+and carried on in connection with their domestic duties, so that it was
+not the sole support of any considerable number of people.
+
+As a matter of fact, moreover, the restrictive laws, especially those
+relating to trade, were not rigidly enforced. Cargoes of tobacco were
+boldly sent to continental ports without even so much as a bow to the
+English government, to which duties should have been paid. Sugar and
+molasses from the French and Dutch colonies were shipped into New
+England in spite of the law. Royal officers sometimes protested against
+smuggling and sometimes connived at it; but at no time did they succeed
+in stopping it. Taken all in all, very little was heard of "the galling
+restraints of trade" until after the French war, when the British
+government suddenly entered upon a new course.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+In the period between the landing of the English at Jamestown, Virginia,
+in 1607, and the close of the French and Indian war in 1763--a period of
+a century and a half--a new nation was being prepared on this continent
+to take its place among the powers of the earth. It was an epoch of
+migration. Western Europe contributed emigrants of many races and
+nationalities. The English led the way. Next to them in numerical
+importance were the Scotch-Irish and the Germans. Into the melting pot
+were also cast Dutch, Swedes, French, Jews, Welsh, and Irish. Thousands
+of negroes were brought from Africa to till Southern fields or labor as
+domestic servants in the North.
+
+Why did they come? The reasons are various. Some of them, the Pilgrims
+and Puritans of New England, the French Huguenots, Scotch-Irish and
+Irish, and the Catholics of Maryland, fled from intolerant governments
+that denied them the right to worship God according to the dictates of
+their consciences. Thousands came to escape the bondage of poverty in
+the Old World and to find free homes in America. Thousands, like the
+negroes from Africa, were dragged here against their will. The lure of
+adventure appealed to the restless and the lure of profits to the
+enterprising merchants.
+
+How did they come? In some cases religious brotherhoods banded together
+and borrowed or furnished the funds necessary to pay the way. In other
+cases great trading companies were organized to found colonies. Again it
+was the wealthy proprietor, like Lord Baltimore or William Penn, who
+undertook to plant settlements. Many immigrants were able to pay their
+own way across the sea. Others bound themselves out for a term of years
+in exchange for the cost of the passage. Negroes were brought on account
+of the profits derived from their sale as slaves.
+
+Whatever the motive for their coming, however, they managed to get
+across the sea. The immigrants set to work with a will. They cut down
+forests, built houses, and laid out fields. They founded churches,
+schools, and colleges. They set up forges and workshops. They spun and
+wove. They fashioned ships and sailed the seas. They bartered and
+traded. Here and there on favorable harbors they established centers of
+commerce--Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and
+Charleston. As soon as a firm foothold was secured on the shore line
+they pressed westward until, by the close of the colonial period, they
+were already on the crest of the Alleghanies.
+
+Though they were widely scattered along a thousand miles of seacoast,
+the colonists were united in spirit by many common ties. The major
+portion of them were Protestants. The language, the law, and the
+literature of England furnished the basis of national unity. Most of the
+colonists were engaged in the same hard task; that of conquering a
+wilderness. To ties of kinship and language were added ties created by
+necessity. They had to unite in defense; first, against the Indians and
+later against the French. They were all subjects of the same
+sovereign--the king of England. The English Parliament made laws for
+them and the English government supervised their local affairs, their
+trade, and their manufactures. Common forces assailed them. Common
+grievances vexed them. Common hopes inspired them.
+
+Many of the things which tended to unite them likewise tended to throw
+them into opposition to the British Crown and Parliament. Most of them
+were freeholders; that is, farmers who owned their own land and tilled
+it with their own hands. A free soil nourished the spirit of freedom.
+The majority of them were Dissenters, critics, not friends, of the
+Church of England, that stanch defender of the British monarchy. Each
+colony in time developed its own legislature elected by the voters; it
+grew accustomed to making laws and laying taxes for itself. Here was a
+people learning self-reliance and self-government. The attempts to
+strengthen the Church of England in America and the transformation of
+colonies into royal provinces only fanned the spirit of independence
+which they were designed to quench.
+
+Nevertheless, the Americans owed much of their prosperity to the
+assistance of the government that irritated them. It was the protection
+of the British navy that prevented Holland, Spain, and France from
+wiping out their settlements. Though their manufacture and trade were
+controlled in the interests of the mother country, they also enjoyed
+great advantages in her markets. Free trade existed nowhere upon the
+earth; but the broad empire of Britain was open to American ships and
+merchandise. It could be said, with good reason, that the disadvantages
+which the colonists suffered through British regulation of their
+industry and trade were more than offset by the privileges they enjoyed.
+Still that is somewhat beside the point, for mere economic advantage is
+not necessarily the determining factor in the fate of peoples. A
+thousand circumstances had helped to develop on this continent a nation,
+to inspire it with a passion for independence, and to prepare it for a
+destiny greater than that of a prosperous dominion of the British
+empire. The economists, who tried to prove by logic unassailable that
+America would be richer under the British flag, could not change the
+spirit of Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, or George
+Washington.
+
+
+=References=
+
+G.L. Beer, _Origin of the British Colonial System_ and _The Old Colonial
+System_.
+
+A. Bradley, _The Fight for Canada in North America_.
+
+C.M. Andrews, _Colonial Self-Government_ (American Nation Series).
+
+H. Egerton, _Short History of British Colonial Policy_.
+
+F. Parkman, _France and England in North America_ (12 vols.).
+
+R. Thwaites, _France in America_ (American Nation Series).
+
+J. Winsor, _The Mississippi Valley_ and _Cartier to Frontenac_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. How would you define "nationalism"?
+
+2. Can you give any illustrations of the way that war promotes
+nationalism?
+
+3. Why was it impossible to establish and maintain a uniform policy in
+dealing with the Indians?
+
+4. What was the outcome of the final clash with the French?
+
+5. Enumerate the five chief results of the wars with the French and the
+Indians. Discuss each in detail.
+
+6. Explain why it was that the character of the English king mattered to
+the colonists.
+
+7. Contrast England under the Stuarts with England under the
+Hanoverians.
+
+8. Explain how the English Crown, Courts, and Parliament controlled the
+colonies.
+
+9. Name the three important classes of English legislation affecting the
+colonies. Explain each.
+
+10. Do you think the English legislation was beneficial or injurious to
+the colonies? Why?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Rise of French Power in North America.=--Special reference: Francis
+Parkman, _Struggle for a Continent_.
+
+=The French and Indian Wars.=--Special reference: W.M. Sloane, _French
+War and the Revolution_, Chaps. VI-IX. Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_,
+Vol. II, pp. 195-299. Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+171-196.
+
+=English Navigation Acts.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp.
+55, 72, 78, 90, 103. Coman, _Industrial History_, pp. 79-85.
+
+=British Colonial Policy.=--Callender, _Economic History of the United
+States_, pp. 102-108.
+
+=The New England Confederation.=--Analyze the document in Macdonald,
+_Source Book_, p. 45. Special reference: Fiske, _Beginnings of New
+England_, pp. 140-198.
+
+=The Administration of Andros.=--Fiske, _Beginnings_, pp. 242-278.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--William Pitt and Sir Robert Walpole. Consult
+Green, _Short History of England_, on their policies, using the index.
+
+
+
+
+PART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY
+
+
+On October 25, 1760, King George II died and the British crown passed to
+his young grandson. The first George, the son of the Elector of Hanover
+and Sophia the granddaughter of James I, was a thorough German who never
+even learned to speak the language of the land over which he reigned.
+The second George never saw England until he was a man. He spoke English
+with an accent and until his death preferred his German home. During
+their reign, the principle had become well established that the king did
+not govern but acted only through ministers representing the majority in
+Parliament.
+
+
+GEORGE III AND HIS SYSTEM
+
+=The Character of the New King.=--The third George rudely broke the
+German tradition of his family. He resented the imputation that he was a
+foreigner and on all occasions made a display of his British sympathies.
+To the draft of his first speech to Parliament, he added the popular
+phrase: "Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of
+Briton." Macaulay, the English historian, certainly of no liking for
+high royal prerogative, said of George: "The young king was a born
+Englishman. All his tastes and habits, good and bad, were English. No
+portion of his subjects had anything to reproach him with.... His age,
+his appearance, and all that was known of his character conciliated
+public favor. He was in the bloom of youth; his person and address were
+pleasing; scandal imputed to him no vice; and flattery might without
+glaring absurdity ascribe to him many princely virtues."
+
+Nevertheless George III had been spoiled by his mother, his tutors, and
+his courtiers. Under their influence he developed high and mighty
+notions about the sacredness of royal authority and his duty to check
+the pretensions of Parliament and the ministers dependent upon it. His
+mother had dinned into his ears the slogan: "George, be king!" Lord
+Bute, his teacher and adviser, had told him that his honor required him
+to take an active part in the shaping of public policy and the making of
+laws. Thus educated, he surrounded himself with courtiers who encouraged
+him in the determination to rule as well as reign, to subdue all
+parties, and to place himself at the head of the nation and empire.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+GEORGE III]
+
+=Political Parties and George III.=--The state of the political parties
+favored the plans of the king to restore some of the ancient luster of
+the crown. The Whigs, who were composed mainly of the smaller
+freeholders, merchants, inhabitants of towns, and Protestant
+non-conformists, had grown haughty and overbearing through long
+continuance in power and had as a consequence raised up many enemies in
+their own ranks. Their opponents, the Tories, had by this time given up
+all hope of restoring to the throne the direct Stuart line; but they
+still cherished their old notions about divine right. With the
+accession of George III the coveted opportunity came to them to rally
+around the throne again. George received his Tory friends with open
+arms, gave them offices, and bought them seats in the House of Commons.
+
+=The British Parliamentary System.=--The peculiarities of the British
+Parliament at the time made smooth the way for the king and his allies
+with their designs for controlling the entire government. In the first
+place, the House of Lords was composed mainly of hereditary nobles whose
+number the king could increase by the appointment of his favorites, as
+of old. Though the members of the House of Commons were elected by
+popular vote, they did not speak for the mass of English people. Great
+towns like Leeds, Manchester, and Birmingham, for example, had no
+representatives at all. While there were about eight million inhabitants
+in Great Britain, there were in 1768 only about 160,000 voters; that is
+to say, only about one in every ten adult males had a voice in the
+government. Many boroughs returned one or more members to the Commons
+although they had merely a handful of voters or in some instances no
+voters at all. Furthermore, these tiny boroughs were often controlled by
+lords who openly sold the right of representation to the highest bidder.
+The "rotten-boroughs," as they were called by reformers, were a public
+scandal, but George III readily made use of them to get his friends into
+the House of Commons.
+
+
+GEORGE III'S MINISTERS AND THEIR COLONIAL POLICIES
+
+=Grenville and the War Debt.=--Within a year after the accession of
+George III, William Pitt was turned out of office, the king treating him
+with "gross incivility" and the crowds shouting "Pitt forever!" The
+direction of affairs was entrusted to men enjoying the king's
+confidence. Leadership in the House of Commons fell to George Grenville,
+a grave and laborious man who for years had groaned over the increasing
+cost of government.
+
+The first task after the conclusion of peace in 1763 was the adjustment
+of the disordered finances of the kingdom. The debt stood at the highest
+point in the history of the country. More revenue was absolutely
+necessary and Grenville began to search for it, turning his attention
+finally to the American colonies. In this quest he had the aid of a
+zealous colleague, Charles Townshend, who had long been in public
+service and was familiar with the difficulties encountered by royal
+governors in America. These two men, with the support of the entire
+ministry, inaugurated in February, 1763, "a new system of colonial
+government. It was announced by authority that there were to be no more
+requisitions from the king to the colonial assemblies for supplies, but
+that the colonies were to be taxed instead by act of Parliament.
+Colonial governors and judges were to be paid by the Crown; they were to
+be supported by a standing army of twenty regiments; and all the
+expenses of this force were to be met by parliamentary taxation."
+
+=Restriction of Paper Money (1763).=--Among the many complaints filed
+before the board of trade were vigorous protests against the issuance of
+paper money by the colonial legislatures. The new ministry provided a
+remedy in the act of 1763, which declared void all colonial laws
+authorizing paper money or extending the life of outstanding bills. This
+law was aimed at the "cheap money" which the Americans were fond of
+making when specie was scarce--money which they tried to force on their
+English creditors in return for goods and in payment of the interest and
+principal of debts. Thus the first chapter was written in the long
+battle over sound money on this continent.
+
+=Limitation on Western Land Sales.=--Later in the same year (1763)
+George III issued a royal proclamation providing, among other things,
+for the government of the territory recently acquired by the treaty of
+Paris from the French. One of the provisions in this royal decree
+touched frontiersmen to the quick. The contests between the king's
+officers and the colonists over the disposition of western lands had
+been long and sharp. The Americans chafed at restrictions on
+settlement. The more adventurous were continually moving west and
+"squatting" on land purchased from the Indians or simply seized without
+authority. To put an end to this, the king forbade all further purchases
+from the Indians, reserving to the crown the right to acquire such lands
+and dispose of them for settlement. A second provision in the same
+proclamation vested the power of licensing trade with the Indians,
+including the lucrative fur business, in the hands of royal officers in
+the colonies. These two limitations on American freedom and enterprise
+were declared to be in the interest of the crown and for the
+preservation of the rights of the Indians against fraud and abuses.
+
+=The Sugar Act of 1764.=--King George's ministers next turned their
+attention to measures of taxation and trade. Since the heavy debt under
+which England was laboring had been largely incurred in the defense of
+America, nothing seemed more reasonable to them than the proposition
+that the colonies should help to bear the burden which fell so heavily
+upon the English taxpayer. The Sugar Act of 1764 was the result of this
+reasoning. There was no doubt about the purpose of this law, for it was
+set forth clearly in the title: "An act for granting certain duties in
+the British colonies and plantations in America ... for applying the
+produce of such duties ... towards defraying the expenses of defending,
+protecting and securing the said colonies and plantations ... and for
+more effectually preventing the clandestine conveyance of goods to and
+from the said colonies and plantations and improving and securing the
+trade between the same and Great Britain." The old Molasses Act had been
+prohibitive; the Sugar Act of 1764 was clearly intended as a revenue
+measure. Specified duties were laid upon sugar, indigo, calico, silks,
+and many other commodities imported into the colonies. The enforcement
+of the Molasses Act had been utterly neglected; but this Sugar Act had
+"teeth in it." Special precautions as to bonds, security, and
+registration of ship masters, accompanied by heavy penalties, promised
+a vigorous execution of the new revenue law.
+
+The strict terms of the Sugar Act were strengthened by administrative
+measures. Under a law of the previous year the commanders of armed
+vessels stationed along the American coast were authorized to stop,
+search, and, on suspicion, seize merchant ships approaching colonial
+ports. By supplementary orders, the entire British official force in
+America was instructed to be diligent in the execution of all trade and
+navigation laws. Revenue collectors, officers of the army and navy, and
+royal governors were curtly ordered to the front to do their full duty
+in the matter of law enforcement. The ordinary motives for the discharge
+of official obligations were sharpened by an appeal to avarice, for
+naval officers who seized offenders against the law were rewarded by
+large prizes out of the forfeitures and penalties.
+
+=The Stamp Act (1765).=--The Grenville-Townshend combination moved
+steadily towards its goal. While the Sugar Act was under consideration
+in Parliament, Grenville announced a plan for a stamp bill. The next
+year it went through both Houses with a speed that must have astounded
+its authors. The vote in the Commons stood 205 in favor to 49 against;
+while in the Lords it was not even necessary to go through the formality
+of a count. As George III was temporarily insane, the measure received
+royal assent by a commission acting as a board of regency. Protests of
+colonial agents in London were futile. "We might as well have hindered
+the sun's progress!" exclaimed Franklin. Protests of a few opponents in
+the Commons were equally vain. The ministry was firm in its course and
+from all appearances the Stamp Act hardly roused as much as a languid
+interest in the city of London. In fact, it is recorded that the fateful
+measure attracted less notice than a bill providing for a commission to
+act for the king when he was incapacitated.
+
+The Stamp Act, like the Sugar Act, declared the purpose of the British
+government to raise revenue in America "towards defraying the expenses
+of defending, protecting, and securing the British colonies and
+plantations in America." It was a long measure of more than fifty
+sections, carefully planned and skillfully drawn. By its provisions
+duties were imposed on practically all papers used in legal
+transactions,--deeds, mortgages, inventories, writs, bail bonds,--on
+licenses to practice law and sell liquor, on college diplomas, playing
+cards, dice, pamphlets, newspapers, almanacs, calendars, and
+advertisements. The drag net was closely knit, for scarcely anything
+escaped.
+
+=The Quartering Act (1765).=--The ministers were aware that the Stamp
+Act would rouse opposition in America--how great they could not
+conjecture. While the measure was being debated, a friend of General
+Wolfe, Colonel Barre, who knew America well, gave them an ominous
+warning in the Commons. "Believe me--remember I this day told you so--"
+he exclaimed, "the same spirit of freedom which actuated that people at
+first will accompany them still ... a people jealous of their liberties
+and who will vindicate them, if ever they should be violated." The
+answer of the ministry to a prophecy of force was a threat of force.
+Preparations were accordingly made to dispatch a larger number of
+soldiers than usual to the colonies, and the ink was hardly dry on the
+Stamp Act when Parliament passed the Quartering Act ordering the
+colonists to provide accommodations for the soldiers who were to enforce
+the new laws. "We have the power to tax them," said one of the ministry,
+"and we will tax them."
+
+
+COLONIAL RESISTANCE FORCES REPEAL
+
+=Popular Opposition.=--The Stamp Act was greeted in America by an
+outburst of denunciation. The merchants of the seaboard cities took the
+lead in making a dignified but unmistakable protest, agreeing not to
+import British goods while the hated law stood upon the books. Lawyers,
+some of them incensed at the heavy taxes on their operations and others
+intimidated by patriots who refused to permit them to use stamped
+papers, joined with the merchants. Aristocratic colonial Whigs, who had
+long grumbled at the administration of royal governors, protested
+against taxation without their consent, as the Whigs had done in old
+England. There were Tories, however, in the colonies as in England--many
+of them of the official class--who denounced the merchants, lawyers, and
+Whig aristocrats as "seditious, factious and republican." Yet the
+opposition to the Stamp Act and its accompanying measure, the Quartering
+Act, grew steadily all through the summer of 1765.
+
+In a little while it was taken up in the streets and along the
+countryside. All through the North and in some of the Southern colonies,
+there sprang up, as if by magic, committees and societies pledged to
+resist the Stamp Act to the bitter end. These popular societies were
+known as Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty: the former including
+artisans, mechanics, and laborers; and the latter, patriotic women. Both
+groups were alike in that they had as yet taken little part in public
+affairs. Many artisans, as well as all the women, were excluded from the
+right to vote for colonial assemblymen.
+
+While the merchants and Whig gentlemen confined their efforts chiefly to
+drafting well-phrased protests against British measures, the Sons of
+Liberty operated in the streets and chose rougher measures. They stirred
+up riots in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston when attempts
+were made to sell the stamps. They sacked and burned the residences of
+high royal officers. They organized committees of inquisition who by
+threats and intimidation curtailed the sale of British goods and the use
+of stamped papers. In fact, the Sons of Liberty carried their operations
+to such excesses that many mild opponents of the stamp tax were
+frightened and drew back in astonishment at the forces they had
+unloosed. The Daughters of Liberty in a quieter way were making a very
+effective resistance to the sale of the hated goods by spurring on
+domestic industries, their own particular province being the manufacture
+of clothing, and devising substitutes for taxed foods. They helped to
+feed and clothe their families without buying British goods.
+
+=Legislative Action against the Stamp Act.=--Leaders in the colonial
+assemblies, accustomed to battle against British policies, supported the
+popular protest. The Stamp Act was signed on March 22, 1765. On May 30,
+the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a set of resolutions declaring
+that the General Assembly of the colony alone had the right to lay taxes
+upon the inhabitants and that attempts to impose them otherwise were
+"illegal, unconstitutional, and unjust." It was in support of these
+resolutions that Patrick Henry uttered the immortal challenge: "Caesar
+had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III...." Cries of
+"Treason" were calmly met by the orator who finished: "George III may
+profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it."
+
+[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY]
+
+=The Stamp Act Congress.=--The Massachusetts Assembly answered the call
+of Virginia by inviting the colonies to elect delegates to a Congress to
+be held in New York to discuss the situation. Nine colonies responded
+and sent representatives. The delegates, while professing the warmest
+affection for the king's person and government, firmly spread on record
+a series of resolutions that admitted of no double meaning. They
+declared that taxes could not be imposed without their consent, given
+through their respective colonial assemblies; that the Stamp Act showed
+a tendency to subvert their rights and liberties; that the recent trade
+acts were burdensome and grievous; and that the right to petition the
+king and Parliament was their heritage. They thereupon made "humble
+supplication" for the repeal of the Stamp Act.
+
+The Stamp Act Congress was more than an assembly of protest. It marked
+the rise of a new agency of government to express the will of America.
+It was the germ of a government which in time was to supersede the
+government of George III in the colonies. It foreshadowed the Congress
+of the United States under the Constitution. It was a successful attempt
+at union. "There ought to be no New England men," declared Christopher
+Gadsden, in the Stamp Act Congress, "no New Yorkers known on the
+Continent, but all of us Americans."
+
+=The Repeal of the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act.=--The effect of American
+resistance on opinion in England was telling. Commerce with the colonies
+had been effectively boycotted by the Americans; ships lay idly swinging
+at the wharves; bankruptcy threatened hundreds of merchants in London,
+Bristol, and Liverpool. Workingmen in the manufacturing towns of England
+were thrown out of employment. The government had sown folly and was
+reaping, in place of the coveted revenue, rebellion.
+
+Perplexed by the storm they had raised, the ministers summoned to the
+bar of the House of Commons, Benjamin Franklin, the agent for
+Pennsylvania, who was in London. "Do you think it right," asked
+Grenville, "that America should be protected by this country and pay no
+part of the expenses?" The answer was brief: "That is not the case; the
+colonies raised, clothed, and paid during the last war twenty-five
+thousand men and spent many millions." Then came an inquiry whether the
+colonists would accept a modified stamp act. "No, never," replied
+Franklin, "never! They will never submit to it!" It was next suggested
+that military force might compel obedience to law. Franklin had a ready
+answer. "They cannot force a man to take stamps.... They may not find a
+rebellion; they may, indeed, make one."
+
+The repeal of the Stamp Act was moved in the House of Commons a few days
+later. The sponsor for the repeal spoke of commerce interrupted, debts
+due British merchants placed in jeopardy, Manchester industries closed,
+workingmen unemployed, oppression instituted, and the loss of the
+colonies threatened. Pitt and Edmund Burke, the former near the close
+of his career, the latter just beginning his, argued cogently in favor
+of retracing the steps taken the year before. Grenville refused.
+"America must learn," he wailed, "that prayers are not to be brought to
+Caesar through riot and sedition." His protests were idle. The Commons
+agreed to the repeal on February 22, 1766, amid the cheers of the
+victorious majority. It was carried through the Lords in the face of
+strong opposition and, on March 18, reluctantly signed by the king, now
+restored to his right mind.
+
+In rescinding the Stamp Act, Parliament did not admit the contention of
+the Americans that it was without power to tax them. On the contrary, it
+accompanied the repeal with a Declaratory Act. It announced that the
+colonies were subordinate to the crown and Parliament of Great Britain;
+that the king and Parliament therefore had undoubted authority to make
+laws binding the colonies in all cases whatsoever; and that the
+resolutions and proceedings of the colonists denying such authority were
+null and void.
+
+The repeal was greeted by the colonists with great popular
+demonstrations. Bells were rung; toasts to the king were drunk; and
+trade resumed its normal course. The Declaratory Act, as a mere paper
+resolution, did not disturb the good humor of those who again cheered
+the name of King George. Their confidence was soon strengthened by the
+news that even the Sugar Act had been repealed, thus practically
+restoring the condition of affairs before Grenville and Townshend
+inaugurated their policy of "thoroughness."
+
+
+RESUMPTION OF BRITISH REVENUE AND COMMERCIAL POLICIES
+
+=The Townshend Acts (1767).=--The triumph of the colonists was brief.
+Though Pitt, the friend of America, was once more prime minister, and
+seated in the House of Lords as the Earl of Chatham, his severe illness
+gave to Townshend and the Tory party practical control over Parliament.
+Unconvinced by the experience with the Stamp Act, Townshend brought
+forward and pushed through both Houses of Parliament three measures,
+which to this day are associated with his name. First among his
+restrictive laws was that of June 29, 1767, which placed the enforcement
+of the collection of duties and customs on colonial imports and exports
+in the hands of British commissioners appointed by the king, resident in
+the colonies, paid from the British treasury, and independent of all
+control by the colonists. The second measure of the same date imposed a
+tax on lead, glass, paint, tea, and a few other articles imported into
+the colonies, the revenue derived from the duties to be applied toward
+the payment of the salaries and other expenses of royal colonial
+officials. A third measure was the Tea Act of July 2, 1767, aimed at the
+tea trade which the Americans carried on illegally with foreigners. This
+law abolished the duty which the East India Company had to pay in
+England on tea exported to America, for it was thought that English tea
+merchants might thus find it possible to undersell American tea
+smugglers.
+
+=Writs of Assistance Legalized by Parliament.=--Had Parliament been
+content with laying duties, just as a manifestation of power and right,
+and neglected their collection, perhaps little would have been heard of
+the Townshend Acts. It provided, however, for the strict, even the
+harsh, enforcement of the law. It ordered customs officers to remain at
+their posts and put an end to smuggling. In the revenue act of June 29,
+1767, it expressly authorized the superior courts of the colonies to
+issue "writs of assistance," empowering customs officers to enter "any
+house, warehouse, shop, cellar, or other place in the British colonies
+or plantations in America to search for and seize" prohibited or
+smuggled goods.
+
+The writ of assistance, which was a general search warrant issued to
+revenue officers, was an ancient device hateful to a people who
+cherished the spirit of personal independence and who had made actual
+gains in the practice of civil liberty. To allow a "minion of the law"
+to enter a man's house and search his papers and premises, was too much
+for the emotions of people who had fled to America in a quest for
+self-government and free homes, who had braved such hardships to
+establish them, and who wanted to trade without official interference.
+
+The writ of assistance had been used in Massachusetts in 1755 to prevent
+illicit trade with Canada and had aroused a violent hostility at that
+time. In 1761 it was again the subject of a bitter controversy which
+arose in connection with the application of a customs officer to a
+Massachusetts court for writs of assistance "as usual." This application
+was vainly opposed by James Otis in a speech of five hours' duration--a
+speech of such fire and eloquence that it sent every man who heard it
+away "ready to take up arms against writs of assistance." Otis denounced
+the practice as an exercise of arbitrary power which had cost one king
+his head and another his throne, a tyrant's device which placed the
+liberty of every man in jeopardy, enabling any petty officer to work
+possible malice on any innocent citizen on the merest suspicion, and to
+spread terror and desolation through the land. "What a scene," he
+exclaimed, "does this open! Every man, prompted by revenge, ill-humor,
+or wantonness to inspect the inside of his neighbor's house, may get a
+writ of assistance. Others will ask it from self-defense; one arbitrary
+exertion will provoke another until society is involved in tumult and
+blood." He did more than attack the writ itself. He said that Parliament
+could not establish it because it was against the British constitution.
+This was an assertion resting on slender foundation, but it was quickly
+echoed by the people. Then and there James Otis sounded the call to
+America to resist the exercise of arbitrary power by royal officers.
+"Then and there," wrote John Adams, "the child Independence was born."
+Such was the hated writ that Townshend proposed to put into the hands of
+customs officers in his grim determination to enforce the law.
+
+=The New York Assembly Suspended.=--In the very month that Townshend's
+Acts were signed by the king, Parliament took a still more drastic step.
+The assembly of New York, protesting against the "ruinous and
+insupportable" expense involved, had failed to make provision for the
+care of British troops in accordance with the terms of the Quartering
+Act. Parliament therefore suspended the assembly until it promised to
+obey the law. It was not until a third election was held that compliance
+with the Quartering Act was wrung from the reluctant province. In the
+meantime, all the colonies had learned on how frail a foundation their
+representative bodies rested.
+
+
+RENEWED RESISTANCE IN AMERICA
+
+=The Massachusetts Circular (1768).=--Massachusetts, under the
+leadership of Samuel Adams, resolved to resist the policy of renewed
+intervention in America. At his suggestion the assembly adopted a
+Circular Letter addressed to the assemblies of the other colonies
+informing them of the state of affairs in Massachusetts and roundly
+condemning the whole British program. The Circular Letter declared that
+Parliament had no right to lay taxes on Americans without their consent
+and that the colonists could not, from the nature of the case, be
+represented in Parliament. It went on shrewdly to submit to
+consideration the question as to whether any people could be called free
+who were subjected to governors and judges appointed by the crown and
+paid out of funds raised independently. It invited the other colonies,
+in the most temperate tones, to take thought about the common
+predicament in which they were all placed.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+SAMUEL ADAMS]
+
+=The Dissolution of Assemblies.=--The governor of Massachusetts, hearing
+of the Circular Letter, ordered the assembly to rescind its appeal. On
+meeting refusal, he promptly dissolved it. The Maryland, Georgia, and
+South Carolina assemblies indorsed the Circular Letter and were also
+dissolved at once. The Virginia House of Burgesses, thoroughly aroused,
+passed resolutions on May 16, 1769, declaring that the sole right of
+imposing taxes in Virginia was vested in its legislature, asserting anew
+the right of petition to the crown, condemning the transportation of
+persons accused of crimes or trial beyond the seas, and beseeching the
+king for a redress of the general grievances. The immediate dissolution
+of the Virginia assembly, in its turn, was the answer of the royal
+governor.
+
+=The Boston Massacre.=--American opposition to the British authorities
+kept steadily rising as assemblies were dissolved, the houses of
+citizens searched, and troops distributed in increasing numbers among
+the centers of discontent. Merchants again agreed not to import British
+goods, the Sons of Liberty renewed their agitation, and women set about
+the patronage of home products still more loyally.
+
+On the night of March 5, 1770, a crowd on the streets of Boston began to
+jostle and tease some British regulars stationed in the town. Things
+went from bad to worse until some "boys and young fellows" began to
+throw snowballs and stones. Then the exasperated soldiers fired into the
+crowd, killing five and wounding half a dozen more. The day after the
+"massacre," a mass meeting was held in the town and Samuel Adams was
+sent to demand the withdrawal of the soldiers. The governor hesitated
+and tried to compromise. Finding Adams relentless, the governor yielded
+and ordered the regulars away.
+
+The Boston Massacre stirred the country from New Hampshire to Georgia.
+Popular passions ran high. The guilty soldiers were charged with murder.
+Their defense was undertaken, in spite of the wrath of the populace, by
+John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who as lawyers thought even the worst
+offenders entitled to their full rights in law. In his speech to the
+jury, however, Adams warned the British government against its course,
+saying, that "from the nature of things soldiers quartered in a populous
+town will always occasion two mobs where they will prevent one." Two of
+the soldiers were convicted and lightly punished.
+
+=Resistance in the South.=--The year following the Boston Massacre some
+citizens of North Carolina, goaded by the conduct of the royal governor,
+openly resisted his authority. Many were killed as a result and seven
+who were taken prisoners were hanged as traitors. A little later royal
+troops and local militia met in a pitched battle near Alamance River,
+called the "Lexington of the South."
+
+=The _Gaspee_ Affair and the Virginia Resolutions of 1773.=--On sea as
+well as on land, friction between the royal officers and the colonists
+broke out into overt acts. While patrolling Narragansett Bay looking for
+smugglers one day in 1772, the armed ship, _Gaspee_, ran ashore and was
+caught fast. During the night several men from Providence boarded the
+vessel and, after seizing the crew, set it on fire. A royal commission,
+sent to Rhode Island to discover the offenders and bring them to
+account, failed because it could not find a single informer. The very
+appointment of such a commission aroused the patriots of Virginia to
+action; and in March, 1773, the House of Burgesses passed a resolution
+creating a standing committee of correspondence to develop cooeperation
+among the colonies in resistance to British measures.
+
+=The Boston Tea Party.=--Although the British government, finding the
+Townshend revenue act a failure, repealed in 1770 all the duties except
+that on tea, it in no way relaxed its resolve to enforce the other
+commercial regulations it had imposed on the colonies. Moreover,
+Parliament decided to relieve the British East India Company of the
+financial difficulties into which it had fallen partly by reason of the
+Tea Act and the colonial boycott that followed. In 1773 it agreed to
+return to the Company the regular import duties, levied in England, on
+all tea transshipped to America. A small impost of three pence, to be
+collected in America, was left as a reminder of the principle laid down
+in the Declaratory Act that Parliament had the right to tax the
+colonists.
+
+This arrangement with the East India Company was obnoxious to the
+colonists for several reasons. It was an act of favoritism for one
+thing, in the interest of a great monopoly. For another thing, it
+promised to dump on the American market, suddenly, an immense amount of
+cheap tea and so cause heavy losses to American merchants who had large
+stocks on hand. It threatened with ruin the business of all those who
+were engaged in clandestine trade with the Dutch. It carried with it an
+irritating tax of three pence on imports. In Charleston, Annapolis, New
+York, and Boston, captains of ships who brought tea under this act were
+roughly handled. One night in December, 1773, a band of Boston citizens,
+disguised as Indians, boarded the hated tea ships and dumped the cargo
+into the harbor. This was serious business, for it was open, flagrant,
+determined violation of the law. As such the British government viewed
+it.
+
+
+RETALIATION BY THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT
+
+=Reception of the News of the Tea Riot.=--The news of the tea riot in
+Boston confirmed King George in his conviction that there should be no
+soft policy in dealing with his American subjects. "The die is cast," he
+stated with evident satisfaction. "The colonies must either triumph or
+submit.... If we take the resolute part, they will undoubtedly be very
+meek." Lord George Germain characterized the tea party as "the
+proceedings of a tumultuous and riotous rabble who ought, if they had
+the least prudence, to follow their mercantile employments and not
+trouble themselves with politics and government, which they do not
+understand." This expressed, in concise form, exactly the sentiments of
+Lord North, who had then for three years been the king's chief minister.
+Even Pitt, Lord Chatham, was prepared to support the government in
+upholding its authority.
+
+=The Five Intolerable Acts.=--Parliament, beginning on March 31, 1774,
+passed five stringent measures, known in American history as the five
+"intolerable acts." They were aimed at curing the unrest in America. The
+_first_ of them was a bill absolutely shutting the port of Boston to
+commerce with the outside world. The _second_, following closely,
+revoked the Massachusetts charter of 1691 and provided furthermore that
+the councilors should be appointed by the king, that all judges should
+be named by the royal governor, and that town meetings (except to elect
+certain officers) could not be held without the governor's consent. A
+_third_ measure, after denouncing the "utter subversion of all lawful
+government" in the provinces, authorized royal agents to transfer to
+Great Britain or to other colonies the trials of officers or other
+persons accused of murder in connection with the enforcement of the law.
+The _fourth_ act legalized the quartering of troops in Massachusetts
+towns. The _fifth_ of the measures was the Quebec Act, which granted
+religious toleration to the Catholics in Canada, extended the boundaries
+of Quebec southward to the Ohio River, and established, in this western
+region, government by a viceroy.
+
+The intolerable acts went through Parliament with extraordinary
+celerity. There was an opposition, alert and informed; but it was
+ineffective. Burke spoke eloquently against the Boston port bill,
+condemning it roundly for punishing the innocent with the guilty, and
+showing how likely it was to bring grave consequences in its train. He
+was heard with respect and his pleas were rejected. The bill passed both
+houses without a division, the entry "unanimous" being made upon their
+journals although it did not accurately represent the state of opinion.
+The law destroying the charter of Massachusetts passed the Commons by a
+vote of three to one; and the third intolerable act by a vote of four to
+one. The triumph of the ministry was complete. "What passed in Boston,"
+exclaimed the great jurist, Lord Mansfield, "is the overt act of High
+Treason proceeding from our over lenity and want of foresight." The
+crown and Parliament were united in resorting to punitive measures.
+
+In the colonies the laws were received with consternation. To the
+American Protestants, the Quebec Act was the most offensive. That
+project they viewed not as an act of grace or of mercy but as a direct
+attempt to enlist French Canadians on the side of Great Britain. The
+British government did not grant religious toleration to Catholics
+either at home or in Ireland and the Americans could see no good motive
+in granting it in North America. The act was also offensive because
+Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia had, under their charters,
+large claims in the territory thus annexed to Quebec.
+
+To enforce these intolerable acts the military arm of the British
+government was brought into play. The commander-in-chief of the armed
+forces in America, General Gage, was appointed governor of
+Massachusetts. Reinforcements were brought to the colonies, for now King
+George was to give "the rebels," as he called them, a taste of strong
+medicine. The majesty of his law was to be vindicated by force.
+
+
+FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION IN AMERICA
+
+=The Doctrine of Natural Rights.=--The dissolution of assemblies, the
+destruction of charters, and the use of troops produced in the colonies
+a new phase in the struggle. In the early days of the contest with the
+British ministry, the Americans spoke of their "rights as Englishmen"
+and condemned the acts of Parliament as unlawful, as violating the
+principles of the English constitution under which they all lived. When
+they saw that such arguments had no effect on Parliament, they turned
+for support to their "natural rights." The latter doctrine, in the form
+in which it was employed by the colonists, was as English as the
+constitutional argument. John Locke had used it with good effect in
+defense of the English revolution in the seventeenth century. American
+leaders, familiar with the writings of Locke, also took up his thesis in
+the hour of their distress. They openly declared that their rights did
+not rest after all upon the English constitution or a charter from the
+crown. "Old Magna Carta was not the beginning of all things," retorted
+Otis when the constitutional argument failed. "A time may come when
+Parliament shall declare every American charter void, but the natural,
+inherent, and inseparable rights of the colonists as men and as citizens
+would remain and whatever became of charters can never be abolished
+until the general conflagration." Of the same opinion was the young and
+impetuous Alexander Hamilton. "The sacred rights of mankind," he
+exclaimed, "are not to be rummaged for among old parchments or musty
+records. They are written as with a sunbeam in the whole volume of human
+destiny by the hand of divinity itself, and can never be erased or
+obscured by mortal power."
+
+Firm as the American leaders were in the statement and defense of their
+rights, there is every reason for believing that in the beginning they
+hoped to confine the conflict to the realm of opinion. They constantly
+avowed that they were loyal to the king when protesting in the strongest
+language against his policies. Even Otis, regarded by the loyalists as a
+firebrand, was in fact attempting to avert revolution by winning
+concessions from England. "I argue this cause with the greater
+pleasure," he solemnly urged in his speech against the writs of
+assistance, "as it is in favor of British liberty ... and as it is in
+opposition to a kind of power, the exercise of which in former periods
+cost one king of England his head and another his throne."
+
+=Burke Offers the Doctrine of Conciliation.=--The flooding tide of
+American sentiment was correctly measured by one Englishman at least,
+Edmund Burke, who quickly saw that attempts to restrain the rise of
+American democracy were efforts to reverse the processes of nature. He
+saw how fixed and rooted in the nature of things was the American
+spirit--how inevitable, how irresistible. He warned his countrymen that
+there were three ways of handling the delicate situation--and only
+three. One was to remove the cause of friction by changing the spirit of
+the colonists--an utter impossibility because that spirit was grounded
+in the essential circumstances of American life. The second was to
+prosecute American leaders as criminals; of this he begged his
+countrymen to beware lest the colonists declare that "a government
+against which a claim of liberty is tantamount to high treason is a
+government to which submission is equivalent to slavery." The third and
+right way to meet the problem, Burke concluded, was to accept the
+American spirit, repeal the obnoxious measures, and receive the colonies
+into equal partnership.
+
+=Events Produce the Great Decision.=--The right way, indicated by Burke,
+was equally impossible to George III and the majority in Parliament. To
+their narrow minds, American opinion was contemptible and American
+resistance unlawful, riotous, and treasonable. The correct way, in their
+view, was to dispatch more troops to crush the "rebels"; and that very
+act took the contest from the realm of opinion. As John Adams said:
+"Facts are stubborn things." Opinions were unseen, but marching soldiers
+were visible to the veriest street urchin. "Now," said Gouverneur
+Morris, "the sheep, simple as they are, cannot be gulled as heretofore."
+It was too late to talk about the excellence of the British
+constitution. If any one is bewildered by the controversies of modern
+historians as to why the crisis came at last, he can clarify his
+understanding by reading again Edmund Burke's stately oration, _On
+Conciliation with America_.
+
+
+=References=
+
+G.L. Beer, _British Colonial Policy_ (1754-63).
+
+E. Channing, _History of the United States_, Vol. III.
+
+R. Frothingham, _Rise of the Republic_.
+
+G.E. Howard, _Preliminaries of the Revolution_ (American Nation Series).
+
+J.K. Hosmer, _Samuel Adams_.
+
+J.T. Morse, _Benjamin Franklin_.
+
+M.C. Tyler, _Patrick Henry_.
+
+J.A. Woodburn (editor), _The American Revolution_ (Selections from the
+English work by Lecky).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Show how the character of George III made for trouble with the
+colonies.
+
+2. Explain why the party and parliamentary systems of England favored
+the plans of George III.
+
+3. How did the state of English finances affect English policy?
+
+4. Enumerate five important measures of the English government affecting
+the colonies between 1763 and 1765. Explain each in detail.
+
+5. Describe American resistance to the Stamp Act. What was the outcome?
+
+6. Show how England renewed her policy of regulation in 1767.
+
+7. Summarize the events connected with American resistance.
+
+8. With what measures did Great Britain retaliate?
+
+9. Contrast "constitutional" with "natural" rights.
+
+10. What solution did Burke offer? Why was it rejected?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Powers Conferred on Revenue Officers by Writs of Assistance.=--See a
+writ in Macdonald, _Source Book_, p. 109.
+
+=The Acts of Parliament Respecting America.=--Macdonald, pp. 117-146.
+Assign one to each student for report and comment.
+
+=Source Studies on the Stamp Act.=--Hart, _American History Told by
+Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 394-412.
+
+=Source Studies of the Townshend Acts.=--Hart, Vol. II, pp. 413-433.
+
+=American Principles.=--Prepare a table of them from the Resolutions of
+the Stamp Act Congress and the Massachusetts Circular. Macdonald, pp.
+136-146.
+
+=An English Historian's View of the Period.=--Green, _Short History of
+England_, Chap. X.
+
+=English Policy Not Injurious to America.=--Callender, _Economic
+History_, pp. 85-121.
+
+=A Review of English Policy.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History of the American
+People_, Vol. II, pp. 129-170.
+
+=The Opening of the Revolution.=--Elson, _History of the United States_,
+pp. 220-235.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
+
+
+RESISTANCE AND RETALIATION
+
+=The Continental Congress.=--When the news of the "intolerable acts"
+reached America, every one knew what strong medicine Parliament was
+prepared to administer to all those who resisted its authority. The
+cause of Massachusetts became the cause of all the colonies. Opposition
+to British policy, hitherto local and spasmodic, now took on a national
+character. To local committees and provincial conventions was added a
+Continental Congress, appropriately called by Massachusetts on June 17,
+1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams. The response to the summons
+was electric. By hurried and irregular methods delegates were elected
+during the summer, and on September 5 the Congress duly assembled in
+Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia. Many of the greatest men in America
+were there--George Washington and Patrick Henry from Virginia and John
+and Samuel Adams from Massachusetts. Every shade of opinion was
+represented. Some were impatient with mild devices; the majority favored
+moderation.
+
+The Congress drew up a declaration of American rights and stated in
+clear and dignified language the grievances of the colonists. It
+approved the resistance to British measures offered by Massachusetts and
+promised the united support of all sections. It prepared an address to
+King George and another to the people of England, disavowing the idea of
+independence but firmly attacking the policies pursued by the British
+government.
+
+=The Non-Importation Agreement.=--The Congress was not content, however,
+with professions of faith and with petitions. It took one revolutionary
+step. It agreed to stop the importation of British goods into America,
+and the enforcement of this agreement it placed in the hands of local
+"committees of safety and inspection," to be elected by the qualified
+voters. The significance of this action is obvious. Congress threw
+itself athwart British law. It made a rule to bind American citizens and
+to be carried into effect by American officers. It set up a state within
+the British state and laid down a test of allegiance to the new order.
+The colonists, who up to this moment had been wavering, had to choose
+one authority or the other. They were for the enforcement of the
+non-importation agreement or they were against it. They either bought
+English goods or they did not. In the spirit of the toast--"May Britain
+be wise and America be free"--the first Continental Congress adjourned
+in October, having appointed the tenth of May following for the meeting
+of a second Congress, should necessity require.
+
+=Lord North's "Olive Branch."=--When the news of the action of the
+American Congress reached England, Pitt and Burke warmly urged a repeal
+of the obnoxious laws, but in vain. All they could wring from the prime
+minister, Lord North, was a set of "conciliatory resolutions" proposing
+to relieve from taxation any colony that would assume its share of
+imperial defense and make provision for supporting the local officers of
+the crown. This "olive branch" was accompanied by a resolution assuring
+the king of support at all hazards in suppressing the rebellion and by
+the restraining act of March 30, 1775, which in effect destroyed the
+commerce of New England.
+
+=Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775).=--Meanwhile the
+British authorities in Massachusetts relaxed none of their efforts in
+upholding British sovereignty. General Gage, hearing that military
+stores had been collected at Concord, dispatched a small force to seize
+them. By this act he precipitated the conflict he had sought to avoid.
+At Lexington, on the road to Concord, occurred "the little thing" that
+produced "the great event." An unexpected collision beyond the thought
+or purpose of any man had transferred the contest from the forum to the
+battle field.
+
+=The Second Continental Congress.=--Though blood had been shed and war
+was actually at hand, the second Continental Congress, which met at
+Philadelphia in May, 1775, was not yet convinced that conciliation was
+beyond human power. It petitioned the king to interpose on behalf of the
+colonists in order that the empire might avoid the calamities of civil
+war. On the last day of July, it made a temperate but firm answer to
+Lord North's offer of conciliation, stating that the proposal was
+unsatisfactory because it did not renounce the right to tax or repeal
+the offensive acts of Parliament.
+
+=Force, the British Answer.=--Just as the representatives of America
+were about to present the last petition of Congress to the king on
+August 23, 1775, George III issued a proclamation of rebellion. This
+announcement declared that the colonists, "misled by dangerous and
+ill-designing men," were in a state of insurrection; it called on the
+civil and military powers to bring "the traitors to justice"; and it
+threatened with "condign punishment the authors, perpetrators, and
+abettors of such traitorous designs." It closed with the usual prayer:
+"God, save the king." Later in the year, Parliament passed a sweeping
+act destroying all trade and intercourse with America. Congress was
+silent at last. Force was also America's answer.
+
+
+AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
+
+=Drifting into War.=--Although the Congress had not given up all hope of
+reconciliation in the spring and summer of 1775, it had firmly resolved
+to defend American rights by arms if necessary. It transformed the
+militiamen who had assembled near Boston, after the battle of Lexington,
+into a Continental army and selected Washington as commander-in-chief.
+It assumed the powers of a government and prepared to raise money, wage
+war, and carry on diplomatic relations with foreign countries.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+SPIRIT OF 1776]
+
+Events followed thick and fast. On June 17, the American militia, by
+the stubborn defense of Bunker Hill, showed that it could make British
+regulars pay dearly for all they got. On July 3, Washington took command
+of the army at Cambridge. In January, 1776, after bitter disappointments
+in drumming up recruits for its army in England, Scotland, and Ireland,
+the British government concluded a treaty with the Landgrave of
+Hesse-Cassel in Germany contracting, at a handsome figure, for thousands
+of soldiers and many pieces of cannon. This was the crowning insult to
+America. Such was the view of all friends of the colonies on both sides
+of the water. Such was, long afterward, the judgment of the conservative
+historian Lecky: "The conduct of England in hiring German mercenaries to
+subdue the essentially English population beyond the Atlantic made
+reconciliation hopeless and independence inevitable." The news of this
+wretched transaction in German soldiers had hardly reached America
+before there ran all down the coast the thrilling story that Washington
+had taken Boston, on March 17, 1776, compelling Lord Howe to sail with
+his entire army for Halifax.
+
+=The Growth of Public Sentiment in Favor of Independence.=--Events were
+bearing the Americans away from their old position under the British
+constitution toward a final separation. Slowly and against their
+desires, prudent and honorable men, who cherished the ties that united
+them to the old order and dreaded with genuine horror all thought of
+revolution, were drawn into the path that led to the great decision. In
+all parts of the country and among all classes, the question of the hour
+was being debated. "American independence," as the historian Bancroft
+says, "was not an act of sudden passion nor the work of one man or one
+assembly. It had been discussed in every part of the country by farmers
+and merchants, by mechanics and planters, by the fishermen along the
+coast and the backwoodsmen of the West; in town meetings and from the
+pulpit; at social gatherings and around the camp fires; in county
+conventions and conferences or committees; in colonial congresses and
+assemblies."
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+THOMAS PAINE]
+
+=Paine's "Commonsense."=--In the midst of this ferment of American
+opinion, a bold and eloquent pamphleteer broke in upon the hesitating
+public with a program for absolute independence, without fears and
+without apologies. In the early days of 1776, Thomas Paine issued the
+first of his famous tracts, "Commonsense," a passionate attack upon the
+British monarchy and an equally passionate plea for American liberty.
+Casting aside the language of petition with which Americans had hitherto
+addressed George III, Paine went to the other extreme and assailed him
+with many a violent epithet. He condemned monarchy itself as a system
+which had laid the world "in blood and ashes." Instead of praising the
+British constitution under which colonists had been claiming their
+rights, he brushed it aside as ridiculous, protesting that it was "owing
+to the constitution of the people, not to the constitution of the
+government, that the Crown is not as oppressive in England as in
+Turkey."
+
+Having thus summarily swept away the grounds of allegiance to the old
+order, Paine proceeded relentlessly to an argument for immediate
+separation from Great Britain. There was nothing in the sphere of
+practical interest, he insisted, which should bind the colonies to the
+mother country. Allegiance to her had been responsible for the many wars
+in which they had been involved. Reasons of trade were not less weighty
+in behalf of independence. "Our corn will fetch its price in any market
+in Europe and our imported goods must be paid for, buy them where we
+will." As to matters of government, "it is not in the power of Britain
+to do this continent justice; the business of it will soon be too
+weighty and intricate to be managed with any tolerable degree of
+convenience by a power so distant from us and so very ignorant of us."
+
+There is accordingly no alternative to independence for America.
+"Everything that is right or natural pleads for separation. The blood of
+the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries ''tis time to part.' ...
+Arms, the last resort, must decide the contest; the appeal was the
+choice of the king and the continent hath accepted the challenge.... The
+sun never shone on a cause of greater worth. 'Tis not the affair of a
+city, a county, a province or a kingdom, but of a continent.... 'Tis not
+the concern of a day, a year or an age; posterity is involved in the
+contest and will be more or less affected to the end of time by the
+proceedings now. Now is the seed-time of Continental union, faith, and
+honor.... O! ye that love mankind! Ye that dare oppose not only the
+tyranny, but the tyrant, stand forth.... Let names of Whig and Tory be
+extinct. Let none other be heard among us than those of a good citizen,
+an open and resolute friend, and a virtuous supporter of the rights of
+mankind and of the free and independent states of America." As more than
+100,000 copies were scattered broadcast over the country, patriots
+exclaimed with Washington: "Sound doctrine and unanswerable reason!"
+
+=The Drift of Events toward Independence.=--Official support for the
+idea of independence began to come from many quarters. On the tenth of
+February, 1776, Gadsden, in the provincial convention of South Carolina,
+advocated a new constitution for the colony and absolute independence
+for all America. The convention balked at the latter but went half way
+by abolishing the system of royal administration and establishing a
+complete plan of self-government. A month later, on April 12, the
+neighboring state of North Carolina uttered the daring phrase from which
+others shrank. It empowered its representatives in the Congress to
+concur with the delegates of the other colonies in declaring
+independence. Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Virginia quickly
+responded to the challenge. The convention of the Old Dominion, on May
+15, instructed its delegates at Philadelphia to propose the independence
+of the United Colonies and to give the assent of Virginia to the act of
+separation. When the resolution was carried the British flag on the
+state house was lowered for all time.
+
+Meanwhile the Continental Congress was alive to the course of events
+outside. The subject of independence was constantly being raised. "Are
+we rebels?" exclaimed Wyeth of Virginia during a debate in February.
+"No: we must declare ourselves a free people." Others hesitated and
+spoke of waiting for the arrival of commissioners of conciliation. "Is
+not America already independent?" asked Samuel Adams a few weeks later.
+"Why not then declare it?" Still there was uncertainty and delegates
+avoided the direct word. A few more weeks elapsed. At last, on May 10,
+Congress declared that the authority of the British crown in America
+must be suppressed and advised the colonies to set up governments of
+their own.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+THOMAS JEFFERSON READING HIS DRAFT OF THE DECLARATION OF
+INDEPENDENCE TO THE COMMITTEE OF CONGRESS]
+
+=Independence Declared.=--The way was fully prepared, therefore, when,
+on June 7, the Virginia delegation in the Congress moved that "these
+united colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent
+states." A committee was immediately appointed to draft a formal
+document setting forth the reasons for the act, and on July 2 all the
+states save New York went on record in favor of severing their political
+connection with Great Britain. Two days later, July 4, Jefferson's draft
+of the Declaration of Independence, changed in some slight particulars,
+was adopted. The old bell in Independence Hall, as it is now known, rang
+out the glad tidings; couriers swiftly carried the news to the uttermost
+hamlet and farm. A new nation announced its will to have a place among
+the powers of the world.
+
+To some documents is given immortality. The Declaration of Independence
+is one of them. American patriotism is forever associated with it; but
+patriotism alone does not make it immortal. Neither does the vigor of
+its language or the severity of its indictment give it a secure place in
+the records of time. The secret of its greatness lies in the simple fact
+that it is one of the memorable landmarks in the history of a political
+ideal which for three centuries has been taking form and spreading
+throughout the earth, challenging kings and potentates, shaking down
+thrones and aristocracies, breaking the armies of irresponsible power on
+battle fields as far apart as Marston Moor and Chateau-Thierry. That
+ideal, now so familiar, then so novel, is summed up in the simple
+sentence: "Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the
+governed."
+
+Written in a "decent respect for the opinions of mankind," to set forth
+the causes which impelled the American colonists to separate from
+Britain, the Declaration contained a long list of "abuses and
+usurpations" which had induced them to throw off the government of King
+George. That section of the Declaration has passed into "ancient"
+history and is seldom read. It is the part laying down a new basis for
+government and giving a new dignity to the common man that has become a
+household phrase in the Old World as in the New.
+
+In the more enduring passages there are four fundamental ideas which,
+from the standpoint of the old system of government, were the essence of
+revolution: (1) all men are created equal and are endowed by their
+Creator with certain unalienable rights including life, liberty, and the
+pursuit of happiness; (2) the purpose of government is to secure these
+rights; (3) governments derive their just powers from the consent of the
+governed; (4) whenever any form of government becomes destructive of
+these ends it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it and
+institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and
+organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to
+effect their safety and happiness. Here was the prelude to the historic
+drama of democracy--a challenge to every form of government and every
+privilege not founded on popular assent.
+
+
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF GOVERNMENT AND THE NEW ALLEGIANCE
+
+=The Committees of Correspondence.=--As soon as debate had passed into
+armed resistance, the patriots found it necessary to consolidate their
+forces by organizing civil government. This was readily effected, for
+the means were at hand in town meetings, provincial legislatures, and
+committees of correspondence. The working tools of the Revolution were
+in fact the committees of correspondence--small, local, unofficial
+groups of patriots formed to exchange views and create public sentiment.
+As early as November, 1772, such a committee had been created in Boston
+under the leadership of Samuel Adams. It held regular meetings, sent
+emissaries to neighboring towns, and carried on a campaign of education
+in the doctrines of liberty.
+
+[Illustration: THE COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA AT THE TIME OF THE
+DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE]
+
+Upon local organizations similar in character to the Boston committee
+were built county committees and then the larger colonial committees,
+congresses, and conventions, all unofficial and representing the
+revolutionary elements. Ordinarily the provincial convention was merely
+the old legislative assembly freed from all royalist sympathizers and
+controlled by patriots. Finally, upon these colonial assemblies was
+built the Continental Congress, the precursor of union under the
+Articles of Confederation and ultimately under the Constitution of the
+United States. This was the revolutionary government set up within the
+British empire in America.
+
+=State Constitutions Framed.=--With the rise of these new assemblies of
+the people, the old colonial governments broke down. From the royal
+provinces the governor, the judges, and the high officers fled in haste,
+and it became necessary to substitute patriot authorities. The appeal to
+the colonies advising them to adopt a new form of government for
+themselves, issued by the Congress in May, 1776, was quickly acted upon.
+Before the expiration of a year, Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
+Delaware, Maryland, Georgia, and New York had drafted new constitutions
+as states, not as colonies uncertain of their destinies. Connecticut and
+Rhode Island, holding that their ancient charters were equal to their
+needs, merely renounced their allegiance to the king and went on as
+before so far as the form of government was concerned. South Carolina,
+which had drafted a temporary plan early in 1776, drew up a new and more
+complete constitution in 1778. Two years later Massachusetts with much
+deliberation put into force its fundamental law, which in most of its
+essential features remains unchanged to-day.
+
+The new state constitutions in their broad outlines followed colonial
+models. For the royal governor was substituted a governor or president
+chosen usually by the legislature; but in two instances, New York and
+Massachusetts, by popular vote. For the provincial council there was
+substituted, except in Georgia, a senate; while the lower house, or
+assembly, was continued virtually without change. The old property
+restriction on the suffrage, though lowered slightly in some states, was
+continued in full force to the great discontent of the mechanics thus
+deprived of the ballot. The special qualifications, laid down in several
+constitutions, for governors, senators, and representatives, indicated
+that the revolutionary leaders were not prepared for any radical
+experiments in democracy. The protests of a few women, like Mrs. John
+Adams of Massachusetts and Mrs. Henry Corbin of Virginia, against a
+government which excluded them from political rights were treated as
+mild curiosities of no significance, although in New Jersey women were
+allowed to vote for many years on the same terms as men.
+
+By the new state constitutions the signs and symbols of royal power, of
+authority derived from any source save "the people," were swept aside
+and republican governments on an imposing scale presented for the first
+time to the modern world. Copies of these remarkable documents prepared
+by plain citizens were translated into French and widely circulated in
+Europe. There they were destined to serve as a guide and inspiration to
+a generation of constitution-makers whose mission it was to begin the
+democratic revolution in the Old World.
+
+=The Articles of Confederation.=--The formation of state constitutions
+was an easy task for the revolutionary leaders. They had only to build
+on foundations already laid. The establishment of a national system of
+government was another matter. There had always been, it must be
+remembered, a system of central control over the colonies, but Americans
+had had little experience in its operation. When the supervision of the
+crown of Great Britain was suddenly broken, the patriot leaders,
+accustomed merely to provincial statesmanship, were poorly trained for
+action on a national stage.
+
+Many forces worked against those who, like Franklin, had a vision of
+national destiny. There were differences in economic interest--commerce
+and industry in the North and the planting system of the South. There
+were contests over the apportionment of taxes and the quotas of troops
+for common defense. To these practical difficulties were added local
+pride, the vested rights of state and village politicians in their
+provincial dignity, and the scarcity of men with a large outlook upon
+the common enterprise.
+
+Nevertheless, necessity compelled them to consider some sort of
+federation. The second Continental Congress had hardly opened its work
+before the most sagacious leaders began to urge the desirability of a
+permanent connection. As early as July, 1775, Congress resolved to go
+into a committee of the whole on the state of the union, and Franklin,
+undaunted by the fate of his Albany plan of twenty years before, again
+presented a draft of a constitution. Long and desultory debates followed
+and it was not until late in 1777 that Congress presented to the states
+the Articles of Confederation. Provincial jealousies delayed
+ratification, and it was the spring of 1781, a few months before the
+surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, when Maryland, the last of the
+states, approved the Articles. This plan of union, though it was all
+that could be wrung from the reluctant states, provided for neither a
+chief executive nor a system of federal courts. It created simply a
+Congress of delegates in which each state had an equal voice and gave it
+the right to call upon the state legislatures for the sinews of
+government--money and soldiers.
+
+=The Application of Tests of Allegiance.=--As the successive steps were
+taken in the direction of independent government, the patriots devised
+and applied tests designed to discover who were for and who were against
+the new nation in the process of making. When the first Continental
+Congress agreed not to allow the importation of British goods, it
+provided for the creation of local committees to enforce the rules. Such
+agencies were duly formed by the choice of men favoring the scheme, all
+opponents being excluded from the elections. Before these bodies those
+who persisted in buying British goods were summoned and warned or
+punished according to circumstances. As soon as the new state
+constitutions were put into effect, local committees set to work in the
+same way to ferret out all who were not outspoken in their support of
+the new order of things.
+
+[Illustration: MOBBING THE TORIES]
+
+These patriot agencies, bearing different names in different sections,
+were sometimes ruthless in their methods. They called upon all men to
+sign the test of loyalty, frequently known as the "association test."
+Those who refused were promptly branded as outlaws, while some of the
+more dangerous were thrown into jail. The prison camp in Connecticut at
+one time held the former governor of New Jersey and the mayor of New
+York. Thousands were black-listed and subjected to espionage. The
+black-list of Pennsylvania contained the names of nearly five hundred
+persons of prominence who were under suspicion. Loyalists or Tories who
+were bold enough to speak and write against the Revolution were
+suppressed and their pamphlets burned. In many places, particularly in
+the North, the property of the loyalists was confiscated and the
+proceeds applied to the cause of the Revolution.
+
+The work of the official agencies for suppression of opposition was
+sometimes supplemented by mob violence. A few Tories were hanged without
+trial, and others were tarred and feathered. One was placed upon a cake
+of ice and held there "until his loyalty to King George might cool."
+Whole families were driven out of their homes to find their way as best
+they could within the British lines or into Canada, where the British
+government gave them lands. Such excesses were deplored by Washington,
+but they were defended on the ground that in effect a civil war, as well
+as a war for independence, was being waged.
+
+=The Patriots and Tories.=--Thus, by one process or another, those who
+were to be citizens of the new republic were separated from those who
+preferred to be subjects of King George. Just what proportion of the
+Americans favored independence and what share remained loyal to the
+British monarchy there is no way of knowing. The question of revolution
+was not submitted to popular vote, and on the point of numbers we have
+conflicting evidence. On the patriot side, there is the testimony of a
+careful and informed observer, John Adams, who asserted that two-thirds
+of the people were for the American cause and not more than one-third
+opposed the Revolution at all stages.
+
+On behalf of the loyalists, or Tories as they were popularly known,
+extravagant claims were made. Joseph Galloway, who had been a member of
+the first Continental Congress and had fled to England when he saw its
+temper, testified before a committee of Parliament in 1779 that not
+one-fifth of the American people supported the insurrection and that
+"many more than four-fifths of the people prefer a union with Great
+Britain upon constitutional principles to independence." At the same
+time General Robertson, who had lived in America twenty-four years,
+declared that "more than two-thirds of the people would prefer the
+king's government to the Congress' tyranny." In an address to the king
+in that year a committee of American loyalists asserted that "the number
+of Americans in his Majesty's army exceeded the number of troops
+enlisted by Congress to oppose them."
+
+=The Character of the Loyalists.=--When General Howe evacuated Boston,
+more than a thousand people fled with him. This great company, according
+to a careful historian, "formed the aristocracy of the province by
+virtue of their official rank; of their dignified callings and
+professions; of their hereditary wealth and of their culture." The act
+of banishment passed by Massachusetts in 1778, listing over 300 Tories,
+"reads like the social register of the oldest and noblest families of
+New England," more than one out of five being graduates of Harvard
+College. The same was true of New York and Philadelphia; namely, that
+the leading loyalists were prominent officials of the old order,
+clergymen and wealthy merchants. With passion the loyalists fought
+against the inevitable or with anguish of heart they left as refugees
+for a life of uncertainty in Canada or the mother country.
+
+=Tories Assail the Patriots.=--The Tories who remained in America joined
+the British army by the thousands or in other ways aided the royal
+cause. Those who were skillful with the pen assailed the patriots in
+editorials, rhymes, satires, and political catechisms. They declared
+that the members of Congress were "obscure, pettifogging attorneys,
+bankrupt shopkeepers, outlawed smugglers, etc." The people and their
+leaders they characterized as "wretched banditti ... the refuse and
+dregs of mankind." The generals in the army they sneered at as "men of
+rank and honor nearly on a par with those of the Congress."
+
+=Patriot Writers Arouse the National Spirit.=--Stung by Tory taunts,
+patriot writers devoted themselves to creating and sustaining a public
+opinion favorable to the American cause. Moreover, they had to combat
+the depression that grew out of the misfortunes in the early days of the
+war. A terrible disaster befell Generals Arnold and Montgomery in the
+winter of 1775 as they attempted to bring Canada into the revolution--a
+disaster that cost 5000 men; repeated calamities harassed Washington in
+1776 as he was defeated on Long Island, driven out of New York City, and
+beaten at Harlem Heights and White Plains. These reverses were almost
+too great for the stoutest patriots.
+
+Pamphleteers, preachers, and publicists rose, however, to meet the needs
+of the hour. John Witherspoon, provost of the College of New Jersey,
+forsook the classroom for the field of political controversy. The poet,
+Philip Freneau, flung taunts of cowardice at the Tories and celebrated
+the spirit of liberty in many a stirring poem. Songs, ballads, plays,
+and satires flowed from the press in an unending stream. Fast days,
+battle anniversaries, celebrations of important steps taken by Congress
+afforded to patriotic clergymen abundant opportunities for sermons.
+"Does Mr. Wiberd preach against oppression?" anxiously inquired John
+Adams in a letter to his wife. The answer was decisive. "The clergy of
+every denomination, not excepting the Episcopalian, thunder and lighten
+every Sabbath. They pray for Boston and Massachusetts. They thank God
+most explicitly and fervently for our remarkable successes. They pray
+for the American army."
+
+Thomas Paine never let his pen rest. He had been with the forces of
+Washington when they retreated from Fort Lee and were harried from New
+Jersey into Pennsylvania. He knew the effect of such reverses on the
+army as well as on the public. In December, 1776, he made a second great
+appeal to his countrymen in his pamphlet, "The Crisis," the first part
+of which he had written while defeat and gloom were all about him. This
+tract was a cry for continued support of the Revolution. "These are the
+times that try men's souls," he opened. "The summer soldier and the
+sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his
+country; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of men
+and women." Paine laid his lash fiercely on the Tories, branding every
+one as a coward grounded in "servile, slavish, self-interested fear." He
+deplored the inadequacy of the militia and called for a real army. He
+refuted the charge that the retreat through New Jersey was a disaster
+and he promised victory soon. "By perseverance and fortitude," he
+concluded, "we have the prospect of a glorious issue; by cowardice and
+submission the sad choice of a variety of evils--a ravaged country, a
+depopulated city, habitations without safety and slavery without
+hope.... Look on this picture and weep over it." His ringing call to
+arms was followed by another and another until the long contest was
+over.
+
+
+MILITARY AFFAIRS
+
+=The Two Phases of the War.=--The war which opened with the battle of
+Lexington, on April 19, 1775, and closed with the surrender of
+Cornwallis at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, passed through two distinct
+phases--the first lasting until the treaty of alliance with France, in
+1778, and the second until the end of the struggle. During the first
+phase, the war was confined mainly to the North. The outstanding
+features of the contest were the evacuation of Boston by the British,
+the expulsion of American forces from New York and their retreat through
+New Jersey, the battle of Trenton, the seizure of Philadelphia by the
+British (September, 1777), the invasion of New York by Burgoyne and his
+capture at Saratoga in October, 1777, and the encampment of American
+forces at Valley Forge for the terrible winter of 1777-78.
+
+The final phase of the war, opening with the treaty of alliance with
+France on February 6, 1778, was confined mainly to the Middle states,
+the West, and the South. In the first sphere of action the chief events
+were the withdrawal of the British from Philadelphia, the battle of
+Monmouth, and the inclosure of the British in New York by deploying
+American forces from Morristown, New Jersey, up to West Point. In the
+West, George Rogers Clark, by his famous march into the Illinois
+country, secured Kaskaskia and Vincennes and laid a firm grip on the
+country between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. In the South, the second
+period opened with successes for the British. They captured Savannah,
+conquered Georgia, and restored the royal governor. In 1780 they seized
+Charleston, administered a crushing defeat to the American forces under
+Gates at Camden, and overran South Carolina, though meeting reverses at
+Cowpens and King's Mountain. Then came the closing scenes. Cornwallis
+began the last of his operations. He pursued General Greene far into
+North Carolina, clashed with him at Guilford Court House, retired to the
+coast, took charge of British forces engaged in plundering Virginia, and
+fortified Yorktown, where he was penned up by the French fleet from the
+sea and the combined French and American forces on land.
+
+=The Geographical Aspects of the War.=--For the British the theater of
+the war offered many problems. From first to last it extended from
+Massachusetts to Georgia, a distance of almost a thousand miles. It was
+nearly three thousand miles from the main base of supplies and, though
+the British navy kept the channel open, transports were constantly
+falling prey to daring privateers and fleet American war vessels. The
+sea, on the other hand, offered an easy means of transportation between
+points along the coast and gave ready access to the American centers of
+wealth and population. Of this the British made good use. Though early
+forced to give up Boston, they seized New York and kept it until the end
+of the war; they took Philadelphia and retained it until threatened by
+the approach of the French fleet; and they captured and held both
+Savannah and Charleston. Wars, however, are seldom won by the conquest
+of cities.
+
+Particularly was this true in the case of the Revolution. Only a small
+portion of the American people lived in towns. Countrymen back from the
+coast were in no way dependent upon them for a livelihood. They lived on
+the produce of the soil, not upon the profits of trade. This very fact
+gave strength to them in the contest. Whenever the British ventured far
+from the ports of entry, they encountered reverses. Burgoyne was forced
+to surrender at Saratoga because he was surrounded and cut off from his
+base of supplies. As soon as the British got away from Charleston, they
+were harassed and worried by the guerrilla warriors of Marion, Sumter,
+and Pickens. Cornwallis could technically defeat Greene at Guilford far
+in the interior; but he could not hold the inland region he had invaded.
+Sustained by their own labor, possessing the interior to which their
+armies could readily retreat, supplied mainly from native resources, the
+Americans could not be hemmed in, penned up, and destroyed at one fell
+blow.
+
+=The Sea Power.=--The British made good use of their fleet in cutting
+off American trade, but control of the sea did not seriously affect the
+United States. As an agricultural country, the ruin of its commerce was
+not such a vital matter. All the materials for a comfortable though
+somewhat rude life were right at hand. It made little difference to a
+nation fighting for existence, if silks, fine linens, and chinaware were
+cut off. This was an evil to which submission was necessary.
+
+Nor did the brilliant exploits of John Paul Jones and Captain John Barry
+materially change the situation. They demonstrated the skill of American
+seamen and their courage as fighting men. They raised the rates of
+British marine insurance, but they did not dethrone the mistress of the
+seas. Less spectacular, and more distinctive, were the deeds of the
+hundreds of privateers and minor captains who overhauled British supply
+ships and kept British merchantmen in constant anxiety. Not until the
+French fleet was thrown into the scale, were the British compelled to
+reckon seriously with the enemy on the sea and make plans based upon the
+possibilities of a maritime disaster.
+
+=Commanding Officers.=--On the score of military leadership it is
+difficult to compare the contending forces in the revolutionary contest.
+There is no doubt that all the British commanders were men of experience
+in the art of warfare. Sir William Howe had served in America during the
+French War and was accounted an excellent officer, a strict
+disciplinarian, and a gallant gentleman. Nevertheless he loved ease,
+society, and good living, and his expulsion from Boston, his failure to
+overwhelm Washington by sallies from his comfortable bases at New York
+and Philadelphia, destroyed every shred of his military reputation. John
+Burgoyne, to whom was given the task of penetrating New York from
+Canada, had likewise seen service in the French War both in America and
+Europe. He had, however, a touch of the theatrical in his nature and
+after the collapse of his plans and the surrender of his army in 1777,
+he devoted his time mainly to light literature. Sir Henry Clinton, who
+directed the movement which ended in the capture of Charleston in 1780,
+had "learned his trade on the continent," and was regarded as a man of
+discretion and understanding in military matters. Lord Cornwallis, whose
+achievements at Camden and Guilford were blotted out by his surrender at
+Yorktown, had seen service in the Seven Years' War and had undoubted
+talents which he afterward displayed with great credit to himself in
+India. Though none of them, perhaps, were men of first-rate ability,
+they all had training and experience to guide them.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON]
+
+The Americans had a host in Washington himself. He had long been
+interested in military strategy and had tested his coolness under fire
+during the first clashes with the French nearly twenty years before. He
+had no doubts about the justice of his cause, such as plagued some of
+the British generals. He was a stern but reasonable disciplinarian. He
+was reserved and patient, little given to exaltation at success or
+depression at reverses. In the dark hour of the Revolution, "what held
+the patriot forces together?" asks Beveridge in his _Life of John
+Marshall_. Then he answers: "George Washington and he alone. Had he
+died or been seriously disabled, the Revolution would have ended....
+Washington was the soul of the American cause. Washington was the
+government. Washington was the Revolution." The weakness of Congress in
+furnishing men and supplies, the indolence of civilians, who lived at
+ease while the army starved, the intrigues of army officers against him
+such as the "Conway cabal," the cowardice of Lee at Monmouth, even the
+treason of Benedict Arnold, while they stirred deep emotions in his
+breast and aroused him to make passionate pleas to his countrymen, did
+not shake his iron will or his firm determination to see the war through
+to the bitter end. The weight of Washington's moral force was
+immeasurable.
+
+Of the generals who served under him, none can really be said to have
+been experienced military men when the war opened. Benedict Arnold, the
+unhappy traitor but brave and daring soldier, was a druggist, book
+seller, and ship owner at New Haven when the news of Lexington called
+him to battle. Horatio Gates was looked upon as a "seasoned soldier"
+because he had entered the British army as a youth, had been wounded at
+Braddock's memorable defeat, and had served with credit during the Seven
+Years' War; but he was the most conspicuous failure of the Revolution.
+The triumph over Burgoyne was the work of other men; and his crushing
+defeat at Camden put an end to his military pretensions. Nathanael
+Greene was a Rhode Island farmer and smith without military experience
+who, when convinced that war was coming, read Caesar's _Commentaries_ and
+took up the sword. Francis Marion was a shy and modest planter of South
+Carolina whose sole passage at arms had been a brief but desperate brush
+with the Indians ten or twelve years earlier. Daniel Morgan, one of the
+heroes of Cowpens, had been a teamster with Braddock's army and had seen
+some fighting during the French and Indian War, but his military
+knowledge, from the point of view of a trained British officer, was
+negligible. John Sullivan was a successful lawyer at Durham, New
+Hampshire, and a major in the local militia when duty summoned him to
+lay down his briefs and take up the sword. Anthony Wayne was a
+Pennsylvania farmer and land surveyor who, on hearing the clash of arms,
+read a few books on war, raised a regiment, and offered himself for
+service. Such is the story of the chief American military leaders, and
+it is typical of them all. Some had seen fighting with the French and
+Indians, but none of them had seen warfare on a large scale with regular
+troops commanded according to the strategy evolved in European
+experience. Courage, native ability, quickness of mind, and knowledge of
+the country they had in abundance, and in battles such as were fought
+during the Revolution all those qualities counted heavily in the
+balance.
+
+=Foreign Officers in American Service.=--To native genius was added
+military talent from beyond the seas. Baron Steuben, well schooled in
+the iron regime of Frederick the Great, came over from Prussia, joined
+Washington at Valley Forge, and day after day drilled and manoeuvered the
+men, laughing and cursing as he turned raw countrymen into regular
+soldiers. From France came young Lafayette and the stern De Kalb, from
+Poland came Pulaski and Kosciusko;--all acquainted with the arts of war
+as waged in Europe and fitted for leadership as well as teaching.
+Lafayette came early, in 1776, in a ship of his own, accompanied by
+several officers of wide experience, and remained loyally throughout the
+war sharing the hardships of American army life. Pulaski fell at the
+siege of Savannah and De Kalb at Camden. Kosciusko survived the American
+war to defend in vain the independence of his native land. To these
+distinguished foreigners, who freely threw in their lot with American
+revolutionary fortunes, was due much of that spirit and discipline which
+fitted raw recruits and temperamental militiamen to cope with a military
+power of the first rank.
+
+=The Soldiers.=--As far as the British soldiers were concerned their
+annals are short and simple. The regulars from the standing army who
+were sent over at the opening of the contest, the recruits drummed up
+by special efforts at home, and the thousands of Hessians bought
+outright by King George presented few problems of management to the
+British officers. These common soldiers were far away from home and
+enlisted for the war. Nearly all of them were well disciplined and many
+of them experienced in actual campaigns. The armies of King George
+fought bravely, as the records of Bunker Hill, Brandywine, and Monmouth
+demonstrate. Many a man and subordinate officer and, for that matter,
+some of the high officers expressed a reluctance at fighting against
+their own kin; but they obeyed orders.
+
+The Americans, on the other hand, while they fought with grim
+determination, as men fighting for their homes, were lacking in
+discipline and in the experience of regular troops. When the war broke
+in upon them, there were no common preparations for it. There was no
+continental army; there were only local bands of militiamen, many of
+them experienced in fighting but few of them "regulars" in the military
+sense. Moreover they were volunteers serving for a short time,
+unaccustomed to severe discipline, and impatient at the restraints
+imposed on them by long and arduous campaigns. They were continually
+leaving the service just at the most critical moments. "The militia,"
+lamented Washington, "come in, you cannot tell how; go, you cannot tell
+where; consume your provisions; exhaust your stores; and leave you at
+last at a critical moment."
+
+Again and again Washington begged Congress to provide for an army of
+regulars enlisted for the war, thoroughly trained and paid according to
+some definite plan. At last he was able to overcome, in part at least,
+the chronic fear of civilians in Congress and to wring from that
+reluctant body an agreement to grant half pay to all officers and a
+bonus to all privates who served until the end of the war. Even this
+scheme, which Washington regarded as far short of justice to the
+soldiers, did not produce quick results. It was near the close of the
+conflict before he had an army of well-disciplined veterans capable of
+meeting British regulars on equal terms.
+
+Though there were times when militiamen and frontiersmen did valiant and
+effective work, it is due to historical accuracy to deny the
+time-honored tradition that a few minutemen overwhelmed more numerous
+forces of regulars in a seven years' war for independence. They did
+nothing of the sort. For the victories of Bennington, Trenton, Saratoga,
+and Yorktown there were the defeats of Bunker Hill, Long Island, White
+Plains, Germantown, and Camden. Not once did an army of militiamen
+overcome an equal number of British regulars in an open trial by battle.
+"To bring men to be well acquainted with the duties of a soldier," wrote
+Washington, "requires time.... To expect the same service from raw and
+undisciplined recruits as from veteran soldiers is to expect what never
+did and perhaps never will happen."
+
+=How the War Was Won.=--Then how did the American army win the war? For
+one thing there were delays and blunders on the part of the British
+generals who, in 1775 and 1776, dallied in Boston and New York with
+large bodies of regular troops when they might have been dealing
+paralyzing blows at the scattered bands that constituted the American
+army. "Nothing but the supineness or folly of the enemy could have saved
+us," solemnly averred Washington in 1780. Still it is fair to say that
+this apparent supineness was not all due to the British generals. The
+ministers behind them believed that a large part of the colonists were
+loyal and that compromise would be promoted by inaction rather than by a
+war vigorously prosecuted. Victory by masterly inactivity was obviously
+better than conquest, and the slighter the wounds the quicker the
+healing. Later in the conflict when the seasoned forces of France were
+thrown into the scale, the Americans themselves had learned many things
+about the practical conduct of campaigns. All along, the British were
+embarrassed by the problem of supplies. Their troops could not forage
+with the skill of militiamen, as they were in unfamiliar territory. The
+long oversea voyages were uncertain at best and doubly so when the
+warships of France joined the American privateers in preying on supply
+boats.
+
+The British were in fact battered and worn down by a guerrilla war and
+outdone on two important occasions by superior forces--at Saratoga and
+Yorktown. Stern facts convinced them finally that an immense army, which
+could be raised only by a supreme effort, would be necessary to subdue
+the colonies if that hazardous enterprise could be accomplished at all.
+They learned also that America would then be alienated, fretful, and the
+scene of endless uprisings calling for an army of occupation. That was a
+price which staggered even Lord North and George III. Moreover, there
+were forces of opposition at home with which they had to reckon.
+
+=Women and the War.=--At no time were the women of America indifferent
+to the struggle for independence. When it was confined to the realm of
+opinion they did their part in creating public sentiment. Mrs. Elizabeth
+Timothee, for example, founded in Charleston, in 1773, a newspaper to
+espouse the cause of the province. Far to the north the sister of James
+Otis, Mrs. Mercy Warren, early begged her countrymen to rest their case
+upon their natural rights, and in influential circles she urged the
+leaders to stand fast by their principles. While John Adams was tossing
+about with uncertainty at the Continental Congress, his wife was writing
+letters to him declaring her faith in "independency."
+
+When the war came down upon the country, women helped in every field. In
+sustaining public sentiment they were active. Mrs. Warren with a
+tireless pen combatted loyalist propaganda in many a drama and satire.
+Almost every revolutionary leader had a wife or daughter who rendered
+service in the "second line of defense." Mrs. Washington managed the
+plantation while the General was at the front and went north to face the
+rigors of the awful winter at Valley Forge--an inspiration to her
+husband and his men. The daughter of Benjamin Franklin, Mrs. Sarah
+Bache, while her father was pleading the American cause in France, set
+the women of Pennsylvania to work sewing and collecting supplies. Even
+near the firing line women were to be found, aiding the wounded, hauling
+powder to the front, and carrying dispatches at the peril of their
+lives.
+
+In the economic sphere, the work of women was invaluable. They harvested
+crops without enjoying the picturesque title of "farmerettes" and they
+canned and preserved for the wounded and the prisoners of war. Of their
+labor in spinning and weaving it is recorded: "Immediately on being cut
+off from the use of English manufactures, the women engaged within their
+own families in manufacturing various kinds of cloth for domestic use.
+They thus kept their households decently clad and the surplus of their
+labors they sold to such as chose to buy rather than make for
+themselves. In this way the female part of families by their industry
+and strict economy frequently supported the whole domestic circle,
+evincing the strength of their attachment and the value of their
+service."
+
+For their war work, women were commended by high authorities on more
+than one occasion. They were given medals and public testimonials even
+as in our own day. Washington thanked them for their labors and paid
+tribute to them for the inspiration and material aid which they had
+given to the cause of independence.
+
+
+THE FINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION
+
+When the Revolution opened, there were thirteen little treasuries in
+America but no common treasury, and from first to last the Congress was
+in the position of a beggar rather than a sovereign. Having no authority
+to lay and collect taxes directly and knowing the hatred of the
+provincials for taxation, it resorted mainly to loans and paper money to
+finance the war. "Do you think," boldly inquired one of the delegates,
+"that I will consent to load my constituents with taxes when we can send
+to the printer and get a wagon load of money, one quire of which will
+pay for the whole?"
+
+=Paper Money and Loans.=--Acting on this curious but appealing political
+economy, Congress issued in June, 1776, two million dollars in bills of
+credit to be redeemed by the states on the basis of their respective
+populations. Other issues followed in quick succession. In all about
+$241,000,000 of continental paper was printed, to which the several
+states added nearly $210,000,000 of their own notes. Then came
+interest-bearing bonds in ever increasing quantities. Several millions
+were also borrowed from France and small sums from Holland and Spain. In
+desperation a national lottery was held, producing meager results. The
+property of Tories was confiscated and sold, bringing in about
+$16,000,000. Begging letters were sent to the states asking them to
+raise revenues for the continental treasury, but the states, burdened
+with their own affairs, gave little heed.
+
+=Inflation and Depreciation.=--As paper money flowed from the press, it
+rapidly declined in purchasing power until in 1779 a dollar was worth
+only two or three cents in gold or silver. Attempts were made by
+Congress and the states to compel people to accept the notes at face
+value; but these were like attempts to make water flow uphill.
+Speculators collected at once to fatten on the calamities of the
+republic. Fortunes were made and lost gambling on the prices of public
+securities while the patriot army, half clothed, was freezing at Valley
+Forge. "Speculation, peculation, engrossing, forestalling," exclaimed
+Washington, "afford too many melancholy proofs of the decay of public
+virtue. Nothing, I am convinced, but the depreciation of our currency
+... aided by stock jobbing and party dissensions has fed the hopes of
+the enemy."
+
+=The Patriot Financiers.=--To the efforts of Congress in financing the
+war were added the labors of private citizens. Hayn Solomon, a merchant
+of Philadelphia, supplied members of Congress, including Madison,
+Jefferson, and Monroe, and army officers, like Lee and Steuben, with
+money for their daily needs. All together he contributed the huge sum of
+half a million dollars to the American cause and died broken in purse,
+if not in spirit, a British prisoner of war. Another Philadelphia
+merchant, Robert Morris, won for himself the name of the "patriot
+financier" because he labored night and day to find the money to meet
+the bills which poured in upon the bankrupt government. When his own
+funds were exhausted, he borrowed from his friends. Experienced in the
+handling of merchandise, he created agencies at important points to
+distribute supplies to the troops, thus displaying administrative as
+well as financial talents.
+
+[Illustration: ROBERT MORRIS]
+
+Women organized "drives" for money, contributed their plate and their
+jewels, and collected from door to door. Farmers took worthless paper in
+return for their produce, and soldiers saw many a pay day pass without
+yielding them a penny. Thus by the labors and sacrifices of citizens,
+the issuance of paper money, lotteries, the floating of loans,
+borrowings in Europe, and the impressment of supplies, the Congress
+staggered through the Revolution like a pauper who knows not how his
+next meal is to be secured but is continuously relieved at a crisis by a
+kindly fate.
+
+
+THE DIPLOMACY OF THE REVOLUTION
+
+When the full measure of honor is given to the soldiers and sailors and
+their commanding officers, the civilians who managed finances and
+supplies, the writers who sustained the American spirit, and the women
+who did well their part, there yet remains the duty of recognizing the
+achievements of diplomacy. The importance of this field of activity was
+keenly appreciated by the leaders in the Continental Congress. They were
+fairly well versed in European history. They knew of the balance of
+power and the sympathies, interests, and prejudices of nations and their
+rulers. All this information they turned to good account, in opening
+relations with continental countries and seeking money, supplies, and
+even military assistance. For the transaction of this delicate business,
+they created a secret committee on foreign correspondence as early as
+1775 and prepared to send agents abroad.
+
+=American Agents Sent Abroad.=--Having heard that France was inclining a
+friendly ear to the American cause, the Congress, in March, 1776, sent a
+commissioner to Paris, Silas Deane of Connecticut, often styled the
+"first American diplomat." Later in the year a form of treaty to be
+presented to foreign powers was drawn up, and Franklin, Arthur Lee, and
+Deane were selected as American representatives at the court of "His
+Most Christian Majesty the King of France." John Jay of New York was
+chosen minister to Spain in 1779; John Adams was sent to Holland the
+same year; and other agents were dispatched to Florence, Vienna, and
+Berlin. The representative selected for St. Petersburg spent two
+fruitless years there, "ignored by the court, living in obscurity and
+experiencing nothing but humiliation and failure." Frederick the Great,
+king of Prussia, expressed a desire to find in America a market for
+Silesian linens and woolens, but, fearing England's command of the sea,
+he refused to give direct aid to the Revolutionary cause.
+
+=Early French Interest.=--The great diplomatic triumph of the Revolution
+was won at Paris, and Benjamin Franklin was the hero of the occasion,
+although many circumstances prepared the way for his success. Louis
+XVI's foreign minister, Count de Vergennes, before the arrival of any
+American representative, had brought to the attention of the king the
+opportunity offered by the outbreak of the war between England and her
+colonies. He showed him how France could redress her grievances and
+"reduce the power and greatness of England"--the empire that in 1763 had
+forced upon her a humiliating peace "at the price of our possessions,
+of our commerce, and our credit in the Indies, at the price of Canada,
+Louisiana, Isle Royale, Acadia, and Senegal." Equally successful in
+gaining the king's interest was a curious French adventurer,
+Beaumarchais, a man of wealth, a lover of music, and the author of two
+popular plays, "Figaro" and "The Barber of Seville." These two men had
+already urged upon the king secret aid for America before Deane appeared
+on the scene. Shortly after his arrival they made confidential
+arrangements to furnish money, clothing, powder, and other supplies to
+the struggling colonies, although official requests for them were
+officially refused by the French government.
+
+=Franklin at Paris.=--When Franklin reached Paris, he was received only
+in private by the king's minister, Vergennes. The French people,
+however, made manifest their affection for the "plain republican" in
+"his full dress suit of spotted Manchester velvet." He was known among
+men of letters as an author, a scientist, and a philosopher of
+extraordinary ability. His "Poor Richard" had thrice been translated
+into French and was scattered in numerous editions throughout the
+kingdom. People of all ranks--ministers, ladies at court, philosophers,
+peasants, and stable boys--knew of Franklin and wished him success in
+his mission. The queen, Marie Antoinette, fated to lose her head in a
+revolution soon to follow, played with fire by encouraging "our dear
+republican."
+
+For the king of France, however, this was more serious business. England
+resented the presence of this "traitor" in Paris, and Louis had to be
+cautious about plunging into another war that might also end
+disastrously. Moreover, the early period of Franklin's sojourn in Paris
+was a dark hour for the American Revolution. Washington's brilliant
+exploit at Trenton on Christmas night, 1776, and the battle with
+Cornwallis at Princeton had been followed by the disaster at Brandywine,
+the loss of Philadelphia, the defeat at Germantown, and the retirement
+to Valley Forge for the winter of 1777-78. New York City and
+Philadelphia--two strategic ports--were in British hands; the Hudson
+and Delaware rivers were blocked; and General Burgoyne with his British
+troops was on his way down through the heart of northern New York,
+cutting New England off from the rest of the colonies. No wonder the
+king was cautious. Then the unexpected happened. Burgoyne, hemmed in
+from all sides by the American forces, his flanks harried, his foraging
+parties beaten back, his supplies cut off, surrendered on October 17,
+1777, to General Gates, who had superseded General Schuyler in time to
+receive the honor.
+
+=Treaties of Alliance and Commerce (1778).=--News of this victory,
+placed by historians among the fifteen decisive battles of the world,
+reached Franklin one night early in December while he and some friends
+sat gloomily at dinner. Beaumarchais, who was with him, grasped at once
+the meaning of the situation and set off to the court at Versailles with
+such haste that he upset his coach and dislocated his arm. The king and
+his ministers were at last convinced that the hour had come to aid the
+Revolution. Treaties of commerce and alliance were drawn up and signed
+in February, 1778. The independence of the United States was recognized
+by France and an alliance was formed to guarantee that independence.
+Combined military action was agreed upon and Louis then formally
+declared war on England. Men who had, a few short years before, fought
+one another in the wilderness of Pennsylvania or on the Plains of
+Abraham, were now ranged side by side in a war on the Empire that Pitt
+had erected and that George III was pulling down.
+
+=Spain and Holland Involved.=--Within a few months, Spain, remembering
+the steady decline of her sea power since the days of the Armada and
+hoping to drive the British out of Gibraltar, once more joined the
+concert of nations against England. Holland, a member of a league of
+armed neutrals formed in protest against British searches on the high
+seas, sent her fleet to unite with the forces of Spain, France, and
+America to prey upon British commerce. To all this trouble for England
+was added the danger of a possible revolt in Ireland, where the spirit
+of independence was flaming up.
+
+=The British Offer Terms to America.=--Seeing the colonists about to be
+joined by France in a common war on the English empire, Lord North
+proposed, in February, 1778, a renewal of negotiations. By solemn
+enactment, Parliament declared its intention not to exercise the right
+of imposing taxes within the colonies; at the same time it authorized
+the opening of negotiations through commissioners to be sent to America.
+A truce was to be established, pardons granted, objectionable laws
+suspended, and the old imperial constitution, as it stood before the
+opening of hostilities, restored to full vigor. It was too late. Events
+had taken the affairs of America out of the hands of British
+commissioners and diplomats.
+
+=Effects of French Aid.=--The French alliance brought ships of war,
+large sums of gold and silver, loads of supplies, and a considerable
+body of trained soldiers to the aid of the Americans. Timely as was this
+help, it meant no sudden change in the fortunes of war. The British
+evacuated Philadelphia in the summer following the alliance, and
+Washington's troops were encouraged to come out of Valley Forge. They
+inflicted a heavy blow on the British at Monmouth, but the treasonable
+conduct of General Charles Lee prevented a triumph. The recovery of
+Philadelphia was offset by the treason of Benedict Arnold, the loss of
+Savannah and Charleston (1780), and the defeat of Gates at Camden.
+
+The full effect of the French alliance was not felt until 1781, when
+Cornwallis went into Virginia and settled at Yorktown. Accompanied by
+French troops Washington swept rapidly southward and penned the British
+to the shore while a powerful French fleet shut off their escape by sea.
+It was this movement, which certainly could not have been executed
+without French aid, that put an end to all chance of restoring British
+dominion in America. It was the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown that
+caused Lord North to pace the floor and cry out: "It is all over! It is
+all over!" What might have been done without the French alliance lies
+hidden from mankind. What was accomplished with the help of French
+soldiers, sailors, officers, money, and supplies, is known to all the
+earth. "All the world agree," exultantly wrote Franklin from Paris to
+General Washington, "that no expedition was ever better planned or
+better executed. It brightens the glory that must accompany your name to
+the latest posterity." Diplomacy as well as martial valor had its
+reward.
+
+
+PEACE AT LAST
+
+=British Opposition to the War.=--In measuring the forces that led to
+the final discomfiture of King George and Lord North, it is necessary to
+remember that from the beginning to the end the British ministry at home
+faced a powerful, informed, and relentless opposition. There were
+vigorous protests, first against the obnoxious acts which precipitated
+the unhappy quarrel, then against the way in which the war was waged,
+and finally against the futile struggle to retain a hold upon the
+American dominions. Among the members of Parliament who thundered
+against the government were the first statesmen and orators of the land.
+William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, though he deplored the idea of American
+independence, denounced the government as the aggressor and rejoiced in
+American resistance. Edmund Burke leveled his heavy batteries against
+every measure of coercion and at last strove for a peace which, while
+giving independence to America, would work for reconciliation rather
+than estrangement. Charles James Fox gave the colonies his generous
+sympathy and warmly championed their rights. Outside of the circle of
+statesmen there were stout friends of the American cause like David
+Hume, the philosopher and historian, and Catherine Macaulay, an author
+of wide fame and a republican bold enough to encourage Washington in
+seeing it through.
+
+Against this powerful opposition, the government enlisted a whole army
+of scribes and journalists to pour out criticism on the Americans and
+their friends. Dr. Samuel Johnson, whom it employed in this business,
+was so savage that even the ministers had to tone down his pamphlets
+before printing them. Far more weighty was Edward Gibbon, who was in
+time to win fame as the historian of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire_. He had at first opposed the government; but, on being given a
+lucrative post, he used his sharp pen in its support, causing his
+friends to ridicule him in these lines:
+
+    "King George, in a fright
+     Lest Gibbon should write
+       The story of England's disgrace,
+     Thought no way so sure
+     His pen to secure
+       As to give the historian a place."
+
+=Lord North Yields.=--As time wore on, events bore heavily on the side
+of the opponents of the government's measures. They had predicted that
+conquest was impossible, and they had urged the advantages of a peace
+which would in some measure restore the affections of the Americans.
+Every day's news confirmed their predictions and lent support to their
+arguments. Moreover, the war, which sprang out of an effort to relieve
+English burdens, made those burdens heavier than ever. Military expenses
+were daily increasing. Trade with the colonies, the greatest single
+outlet for British goods and capital, was paralyzed. The heavy debts due
+British merchants in America were not only unpaid but postponed into an
+indefinite future. Ireland was on the verge of revolution. The French
+had a dangerous fleet on the high seas. In vain did the king assert in
+December, 1781, that no difficulties would ever make him consent to a
+peace that meant American independence. Parliament knew better, and on
+February 27, 1782, in the House of Commons was carried an address to the
+throne against continuing the war. Burke, Fox, the younger Pitt, Barre,
+and other friends of the colonies voted in the affirmative. Lord North
+gave notice then that his ministry was at an end. The king moaned:
+"Necessity made me yield."
+
+In April, 1782, Franklin received word from the English government that
+it was prepared to enter into negotiations leading to a settlement. This
+was embarrassing. In the treaty of alliance with France, the United
+States had promised that peace should be a joint affair agreed to by
+both nations in open conference. Finding France, however, opposed to
+some of their claims respecting boundaries and fisheries, the American
+commissioners conferred with the British agents at Paris without
+consulting the French minister. They actually signed a preliminary peace
+draft before they informed him of their operations. When Vergennes
+reproached him, Franklin replied that they "had been guilty of
+neglecting _bienseance_ [good manners] but hoped that the great work
+would not be ruined by a single indiscretion."
+
+=The Terms of Peace (1783).=--The general settlement at Paris in 1783
+was a triumph for America. England recognized the independence of the
+United States, naming each state specifically, and agreed to boundaries
+extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from the Great Lakes
+to the Floridas. England held Canada, Newfoundland, and the West Indies
+intact, made gains in India, and maintained her supremacy on the seas.
+Spain won Florida and Minorca but not the coveted Gibraltar. France
+gained nothing important save the satisfaction of seeing England humbled
+and the colonies independent.
+
+The generous terms secured by the American commission at Paris called
+forth surprise and gratitude in the United States and smoothed the way
+for a renewal of commercial relations with the mother country. At the
+same time they gave genuine anxiety to European diplomats. "This federal
+republic is born a pigmy," wrote the Spanish ambassador to his royal
+master. "A day will come when it will be a giant; even a colossus
+formidable to these countries. Liberty of conscience and the facility
+for establishing a new population on immense lands, as well as the
+advantages of the new government, will draw thither farmers and artisans
+from all the nations. In a few years we shall watch with grief the
+tyrannical existence of the same colossus."
+
+[Illustration: NORTH AMERICA ACCORDING TO THE TREATY OF 1783]
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
+
+The independence of the American colonies was foreseen by many European
+statesmen as they watched the growth of their population, wealth, and
+power; but no one could fix the hour of the great event. Until 1763 the
+American colonists lived fairly happily under British dominion. There
+were collisions from time to time, of course. Royal governors clashed
+with stiff-necked colonial legislatures. There were protests against the
+exercise of the king's veto power in specific cases. Nevertheless, on
+the whole, the relations between America and the mother country were
+more amicable in 1763 than at any period under the Stuart regime which
+closed in 1688.
+
+The crash, when it came, was not deliberately willed by any one. It was
+the product of a number of forces that happened to converge about 1763.
+Three years before, there had come to the throne George III, a young,
+proud, inexperienced, and stubborn king. For nearly fifty years his
+predecessors, Germans as they were in language and interest, had allowed
+things to drift in England and America. George III decided that he would
+be king in fact as well as in name. About the same time England brought
+to a close the long and costly French and Indian War and was staggering
+under a heavy burden of debt and taxes. The war had been fought partly
+in defense of the American colonies and nothing seemed more reasonable
+to English statesmen than the idea that the colonies should bear part of
+the cost of their own defense. At this juncture there came into
+prominence, in royal councils, two men bent on taxing America and
+controlling her trade, Grenville and Townshend. The king was willing,
+the English taxpayers were thankful for any promise of relief, and
+statesmen were found to undertake the experiment. England therefore set
+out upon a new course. She imposed taxes upon the colonists, regulated
+their trade and set royal officers upon them to enforce the law. This
+action evoked protests from the colonists. They held a Stamp Act
+Congress to declare their rights and petition for a redress of
+grievances. Some of the more restless spirits rioted in the streets,
+sacked the houses of the king's officers, and tore up the stamped paper.
+
+Frightened by uprising, the English government drew back and repealed
+the Stamp Act. Then it veered again and renewed its policy of
+interference. Interference again called forth American protests.
+Protests aroused sharper retaliation. More British regulars were sent
+over to keep order. More irritating laws were passed by Parliament.
+Rioting again appeared: tea was dumped in the harbor of Boston and
+seized in the harbor of Charleston. The British answer was more force.
+The response of the colonists was a Continental Congress for defense. An
+unexpected and unintended clash of arms at Lexington and Concord in the
+spring of 1775 brought forth from the king of England a proclamation:
+"The Americans are rebels!"
+
+The die was cast. The American Revolution had begun. Washington was made
+commander-in-chief. Armies were raised, money was borrowed, a huge
+volume of paper currency was issued, and foreign aid was summoned.
+Franklin plied his diplomatic arts at Paris until in 1778 he induced
+France to throw her sword into the balance. Three years later,
+Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. In 1783, by the formal treaty of
+peace, George III acknowledged the independence of the United States.
+The new nation, endowed with an imperial domain stretching from the
+Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, began its career among the
+sovereign powers of the earth.
+
+In the sphere of civil government, the results of the Revolution were
+equally remarkable. Royal officers and royal authorities were driven
+from the former dominions. All power was declared to be in the people.
+All the colonies became states, each with its own constitution or plan
+of government. The thirteen states were united in common bonds under the
+Articles of Confederation. A republic on a large scale was instituted.
+Thus there was begun an adventure in popular government such as the
+world had never seen. Could it succeed or was it destined to break down
+and be supplanted by a monarchy? The fate of whole continents hung upon
+the answer.
+
+
+=References=
+
+J. Fiske, _The American Revolution_ (2 vols.).
+
+H. Lodge, _Life of Washington_ (2 vols.).
+
+W. Sumner, _The Financier and the Finances of the American Revolution_.
+
+O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_ (4 vols.). A sympathetic account
+by an English historian.
+
+M.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2 vols.).
+
+C.H. Van Tyne, _The American Revolution_ (American Nation Series) and
+_The Loyalists in the American Revolution_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What was the non-importation agreement? By what body was it adopted?
+Why was it revolutionary in character?
+
+2. Contrast the work of the first and second Continental Congresses.
+
+3. Why did efforts at conciliation fail?
+
+4. Trace the growth of American independence from opinion to the sphere
+of action.
+
+5. Why is the Declaration of Independence an "immortal" document?
+
+6. What was the effect of the Revolution on colonial governments? On
+national union?
+
+7. Describe the contest between "Patriots" and "Tories."
+
+8. What topics are considered under "military affairs"? Discuss each in
+detail.
+
+9. Contrast the American forces with the British forces and show how the
+war was won.
+
+10. Compare the work of women in the Revolutionary War with their labors
+in the World War (1917-18).
+
+11. How was the Revolution financed?
+
+12. Why is diplomacy important in war? Describe the diplomatic triumph
+of the Revolution.
+
+13. What was the nature of the opposition in England to the war?
+
+14. Give the events connected with the peace settlement; the terms of
+peace.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Spirit of America.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History of the American
+People_, Vol. II, pp. 98-126.
+
+=American Rights.=--Draw up a table showing all the principles laid down
+by American leaders in (1) the Resolves of the First Continental
+Congress, Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 162-166; (2) the
+Declaration of the Causes and the Necessity of Taking Up Arms,
+Macdonald, pp. 176-183; and (3) the Declaration of Independence.
+
+=The Declaration of Independence.=--Fiske, _The American Revolution_,
+Vol. I, pp. 147-197. Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 250-254.
+
+=Diplomacy and the French Alliance.=--Hart, _American History Told by
+Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 574-590. Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 1-24.
+Callender, _Economic History of the United States_, pp. 159-168; Elson,
+pp. 275-280.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Washington, Franklin, Samuel Adams, Patrick
+Henry, Thomas Jefferson--emphasizing the peculiar services of each.
+
+=The Tories.=--Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 470-480.
+
+=Valley Forge.=--Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 25-49.
+
+=The Battles of the Revolution.=--Elson, pp. 235-317.
+
+=An English View of the Revolution.=--Green, _Short History of England_,
+Chap. X, Sect. 2.
+
+=English Opinion and the Revolution.=--Trevelyan, _The American
+Revolution_, Vol. III (or Part 2, Vol. II), Chaps. XXIV-XXVII.
+
+
+
+
+PART III. THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION
+
+
+THE PROMISE AND THE DIFFICULTIES OF AMERICA
+
+The rise of a young republic composed of thirteen states, each governed
+by officials popularly elected under constitutions drafted by "the plain
+people," was the most significant feature of the eighteenth century. The
+majority of the patriots whose labors and sacrifices had made this
+possible naturally looked upon their work and pronounced it good. Those
+Americans, however, who peered beneath the surface of things, saw that
+the Declaration of Independence, even if splendidly phrased, and paper
+constitutions, drawn by finest enthusiasm "uninstructed by experience,"
+could not alone make the republic great and prosperous or even free. All
+around them they saw chaos in finance and in industry and perils for the
+immediate future.
+
+=The Weakness of the Articles of Confederation.=--The government under
+the Articles of Confederation had neither the strength nor the resources
+necessary to cope with the problems of reconstruction left by the war.
+The sole organ of government was a Congress composed of from two to
+seven members from each state chosen as the legislature might direct and
+paid by the state. In determining all questions, each state had one
+vote--Delaware thus enjoying the same weight as Virginia. There was no
+president to enforce the laws. Congress was given power to select a
+committee of thirteen--one from each state--to act as an executive body
+when it was not in session; but this device, on being tried out, proved
+a failure. There was no system of national courts to which citizens and
+states could appeal for the protection of their rights or through which
+they could compel obedience to law. The two great powers of government,
+military and financial, were withheld. Congress, it is true, could
+authorize expenditures but had to rely upon the states for the payment
+of contributions to meet its bills. It could also order the
+establishment of an army, but it could only request the states to supply
+their respective quotas of soldiers. It could not lay taxes nor bring
+any pressure to bear upon a single citizen in the whole country. It
+could act only through the medium of the state governments.
+
+=Financial and Commercial Disorders.=--In the field of public finance,
+the disorders were pronounced. The huge debt incurred during the war was
+still outstanding. Congress was unable to pay either the interest or the
+principal. Public creditors were in despair, as the market value of
+their bonds sank to twenty-five or even ten cents on the dollar. The
+current bills of Congress were unpaid. As some one complained, there was
+not enough money in the treasury to buy pen and ink with which to record
+the transactions of the shadow legislature. The currency was in utter
+chaos. Millions of dollars in notes issued by Congress had become mere
+trash worth a cent or two on the dollar. There was no other expression
+of contempt so forceful as the popular saying: "not worth a
+Continental." To make matters worse, several of the states were pouring
+new streams of paper money from the press. Almost the only good money in
+circulation consisted of English, French, and Spanish coins, and the
+public was even defrauded by them because money changers were busy
+clipping and filing away the metal. Foreign commerce was unsettled. The
+entire British system of trade discrimination was turned against the
+Americans, and Congress, having no power to regulate foreign commerce,
+was unable to retaliate or to negotiate treaties which it could enforce.
+Domestic commerce was impeded by the jealousies of the states, which
+erected tariff barriers against their neighbors. The condition of the
+currency made the exchange of money and goods extremely difficult, and,
+as if to increase the confusion, backward states enacted laws hindering
+the prompt collection of debts within their borders--an evil which
+nothing but a national system of courts could cure.
+
+=Congress in Disrepute.=--With treaties set at naught by the states, the
+laws unenforced, the treasury empty, and the public credit gone, the
+Congress of the United States fell into utter disrepute. It called upon
+the states to pay their quotas of money into the treasury, only to be
+treated with contempt. Even its own members looked upon it as a solemn
+futility. Some of the ablest men refused to accept election to it, and
+many who did take the doubtful honor failed to attend the sessions.
+Again and again it was impossible to secure a quorum for the transaction
+of business.
+
+=Troubles of the State Governments.=--The state governments, free to
+pursue their own course with no interference from without, had almost as
+many difficulties as the Congress. They too were loaded with
+revolutionary debts calling for heavy taxes upon an already restive
+population. Oppressed by their financial burdens and discouraged by the
+fall in prices which followed the return of peace, the farmers of
+several states joined in a concerted effort and compelled their
+legislatures to issue large sums of paper money. The currency fell in
+value, but nevertheless it was forced on unwilling creditors to square
+old accounts.
+
+In every part of the country legislative action fluctuated violently.
+Laws were made one year only to be repealed the next and reenacted the
+third year. Lands were sold by one legislature and the sales were
+canceled by its successor. Uncertainty and distrust were the natural
+consequences. Men of substance longed for some power that would forbid
+states to issue bills of credit, to make paper money legal tender in
+payment of debts, or to impair the obligation of contracts. Men heavily
+in debt, on the other hand, urged even more drastic action against
+creditors.
+
+So great did the discontent of the farmers in New Hampshire become in
+1786 that a mob surrounded the legislature, demanding a repeal of the
+taxes and the issuance of paper money. It was with difficulty that an
+armed rebellion was avoided. In Massachusetts the malcontents, under the
+leadership of Daniel Shays, a captain in the Revolutionary army,
+organized that same year open resistance to the government of the state.
+Shays and his followers protested against the conduct of creditors in
+foreclosing mortgages upon the debt-burdened farmers, against the
+lawyers for increasing the costs of legal proceedings, against the
+senate of the state the members of which were apportioned among the
+towns on the basis of the amount of taxes paid, against heavy taxes, and
+against the refusal of the legislature to issue paper money. They seized
+the towns of Worcester and Springfield and broke up the courts of
+justice. All through the western part of the state the revolt spread,
+sending a shock of alarm to every center and section of the young
+republic. Only by the most vigorous action was Governor Bowdoin able to
+quell the uprising; and when that task was accomplished, the state
+government did not dare to execute any of the prisoners because they had
+so many sympathizers. Moreover, Bowdoin and several members of the
+legislature who had been most zealous in their attacks on the insurgents
+were defeated at the ensuing election. The need of national assistance
+for state governments in times of domestic violence was everywhere
+emphasized by men who were opposed to revolutionary acts.
+
+=Alarm over Dangers to the Republic.=--Leading American citizens,
+watching the drift of affairs, were slowly driven to the conclusion that
+the new ship of state so proudly launched a few years before was
+careening into anarchy. "The facts of our peace and independence," wrote
+a friend of Washington, "do not at present wear so promising an
+appearance as I had fondly painted in my mind. The prejudices,
+jealousies, and turbulence of the people at times almost stagger my
+confidence in our political establishments; and almost occasion me to
+think that they will show themselves unworthy of the noble prize for
+which we have contended."
+
+Washington himself was profoundly discouraged. On hearing of Shays's
+rebellion, he exclaimed: "What, gracious God, is man that there should
+be such inconsistency and perfidiousness in his conduct! It is but the
+other day that we were shedding our blood to obtain the constitutions
+under which we now live--constitutions of our own choice and making--and
+now we are unsheathing our sword to overturn them." The same year he
+burst out in a lament over rumors of restoring royal government. "I am
+told that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical government
+without horror. From thinking proceeds speaking. Hence to acting is
+often but a single step. But how irresistible and tremendous! What a
+triumph for our enemies to verify their predictions! What a triumph for
+the advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable of governing
+ourselves!"
+
+=Congress Attempts Some Reforms.=--The Congress was not indifferent to
+the events that disturbed Washington. On the contrary it put forth many
+efforts to check tendencies so dangerous to finance, commerce,
+industries, and the Confederation itself. In 1781, even before the
+treaty of peace was signed, the Congress, having found out how futile
+were its taxing powers, carried a resolution of amendment to the
+Articles of Confederation, authorizing the levy of a moderate duty on
+imports. Yet this mild measure was rejected by the states. Two years
+later the Congress prepared another amendment sanctioning the levy of
+duties on imports, to be collected this time by state officers and
+applied to the payment of the public debt. This more limited proposal,
+designed to save public credit, likewise failed. In 1786, the Congress
+made a third appeal to the states for help, declaring that they had been
+so irregular and so negligent in paying their quotas that further
+reliance upon that mode of raising revenues was dishonorable and
+dangerous.
+
+
+THE CALLING OF A CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION
+
+=Hamilton and Washington Urge Reform.=--The attempts at reform by the
+Congress were accompanied by demand for, both within and without that
+body, a convention to frame a new plan of government. In 1780, the
+youthful Alexander Hamilton, realizing the weakness of the Articles, so
+widely discussed, proposed a general convention for the purpose of
+drafting a new constitution on entirely different principles. With
+tireless energy he strove to bring his countrymen to his view.
+Washington, agreeing with him on every point, declared, in a circular
+letter to the governors, that the duration of the union would be short
+unless there was lodged somewhere a supreme power "to regulate and
+govern the general concerns of the confederated republic." The governor
+of Massachusetts, disturbed by the growth of discontent all about him,
+suggested to the state legislature in 1785 the advisability of a
+national convention to enlarge the powers of the Congress. The
+legislature approved the plan, but did not press it to a conclusion.
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDER HAMILTON]
+
+=The Annapolis Convention.=--Action finally came from the South. The
+Virginia legislature, taking things into its own hands, called a
+conference of delegates at Annapolis to consider matters of taxation and
+commerce. When the convention assembled in 1786, it was found that only
+five states had taken the trouble to send representatives. The leaders
+were deeply discouraged, but the resourceful Hamilton, a delegate from
+New York, turned the affair to good account. He secured the adoption of
+a resolution, calling upon the Congress itself to summon another
+convention, to meet at Philadelphia.
+
+=A National Convention Called (1787).=--The Congress, as tardy as ever,
+at last decided in February, 1787, to issue the call. Fearing drastic
+changes, however, it restricted the convention to "the sole and express
+purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." Jealous of its own
+powers, it added that any alterations proposed should be referred to the
+Congress and the states for their approval.
+
+Every state in the union, except Rhode Island, responded to this call.
+Indeed some of the states, having the Annapolis resolution before them,
+had already anticipated the Congress by selecting delegates before the
+formal summons came. Thus, by the persistence of governors,
+legislatures, and private citizens, there was brought about the
+long-desired national convention. In May, 1787, it assembled in
+Philadelphia.
+
+=The Eminent Men of the Convention.=--On the roll of that memorable
+convention were fifty-five men, at least half of whom were acknowledged
+to be among the foremost statesmen and thinkers in America. Every field
+of statecraft was represented by them: war and practical management in
+Washington, who was chosen president of the convention; diplomacy in
+Franklin, now old and full of honor in his own land as well as abroad;
+finance in Alexander Hamilton and Robert Morris; law in James Wilson of
+Pennsylvania; the philosophy of government in James Madison, called the
+"father of the Constitution." They were not theorists but practical men,
+rich in political experience and endowed with deep insight into the
+springs of human action. Three of them had served in the Stamp Act
+Congress: Dickinson of Delaware, William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut,
+and John Rutledge of South Carolina. Eight had been signers of the
+Declaration of Independence: Read of Delaware, Sherman of Connecticut,
+Wythe of Virginia, Gerry of Massachusetts, Franklin, Robert Morris,
+George Clymer, and James Wilson of Pennsylvania. All but twelve had at
+some time served in the Continental Congress and eighteen were members
+of that body in the spring of 1787. Washington, Hamilton, Mifflin, and
+Charles Pinckney had been officers in the Revolutionary army. Seven of
+the delegates had gained political experience as governors of states.
+"The convention as a whole," according to the historian Hildreth,
+"represented in a marked manner the talent, intelligence, and
+especially the conservative sentiment of the country."
+
+
+THE FRAMING OF THE CONSTITUTION
+
+=Problems Involved.=--The great problems before the convention were nine
+in number: (1) Shall the Articles of Confederation be revised or a new
+system of government constructed? (2) Shall the government be founded on
+states equal in power as under the Articles or on the broader and deeper
+foundation of population? (3) What direct share shall the people have in
+the election of national officers? (4) What shall be the qualifications
+for the suffrage? (5) How shall the conflicting interests of the
+commercial and the planting states be balanced so as to safeguard the
+essential rights of each? (6) What shall be the form of the new
+government? (7) What powers shall be conferred on it? (8) How shall the
+state legislatures be restrained from their attacks on property rights
+such as the issuance of paper money? (9) Shall the approval of all the
+states be necessary, as under the Articles, for the adoption and
+amendment of the Constitution?
+
+=Revision of the Articles or a New Government?=--The moment the first
+problem was raised, representatives of the small states, led by William
+Paterson of New Jersey, were on their feet. They feared that, if the
+Articles were overthrown, the equality and rights of the states would be
+put in jeopardy. Their protest was therefore vigorous. They cited the
+call issued by the Congress in summoning the convention which
+specifically stated that they were assembled for "the sole and express
+purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." They cited also
+their instructions from their state legislatures, which authorized them
+to "revise and amend" the existing scheme of government, not to make a
+revolution in it. To depart from the authorization laid down by the
+Congress and the legislatures would be to exceed their powers, they
+argued, and to betray the trust reposed in them by their countrymen.
+
+To their contentions, Randolph of Virginia replied: "When the salvation
+of the republic is at stake, it would be treason to our trust not to
+propose what we find necessary." Hamilton, reminding the delegates that
+their work was still subject to the approval of the states, frankly said
+that on the point of their powers he had no scruples. With the issue
+clear, the convention cast aside the Articles as if they did not exist
+and proceeded to the work of drawing up a new constitution, "laying its
+foundations on such principles and organizing its powers in such form"
+as to the delegates seemed "most likely to affect their safety and
+happiness."
+
+=A Government Founded on States or on People?--The
+Compromise.=--Defeated in their attempt to limit the convention to a
+mere revision of the Articles, the spokesmen of the smaller states
+redoubled their efforts to preserve the equality of the states. The
+signal for a radical departure from the Articles on this point was given
+early in the sessions when Randolph presented "the Virginia plan." He
+proposed that the new national legislature consist of two houses, the
+members of which were to be apportioned among the states according to
+their wealth or free white population, as the convention might decide.
+This plan was vehemently challenged. Paterson of New Jersey flatly
+avowed that neither he nor his state would ever bow to such tyranny. As
+an alternative, he presented "the New Jersey plan" calling for a
+national legislature of one house representing states as such, not
+wealth or people--a legislature in which all states, large or small,
+would have equal voice. Wilson of Pennsylvania, on behalf of the more
+populous states, took up the gauntlet which Paterson had thrown down. It
+was absurd, he urged, for 180,000 men in one state to have the same
+weight in national counsels as 750,000 men in another state. "The
+gentleman from New Jersey," he said, "is candid. He declares his opinion
+boldly.... I will be equally candid.... I will never confederate on his
+principles." So the bitter controversy ran on through many exciting
+sessions.
+
+Greek had met Greek. The convention was hopelessly deadlocked and on the
+verge of dissolution, "scarce held together by the strength of a hair,"
+as one of the delegates remarked. A crash was averted only by a
+compromise. Instead of a Congress of one house as provided by the
+Articles, the convention agreed upon a legislature of two houses. In the
+Senate, the aspirations of the small states were to be satisfied, for
+each state was given two members in that body. In the formation of the
+House of Representatives, the larger states were placated, for it was
+agreed that the members of that chamber were to be apportioned among the
+states on the basis of population, counting three-fifths of the slaves.
+
+=The Question of Popular Election.=--The method of selecting federal
+officers and members of Congress also produced an acrimonious debate
+which revealed how deep-seated was the distrust of the capacity of the
+people to govern themselves. Few there were who believed that no branch
+of the government should be elected directly by the voters; still fewer
+were there, however, who desired to see all branches so chosen. One or
+two even expressed a desire for a monarchy. The dangers of democracy
+were stressed by Gerry of Massachusetts: "All the evils we experience
+flow from an excess of democracy. The people do not want virtue but are
+the dupes of pretended patriots.... I have been too republican
+heretofore but have been taught by experience the danger of a leveling
+spirit." To the "democratic licentiousness of the state legislatures,"
+Randolph sought to oppose a "firm senate." To check the excesses of
+popular government Charles Pinckney of South Carolina declared that no
+one should be elected President who was not worth $100,000 and that high
+property qualifications should be placed on members of Congress and
+judges. Other members of the convention were stoutly opposed to such
+"high-toned notions of government." Franklin and Wilson, both from
+Pennsylvania, vigorously championed popular election; while men like
+Madison insisted that at least one part of the government should rest on
+the broad foundation of the people.
+
+Out of this clash of opinion also came compromise. One branch, the House
+of Representatives, it was agreed, was to be elected directly by the
+voters, while the Senators were to be elected indirectly by the state
+legislatures. The President was to be chosen by electors selected as the
+legislatures of the states might determine, and the judges of the
+federal courts, supreme and inferior, by the President and the Senate.
+
+=The Question of the Suffrage.=--The battle over the suffrage was sharp
+but brief. Gouverneur Morris proposed that only land owners should be
+permitted to vote. Madison replied that the state legislatures, which
+had made so much trouble with radical laws, were elected by freeholders.
+After the debate, the delegates, unable to agree on any property
+limitations on the suffrage, decided that the House of Representatives
+should be elected by voters having the "qualifications requisite for
+electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature." Thus
+they accepted the suffrage provisions of the states.
+
+=The Balance between the Planting and the Commercial States.=--After the
+debates had gone on for a few weeks, Madison came to the conclusion that
+the real division in the convention was not between the large and the
+small states but between the planting section founded on slave labor and
+the commercial North. Thus he anticipated by nearly three-quarters of a
+century "the irrepressible conflict." The planting states had neither
+the free white population nor the wealth of the North. There were,
+counting Delaware, six of them as against seven commercial states.
+Dependent for their prosperity mainly upon the sale of tobacco, rice,
+and other staples abroad, they feared that Congress might impose
+restraints upon their enterprise. Being weaker in numbers, they were
+afraid that the majority might lay an unfair burden of taxes upon them.
+
+_Representation and Taxation._--The Southern members of the convention
+were therefore very anxious to secure for their section the largest
+possible representation in Congress, and at the same time to restrain
+the taxing power of that body. Two devices were thought adapted to these
+ends. One was to count the slaves as people when apportioning
+representatives among the states according to their respective
+populations; the other was to provide that direct taxes should be
+apportioned among the states, in proportion not to their wealth but to
+the number of their free white inhabitants. For obvious reasons the
+Northern delegates objected to these proposals. Once more a compromise
+proved to be the solution. It was agreed that not all the slaves but
+three-fifths of them should be counted for both purposes--representation
+and direct taxation.
+
+_Commerce and the Slave Trade._--Southern interests were also involved
+in the project to confer upon Congress the power to regulate interstate
+and foreign commerce. To the manufacturing and trading states this was
+essential. It would prevent interstate tariffs and trade jealousies; it
+would enable Congress to protect American manufactures and to break
+down, by appropriate retaliations, foreign discriminations against
+American commerce. To the South the proposal was menacing because
+tariffs might interfere with the free exchange of the produce of
+plantations in European markets, and navigation acts might confine the
+carrying trade to American, that is Northern, ships. The importation of
+slaves, moreover, it was feared might be heavily taxed or immediately
+prohibited altogether.
+
+The result of this and related controversies was a debate on the merits
+of slavery. Gouverneur Morris delivered his mind and heart on that
+subject, denouncing slavery as a nefarious institution and the curse of
+heaven on the states in which it prevailed. Mason of Virginia, a
+slaveholder himself, was hardly less outspoken, saying: "Slavery
+discourages arts and manufactures. The poor despise labor when performed
+by slaves. They prevent the migration of whites who really strengthen
+and enrich a country."
+
+The system, however, had its defenders. Representatives from South
+Carolina argued that their entire economic life rested on slave labor
+and that the high death rate in the rice swamps made continuous
+importation necessary. Ellsworth of Connecticut took the ground that
+the convention should not meddle with slavery. "The morality or wisdom
+of slavery," he said, "are considerations belonging to the states. What
+enriches a part enriches the whole." To the future he turned an
+untroubled face: "As population increases, poor laborers will be so
+plenty as to render slaves useless. Slavery in time will not be a speck
+in our country." Virginia and North Carolina, already overstocked with
+slaves, favored prohibiting the traffic in them; but South Carolina was
+adamant. She must have fresh supplies of slaves or she would not
+federate.
+
+So it was agreed that, while Congress might regulate foreign trade by
+majority vote, the importation of slaves should not be forbidden before
+the lapse of twenty years, and that any import tax should not exceed $10
+a head. At the same time, in connection with the regulation of foreign
+trade, it was stipulated that a two-thirds vote in the Senate should be
+necessary in the ratification of treaties. A further concession to the
+South was made in the provision for the return of runaway slaves--a
+provision also useful in the North, where indentured servants were about
+as troublesome as slaves in escaping from their masters.
+
+=The Form of the Government.=--As to the details of the frame of
+government and the grand principles involved, the opinion of the
+convention ebbed and flowed, decisions being taken in the heat of
+debate, only to be revoked and taken again.
+
+_The Executive._--There was general agreement that there should be an
+executive branch; for reliance upon Congress to enforce its own laws and
+treaties had been a broken reed. On the character and functions of the
+executive, however, there were many views. The New Jersey plan called
+for a council selected by the Congress; the Virginia plan provided that
+the executive branch should be chosen by the Congress but did not state
+whether it should be composed of one or several persons. On this matter
+the convention voted first one way and then another; finally it agreed
+on a single executive chosen indirectly by electors selected as the
+state legislatures might decide, serving for four years, subject to
+impeachment, and endowed with regal powers in the command of the army
+and the navy and in the enforcement of the laws.
+
+_The Legislative Branch--Congress._--After the convention had made the
+great compromise between the large and small commonwealths by giving
+representation to states in the Senate and to population in the House,
+the question of methods of election had to be decided. As to the House
+of Representatives it was readily agreed that the members should be
+elected by direct popular vote. There was also easy agreement on the
+proposition that a strong Senate was needed to check the "turbulence" of
+the lower house. Four devices were finally selected to accomplish this
+purpose. In the first place, the Senators were not to be chosen directly
+by the voters but by the legislatures of the states, thus removing their
+election one degree from the populace. In the second place, their term
+was fixed at six years instead of two, as in the case of the House. In
+the third place, provision was made for continuity by having only
+one-third of the members go out at a time while two-thirds remained in
+service. Finally, it was provided that Senators must be at least thirty
+years old while Representatives need be only twenty-five.
+
+_The Judiciary._--The need for federal courts to carry out the law was
+hardly open to debate. The feebleness of the Articles of Confederation
+was, in a large measure, attributed to the want of a judiciary to hold
+states and individuals in obedience to the laws and treaties of the
+union. Nevertheless on this point the advocates of states' rights were
+extremely sensitive. They looked with distrust upon judges appointed at
+the national capital and emancipated from local interests and
+traditions; they remembered with what insistence they had claimed
+against Britain the right of local trial by jury and with what
+consternation they had viewed the proposal to make colonial judges
+independent of the assemblies in the matter of their salaries.
+Reluctantly they yielded to the demand for federal courts, consenting at
+first only to a supreme court to review cases heard in lower state
+courts and finally to such additional inferior courts as Congress might
+deem necessary.
+
+_The System of Checks and Balances._--It is thus apparent that the
+framers of the Constitution, in shaping the form of government, arranged
+for a distribution of power among three branches, executive,
+legislative, and judicial. Strictly speaking we might say four branches,
+for the legislature, or Congress, was composed of two houses, elected in
+different ways, and one of them, the Senate, was made a check on the
+President through its power of ratifying treaties and appointments. "The
+accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judicial, in the
+same hands," wrote Madison, "whether of one, a few, or many, and whether
+hereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the
+very definition of tyranny." The devices which the convention adopted to
+prevent such a centralization of authority were exceedingly ingenious
+and well calculated to accomplish the purposes of the authors.
+
+The legislature consisted of two houses, the members of which were to be
+apportioned on a different basis, elected in different ways, and to
+serve for different terms. A veto on all its acts was vested in a
+President elected in a manner not employed in the choice of either
+branch of the legislature, serving for four years, and subject to
+removal only by the difficult process of impeachment. After a law had
+run the gantlet of both houses and the executive, it was subject to
+interpretation and annulment by the judiciary, appointed by the
+President with the consent of the Senate and serving for life. Thus it
+was made almost impossible for any political party to get possession of
+all branches of the government at a single popular election. As Hamilton
+remarked, the friends of good government considered "every institution
+calculated to restrain the excess of law making and to keep things in
+the same state in which they happen to be at any given period as more
+likely to do good than harm."
+
+=The Powers of the Federal Government.=--On the question of the powers
+to be conferred upon the new government there was less occasion for a
+serious dispute. Even the delegates from the small states agreed with
+those from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia that new powers
+should be added to those intrusted to Congress by the Articles of
+Confederation. The New Jersey plan as well as the Virginia plan
+recognized this fact. Some of the delegates, like Hamilton and Madison,
+even proposed to give Congress a general legislative authority covering
+all national matters; but others, frightened by the specter of
+nationalism, insisted on specifying each power to be conferred and
+finally carried the day.
+
+_Taxation and Commerce._--There were none bold enough to dissent from
+the proposition that revenue must be provided to pay current expenses
+and discharge the public debt. When once the dispute over the
+apportionment of direct taxes among the slave states was settled, it was
+an easy matter to decide that Congress should have power to lay and
+collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises. In this way the national
+government was freed from dependence upon stubborn and tardy
+legislatures and enabled to collect funds directly from citizens. There
+were likewise none bold enough to contend that the anarchy of state
+tariffs and trade discriminations should be longer endured. When the
+fears of the planting states were allayed and the "bargain" over the
+importation of slaves was reached, the convention vested in Congress the
+power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.
+
+_National Defense._--The necessity for national defense was realized,
+though the fear of huge military establishments was equally present. The
+old practice of relying on quotas furnished by the state legislatures
+was completely discredited. As in the case of taxes a direct authority
+over citizens was demanded. Congress was therefore given full power to
+raise and support armies and a navy. It could employ the state militia
+when desirable; but it could at the same time maintain a regular army
+and call directly upon all able-bodied males if the nature of a crisis
+was thought to require it.
+
+_The "Necessary and Proper" Clause._--To the specified power vested in
+Congress by the Constitution, the advocates of a strong national
+government added a general clause authorizing it to make all laws
+"necessary and proper" for carrying into effect any and all of the
+enumerated powers. This clause, interpreted by that master mind, Chief
+Justice Marshall, was later construed to confer powers as wide as the
+requirements of a vast country spanning a continent and taking its place
+among the mighty nations of the earth.
+
+=Restraints on the States.=--Framing a government and endowing it with
+large powers were by no means the sole concern of the convention. Its
+very existence had been due quite as much to the conduct of the state
+legislatures as to the futilities of a paralyzed Continental Congress.
+In every state, explains Marshall in his _Life of Washington_, there was
+a party of men who had "marked out for themselves a more indulgent
+course. Viewing with extreme tenderness the case of the debtor, their
+efforts were unceasingly directed to his relief. To exact a faithful
+compliance with contracts was, in their opinion, a harsh measure which
+the people could not bear. They were uniformly in favor of relaxing the
+administration of justice, of affording facilities for the payment of
+debts, or of suspending their collection, and remitting taxes."
+
+The legislatures under the dominance of these men had enacted paper
+money laws enabling debtors to discharge their obligations more easily.
+The convention put an end to such practices by providing that no state
+should emit bills of credit or make anything but gold or silver legal
+tender in the payment of debts. The state legislatures had enacted laws
+allowing men to pay their debts by turning over to creditors land or
+personal property; they had repealed the charter of an endowed college
+and taken the management from the hands of the lawful trustees; and they
+had otherwise interfered with the enforcement of private agreements. The
+convention, taking notice of such matters, inserted a clause forbidding
+states "to impair the obligation of contracts." The more venturous of
+the radicals had in Massachusetts raised the standard of revolt against
+the authorities of the state. The convention answered by a brief
+sentence to the effect that the President of the United States, to be
+equipped with a regular army, would send troops to suppress domestic
+insurrections whenever called upon by the legislature or, if it was not
+in session, by the governor of the state. To make sure that the
+restrictions on the states would not be dead letters, the federal
+Constitution, laws, and treaties were made the supreme law of the land,
+to be enforced whenever necessary by a national judiciary and executive
+against violations on the part of any state authorities.
+
+=Provisions for Ratification and Amendment.=--When the frame of
+government had been determined, the powers to be vested in it had been
+enumerated, and the restrictions upon the states had been written into
+the bond, there remained three final questions. How shall the
+Constitution be ratified? What number of states shall be necessary to
+put it into effect? How shall it be amended in the future?
+
+On the first point, the mandate under which the convention was sitting
+seemed positive. The Articles of Confederation were still in effect.
+They provided that amendments could be made only by unanimous adoption
+in Congress and the approval of all the states. As if to give force to
+this provision of law, the call for the convention had expressly stated
+that all alterations and revisions should be reported to Congress for
+adoption or rejection, Congress itself to transmit the document
+thereafter to the states for their review.
+
+To have observed the strict letter of the law would have defeated the
+purposes of the delegates, because Congress and the state legislatures
+were openly hostile to such drastic changes as had been made. Unanimous
+ratification, as events proved, would have been impossible. Therefore
+the delegates decided that the Constitution should be sent to Congress
+with the recommendation that it, in turn, transmit the document, not to
+the state legislatures, but to conventions held in the states for the
+special object of deciding upon ratification. This process was followed.
+It was their belief that special conventions would be more friendly than
+the state legislatures.
+
+The convention was equally positive in dealing with the problem of the
+number of states necessary to establish the new Constitution. Attempts
+to change the Articles had failed because amendment required the
+approval of every state and there was always at least one recalcitrant
+member of the union. The opposition to a new Constitution was
+undoubtedly formidable. Rhode Island had even refused to take part in
+framing it, and her hostility was deep and open. So the convention cast
+aside the provision of the Articles of Confederation which required
+unanimous approval for any change in the plan of government; it decreed
+that the new Constitution should go into effect when ratified by nine
+states.
+
+In providing for future changes in the Constitution itself the
+convention also thrust aside the old rule of unanimous approval, and
+decided that an amendment could be made on a two-thirds vote in both
+houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states. This
+change was of profound significance. Every state agreed to be bound in
+the future by amendments duly adopted even in case it did not approve
+them itself. America in this way set out upon the high road that led
+from a league of states to a nation.
+
+
+THE STRUGGLE OVER RATIFICATION
+
+On September 17, 1787, the Constitution, having been finally drafted in
+clear and simple language, a model to all makers of fundamental law, was
+adopted. The convention, after nearly four months of debate in secret
+session, flung open the doors and presented to the Americans the
+finished plan for the new government. Then the great debate passed to
+the people.
+
+=The Opposition.=--Storms of criticism at once descended upon the
+Constitution. "Fraudulent usurpation!" exclaimed Gerry, who had refused
+to sign it. "A monster" out of the "thick veil of secrecy," declaimed a
+Pennsylvania newspaper. "An iron-handed despotism will be the result,"
+protested a third. "We, 'the low-born,'" sarcastically wrote a fourth,
+"will now admit the 'six hundred well-born' immediately to establish
+this most noble, most excellent, and truly divine constitution." The
+President will become a king; Congress will be as tyrannical as
+Parliament in the old days; the states will be swallowed up; the rights
+of the people will be trampled upon; the poor man's justice will be lost
+in the endless delays of the federal courts--such was the strain of the
+protests against ratification.
+
+[Illustration: AN ADVERTISEMENT OF _The Federalist_]
+
+=Defense of the Constitution.=--Moved by the tempest of opposition,
+Hamilton, Madison, and Jay took up their pens in defense of the
+Constitution. In a series of newspaper articles they discussed and
+expounded with eloquence, learning, and dignity every important clause
+and provision of the proposed plan. These papers, afterwards collected
+and published in a volume known as _The Federalist_, form the finest
+textbook on the Constitution that has ever been printed. It takes its
+place, moreover, among the wisest and weightiest treatises on government
+ever written in any language in any time. Other men, not so gifted, were
+no less earnest in their support of ratification. In private
+correspondence, editorials, pamphlets, and letters to the newspapers,
+they urged their countrymen to forget their partisanship and accept a
+Constitution which, in spite of any defects great or small, was the
+only guarantee against dissolution and warfare at home and dishonor and
+weakness abroad.
+
+[Illustration: CELEBRATING THE RATIFICATION]
+
+=The Action of the State Conventions.=--Before the end of the year,
+1787, three states had ratified the Constitution: Delaware and New
+Jersey unanimously and Pennsylvania after a short, though savage,
+contest. Connecticut and Georgia followed early the next year. Then came
+the battle royal in Massachusetts, ending in ratification in February by
+the narrow margin of 187 votes to 168. In the spring came the news that
+Maryland and South Carolina were "under the new roof." On June 21, New
+Hampshire, where the sentiment was at first strong enough to defeat the
+Constitution, joined the new republic, influenced by the favorable
+decision in Massachusetts. Swift couriers were sent to carry the news to
+New York and Virginia, where the question of ratification was still
+undecided. Nine states had accepted it and were united, whether more saw
+fit to join or not.
+
+Meanwhile, however, Virginia, after a long and searching debate, had
+given her approval by a narrow margin, leaving New York as the next seat
+of anxiety. In that state the popular vote for the delegates to the
+convention had been clearly and heavily against ratification. Events
+finally demonstrated the futility of resistance, and Hamilton by good
+judgment and masterly arguments was at last able to marshal a majority
+of thirty to twenty-seven votes in favor of ratification.
+
+The great contest was over. All the states, except North Carolina and
+Rhode Island, had ratified. "The sloop Anarchy," wrote an ebullient
+journalist, "when last heard from was ashore on Union rocks."
+
+=The First Election.=--In the autumn of 1788, elections were held to
+fill the places in the new government. Public opinion was overwhelmingly
+in favor of Washington as the first President. Yielding to the
+importunities of friends, he accepted the post in the spirit of public
+service. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office at Federal Hall
+in New York City. "Long live George Washington, President of the United
+States!" cried Chancellor Livingston as soon as the General had kissed
+the Bible. The cry was caught by the assembled multitude and given back.
+A new experiment in popular government was launched.
+
+
+=References=
+
+M. Farrand, _The Framing of the Constitution of the United States_.
+
+P.L. Ford, _Essays on the Constitution of the United States_.
+
+_The Federalist_ (in many editions).
+
+G. Hunt, _Life of James Madison_.
+
+A.C. McLaughlin, _The Confederation and the Constitution_ (American
+Nation Series).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Account for the failure of the Articles of Confederation.
+
+2. Explain the domestic difficulties of the individual states.
+
+3. Why did efforts at reform by the Congress come to naught?
+
+4. Narrate the events leading up to the constitutional convention.
+
+5. Who were some of the leading men in the convention? What had been
+their previous training?
+
+6. State the great problems before the convention.
+
+7. In what respects were the planting and commercial states opposed?
+What compromises were reached?
+
+8. Show how the "check and balance" system is embodied in our form of
+government.
+
+9. How did the powers conferred upon the federal government help cure
+the defects of the Articles of Confederation?
+
+10. In what way did the provisions for ratifying and amending the
+Constitution depart from the old system?
+
+11. What was the nature of the conflict over ratification?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=English Treatment of American Commerce.=--Callender, _Economic History
+of the United States_, pp. 210-220.
+
+=Financial Condition of the United States.=--Fiske, _Critical Period of
+American History_, pp. 163-186.
+
+=Disordered Commerce.=--Fiske, pp. 134-162.
+
+=Selfish Conduct of the States.=--Callender, pp. 185-191.
+
+=The Failure of the Confederation.=--Elson, _History of the United
+States_, pp. 318-326.
+
+=Formation of the Constitution.=--(1) The plans before the convention,
+Fiske, pp. 236-249; (2) the great compromise, Fiske, pp. 250-255; (3)
+slavery and the convention, Fiske, pp. 256-266; and (4) the frame of
+government, Fiske, pp. 275-301; Elson, pp. 328-334.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Look up the history and services of the leaders
+in the convention in any good encyclopedia.
+
+=Ratification of the Constitution.=--Hart, _History Told by
+Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 233-254; Elson, pp. 334-340.
+
+=Source Study.=--Compare the Constitution and Articles of Confederation
+under the following heads: (1) frame of government; (2) powers of
+Congress; (3) limits on states; and (4) methods of amendment. Every line
+of the Constitution should be read and re-read in the light of the
+historical circumstances set forth in this chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES
+
+
+THE MEN AND MEASURES OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT
+
+=Friends of the Constitution in Power.=--In the first Congress that
+assembled after the adoption of the Constitution, there were eleven
+Senators, led by Robert Morris, the financier, who had been delegates to
+the national convention. Several members of the House of
+Representatives, headed by James Madison, had also been at Philadelphia
+in 1787. In making his appointments, Washington strengthened the new
+system of government still further by a judicious selection of
+officials. He chose as Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton,
+who had been the most zealous for its success; General Knox, head of the
+War Department, and Edmund Randolph, the Attorney-General, were likewise
+conspicuous friends of the experiment. Every member of the federal
+judiciary whom Washington appointed, from the Chief Justice, John Jay,
+down to the justices of the district courts, had favored the
+ratification of the Constitution; and a majority of them had served as
+members of the national convention that framed the document or of the
+state ratifying conventions. Only one man of influence in the new
+government, Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, was reckoned as a
+doubter in the house of the faithful. He had expressed opinions both for
+and against the Constitution; but he had been out of the country acting
+as the minister at Paris when the Constitution was drafted and ratified.
+
+=An Opposition to Conciliate.=--The inauguration of Washington amid the
+plaudits of his countrymen did not set at rest all the political turmoil
+which had been aroused by the angry contest over ratification. "The
+interesting nature of the question," wrote John Marshall, "the equality
+of the parties, the animation produced inevitably by ardent debate had a
+necessary tendency to embitter the dispositions of the vanquished and to
+fix more deeply in many bosoms their prejudices against a plan of
+government in opposition to which all their passions were enlisted." The
+leaders gathered around Washington were well aware of the excited state
+of the country. They saw Rhode Island and North Carolina still outside
+of the union.[1] They knew by what small margins the Constitution had
+been approved in the great states of Massachusetts, Virginia, and New
+York. They were equally aware that a majority of the state conventions,
+in yielding reluctant approval to the Constitution, had drawn a number
+of amendments for immediate submission to the states.
+
+=The First Amendments--a Bill of Rights.=--To meet the opposition,
+Madison proposed, and the first Congress adopted, a series of amendments
+to the Constitution. Ten of them were soon ratified and became in 1791 a
+part of the law of the land. These amendments provided, among other
+things, that Congress could make no law respecting the establishment of
+religion, abridging the freedom of speech or of the press or the right
+of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for a
+redress of grievances. They also guaranteed indictment by grand jury and
+trial by jury for all persons charged by federal officers with serious
+crimes. To reassure those who still feared that local rights might be
+invaded by the federal government, the tenth amendment expressly
+provided that the powers not delegated to the United States by the
+Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the
+states respectively or to the people. Seven years later, the eleventh
+amendment was written in the same spirit as the first ten, after a
+heated debate over the action of the Supreme Court in permitting a
+citizen to bring a suit against "the sovereign state" of Georgia. The
+new amendment was designed to protect states against the federal
+judiciary by forbidding it to hear any case in which a state was sued by
+a citizen.
+
+=Funding the National Debt.=--Paper declarations of rights, however,
+paid no bills. To this task Hamilton turned all his splendid genius. At
+the very outset he addressed himself to the problem of the huge public
+debt, daily mounting as the unpaid interest accumulated. In a _Report on
+Public Credit_ under date of January 9, 1790, one of the first and
+greatest of American state papers, he laid before Congress the outlines
+of his plan. He proposed that the federal government should call in all
+the old bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and other promises to pay
+which had been issued by the Congress since the beginning of the
+Revolution. These national obligations, he urged, should be put into one
+consolidated debt resting on the credit of the United States; to the
+holders of the old paper should be issued new bonds drawing interest at
+fixed rates. This process was called "funding the debt." Such a
+provision for the support of public credit, Hamilton insisted, would
+satisfy creditors, restore landed property to its former value, and
+furnish new resources to agriculture and commerce in the form of credit
+and capital.
+
+=Assumption and Funding of State Debts.=--Hamilton then turned to the
+obligations incurred by the several states in support of the Revolution.
+These debts he proposed to add to the national debt. They were to be
+"assumed" by the United States government and placed on the same secure
+foundation as the continental debt. This measure he defended not merely
+on grounds of national honor. It would, as he foresaw, give strength to
+the new national government by making all public creditors, men of
+substance in their several communities, look to the federal, rather than
+the state government, for the satisfaction of their claims.
+
+=Funding at Face Value.=--On the question of the terms of consolidation,
+assumption, and funding, Hamilton had a firm conviction. That millions
+of dollars' worth of the continental and state bonds had passed out of
+the hands of those who had originally subscribed their funds to the
+support of the government or had sold supplies for the Revolutionary
+army was well known. It was also a matter of common knowledge that a
+very large part of these bonds had been bought by speculators at ruinous
+figures--ten, twenty, and thirty cents on the dollar. Accordingly, it
+had been suggested, even in very respectable quarters, that a
+discrimination should be made between original holders and speculative
+purchasers. Some who held this opinion urged that the speculators who
+had paid nominal sums for their bonds should be reimbursed for their
+outlays and the original holders paid the difference; others said that
+the government should "scale the debt" by redeeming, not at full value
+but at a figure reasonably above the market price. Against the
+proposition Hamilton set his face like flint. He maintained that the
+government was honestly bound to redeem every bond at its face value,
+although the difficulty of securing revenue made necessary a lower rate
+of interest on a part of the bonds and the deferring of interest on
+another part.
+
+=Funding and Assumption Carried.=--There was little difficulty in
+securing the approval of both houses of Congress for the funding of the
+national debt at full value. The bill for the assumption of state debts,
+however, brought the sharpest division of opinions. To the Southern
+members of Congress assumption was a gross violation of states' rights,
+without any warrant in the Constitution and devised in the interest of
+Northern speculators who, anticipating assumption and funding, had
+bought up at low prices the Southern bonds and other promises to pay.
+New England, on the other hand, was strongly in favor of assumption;
+several representatives from that section were rash enough to threaten a
+dissolution of the union if the bill was defeated. To this dispute was
+added an equally bitter quarrel over the location of the national
+capital, then temporarily at New York City.
+
+[Illustration: FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA]
+
+A deadlock, accompanied by the most surly feelings on both sides,
+threatened the very existence of the young government. Washington and
+Hamilton were thoroughly alarmed. Hearing of the extremity to which the
+contest had been carried and acting on the appeal from the Secretary of
+the Treasury, Jefferson intervened at this point. By skillful management
+at a good dinner he brought the opposing leaders together; and thus once
+more, as on many other occasions, peace was purchased and the union
+saved by compromise. The bargain this time consisted of an exchange of
+votes for assumption in return for votes for the capital. Enough
+Southern members voted for assumption to pass the bill, and a majority
+was mustered in favor of building the capital on the banks of the
+Potomac, after locating it for a ten-year period at Philadelphia to
+satisfy Pennsylvania members.
+
+=The United States Bank.=--Encouraged by the success of his funding and
+assumption measures, Hamilton laid before Congress a project for a great
+United States Bank. He proposed that a private corporation be chartered
+by Congress, authorized to raise a capital stock of $10,000,000
+(three-fourths in new six per cent federal bonds and one-fourth in
+specie) and empowered to issue paper currency under proper safeguards.
+Many advantages, Hamilton contended, would accrue to the government from
+this institution. The price of the government bonds would be increased,
+thus enhancing public credit. A national currency would be created of
+uniform value from one end of the land to the other. The branches of the
+bank in various cities would make easy the exchange of funds so vital to
+commercial transactions on a national scale. Finally, through the issue
+of bank notes, the money capital available for agriculture and industry
+would be increased, thus stimulating business enterprise. Jefferson
+hotly attacked the bank on the ground that Congress had no power
+whatever under the Constitution to charter such a private corporation.
+Hamilton defended it with great cogency. Washington, after weighing all
+opinions, decided in favor of the proposal. In 1791 the bill
+establishing the first United States Bank for a period of twenty years
+became a law.
+
+=The Protective Tariff.=--A third part of Hamilton's program was the
+protection of American industries. The first revenue act of 1789, though
+designed primarily to bring money into the empty treasury, declared in
+favor of the principle. The following year Washington referred to the
+subject in his address to Congress. Thereupon Hamilton was instructed to
+prepare recommendations for legislative action. The result, after a
+delay of more than a year, was his _Report on Manufactures_, another
+state paper worthy, in closeness of reasoning and keenness of
+understanding, of a place beside his report on public credit. Hamilton
+based his argument on the broadest national grounds: the protective
+tariff would, by encouraging the building of factories, create a home
+market for the produce of farms and plantations; by making the United
+States independent of other countries in times of peace, it would double
+its security in time of war; by making use of the labor of women and
+children, it would turn to the production of goods persons otherwise
+idle or only partly employed; by increasing the trade between the North
+and South it would strengthen the links of union and add to political
+ties those of commerce and intercourse. The revenue measure of 1792 bore
+the impress of these arguments.
+
+
+THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES
+
+=Dissensions over Hamilton's Measures.=--Hamilton's plans, touching
+deeply as they did the resources of individuals and the interests of the
+states, awakened alarm and opposition. Funding at face value, said his
+critics, was a government favor to speculators; the assumption of state
+debts was a deep design to undermine the state governments; Congress had
+no constitutional power to create a bank; the law creating the bank
+merely allowed a private corporation to make paper money and lend it at
+a high rate of interest; and the tariff was a tax on land and labor for
+the benefit of manufacturers.
+
+Hamilton's reply to this bill of indictment was simple and
+straightforward. Some rascally speculators had profited from the funding
+of the debt at face value, but that was only an incident in the
+restoration of public credit. In view of the jealousies of the states it
+was a good thing to reduce their powers and pretensions. The
+Constitution was not to be interpreted narrowly but in the full light of
+national needs. The bank would enlarge the amount of capital so sorely
+needed to start up American industries, giving markets to farmers and
+planters. The tariff by creating a home market and increasing
+opportunities for employment would benefit both land and labor. Out of
+such wise policies firmly pursued by the government, he concluded, were
+bound to come strength and prosperity for the new government at home,
+credit and power abroad. This view Washington fully indorsed, adding
+the weight of his great name to the inherent merits of the measures
+adopted under his administration.
+
+=The Sharpness of the Partisan Conflict.=--As a result of the clash of
+opinion, the people of the country gradually divided into two parties:
+Federalists and Anti-Federalists, the former led by Hamilton, the latter
+by Jefferson. The strength of the Federalists lay in the cities--Boston,
+Providence, Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston--among the
+manufacturing, financial, and commercial groups of the population who
+were eager to extend their business operations. The strength of the
+Anti-Federalists lay mainly among the debt-burdened farmers who feared
+the growth of what they called "a money power" and planters in all
+sections who feared the dominance of commercial and manufacturing
+interests. The farming and planting South, outside of the few towns,
+finally presented an almost solid front against assumption, the bank,
+and the tariff. The conflict between the parties grew steadily in
+bitterness, despite the conciliatory and engaging manner in which
+Hamilton presented his cause in his state papers and despite the
+constant efforts of Washington to soften the asperity of the
+contestants.
+
+=The Leadership and Doctrines of Jefferson.=--The party dispute had not
+gone far before the opponents of the administration began to look to
+Jefferson as their leader. Some of Hamilton's measures he had approved,
+declaring afterward that he did not at the time understand their
+significance. Others, particularly the bank, he fiercely assailed. More
+than once, he and Hamilton, shaking violently with anger, attacked each
+other at cabinet meetings, and nothing short of the grave and dignified
+pleas of Washington prevented an early and open break between them. In
+1794 it finally came. Jefferson resigned as Secretary of State and
+retired to his home in Virginia to assume, through correspondence and
+negotiation, the leadership of the steadily growing party of opposition.
+
+Shy and modest in manner, halting in speech, disliking the turmoil of
+public debate, and deeply interested in science and philosophy,
+Jefferson was not very well fitted for the strenuous life of political
+contest. Nevertheless, he was an ambitious and shrewd negotiator. He was
+also by honest opinion and matured conviction the exact opposite of
+Hamilton. The latter believed in a strong, active, "high-toned"
+government, vigorously compelling in all its branches. Jefferson looked
+upon such government as dangerous to the liberties of citizens and
+openly avowed his faith in the desirability of occasional popular
+uprisings. Hamilton distrusted the people. "Your people is a great
+beast," he is reported to have said. Jefferson professed his faith in
+the people with an abandon that was considered reckless in his time.
+
+On economic matters, the opinions of the two leaders were also
+hopelessly at variance. Hamilton, while cherishing agriculture, desired
+to see America a great commercial and industrial nation. Jefferson was
+equally set against this course for his country. He feared the
+accumulation of riches and the growth of a large urban working class.
+The mobs of great cities, he said, are sores on the body politic;
+artisans are usually the dangerous element that make revolutions;
+workshops should be kept in Europe and with them the artisans with their
+insidious morals and manners. The only substantial foundation for a
+republic, Jefferson believed to be agriculture. The spirit of
+independence could be kept alive only by free farmers, owning the land
+they tilled and looking to the sun in heaven and the labor of their
+hands for their sustenance. Trusting as he did in the innate goodness of
+human nature when nourished on a free soil, Jefferson advocated those
+measures calculated to favor agriculture and to enlarge the rights of
+persons rather than the powers of government. Thus he became the
+champion of the individual against the interference of the government,
+and an ardent advocate of freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and
+freedom of scientific inquiry. It was, accordingly, no mere factious
+spirit that drove him into opposition to Hamilton.
+
+=The Whisky Rebellion.=--The political agitation of the Anti-Federalists
+was accompanied by an armed revolt against the government in 1794. The
+occasion for this uprising was another of Hamilton's measures, a law
+laying an excise tax on distilled spirits, for the purpose of increasing
+the revenue needed to pay the interest on the funded debt. It so
+happened that a very considerable part of the whisky manufactured in the
+country was made by the farmers, especially on the frontier, in their
+own stills. The new revenue law meant that federal officers would now
+come into the homes of the people, measure their liquor, and take the
+tax out of their pockets. All the bitterness which farmers felt against
+the fiscal measures of the government was redoubled. In the western
+districts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, they refused to
+pay the tax. In Pennsylvania, some of them sacked and burned the houses
+of the tax collectors, as the Revolutionists thirty years before had
+mobbed the agents of King George sent over to sell stamps. They were in
+a fair way to nullify the law in whole districts when Washington called
+out the troops to suppress "the Whisky Rebellion." Then the movement
+collapsed; but it left behind a deep-seated resentment which flared up
+in the election of several obdurate Anti-Federalist Congressmen from the
+disaffected regions.
+
+
+FOREIGN INFLUENCES AND DOMESTIC POLITICS
+
+=The French Revolution.=--In this exciting period, when all America was
+distracted by partisan disputes, a storm broke in Europe--the
+epoch-making French Revolution--which not only shook the thrones of the
+Old World but stirred to its depths the young republic of the New World.
+The first scene in this dramatic affair occurred in the spring of 1789,
+a few days after Washington was inaugurated. The king of France, Louis
+XVI, driven into bankruptcy by extravagance and costly wars, was forced
+to resort to his people for financial help. Accordingly he called, for
+the first time in more than one hundred fifty years, a meeting of the
+national parliament, the "Estates General," composed of representatives
+of the "three estates"--the clergy, nobility, and commoners. Acting
+under powerful leaders, the commoners, or "third estate," swept aside
+the clergy and nobility and resolved themselves into a national
+assembly. This stirred the country to its depths.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+LOUIS XVI IN THE HANDS OF THE MOB]
+
+Great events followed in swift succession. On July 14, 1789, the
+Bastille, an old royal prison, symbol of the king's absolutism, was
+stormed by a Paris crowd and destroyed. On the night of August 4, the
+feudal privileges of the nobility were abolished by the national
+assembly amid great excitement. A few days later came the famous
+Declaration of the Rights of Man, proclaiming the sovereignty of the
+people and the privileges of citizens. In the autumn of 1791, Louis XVI
+was forced to accept a new constitution for France vesting the
+legislative power in a popular assembly. Little disorder accompanied
+these startling changes. To all appearances a peaceful revolution had
+stripped the French king of his royal prerogatives and based the
+government of his country on the consent of the governed.
+
+=American Influence in France.=--In undertaking their great political
+revolt the French had been encouraged by the outcome of the American
+Revolution. Officers and soldiers, who had served in the American war,
+reported to their French countrymen marvelous tales. At the frugal table
+of General Washington, in council with the unpretentious Franklin, or at
+conferences over the strategy of war, French noblemen of ancient lineage
+learned to respect both the talents and the simple character of the
+leaders in the great republican commonwealth beyond the seas. Travelers,
+who had gone to see the experiment in republicanism with their own eyes,
+carried home to the king and ruling class stories of an astounding
+system of popular government.
+
+On the other hand the dalliance with American democracy was regarded by
+French conservatives as playing with fire. "When we think of the false
+ideas of government and philanthropy," wrote one of Lafayette's aides,
+"which these youths acquired in America and propagated in France with so
+much enthusiasm and such deplorable success--for this mania of imitation
+powerfully aided the Revolution, though it was not the sole cause of
+it--we are bound to confess that it would have been better, both for
+themselves and for us, if these young philosophers in red-heeled shoes
+had stayed at home in attendance on the court."
+
+=Early American Opinion of the French Revolution.=--So close were the
+ties between the two nations that it is not surprising to find every
+step in the first stages of the French Revolution greeted with applause
+in the United States. "Liberty will have another feather in her cap,"
+exultantly wrote a Boston editor. "In no part of the globe," soberly
+wrote John Marshall, "was this revolution hailed with more joy than in
+America.... But one sentiment existed." The main key to the Bastille,
+sent to Washington as a memento, was accepted as "a token of the
+victory gained by liberty." Thomas Paine saw in the great event "the
+first ripe fruits of American principles transplanted into Europe."
+Federalists and Anti-Federalists regarded the new constitution of France
+as another vindication of American ideals.
+
+=The Reign of Terror.=--While profuse congratulations were being
+exchanged, rumors began to come that all was not well in France. Many
+noblemen, enraged at the loss of their special privileges, fled into
+Germany and plotted an invasion of France to overthrow the new system of
+government. Louis XVI entered into negotiations with his brother
+monarchs on the continent to secure their help in the same enterprise,
+and he finally betrayed to the French people his true sentiments by
+attempting to escape from his kingdom, only to be captured and taken
+back to Paris in disgrace.
+
+A new phase of the revolution now opened. The working people, excluded
+from all share in the government by the first French constitution,
+became restless, especially in Paris. Assembling on the Champs de Mars,
+a great open field, they signed a petition calling for another
+constitution giving them the suffrage. When told to disperse, they
+refused and were fired upon by the national guard. This "massacre," as
+it was called, enraged the populace. A radical party, known as
+"Jacobins," then sprang up, taking its name from a Jacobin monastery in
+which it held its sessions. In a little while it became the master of
+the popular convention convoked in September, 1792. The monarchy was
+immediately abolished and a republic established. On January 21, 1793,
+Louis was sent to the scaffold. To the war on Austria, already raging,
+was added a war on England. Then came the Reign of Terror, during which
+radicals in possession of the convention executed in large numbers
+counter-revolutionists and those suspected of sympathy with the
+monarchy. They shot down peasants who rose in insurrection against their
+rule and established a relentless dictatorship. Civil war followed.
+Terrible atrocities were committed on both sides in the name of liberty,
+and in the name of monarchy. To Americans of conservative temper it now
+seemed that the Revolution, so auspiciously begun, had degenerated into
+anarchy and mere bloodthirsty strife.
+
+=Burke Summons the World to War on France.=--In England, Edmund Burke
+led the fight against the new French principles which he feared might
+spread to all Europe. In his _Reflections on the French Revolution_,
+written in 1790, he attacked with terrible wrath the whole program of
+popular government; he called for war, relentless war, upon the French
+as monsters and outlaws; he demanded that they be reduced to order by
+the restoration of the king to full power under the protection of the
+arms of European nations.
+
+=Paine's Defense of the French Revolution.=--To counteract the campaign
+of hate against the French, Thomas Paine replied to Burke in another of
+his famous tracts, _The Rights of Man_, which was given to the American
+public in an edition containing a letter of approval from Jefferson.
+Burke, said Paine, had been mourning about the glories of the French
+monarchy and aristocracy but had forgotten the starving peasants and the
+oppressed people; had wept over the plumage and neglected the dying
+bird. Burke had denied the right of the French people to choose their
+own governors, blandly forgetting that the English government in which
+he saw final perfection itself rested on two revolutions. He had boasted
+that the king of England held his crown in contempt of the democratic
+societies. Paine answered: "If I ask a man in America if he wants a
+king, he retorts and asks me if I take him for an idiot." To the charge
+that the doctrines of the rights of man were "new fangled," Paine
+replied that the question was not whether they were new or old but
+whether they were right or wrong. As to the French disorders and
+difficulties, he bade the world wait to see what would be brought forth
+in due time.
+
+=The Effect of the French Revolution on American Politics.=--The course
+of the French Revolution and the controversies accompanying it,
+exercised a profound influence on the formation of the first political
+parties in America. The followers of Hamilton, now proud of the name
+"Federalists," drew back in fright as they heard of the cruel deeds
+committed during the Reign of Terror. They turned savagely upon the
+revolutionists and their friends in America, denouncing as "Jacobin"
+everybody who did not condemn loudly enough the proceedings of the
+French Republic. A Massachusetts preacher roundly assailed "the
+atheistical, anarchical, and in other respects immoral principles of the
+French Republicans"; he then proceeded with equal passion to attack
+Jefferson and the Anti-Federalists, whom he charged with spreading false
+French propaganda and betraying America. "The editors, patrons, and
+abettors of these vehicles of slander," he exclaimed, "ought to be
+considered and treated as enemies to their country.... Of all traitors
+they are the most aggravatedly criminal; of all villains, they are the
+most infamous and detestable."
+
+The Anti-Federalists, as a matter of fact, were generally favorable to
+the Revolution although they deplored many of the events associated with
+it. Paine's pamphlet, indorsed by Jefferson, was widely read. Democratic
+societies, after the fashion of French political clubs, arose in the
+cities; the coalition of European monarchs against France was denounced
+as a coalition against the very principles of republicanism; and the
+execution of Louis XVI was openly celebrated at a banquet in
+Philadelphia. Harmless titles, such as "Sir," "the Honorable," and "His
+Excellency," were decried as aristocratic and some of the more excited
+insisted on adopting the French title, "Citizen," speaking, for example,
+of "Citizen Judge" and "Citizen Toastmaster." Pamphlets in defense of
+the French streamed from the press, while subsidized newspapers kept the
+propaganda in full swing.
+
+=The European War Disturbs American Commerce.=--This battle of wits, or
+rather contest in calumny, might have gone on indefinitely in America
+without producing any serious results, had it not been for the war
+between England and France, then raging. The English, having command of
+the seas, claimed the right to seize American produce bound for French
+ports and to confiscate American ships engaged in carrying French goods.
+Adding fuel to a fire already hot enough, they began to search American
+ships and to carry off British-born sailors found on board American
+vessels.
+
+=The French Appeal for Help.=--At the same time the French Republic
+turned to the United States for aid in its war on England and sent over
+as its diplomatic representative "Citizen" Genet, an ardent supporter of
+the new order. On his arrival at Charleston, he was greeted with fervor
+by the Anti-Federalists. As he made his way North, he was wined and
+dined and given popular ovations that turned his head. He thought the
+whole country was ready to join the French Republic in its contest with
+England. Genet therefore attempted to use the American ports as the base
+of operations for French privateers preying on British merchant ships;
+and he insisted that the United States was in honor bound to help France
+under the treaty of 1778.
+
+=The Proclamation of Neutrality and the Jay Treaty.=--Unmoved by the
+rising tide of popular sympathy for France, Washington took a firm
+course. He received Genet coldly. The demand that the United States aid
+France under the old treaty of alliance he answered by proclaiming the
+neutrality of America and warning American citizens against hostile acts
+toward either France or England. When Genet continued to hold meetings,
+issue manifestoes, and stir up the people against England, Washington
+asked the French government to recall him. This act he followed up by
+sending the Chief Justice, John Jay, on a pacific mission to England.
+
+The result was the celebrated Jay treaty of 1794. By its terms Great
+Britain agreed to withdraw her troops from the western forts where they
+had been since the war for independence and to grant certain slight
+trade concessions. The chief sources of bitterness--the failure of the
+British to return slaves carried off during the Revolution, the seizure
+of American ships, and the impressment of sailors--were not touched,
+much to the distress of everybody in America, including loyal
+Federalists. Nevertheless, Washington, dreading an armed conflict with
+England, urged the Senate to ratify the treaty. The weight of his
+influence carried the day.
+
+At this, the hostility of the Anti-Federalists knew no bounds. Jefferson
+declared the Jay treaty "an infamous act which is really nothing more
+than an alliance between England and the Anglo-men of this country,
+against the legislature and the people of the United States." Hamilton,
+defending it with his usual courage, was stoned by a mob in New York and
+driven from the platform with blood streaming from his face. Jay was
+burned in effigy. Even Washington was not spared. The House of
+Representatives was openly hostile. To display its feelings, it called
+upon the President for the papers relative to the treaty negotiations,
+only to be more highly incensed by his flat refusal to present them, on
+the ground that the House did not share in the treaty-making power.
+
+=Washington Retires from Politics.=--Such angry contests confirmed the
+President in his slowly maturing determination to retire at the end of
+his second term in office. He did not believe that a third term was
+unconstitutional or improper; but, worn out by his long and arduous
+labors in war and in peace and wounded by harsh attacks from former
+friends, he longed for the quiet of his beautiful estate at Mount
+Vernon.
+
+In September, 1796, on the eve of the presidential election, Washington
+issued his Farewell Address, another state paper to be treasured and
+read by generations of Americans to come. In this address he directed
+the attention of the people to three subjects of lasting interest. He
+warned them against sectional jealousies. He remonstrated against the
+spirit of partisanship, saying that in government "of the popular
+character, in government purely elective, it is a spirit not to be
+encouraged." He likewise cautioned the people against "the insidious
+wiles of foreign influence," saying: "Europe has a set of primary
+interests which to us have none or a very remote relation. Hence she
+must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are
+essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it would be
+unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary
+vicissitudes of her politics or the ordinary combinations and collisions
+of her friendships or enmities.... Why forego the advantages of so
+peculiar a situation?... It is our true policy to steer clear of
+permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.... Taking
+care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a
+respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary
+alliances for extraordinary emergencies."
+
+=The Campaign of 1796--Adams Elected.=--On hearing of the retirement of
+Washington, the Anti-Federalists cast off all restraints. In honor of
+France and in opposition to what they were pleased to call the
+monarchical tendencies of the Federalists, they boldly assumed the name
+"Republican"; the term "Democrat," then applied only to obscure and
+despised radicals, had not come into general use. They selected
+Jefferson as their candidate for President against John Adams, the
+Federalist nominee, and carried on such a spirited campaign that they
+came within four votes of electing him.
+
+The successful candidate, Adams, was not fitted by training or opinion
+for conciliating a determined opposition. He was a reserved and studious
+man. He was neither a good speaker nor a skillful negotiator. In one of
+his books he had declared himself in favor of "government by an
+aristocracy of talents and wealth"--an offense which the Republicans
+never forgave. While John Marshall found him "a sensible, plain, candid,
+good-tempered man," Jefferson could see in him nothing but a "monocrat"
+and "Anglo-man." Had it not been for the conduct of the French
+government, Adams would hardly have enjoyed a moment's genuine
+popularity during his administration.
+
+=The Quarrel with France.=--The French Directory, the executive
+department established under the constitution of 1795, managed, however,
+to stir the anger of Republicans and Federalists alike. It regarded the
+Jay treaty as a rebuke to France and a flagrant violation of obligations
+solemnly registered in the treaty of 1778. Accordingly it refused to
+receive the American minister, treated him in a humiliating way, and
+finally told him to leave the country. Overlooking this affront in his
+anxiety to maintain peace, Adams dispatched to France a commission of
+eminent men with instructions to reach an understanding with the French
+Republic. On their arrival, they were chagrined to find, instead of a
+decent reception, an indirect demand for an apology respecting the past
+conduct of the American government, a payment in cash, and an annual
+tribute as the price of continued friendship. When the news of this
+affair reached President Adams, he promptly laid it before Congress,
+referring to the Frenchmen who had made the demands as "Mr. X, Mr. Y,
+and Mr. Z."
+
+This insult, coupled with the fact that French privateers, like the
+British, were preying upon American commerce, enraged even the
+Republicans who had been loudest in the profession of their French
+sympathies. They forgot their wrath over the Jay treaty and joined with
+the Federalists in shouting: "Millions for defense, not a cent for
+tribute!" Preparations for war were made on every hand. Washington was
+once more called from Mount Vernon to take his old position at the head
+of the army. Indeed, fighting actually began upon the high seas and went
+on without a formal declaration of war until the year 1800. By that time
+the Directory had been overthrown. A treaty was readily made with
+Napoleon, the First Consul, who was beginning his remarkable career as
+chief of the French Republic, soon to be turned into an empire.
+
+=Alien and Sedition Laws.=--Flushed with success, the Federalists
+determined, if possible, to put an end to radical French influence in
+America and to silence Republican opposition. They therefore passed two
+drastic laws in the summer of 1798: the Alien and Sedition Acts.
+
+The first of these measures empowered the President to expel from the
+country or to imprison any alien whom he regarded as "dangerous" or "had
+reasonable grounds to suspect" of "any treasonable or secret
+machinations against the government."
+
+The second of the measures, the Sedition Act, penalized not only those
+who attempted to stir up unlawful combinations against the government
+but also every one who wrote, uttered, or published "any false,
+scandalous, and malicious writing ... against the government of the
+United States or either House of Congress, or the President of the
+United States, with intent to defame said government ... or to bring
+them or either of them into contempt or disrepute." This measure was
+hurried through Congress in spite of the opposition and the clear
+provision in the Constitution that Congress shall make no law abridging
+the freedom of speech or of the press. Even many Federalists feared the
+consequences of the action. Hamilton was alarmed when he read the bill,
+exclaiming: "Let us not establish a tyranny. Energy is a very different
+thing from violence." John Marshall told his friends in Virginia that,
+had he been in Congress, he would have opposed the two bills because he
+thought them "useless" and "calculated to create unnecessary discontents
+and jealousies."
+
+The Alien law was not enforced; but it gave great offense to the Irish
+and French whose activities against the American government's policy
+respecting Great Britain put them in danger of prison. The Sedition law,
+on the other hand, was vigorously applied. Several editors of Republican
+newspapers soon found themselves in jail or broken by ruinous fines for
+their caustic criticisms of the Federalist President and his policies.
+Bystanders at political meetings, who uttered sentiments which, though
+ungenerous and severe, seem harmless enough now, were hurried before
+Federalist judges and promptly fined and imprisoned. Although the
+prosecutions were not numerous, they aroused a keen resentment. The
+Republicans were convinced that their political opponents, having
+saddled upon the country Hamilton's fiscal system and the British
+treaty, were bent on silencing all censure. The measures therefore had
+exactly the opposite effect from that which their authors intended.
+Instead of helping the Federalist party, they made criticism of it more
+bitter than ever.
+
+=The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.=--Jefferson was quick to take
+advantage of the discontent. He drafted a set of resolutions declaring
+the Sedition law null and void, as violating the federal Constitution.
+His resolutions were passed by the Kentucky legislature late in 1798,
+signed by the governor, and transmitted to the other states for their
+consideration. Though receiving unfavorable replies from a number of
+Northern states, Kentucky the following year reaffirmed its position and
+declared that the nullification of all unconstitutional acts of Congress
+was the rightful remedy to be used by the states in the redress of
+grievances. It thus defied the federal government and announced a
+doctrine hostile to nationality and fraught with terrible meaning for
+the future. In the neighboring state of Virginia, Madison led a movement
+against the Alien and Sedition laws. He induced the legislature to pass
+resolutions condemning the acts as unconstitutional and calling upon the
+other states to take proper means to preserve their rights and the
+rights of the people.
+
+=The Republican Triumph in 1800.=--Thus the way was prepared for the
+election of 1800. The Republicans left no stone unturned in their
+efforts to place on the Federalist candidate, President Adams, all the
+odium of the Alien and Sedition laws, in addition to responsibility for
+approving Hamilton's measures and policies. The Federalists, divided in
+councils and cold in their affection for Adams, made a poor campaign.
+They tried to discredit their opponents with epithets of "Jacobins" and
+"Anarchists"--terms which had been weakened by excessive use. When the
+vote was counted, it was found that Adams had been defeated; while the
+Republicans had carried the entire South and New York also and secured
+eight of the fifteen electoral votes cast by Pennsylvania. "Our beloved
+Adams will now close his bright career," lamented a Federalist
+newspaper. "Sons of faction, demagogues and high priests of anarchy, now
+you have cause to triumph!"
+
+[Illustration: _An old cartoon_
+
+A QUARREL BETWEEN A FEDERALIST AND A REPUBLICAN IN THE HOUSE OF
+REPRESENTATIVES]
+
+Jefferson's election, however, was still uncertain. By a curious
+provision in the Constitution, presidential electors were required to
+vote for two persons without indicating which office each was to fill,
+the one receiving the highest number of votes to be President and the
+candidate standing next to be Vice President. It so happened that Aaron
+Burr, the Republican candidate for Vice President, had received the same
+number of votes as Jefferson; as neither had a majority the election was
+thrown into the House of Representatives, where the Federalists held the
+balance of power. Although it was well known that Burr was not even a
+candidate for President, his friends and many Federalists began
+intriguing for his election to that high office. Had it not been for the
+vigorous action of Hamilton the prize might have been snatched out of
+Jefferson's hands. Not until the thirty-sixth ballot on February 17,
+1801, was the great issue decided in his favor.[2]
+
+
+=References=
+
+J.S. Bassett, _The Federalist System_ (American Nation Series).
+
+C.A. Beard, _Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy_.
+
+H. Lodge, _Alexander Hamilton_.
+
+J.T. Morse, _Thomas Jefferson_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Who were the leaders in the first administration under the
+Constitution?
+
+2. What step was taken to appease the opposition?
+
+3. Enumerate Hamilton's great measures and explain each in detail.
+
+4. Show the connection between the parts of Hamilton's system.
+
+5. Contrast the general political views of Hamilton and Jefferson.
+
+6. What were the important results of the "peaceful" French Revolution
+(1789-92)?
+
+7. Explain the interaction of opinion between France and the United
+States.
+
+8. How did the "Reign of Terror" change American opinion?
+
+9. What was the Burke-Paine controversy?
+
+10. Show how the war in Europe affected American commerce and involved
+America with England and France.
+
+11. What were American policies with regard to each of those countries?
+
+12. What was the outcome of the Alien and Sedition Acts?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Early Federal Legislation.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United
+States_, pp. 133-156; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+341-348.
+
+=Hamilton's Report on Public Credit.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source
+Book_, pp. 233-243.
+
+=The French Revolution.=--Robinson and Beard, _Development of Modern
+Europe_, Vol. I, pp. 224-282; Elson, pp. 351-354.
+
+=The Burke-Paine Controversy.=--Make an analysis of Burke's _Reflections
+on the French Revolution_ and Paine's _Rights of Man_.
+
+=The Alien and Sedition Acts.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_,
+pp. 259-267; Elson, pp. 367-375.
+
+=Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.=--Macdonald, pp. 267-278.
+
+=Source Studies.=--Materials in Hart, _American History Told by
+Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 255-343.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, Thomas
+Jefferson, and Albert Gallatin.
+
+=The Twelfth Amendment.=--Contrast the provision in the original
+Constitution with the terms of the Amendment. _See_ Appendix.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] North Carolina ratified in November, 1789, and Rhode Island in May,
+1790.
+
+[2] To prevent a repetition of such an unfortunate affair, the twelfth
+amendment of the Constitution was adopted in 1804, changing slightly the
+method of electing the President.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER
+
+
+REPUBLICAN PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES
+
+=Opposition to Strong Central Government.=--Cherishing especially the
+agricultural interest, as Jefferson said, the Republicans were in the
+beginning provincial in their concern and outlook. Their attachment to
+America was, certainly, as strong as that of Hamilton; but they regarded
+the state, rather than the national government, as the proper center of
+power and affection. Indeed, a large part of the rank and file had been
+among the opponents of the Constitution in the days of its adoption.
+Jefferson had entertained doubts about it and Monroe, destined to be the
+fifth President, had been one of the bitter foes of ratification. The
+former went so far in the direction of local autonomy that he exalted
+the state above the nation in the Kentucky resolutions of 1798,
+declaring the Constitution to be a mere compact and the states competent
+to interpret and nullify federal law. This was provincialism with a
+vengeance. "It is jealousy, not confidence, which prescribes limited
+constitutions," wrote Jefferson for the Kentucky legislature. Jealousy
+of the national government, not confidence in it--this is the ideal that
+reflected the provincial and agricultural interest.
+
+=Republican Simplicity.=--Every act of the Jeffersonian party during its
+early days of power was in accord with the ideals of government which it
+professed. It had opposed all pomp and ceremony, calculated to give
+weight and dignity to the chief executive of the nation, as symbols of
+monarchy and high prerogative. Appropriately, therefore, Jefferson's
+inauguration on March 4, 1801, the first at the new capital at
+Washington, was marked by extreme simplicity. In keeping with this
+procedure he quit the practice, followed by Washington and Adams, of
+reading presidential addresses to Congress in joint assembly and adopted
+in its stead the plan of sending his messages in writing--a custom that
+was continued unbroken until 1913 when President Wilson returned to the
+example set by the first chief magistrate.
+
+=Republican Measures.=--The Republicans had complained of a great
+national debt as the source of a dangerous "money power," giving
+strength to the federal government; accordingly they began to pay it off
+as rapidly as possible. They had held commerce in low esteem and looked
+upon a large navy as a mere device to protect it; consequently they
+reduced the number of warships. They had objected to excise taxes,
+particularly on whisky; these they quickly abolished, to the intense
+satisfaction of the farmers. They had protested against the heavy cost
+of the federal government; they reduced expenses by discharging hundreds
+of men from the army and abolishing many offices.
+
+They had savagely criticized the Sedition law and Jefferson refused to
+enforce it. They had been deeply offended by the assault on freedom of
+speech and press and they promptly impeached Samuel Chase, a justice of
+the Supreme Court, who had been especially severe in his attacks upon
+offenders under the Sedition Act. Their failure to convict Justice Chase
+by a narrow margin was due to no lack of zeal on their part but to the
+Federalist strength in the Senate where the trial was held. They had
+regarded the appointment of a large number of federal judges during the
+last hours of Adams' administration as an attempt to intrench
+Federalists in the judiciary and to enlarge the sphere of the national
+government. Accordingly, they at once repealed the act creating the new
+judgeships, thus depriving the "midnight appointees" of their posts.
+They had considered the federal offices, civil and military, as sources
+of great strength to the Federalists and Jefferson, though committed to
+the principle that offices should be open to all and distributed
+according to merit, was careful to fill most of the vacancies as they
+occurred with trusted Republicans. To his credit, however, it must be
+said that he did not make wholesale removals to find room for party
+workers.
+
+The Republicans thus hewed to the line of their general policy of
+restricting the weight, dignity, and activity of the national
+government. Yet there were no Republicans, as the Federalists asserted,
+prepared to urge serious modifications in the Constitution. "If there be
+any among us who wish to dissolve this union or to change its republican
+form," wrote Jefferson in his first inaugural, "let them stand
+undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may
+be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it." After reciting the
+fortunate circumstances of climate, soil, and isolation which made the
+future of America so full of promise, Jefferson concluded: "A wise and
+frugal government which shall restrain men from injuring one another,
+shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of
+industry and improvement and shall not take from the mouth of labour the
+bread it has earned. This is the sum of good government; and this is
+necessary to close the circle of our felicities."
+
+In all this the Republicans had not reckoned with destiny. In a few
+short years that lay ahead it was their fate to double the territory of
+the country, making inevitable a continental nation; to give the
+Constitution a generous interpretation that shocked many a Federalist;
+to wage war on behalf of American commerce; to reestablish the hated
+United States Bank; to enact a high protective tariff; to see their
+Federalist opponents in their turn discredited as nullifiers and
+provincials; to announce high national doctrines in foreign affairs; and
+to behold the Constitution exalted and defended against the pretensions
+of states by a son of old Virginia, John Marshall, Chief Justice of the
+Supreme Court of the United States.
+
+
+THE REPUBLICANS AND THE GREAT WEST
+
+=Expansion and Land Hunger.=--The first of the great measures which
+drove the Republicans out upon this new national course--the purchase
+of the Louisiana territory--was the product of circumstances rather than
+of their deliberate choosing. It was not the lack of land for his
+cherished farmers that led Jefferson to add such an immense domain to
+the original possessions of the United States. In the Northwest
+territory, now embracing Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin,
+and a portion of Minnesota, settlements were mainly confined to the
+north bank of the Ohio River. To the south, in Kentucky and Tennessee,
+where there were more than one hundred thousand white people who had
+pushed over the mountains from Virginia and the Carolinas, there were
+still wide reaches of untilled soil. The Alabama and Mississippi regions
+were vast Indian frontiers of the state of Georgia, unsettled and almost
+unexplored. Even to the wildest imagination there seemed to be territory
+enough to satisfy the land hunger of the American people for a century
+to come.
+
+=The Significance of the Mississippi River.=--At all events the East,
+then the center of power, saw no good reason for expansion. The planters
+of the Carolinas, the manufacturers of Pennsylvania, the importers of
+New York, the shipbuilders of New England, looking to the seaboard and
+to Europe for trade, refinements, and sometimes their ideas of
+government, were slow to appreciate the place of the West in national
+economy. The better educated the Easterners were, the less, it seems,
+they comprehended the destiny of the nation. Sons of Federalist fathers
+at Williams College, after a long debate decided by a vote of fifteen to
+one that the purchase of Louisiana was undesirable.
+
+On the other hand, the pioneers of Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee,
+unlearned in books, saw with their own eyes the resources of the
+wilderness. Many of them had been across the Mississippi and had beheld
+the rich lands awaiting the plow of the white man. Down the great river
+they floated their wheat, corn, and bacon to ocean-going ships bound for
+the ports of the seaboard or for Europe. The land journeys over the
+mountain barriers with bulky farm produce, they knew from experience,
+were almost impossible, and costly at best. Nails, bolts of cloth, tea,
+and coffee could go or come that way, but not corn and bacon. A free
+outlet to the sea by the Mississippi was as essential to the pioneers of
+the Kentucky region as the harbor of Boston to the merchant princes of
+that metropolis.
+
+=Louisiana under Spanish Rule.=--For this reason they watched with deep
+solicitude the fortunes of the Spanish king to whom, at the close of the
+Seven Years' War, had fallen the Louisiana territory stretching from New
+Orleans to the Rocky Mountains. While he controlled the mouth of the
+Mississippi there was little to fear, for he had neither the army nor
+the navy necessary to resist any invasion of American trade. Moreover,
+Washington had been able, by the exercise of great tact, to secure from
+Spain in 1795 a trading privilege through New Orleans which satisfied
+the present requirements of the frontiersmen even if it did not allay
+their fears for the future. So things stood when a swift succession of
+events altered the whole situation.
+
+=Louisiana Transferred to France.=--In July, 1802, a royal order from
+Spain instructed the officials at New Orleans to close the port to
+American produce. About the same time a disturbing rumor, long current,
+was confirmed--Napoleon had coerced Spain into returning Louisiana to
+France by a secret treaty signed in 1800. "The scalers of the Alps and
+conquerors of Venice" now looked across the sea for new scenes of
+adventure. The West was ablaze with excitement. A call for war ran
+through the frontier; expeditions were organized to prevent the landing
+of the French; and petitions for instant action flooded in upon
+Jefferson.
+
+=Jefferson Sees the Danger.=--Jefferson, the friend of France and sworn
+enemy of England, compelled to choose in the interest of America, never
+winced. "The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France,"
+he wrote to Livingston, the American minister in Paris, "works sorely on
+the United States. It completely reverses all the political relations of
+the United States and will form a new epoch in our political course....
+There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our
+natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans through which the produce
+of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market.... France,
+placing herself in that door, assumes to us an attitude of defiance.
+Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific
+dispositions, her feeble state would induce her to increase our
+facilities there.... Not so can it ever be in the hands of France....
+The day that France takes possession of New Orleans fixes the sentence
+which is to restrain her forever within her low water mark.... It seals
+the union of the two nations who in conjunction can maintain exclusive
+possession of the ocean. From that moment we must marry ourselves to the
+British fleet and nation.... This is not a state of things we seek or
+desire. It is one which this measure, if adopted by France, forces on us
+as necessarily as any other cause by the laws of nature brings on its
+necessary effect."
+
+=Louisiana Purchased.=--Acting on this belief, but apparently seeing
+only the Mississippi outlet at stake, Jefferson sent his friend, James
+Monroe, to France with the power to buy New Orleans and West Florida.
+Before Monroe arrived, the regular minister, Livingston, had already
+convinced Napoleon that it would be well to sell territory which might
+be wrested from him at any moment by the British sea power, especially
+as the war, temporarily stopped by the peace of Amiens, was once more
+raging in Europe. Wise as he was in his day, Livingston had at first no
+thought of buying the whole Louisiana country. He was simply dazed when
+Napoleon offered to sell the entire domain and get rid of the business
+altogether. Though staggered by the proposal, he and Monroe decided to
+accept. On April 30, they signed the treaty of cession, agreeing to pay
+$11,250,000 in six per cent bonds and to discharge certain debts due
+French citizens, making in all approximately fifteen millions. Spain
+protested, Napoleon's brother fumed, French newspapers objected; but the
+deed was done.
+
+=Jefferson and His Constitutional Scruples.=--When the news of this
+extraordinary event reached the United States, the people were filled
+with astonishment, and no one was more surprised than Jefferson himself.
+He had thought of buying New Orleans and West Florida for a small sum,
+and now a vast domain had been dumped into the lap of the nation. He was
+puzzled. On looking into the Constitution he found not a line
+authorizing the purchase of more territory and so he drafted an
+amendment declaring "Louisiana, as ceded by France,--a part of the
+United States." He had belabored the Federalists for piling up a big
+national debt and he could hardly endure the thought of issuing more
+bonds himself.
+
+In the midst of his doubts came the news that Napoleon might withdraw
+from the bargain. Thoroughly alarmed by that, Jefferson pressed the
+Senate for a ratification of the treaty. He still clung to his original
+idea that the Constitution did not warrant the purchase; but he lamely
+concluded: "If our friends shall think differently, I shall certainly
+acquiesce with satisfaction; confident that the good sense of our
+country will correct the evil of construction when it shall produce ill
+effects." Thus the stanch advocate of "strict interpretation" cut loose
+from his own doctrine and intrusted the construction of the Constitution
+to "the good sense" of his countrymen.
+
+=The Treaty Ratified.=--This unusual transaction, so favorable to the
+West, aroused the ire of the seaboard Federalists. Some denounced it as
+unconstitutional, easily forgetting Hamilton's masterly defense of the
+bank, also not mentioned in the Constitution. Others urged that, if "the
+howling wilderness" ever should be settled, it would turn against the
+East, form new commercial connections, and escape from federal control.
+Still others protested that the purchase would lead inevitably to the
+dominance of a "hotch potch of wild men from the Far West." Federalists,
+who thought "the broad back of America" could readily bear Hamilton's
+consolidated debt, now went into agonies over a bond issue of less than
+one-sixth of that amount. But in vain. Jefferson's party with a high
+hand carried the day. The Senate, after hearing the Federalist protest,
+ratified the treaty. In December, 1803, the French flag was hauled down
+from the old government buildings in New Orleans and the Stars and
+Stripes were hoisted as a sign that the land of Coronado, De Soto,
+Marquette, and La Salle had passed forever to the United States.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1805]
+
+By a single stroke, the original territory of the United States was more
+than doubled. While the boundaries of the purchase were uncertain, it is
+safe to say that the Louisiana territory included what is now Arkansas,
+Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and large
+portions of Louisiana, Minnesota, North Dakota, Colorado, Montana, and
+Wyoming. The farm lands that the friends of "a little America" on the
+seacoast declared a hopeless wilderness were, within a hundred years,
+fully occupied and valued at nearly seven billion dollars--almost five
+hundred times the price paid to Napoleon.
+
+=Western Explorations.=--Having taken the fateful step, Jefferson wisely
+began to make the most of it. He prepared for the opening of the new
+country by sending the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore it,
+discover its resources, and lay out an overland route through the
+Missouri Valley and across the Great Divide to the Pacific. The story of
+this mighty exploit, which began in the spring of 1804 and ended in the
+autumn of 1806, was set down with skill and pains in the journal of
+Lewis and Clark; when published even in a short form, it invited the
+forward-looking men of the East to take thought about the western
+empire. At the same time Zebulon Pike, in a series of journeys, explored
+the sources of the Mississippi River and penetrated the Spanish
+territories of the far Southwest. Thus scouts and pioneers continued the
+work of diplomats.
+
+
+THE REPUBLICAN WAR FOR COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE
+
+=The English and French Blockades.=--In addition to bringing Louisiana
+to the United States, the reopening of the European War in 1803, after a
+short lull, renewed in an acute form the commercial difficulties that
+had plagued the country all during the administrations of Washington and
+Adams. The Republicans were now plunged into the hornets' nest. The
+party whose ardent spirits had burned Jay in effigy, stoned Hamilton for
+defending his treaty, jeered Washington's proclamation of neutrality,
+and spoken bitterly of "timid traders," could no longer take refuge in
+criticism. It had to act.
+
+Its troubles took a serious turn in 1806. England, in a determined
+effort to bring France to her knees by starvation, declared the coast of
+Europe blockaded from Brest to the mouth of the Elbe River. Napoleon
+retaliated by his Berlin Decree of November, 1806, blockading the
+British Isles--a measure terrifying to American ship owners whose
+vessels were liable to seizure by any French rover, though Napoleon had
+no navy to make good his proclamation. Great Britain countered with a
+still more irritating decree--the Orders in Council of 1807. It modified
+its blockade, but in so doing merely authorized American ships not
+carrying munitions of war to complete their voyage to the Continent, on
+condition of their stopping at a British port, securing a license, and
+paying a tax. This, responded Napoleon, was the height of insolence, and
+he denounced it as a gross violation of international law. He then
+closed the circle of American troubles by issuing his Milan Decree of
+December, 1807. This order declared that any ship which complied with
+the British rules would be subject to seizure and confiscation by French
+authorities.
+
+=The Impressment of Seamen.=--That was not all. Great Britain, in dire
+need of men for her navy, adopted the practice of stopping American
+ships, searching them, and carrying away British-born sailors found on
+board. British sailors were so badly treated, so cruelly flogged for
+trivial causes, and so meanly fed that they fled in crowds to the
+American marine. In many cases it was difficult to tell whether seamen
+were English or American. They spoke the same language, so that language
+was no test. Rovers on the deep and stragglers in the ports of both
+countries, they frequently had no papers to show their nativity.
+Moreover, Great Britain held to the old rule--"Once an Englishman,
+always an Englishman"--a doctrine rejected by the United States in
+favor of the principle that a man could choose the nation to which he
+would give allegiance. British sea captains, sometimes by mistake, and
+often enough with reckless indifference, carried away into servitude in
+their own navy genuine American citizens. The process itself, even when
+executed with all the civilities of law, was painful enough, for it
+meant that American ships were forced to "come to," and compelled to
+rest submissively under British guns until the searching party had pried
+into records, questioned seamen, seized and handcuffed victims. Saints
+could not have done this work without raising angry passions, and only
+saints could have endured it with patience and fortitude.
+
+Had the enactment of the scenes been confined to the high seas and
+knowledge of them to rumors and newspaper stories, American resentment
+might not have been so intense; but many a search and seizure was made
+in sight of land. British and French vessels patrolled the coasts,
+firing on one another and chasing one another in American waters within
+the three-mile limit. When, in the summer of 1807, the American frigate
+_Chesapeake_ refused to surrender men alleged to be deserters from King
+George's navy, the British warship _Leopard_ opened fire, killing three
+men and wounding eighteen more--an act which even the British ministry
+could hardly excuse. If the French were less frequently the offenders,
+it was not because of their tenderness about American rights but because
+so few of their ships escaped the hawk-eyed British navy to operate in
+American waters.
+
+=The Losses in American Commerce.=--This high-handed conduct on the part
+of European belligerents was very injurious to American trade. By their
+enterprise, American shippers had become the foremost carriers on the
+Atlantic Ocean. In a decade they had doubled the tonnage of American
+merchant ships under the American flag, taking the place of the French
+marine when Britain swept that from the seas, and supplying Britain with
+the sinews of war for the contest with the Napoleonic empire. The
+American shipping engaged in foreign trade embraced 363,110 tons in
+1791; 669,921 tons in 1800; and almost 1,000,000 tons in 1810. Such was
+the enterprise attacked by the British and French decrees. American
+ships bound for Great Britain were liable to be captured by French
+privateers which, in spite of the disasters of the Nile and Trafalgar,
+ranged the seas. American ships destined for the Continent, if they
+failed to stop at British ports and pay tribute, were in great danger of
+capture by the sleepless British navy and its swarm of auxiliaries.
+American sea captains who, in fear of British vengeance, heeded the
+Orders in Council and paid the tax were almost certain to fall a prey to
+French vengeance, for the French were vigorous in executing the Milan
+Decree.
+
+=Jefferson's Policy.=--The President's dilemma was distressing. Both the
+belligerents in Europe were guilty of depredations on American commerce.
+War on both of them was out of the question. War on France was
+impossible because she had no territory on this side of the water which
+could be reached by American troops and her naval forces had been
+shattered at the battles of the Nile and Trafalgar. War on Great
+Britain, a power which Jefferson's followers feared and distrusted, was
+possible but not inviting. Jefferson shrank from it. A man of peace, he
+disliked war's brazen clamor; a man of kindly spirit, he was startled at
+the death and destruction which it brought in its train. So for the
+eight years Jefferson steered an even course, suggesting measure after
+measure with a view to avoiding bloodshed. He sent, it is true,
+Commodore Preble in 1803 to punish Mediterranean pirates preying upon
+American commerce; but a great war he evaded with passionate
+earnestness, trying in its place every other expedient to protect
+American rights.
+
+=The Embargo and Non-intercourse Acts.=--In 1806, Congress passed and
+Jefferson approved a non-importation act closing American ports to
+certain products from British dominions--a measure intended as a club
+over the British government's head. This law, failing in its purpose,
+Jefferson proposed and Congress adopted in December, 1807, the Embargo
+Act forbidding all vessels to leave American harbors for foreign ports.
+France and England were to be brought to terms by cutting off their
+supplies.
+
+The result of the embargo was pathetic. England and France refused to
+give up search and seizure. American ship owners who, lured by huge
+profits, had formerly been willing to take the risk were now restrained
+by law to their home ports. Every section suffered. The South and West
+found their markets for cotton, rice, tobacco, corn, and bacon
+curtailed. Thus they learned by bitter experience the national
+significance of commerce. Ship masters, ship builders, longshoremen, and
+sailors were thrown out of employment while the prices of foreign goods
+doubled. Those who obeyed the law were ruined; violators of the law
+smuggled goods into Canada and Florida for shipment abroad.
+
+Jefferson's friends accepted the medicine with a wry face as the only
+alternative to supine submission or open war. His opponents, without
+offering any solution of their own, denounced it as a contemptible plan
+that brought neither relief nor honor. Beset by the clamor that arose on
+all sides, Congress, in the closing days of Jefferson's administration,
+repealed the Embargo law and substituted a Non-intercourse act
+forbidding trade with England and France while permitting it with other
+countries--a measure equally futile in staying the depredations on
+American shipping.
+
+=Jefferson Retires in Favor of Madison.=--Jefferson, exhausted by
+endless wrangling and wounded, as Washington had been, by savage
+criticism, welcomed March 4, 1809. His friends urged him to "stay by the
+ship" and accept a third term. He declined, saying that election for
+life might result from repeated reelection. In following Washington's
+course and defending it on principle, he set an example to all his
+successors, making the "third term doctrine" a part of American
+unwritten law.
+
+His intimate friend, James Madison, to whom he turned over the burdens
+of his high office was, like himself, a man of peace. Madison had been a
+leader since the days of the Revolution, but in legislative halls and
+council chambers, not on the field of battle. Small in stature,
+sensitive in feelings, studious in habits, he was no man for the rough
+and tumble of practical politics. He had taken a prominent and
+distinguished part in the framing and the adoption of the Constitution.
+He had served in the first Congress as a friend of Hamilton's measures.
+Later he attached himself to Jefferson's fortunes and served for eight
+years as his first counselor, the Secretary of State. The principles of
+the Constitution, which he had helped to make and interpret, he was now
+as President called upon to apply in one of the most perplexing moments
+in all American history. In keeping with his own traditions and
+following in the footsteps of Jefferson, he vainly tried to solve the
+foreign problem by negotiation.
+
+=The Trend of Events.=--Whatever difficulties Madison had in making up
+his mind on war and peace were settled by events beyond his own control.
+In the spring of 1811, a British frigate held up an American ship near
+the harbor of New York and impressed a seaman alleged to be an American
+citizen. Burning with resentment, the captain of the _President_, an
+American warship, acting under orders, poured several broadsides into
+the _Little Belt_, a British sloop, suspected of being the guilty party.
+The British also encouraged the Indian chief Tecumseh, who welded
+together the Indians of the Northwest under British protection and gave
+signs of restlessness presaging a revolt. This sent a note of alarm
+along the frontier that was not checked even when, in November,
+Tecumseh's men were badly beaten at Tippecanoe by William Henry
+Harrison. The Indians stood in the way of the advancing frontier, and it
+seemed to the pioneers that, without support from the British in Canada,
+the Red Men would soon be subdued.
+
+=Clay and Calhoun.=--While events were moving swiftly and rumors were
+flying thick and fast, the mastery of the government passed from the
+uncertain hands of Madison to a party of ardent young men in Congress,
+dubbed "Young Republicans," under the leadership of two members destined
+to be mighty figures in American history: Henry Clay of Kentucky and
+John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The former contended, in a flair of
+folly, that "the militia of Kentucky alone are competent to place
+Montreal and Upper Canada at your feet." The latter with a light heart
+spoke of conquering Canada in a four weeks' campaign. "It must not be
+inferred," says Channing, "that in advocating conquest, the Westerners
+were actuated merely by desire for land; they welcomed war because they
+thought it would be the easiest way to abate Indian troubles. The
+savages were supported by the fur-trading interests that centred at
+Quebec and London.... The Southerners on their part wished for Florida
+and they thought that the conquest of Canada would obviate some Northern
+opposition to this acquisition of slave territory." While Clay and
+Calhoun, spokesmen of the West and South, were not unmindful of what
+Napoleon had done to American commerce, they knew that their followers
+still remembered with deep gratitude the aid of the French in the war
+for independence and that the embers of the old hatred for George III,
+still on the throne, could be readily blown into flame.
+
+=Madison Accepts War as Inevitable.=--The conduct of the British
+ministers with whom Madison had to deal did little to encourage him in
+adhering to the policy of "watchful waiting." One of them, a high Tory,
+believed that all Americans were alike "except that a few are less
+knaves than others" and his methods were colored by his belief. On the
+recall of this minister the British government selected another no less
+high and mighty in his principles and opinions. So Madison became
+thoroughly discouraged about the outcome of pacific measures. When the
+pressure from Congress upon him became too heavy, he gave way, signing
+on June 18, 1812, the declaration of war on Great Britain. In
+proclaiming hostilities, the administration set forth the causes which
+justified the declaration; namely, the British had been encouraging the
+Indians to attack American citizens on the frontier; they had ruined
+American trade by blockades; they had insulted the American flag by
+stopping and searching our ships; they had illegally seized American
+sailors and driven them into the British navy.
+
+=The Course of the War.=--The war lasted for nearly three years without
+bringing victory to either side. The surrender of Detroit by General
+Hull to the British and the failure of the American invasion of Canada
+were offset by Perry's victory on Lake Erie and a decisive blow
+administered to British designs for an invasion of New York by way of
+Plattsburgh. The triumph of Jackson at New Orleans helped to atone for
+the humiliation suffered in the burning of the Capitol by the British.
+The stirring deeds of the _Constitution_, the _United States_, and the
+_Argus_ on the seas, the heroic death of Lawrence and the victories of a
+hundred privateers furnished consolation for those who suffered from the
+iron blockade finally established by the British government when it came
+to appreciate the gravity of the situation. While men love the annals of
+the sea, they will turn to the running battles, the narrow escapes, and
+the reckless daring of American sailors in that naval contest with Great
+Britain.
+
+All this was exciting but it was inconclusive. In fact, never was a
+government less prepared than was that of the United States in 1812. It
+had neither the disciplined troops, the ships of war, nor the supplies
+required by the magnitude of the military task. It was fortune that
+favored the American cause. Great Britain, harassed, worn, and
+financially embarrassed by nearly twenty years of fighting in Europe,
+was in no mood to gather her forces for a titanic effort in America even
+after Napoleon was overthrown and sent into exile at Elba in the spring
+of 1814. War clouds still hung on the European horizon and the conflict
+temporarily halted did again break out. To be rid of American anxieties
+and free for European eventualities, England was ready to settle with
+the United States, especially as that could be done without conceding
+anything or surrendering any claims.
+
+=The Treaty of Peace.=--Both countries were in truth sick of a war that
+offered neither glory nor profit. Having indulged in the usual
+diplomatic skirmishing, they sent representatives to Ghent to discuss
+terms of peace. After long negotiations an agreement was reached on
+Christmas eve, 1814, a few days before Jackson's victory at New Orleans.
+When the treaty reached America the people were surprised to find that
+it said nothing about the seizure of American sailors, the destruction
+of American trade, the searching of American ships, or the support of
+Indians on the frontier. Nevertheless, we are told, the people "passed
+from gloom to glory" when the news of peace arrived. The bells were
+rung; schools were closed; flags were displayed; and many a rousing
+toast was drunk in tavern and private home. The rejoicing could
+continue. With Napoleon definitely beaten at Waterloo in June, 1815,
+Great Britain had no need to impress sailors, search ships, and
+confiscate American goods bound to the Continent. Once more the terrible
+sea power sank into the background and the ocean was again white with
+the sails of merchantmen.
+
+
+THE REPUBLICANS NATIONALIZED
+
+=The Federalists Discredited.=--By a strange turn of fortune's wheel,
+the party of Hamilton, Washington, Adams, the party of the grand nation,
+became the party of provincialism and nullification. New England,
+finding its shipping interests crippled in the European conflict and
+then penalized by embargoes, opposed the declaration of war on Great
+Britain, which meant the completion of the ruin already begun. In the
+course of the struggle, the Federalist leaders came perilously near to
+treason in their efforts to hamper the government of the United States;
+and in their desperation they fell back upon the doctrine of
+nullification so recently condemned by them when it came from Kentucky.
+The Senate of Massachusetts, while the war was in progress, resolved
+that it was waged "without justifiable cause," and refused to approve
+military and naval projects not connected with "the defense of our
+seacoast and soil." A Boston newspaper declared that the union was
+nothing but a treaty among sovereign states, that states could decide
+for themselves the question of obeying federal law, and that armed
+resistance under the banner of a state would not be rebellion or
+treason. The general assembly of Connecticut reminded the administration
+at Washington that "the state of Connecticut is a free, sovereign, and
+independent state." Gouverneur Morris, a member of the convention which
+had drafted the Constitution, suggested the holding of another
+conference to consider whether the Northern states should remain in the
+union.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old cartoon_
+
+NEW ENGLAND JUMPING INTO THE HANDS OF GEORGE III]
+
+In October, 1814, a convention of delegates from Connecticut,
+Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and certain counties of New Hampshire and
+Vermont was held at Hartford, on the call of Massachusetts. The counsels
+of the extremists were rejected but the convention solemnly went on
+record to the effect that acts of Congress in violation of the
+Constitution are void; that in cases of deliberate, dangerous, and
+palpable infractions the state is duty bound to interpose its authority
+for the protection of its citizens; and that when emergencies occur the
+states must be their own judges and execute their own decisions. Thus
+New England answered the challenge of Calhoun and Clay. Fortunately its
+actions were not as rash as its words. The Hartford convention merely
+proposed certain amendments to the Constitution and adjourned. At the
+close of the war, its proposals vanished harmlessly; but the men who
+made them were hopelessly discredited.
+
+=The Second United States Bank.=--In driving the Federalists towards
+nullification and waging a national war themselves, the Republicans lost
+all their old taint of provincialism. Moreover, in turning to measures
+of reconstruction called forth by the war, they resorted to the national
+devices of the Federalists. In 1816, they chartered for a period of
+twenty years a second United States Bank--the institution which
+Jefferson and Madison once had condemned as unsound and
+unconstitutional. The Constitution remained unchanged; times and
+circumstances had changed. Calhoun dismissed the vexed question of
+constitutionality with a scant reference to an ancient dispute, while
+Madison set aside his scruples and signed the bill.
+
+=The Protective Tariff of 1816.=--The Republicans supplemented the Bank
+by another Federalist measure--a high protective tariff. Clay viewed it
+as the beginning of his "American system" of protection. Calhoun
+defended it on national principles. For this sudden reversal of policy
+the young Republicans were taunted by some of their older party
+colleagues with betraying the "agricultural interest" that Jefferson had
+fostered; but Calhoun refused to listen to their criticisms. "When the
+seas are open," he said, "the produce of the South may pour anywhere
+into the markets of the Old World.... What are the effects of a war with
+a maritime power--with England? Our commerce annihilated ... our
+agriculture cut off from its accustomed markets, the surplus of the
+farmer perishes on his hands.... The recent war fell with peculiar
+pressure on the growers of cotton and tobacco and the other great
+staples of the country; and the same state of things will recur in the
+event of another war unless prevented by the foresight of this body....
+When our manufactures are grown to a certain perfection, as they soon
+will be under the fostering care of the government, we shall no longer
+experience these evils." With the Republicans nationalized, the
+Federalist party, as an organization, disappeared after a crushing
+defeat in the presidential campaign of 1816.
+
+=Monroe and the Florida Purchase.=--To the victor in that political
+contest, James Monroe of Virginia, fell two tasks of national
+importance, adding to the prestige of the whole country and deepening
+the sense of patriotism that weaned men away from mere allegiance to
+states. The first of these was the purchase of Florida from Spain. The
+acquisition of Louisiana let the Mississippi flow "unvexed to the sea";
+but it left all the states east of the river cut off from the Gulf,
+affording them ground for discontent akin to that which had moved the
+pioneers of Kentucky to action a generation earlier. The uncertainty as
+to the boundaries of Louisiana gave the United States a claim to West
+Florida, setting on foot a movement for occupation. The Florida swamps
+were a basis for Indian marauders who periodically swept into the
+frontier settlements, and hiding places for runaway slaves. Thus the
+sanction of international law was given to punitive expeditions into
+alien territory.
+
+The pioneer leaders stood waiting for the signal. It came. President
+Monroe, on the occasion of an Indian outbreak, ordered General Jackson
+to seize the offenders, in the Floridas, if necessary. The high-spirited
+warrior, taking this as a hint that he was to occupy the coveted region,
+replied that, if possession was the object of the invasion, he could
+occupy the Floridas within sixty days. Without waiting for an answer to
+this letter, he launched his expedition, and in the spring of 1818 was
+master of the Spanish king's domain to the south.
+
+There was nothing for the king to do but to make the best of the
+inevitable by ceding the Floridas to the United States in return for
+five million dollars to be paid to American citizens having claims
+against Spain. On Washington's birthday, 1819, the treaty was signed. It
+ceded the Floridas to the United States and defined the boundary between
+Mexico and the United States by drawing a line from the mouth of the
+Sabine River in a northwesterly direction to the Pacific. On this
+occasion even Monroe, former opponent of the Constitution, forgot to
+inquire whether new territory could be constitutionally acquired and
+incorporated into the American union. The Republicans seemed far away
+from the days of "strict construction." And Jefferson still lived!
+
+=The Monroe Doctrine.=--Even more effective in fashioning the national
+idea was Monroe's enunciation of the famous doctrine that bears his
+name. The occasion was another European crisis. During the Napoleonic
+upheaval and the years of dissolution that ensued, the Spanish colonies
+in America, following the example set by their English neighbors in
+1776, declared their independence. Unable to conquer them alone, the
+king of Spain turned for help to the friendly powers of Europe that
+looked upon revolution and republics with undisguised horror.
+
+_The Holy Alliance._--He found them prepared to view his case with
+sympathy. Three of them, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, under the
+leadership of the Czar, Alexander I, in the autumn of 1815, had entered
+into a Holy Alliance to sustain by reciprocal service the autocratic
+principle in government. Although the effusive, almost maudlin, language
+of the treaty did not express their purpose explicitly, the Alliance was
+later regarded as a mere union of monarchs to prevent the rise and
+growth of popular government.
+
+The American people thought their worst fears confirmed when, in 1822, a
+conference of delegates from Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France met at
+Verona to consider, among other things, revolutions that had just broken
+out in Spain and Italy. The spirit of the conference is reflected in the
+first article of the agreement reached by the delegates: "The high
+contracting powers, being convinced that the system of representative
+government is equally incompatible with the monarchical principle and
+the maxim of the sovereignty of the people with the divine right,
+mutually engage in the most solemn manner to use all their efforts to
+put an end to the system of representative government in whatever
+country it may exist in Europe and to prevent its being introduced in
+those countries where it is not yet known." The Czar, who incidentally
+coveted the west coast of North America, proposed to send an army to aid
+the king of Spain in his troubles at home, thus preparing the way for
+intervention in Spanish America. It was material weakness not want of
+spirit, that prevented the grand union of monarchs from making open war
+on popular government.
+
+_The Position of England._--Unfortunately, too, for the Holy Alliance,
+England refused to cooeperate. English merchants had built up a large
+trade with the independent Latin-American colonies and they protested
+against the restoration of Spanish sovereignty, which meant a renewal of
+Spain's former trade monopoly. Moreover, divine right doctrines had been
+laid to rest in England and the representative principle thoroughly
+established. Already there were signs of the coming democratic flood
+which was soon to carry the first reform bill of 1832, extending the
+suffrage, and sweep on to even greater achievements. British statesmen,
+therefore, had to be cautious. In such circumstances, instead of
+cooeperating with the autocrats of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, they
+turned to the minister of the United States in London. The British prime
+minister, Canning, proposed that the two countries join in declaring
+their unwillingness to see the Spanish colonies transferred to any other
+power.
+
+_Jefferson's Advice._--The proposal was rejected; but President Monroe
+took up the suggestion with Madison and Jefferson as well as with his
+Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams. They favored the plan. Jefferson
+said: "One nation, most of all, could disturb us in this pursuit [of
+freedom]; she now offers to lead, aid, and accompany us in it. By
+acceding to her proposition we detach her from the bands, bring her
+mighty weight into the scale of free government and emancipate a
+continent at one stroke.... With her on our side we need not fear the
+whole world. With her then we should most sedulously cherish a cordial
+friendship."
+
+_Monroe's Statement of the Doctrine._--Acting on the advice of trusted
+friends, President Monroe embodied in his message to Congress, on
+December 2, 1823, a statement of principles now famous throughout the
+world as the Monroe Doctrine. To the autocrats of Europe he announced
+that he would regard "any attempt on their part to extend their system
+to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety."
+While he did not propose to interfere with existing colonies dependent
+on European powers, he ranged himself squarely on the side of those that
+had declared their independence. Any attempt by a European power to
+oppress them or control their destiny in any manner he characterized as
+"a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States."
+Referring in another part of his message to a recent claim which the
+Czar had made to the Pacific coast, President Monroe warned the Old
+World that "the American continents, by the free and independent
+condition which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to
+be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European
+powers." The effect of this declaration was immediate and profound. Men
+whose political horizon had been limited to a community or state were
+led to consider their nation as a great power among the sovereignties of
+the earth, taking its part in shaping their international relations.
+
+=The Missouri Compromise.=--Respecting one other important measure of
+this period, the Republicans also took a broad view of their obligations
+under the Constitution; namely, the Missouri Compromise. It is true,
+they insisted on the admission of Missouri as a slave state, balanced
+against the free state of Maine; but at the same time they assented to
+the prohibition of slavery in the Louisiana territory north of the line
+36 deg. 30'. During the debate on the subject an extreme view had been
+presented, to the effect that Congress had no constitutional warrant for
+abolishing slavery in the territories. The precedent of the Northwest
+Ordinance, ratified by Congress in 1789, seemed a conclusive answer from
+practice to this contention; but Monroe submitted the issue to his
+cabinet, which included Calhoun of South Carolina, Crawford of Georgia,
+and Wirt of Virginia, all presumably adherents to the Jeffersonian
+principle of strict construction. He received in reply a unanimous
+verdict to the effect that Congress did have the power to prohibit
+slavery in the territories governed by it. Acting on this advice he
+approved, on March 6, 1820, the bill establishing freedom north of the
+compromise line. This generous interpretation of the powers of Congress
+stood for nearly forty years, until repudiated by the Supreme Court in
+the Dred Scott case.
+
+
+THE NATIONAL DECISIONS OF CHIEF JUSTICE MARSHALL
+
+=John Marshall, the Nationalist.=--The Republicans in the lower ranges
+of state politics, who did not catch the grand national style of their
+leaders charged with responsibilities in the national field, were
+assisted in their education by a Federalist from the Old Dominion, John
+Marshall, who, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United
+States from 1801 to 1835, lost no occasion to exalt the Constitution
+above the claims of the provinces. No differences of opinion as to his
+political views have ever led even his warmest opponents to deny his
+superb abilities or his sincere devotion to the national idea. All will
+likewise agree that for talents, native and acquired, he was an ornament
+to the humble democracy that brought him forth. His whole career was
+American. Born on the frontier of Virginia, reared in a log cabin,
+granted only the barest rudiments of education, inured to hardship and
+rough life, he rose by masterly efforts to the highest judicial honor
+America can bestow.
+
+On him the bitter experience of the Revolution and of later days made a
+lasting impression. He was no "summer patriot." He had been a soldier in
+the Revolutionary army. He had suffered with Washington at Valley Forge.
+He had seen his comrades in arms starving and freezing because the
+Continental Congress had neither the power nor the inclination to force
+the states to do their full duty. To him the Articles of Confederation
+were the symbol of futility. Into the struggle for the formation of the
+Constitution and its ratification in Virginia he had thrown himself with
+the ardor of a soldier. Later, as a member of Congress, a representative
+to France, and Secretary of State, he had aided the Federalists in
+establishing the new government. When at length they were driven from
+power in the executive and legislative branches of the government, he
+was chosen for their last stronghold, the Supreme Court. By historic
+irony he administered the oath of office to his bitterest enemy, Thomas
+Jefferson; and, long after the author of the Declaration of Independence
+had retired to private life, the stern Chief Justice continued to
+announce the old Federalist principles from the Supreme Bench.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN MARSHALL]
+
+=Marbury _vs._ Madison--An Act of Congress Annulled.=--He had been in
+his high office only two years when he laid down for the first time in
+the name of the entire Court the doctrine that the judges have the power
+to declare an act of Congress null and void when in their opinion it
+violates the Constitution. This power was not expressly conferred on the
+Court. Though many able men held that the judicial branch of the
+government enjoyed it, the principle was not positively established
+until 1803 when the case of Marbury _vs._ Madison was decided. In
+rendering the opinion of the Court, Marshall cited no precedents. He
+sought no foundations for his argument in ancient history. He rested it
+on the general nature of the American system. The Constitution, ran his
+reasoning, is the supreme law of the land; it limits and binds all who
+act in the name of the United States; it limits the powers of Congress
+and defines the rights of citizens. If Congress can ignore its
+limitations and trespass upon the rights of citizens, Marshall argued,
+then the Constitution disappears and Congress is supreme. Since,
+however, the Constitution is supreme and superior to Congress, it is the
+duty of judges, under their oath of office, to sustain it against
+measures which violate it. Therefore, from the nature of the American
+constitutional system the courts must declare null and void all acts
+which are not authorized. "A law repugnant to the Constitution," he
+closed, "is void and the courts as well as other departments are bound
+by that instrument." From that day to this the practice of federal and
+state courts in passing upon the constitutionality of laws has remained
+unshaken.
+
+This doctrine was received by Jefferson and many of his followers with
+consternation. If the idea was sound, he exclaimed, "then indeed is our
+Constitution a complete _felo de se_ [legally, a suicide]. For,
+intending to establish three departments, cooerdinate and independent
+that they might check and balance one another, it has given, according
+to this opinion, to one of them alone the right to prescribe rules for
+the government of the others, and to that one, too, which is unelected
+by and independent of the nation.... The Constitution, on this
+hypothesis, is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the judiciary which
+they may twist and shape into any form they please. It should be
+remembered, as an axiom of eternal truth in politics, that whatever
+power in any government is independent, is absolute also.... A judiciary
+independent of a king or executive alone is a good thing; but
+independence of the will of the nation is a solecism, at least in a
+republican government." But Marshall was mighty and his view prevailed,
+though from time to time other men, clinging to Jefferson's opinion,
+likewise opposed the exercise by the Courts of the high power of passing
+upon the constitutionality of acts of Congress.
+
+=Acts of State Legislatures Declared Unconstitutional.=--Had Marshall
+stopped with annulling an act of Congress, he would have heard less
+criticism from Republican quarters; but, with the same firmness, he set
+aside acts of state legislatures as well, whenever, in his opinion, they
+violated the federal Constitution. In 1810, in the case of Fletcher
+_vs._ Peck, he annulled an act of the Georgia legislature, informing the
+state that it was not sovereign, but "a part of a large empire, ... a
+member of the American union; and that union has a constitution ...
+which imposes limits to the legislatures of the several states." In the
+case of McCulloch _vs._ Maryland, decided in 1819, he declared void an
+act of the Maryland legislature designed to paralyze the branches of the
+United States Bank established in that state. In the same year, in the
+still more memorable Dartmouth College case, he annulled an act of the
+New Hampshire legislature which infringed upon the charter received by
+the college from King George long before. That charter, he declared, was
+a contract between the state and the college, which the legislature
+under the federal Constitution could not impair. Two years later he
+stirred the wrath of Virginia by summoning her to the bar of the Supreme
+Court to answer in a case in which the validity of one of her laws was
+involved and then justified his action in a powerful opinion rendered in
+the case of Cohens _vs._ Virginia.
+
+All these decisions aroused the legislatures of the states. They passed
+sheaves of resolutions protesting and condemning; but Marshall never
+turned and never stayed. The Constitution of the United States, he
+fairly thundered at them, is the supreme law of the land; the Supreme
+Court is the proper tribunal to pass finally upon the validity of the
+laws of the states; and "those sovereignties," far from possessing the
+right of review and nullification, are irrevocably bound by the
+decisions of that Court. This was strong medicine for the authors of the
+Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions and for the members of the Hartford
+convention; but they had to take it.
+
+=The Doctrine of Implied Powers.=--While restraining Congress in the
+Marbury case and the state legislatures in a score of cases, Marshall
+also laid the judicial foundation for a broad and liberal view of the
+Constitution as opposed to narrow and strict construction. In McCulloch
+_vs._ Maryland, he construed generously the words "necessary and proper"
+in such a way as to confer upon Congress a wide range of "implied
+powers" in addition to their express powers. That case involved, among
+other things, the question whether the act establishing the second
+United States Bank was authorized by the Constitution. Marshall answered
+in the affirmative. Congress, ran his reasoning, has large powers over
+taxation and the currency; a bank is of appropriate use in the exercise
+of these enumerated powers; and therefore, though not absolutely
+necessary, a bank is entirely proper and constitutional. "With respect
+to the means by which the powers that the Constitution confers are to be
+carried into execution," he said, Congress must be allowed the
+discretion which "will enable that body to perform the high duties
+assigned to it, in the manner most beneficial to the people." In short,
+the Constitution of the United States is not a strait jacket but a
+flexible instrument vesting in Congress the powers necessary to meet
+national problems as they arise. In delivering this opinion Marshall
+used language almost identical with that employed by Lincoln when,
+standing on the battle field of a war waged to preserve the nation, he
+said that "a government of the people, by the people, for the people
+shall not perish from the earth."
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+During the strenuous period between the establishment of American
+independence and the advent of Jacksonian democracy the great American
+experiment was under the direction of the men who had launched it. All
+the Presidents in that period, except John Quincy Adams, had taken part
+in the Revolution. James Madison, the chief author of the Constitution,
+lived until 1836. This age, therefore, was the "age of the fathers." It
+saw the threatened ruin of the country under the Articles of
+Confederation, the formation of the Constitution, the rise of political
+parties, the growth of the West, the second war with England, and the
+apparent triumph of the national spirit over sectionalism.
+
+The new republic had hardly been started in 1783 before its troubles
+began. The government could not raise money to pay its debts or running
+expenses; it could not protect American commerce and manufactures
+against European competition; it could not stop the continual issues of
+paper money by the states; it could not intervene to put down domestic
+uprisings that threatened the existence of the state governments.
+Without money, without an army, without courts of law, the union under
+the Articles of Confederation was drifting into dissolution. Patriots,
+who had risked their lives for independence, began to talk of monarchy
+again. Washington, Hamilton, and Madison insisted that a new
+constitution alone could save America from disaster.
+
+By dint of much labor the friends of a new form of government induced
+the Congress to call a national convention to take into account the
+state of America. In May, 1787, it assembled at Philadelphia and for
+months it debated and wrangled over plans for a constitution. The small
+states clamored for equal rights in the union. The large states vowed
+that they would never grant it. A spirit of conciliation, fair play, and
+compromise saved the convention from breaking up. In addition, there
+were jealousies between the planting states and the commercial states.
+Here, too, compromises had to be worked out. Some of the delegates
+feared the growth of democracy and others cherished it. These factions
+also had to be placated. At last a plan of government was drafted--the
+Constitution of the United States--and submitted to the states for
+approval. Only after a long and acrimonious debate did enough states
+ratify the instrument to put it into effect. On April 30, 1789, George
+Washington was inaugurated first President.
+
+The new government proceeded to fund the old debt of the nation, assume
+the debts of the states, found a national bank, lay heavy taxes to pay
+the bills, and enact laws protecting American industry and commerce.
+Hamilton led the way, but he had not gone far before he encountered
+opposition. He found a formidable antagonist in Jefferson. In time two
+political parties appeared full armed upon the scene: the Federalists
+and the Republicans. For ten years they filled the country with
+political debate. In 1800 the Federalists were utterly vanquished by the
+Republicans with Jefferson in the lead.
+
+By their proclamations of faith the Republicans favored the states
+rather than the new national government, but in practice they added
+immensely to the prestige and power of the nation. They purchased
+Louisiana from France, they waged a war for commercial independence
+against England, they created a second United States Bank, they enacted
+the protective tariff of 1816, they declared that Congress had power to
+abolish slavery north of the Missouri Compromise line, and they spread
+the shield of the Monroe Doctrine between the Western Hemisphere and
+Europe.
+
+Still America was a part of European civilization. Currents of opinion
+flowed to and fro across the Atlantic. Friends of popular government in
+Europe looked to America as the great exemplar of their ideals. Events
+in Europe reacted upon thought in the United States. The French
+Revolution exerted a profound influence on the course of political
+debate. While it was in the stage of mere reform all Americans favored
+it. When the king was executed and a radical democracy set up, American
+opinion was divided. When France fell under the military dominion of
+Napoleon and preyed upon American commerce, the United States made ready
+for war.
+
+The conduct of England likewise affected American affairs. In 1793 war
+broke out between England and France and raged with only a slight
+intermission until 1815. England and France both ravaged American
+commerce, but England was the more serious offender because she had
+command of the seas. Though Jefferson and Madison strove for peace, the
+country was swept into war by the vehemence of the "Young Republicans,"
+headed by Clay and Calhoun.
+
+When the armed conflict was closed, one in diplomacy opened. The
+autocratic powers of Europe threatened to intervene on behalf of Spain
+in her attempt to recover possession of her Latin-American colonies.
+Their challenge to America brought forth the Monroe Doctrine. The powers
+of Europe were warned not to interfere with the independence or the
+republican policies of this hemisphere or to attempt any new
+colonization in it. It seemed that nationalism was to have a peaceful
+triumph over sectionalism.
+
+
+=References=
+
+H. Adams, _History of the United States, 1800-1817_ (9 vols.).
+
+K.C. Babcock, _Rise of American Nationality_ (American Nation Series).
+
+E. Channing, _The Jeffersonian System_ (Same Series).
+
+D.C. Gilman, _James Monroe_.
+
+W. Reddaway, _The Monroe Doctrine_.
+
+T. Roosevelt, _Naval War of 1812_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What was the leading feature of Jefferson's political theory?
+
+2. Enumerate the chief measures of his administration.
+
+3. Were the Jeffersonians able to apply their theories? Give the
+reasons.
+
+4. Explain the importance of the Mississippi River to Western farmers.
+
+5. Show how events in Europe forced the Louisiana Purchase.
+
+6. State the constitutional question involved in the Louisiana Purchase.
+
+7. Show how American trade was affected by the European war.
+
+8. Compare the policies of Jefferson and Madison.
+
+9. Why did the United States become involved with England rather than
+with France?
+
+10. Contrast the causes of the War of 1812 with the results.
+
+11. Give the economic reasons for the attitude of New England.
+
+12. Give five "nationalist" measures of the Republicans. Discuss each in
+detail.
+
+13. Sketch the career of John Marshall.
+
+14. Discuss the case of Marbury _vs._ Madison.
+
+15. Summarize Marshall's views on: (_a_) states' rights; and (_b_) a
+liberal interpretation of the Constitution.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Louisiana Purchase.=--Text of Treaty in Macdonald, _Documentary
+Source Book_, pp. 279-282. Source materials in Hart, _American History
+Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 363-384. Narrative, Henry Adams,
+_History of the United States_, Vol. II, pp. 25-115; Elson, _History of
+the United States_, pp. 383-388.
+
+=The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts.=--Macdonald, pp. 282-288; Adams,
+Vol. IV, pp. 152-177; Elson, pp. 394-405.
+
+=Congress and the War of 1812.=--Adams, Vol. VI, pp. 113-198; Elson, pp.
+408-450.
+
+=Proposals of the Hartford Convention.=--Macdonald, pp. 293-302.
+
+=Manufactures and the Tariff of 1816.=--Coman, _Industrial History of
+the United States_, pp. 184-194.
+
+=The Second United States Bank.=--Macdonald, pp. 302-306.
+
+=Effect of European War on American Trade.=--Callender, _Economic
+History of the United States_, pp. 240-250.
+
+=The Monroe Message.=--Macdonald, pp. 318-320.
+
+=Lewis and Clark Expedition.=--R.G. Thwaites, _Rocky Mountain
+Explorations_, pp. 92-187. Schafer, _A History of the Pacific Northwest_
+(rev. ed.), pp. 29-61.
+
+
+
+
+PART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS
+
+
+The nationalism of Hamilton was undemocratic. The democracy of Jefferson
+was, in the beginning, provincial. The historic mission of uniting
+nationalism and democracy was in the course of time given to new leaders
+from a region beyond the mountains, peopled by men and women from all
+sections and free from those state traditions which ran back to the
+early days of colonization. The voice of the democratic nationalism
+nourished in the West was heard when Clay of Kentucky advocated his
+American system of protection for industries; when Jackson of Tennessee
+condemned nullification in a ringing proclamation that has taken its
+place among the great American state papers; and when Lincoln of
+Illinois, in a fateful hour, called upon a bewildered people to meet the
+supreme test whether this was a nation destined to survive or to perish.
+And it will be remembered that Lincoln's party chose for its banner that
+earlier device--Republican--which Jefferson had made a sign of power.
+The "rail splitter" from Illinois united the nationalism of Hamilton
+with the democracy of Jefferson, and his appeal was clothed in the
+simple language of the people, not in the sonorous rhetoric which
+Webster learned in the schools.
+
+
+PREPARATION FOR WESTERN SETTLEMENT
+
+=The West and the American Revolution.=--The excessive attention devoted
+by historians to the military operations along the coast has obscured
+the role played by the frontier in the American Revolution. The action
+of Great Britain in closing western land to easy settlement in 1763 was
+more than an incident in precipitating the war for independence.
+Americans on the frontier did not forget it; when Indians were employed
+by England to defend that land, zeal for the patriot cause set the
+interior aflame. It was the members of the western vanguard, like Daniel
+Boone, John Sevier, and George Rogers Clark, who first understood the
+value of the far-away country under the guns of the English forts, where
+the Red Men still wielded the tomahawk and the scalping knife. It was
+they who gave the East no rest until their vision was seen by the
+leaders on the seaboard who directed the course of national policy. It
+was one of their number, a seasoned Indian fighter, George Rogers Clark,
+who with aid from Virginia seized Kaskaskia and Vincennes and secured
+the whole Northwest to the union while the fate of Washington's army was
+still hanging in the balance.
+
+=Western Problems at the End of the Revolution.=--The treaty of peace,
+signed with Great Britain in 1783, brought the definite cession of the
+coveted territory west to the Mississippi River, but it left unsolved
+many problems. In the first place, tribes of resentful Indians in the
+Ohio region, even though British support was withdrawn at last, had to
+be reckoned with; and it was not until after the establishment of the
+federal Constitution that a well-equipped army could be provided to
+guarantee peace on the border. In the second place, British garrisons
+still occupied forts on Lake Erie pending the execution of the terms of
+the treaty of 1783--terms which were not fulfilled until after the
+ratification of the Jay treaty twelve years later. In the third place,
+Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts had conflicting claims to the
+land in the Northwest based on old English charters and Indian treaties.
+It was only after a bitter contest that the states reached an agreement
+to transfer their rights to the government of the United States,
+Virginia executing her deed of cession on March 1, 1784. In the fourth
+place, titles to lands bought by individuals remained uncertain in the
+absence of official maps and records. To meet this last situation,
+Congress instituted a systematic survey of the Ohio country, laying it
+out into townships, sections of 640 acres each, and quarter sections. In
+every township one section of land was set aside for the support of
+public schools.
+
+=The Northwest Ordinance.=--The final problem which had to be solved
+before settlement on a large scale could be begun was that of governing
+the territory. Pioneers who looked with hungry eyes on the fertile
+valley of the Ohio could hardly restrain their impatience. Soldiers of
+the Revolution, who had been paid for their services in land warrants
+entitling them to make entries in the West, called for action.
+
+Congress answered by passing in 1787 the famous Northwest Ordinance
+providing for temporary territorial government to be followed by the
+creation of a popular assembly as soon as there were five thousand free
+males in any district. Eventual admission to the union on an equal
+footing with the original states was promised to the new territories.
+Religious freedom was guaranteed. The safeguards of trial by jury,
+regular judicial procedure, and _habeas corpus_ were established, in order
+that the methods of civilized life might take the place of the
+rough-and-ready justice of lynch law. During the course of the debate on
+the Ordinance, Congress added the sixth article forbidding slavery and
+involuntary servitude.
+
+This Charter of the Northwest, so well planned by the Congress under the
+Articles of Confederation, was continued in force by the first Congress
+under the Constitution in 1789. The following year its essential
+provisions, except the ban on slavery, were applied to the territory
+south of the Ohio, ceded by North Carolina to the national government,
+and in 1798 to the Mississippi territory, once held by Georgia. Thus it
+was settled for all time that "the new colonies were not to be exploited
+for the benefit of the parent states (any more than for the benefit of
+England) but were to be autonomous and cooerdinate commonwealths." This
+outcome, bitterly opposed by some Eastern leaders who feared the triumph
+of Western states over the seaboard, completed the legal steps necessary
+by way of preparation for the flood of settlers.
+
+=The Land Companies, Speculators, and Western Land Tenure.=--As in the
+original settlement of America, so in the opening of the West, great
+companies and single proprietors of large grants early figured. In 1787
+the Ohio Land Company, a New England concern, acquired a million and a
+half acres on the Ohio and began operations by planting the town of
+Marietta. A professional land speculator, J.C. Symmes, secured a million
+acres lower down where the city of Cincinnati was founded. Other
+individuals bought up soldiers' claims and so acquired enormous holdings
+for speculative purposes. Indeed, there was such a rush to make fortunes
+quickly through the rise in land values that Washington was moved to cry
+out against the "rage for speculating in and forestalling of land on the
+North West of the Ohio," protesting that "scarce a valuable spot within
+any tolerable distance of it is left without a claimant." He therefore
+urged Congress to fix a reasonable price for the land, not "too
+exorbitant and burdensome for real occupiers, but high enough to
+discourage monopolizers."
+
+Congress, however, was not prepared to use the public domain for the
+sole purpose of developing a body of small freeholders in the West. It
+still looked upon the sale of public lands as an important source of
+revenue with which to pay off the public debt; consequently it thought
+more of instant income than of ultimate results. It placed no limit on
+the amount which could be bought when it fixed the price at $2 an acre
+in 1796, and it encouraged the professional land operator by making the
+first installment only twenty cents an acre in addition to the small
+registration and survey fee. On such terms a speculator with a few
+thousand dollars could get possession of an enormous plot of land. If he
+was fortunate in disposing of it, he could meet the installments, which
+were spread over a period of four years, and make a handsome profit for
+himself. Even when the credit or installment feature was abolished in
+1821 and the price of the land lowered to a cash price of $1.75 an acre,
+the opportunity for large speculative purchases continued to attract
+capital to land ventures.
+
+=The Development of the Small Freehold.=--The cheapness of land and the
+scarcity of labor, nevertheless, made impossible the triumph of the huge
+estate with its semi-servile tenantry. For about $45 a man could get a
+farm of 160 acres on the installment plan; another payment of $80 was
+due in forty days; but a four-year term was allowed for the discharge of
+the balance. With a capital of from two to three hundred dollars a
+family could embark on a land venture. If it had good crops, it could
+meet the deferred payments. It was, however, a hard battle at best. Many
+a man forfeited his land through failure to pay the final installment;
+yet in the end, in spite of all the handicaps, the small freehold of a
+few hundred acres at most became the typical unit of Western
+agriculture, except in the planting states of the Gulf. Even the lands
+of the great companies were generally broken up and sold in small lots.
+
+The tendency toward moderate holdings, so favored by Western conditions,
+was also promoted by a clause in the Northwest Ordinance declaring that
+the land of any person dying intestate--that is, without any will
+disposing of it--should be divided equally among his descendants.
+Hildreth says of this provision: "It established the important
+republican principle, not then introduced into all the states, of the
+equal distribution of landed as well as personal property." All these
+forces combined made the wide dispersion of wealth, in the early days of
+the nineteenth century, an American characteristic, in marked contrast
+with the European system of family prestige and vast estates based on
+the law of primogeniture.
+
+
+THE WESTERN MIGRATION AND NEW STATES
+
+=The People.=--With government established, federal arms victorious over
+the Indians, and the lands surveyed for sale, the way was prepared for
+the immigrants. They came with a rush. Young New Englanders, weary of
+tilling the stony soil of their native states, poured through New York
+and Pennsylvania, some settling on the northern bank of the Ohio but
+most of them in the Lake region. Sons and daughters of German farmers in
+Pennsylvania and many a redemptioner who had discharged his bond of
+servitude pressed out into Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, or beyond. From
+the exhausted fields and the clay hills of the Southern states came
+pioneers of English and Scotch-Irish descent, the latter in great
+numbers. Indeed one historian of high authority has ventured to say that
+"the rapid expansion of the United States from a coast strip to a
+continental area is largely a Scotch-Irish achievement." While native
+Americans of mixed stocks led the way into the West, it was not long
+before immigrants direct from Europe, under the stimulus of company
+enterprise, began to filter into the new settlements in increasing
+numbers.
+
+The types of people were as various as the nations they represented.
+Timothy Flint, who published his entertaining _Recollections_ in 1826,
+found the West a strange mixture of all sorts and conditions of people.
+Some of them, he relates, had been hunters in the upper world of the
+Mississippi, above the falls of St. Anthony. Some had been still farther
+north, in Canada. Still others had wandered from the South--the Gulf of
+Mexico, the Red River, and the Spanish country. French boatmen and
+trappers, Spanish traders from the Southwest, Virginia planters with
+their droves of slaves mingled with English, German, and Scotch-Irish
+farmers. Hunters, forest rangers, restless bordermen, and squatters,
+like the foaming combers of an advancing tide, went first. Then followed
+the farmers, masters of the ax and plow, with their wives who shared
+every burden and hardship and introduced some of the features of
+civilized life. The hunters and rangers passed on to new scenes; the
+home makers built for all time.
+
+=The Number of Immigrants.=--There were no official stations on the
+frontier to record the number of immigrants who entered the West during
+the decades following the American Revolution. But travelers of the time
+record that every road was "crowded" with pioneers and their families,
+their wagons and cattle; and that they were seldom out of the sound of
+the snapping whip of the teamster urging forward his horses or the crack
+of the hunter's rifle as he brought down his evening meal. "During the
+latter half of 1787," says Coman, "more than nine hundred boats floated
+down the Ohio carrying eighteen thousand men, women, and children, and
+twelve thousand horses, sheep, and cattle, and six hundred and fifty
+wagons." Other lines of travel were also crowded and with the passing
+years the flooding tide of home seekers rose higher and higher.
+
+=The Western Routes.=--Four main routes led into the country beyond the
+Appalachians. The Genesee road, beginning at Albany, ran almost due west
+to the present site of Buffalo on Lake Erie, through a level country. In
+the dry season, wagons laden with goods could easily pass along it into
+northern Ohio. A second route, through Pittsburgh, was fed by three
+eastern branches, one starting at Philadelphia, one at Baltimore, and
+another at Alexandria. A third main route wound through the mountains
+from Alexandria to Boonesboro in Kentucky and then westward across the
+Ohio to St. Louis. A fourth, the most famous of them all, passed through
+the Cumberland Gap and by branches extended into the Cumberland valley
+and the Kentucky country.
+
+Of these four lines of travel, the Pittsburgh route offered the most
+advantages. Pioneers, no matter from what section they came, when once
+they were on the headwaters of the Ohio and in possession of a flatboat,
+could find a quick and easy passage into all parts of the West and
+Southwest. Whether they wanted to settle in Ohio, Kentucky, or western
+Tennessee they could find their way down the drifting flood to their
+destination or at least to some spot near it. Many people from the South
+as well as the Northern and Middle states chose this route; so it came
+about that the sons and daughters of Virginia and the Carolinas mingled
+with those of New York, Pennsylvania, and New England in the settlement
+of the Northwest territory.
+
+=The Methods of Travel into the West.=--Many stories giving exact
+descriptions of methods of travel into the West in the early days have
+been preserved. The country was hardly opened before visitors from the
+Old World and from the Eastern states, impelled by curiosity, made their
+way to the very frontier of civilization and wrote books to inform or
+amuse the public. One of them, Gilbert Imlay, an English traveler, has
+given us an account of the Pittsburgh route as he found it in 1791. "If
+a man ... " he writes, "has a family or goods of any sort to remove, his
+best way, then, would be to purchase a waggon and team of horses to
+carry his property to Redstone Old Fort or to Pittsburgh, according as
+he may come from the Northern or Southern states. A good waggon will
+cost, at Philadelphia, about L10 ... and the horses about L12 each; they
+would cost something more both at Baltimore and Alexandria. The waggon
+may be covered with canvass, and if it is the choice of the people, they
+may sleep in it of nights with the greatest safety. But if they dislike
+that, there are inns of accommodation the whole distance on the
+different roads.... The provisions I would purchase in the same manner
+[that is, from the farmers along the road]; and by having two or three
+camp kettles and stopping every evening when the weather is fine upon
+the brink of some rivulet and by kindling a fire they may soon dress
+their own food.... This manner of journeying is so far from being
+disagreeable that in a fine season it is extremely pleasant." The
+immigrant once at Pittsburgh or Wheeling could then buy a flatboat of a
+size required for his goods and stock, and drift down the current to his
+journey's end.
+
+[Illustration: ROADS AND TRAILS INTO THE WESTERN TERRITORY]
+
+=The Admission of Kentucky and Tennessee.=--When the eighteenth century
+drew to a close, Kentucky had a population larger than Delaware, Rhode
+Island, or New Hampshire. Tennessee claimed 60,000 inhabitants. In 1792
+Kentucky took her place as a state beside her none too kindly parent,
+Virginia. The Eastern Federalists resented her intrusion; but they took
+some consolation in the admission of Vermont because the balance of
+Eastern power was still retained.
+
+As if to assert their independence of old homes and conservative ideas
+the makers of Kentucky's first constitution swept aside the landed
+qualification on the suffrage and gave the vote to all free white males.
+Four years later, Kentucky's neighbor to the south, Tennessee, followed
+this step toward a wider democracy. After encountering fierce opposition
+from the Federalists, Tennessee was accepted as the sixteenth state.
+
+=Ohio.=--The door of the union had hardly opened for Tennessee when
+another appeal was made to Congress, this time from the pioneers in
+Ohio. The little posts founded at Marietta and Cincinnati had grown into
+flourishing centers of trade. The stream of immigrants, flowing down the
+river, added daily to their numbers and the growing settlements all
+around poured produce into their markets to be exchanged for "store
+goods." After the Indians were disposed of in 1794 and the last British
+soldier left the frontier forts under the terms of the Jay treaty of
+1795, tiny settlements of families appeared on Lake Erie in the "Western
+Reserve," a region that had been retained by Connecticut when she
+surrendered her other rights in the Northwest.
+
+At the close of the century, Ohio, claiming a population of more than
+50,000, grew discontented with its territorial status. Indeed, two years
+before the enactment of the Northwest Ordinance, squatters in that
+region had been invited by one John Emerson to hold a convention after
+the fashion of the men of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield in old
+Connecticut and draft a frame of government for themselves. This true
+son of New England declared that men "have an undoubted right to pass
+into every vacant country and there to form their constitution and that
+from the confederation of the whole United States Congress is not
+empowered to forbid them." This grand convention was never held because
+the heavy hand of the government fell upon the leaders; but the spirit
+of John Emerson did not perish. In November, 1802, a convention chosen
+by voters, assembled under the authority of Congress at Chillicothe,
+drew up a constitution. It went into force after a popular ratification.
+The roll of the convention bore such names as Abbot, Baldwin, Cutler,
+Huntington, Putnam, and Sargent, and the list of counties from which
+they came included Adams, Fairfield, Hamilton, Jefferson, Trumbull, and
+Washington, showing that the new America in the West was peopled and led
+by the old stock. In 1803 Ohio was admitted to the union.
+
+=Indiana and Illinois.=--As in the neighboring state, the frontier in
+Indiana advanced northward from the Ohio, mainly under the leadership,
+however, of settlers from the South--restless Kentuckians hoping for
+better luck in a newer country and pioneers from the far frontiers of
+Virginia and North Carolina. As soon as a tier of counties swinging
+upward like the horns of the moon against Ohio on the east and in the
+Wabash Valley on the west was fairly settled, a clamor went up for
+statehood. Under the authority of an act of Congress in 1816 the
+Indianians drafted a constitution and inaugurated their government at
+Corydon. "The majority of the members of the convention," we are told by
+a local historian, "were frontier farmers who had a general idea of what
+they wanted and had sense enough to let their more erudite colleagues
+put it into shape."
+
+Two years later, the pioneers of Illinois, also settled upward from the
+Ohio, like Indiana, elected their delegates to draft a constitution.
+Leadership in the convention, quite properly, was taken by a man born in
+New York and reared in Tennessee; and the constitution as finally
+drafted "was in its principal provisions a copy of the then existing
+constitutions of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana.... Many of the articles
+are exact copies in wording although differently arranged and
+numbered."
+
+=Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.=--Across the Mississippi to the
+far south, clearing and planting had gone on with much bustle and
+enterprise. The cotton and sugar lands of Louisiana, opened by French
+and Spanish settlers, were widened in every direction by planters with
+their armies of slaves from the older states. New Orleans, a good market
+and a center of culture not despised even by the pioneer, grew apace. In
+1810 the population of lower Louisiana was over 75,000. The time had
+come, said the leaders of the people, to fulfill the promise made to
+France in the treaty of cession; namely, to grant to the inhabitants of
+the territory statehood and the rights of American citizens. Federalists
+from New England still having a voice in Congress, if somewhat weaker,
+still protested in tones of horror. "I am compelled to declare it as my
+deliberate opinion," pronounced Josiah Quincy in the House of
+Representatives, "that if this bill [to admit Louisiana] passes, the
+bonds of this Union are virtually dissolved ... that as it will be the
+right of all, so it will be the duty of some [states] to prepare
+definitely for a separation; amicably if they can, violently if they
+must.... It is a death blow to the Constitution. It may afterwards
+linger; but lingering, its fate will, at no very distant period, be
+consummated." Federalists from New York like those from New England had
+their doubts about the wisdom of admitting Western states; but the party
+of Jefferson and Madison, having the necessary majority, granted the
+coveted statehood to Louisiana in 1812.
+
+When, a few years later, Mississippi and Alabama knocked at the doors of
+the union, the Federalists had so little influence, on account of their
+conduct during the second war with England, that spokesmen from the
+Southwest met a kindlier reception at Washington. Mississippi, in 1817,
+and Alabama, in 1819, took their places among the United States of
+America. Both of them, while granting white manhood suffrage, gave their
+constitutions the tone of the old East by providing landed
+qualifications for the governor and members of the legislature.
+
+=Missouri.=--Far to the north in the Louisiana purchase, a new
+commonwealth was rising to power. It was peopled by immigrants who came
+down the Ohio in fleets of boats or crossed the Mississippi from
+Kentucky and Tennessee. Thrifty Germans from Pennsylvania, hardy farmers
+from Virginia ready to work with their own hands, freemen seeking
+freemen's homes, planters with their slaves moving on from worn-out
+fields on the seaboard, came together in the widening settlements of the
+Missouri country. Peoples from the North and South flowed together,
+small farmers and big planters mingling in one community. When their
+numbers had reached sixty thousand or more, they precipitated a contest
+over their admission to the union, "ringing an alarm bell in the night,"
+as Jefferson phrased it. The favorite expedient of compromise with
+slavery was brought forth in Congress once more. Maine consequently was
+brought into the union without slavery and Missouri with slavery. At the
+same time there was drawn westward through the rest of the Louisiana
+territory a line separating servitude from slavery.
+
+
+THE SPIRIT OF THE FRONTIER
+
+=Land Tenure and Liberty.=--Over an immense western area there developed
+an unbroken system of freehold farms. In the Gulf states and the lower
+Mississippi Valley, it is true, the planter with his many slaves even
+led in the pioneer movement; but through large sections of Tennessee and
+Kentucky, as well as upper Georgia and Alabama, and all throughout the
+Northwest territory the small farmer reigned supreme. In this immense
+dominion there sprang up a civilization without caste or class--a body
+of people all having about the same amount of this world's goods and
+deriving their livelihood from one source: the labor of their own hands
+on the soil. The Northwest territory alone almost equaled in area all
+the original thirteen states combined, except Georgia, and its system of
+agricultural economy was unbroken by plantations and feudal estates. "In
+the subdivision of the soil and the great equality of condition," as
+Webster said on more than one occasion, "lay the true basis, most
+certainly, of popular government." There was the undoubted source of
+Jacksonian democracy.
+
+[Illustration: A LOG CABIN--LINCOLN'S BIRTHPLACE]
+
+=The Characteristics of the Western People.=--Travelers into the
+Northwest during the early years of the nineteenth century were agreed
+that the people of that region were almost uniformly marked by the
+characteristics common to an independent yeomanry. A close observer thus
+recorded his impressions: "A spirit of adventurous enterprise, a
+willingness to go through any hardship to accomplish an object....
+Independence of thought and action. They have felt the influence of
+these principles from their childhood. Men who can endure anything; that
+have lived almost without restraint, free as the mountain air or as the
+deer and the buffalo of their forests, and who know they are Americans
+all.... An apparent roughness which some would deem rudeness of
+manner.... Where there is perfect equality in a neighborhood of people
+who know little about each other's previous history or ancestry but
+where each is lord of the soil he cultivates. Where a log cabin is all
+that the best of families can expect to have for years and of course can
+possess few of the external decorations which have so much influence in
+creating a diversity of rank in society. These circumstances have laid
+the foundation for that equality of intercourse, simplicity of manners,
+want of deference, want of reserve, great readiness to make
+acquaintances, freedom of speech, indisposition to brook real or
+imaginary insults which one witnesses among people of the West."
+
+This equality, this independence, this rudeness so often described by
+the traveler as marking a new country, were all accentuated by the
+character of the settlers themselves. Traces of the fierce, unsociable,
+eagle-eyed, hard-drinking hunter remained. The settlers who followed the
+hunter were, with some exceptions, soldiers of the Revolutionary army,
+farmers of the "middling order," and mechanics from the towns,--English,
+Scotch-Irish, Germans,--poor in possessions and thrown upon the labor of
+their own hands for support. Sons and daughters from well-to-do Eastern
+homes sometimes brought softer manners; but the equality of life and the
+leveling force of labor in forest and field soon made them one in spirit
+with their struggling neighbors. Even the preachers and teachers, who
+came when the cabins were raised in the clearings and rude churches and
+schoolhouses were built, preached sermons and taught lessons that
+savored of the frontier, as any one may know who reads Peter
+Cartwright's _A Muscular Christian_ or Eggleston's _The Hoosier
+Schoolmaster_.
+
+
+THE WEST AND THE EAST MEET
+
+=The East Alarmed.=--A people so independent as the Westerners and so
+attached to local self-government gave the conservative East many a rude
+shock, setting gentlemen in powdered wigs and knee breeches agog with
+the idea that terrible things might happen in the Mississippi Valley.
+Not without good grounds did Washington fear that "a touch of a feather
+would turn" the Western settlers away from the seaboard to the
+Spaniards; and seriously did he urge the East not to neglect them, lest
+they be "drawn into the arms of, or be dependent upon foreigners."
+Taking advantage of the restless spirit in the Southwest, Aaron Burr,
+having disgraced himself by killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, laid
+wild plans, if not to bring about a secession in that region, at least
+to build a state of some kind out of the Spanish dominions adjoining
+Louisiana. Frightened at such enterprises and fearing the dominance of
+the West, the Federalists, with a few conspicuous exceptions, opposed
+equality between the sections. Had their narrow views prevailed, the
+West, with its new democracy, would have been held in perpetual tutelage
+to the seaboard or perhaps been driven into independence as the thirteen
+colonies had been not long before.
+
+=Eastern Friends of the West.=--Fortunately for the nation, there were
+many Eastern leaders, particularly from the South, who understood the
+West, approved its spirit, and sought to bring the two sections together
+by common bonds. Washington kept alive and keen the zeal for Western
+advancement which he acquired in his youth as a surveyor. He never grew
+tired of urging upon his Eastern friends the importance of the lands
+beyond the mountains. He pressed upon the governor of Virginia a project
+for a wagon road connecting the seaboard with the Ohio country and was
+active in a movement to improve the navigation of the Potomac. He
+advocated strengthening the ties of commerce. "Smooth the roads," he
+said, "and make easy the way for them, and then see what an influx of
+articles will be poured upon us; how amazingly our exports will be
+increased by them; and how amply we shall be compensated for any trouble
+and expense we may encounter to effect it." Jefferson, too, was
+interested in every phase of Western development--the survey of lands,
+the exploration of waterways, the opening of trade, and even the
+discovery of the bones of prehistoric animals. Robert Fulton, the
+inventor of the steamboat, was another man of vision who for many years
+pressed upon his countrymen the necessity of uniting East and West by a
+canal which would cement the union, raise the value of the public lands,
+and extend the principles of confederate and republican government.
+
+=The Difficulties of Early Transportation.=--Means of communication
+played an important part in the strategy of all those who sought to
+bring together the seaboard and the frontier. The produce of the
+West--wheat, corn, bacon, hemp, cattle, and tobacco--was bulky and the
+cost of overland transportation was prohibitive. In the Eastern market,
+"a cow and her calf were given for a bushel of salt, while a suit of
+'store clothes' cost as much as a farm." In such circumstances, the
+inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley were forced to ship their produce
+over a long route by way of New Orleans and to pay high freight rates
+for everything that was brought across the mountains. Scows of from five
+to fifty tons were built at the towns along the rivers and piloted down
+the stream to the Crescent City. In a few cases small ocean-going
+vessels were built to transport goods to the West Indies or to the
+Eastern coast towns. Salt, iron, guns, powder, and the absolute
+essentials which the pioneers had to buy mainly in Eastern markets were
+carried over narrow wagon trails that were almost impassable in the
+rainy season.
+
+=The National Road.=--To far-sighted men, like Albert Gallatin, "the
+father of internal improvements," the solution of this problem was the
+construction of roads and canals. Early in Jefferson's administration,
+Congress dedicated a part of the proceeds from the sale of lands to
+building highways from the headwaters of the navigable waters emptying
+into the Atlantic to the Ohio River and beyond into the Northwest
+territory. In 1806, after many misgivings, it authorized a great
+national highway binding the East and the West. The Cumberland Road, as
+it was called, began in northwestern Maryland, wound through southern
+Pennsylvania, crossed the narrow neck of Virginia at Wheeling, and then
+shot almost straight across Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, into Missouri.
+By 1817, stagecoaches were running between Washington and Wheeling; by
+1833 contractors had carried their work to Columbus, Ohio, and by 1852,
+to Vandalia, Illinois. Over this ballasted road mail and passenger
+coaches could go at high speed, and heavy freight wagons proceed in
+safety at a steady pace.
+
+[Illustration: THE CUMBERLAND ROAD]
+
+=Canals and Steamboats.=--A second epoch in the economic union of the
+East and West was reached with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825,
+offering an all-water route from New York City to the Great Lakes and
+the Mississippi Valley. Pennsylvania, alarmed by the advantages
+conferred on New York by this enterprise, began her system of canals and
+portages from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, completing the last link in
+1834. In the South, the Chesapeake and Ohio Company, chartered in 1825,
+was busy with a project to connect Georgetown and Cumberland when
+railways broke in upon the undertaking before it was half finished.
+About the same time, Ohio built a canal across the state, affording
+water communication between Lake Erie and the Ohio River through a rich
+wheat belt. Passengers could now travel by canal boat into the West with
+comparative ease and comfort, if not at a rapid speed, and the bulkiest
+of freight could be easily handled. Moreover, the rate charged for
+carrying goods was cut by the Erie Canal from $32 a ton per hundred
+miles to $1. New Orleans was destined to lose her primacy in the
+Mississippi Valley.
+
+The diversion of traffic to Eastern markets was also stimulated by
+steamboats which appeared on the Ohio about 1810, three years after
+Fulton had made his famous trip on the Hudson. It took twenty men to
+sail and row a five-ton scow up the river at a speed of from ten to
+twenty miles a day. In 1825, Timothy Flint traveled a hundred miles a
+day on the new steamer _Grecian_ "against the whole weight of the
+Mississippi current." Three years later the round trip from Louisville
+to New Orleans was cut to eight days. Heavy produce that once had to
+float down to New Orleans could be carried upstream and sent to the East
+by way of the canal systems.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+AN EARLY MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT]
+
+Thus the far country was brought near. The timid no longer hesitated at
+the thought of the perilous journey. All routes were crowded with
+Western immigrants. The forests fell before the ax like grain before the
+sickle. Clearings scattered through the woods spread out into a great
+mosaic of farms stretching from the Southern Appalachians to Lake
+Michigan. The national census of 1830 gave 937,000 inhabitants to Ohio;
+343,000 to Indiana; 157,000 to Illinois; 687,000 to Kentucky; and
+681,000 to Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1830]
+
+With the increase in population and the growth of agriculture came
+political influence. People who had once petitioned Congress now sent
+their own representatives. Men who had hitherto accepted without
+protests Presidents from the seaboard expressed a new spirit of dissent
+in 1824 by giving only three electoral votes for John Quincy Adams; and
+four years later they sent a son of the soil from Tennessee, Andrew
+Jackson, to take Washington's chair as chief executive of the
+nation--the first of a long line of Presidents from the Mississippi
+basin.
+
+
+=References=
+
+W.G. Brown, _The Lower South in American History_.
+
+B.A. Hinsdale, _The Old North West_ (2 vols.).
+
+A.B. Hulbert, _Great American Canals_ and _The Cumberland Road_.
+
+T. Roosevelt, _Thomas H. Benton_.
+
+P.J. Treat, _The National Land System_ (1785-1820).
+
+F.J. Turner, _Rise of the New West_ (American Nation Series).
+
+J. Winsor, _The Westward Movement_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. How did the West come to play a role in the Revolution?
+
+2. What preparations were necessary to settlement?
+
+3. Give the principal provisions of the Northwest Ordinance.
+
+4. Explain how freehold land tenure happened to predominate in the West.
+
+5. Who were the early settlers in the West? What routes did they take?
+How did they travel?
+
+6. Explain the Eastern opposition to the admission of new Western
+states. Show how it was overcome.
+
+7. Trace a connection between the economic system of the West and the
+spirit of the people.
+
+8. Who were among the early friends of Western development?
+
+9. Describe the difficulties of trade between the East and the West.
+
+10. Show how trade was promoted.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Northwest Ordinance.=--Analysis of text in Macdonald, _Documentary
+Source Book_. Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_, Vol. V, pp. 5-57.
+
+=The West before the Revolution.=--Roosevelt, Vol. I.
+
+=The West during the Revolution.=--Roosevelt, Vols. II and III.
+
+=Tennessee.=--Roosevelt, Vol. V, pp. 95-119 and Vol. VI, pp. 9-87.
+
+=The Cumberland Road.=--A.B. Hulbert, _The Cumberland Road_.
+
+=Early Life in the Middle West.=--Callender, _Economic History of the
+United States_, pp. 617-633; 636-641.
+
+=Slavery in the Southwest.=--Callender, pp. 641-652.
+
+=Early Land Policy.=--Callender, pp. 668-680.
+
+=Westward Movement of Peoples.=--Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 7-39.
+
+Lists of books dealing with the early history of Western states are
+given in Hart, Channing, and Turner, _Guide to the Study and Reading of
+American History_ (rev. ed.), pp. 62-89.
+
+=Kentucky.=--Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 176-263.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+The New England Federalists, at the Hartford convention, prophesied that
+in time the West would dominate the East. "At the adoption of the
+Constitution," they said, "a certain balance of power among the original
+states was considered to exist, and there was at that time and yet is
+among those parties a strong affinity between their great and general
+interests. By the admission of these [new] states that balance has been
+materially affected and unless the practice be modified must ultimately
+be destroyed. The Southern states will first avail themselves of their
+new confederates to govern the East, and finally the Western states,
+multiplied in number, and augmented in population, will control the
+interests of the whole." Strangely enough the fulfillment of this
+prophecy was being prepared even in Federalist strongholds by the rise
+of a new urban democracy that was to make common cause with the farmers
+beyond the mountains.
+
+
+THE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT IN THE EAST
+
+=The Aristocratic Features of the Old Order.=--The Revolutionary
+fathers, in setting up their first state constitutions, although they
+often spoke of government as founded on the consent of the governed, did
+not think that consistency required giving the vote to all adult males.
+On the contrary they looked upon property owners as the only safe
+"depositary" of political power. They went back to the colonial
+tradition that related taxation and representation. This, they argued,
+was not only just but a safeguard against the "excesses of democracy."
+
+In carrying their theory into execution they placed taxpaying or
+property qualifications on the right to vote. Broadly speaking, these
+limitations fell into three classes. Three states, Pennsylvania (1776),
+New Hampshire (1784), and Georgia (1798), gave the ballot to all who
+paid taxes, without reference to the value of their property. Three,
+Virginia, Delaware, and Rhode Island, clung firmly to the ancient
+principles that only freeholders could be intrusted with electoral
+rights. Still other states, while closely restricting the suffrage,
+accepted the ownership of other things as well as land in fulfillment of
+the requirements. In Massachusetts, for instance, the vote was granted
+to all men who held land yielding an annual income of three pounds or
+possessed other property worth sixty pounds.
+
+The electors thus enfranchised, numerous as they were, owing to the wide
+distribution of land, often suffered from a very onerous disability. In
+many states they were able to vote only for persons of wealth because
+heavy property qualifications were imposed on public officers. In New
+Hampshire, the governor had to be worth five hundred pounds, one-half in
+land; in Massachusetts, one thousand pounds, all freehold; in Maryland,
+five thousand pounds, one thousand of which was freehold; in North
+Carolina, one thousand pounds freehold; and in South Carolina, ten
+thousand pounds freehold. A state senator in Massachusetts had to be the
+owner of a freehold worth three hundred pounds or personal property
+worth six hundred pounds; in New Jersey, one thousand pounds' worth of
+property; in North Carolina, three hundred acres of land; in South
+Carolina, two thousand pounds freehold. For members of the lower house
+of the legislature lower qualifications were required.
+
+In most of the states the suffrage or office holding or both were
+further restricted by religious provisions. No single sect was powerful
+enough to dominate after the Revolution, but, for the most part,
+Catholics and Jews were either disfranchised or excluded from office.
+North Carolina and Georgia denied the ballot to any one who was not a
+Protestant. Delaware withheld it from all who did not believe in the
+Trinity and the inspiration of the Scriptures. Massachusetts and
+Maryland limited it to Christians. Virginia and New York, advanced for
+their day, made no discrimination in government on account of religious
+opinion.
+
+=The Defense of the Old Order.=--It must not be supposed that property
+qualifications were thoughtlessly imposed at the outset or considered of
+little consequence in practice. In the beginning they were viewed as
+fundamental. As towns grew in size and the number of landless citizens
+increased, the restrictions were defended with even more vigor. In
+Massachusetts, the great Webster upheld the rights of property in
+government, saying: "It is entirely just that property should have its
+due weight and consideration in political arrangements.... The
+disastrous revolutions which the world has witnessed, those political
+thunderstorms and earthquakes which have shaken the pillars of society
+to their deepest foundations, have been revolutions against property."
+In Pennsylvania, a leader in local affairs cried out against a plan to
+remove the taxpaying limitation on the suffrage: "What does the delegate
+propose? To place the vicious vagrant, the wandering Arabs, the Tartar
+hordes of our large cities on the level with the virtuous and good man?"
+In Virginia, Jefferson himself had first believed in property
+qualifications and had feared with genuine alarm the "mobs of the great
+cities." It was near the end of the eighteenth century before he
+accepted the idea of manhood suffrage. Even then he was unable to
+convince the constitution-makers of his own state. "It is not an idle
+chimera of the brain," urged one of them, "that the possession of land
+furnishes the strongest evidence of permanent, common interest with, and
+attachment to, the community.... It is upon this foundation I wish to
+place the right of suffrage. This is the best general standard which can
+be resorted to for the purpose of determining whether the persons to be
+invested with the right of suffrage are such persons as could be,
+consistently with the safety and well-being of the community, intrusted
+with the exercise of that right."
+
+=Attacks on the Restricted Suffrage.=--The changing circumstances of
+American life, however, soon challenged the rule of those with property.
+Prominent among the new forces were the rising mercantile and business
+interests. Where the freehold qualification was applied, business men
+who did not own land were deprived of the vote and excluded from office.
+In New York, for example, the most illiterate farmer who had one hundred
+pounds' worth of land could vote for state senator and governor, while
+the landless banker or merchant could not. It is not surprising,
+therefore, to find business men taking the lead in breaking down
+freehold limitations on the suffrage. The professional classes also were
+interested in removing the barriers which excluded many of them from
+public affairs. It was a schoolmaster, Thomas Dorr, who led the popular
+uprising in Rhode Island which brought the exclusive rule by freeholders
+to an end.
+
+In addition to the business and professional classes, the mechanics of
+the towns showed a growing hostility to a system of government that
+generally barred them from voting or holding office. Though not
+numerous, they had early begun to exercise an influence on the course of
+public affairs. They had led the riots against the Stamp Act, overturned
+King George's statue, and "crammed stamps down the throats of
+collectors." When the state constitutions were framed they took a lively
+interest, particularly in New York City and Philadelphia. In June, 1776,
+the "mechanicks in union" in New York protested against putting the new
+state constitution into effect without their approval, declaring that
+the right to vote on the acceptance or rejection of a fundamental law
+"is the birthright of every man to whatever state he may belong." Though
+their petition was rejected, their spirit remained. When, a few years
+later, the federal Constitution was being framed, the mechanics watched
+the process with deep concern; they knew that one of its main objects
+was to promote trade and commerce, affecting directly their daily bread.
+During the struggle over ratification, they passed resolutions approving
+its provisions and they often joined in parades organized to stir up
+sentiment for the Constitution, even though they could not vote for
+members of the state conventions and so express their will directly.
+After the organization of trade unions they collided with the courts of
+law and thus became interested in the election of judges and lawmakers.
+
+Those who attacked the old system of class rule found a strong moral
+support in the Declaration of Independence. Was it not said that all men
+are created equal? Whoever runs may read. Was it not declared that
+governments derive their just power from the consent of the governed?
+That doctrine was applied with effect to George III and seemed
+appropriate for use against the privileged classes of Massachusetts or
+Virginia. "How do the principles thus proclaimed," asked the
+non-freeholders of Richmond, in petitioning for the ballot, "accord with
+the existing regulation of the suffrage? A regulation which, instead of
+the equality nature ordains, creates an odious distinction between
+members of the same community ... and vests in a favored class, not in
+consideration of their public services but of their private possessions,
+the highest of all privileges."
+
+=Abolition of Property Qualifications.=--By many minor victories rather
+than by any spectacular triumphs did the advocates of manhood suffrage
+carry the day. Slight gains were made even during the Revolution or
+shortly afterward. In Pennsylvania, the mechanics, by taking an active
+part in the contest over the Constitution of 1776, were able to force
+the qualification down to the payment of a small tax. Vermont came into
+the union in 1792 without any property restrictions. In the same year
+Delaware gave the vote to all men who paid taxes. Maryland, reckoned one
+of the most conservative of states, embarked on the experiment of
+manhood suffrage in 1809; and nine years later, Connecticut, equally
+conservative, decided that all taxpayers were worthy of the ballot.
+
+Five states, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, Rhode Island, and North
+Carolina, remained obdurate while these changes were going on around
+them; finally they had to yield themselves. The last struggle in
+Massachusetts took place in the constitutional convention of 1820. There
+Webster, in the prime of his manhood, and John Adams, in the closing
+years of his old age, alike protested against such radical innovations
+as manhood suffrage. Their protests were futile. The property test was
+abolished and a small tax-paying qualification was substituted. New York
+surrendered the next year and, after trying some minor restrictions for
+five years, went completely over to white manhood suffrage in 1826.
+Rhode Island clung to her freehold qualification through thirty years of
+agitation. Then Dorr's Rebellion, almost culminating in bloodshed,
+brought about a reform in 1843 which introduced a slight tax-paying
+qualification as an alternative to the freehold. Virginia and North
+Carolina were still unconvinced. The former refused to abandon ownership
+of land as the test for political rights until 1850 and the latter until
+1856. Although religious discriminations and property qualifications for
+office holders were sometimes retained after the establishment of
+manhood suffrage, they were usually abolished along with the monopoly of
+government enjoyed by property owners and taxpayers.
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS DORR AROUSING HIS FOLLOWERS]
+
+At the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the white
+male industrial workers and the mechanics of the Northern cities, at
+least, could lay aside the petition for the ballot and enjoy with the
+free farmer a voice in the government of their common country.
+"Universal democracy," sighed Carlyle, who was widely read in the United
+States, "whatever we may think of it has declared itself the inevitable
+fact of the days in which we live; and he who has any chance to instruct
+or lead in these days must begin by admitting that ... Where no
+government is wanted, save that of the parish constable, as in America
+with its boundless soil, every man being able to find work and
+recompense for himself, democracy may subsist; not elsewhere." Amid the
+grave misgivings of the first generation of statesmen, America was
+committed to the great adventure, in the populous towns of the East as
+well as in the forests and fields of the West.
+
+
+THE NEW DEMOCRACY ENTERS THE ARENA
+
+The spirit of the new order soon had a pronounced effect on the
+machinery of government and the practice of politics. The enfranchised
+electors were not long in demanding for themselves a larger share in
+administration.
+
+=The Spoils System and Rotation in Office.=--First of all they wanted
+office for themselves, regardless of their fitness. They therefore
+extended the system of rewarding party workers with government
+positions--a system early established in several states, notably New
+York and Pennsylvania. Closely connected with it was the practice of
+fixing short terms for officers and making frequent changes in
+personnel. "Long continuance in office," explained a champion of this
+idea in Pennsylvania in 1837, "unfits a man for the discharge of its
+duties, by rendering him arbitrary and aristocratic, and tends to beget,
+first life office, and then hereditary office, which leads to the
+destruction of free government." The solution offered was the historic
+doctrine of "rotation in office." At the same time the principle of
+popular election was extended to an increasing number of officials who
+had once been appointed either by the governor or the legislature. Even
+geologists, veterinarians, surveyors, and other technical officers were
+declared elective on the theory that their appointment "smacked of
+monarchy."
+
+=Popular Election of Presidential Electors.=--In a short time the spirit
+of democracy, while playing havoc with the old order in state
+government, made its way upward into the federal system. The framers of
+the Constitution, bewildered by many proposals and unable to agree on
+any single plan, had committed the choice of presidential electors to
+the discretion of the state legislatures. The legislatures, in turn,
+greedy of power, early adopted the practice of choosing the electors
+themselves; but they did not enjoy it long undisturbed. Democracy,
+thundering at their doors, demanded that they surrender the privilege to
+the people. Reluctantly they yielded, sometimes granting popular
+election and then withdrawing it. The drift was inevitable, and the
+climax came with the advent of Jacksonian democracy. In 1824, Vermont,
+New York, Delaware, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, though some
+had experimented with popular election, still left the choice of
+electors with the legislature. Eight years later South Carolina alone
+held to the old practice. Popular election had become the final word.
+The fanciful idea of an electoral college of "good and wise men,"
+selected without passion or partisanship by state legislatures acting as
+deliberative bodies, was exploded for all time; the election of the
+nation's chief magistrate was committed to the tempestuous methods of
+democracy.
+
+=The Nominating Convention.=--As the suffrage was widened and the
+popular choice of presidential electors extended, there arose a violent
+protest against the methods used by the political parties in nominating
+candidates. After the retirement of Washington, both the Republicans and
+the Federalists found it necessary to agree upon their favorites before
+the election, and they adopted a colonial device--the pre-election
+caucus. The Federalist members of Congress held a conference and
+selected their candidate, and the Republicans followed the example. In
+a short time the practice of nominating by a "congressional caucus"
+became a recognized institution. The election still remained with the
+people; but the power of picking candidates for their approval passed
+into the hands of a small body of Senators and Representatives.
+
+A reaction against this was unavoidable. To friends of "the plain
+people," like Andrew Jackson, it was intolerable, all the more so
+because the caucus never favored him with the nomination. More
+conservative men also found grave objections to it. They pointed out
+that, whereas the Constitution intended the President to be an
+independent officer, he had now fallen under the control of a caucus of
+congressmen. The supremacy of the legislative branch had been obtained
+by an extra-legal political device. To such objections were added
+practical considerations. In 1824, when personal rivalry had taken the
+place of party conflicts, the congressional caucus selected as the
+candidate, William H. Crawford, of Georgia, a man of distinction but no
+great popularity, passing by such an obvious hero as General Jackson.
+The followers of the General were enraged and demanded nothing short of
+the death of "King Caucus." Their clamor was effective. Under their
+attacks, the caucus came to an ignominious end.
+
+In place of it there arose in 1831 a new device, the national nominating
+convention, composed of delegates elected by party voters for the sole
+purpose of nominating candidates. Senators and Representatives were
+still prominent in the party councils, but they were swamped by hundreds
+of delegates "fresh from the people," as Jackson was wont to say. In
+fact, each convention was made up mainly of office holders and office
+seekers, and the new institution was soon denounced as vigorously as
+King Caucus had been, particularly by statesmen who failed to obtain a
+nomination. Still it grew in strength and by 1840 was firmly
+established.
+
+=The End of the Old Generation.=--In the election of 1824, the
+representatives of the "aristocracy" made their last successful stand.
+Until then the leadership by men of "wealth and talents" had been
+undisputed. There had been five Presidents--Washington, John Adams,
+Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe--all Eastern men brought up in prosperous
+families with the advantages of culture which come from leisure and the
+possession of life's refinements. None of them had ever been compelled
+to work with his hands for a livelihood. Four of them had been
+slaveholders. Jefferson was a philosopher, learned in natural science, a
+master of foreign languages, a gentleman of dignity and grace of manner,
+notwithstanding his studied simplicity. Madison, it was said, was armed
+"with all the culture of his century." Monroe was a graduate of William
+and Mary, a gentleman of the old school. Jefferson and his three
+successors called themselves Republicans and professed a genuine faith
+in the people but they were not "of the people" themselves; they were
+not sons of the soil or the workshop. They were all men of "the grand
+old order of society" who gave finish and style even to popular
+government.
+
+Monroe was the last of the Presidents belonging to the heroic epoch of
+the Revolution. He had served in the war for independence, in the
+Congress under the Articles of Confederation, and in official capacity
+after the adoption of the Constitution. In short, he was of the age that
+had wrought American independence and set the government afloat. With
+his passing, leadership went to a new generation; but his successor,
+John Quincy Adams, formed a bridge between the old and the new in that
+he combined a high degree of culture with democratic sympathies.
+Washington had died in 1799, preceded but a few months by Patrick Henry
+and followed in four years by Samuel Adams. Hamilton had been killed in
+a duel with Burr in 1804. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were yet alive
+in 1824 but they were soon to pass from the scene, reconciled at last,
+full of years and honors. Madison was in dignified retirement, destined
+to live long enough to protest against the doctrine of nullification
+proclaimed by South Carolina before death carried him away at the ripe
+old age of eighty-five.
+
+=The Election of John Quincy Adams (1824).=--The campaign of 1824 marked
+the end of the "era of good feeling" inaugurated by the collapse of the
+Federalist party after the election of 1816. There were four leading
+candidates, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and W.H.
+Crawford. The result of the election was a division of the electoral
+votes into four parts and no one received a majority. Under the
+Constitution, therefore, the selection of President passed to the House
+of Representatives. Clay, who stood at the bottom of the poll, threw his
+weight to Adams and assured his triumph, much to the chagrin of
+Jackson's friends. They thought, with a certain justification, that
+inasmuch as the hero of New Orleans had received the largest electoral
+vote, the House was morally bound to accept the popular judgment and
+make him President. Jackson shook hands cordially with Adams on the day
+of the inauguration, but never forgave him for being elected.
+
+While Adams called himself a Republican in politics and often spoke of
+"the rule of the people," he was regarded by Jackson's followers as "an
+aristocrat." He was not a son of the soil. Neither was he acquainted at
+first hand with the labor of farmers and mechanics. He had been educated
+at Harvard and in Europe. Like his illustrious father, John Adams, he
+was a stern and reserved man, little given to seeking popularity.
+Moreover, he was from the East and the frontiersmen of the West regarded
+him as a man "born with a silver spoon in his mouth." Jackson's
+supporters especially disliked him because they thought their hero
+entitled to the presidency. Their anger was deepened when Adams
+appointed Clay to the office of Secretary of State; and they set up a
+cry that there had been a "deal" by which Clay had helped to elect Adams
+to get office for himself.
+
+Though Adams conducted his administration with great dignity and in a
+fine spirit of public service, he was unable to overcome the opposition
+which he encountered on his election to office or to win popularity in
+the West and South. On the contrary, by advocating government assistance
+in building roads and canals and public grants in aid of education,
+arts, and sciences, he ran counter to the current which had set in
+against appropriations of federal funds for internal improvements. By
+signing the Tariff Bill of 1828, soon known as the "Tariff of
+Abominations," he made new enemies without adding to his friends in New
+York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio where he sorely needed them. Handicapped by
+the false charge that he had been a party to a "corrupt bargain" with
+Clay to secure his first election; attacked for his advocacy of a high
+protective tariff; charged with favoring an "aristocracy of
+office-holders" in Washington on account of his refusal to discharge
+government clerks by the wholesale, Adams was retired from the White
+House after he had served four years.
+
+=The Triumph of Jackson in 1828.=--Probably no candidate for the
+presidency ever had such passionate popular support as Andrew Jackson
+had in 1828. He was truly a man of the people. Born of poor parents in
+the upland region of South Carolina, schooled in poverty and adversity,
+without the advantages of education or the refinements of cultivated
+leisure, he seemed the embodiment of the spirit of the new American
+democracy. Early in his youth he had gone into the frontier of Tennessee
+where he soon won a name as a fearless and intrepid Indian fighter. On
+the march and in camp, he endeared himself to his men by sharing their
+hardships, sleeping on the ground with them, and eating parched corn
+when nothing better could be found for the privates. From local
+prominence he sprang into national fame by his exploit at the battle of
+New Orleans. His reputation as a military hero was enhanced by the
+feeling that he had been a martyr to political treachery in 1824. The
+farmers of the West and South claimed him as their own. The mechanics of
+the Eastern cities, newly enfranchised, also looked upon him as their
+friend. Though his views on the tariff, internal improvements, and other
+issues before the country were either vague or unknown, he was readily
+elected President.
+
+The returns of the electoral vote in 1828 revealed the sources of
+Jackson's power. In New England, he received but one ballot, from
+Maine; he had a majority of the electors in New York and all of them in
+Pennsylvania; and he carried every state south of Maryland and beyond
+the Appalachians. Adams did not get a single electoral vote in the South
+and West. The prophecy of the Hartford convention had been fulfilled.
+
+[Illustration: ANDREW JACKSON]
+
+When Jackson took the oath of office on March 4, 1829, the government of
+the United States entered into a new era. Until this time the
+inauguration of a President--even that of Jefferson, the apostle of
+simplicity--had brought no rude shock to the course of affairs at the
+capital. Hitherto the installation of a President meant that an
+old-fashioned gentleman, accompanied by a few servants, had driven to
+the White House in his own coach, taken the oath with quiet dignity,
+appointed a few new men to the higher posts, continued in office the
+long list of regular civil employees, and begun his administration with
+respectable decorum. Jackson changed all this. When he was inaugurated,
+men and women journeyed hundreds of miles to witness the ceremony. Great
+throngs pressed into the White House, "upset the bowls of punch, broke
+the glasses, and stood with their muddy boots on the satin-covered
+chairs to see the people's President." If Jefferson's inauguration was,
+as he called it, the "great revolution," Jackson's inauguration was a
+cataclysm.
+
+
+THE NEW DEMOCRACY AT WASHINGTON
+
+=The Spoils System.=--The staid and respectable society of Washington
+was disturbed by this influx of farmers and frontiersmen. To speak of
+politics became "bad form" among fashionable women. The clerks and
+civil servants of the government who had enjoyed long and secure tenure
+of office became alarmed at the clamor of new men for their positions.
+Doubtless the major portion of them had opposed the election of Jackson
+and looked with feelings akin to contempt upon him and his followers.
+With a hunter's instinct, Jackson scented his prey. Determined to have
+none but his friends in office, he made a clean sweep, expelling old
+employees to make room for men "fresh from the people." This was a new
+custom. Other Presidents had discharged a few officers for engaging in
+opposition politics. They had been careful in making appointments not to
+choose inveterate enemies; but they discharged relatively few men on
+account of their political views and partisan activities.
+
+By wholesale removals and the frank selection of officers on party
+grounds--a practice already well intrenched in New York--Jackson
+established the "spoils system" at Washington. The famous slogan, "to
+the victor belong the spoils of victory," became the avowed principle of
+the national government. Statesmen like Calhoun denounced it; poets like
+James Russell Lowell ridiculed it; faithful servants of the government
+suffered under it; but it held undisturbed sway for half a century
+thereafter, each succeeding generation outdoing, if possible, its
+predecessor in the use of public office for political purposes. If any
+one remarked that training and experience were necessary qualifications
+for important public positions, he met Jackson's own profession of
+faith: "The duties of any public office are so simple or admit of being
+made so simple that any man can in a short time become master of them."
+
+=The Tariff and Nullification.=--Jackson had not been installed in power
+very long before he was compelled to choose between states' rights and
+nationalism. The immediate occasion of the trouble was the tariff--a
+matter on which Jackson did not have any very decided views. His mind
+did not run naturally to abstruse economic questions; and owing to the
+divided opinion of the country it was "good politics" to be vague and
+ambiguous in the controversy. Especially was this true, because the
+tariff issue was threatening to split the country into parties again.
+
+_The Development of the Policy of "Protection."_--The war of 1812 and
+the commercial policies of England which followed it had accentuated the
+need for American economic independence. During that conflict, the
+United States, cut off from English manufactures as during the
+Revolution, built up home industries to meet the unusual call for iron,
+steel, cloth, and other military and naval supplies as well as the
+demands from ordinary markets. Iron foundries and textile mills sprang
+up as in the night; hundreds of business men invested fortunes in
+industrial enterprises so essential to the military needs of the
+government; and the people at large fell into the habit of buying
+American-made goods again. As the London _Times_ tersely observed of the
+Americans, "their first war with England made them independent; their
+second war made them formidable."
+
+In recognition of this state of affairs, the tariff of 1816 was
+designed: _first_, to prevent England from ruining these "infant
+industries" by dumping the accumulated stores of years suddenly upon
+American markets; and, _secondly_, to enlarge in the manufacturing
+centers the demand for American agricultural produce. It accomplished
+the purposes of its framers. It kept in operation the mills and furnaces
+so recently built. It multiplied the number of industrial workers and
+enhanced the demand for the produce of the soil. It brought about
+another very important result. It turned the capital and enterprise of
+New England from shipping to manufacturing, and converted her statesmen,
+once friends of low tariffs, into ardent advocates of protection.
+
+In the early years of the nineteenth century, the Yankees had bent their
+energies toward building and operating ships to carry produce from
+America to Europe and manufactures from Europe to America. For this
+reason, they had opposed the tariff of 1816 calculated to increase
+domestic production and cut down the carrying trade. Defeated in their
+efforts, they accepted the inevitable and turned to manufacturing. Soon
+they were powerful friends of protection for American enterprise. As the
+money invested and the labor employed in the favored industries
+increased, the demand for continued and heavier protection grew apace.
+Even the farmers who furnished raw materials, like wool, flax, and hemp,
+began to see eye to eye with the manufacturers. So the textile interests
+of New England, the iron masters of Connecticut, New Jersey, and
+Pennsylvania, the wool, hemp, and flax growers of Ohio, Kentucky, and
+Tennessee, and the sugar planters of Louisiana developed into a
+formidable combination in support of a high protective tariff.
+
+_The Planting States Oppose the Tariff._--In the meantime, the cotton
+states on the seaboard had forgotten about the havoc wrought during the
+Napoleonic wars when their produce rotted because there were no ships to
+carry it to Europe. The seas were now open. The area devoted to cotton
+had swiftly expanded as Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana were opened
+up. Cotton had in fact become "king" and the planters depended for their
+prosperity, as they thought, upon the sale of their staple to English
+manufacturers whose spinning and weaving mills were the wonder of the
+world. Manufacturing nothing and having to buy nearly everything except
+farm produce and even much of that for slaves, the planters naturally
+wanted to purchase manufactures in the cheapest market, England, where
+they sold most of their cotton. The tariff, they contended, raised the
+price of the goods they had to buy and was thus in fact a tribute laid
+on them for the benefit of the Northern mill owners.
+
+_The Tariff of Abominations._--They were overborne, however, in 1824 and
+again in 1828 when Northern manufacturers and Western farmers forced
+Congress to make an upward revision of the tariff. The Act of 1828 known
+as "the Tariff of Abominations," though slightly modified in 1832, was
+"the straw which broke the camel's back." Southern leaders turned in
+rage against the whole system. The legislatures of Virginia, North
+Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama denounced it; a general
+convention of delegates held at Augusta issued a protest of defiance
+against it; and South Carolina, weary of verbal battles, decided to
+prevent its enforcement.
+
+_South Carolina Nullifies the Tariff._--The legislature of that state,
+on October 26, 1832, passed a bill calling for a state convention which
+duly assembled in the following month. In no mood for compromise, it
+adopted the famous Ordinance of Nullification after a few days' debate.
+Every line of this document was clear and firm. The tariff, it opened,
+gives "bounties to classes and individuals ... at the expense and to the
+injury and oppression of other classes and individuals"; it is a
+violation of the Constitution of the United States and therefore null
+and void; its enforcement in South Carolina is unlawful; if the federal
+government attempts to coerce the state into obeying the law, "the
+people of this state will thenceforth hold themselves absolved from all
+further obligations to maintain or preserve their political connection
+with the people of the other states and will forthwith proceed to
+organize a separate government and do all other acts and things which
+sovereign and independent states may of right do."
+
+_Southern States Condemn Nullification._--The answer of the country to
+this note of defiance, couched in the language used in the Kentucky
+resolutions and by the New England Federalists during the war of 1812,
+was quick and positive. The legislatures of the Southern states, while
+condemning the tariff, repudiated the step which South Carolina had
+taken. Georgia responded: "We abhor the doctrine of nullification as
+neither a peaceful nor a constitutional remedy." Alabama found it
+"unsound in theory and dangerous in practice." North Carolina replied
+that it was "revolutionary in character, subversive of the Constitution
+of the United States." Mississippi answered: "It is disunion by
+force--it is civil war." Virginia spoke more softly, condemning the
+tariff and sustaining the principle of the Virginia resolutions but
+denying that South Carolina could find in them any sanction for her
+proceedings.
+
+_Jackson Firmly Upholds the Union._--The eyes of the country were turned
+upon Andrew Jackson. It was known that he looked with no friendly
+feelings upon nullification, for, at a Jefferson dinner in the spring of
+1830 while the subject was in the air, he had with laconic firmness
+announced a toast: "Our federal union; it must be preserved." When two
+years later the open challenge came from South Carolina, he replied that
+he would enforce the law, saying with his frontier directness: "If a
+single drop of blood shall be shed there in opposition to the laws of
+the United States, I will hang the first man I can lay my hands on
+engaged in such conduct upon the first tree that I can reach." He made
+ready to keep his word by preparing for the use of military and naval
+forces in sustaining the authority of the federal government. Then in a
+long and impassioned proclamation to the people of South Carolina he
+pointed out the national character of the union, and announced his
+solemn resolve to preserve it by all constitutional means. Nullification
+he branded as "incompatible with the existence of the union,
+contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized
+by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was
+founded, and destructive of the great objects for which it was formed."
+
+_A Compromise._--In his messages to Congress, however, Jackson spoke the
+language of conciliation. A few days before issuing his proclamation he
+suggested that protection should be limited to the articles of domestic
+manufacture indispensable to safety in war time, and shortly afterward
+he asked for new legislation to aid him in enforcing the laws. With two
+propositions before it, one to remove the chief grounds for South
+Carolina's resistance and the other to apply force if it was continued,
+Congress bent its efforts to avoid a crisis. On February 12, 1833,
+Henry Clay laid before the Senate a compromise tariff bill providing for
+the gradual reduction of the duties until by 1842 they would reach the
+level of the law which Calhoun had supported in 1816. About the same
+time the "force bill," designed to give the President ample authority in
+executing the law in South Carolina, was taken up. After a short but
+acrimonious debate, both measures were passed and signed by President
+Jackson on the same day, March 2. Looking upon the reduction of the
+tariff as a complete vindication of her policy and an undoubted victory,
+South Carolina rescinded her ordinance and enacted another nullifying
+the force bill.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+DANIEL WEBSTER]
+
+_The Webster-Hayne Debate._--Where the actual victory lay in this
+quarrel, long the subject of high dispute, need not concern us to-day.
+Perhaps the chief result of the whole affair was a clarification of the
+issue between the North and the South--a definite statement of the
+principles for which men on both sides were years afterward to lay down
+their lives. On behalf of nationalism and a perpetual union, the stanch
+old Democrat from Tennessee had, in his proclamation on nullification,
+spoken a language that admitted of only one meaning. On behalf of
+nullification, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, a skilled lawyer and
+courtly orator, had in a great speech delivered in the Senate in
+January, 1830, set forth clearly and cogently the doctrine that the
+union is a compact among sovereign states from which the parties may
+lawfully withdraw. It was this address that called into the arena
+Daniel Webster, Senator from Massachusetts, who, spreading the mantle
+of oblivion over the Hartford convention, delivered a reply to Hayne
+that has been reckoned among the powerful orations of all time--a plea
+for the supremacy of the Constitution and the national character of the
+union.
+
+=The War on the United States Bank.=--If events forced the issue of
+nationalism and nullification upon Jackson, the same could not be said
+of his attack on the bank. That institution, once denounced by every
+true Jeffersonian, had been reestablished in 1816 under the
+administration of Jefferson's disciple, James Madison. It had not been
+in operation very long, however, before it aroused bitter opposition,
+especially in the South and the West. Its notes drove out of circulation
+the paper currency of unsound banks chartered by the states, to the
+great anger of local financiers. It was accused of favoritism in making
+loans, of conferring special privileges upon politicians in return for
+their support at Washington. To all Jackson's followers it was "an
+insidious money power." One of them openly denounced it as an
+institution designed "to strengthen the arm of wealth and counterpoise
+the influence of extended suffrage in the disposition of public
+affairs."
+
+This sentiment President Jackson fully shared. In his first message to
+Congress he assailed the bank in vigorous language. He declared that its
+constitutionality was in doubt and alleged that it had failed to
+establish a sound and uniform currency. If such an institution was
+necessary, he continued, it should be a public bank, owned and managed
+by the government, not a private concern endowed with special privileges
+by it. In his second and third messages, Jackson came back to the
+subject, leaving the decision, however, to "an enlightened people and
+their representatives."
+
+Moved by this frank hostility and anxious for the future, the bank
+applied to Congress for a renewal of its charter in 1832, four years
+before the expiration of its life. Clay, with his eye upon the
+presidency and an issue for the campaign, warmly supported the
+application. Congress, deeply impressed by his leadership, passed the
+bill granting the new charter, and sent the open defiance to Jackson.
+His response was an instant veto. The battle was on and it raged with
+fury until the close of his second administration, ending in the
+destruction of the bank, a disordered currency, and a national panic.
+
+In his veto message, Jackson attacked the bank as unconstitutional and
+even hinted at corruption. He refused to assent to the proposition that
+the Supreme Court had settled the question of constitutionality by the
+decision in the McCulloch case. "Each public officer," he argued, "who
+takes an oath to support the Constitution, swears that he will support
+it as he understands it, not as it is understood by others."
+
+Not satisfied with his veto and his declaration against the bank,
+Jackson ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to withdraw the government
+deposits which formed a large part of the institution's funds. This
+action he followed up by an open charge that the bank had used money
+shamefully to secure the return of its supporters to Congress. The
+Senate, stung by this charge, solemnly resolved that Jackson had
+"assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the
+Constitution and laws, but in derogation of both."
+
+The effects of the destruction of the bank were widespread. When its
+charter expired in 1836, banking was once more committed to the control
+of the states. The state legislatures, under a decision rendered by the
+Supreme Court after the death of Marshall, began to charter banks under
+state ownership and control, with full power to issue paper money--this
+in spite of the provision in the Constitution that states shall not
+issue bills of credit or make anything but gold and silver coin legal
+tender in the payment of debts. Once more the country was flooded by
+paper currency of uncertain value. To make matters worse, Jackson
+adopted the practice of depositing huge amounts of government funds in
+these banks, not forgetting to render favors to those institutions which
+supported him in politics--"pet banks," as they were styled at the
+time. In 1837, partially, though by no means entirely, as a result of
+the abolition of the bank, the country was plunged into one of the most
+disastrous panics which it ever experienced.
+
+=Internal Improvements Checked.=--The bank had presented to Jackson a
+very clear problem--one of destruction. Other questions were not so
+simple, particularly the subject of federal appropriations in aid of
+roads and other internal improvements. Jefferson had strongly favored
+government assistance in such matters, but his administration was
+followed by a reaction. Both Madison and Monroe vetoed acts of Congress
+appropriating public funds for public roads, advancing as their reason
+the argument that the Constitution authorized no such laws. Jackson,
+puzzled by the clamor on both sides, followed their example without
+making the constitutional bar absolute. Congress, he thought, might
+lawfully build highways of a national and military value, but he
+strongly deprecated attacks by local interests on the federal treasury.
+
+=The Triumph of the Executive Branch.=--Jackson's reelection in 1832
+served to confirm his opinion that he was the chosen leader of the
+people, freed and instructed to ride rough shod over Congress and even
+the courts. No President before or since ever entertained in times of
+peace such lofty notions of executive prerogative. The entire body of
+federal employees he transformed into obedient servants of his wishes, a
+sign or a nod from him making and undoing the fortunes of the humble and
+the mighty. His lawful cabinet of advisers, filling all of the high
+posts in the government, he treated with scant courtesy, preferring
+rather to secure his counsel and advice from an unofficial body of
+friends and dependents who, owing to their secret methods and back
+stairs arrangements, became known as "the kitchen cabinet." Under the
+leadership of a silent, astute, and resourceful politician, Amos
+Kendall, this informal gathering of the faithful both gave and carried
+out decrees and orders, communicating the President's lightest wish or
+strictest command to the uttermost part of the country. Resolutely and
+in the face of bitter opposition Jackson had removed the deposits from
+the United States Bank. When the Senate protested against this arbitrary
+conduct, he did not rest until it was forced to expunge the resolution
+of condemnation; in time one of his lieutenants with his own hands was
+able to tear the censure from the records. When Chief Justice Marshall
+issued a decree against Georgia which did not suit him, Jackson,
+according to tradition, blurted out that Marshall could go ahead and
+enforce his own orders. To the end he pursued his willful way, finally
+even choosing his own successor.
+
+
+THE RISE OF THE WHIGS
+
+=Jackson's Measures Arouse Opposition.=--Measures so decided, policies
+so radical, and conduct so high-handed could not fail to arouse against
+Jackson a deep and exasperated opposition. The truth is the conduct of
+his entire administration profoundly disturbed the business and finances
+of the country. It was accompanied by conditions similar to those which
+existed under the Articles of Confederation. A paper currency, almost as
+unstable and irritating as the worthless notes of revolutionary days,
+flooded the country, hindering the easy transaction of business. The use
+of federal funds for internal improvements, so vital to the exchange of
+commodities which is the very life of industry, was blocked by executive
+vetoes. The Supreme Court, which, under Marshall, had held refractory
+states to their obligations under the Constitution, was flouted; states'
+rights judges, deliberately selected by Jackson for the bench, began to
+sap and undermine the rulings of Marshall. The protective tariff, under
+which the textile industry of New England, the iron mills of
+Pennsylvania, and the wool, flax, and hemp farms of the West had
+flourished, had received a severe blow in the compromise of 1833 which
+promised a steady reduction of duties. To cap the climax, Jackson's
+party, casting aside the old and reputable name of Republican, boldly
+chose for its title the term "Democrat," throwing down the gauntlet to
+every conservative who doubted the omniscience of the people. All these
+things worked together to evoke an opposition that was sharp and
+determined.
+
+[Illustration: AN OLD CARTOON RIDICULING CLAY'S TARIFF AND INTERNAL
+IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM]
+
+=Clay and the National Republicans.=--In this opposition movement,
+leadership fell to Henry Clay, a son of Kentucky, rather than to Daniel
+Webster of Massachusetts. Like Jackson, Clay was born in a home haunted
+by poverty. Left fatherless early and thrown upon his own resources, he
+went from Virginia into Kentucky where by sheer force of intellect he
+rose to eminence in the profession of law. Without the martial gifts or
+the martial spirit of Jackson, he slipped more easily into the social
+habits of the East at the same time that he retained his hold on the
+affections of the boisterous West. Farmers of Ohio, Indiana, and
+Kentucky loved him; financiers of New York and Philadelphia trusted him.
+He was thus a leader well fitted to gather the forces of opposition
+into union against Jackson.
+
+Around Clay's standard assembled a motley collection, representing every
+species of political opinion, united by one tie only--hatred for "Old
+Hickory." Nullifiers and less strenuous advocates of states' rights were
+yoked with nationalists of Webster's school; ardent protectionists were
+bound together with equally ardent free traders, all fraternizing in one
+grand confusion of ideas under the title of "National Republicans." Thus
+the ancient and honorable term selected by Jefferson and his party, now
+abandoned by Jacksonian Democracy, was adroitly adopted to cover the
+supporters of Clay. The platform of the party, however, embraced all the
+old Federalist principles: protection for American industry; internal
+improvements; respect for the Supreme Court; resistance to executive
+tyranny; and denunciation of the spoils system. Though Jackson was
+easily victorious in 1832, the popular vote cast for Clay should have
+given him some doubts about the faith of "the whole people" in the
+wisdom of his "reign."
+
+=Van Buren and the Panic of 1837.=--Nothing could shake the General's
+superb confidence. At the end of his second term he insisted on
+selecting his own successor; at a national convention, chosen by party
+voters, but packed with his office holders and friends, he nominated
+Martin Van Buren of New York. Once more he proved his strength by
+carrying the country for the Democrats. With a fine flourish, he
+attended the inauguration of Van Buren and then retired, amid the
+applause and tears of his devotees, to the Hermitage, his home in
+Tennessee.
+
+Fortunately for him, Jackson escaped the odium of a disastrous panic
+which struck the country with terrible force in the following summer.
+Among the contributory causes of this crisis, no doubt, were the
+destruction of the bank and the issuance of the "specie circular" of
+1836 which required the purchasers of public lands to pay for them in
+coin, instead of the paper notes of state banks. Whatever the dominating
+cause, the ruin was widespread. Bank after bank went under; boom towns
+in the West collapsed; Eastern mills shut down; and working people in
+the industrial centers, starving from unemployment, begged for relief.
+Van Buren braved the storm, offering no measure of reform or assistance
+to the distracted people. He did seek security for government funds by
+suggesting the removal of deposits from private banks and the
+establishment of an independent treasury system, with government
+depositaries for public funds, in several leading cities. This plan was
+finally accepted by Congress in 1840.
+
+Had Van Buren been a captivating figure he might have lived down the
+discredit of the panic unjustly laid at his door; but he was far from
+being a favorite with the populace. Though a man of many talents, he
+owed his position to the quiet and adept management of Jackson rather
+than to his own personal qualities. The men of the frontier did not care
+for him. They suspected that he ate from "gold plate" and they could not
+forgive him for being an astute politician from New York. Still the
+Democratic party, remembering Jackson's wishes, renominated him
+unanimously in 1840 and saw him go down to utter defeat.
+
+=The Whigs and General Harrison.=--By this time, the National
+Republicans, now known as Whigs--a title taken from the party of
+opposition to the Crown in England, had learned many lessons. Taking a
+leaf out of the Democratic book, they nominated, not Clay of Kentucky,
+well known for his views on the bank, the tariff, and internal
+improvements, but a military hero, General William Henry Harrison, a man
+of uncertain political opinions. Harrison, a son of a Virginia signer of
+the Declaration of Independence, sprang into public view by winning a
+battle more famous than important, "Tippecanoe"--a brush with the
+Indians in Indiana. He added to his laurels by rendering praiseworthy
+services during the war of 1812. When days of peace returned he was
+rewarded by a grateful people with a seat in Congress. Then he retired
+to quiet life in a little village near Cincinnati. Like Jackson he was
+held to be a son of the South and the West. Like Jackson he was a
+military hero, a lesser light, but still a light. Like Old Hickory he
+rode into office on a tide of popular feeling against an Eastern man
+accused of being something of an aristocrat. His personal popularity was
+sufficient. The Whigs who nominated him shrewdly refused to adopt a
+platform or declare their belief in anything. When some Democrat
+asserted that Harrison was a backwoodsman whose sole wants were a jug of
+hard cider and a log cabin, the Whigs treated the remark not as an
+insult but as proof positive that Harrison deserved the votes of Jackson
+men. The jug and the cabin they proudly transformed into symbols of the
+campaign, and won for their chieftain 234 electoral votes, while Van
+Buren got only sixty.
+
+=Harrison and Tyler.=--The Hero of Tippecanoe was not long to enjoy the
+fruits of his victory. The hungry horde of Whig office seekers descended
+upon him like wolves upon the fold. If he went out they waylaid him; if
+he stayed indoors, he was besieged; not even his bed chamber was spared.
+He was none too strong at best and he took a deep cold on the day of his
+inauguration. Between driving out Democrats and appeasing Whigs, he fell
+mortally ill. Before the end of a month he lay dead at the capitol.
+
+Harrison's successor, John Tyler, the Vice President, whom the Whigs had
+nominated to catch votes in Virginia, was more of a Democrat than
+anything else, though he was not partisan enough to please anybody. The
+Whigs railed at him because he would not approve the founding of another
+United States Bank. The Democrats stormed at him for refusing, until
+near the end of his term, to sanction the annexation of Texas, which had
+declared its independence of Mexico in 1836. His entire administration,
+marked by unseemly wrangling, produced only two measures of importance.
+The Whigs, flushed by victory, with the aid of a few protectionist
+Democrats, enacted, in 1842, a new tariff law destroying the compromise
+which had brought about the truce between the North and the South, in
+the days of nullification. The distinguished leader of the Whigs, Daniel
+Webster, as Secretary of State, in negotiation with Lord Ashburton
+representing Great Britain, settled the long-standing dispute between
+the two countries over the Maine boundary. A year after closing this
+chapter in American diplomacy, Webster withdrew to private life, leaving
+the President to endure alone the buffets of political fortune.
+
+To the end, the Whigs regarded Tyler as a traitor to their cause; but
+the judgment of history is that it was a case of the biter bitten. They
+had nominated him for the vice presidency as a man of views acceptable
+to Southern Democrats in order to catch their votes, little reckoning
+with the chances of his becoming President. Tyler had not deceived them
+and, thoroughly soured, he left the White House in 1845 not to appear in
+public life again until the days of secession, when he espoused the
+Southern confederacy. Jacksonian Democracy, with new leadership, serving
+a new cause--slavery--was returned to power under James K. Polk, a
+friend of the General from Tennessee. A few grains of sand were to run
+through the hour glass before the Whig party was to be broken and
+scattered as the Federalists had been more than a generation before.
+
+
+THE INTERACTION OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN OPINION
+
+=Democracy in England and France.=--During the period of Jacksonian
+Democracy, as in all epochs of ferment, there was a close relation
+between the thought of the New World and the Old. In England, the
+successes of the American experiment were used as arguments in favor of
+overthrowing the aristocracy which George III had manipulated with such
+effect against America half a century before. In the United States, on
+the other hand, conservatives like Chancellor Kent, the stout opponent
+of manhood suffrage in New York, cited the riots of the British working
+classes as a warning against admitting the same classes to a share in
+the government of the United States. Along with the agitation of opinion
+went epoch-making events. In 1832, the year of Jackson's second
+triumph, the British Parliament passed its first reform bill, which
+conferred the ballot--not on workingmen as yet--but on mill owners and
+shopkeepers whom the landlords regarded with genuine horror. The initial
+step was thus taken in breaking down the privileges of the landed
+aristocracy and the rich merchants of England.
+
+About the same time a popular revolution occurred in France. The Bourbon
+family, restored to the throne of France by the allied powers after
+their victory over Napoleon in 1815, had embarked upon a policy of
+arbitrary government. To use the familiar phrase, they had learned
+nothing and forgotten nothing. Charles X, who came to the throne in
+1824, set to work with zeal to undo the results of the French
+Revolution, to stifle the press, restrict the suffrage, and restore the
+clergy and the nobility to their ancient rights. His policy encountered
+equally zealous opposition and in 1830 he was overthrown. The popular
+party, under the leadership of Lafayette, established, not a republic as
+some of the radicals had hoped, but a "liberal" middle-class monarchy
+under Louis Philippe. This second French Revolution made a profound
+impression on Americans, convincing them that the whole world was moving
+toward democracy. The mayor, aldermen, and citizens of New York City
+joined in a great parade to celebrate the fall of the Bourbons. Mingled
+with cheers for the new order in France were hurrahs for "the people's
+own, Andrew Jackson, the Hero of New Orleans and President of the United
+States!"
+
+=European Interest in America.=--To the older and more settled
+Europeans, the democratic experiment in America was either a menace or
+an inspiration. Conservatives viewed it with anxiety; liberals with
+optimism. Far-sighted leaders could see that the tide of democracy was
+rising all over the world and could not be stayed. Naturally the country
+that had advanced furthest along the new course was the place in which
+to find arguments for and against proposals that Europe should make
+experiments of the same character.
+
+=De Tocqueville's _Democracy in America_.=--In addition to the casual
+traveler there began to visit the United States the thoughtful observer
+bent on finding out what manner of nation this was springing up in the
+wilderness. Those who looked with sympathy upon the growing popular
+forces of England and France found in the United States, in spite of
+many blemishes and defects, a guarantee for the future of the people's
+rule in the Old World. One of these, Alexis de Tocqueville, a French
+liberal of mildly democratic sympathies, made a journey to this country
+in 1831; he described in a very remarkable volume, _Democracy in
+America_, the grand experiment as he saw it. On the whole he was
+convinced. After examining with a critical eye the life and labor of the
+American people, as well as the constitutions of the states and the
+nation, he came to the conclusion that democracy with all its faults was
+both inevitable and successful. Slavery he thought was a painful
+contrast to the other features of American life, and he foresaw what
+proved to be the irrepressible conflict over it. He believed that
+through blundering the people were destined to learn the highest of all
+arts, self-government on a grand scale. The absence of a leisure class,
+devoted to no calling or profession, merely enjoying the refinements of
+life and adding to its graces--the flaw in American culture that gave
+deep distress to many a European leader--de Tocqueville thought a
+necessary virtue in the republic. "Amongst a democratic people where
+there is no hereditary wealth, every man works to earn a living, or has
+worked, or is born of parents who have worked. A notion of labor is
+therefore presented to the mind on every side as the necessary, natural,
+and honest condition of human existence." It was this notion of a
+government in the hands of people who labored that struck the French
+publicist as the most significant fact in the modern world.
+
+=Harriet Martineau's Visit to America.=--This phase of American life
+also profoundly impressed the brilliant English writer, Harriet
+Martineau. She saw all parts of the country, the homes of the rich and
+the log cabins of the frontier; she traveled in stagecoaches, canal
+boats, and on horseback; and visited sessions of Congress and auctions
+at slave markets. She tried to view the country impartially and the
+thing that left the deepest mark on her mind was the solidarity of the
+people in one great political body. "However various may be the tribes
+of inhabitants in those states, whatever part of the world may have been
+their birthplace, or that of their fathers, however broken may be their
+language, however servile or noble their employments, however exalted or
+despised their state, all are declared to be bound together by equal
+political obligations.... In that self-governing country all are held to
+have an equal interest in the principles of its institutions and to be
+bound in equal duty to watch their workings." Miss Martineau was also
+impressed with the passion of Americans for land ownership and
+contrasted the United States favorably with England where the tillers of
+the soil were either tenants or laborers for wages.
+
+=Adverse Criticism.=--By no means all observers and writers were
+convinced that America was a success. The fastidious traveler, Mrs.
+Trollope, who thought the English system of church and state was ideal,
+saw in the United States only roughness and ignorance. She lamented the
+"total and universal want of manners both in males and females," adding
+that while "they appear to have clear heads and active intellects,"
+there was "no charm, no grace in their conversation." She found
+everywhere a lack of reverence for kings, learning, and rank. Other
+critics were even more savage. The editor of the _Foreign Quarterly_
+petulantly exclaimed that the United States was "a brigand
+confederation." Charles Dickens declared the country to be "so maimed
+and lame, so full of sores and ulcers that her best friends turn from
+the loathsome creature in disgust." Sydney Smith, editor of the
+_Edinburgh Review_, was never tired of trying his caustic wit at the
+expense of America. "Their Franklins and Washingtons and all the other
+sages and heroes of their revolution were born and bred subjects of the
+king of England," he observed in 1820. "During the thirty or forty
+years of their independence they have done absolutely nothing for the
+sciences, for the arts, for literature, or even for the statesmanlike
+studies of politics or political economy.... In the four quarters of the
+globe who reads an American book? Or goes to an American play? Or looks
+at an American picture or statue?" To put a sharp sting into his taunt
+he added, forgetting by whose authority slavery was introduced and
+fostered: "Under which of the old tyrannical governments of Europe is
+every sixth man a slave whom his fellow creatures may buy and sell?"
+
+Some Americans, while resenting the hasty and often superficial
+judgments of European writers, winced under their satire and took
+thought about certain particulars in the indictments brought against
+them. The mass of the people, however, bent on the great experiment,
+gave little heed to carping critics who saw the flaws and not the
+achievements of our country--critics who were in fact less interested in
+America than in preventing the rise and growth of democracy in Europe.
+
+
+=References=
+
+J.S. Bassett, _Life of Andrew Jackson_.
+
+J.W. Burgess, _The Middle Period_.
+
+H. Lodge, _Daniel Webster_.
+
+W. Macdonald, _Jacksonian Democracy_ (American Nation Series).
+
+Ostrogorski, _Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties_, Vol.
+II.
+
+C.H. Peck, _The Jacksonian Epoch_.
+
+C. Schurz, _Henry Clay_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. By what devices was democracy limited in the first days of our
+Republic?
+
+2. On what grounds were the limitations defended? Attacked?
+
+3. Outline the rise of political democracy in the United States.
+
+4. Describe three important changes in our political system.
+
+5. Contrast the Presidents of the old and the new generations.
+
+6. Account for the unpopularity of John Adams' administration.
+
+7. What had been the career of Andrew Jackson before 1829?
+
+8. Sketch the history of the protective tariff and explain the theory
+underlying it.
+
+9. Explain the growth of Southern opposition to the tariff.
+
+10. Relate the leading events connected with nullification in South
+Carolina.
+
+11. State Jackson's views and tell the outcome of the controversy.
+
+12. Why was Jackson opposed to the bank? How did he finally destroy it?
+
+13. The Whigs complained of Jackson's "executive tyranny." What did they
+mean?
+
+14. Give some of the leading events in Clay's career.
+
+15. How do you account for the triumph of Harrison in 1840?
+
+16. Why was Europe especially interested in America at this period? Who
+were some of the European writers on American affairs?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Jackson's Criticisms of the Bank.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source
+Book_, pp. 320-329.
+
+=Financial Aspects of the Bank Controversy.=--Dewey, _Financial History
+of the United States_, Sections 86-87; Elson, _History of the United
+States_, pp. 492-496.
+
+=Jackson's View of the Union.=--See his proclamation on nullification in
+Macdonald, pp. 333-340.
+
+=Nullification.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the United
+States_, Vol. VI, pp. 153-182; Elson, pp. 487-492.
+
+=The Webster-Hayne Debate.=--Analyze the arguments. Extensive extracts
+are given in Macdonald's larger three-volume work, _Select Documents of
+United States History, 1776-1761_, pp. 239-260.
+
+=The Character of Jackson's Administration.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History
+of the American People_, Vol. IV, pp. 1-87; Elson, pp. 498-501.
+
+=The People in 1830.=--From contemporary writings in Hart, _American
+History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 509-530.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Andrew Jackson, J.Q. Adams, Henry Clay, Daniel
+Webster, J.C. Calhoun, and W.H. Harrison.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST
+
+
+"We shall not send an emigrant beyond the Mississippi in a hundred
+years," exclaimed Livingston, the principal author of the Louisiana
+purchase. When he made this astounding declaration, he doubtless had
+before his mind's eye the great stretches of unoccupied lands between
+the Appalachians and the Mississippi. He also had before him the history
+of the English colonies, which told him of the two centuries required to
+settle the seaboard region. To practical men, his prophecy did not seem
+far wrong; but before the lapse of half that time there appeared beyond
+the Mississippi a tier of new states, reaching from the Gulf of Mexico
+to the southern boundary of Minnesota, and a new commonwealth on the
+Pacific Ocean where American emigrants had raised the Bear flag of
+California.
+
+
+THE ADVANCE OF THE MIDDLE BORDER
+
+=Missouri.=--When the middle of the nineteenth century had been reached,
+the Mississippi River, which Daniel Boone, the intrepid hunter, had
+crossed during Washington's administration "to escape from civilization"
+in Kentucky, had become the waterway for a vast empire. The center of
+population of the United States had passed to the Ohio Valley. Missouri,
+with its wide reaches of rich lands, low-lying, level, and fertile, well
+adapted to hemp raising, had drawn to its borders thousands of planters
+from the old Southern states--from Virginia and the Carolinas as well as
+from Kentucky and Tennessee. When the great compromise of 1820-21
+admitted her to the union, wearing "every jewel of sovereignty," as a
+florid orator announced, migratory slave owners were assured that their
+property would be safe in Missouri. Along the western shore of the
+Mississippi and on both banks of the Missouri to the uttermost limits of
+the state, plantations tilled by bondmen spread out in broad expanses.
+In the neighborhood of Jefferson City the slaves numbered more than a
+fourth of the population.
+
+Into this stream of migration from the planting South flowed another
+current of land-tilling farmers; some from Kentucky, Tennessee, and
+Mississippi, driven out by the onrush of the planters buying and
+consolidating small farms into vast estates; and still more from the
+East and the Old World. To the northwest over against Iowa and to the
+southwest against Arkansas, these yeomen laid out farms to be tilled by
+their own labor. In those regions the number of slaves seldom rose above
+five or six per cent of the population. The old French post, St. Louis,
+enriched by the fur trade of the Far West and the steamboat traffic of
+the river, grew into a thriving commercial city, including among its
+seventy-five thousand inhabitants in 1850 nearly forty thousand
+foreigners, German immigrants from Pennsylvania and Europe being the
+largest single element.
+
+=Arkansas.=--Below Missouri lay the territory of Arkansas, which had
+long been the paradise of the swarthy hunter and the restless
+frontiersman fleeing from the advancing borders of farm and town. In
+search of the life, wild and free, where the rifle supplied the game and
+a few acres of ground the corn and potatoes, they had filtered into the
+territory in an unending drift, "squatting" on the land. Without so much
+as asking the leave of any government, territorial or national, they
+claimed as their own the soil on which they first planted their feet.
+Like the Cherokee Indians, whom they had as neighbors, whose very
+customs and dress they sometimes adopted, the squatters spent their days
+in the midst of rough plenty, beset by chills, fevers, and the ills of
+the flesh, but for many years unvexed by political troubles or the
+restrictions of civilized life.
+
+Unfortunately for them, however, the fertile valleys of the Mississippi
+and Arkansas were well adapted to the cultivation of cotton and tobacco
+and their sylvan peace was soon broken by an invasion of planters. The
+newcomers, with their servile workers, spread upward in the valley
+toward Missouri and along the southern border westward to the Red River.
+In time the slaves in the tier of counties against Louisiana ranged from
+thirty to seventy per cent of the population. This marked the doom of
+the small farmer, swept Arkansas into the main current of planting
+politics, and led to a powerful lobby at Washington in favor of
+admission to the union, a boon granted in 1836.
+
+=Michigan.=--In accordance with a well-established custom, a free state
+was admitted to the union to balance a slave state. In 1833, the people
+of Michigan, a territory ten times the size of Connecticut, announced
+that the time had come for them to enjoy the privileges of a
+commonwealth. All along the southern border the land had been occupied
+largely by pioneers from New England, who built prim farmhouses and
+adopted the town-meeting plan of self-government after the fashion of
+the old home. The famous post of Detroit was growing into a flourishing
+city as the boats plying on the Great Lakes carried travelers, settlers,
+and freight through the narrows. In all, according to the census, there
+were more than ninety thousand inhabitants in the territory; so it was
+not without warrant that they clamored for statehood. Congress, busy as
+ever with politics, delayed; and the inhabitants of Michigan, unable to
+restrain their impatience, called a convention, drew up a constitution,
+and started a lively quarrel with Ohio over the southern boundary. The
+hand of Congress was now forced. Objections were made to the new
+constitution on the ground that it gave the ballot to all free white
+males, including aliens not yet naturalized; but the protests were
+overborne in a long debate. The boundary was fixed, and Michigan, though
+shorn of some of the land she claimed, came into the union in 1837.
+
+=Wisconsin.=--Across Lake Michigan to the west lay the territory of
+Wisconsin, which shared with Michigan the interesting history of the
+Northwest, running back into the heroic days when French hunters and
+missionaries were planning a French empire for the great monarch, Louis
+XIV. It will not be forgotten that the French rangers of the woods, the
+black-robed priests, prepared for sacrifice, even to death, the trappers
+of the French agencies, and the French explorers--Marquette, Joliet, and
+Menard--were the first white men to paddle their frail barks through the
+northern waters. They first blazed their trails into the black forests
+and left traces of their work in the names of portages and little
+villages. It was from these forests that Red Men in full war paint
+journeyed far to fight under the _fleur-de-lis_ of France when the
+soldiers of King Louis made their last stand at Quebec and Montreal
+against the imperial arms of Britain. It was here that the British flag
+was planted in 1761 and that the great Pontiac conspiracy was formed two
+years later to overthrow British dominion.
+
+When, a generation afterward, the Stars and Stripes supplanted the Union
+Jack, the French were still almost the only white men in the region.
+They were soon joined by hustling Yankee fur traders who did battle
+royal against British interlopers. The traders cut their way through
+forest trails and laid out the routes through lake and stream and over
+portages for the settlers and their families from the states "back
+East." It was the forest ranger who discovered the water power later
+used to turn the busy mills grinding the grain from the spreading farm
+lands. In the wake of the fur hunters, forest men, and farmers came
+miners from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri crowding in to exploit the
+lead ores of the northwest, some of them bringing slaves to work their
+claims. Had it not been for the gold fever of 1849 that drew the
+wielders of pick and shovel to the Far West, Wisconsin would early have
+taken high rank among the mining regions of the country.
+
+From a favorable point of vantage on Lake Michigan, the village of
+Milwaukee, a center for lumber and grain transport and a place of entry
+for Eastern goods, grew into a thriving city. It claimed twenty thousand
+inhabitants, when in 1848 Congress admitted Wisconsin to the union.
+Already the Germans, Irish, and Scandinavians had found their way into
+the territory. They joined Americans from the older states in clearing
+forests, building roads, transforming trails into highways, erecting
+mills, and connecting streams with canals to make a network of routes
+for the traffic that poured to and from the Great Lakes.
+
+=Iowa and Minnesota.=--To the southwest of Wisconsin beyond the
+Mississippi, where the tall grass of the prairies waved like the sea,
+farmers from New England, New York, and Ohio had prepared Iowa for
+statehood. A tide of immigration that might have flowed into Missouri
+went northward; for freemen, unaccustomed to slavery and slave markets,
+preferred the open country above the compromise line. With incredible
+swiftness, they spread farms westward from the Mississippi. With Yankee
+ingenuity they turned to trading on the river, building before 1836
+three prosperous centers of traffic: Dubuque, Davenport, and Burlington.
+True to their old traditions, they founded colleges and academies that
+religion and learning might be cherished on the frontier as in the
+states from which they came. Prepared for self-government, the Iowans
+laid siege to the door of Congress and were admitted to the union in
+1846.
+
+Above Iowa, on the Mississippi, lay the territory of Minnesota--the home
+of the Dakotas, the Ojibways, and the Sioux. Like Michigan and
+Wisconsin, it had been explored early by the French scouts, and the
+first white settlement was the little French village of Mendota. To the
+people of the United States, the resources of the country were first
+revealed by the historic journey of Zebulon Pike in 1805 and by American
+fur traders who were quick to take advantage of the opportunity to ply
+their arts of hunting and bartering in fresh fields. In 1839 an
+American settlement was planted at Marina on the St. Croix, the outpost
+of advancing civilization. Within twenty years, the territory, boasting
+a population of 150,000, asked for admission to the union. In 1858 the
+plea was granted and Minnesota showed her gratitude three years later by
+being first among the states to offer troops to Lincoln in the hour of
+peril.
+
+
+ON TO THE PACIFIC--TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR
+
+=The Uniformity of the Middle West.=--There was a certain monotony about
+pioneering in the Northwest and on the middle border. As the long
+stretches of land were cleared or prepared for the plow, they were laid
+out like checkerboards into squares of forty, eighty, one hundred sixty,
+or more acres, each the seat of a homestead. There was a striking
+uniformity also about the endless succession of fertile fields spreading
+far and wide under the hot summer sun. No majestic mountains relieved
+the sweep of the prairie. Few monuments of other races and antiquity
+were there to awaken curiosity about the region. No sonorous bells in
+old missions rang out the time of day. The chaffering Red Man bartering
+blankets and furs for powder and whisky had passed farther on. The
+population was made up of plain farmers and their families engaged in
+severe and unbroken labor, chopping down trees, draining fever-breeding
+swamps, breaking new ground, and planting from year to year the same
+rotation of crops. Nearly all the settlers were of native American stock
+into whose frugal and industrious lives the later Irish and German
+immigrants fitted, on the whole, with little friction. Even the Dutch
+oven fell before the cast-iron cooking stove. Happiness and sorrow,
+despair and hope were there, but all encompassed by the heavy tedium of
+prosaic sameness.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA BARBARA MISSION]
+
+=A Contrast in the Far West and Southwest.=--As George Rogers Clark and
+Daniel Boone had stirred the snug Americans of the seaboard to seek
+their fortunes beyond the Appalachians, so now Kit Carson, James Bowie,
+Sam Houston, Davy Crockett, and John C. Fremont were to lead the way
+into a new land, only a part of which was under the American flag. The
+setting for this new scene in the westward movement was thrown out in a
+wide sweep from the headwaters of the Mississippi to the banks of the
+Rio Grande; from the valleys of the Sabine and Red rivers to Montana and
+the Pacific slope. In comparison with the middle border, this region
+presented such startling diversities that only the eye of faith could
+foresee the unifying power of nationalism binding its communities with
+the older sections of the country. What contrasts indeed! The blue grass
+region of Kentucky or the rich, black soil of Illinois--the painted
+desert, the home of the sage brush and the coyote! The level prairies of
+Iowa--the mighty Rockies shouldering themselves high against the
+horizon! The long bleak winters of Wisconsin--California of endless
+summer! The log churches of Indiana or Illinois--the quaint missions of
+San Antonio, Tucson, and Santa Barbara! The little state of
+Delaware--the empire of Texas, one hundred and twenty times its area!
+And scattered about through the Southwest were signs of an ancient
+civilization--fragments of four-and five-story dwellings, ruined dams,
+aqueducts, and broken canals, which told of once prosperous peoples
+who, by art and science, had conquered the aridity of the desert and
+lifted themselves in the scale of culture above the savages of the
+plain.
+
+The settlers of this vast empire were to be as diverse in their origins
+and habits as those of the colonies on the coast had been. Americans of
+English, Irish, and Scotch-Irish descent came as usual from the Eastern
+states. To them were added the migratory Germans as well. Now for the
+first time came throngs of Scandinavians. Some were to make their homes
+on quiet farms as the border advanced against the setting sun. Others
+were to be Indian scouts, trappers, fur hunters, miners, cowboys, Texas
+planters, keepers of lonely posts on the plain and the desert, stage
+drivers, pilots of wagon trains, pony riders, fruit growers, "lumber
+jacks," and smelter workers. One common bond united them--a passion for
+the self-government accorded to states. As soon as a few thousand
+settlers came together in a single territory, there arose a mighty shout
+for a position beside the staid commonwealths of the East and the South.
+Statehood meant to the pioneers self-government, dignity, and the right
+to dispose of land, minerals, and timber in their own way. In the quest
+for this local autonomy there arose many a wordy contest in Congress,
+each of the political parties lending a helping hand in the admission of
+a state when it gave promise of adding new congressmen of the "right
+political persuasion," to use the current phrase.
+
+=Southern Planters and Texas.=--While the farmers of the North found the
+broad acres of the Western prairies stretching on before them apparently
+in endless expanse, it was far different with the Southern planters.
+Ever active in their search for new fields as they exhausted the virgin
+soil of the older states, the restless subjects of King Cotton quickly
+reached the frontier of Louisiana. There they paused; but only for a
+moment. The fertile land of Texas just across the boundary lured them on
+and the Mexican republic to which it belonged extended to them a more
+than generous welcome. Little realizing the perils lurking in a
+"peaceful penetration," the authorities at Mexico City opened wide the
+doors and made large grants of land to American contractors, who agreed
+to bring a number of families into Texas. The omnipresent Yankee, in the
+person of Moses Austin of Connecticut, hearing of this good news in the
+Southwest, obtained a grant in 1820 to settle three hundred Americans
+near Bexar--a commission finally carried out to the letter by his son
+and celebrated in the name given to the present capital of the state of
+Texas. Within a decade some twenty thousand Americans had crossed the
+border.
+
+=Mexico Closes the Door.=--The government of Mexico, unaccustomed to
+such enterprise and thoroughly frightened by its extent, drew back in
+dismay. Its fears were increased as quarrels broke out between the
+Americans and the natives in Texas. Fear grew into consternation when
+efforts were made by President Jackson to buy the territory for the
+United States. Mexico then sought to close the flood gates. It stopped
+all American colonization schemes, canceled many of the land grants, put
+a tariff on farming implements, and abolished slavery. These barriers
+were raised too late. A call for help ran through the western border of
+the United States. The sentinels of the frontier answered. Davy
+Crockett, the noted frontiersman, bear hunter, and backwoods politician;
+James Bowie, the dexterous wielder of the knife that to this day bears
+his name; and Sam Houston, warrior and pioneer, rushed to the aid of
+their countrymen in Texas. Unacquainted with the niceties of diplomacy,
+impatient at the formalities of international law, they soon made it
+known that in spite of Mexican sovereignty they would be their own
+masters.
+
+=The Independence of Texas Declared.=--Numbering only about one-fourth
+of the population in Texas, they raised the standard of revolt in 1836
+and summoned a convention. Following in the footsteps of their
+ancestors, they issued a declaration of independence signed mainly by
+Americans from the slave states. Anticipating that the government of
+Mexico would not quietly accept their word of defiance as final, they
+dispatched a force to repel "the invading army," as General Houston
+called the troops advancing under the command of Santa Ana, the Mexican
+president. A portion of the Texan soldiers took their stand in the
+Alamo, an old Spanish mission in the cottonwood trees in the town of San
+Antonio. Instead of obeying the order to blow up the mission and retire,
+they held their ground until they were completely surrounded and cut off
+from all help. Refusing to surrender, they fought to the bitter end, the
+last man falling a victim to the sword. Vengeance was swift. Within
+three months General Houston overwhelmed Santa Ana at the San Jacinto,
+taking him prisoner of war and putting an end to all hopes for the
+restoration of Mexican sovereignty over Texas.
+
+The Lone Star Republic, with Houston at the head, then sought admission
+to the United States. This seemed at first an easy matter. All that was
+required to bring it about appeared to be a treaty annexing Texas to the
+union. Moreover, President Jackson, at the height of his popularity, had
+a warm regard for General Houston and, with his usual sympathy for rough
+and ready ways of doing things, approved the transaction. Through an
+American representative in Mexico, Jackson had long and anxiously
+labored, by means none too nice, to wring from the Mexican republic the
+cession of the coveted territory. When the Texans took matters into
+their own hands, he was more than pleased; but he could not marshal the
+approval of two-thirds of the Senators required for a treaty of
+annexation. Cautious as well as impetuous, Jackson did not press the
+issue; he went out of office in 1837 with Texas uncertain as to her
+future.
+
+=Northern Opposition to Annexation.=--All through the North the
+opposition to annexation was clear and strong. Anti-slavery agitators
+could hardly find words savage enough to express their feelings.
+"Texas," exclaimed Channing in a letter to Clay, "is but the first step
+of aggression. I trust indeed that Providence will beat back and humble
+our cupidity and ambition. I now ask whether as a people we are
+prepared to seize on a neighboring territory for the end of extending
+slavery? I ask whether as a people we can stand forth in the sight of
+God, in the sight of nations, and adopt this atrocious policy? Sooner
+perish! Sooner be our name blotted out from the record of nations!"
+William Lloyd Garrison called for the secession of the Northern states
+if Texas was brought into the union with slavery. John Quincy Adams
+warned his countrymen that they were treading in the path of the
+imperialism that had brought the nations of antiquity to judgment and
+destruction. Henry Clay, the Whig candidate for President, taking into
+account changing public sentiment, blew hot and cold, losing the state
+of New York and the election of 1844 by giving a qualified approval of
+annexation. In the same campaign, the Democrats boldly demanded the
+"Reannexation of Texas," based on claims which the United States once
+had to Spanish territory beyond the Sabine River.
+
+=Annexation.=--The politicians were disposed to walk very warily. Van
+Buren, at heart opposed to slavery extension, refused to press the issue
+of annexation. Tyler, a pro-slavery Democrat from Virginia, by a strange
+fling of fortune carried into office as a nominal Whig, kept his mind
+firmly fixed on the idea of reelection and let the troublesome matter
+rest until the end of his administration was in sight. He then listened
+with favor to the voice of the South. Calhoun stated what seemed to be a
+convincing argument: All good Americans have their hearts set on the
+Constitution; the admission of Texas is absolutely essential to the
+preservation of the union; it will give a balance of power to the South
+as against the North growing with incredible swiftness in wealth and
+population. Tyler, impressed by the plea, appointed Calhoun to the
+office of Secretary of State in 1844, authorizing him to negotiate the
+treaty of annexation--a commission at once executed. This scheme was
+blocked in the Senate where the necessary two-thirds vote could not be
+secured. Balked but not defeated, the advocates of annexation drew up a
+joint resolution which required only a majority vote in both houses,
+and in February of the next year, just before Tyler gave way to Polk,
+they pushed it through Congress. So Texas, amid the groans of Boston and
+the hurrahs of Charleston, folded up her flag and came into the union.
+
+[Illustration: TEXAS AND THE TERRITORY IN DISPUTE]
+
+=The Mexican War.=--The inevitable war with Mexico, foretold by the
+abolitionists and feared by Henry Clay, ensued, the ostensible cause
+being a dispute over the boundaries of the new state. The Texans claimed
+all the lands down to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans placed the border of
+Texas at the Nueces River and a line drawn thence in a northerly
+direction. President Polk, accepting the Texan view of the controversy,
+ordered General Zachary Taylor to move beyond the Nueces in defense of
+American sovereignty. This act of power, deemed by the Mexicans an
+invasion of their territory, was followed by an attack on our troops.
+
+President Polk, not displeased with the turn of events, announced that
+American blood had been "spilled on American soil" and that war existed
+"by the act of Mexico." Congress, in a burst of patriotic fervor,
+brushed aside the protests of those who deplored the conduct of the
+government as wanton aggression on a weaker nation and granted money and
+supplies to prosecute the war. The few Whigs in the House of
+Representatives, who refused to vote in favor of taking up arms,
+accepted the inevitable with such good grace as they could command. All
+through the South and the West the war was popular. New England
+grumbled, but gave loyal, if not enthusiastic, support to a conflict
+precipitated by policies not of its own choosing. Only a handful of firm
+objectors held out. James Russell Lowell, in his _Biglow Papers_, flung
+scorn and sarcasm to the bitter end.
+
+=The Outcome of the War.=--The foregone conclusion was soon reached.
+General Taylor might have delivered the fatal thrust from northern
+Mexico if politics had not intervened. Polk, anxious to avoid raising up
+another military hero for the Whigs to nominate for President, decided
+to divide the honors by sending General Scott to strike a blow at the
+capital, Mexico City. The deed was done with speed and pomp and two
+heroes were lifted into presidential possibilities. In the Far West a
+third candidate was made, John C. Fremont, who, in cooeperation with
+Commodores Sloat and Stockton and General Kearney, planted the Stars and
+Stripes on the Pacific slope.
+
+In February, 1848, the Mexicans came to terms, ceding to the victor
+California, Arizona, New Mexico, and more--a domain greater in extent
+than the combined areas of France and Germany. As a salve to the wound,
+the vanquished received fifteen million dollars in cash and the
+cancellation of many claims held by American citizens. Five years later,
+through the negotiations of James Gadsden, a further cession of lands
+along the southern border of Arizona and New Mexico was secured on
+payment of ten million dollars.
+
+=General Taylor Elected President.=--The ink was hardly dry upon the
+treaty that closed the war before "rough and ready" General Taylor, a
+slave owner from Louisiana, "a Whig," as he said, "but not an ultra
+Whig," was put forward as the Whig candidate for President. He himself
+had not voted for years and he was fairly innocent in matters political.
+The tariff, the currency, and internal improvements, with a magnificent
+gesture he referred to the people's representatives in Congress,
+offering to enforce the laws as made, if elected. Clay's followers
+mourned. Polk stormed but could not win even a renomination at the hands
+of the Democrats. So it came about that the hero of Buena Vista,
+celebrated for his laconic order, "Give 'em a little more grape, Captain
+Bragg," became President of the United States.
+
+
+THE PACIFIC COAST AND UTAH
+
+=Oregon.=--Closely associated in the popular mind with the contest about
+the affairs of Texas was a dispute with Great Britain over the
+possession of territory in Oregon. In their presidential campaign of
+1844, the Democrats had coupled with the slogan, "The Reannexation of
+Texas," two other cries, "The Reoccupation of Oregon," and "Fifty-four
+Forty or Fight." The last two slogans were founded on American
+discoveries and explorations in the Far Northwest. Their appearance in
+politics showed that the distant Oregon country, larger in area than New
+England, New York, and Pennsylvania combined, was at last receiving from
+the nation the attention which its importance warranted.
+
+_Joint Occupation and Settlement._--Both England and the United States
+had long laid claim to Oregon and in 1818 they had agreed to occupy the
+territory jointly--a contract which was renewed ten years later for an
+indefinite period. Under this plan, citizens of both countries were free
+to hunt and settle anywhere in the region. The vanguard of British fur
+traders and Canadian priests was enlarged by many new recruits, with
+Americans not far behind them. John Jacob Astor, the resourceful New
+York merchant, sent out trappers and hunters who established a trading
+post at Astoria in 1811. Some twenty years later, American
+missionaries--among them two very remarkable men, Jason Lee and Marcus
+Whitman--were preaching the gospel to the Indians.
+
+Through news from the fur traders and missionaries, Eastern farmers
+heard of the fertile lands awaiting their plows on the Pacific slope;
+those with the pioneering spirit made ready to take possession of the
+new country. In 1839 a band went around by Cape Horn. Four years later a
+great expedition went overland. The way once broken, others followed
+rapidly. As soon as a few settlements were well established, the
+pioneers held a mass meeting and agreed upon a plan of government. "We,
+the people of Oregon territory," runs the preamble to their compact,
+"for the purposes of mutual protection and to secure peace and
+prosperity among ourselves, agree to adopt the following laws and
+regulations until such time as the United States of America extend their
+jurisdiction over us." Thus self-government made its way across the
+Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: THE OREGON COUNTRY AND THE DISPUTED BOUNDARY]
+
+_The Boundary Dispute with England Adjusted._--By this time it was
+evident that the boundaries of Oregon must be fixed. Having made the
+question an issue in his campaign, Polk, after his election in 1844,
+pressed it upon the attention of the country. In his inaugural address
+and his first message to Congress he reiterated the claim of the
+Democratic platform that "our title to the whole territory of Oregon is
+clear and unquestionable." This pretension Great Britain firmly
+rejected, leaving the President a choice between war and compromise.
+
+Polk, already having the contest with Mexico on his hands, sought and
+obtained a compromise. The British government, moved by a hint from the
+American minister, offered a settlement which would fix the boundary at
+the forty-ninth parallel instead of "fifty-four forty," and give it
+Vancouver Island. Polk speedily chose this way out of the dilemma.
+Instead of making the decision himself, however, and drawing up a
+treaty, he turned to the Senate for "counsel." As prearranged with party
+leaders, the advice was favorable to the plan. The treaty, duly drawn in
+1846, was ratified by the Senate after an acrimonious debate. "Oh!
+mountain that was delivered of a mouse," exclaimed Senator Benton, "thy
+name shall be fifty-four forty!" Thirteen years later, the southern part
+of the territory was admitted to the union as the state of Oregon,
+leaving the northern and eastern sections in the status of a territory.
+
+=California.=--With the growth of the northwestern empire, dedicated by
+nature to freedom, the planting interests might have been content, had
+fortune not wrested from them the fair country of California. Upon this
+huge territory they had set their hearts. The mild climate and fertile
+soil seemed well suited to slavery and the planters expected to extend
+their sway to the entire domain. California was a state of more than
+155,000 square miles--about seventy times the size of the state of
+Delaware. It could readily be divided into five or six large states, if
+that became necessary to preserve the Southern balance of power.
+
+_Early American Relations with California._--Time and tide, it seems,
+were not on the side of the planters. Already Americans of a far
+different type were invading the Pacific slope. Long before Polk ever
+dreamed of California, the Yankee with his cargo of notions had been
+around the Horn. Daring skippers had sailed out of New England harbors
+with a variety of goods, bent their course around South America to
+California, on to China and around the world, trading as they went and
+leaving pots, pans, woolen cloth, guns, boots, shoes, salt fish, naval
+stores, and rum in their wake. "Home from Californy!" rang the cry in
+many a New England port as a good captain let go his anchor on his
+return from the long trading voyage in the Pacific.
+
+[Illustration: THE OVERLAND TRAILS]
+
+_The Overland Trails._--Not to be outdone by the mariners of the deep,
+western scouts searched for overland routes to the Pacific. Zebulon
+Pike, explorer and pathfinder, by his expedition into the Southwest
+during Jefferson's administration, had discovered the resources of New
+Spain and had shown his countrymen how easy it was to reach Santa Fe
+from the upper waters of the Arkansas River. Not long afterward, traders
+laid open the route, making Franklin, Missouri, and later Fort
+Leavenworth the starting point. Along the trail, once surveyed, poured
+caravans heavily guarded by armed men against marauding Indians. Sand
+storms often wiped out all signs of the route; hunger and thirst did
+many a band of wagoners to death; but the lure of the game and the
+profits at the end kept the business thriving. Huge stocks of cottons,
+glass, hardware, and ammunition were drawn almost across the continent
+to be exchanged at Santa Fe for furs, Indian blankets, silver, and
+mules; and many a fortune was made out of the traffic.
+
+_Americans in California._--Why stop at Santa Fe? The question did not
+long remain unanswered. In 1829, Ewing Young broke the path to Los
+Angeles. Thirteen years later Fremont made the first of his celebrated
+expeditions across plain, desert, and mountain, arousing the interest of
+the entire country in the Far West. In the wake of the pathfinders went
+adventurers, settlers, and artisans. By 1847, more than one-fifth of the
+inhabitants in the little post of two thousand on San Francisco Bay were
+from the United States. The Mexican War, therefore, was not the
+beginning but the end of the American conquest of California--a conquest
+initiated by Americans who went to till the soil, to trade, or to follow
+some mechanical pursuit.
+
+_The Discovery of Gold._--As if to clinch the hold on California already
+secured by the friends of free soil, there came in 1848 the sudden
+discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in the Sacramento Valley. When this
+exciting news reached the East, a mighty rush began to California, over
+the trails, across the Isthmus of Panama, and around Cape Horn. Before
+two years had passed, it is estimated that a hundred thousand people, in
+search of fortunes, had arrived in California--mechanics, teachers,
+doctors, lawyers, farmers, miners, and laborers from the four corners of
+the earth.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+SAN FRANCISCO IN 1849]
+
+_California a Free State._--With this increase in population there
+naturally resulted the usual demand for admission to the union. Instead
+of waiting for authority from Washington, the Californians held a
+convention in 1849 and framed their constitution. With impatience, the
+delegates brushed aside the plea that "the balance of power between the
+North and South" required the admission of their state as a slave
+commonwealth. Without a dissenting voice, they voted in favor of freedom
+and boldly made their request for inclusion among the United States.
+President Taylor, though a Southern man, advised Congress to admit the
+applicant. Robert Toombs of Georgia vowed to God that he preferred
+secession. Henry Clay, the great compromiser, came to the rescue and in
+1850 California was admitted as a free state.
+
+=Utah.=--On the long road to California, in the midst of forbidding and
+barren wastes, a religious sect, the Mormons, had planted a colony
+destined to a stormy career. Founded in 1830 under the leadership of
+Joseph Smith of New York, the sect had suffered from many cruel buffets
+of fortune. From Ohio they had migrated into Missouri where they were
+set upon and beaten. Some of them were murdered by indignant neighbors.
+Harried out of Missouri, they went into Illinois only to see their
+director and prophet, Smith, first imprisoned by the authorities and
+then shot by a mob. Having raised up a cloud of enemies on account of
+both their religious faith and their practice of allowing a man to have
+more than one wife, they fell in heartily with the suggestion of a new
+leader, Brigham Young, that they go into the Far West beyond the plains
+of Kansas--into the forlorn desert where the wicked would cease from
+troubling and the weary could be at rest, as they read in the Bible. In
+1847, Young, with a company of picked men, searched far and wide until
+he found a suitable spot overlooking the Salt Lake Valley. Returning to
+Illinois, he gathered up his followers, now numbering several thousand,
+and in one mighty wagon caravan they all went to their distant haven.
+
+_Brigham Young and His Economic System._--In Brigham Young the Mormons
+had a leader of remarkable power who gave direction to the redemption of
+the arid soil, the management of property, and the upbuilding of
+industry. He promised them to make the desert blossom as the rose, and
+verily he did it. He firmly shaped the enterprise of the colony along
+co-operative lines, holding down the speculator and profiteer with one
+hand and giving encouragement to the industrious poor with the other.
+With the shrewdness befitting a good business man, he knew how to draw
+the line between public and private interest. Land was given outright to
+each family, but great care was exercised in the distribution so that
+none should have great advantage over another. The purchase of supplies
+and the sale of produce were carried on through a cooeperative store, the
+profits of which went to the common good. Encountering for the first
+time in the history of the Anglo-Saxon race the problem of aridity, the
+Mormons surmounted the most perplexing obstacles with astounding skill.
+They built irrigation works by cooeperative labor and granted water
+rights to all families on equitable terms.
+
+_The Growth of Industries._--Though farming long remained the major
+interest of the colony, the Mormons, eager to be self-supporting in
+every possible way, bent their efforts also to manufacturing and later
+to mining. Their missionaries, who hunted in the highways and byways of
+Europe for converts, never failed to stress the economic advantages of
+the sect. "We want," proclaimed President Young to all the earth, "a
+company of woolen manufacturers to come with machinery and take the wool
+from the sheep and convert it into the best clothes. We want a company
+of potters; we need them; the clay is ready and the dishes wanted.... We
+want some men to start a furnace forthwith; the iron, coal, and molders
+are waiting.... We have a printing press and any one who can take good
+printing and writing paper to the Valley will be a blessing to
+themselves and the church." Roads and bridges were built; millions were
+spent in experiments in agriculture and manufacturing; missionaries at a
+huge cost were maintained in the East and in Europe; an army was kept
+for defense against the Indians; and colonies were planted in the
+outlying regions. A historian of Deseret, as the colony was called by
+the Mormons, estimated in 1895 that by the labor of their hands the
+people had produced nearly half a billion dollars in wealth since the
+coming of the vanguard.
+
+_Polygamy Forbidden._--The hope of the Mormons that they might forever
+remain undisturbed by outsiders was soon dashed to earth, for hundreds
+of farmers and artisans belonging to other religious sects came to
+settle among them. In 1850 the colony was so populous and prosperous
+that it was organized into a territory of the United States and brought
+under the supervision of the federal government. Protests against
+polygamy were raised in the colony and at the seat of authority three
+thousand miles away at Washington. The new Republican party in 1856
+proclaimed it "the right and duty of Congress to prohibit in the
+Territories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery." In
+due time the Mormons had to give up their marriage practices which were
+condemned by the common opinion of all western civilization; but they
+kept their religious faith. Monuments to their early enterprise are seen
+in the Temple and the Tabernacle, the irrigation works, and the great
+wealth of the Church.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF WESTERN DEVELOPMENT AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+While the statesmen of the old generation were solving the problems of
+their age, hunters, pioneers, and home seekers were preparing new
+problems beyond the Alleghanies. The West was rising in population and
+wealth. Between 1783 and 1829, eleven states were added to the original
+thirteen. All but two were in the West. Two of them were in the
+Louisiana territory beyond the Mississippi. Here the process of
+colonization was repeated. Hardy frontier people cut down the forests,
+built log cabins, laid out farms, and cut roads through the wilderness.
+They began a new civilization just as the immigrants to Virginia or
+Massachusetts had done two centuries earlier.
+
+Like the seaboard colonists before them, they too cherished the spirit
+of independence and power. They had not gone far upon their course
+before they resented the monopoly of the presidency by the East. In 1829
+they actually sent one of their own cherished leaders, Andrew Jackson,
+to the White House. Again in 1840, in 1844, in 1848, and in 1860, the
+Mississippi Valley could boast that one of its sons had been chosen for
+the seat of power at Washington. Its democratic temper evoked a cordial
+response in the towns of the East where the old aristocracy had been put
+aside and artisans had been given the ballot.
+
+For three decades the West occupied the interest of the nation. Under
+Jackson's leadership, it destroyed the second United States Bank. When
+he smote nullification in South Carolina, it gave him cordial support.
+It approved his policy of parceling out government offices among party
+workers--"the spoils system" in all its fullness. On only one point did
+it really dissent. The West heartily favored internal improvements, the
+appropriation of federal funds for highways, canals, and railways.
+Jackson had misgivings on this question and awakened sharp criticism by
+vetoing a road improvement bill.
+
+From their point of vantage on the frontier, the pioneers pressed on
+westward. They pushed into Texas, created a state, declared their
+independence, demanded a place in the union, and precipitated a war with
+Mexico. They crossed the trackless plain and desert, laying out trails
+to Santa Fe, to Oregon, and to California. They were upon the scene when
+the Mexican War brought California under the Stars and Stripes. They had
+laid out their farms in the Willamette Valley when the slogan
+"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" forced a settlement of the Oregon boundary.
+California and Oregon were already in the union when there arose the
+Great Civil War testing whether this nation or any nation so conceived
+and so dedicated could long endure.
+
+
+=References=
+
+G.P. Brown, _Westward Expansion_ (American Nation Series).
+
+K. Coman, _Economic Beginnings of the Far West_ (2 vols.).
+
+F. Parkman, _California and the Oregon Trail_.
+
+R.S. Ripley, _The War with Mexico_.
+
+W.C. Rives, _The United States and Mexico, 1821-48_ (2 vols.).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Give some of the special features in the history of Missouri,
+Arkansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota.
+
+2. Contrast the climate and soil of the Middle West and the Far West.
+
+3. How did Mexico at first encourage American immigration?
+
+4. What produced the revolution in Texas? Who led in it?
+
+5. Narrate some of the leading events in the struggle over annexation to
+the United States.
+
+6. What action by President Polk precipitated war?
+
+7. Give the details of the peace settlement with Mexico.
+
+8. What is meant by the "joint occupation" of Oregon?
+
+9. How was the Oregon boundary dispute finally settled?
+
+10. Compare the American "invasion" of California with the migration
+into Texas.
+
+11. Explain how California became a free state.
+
+12. Describe the early economic policy of the Mormons.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Independence of Texas.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the
+United States_, Vol. VI, pp. 251-270. Woodrow Wilson, _History of the
+American People_, Vol. IV, pp. 102-126.
+
+=The Annexation of Texas.=--McMaster, Vol. VII. The passages on
+annexation are scattered through this volume and it is an exercise in
+ingenuity to make a connected story of them. Source materials in Hart,
+_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 637-655; Elson,
+_History of the United States_, pp. 516-521, 526-527.
+
+=The War with Mexico.=--Elson, pp. 526-538.
+
+=The Oregon Boundary Dispute.=--Schafer, _History of the Pacific
+Northwest_ (rev. ed.), pp. 88-104; 173-185.
+
+=The Migration to Oregon.=--Schafer, pp. 105-172. Coman, _Economic
+Beginnings of the Far West_, Vol. II, pp. 113-166.
+
+=The Santa Fe Trail.=--Coman, _Economic Beginnings_, Vol. II, pp. 75-93.
+
+=The Conquest of California.=--Coman, Vol. II, pp. 297-319.
+
+=Gold in California.=--McMaster, Vol. VII, pp. 585-614.
+
+=The Mormon Migration.=--Coman, Vol. II, pp. 167-206.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Fremont, Generals Scott and Taylor, Sam
+Houston, and David Crockett.
+
+=The Romance of Western Exploration.=--J.G. Neihardt, _The Splendid
+Wayfaring_. J.G. Neihardt, _The Song of Hugh Glass_.
+
+
+
+
+PART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM
+
+
+If Jefferson could have lived to see the Stars and Stripes planted on
+the Pacific Coast, the broad empire of Texas added to the planting
+states, and the valley of the Willamette waving with wheat sown by
+farmers from New England, he would have been more than fortified in his
+faith that the future of America lay in agriculture. Even a stanch old
+Federalist like Gouverneur Morris or Josiah Quincy would have mournfully
+conceded both the prophecy and the claim. Manifest destiny never seemed
+more clearly written in the stars.
+
+As the farmers from the Northwest and planters from the Southwest poured
+in upon the floor of Congress, the party of Jefferson, christened anew
+by Jackson, grew stronger year by year. Opponents there were, no doubt,
+disgruntled critics and Whigs by conviction; but in 1852 Franklin
+Pierce, the Democratic candidate for President, carried every state in
+the union except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. This
+victory, a triumph under ordinary circumstances, was all the more
+significant in that Pierce was pitted against a hero of the Mexican War,
+General Scott, whom the Whigs, hoping to win by rousing the martial
+ardor of the voters, had nominated. On looking at the election returns,
+the new President calmly assured the planters that "the general
+principle of reduction of duties with a view to revenue may now be
+regarded as the settled policy of the country." With equal confidence,
+he waved aside those agitators who devoted themselves "to the supposed
+interests of the relatively few Africans in the United States." Like a
+watchman in the night he called to the country: "All's well."
+
+The party of Hamilton and Clay lay in the dust.
+
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
+
+As pride often goeth before a fall, so sanguine expectation is sometimes
+the symbol of defeat. Jackson destroyed the bank. Polk signed the tariff
+bill of 1846 striking an effective blow at the principle of protection
+for manufactures. Pierce promised to silence the abolitionists. His
+successor was to approve a drastic step in the direction of free trade.
+Nevertheless all these things left untouched the springs of power that
+were in due time to make America the greatest industrial nation on the
+earth; namely, vast national resources, business enterprise, inventive
+genius, and the free labor supply of Europe. Unseen by the thoughtless,
+unrecorded in the diaries of wiseacres, rarely mentioned in the speeches
+of statesmen, there was swiftly rising such a tide in the affairs of
+America as Jefferson and Hamilton never dreamed of in their little
+philosophies.
+
+=The Inventors.=--Watt and Boulton experimenting with steam in England,
+Whitney combining wood and steel into a cotton gin, Fulton and Fitch
+applying the steam engine to navigation, Stevens and Peter Cooper trying
+out the "iron horse" on "iron highways," Slater building spinning mills
+in Pawtucket, Howe attaching the needle to the flying wheel, Morse
+spanning a continent with the telegraph, Cyrus Field linking the markets
+of the new world with the old along the bed of the Atlantic, McCormick
+breaking the sickle under the reaper--these men and a thousand more were
+destroying in a mighty revolution of industry the world of the
+stagecoach and the tallow candle which Washington and Franklin had
+inherited little changed from the age of Caesar. Whitney was to make
+cotton king. Watt and Fulton were to make steel and steam masters of the
+world. Agriculture was to fall behind in the race for supremacy.
+
+=Industry Outstrips Planting.=--The story of invention, that tribute to
+the triumph of mind over matter, fascinating as a romance, need not be
+treated in detail here. The effects of invention on social and political
+life, multitudinous and never-ending, form the very warp and woof of
+American progress from the days of Andrew Jackson to the latest hour.
+Neither the great civil conflict--the clash of two systems--nor the
+problems of the modern age can be approached without an understanding of
+the striking phases of industrialism.
+
+[Illustration: A NEW ENGLAND MILL BUILT IN 1793]
+
+First and foremost among them was the uprush of mills managed by
+captains of industry and manned by labor drawn from farms, cities, and
+foreign lands. For every planter who cleared a domain in the Southwest
+and gathered his army of bondmen about him, there rose in the North a
+magician of steam and steel who collected under his roof an army of free
+workers.
+
+In seven league boots this new giant strode ahead of the Southern giant.
+Between 1850 and 1859, to use dollars and cents as the measure of
+progress, the value of domestic manufactures including mines and
+fisheries rose from $1,019,106,616 to $1,900,000,000, an increase of
+eighty-six per cent in ten years. In this same period the total
+production of naval stores, rice, sugar, tobacco, and cotton, the
+staples of the South, went only from $165,000,000, in round figures, to
+$204,000,000. At the halfway point of the century, the capital invested
+in industry, commerce, and cities far exceeded the value of all the farm
+land between the Atlantic and the Pacific; thus the course of economy
+had been reversed in fifty years. Tested by figures of production, King
+Cotton had shriveled by 1860 to a petty prince in comparison, for each
+year the captains of industry turned out goods worth nearly twenty times
+all the bales of cotton picked on Southern plantations. Iron, boots and
+shoes, and leather goods pouring from Northern mills surpassed in value
+the entire cotton output.
+
+=The Agrarian West Turns to Industry.=--Nor was this vast enterprise
+confined to the old Northeast where, as Madison had sagely remarked,
+commerce was early dominant. "Cincinnati," runs an official report in
+1854, "appears to be a great central depot for ready-made clothing and
+its manufacture for the Western markets may be said to be one of the
+great trades of that city." There, wrote another traveler, "I heard the
+crack of the cattle driver's whip and the hum of the factory: the West
+and the East meeting." Louisville and St. Louis were already famous for
+their clothing trades and the manufacture of cotton bagging. Five
+hundred of the two thousand woolen mills in the country in 1860 were in
+the Western states. Of the output of flour and grist mills, which almost
+reached in value the cotton crop of 1850, the Ohio Valley furnished a
+rapidly growing share. The old home of Jacksonian democracy, where
+Federalists had been almost as scarce as monarchists, turned slowly
+backward, as the needle to the pole, toward the principle of protection
+for domestic industry, espoused by Hamilton and defended by Clay.
+
+=The Extension of Canals and Railways.=--As necessary to mechanical
+industry as steel and steam power was the great market, spread over a
+wide and diversified area and knit together by efficient means of
+transportation. This service was supplied to industry by the steamship,
+which began its career on the Hudson in 1807; by the canals, of which
+the Erie opened in 1825 was the most noteworthy; and by the railways,
+which came into practical operation about 1830.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+AN EARLY RAILWAY]
+
+With sure instinct the Eastern manufacturer reached out for the markets
+of the Northwest territory where free farmers were producing annually
+staggering crops of corn, wheat, bacon, and wool. The two great canal
+systems--the Erie connecting New York City with the waterways of the
+Great Lakes and the Pennsylvania chain linking Philadelphia with the
+headwaters of the Ohio--gradually turned the tide of trade from New
+Orleans to the Eastern seaboard. The railways followed the same paths.
+By 1860, New York had rail connections with Chicago and St. Louis, one
+of the routes running through the Hudson and Mohawk valleys and along
+the Great Lakes, the other through Philadelphia and Pennsylvania and
+across the rich wheat fields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Baltimore,
+not to be outdone by her two rivals, reached out over the mountains for
+the Western trade and in 1857 had trains running into St. Louis.
+
+In railway enterprise the South took more interest than in canals, and
+the friends of that section came to its aid. To offset the magnet
+drawing trade away from the Mississippi Valley, lines were built from
+the Gulf to Chicago, the Illinois Central part of the project being a
+monument to the zeal and industry of a Democrat, better known in
+politics than in business, Stephen A. Douglas. The swift movement of
+cotton and tobacco to the North or to seaports was of common concern to
+planters and manufacturers. Accordingly lines were flung down along the
+Southern coast, linking Richmond, Charleston, and Savannah with the
+Northern markets. Other lines struck inland from the coast, giving a
+rail outlet to the sea for Raleigh, Columbia, Atlanta, Chattanooga,
+Nashville, and Montgomery. Nevertheless, in spite of this enterprise,
+the mileage of all the Southern states in 1860 did not equal that of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois combined.
+
+=Banking and Finance.=--Out of commerce and manufactures and the
+construction and operation of railways came such an accumulation of
+capital in the Northern states as merchants of old never imagined. The
+banks of the four industrial states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New
+York, and Pennsylvania in 1860 had funds greater than the banks in all
+the other states combined. New York City had become the money market of
+America, the center to which industrial companies, railway promoters,
+farmers, and planters turned for capital to initiate and carry on their
+operations. The banks of Louisiana, South Carolina, Georgia, and
+Virginia, it is true, had capital far in excess of the banks of the
+Northwest; but still they were relatively small compared with the
+financial institutions of the East.
+
+=The Growth of the Industrial Population.=--A revolution of such
+magnitude in industry, transport, and finance, overturning as it did the
+agrarian civilization of the old Northwest and reaching out to the very
+borders of the country, could not fail to bring in its train
+consequences of a striking character. Some were immediate and obvious.
+Others require a fullness of time not yet reached to reveal their
+complete significance. Outstanding among them was the growth of an
+industrial population, detached from the land, concentrated in cities,
+and, to use Jefferson's phrase, dependent upon "the caprices and
+casualties of trade" for a livelihood. This was a result, as the great
+Virginian had foreseen, which flowed inevitably from public and private
+efforts to stimulate industry as against agriculture.
+
+[Illustration: LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS, IN 1838, AN EARLY INDUSTRIAL
+TOWN]
+
+It was estimated in 1860, on the basis of the census figures, that
+mechanical production gave employment to 1,100,000 men and 285,000
+women, making, if the average number of dependents upon them be
+reckoned, nearly six million people or about one-sixth of the population
+of the country sustained from manufactures. "This," runs the official
+record, "was exclusive of the number engaged in the production of many
+of the raw materials and of the food for manufacturers; in the
+distribution of their products, such as merchants, clerks, draymen,
+mariners, the employees of railroads, expresses, and steamboats; of
+capitalists, various artistic and professional classes, as well as
+carpenters, bricklayers, painters, and the members of other mechanical
+trades not classed as manufactures. It is safe to assume, then, that
+one-third of the whole population is supported, directly, or indirectly,
+by manufacturing industry." Taking, however, the number of persons
+directly supported by manufactures, namely about six millions, reveals
+the astounding fact that the white laboring population, divorced from
+the soil, already exceeded the number of slaves on Southern farms and
+plantations.
+
+_Immigration._--The more carefully the rapid growth of the industrial
+population is examined, the more surprising is the fact that such an
+immense body of free laborers could be found, particularly when it is
+recalled to what desperate straits the colonial leaders were put in
+securing immigrants,--slavery, indentured servitude, and kidnapping
+being the fruits of their necessities. The answer to the enigma is to be
+found partly in European conditions and partly in the cheapness of
+transportation after the opening of the era of steam navigation. Shrewd
+observers of the course of events had long foreseen that a flood of
+cheap labor was bound to come when the way was made easy. Some, among
+them Chief Justice Ellsworth, went so far as to prophesy that white
+labor would in time be so abundant that slavery would disappear as the
+more costly of the two labor systems. The processes of nature were aided
+by the policies of government in England and Germany.
+
+_The Coming of the Irish._--The opposition of the Irish people to the
+English government, ever furious and irrepressible, was increased in the
+mid forties by an almost total failure of the potato crop, the main
+support of the peasants. Catholic in religion, they had been compelled
+to support a Protestant church. Tillers of the soil by necessity, they
+were forced to pay enormous tributes to absentee landlords in England
+whose claim to their estates rested upon the title of conquest and
+confiscation. Intensely loyal to their race, the Irish were subjected in
+all things to the Parliament at London, in which their small minority of
+representatives had little influence save in holding a balance of power
+between the two contending English parties. To the constant political
+irritation, the potato famine added physical distress beyond
+description. In cottages and fields and along the highways the victims
+of starvation lay dead by the hundreds, the relief which charity
+afforded only bringing misery more sharply to the foreground. Those who
+were fortunate enough to secure passage money sought escape to America.
+In 1844 the total immigration into the United States was less than
+eighty thousand; in 1850 it had risen by leaps and bounds to more than
+three hundred thousand. Between 1820 and 1860 the immigrants from the
+United Kingdom numbered 2,750,000, of whom more than one-half were
+Irish. It has been said with a touch of exaggeration that the American
+canals and railways of those days were built by the labor of Irishmen.
+
+_The German Migration._--To political discontent and economic distress,
+such as was responsible for the coming of the Irish, may likewise be
+traced the source of the Germanic migration. The potato blight that fell
+upon Ireland visited the Rhine Valley and Southern Germany at the same
+time with results as pitiful, if less extensive. The calamity inflicted
+by nature was followed shortly by another inflicted by the despotic
+conduct of German kings and princes. In 1848 there had occurred
+throughout Europe a popular uprising in behalf of republics and
+democratic government. For a time it rode on a full tide of success.
+Kings were overthrown, or compelled to promise constitutional
+government, and tyrannical ministers fled from their palaces. Then came
+reaction. Those who had championed the popular cause were imprisoned,
+shot, or driven out of the land. Men of attainments and distinction,
+whose sole offense was opposition to the government of kings and
+princes, sought an asylum in America, carrying with them to the land of
+their adoption the spirit of liberty and democracy. In 1847 over fifty
+thousand Germans came to America, the forerunners of a migration that
+increased, almost steadily, for many years. The record of 1860 showed
+that in the previous twenty years nearly a million and a half had found
+homes in the United States. Far and wide they scattered, from the mills
+and shops of the seacoast towns to the uttermost frontiers of Wisconsin
+and Minnesota.
+
+_The Labor of Women and Children._--If the industries, canals, and
+railways of the country were largely manned by foreign labor, still
+important native sources must not be overlooked; above all, the women
+and children of the New England textile districts. Spinning and weaving,
+by a tradition that runs far beyond the written records of mankind,
+belonged to women. Indeed it was the dexterous housewives, spinsters,
+and boys and girls that laid the foundations of the textile industry in
+America, foundations upon which the mechanical revolution was built. As
+the wheel and loom were taken out of the homes to the factories operated
+by water power or the steam engine, the women and, to use Hamilton's
+phrase, "the children of tender years," followed as a matter of course.
+"The cotton manufacture alone employs six thousand persons in Lowell,"
+wrote a French observer in 1836; "of this number nearly five thousand
+are young women from seventeen to twenty-four years of age, the
+daughters of farmers from the different New England states." It was not
+until after the middle of the century that foreign lands proved to be
+the chief source from which workers were recruited for the factories of
+New England. It was then that the daughters of the Puritans, outdone by
+the competition of foreign labor, both of men and women, left the
+spinning jenny and the loom to other hands.
+
+=The Rise of Organized Labor.=--The changing conditions of American
+life, marked by the spreading mill towns of New England, New York, and
+Pennsylvania and the growth of cities like Buffalo, Cincinnati,
+Louisville, St. Louis, Detroit, and Chicago in the West, naturally
+brought changes, as Jefferson had prophesied, in "manners and morals." A
+few mechanics, smiths, carpenters, and masons, widely scattered through
+farming regions and rural villages, raise no such problems as tens of
+thousands of workers collected in one center in daily intercourse,
+learning the power of cooeperation and union.
+
+Even before the coming of steam and machinery, in the "good old days" of
+handicrafts, laborers in many trades--printers, shoemakers, carpenters,
+for example--had begun to draw together in the towns for the advancement
+of their interests in the form of higher wages, shorter days, and
+milder laws. The shoemakers of Philadelphia, organized in 1794,
+conducted a strike in 1799 and held together until indicted seven years
+later for conspiracy. During the twenties and thirties, local labor
+unions sprang up in all industrial centers and they led almost
+immediately to city federations of the several crafts.
+
+As the thousands who were dependent upon their daily labor for their
+livelihood mounted into the millions and industries spread across the
+continent, the local unions of craftsmen grew into national craft
+organizations bound together by the newspapers, the telegraph, and the
+railways. Before 1860 there were several such national trade unions,
+including the plumbers, printers, mule spinners, iron molders, and stone
+cutters. All over the North labor leaders arose--men unknown to general
+history but forceful and resourceful characters who forged links binding
+scattered and individual workers into a common brotherhood. An attempt
+was even made in 1834 to federate all the crafts into a permanent
+national organization; but it perished within three years through lack
+of support. Half a century had to elapse before the American Federation
+of Labor was to accomplish this task.
+
+All the manifestations of the modern labor movement had appeared, in
+germ at least, by the time the mid-century was reached: unions, labor
+leaders, strikes, a labor press, a labor political program, and a labor
+political party. In every great city industrial disputes were a common
+occurrence. The papers recorded about four hundred in two years,
+1853-54, local affairs but forecasting economic struggles in a larger
+field. The labor press seems to have begun with the founding of the
+_Mechanics' Free Press_ in Philadelphia in 1828 and the establishment of
+the New York _Workingman's Advocate_ shortly afterward. These
+semi-political papers were in later years followed by regular trade
+papers designed to weld together and advance the interests of particular
+crafts. Edited by able leaders, these little sheets with limited
+circulation wielded an enormous influence in the ranks of the workers.
+
+=Labor and Politics.=--As for the political program of labor, the main
+planks were clear and specific: the abolition of imprisonment for debt,
+manhood suffrage in states where property qualifications still
+prevailed, free and universal education, laws protecting the safety and
+health of workers in mills and factories, abolition of lotteries, repeal
+of laws requiring militia service, and free land in the West.
+
+Into the labor papers and platforms there sometimes crept a note of
+hostility to the masters of industry, a sign of bitterness that excited
+little alarm while cheap land in the West was open to the discontented.
+The Philadelphia workmen, in issuing a call for a local convention,
+invited "all those of our fellow citizens who live by their own labor
+and none other." In Newcastle county, Delaware, the association of
+working people complained in 1830: "The poor have no laws; the laws are
+made by the rich and of course for the rich." Here and there an
+extremist went to the length of advocating an equal division of wealth
+among all the people--the crudest kind of communism.
+
+Agitation of this character produced in labor circles profound distrust
+of both Whigs and Democrats who talked principally about tariffs and
+banks; it resulted in attempts to found independent labor parties. In
+Philadelphia, Albany, New York City, and New England, labor candidates
+were put up for elections in the early thirties and in a few cases were
+victorious at the polls. "The balance of power has at length got into
+the hands of the working people, where it properly belongs,"
+triumphantly exclaimed the _Mechanics' Free Press_ of Philadelphia in
+1829. But the triumph was illusory. Dissensions appeared in the labor
+ranks. The old party leaders, particularly of Tammany Hall, the
+Democratic party organization in New York City, offered concessions to
+labor in return for votes. Newspapers unsparingly denounced "trade union
+politicians" as "demagogues," "levellers," and "rag, tag, and bobtail";
+and some of them, deeming labor unrest the sour fruit of manhood
+suffrage, suggested disfranchisement as a remedy. Under the influence
+of concessions and attacks the political fever quickly died away, and
+the end of the decade left no remnant of the labor political parties.
+Labor leaders turned to a task which seemed more substantial and
+practical, that of organizing workingmen into craft unions for the
+definite purpose of raising wages and reducing hours.
+
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+=Southern Plans for Union with the West.=--It was long the design of
+Southern statesmen like Calhoun to hold the West and the South together
+in one political party. The theory on which they based their hope was
+simple. Both sections were agricultural--the producers of raw materials
+and the buyers of manufactured goods. The planters were heavy purchasers
+of Western bacon, pork, mules, and grain. The Mississippi River and its
+tributaries formed the natural channel for the transportation of heavy
+produce southward to the plantations and outward to Europe. Therefore,
+ran their political reasoning, the interests of the two sections were
+one. By standing together in favor of low tariffs, they could buy their
+manufactures cheaply in Europe and pay for them in cotton, tobacco, and
+grain. The union of the two sections under Jackson's management seemed
+perfect.
+
+=The East Forms Ties with the West.=--Eastern leaders were not blind to
+the ambitions of Southern statesmen. On the contrary, they also
+recognized the importance of forming strong ties with the agrarian West
+and drawing the produce of the Ohio Valley to Philadelphia and New York.
+The canals and railways were the physical signs of this economic union,
+and the results, commercial and political, were soon evident. By the
+middle of the century, Southern economists noted the change, one of
+them, De Bow, lamenting that "the great cities of the North have
+severally penetrated the interior with artificial lines until they have
+taken from the open and untaxed current of the Mississippi the commerce
+produced on its borders." To this writer it was an astounding thing to
+behold "the number of steamers that now descend the upper Mississippi
+River, loaded to the guards with produce, as far as the mouth of the
+Illinois River and then turn up that stream with their cargoes to be
+shipped to New York _via_ Chicago. The Illinois canal has not only swept
+the whole produce along the line of the Illinois River to the East, but
+it is drawing the products of the upper Mississippi through the same
+channel; thus depriving New Orleans and St. Louis of a rich portion of
+their former trade."
+
+If to any shippers the broad current of the great river sweeping down to
+New Orleans offered easier means of physical communication to the sea
+than the canals and railways, the difference could be overcome by the
+credit which Eastern bankers were able to extend to the grain and
+produce buyers, in the first instance, and through them to the farmers
+on the soil. The acute Southern observer just quoted, De Bow, admitted
+with evident regret, in 1852, that "last autumn, the rich regions of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were flooded with the local bank notes of
+the Eastern States, advanced by the New York houses on produce to be
+shipped by way of the canals in the spring.... These moneyed facilities
+enable the packer, miller, and speculator to hold on to their produce
+until the opening of navigation in the spring and they are no longer
+obliged, as formerly, to hurry off their shipments during the winter by
+the way of New Orleans in order to realize funds by drafts on their
+shipments. The banking facilities at the East are doing as much to draw
+trade from us as the canals and railways which Eastern capital is
+constructing." Thus canals, railways, and financial credit were swiftly
+forging bonds of union between the old home of Jacksonian Democracy in
+the West and the older home of Federalism in the East. The nationalism
+to which Webster paid eloquent tribute became more and more real with
+the passing of time. The self-sufficiency of the pioneer was broken down
+as he began to watch the produce markets of New York and Philadelphia
+where the prices of corn and hogs fixed his earnings for the year.
+
+=The West and Manufactures.=--In addition to the commercial bonds
+between the East and the West there was growing up a common interest in
+manufactures. As skilled white labor increased in the Ohio Valley, the
+industries springing up in the new cities made Western life more like
+that of the industrial East than like that of the planting South.
+Moreover, the Western states produced some important raw materials for
+American factories, which called for protection against foreign
+competition, notably, wool, hemp, and flax. As the South had little or
+no foreign competition in cotton and tobacco, the East could not offer
+protection for her raw materials in exchange for protection for
+industries. With the West, however, it became possible to establish
+reciprocity in tariffs; that is, for example, to trade a high rate on
+wool for a high rate on textiles or iron.
+
+=The South Dependent on the North.=--While East and West were drawing
+together, the distinctions between North and South were becoming more
+marked; the latter, having few industries and producing little save raw
+materials, was being forced into the position of a dependent section. As
+a result of the protective tariff, Southern planters were compelled to
+turn more and more to Northern mills for their cloth, shoes, hats, hoes,
+plows, and machinery. Nearly all the goods which they bought in Europe
+in exchange for their produce came overseas to Northern ports, whence
+transshipments were made by rail and water to Southern points of
+distribution. Their rice, cotton, and tobacco, in as far as they were
+not carried to Europe in British bottoms, were transported by Northern
+masters. In these ways, a large part of the financial operations
+connected with the sale of Southern produce and the purchase of goods in
+exchange passed into the hands of Northern merchants and bankers who,
+naturally, made profits from their transactions. Finally, Southern
+planters who wanted to buy more land and more slaves on credit borrowed
+heavily in the North where huge accumulations made the rates of interest
+lower than the smaller banks of the South could afford.
+
+=The South Reckons the Cost of Economic Dependence.=--As Southern
+dependence upon Northern capital became more and more marked, Southern
+leaders began to chafe at what they regarded as restraints laid upon
+their enterprise. In a word, they came to look upon the planter as a
+tribute-bearer to the manufacturer and financier. "The South,"
+expostulated De Bow, "stands in the attitude of feeding ... a vast
+population of [Northern] merchants, shipowners, capitalists, and others
+who, without claims on her progeny, drink up the life blood of her
+trade.... Where goes the value of our labor but to those who, taking
+advantage of our folly, ship for us, buy for us, sell to us, and, after
+turning our own capital to their profitable account, return laden with
+our money to enjoy their easily earned opulence at home."
+
+Southern statisticians, not satisfied with generalities, attempted to
+figure out how great was this tribute in dollars and cents. They
+estimated that the planters annually lent to Northern merchants the full
+value of their exports, a hundred millions or more, "to be used in the
+manipulation of foreign imports." They calculated that no less than
+forty millions all told had been paid to shipowners in profits. They
+reckoned that, if the South were to work up her own cotton, she would
+realize from seventy to one hundred millions a year that otherwise went
+North. Finally, to cap the climax, they regretted that planters spent
+some fifteen millions a year pleasure-seeking in the alluring cities and
+summer resorts of the North.
+
+=Southern Opposition to Northern Policies.=--Proceeding from these
+premises, Southern leaders drew the logical conclusion that the entire
+program of economic measures demanded in the North was without exception
+adverse to Southern interests and, by a similar chain of reasoning,
+injurious to the corn and wheat producers of the West. Cheap labor
+afforded by free immigration, a protective tariff raising prices of
+manufactures for the tiller of the soil, ship subsidies increasing the
+tonnage of carrying trade in Northern hands, internal improvements
+forging new economic bonds between the East and the West, a national
+banking system giving strict national control over the currency as a
+safeguard against paper inflation--all these devices were regarded in
+the South as contrary to the planting interest. They were constantly
+compared with the restrictive measures by which Great Britain more than
+half a century before had sought to bind American interests.
+
+As oppression justified a war for independence once, statesmen argued,
+so it can justify it again. "It is curious as it is melancholy and
+distressing," came a broad hint from South Carolina, "to see how
+striking is the analogy between the colonial vassalage to which the
+manufacturing states have reduced the planting states and that which
+formerly bound the Anglo-American colonies to the British empire....
+England said to her American colonies: 'You shall not trade with the
+rest of the world for such manufactures as are produced in the mother
+country.' The manufacturing states say to their Southern colonies: 'You
+shall not trade with the rest of the world for such manufactures as we
+produce.'" The conclusion was inexorable: either the South must control
+the national government and its economic measures, or it must declare,
+as America had done four score years before, its political and economic
+independence. As Northern mills multiplied, as railways spun their
+mighty web over the face of the North, and as accumulated capital rose
+into the hundreds of millions, the conviction of the planters and their
+statesmen deepened into desperation.
+
+=Efforts to Start Southern Industries Fail.=--A few of them, seeing the
+predominance of the North, made determined efforts to introduce
+manufactures into the South. To the leaders who were averse to secession
+and nullification this seemed the only remedy for the growing disparity
+in the power of the two sections. Societies for the encouragement of
+mechanical industries were formed, the investment of capital was sought,
+and indeed a few mills were built on Southern soil. The results were
+meager. The natural resources, coal and water power, were abundant; but
+the enterprise for direction and the skilled labor were wanting. The
+stream of European immigration flowed North and West, not South. The
+Irish or German laborer, even if he finally made his home in a city, had
+before him, while in the North, the alternative of a homestead on
+Western land. To him slavery was a strange, if not a repelling,
+institution. He did not take to it kindly nor care to fix his home where
+it flourished. While slavery lasted, the economy of the South was
+inevitably agricultural. While agriculture predominated, leadership with
+equal necessity fell to the planting interest. While the planting
+interest ruled, political opposition to Northern economy was destined to
+grow in strength.
+
+=The Southern Theory of Sectionalism.=--In the opinion of the statesmen
+who frankly represented the planting interest, the industrial system was
+its deadly enemy. Their entire philosophy of American politics was
+summed up in a single paragraph by McDuffie, a spokesman for South
+Carolina: "Owing to the federative character of our government, the
+great geographical extent of our territory, and the diversity of the
+pursuits of our citizens in different parts of the union, it has so
+happened that two great interests have sprung up, standing directly
+opposed to each other. One of these consists of those manufactures which
+the Northern and Middle states are capable of producing but which, owing
+to the high price of labor and the high profits of capital in those
+states, cannot hold competition with foreign manufactures without the
+aid of bounties, directly or indirectly given, either by the general
+government or by the state governments. The other of these interests
+consists of the great agricultural staples of the Southern states which
+can find a market only in foreign countries and which can be
+advantageously sold only in exchange for foreign manufactures which come
+in competition with those of the Northern and Middle states.... These
+interests then stand diametrically and irreconcilably opposed to each
+other. The interest, the pecuniary interest of the Northern
+manufacturer, is directly promoted by every increase of the taxes
+imposed upon Southern commerce; and it is unnecessary to add that the
+interest of the Southern planter is promoted by every diminution of
+taxes imposed upon the productions of their industry. If, under these
+circumstances, the manufacturers were clothed with the power of imposing
+taxes, at their pleasure, upon the foreign imports of the planter, no
+doubt would exist in the mind of any man that it would have all the
+characteristics of an absolute and unqualified despotism." The economic
+soundness of this reasoning, a subject of interesting speculation for
+the economist, is of little concern to the historian. The historical
+point is that this opinion was widely held in the South and with the
+progress of time became the prevailing doctrine of the planting
+statesmen.
+
+Their antagonism was deepened because they also became convinced, on
+what grounds it is not necessary to inquire, that the leaders of the
+industrial interest thus opposed to planting formed a consolidated
+"aristocracy of wealth," bent upon the pursuit and attainment of
+political power at Washington. "By the aid of various associated
+interests," continued McDuffie, "the manufacturing capitalists have
+obtained a complete and permanent control over the legislation of
+Congress on this subject [the tariff].... Men confederated together upon
+selfish and interested principles, whether in pursuit of the offices or
+the bounties of the government, are ever more active and vigilant than
+the great majority who act from disinterested and patriotic impulses.
+Have we not witnessed it on this floor, sir? Who ever knew the tariff
+men to divide on any question affecting their confederated interests?...
+The watchword is, stick together, right or wrong upon every question
+affecting the common cause. Such, sir, is the concert and vigilance and
+such the combinations by which the manufacturing party, acting upon the
+interests of some and the prejudices of others, have obtained a decided
+and permanent control over public opinion in all the tariff states."
+Thus, as the Southern statesman would have it, the North, in matters
+affecting national policies, was ruled by a "confederated interest"
+which menaced the planting interest. As the former grew in magnitude and
+attached to itself the free farmers of the West through channels of
+trade and credit, it followed as night the day that in time the planters
+would be overshadowed and at length overborne in the struggle of giants.
+Whether the theory was sound or not, Southern statesmen believed it and
+acted upon it.
+
+
+=References=
+
+M. Beard, _Short History of the American Labor Movement_.
+
+E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_.
+
+J.R. Commons, _History of Labour in the United States_ (2 vols.).
+
+E.R. Johnson, _American Railway Transportation_.
+
+C.D. Wright, _Industrial Evolution of the United States_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What signs pointed to a complete Democratic triumph in 1852?
+
+2. What is the explanation of the extraordinary industrial progress of
+America?
+
+3. Compare the planting system with the factory system.
+
+4. In what sections did industry flourish before the Civil War? Why?
+
+5. Show why transportation is so vital to modern industry and
+agriculture.
+
+6. Explain how it was possible to secure so many people to labor in
+American industries.
+
+7. Trace the steps in the rise of organized labor before 1860.
+
+8. What political and economic reforms did labor demand?
+
+9. Why did the East and the South seek closer ties with the West?
+
+10. Describe the economic forces which were drawing the East and the
+West together.
+
+11. In what way was the South economically dependent upon the North?
+
+12 State the national policies generally favored in the North and
+condemned in the South.
+
+13. Show how economic conditions in the South were unfavorable to
+industry.
+
+14. Give the Southern explanation of the antagonism between the North
+and the South.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Inventions.=--Assign one to each student. Satisfactory accounts are
+to be found in any good encyclopedia, especially the Britannica.
+
+=River and Lake Commerce.=--Callender, _Economic History of the United
+States_, pp. 313-326.
+
+=Railways and Canals.=--Callender, pp. 326-344; 359-387. Coman,
+_Industrial History of the United States_, pp. 216-225.
+
+=The Growth of Industry, 1815-1840.=--Callender, pp. 459-471. From 1850
+to 1860, Callender, pp. 471-486.
+
+=Early Labor Conditions.=--Callender, pp. 701-718.
+
+=Early Immigration.=--Callender, pp. 719-732.
+
+=Clay's Home Market Theory of the Tariff.=--Callender, pp. 498-503.
+
+=The New England View of the Tariff.=--Callender, pp. 503-514.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+
+James Madison, the father of the federal Constitution, after he had
+watched for many days the battle royal in the national convention of
+1787, exclaimed that the contest was not between the large and the small
+states, but between the commercial North and the planting South. From
+the inauguration of Washington to the election of Lincoln the sectional
+conflict, discerned by this penetrating thinker, exercised a profound
+influence on the course of American politics. It was latent during the
+"era of good feeling" when the Jeffersonian Republicans adopted
+Federalist policies; it flamed up in the contest between the Democrats
+and Whigs. Finally it raged in the angry political quarrel which
+culminated in the Civil War.
+
+
+SLAVERY--NORTH AND SOUTH
+
+=The Decline of Slavery in the North.=--At the time of the adoption of
+the Constitution, slavery was lawful in all the Northern states except
+Massachusetts. There were almost as many bondmen in New York as in
+Georgia. New Jersey had more than Delaware or Tennessee, indeed nearly
+as many as both combined. All told, however, there were only about forty
+thousand in the North as against nearly seven hundred thousand in the
+South. Moreover, most of the Northern slaves were domestic servants, not
+laborers necessary to keep mills going or fields under cultivation.
+
+There was, in the North, a steadily growing moral sentiment against the
+system. Massachusetts abandoned it in 1780. In the same year,
+Pennsylvania provided for gradual emancipation. New Hampshire, where
+there had been only a handful, Connecticut with a few thousand
+domestics, and New Jersey early followed these examples. New York, in
+1799, declared that all children born of slaves after July 4 of that
+year should be free, though held for a term as apprentices; and in 1827
+it swept away the last vestiges of slavery. So with the passing of the
+generation that had framed the Constitution, chattel servitude
+disappeared in the commercial states, leaving behind only such
+discriminations as disfranchisement or high property qualifications on
+colored voters.
+
+=The Growth of Northern Sentiment against Slavery.=--In both sections of
+the country there early existed, among those more or less
+philosophically inclined, a strong opposition to slavery on moral as
+well as economic grounds. In the constitutional convention of 1787,
+Gouverneur Morris had vigorously condemned it and proposed that the
+whole country should bear the cost of abolishing it. About the same time
+a society for promoting the abolition of slavery, under the presidency
+of Benjamin Franklin, laid before Congress a petition that serious
+attention be given to the emancipation of "those unhappy men who alone
+in this land of freedom are degraded into perpetual bondage." When
+Congress, acting on the recommendations of President Jefferson, provided
+for the abolition of the foreign slave trade on January 1, 1808, several
+Northern members joined with Southern members in condemning the system
+as well as the trade. Later, colonization societies were formed to
+encourage the emancipation of slaves and their return to Africa. James
+Madison was president and Henry Clay vice president of such an
+organization.
+
+The anti-slavery sentiment of which these were the signs was
+nevertheless confined to narrow circles and bore no trace of bitterness.
+"We consider slavery your calamity, not your crime," wrote a
+distinguished Boston clergyman to his Southern brethren, "and we will
+share with you the burden of putting an end to it. We will consent that
+the public lands shall be appropriated to this object.... I deprecate
+everything which sows discord and exasperating sectional animosities."
+
+=Uncompromising Abolition.=--In a little while the spirit of generosity
+was gone. Just as Jacksonian Democracy rose to power there appeared a
+new kind of anti-slavery doctrine--the dogmatism of the abolition
+agitator. For mild speculation on the evils of the system was
+substituted an imperious and belligerent demand for instant
+emancipation. If a date must be fixed for its appearance, the year 1831
+may be taken when William Lloyd Garrison founded in Boston his
+anti-slavery paper, _The Liberator_. With singleness of purpose and
+utter contempt for all opposing opinions and arguments, he pursued his
+course of passionate denunciation. He apologized for having ever
+"assented to the popular but pernicious doctrine of gradual abolition."
+He chose for his motto: "Immediate and unconditional emancipation!" He
+promised his readers that he would be "harsh as truth and uncompromising
+as justice"; that he would not "think or speak or write with
+moderation." Then he flung out his defiant call: "I am in earnest--I
+will not equivocate--I will not excuse--I will not retreat a single
+inch--and I will be heard....
+
+     'Such is the vow I take, so help me God.'"
+
+Though Garrison complained that "the apathy of the people is enough to
+make every statue leap from its pedestal," he soon learned how alive the
+masses were to the meaning of his propaganda. Abolition orators were
+stoned in the street and hissed from the platform. Their meeting places
+were often attacked and sometimes burned to the ground. Garrison himself
+was assaulted in the streets of Boston, finding refuge from the angry
+mob behind prison bars. Lovejoy, a publisher in Alton, Illinois, for his
+willingness to give abolition a fair hearing, was brutally murdered; his
+printing press was broken to pieces as a warning to all those who
+disturbed the nation's peace of mind. The South, doubly frightened by a
+slave revolt in 1831 which ended in the murder of a number of men,
+women, and children, closed all discussion of slavery in that section.
+"Now," exclaimed Calhoun, "it is a question which admits of neither
+concession nor compromise."
+
+As the opposition hardened, the anti-slavery agitation gathered in force
+and intensity. Whittier blew his blast from the New England hills:
+
+    "No slave-hunt in our borders--no pirate on our strand;
+     No fetters in the Bay State--no slave upon our land."
+
+Lowell, looking upon the espousal of a great cause as the noblest aim of
+his art, ridiculed and excoriated bondage in the South. Those
+abolitionists, not gifted as speakers or writers, signed petitions
+against slavery and poured them in upon Congress. The flood of them was
+so continuous that the House of Representatives, forgetting its
+traditions, adopted in 1836 a "gag rule" which prevented the reading of
+appeals and consigned them to the waste basket. Not until the Whigs were
+in power nearly ten years later was John Quincy Adams able, after a
+relentless campaign, to carry a motion rescinding the rule.
+
+How deep was the impression made upon the country by this agitation for
+immediate and unconditional emancipation cannot be measured. If the
+popular vote for those candidates who opposed not slavery, but its
+extension to the territories, be taken as a standard, it was slight
+indeed. In 1844, the Free Soil candidate, Birney, polled 62,000 votes
+out of over a million and a half; the Free Soil vote of the next
+campaign went beyond a quarter of a million, but the increase was due to
+the strength of the leader, Martin Van Buren; four years afterward it
+receded to 156,000, affording all the outward signs for the belief that
+the pleas of the abolitionist found no widespread response among the
+people. Yet the agitation undoubtedly ran deeper than the ballot box.
+Young statesmen of the North, in whose hands the destiny of frightful
+years was to lie, found their indifference to slavery broken and their
+consciences stirred by the unending appeal and the tireless reiteration.
+Charles Sumner afterward boasted that he read the _Liberator_ two years
+before Wendell Phillips, the young Boston lawyer who cast aside his
+profession to take up the dangerous cause.
+
+=Early Southern Opposition to Slavery.=--In the South, the sentiment
+against slavery was strong; it led some to believe that it would also
+come to an end there in due time. Washington disliked it and directed in
+his will that his own slaves should be set free after the death of his
+wife. Jefferson, looking into the future, condemned the system by which
+he also lived, saying: "Can the liberties of a nation be thought secure
+when we have removed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of
+the people that their liberties are the gift of God? Are they not to be
+violated but with His wrath? Indeed I tremble for my country when I
+reflect that God is just; that His justice cannot sleep forever." Nor
+did Southern men confine their sentiments to expressions of academic
+opinion. They accepted in 1787 the Ordinance which excluded slavery from
+the Northwest territory forever and also the Missouri Compromise, which
+shut it out of a vast section of the Louisiana territory.
+
+=The Revolution in the Slave System.=--Among the representatives of
+South Carolina and Georgia, however, the anti-slavery views of
+Washington and Jefferson were by no means approved; and the drift of
+Southern economy was decidedly in favor of extending and perpetuating,
+rather than abolishing, the system of chattel servitude. The invention
+of the cotton gin and textile machinery created a market for cotton
+which the planters, with all their skill and energy, could hardly
+supply. Almost every available acre was brought under cotton culture as
+the small farmers were driven steadily from the seaboard into the
+uplands or to the Northwest.
+
+The demand for slaves to till the swiftly expanding fields was enormous.
+The number of bondmen rose from 700,000 in Washington's day to more than
+three millions in 1850. At the same time slavery itself was transformed.
+Instead of the homestead where the same family of masters kept the same
+families of slaves from generation to generation, came the plantation
+system of the Far South and Southwest where masters were ever moving and
+ever extending their holdings of lands and slaves. This in turn reacted
+on the older South where the raising of slaves for the market became a
+regular and highly profitable business.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+JOHN C. CALHOUN]
+
+=Slavery Defended as a Positive Good.=--As the abolition agitation
+increased and the planting system expanded, apologies for slavery became
+fainter and fainter in the South. Then apologies were superseded by
+claims that slavery was a beneficial scheme of labor control. Calhoun,
+in a famous speech in the Senate in 1837, sounded the new note by
+declaring slavery "instead of an evil, a good--a positive good." His
+reasoning was as follows: in every civilized society one portion of the
+community must live on the labor of another; learning, science, and the
+arts are built upon leisure; the African slave, kindly treated by his
+master and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than
+the free laborers of Europe; and under the slave system conflicts
+between capital and labor are avoided. The advantages of slavery in this
+respect, he concluded, "will become more and more manifest, if left
+undisturbed by interference from without, as the country advances in
+wealth and numbers."
+
+=Slave Owners Dominate Politics.=--The new doctrine of Calhoun was
+eagerly seized by the planters as they came more and more to overshadow
+the small farmers of the South and as they beheld the menace of
+abolition growing upon the horizon. It formed, as they viewed matters, a
+moral defense for their labor system--sound, logical, invincible. It
+warranted them in drawing together for the protection of an institution
+so necessary, so inevitable, so beneficent.
+
+Though in 1850 the slave owners were only about three hundred and fifty
+thousand in a national population of nearly twenty million whites, they
+had an influence all out of proportion to their numbers. They were knit
+together by the bonds of a common interest. They had leisure and wealth.
+They could travel and attend conferences and conventions. Throughout the
+South and largely in the North, they had the press, the schools, and the
+pulpits on their side. They formed, as it were, a mighty union for the
+protection and advancement of their common cause. Aided by those
+mechanics and farmers of the North who stuck by Jacksonian Democracy
+through thick and thin, the planters became a power in the federal
+government. "We nominate Presidents," exultantly boasted a Richmond
+newspaper; "the North elects them."
+
+This jubilant Southern claim was conceded by William H. Seward, a
+Republican Senator from New York, in a speech describing the power of
+slavery in the national government. "A party," he said, "is in one sense
+a joint stock association, in which those who contribute most direct the
+action and management of the concern.... The slaveholders, contributing
+in an overwhelming proportion to the strength of the Democratic party,
+necessarily dictate and prescribe its policy." He went on: "The
+slaveholding class has become the governing power in each of the
+slaveholding states and it practically chooses thirty of the sixty-two
+members of the Senate, ninety of the two hundred and thirty-three
+members of the House of Representatives, and one hundred and five of the
+two hundred and ninety-five electors of President and Vice-President of
+the United States." Then he considered the slave power in the Supreme
+Court. "That tribunal," he exclaimed, "consists of a chief justice and
+eight associate justices. Of these, five were called from slave states
+and four from free states. The opinions and bias of each of them were
+carefully considered by the President and Senate when he was appointed.
+Not one of them was found wanting in soundness of politics, according to
+the slaveholder's exposition of the Constitution." Such was the Northern
+view of the planting interest that, from the arena of national politics,
+challenged the whole country in 1860.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF SLAVES IN THE SOUTHERN STATES]
+
+
+SLAVERY IN NATIONAL POLITICS
+
+=National Aspects of Slavery.=--It may be asked why it was that slavery,
+founded originally on state law and subject to state government, was
+drawn into the current of national affairs. The answer is simple. There
+were, in the first place, constitutional reasons. The Congress of the
+United States had to make all needful rules for the government of the
+territories, the District of Columbia, the forts and other property
+under national authority; so it was compelled to determine whether
+slavery should exist in the places subject to its jurisdiction. Upon
+Congress was also conferred the power of admitting new states; whenever
+a territory asked for admission, the issue could be raised as to whether
+slavery should be sanctioned or excluded. Under the Constitution,
+provision was made for the return of runaway slaves; Congress had the
+power to enforce this clause by appropriate legislation. Since the
+control of the post office was vested in the federal government, it had
+to face the problem raised by the transmission of abolition literature
+through the mails. Finally citizens had the right of petition; it
+inheres in all free government and it is expressly guaranteed by the
+first amendment to the Constitution. It was therefore legal for
+abolitionists to present to Congress their petitions, even if they asked
+for something which it had no right to grant. It was thus impossible,
+constitutionally, to draw a cordon around the slavery issue and confine
+the discussion of it to state politics.
+
+There were, in the second place, economic reasons why slavery was
+inevitably drawn into the national sphere. It was the basis of the
+planting system which had direct commercial relations with the North and
+European countries; it was affected by federal laws respecting tariffs,
+bounties, ship subsidies, banking, and kindred matters. The planters of
+the South, almost without exception, looked upon the protective tariff
+as a tribute laid upon them for the benefit of Northern industries. As
+heavy borrowers of money in the North, they were generally in favor of
+"easy money," if not paper currency, as an aid in the repayment of their
+debts. This threw most of them into opposition to the Whig program for a
+United States Bank. All financial aids to American shipping they stoutly
+resisted, preferring to rely upon the cheaper service rendered by
+English shippers. Internal improvements, those substantial ties that
+were binding the West to the East and turning the traffic from New
+Orleans to Philadelphia and New York, they viewed with alarm. Free
+homesteads from the public lands, which tended to overbalance the South
+by building free states, became to them a measure dangerous to their
+interests. Thus national economic policies, which could not by any twist
+or turn be confined to state control, drew the slave system and its
+defenders into the political conflict that centered at Washington.
+
+=Slavery and the Territories--the Missouri Compromise (1820).=--Though
+men continually talked about "taking slavery out of politics," it could
+not be done. By 1818 slavery had become so entrenched and the
+anti-slavery sentiment so strong, that Missouri's quest for admission
+brought both houses of Congress into a deadlock that was broken only by
+compromise. The South, having half the Senators, could prevent the
+admission of Missouri stripped of slavery; and the North, powerful in
+the House of Representatives, could keep Missouri with slavery out of
+the union indefinitely. An adjustment of pretensions was the last
+resort. Maine, separated from the parent state of Massachusetts, was
+brought into the union with freedom and Missouri with bondage. At the
+same time it was agreed that the remainder of the vast Louisiana
+territory north of the parallel of 36 deg. 30' should be, like the old
+Northwest, forever free; while the southern portion was left to slavery.
+In reality this was an immense gain for liberty. The area dedicated to
+free farmers was many times greater than that left to the planters. The
+principle was once more asserted that Congress had full power to prevent
+slavery in the territories.
+
+[Illustration: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE]
+
+=The Territorial Question Reopened by the Wilmot Proviso.=--To the
+Southern leaders, the annexation of Texas and the conquest of Mexico
+meant renewed security to the planting interest against the increasing
+wealth and population of the North. Texas, it was said, could be divided
+into four slave states. The new territories secured by the treaty of
+peace with Mexico contained the promise of at least three more. Thus, as
+each new free soil state knocked for admission into the union, the
+South could demand as the price of its consent a new slave state. No
+wonder Southern statesmen saw, in the annexation of Texas and the
+conquest of Mexico, slavery and King Cotton triumphant--secure for all
+time against adverse legislation. Northern leaders were equally
+convinced that the Southern prophecy was true. Abolitionists and
+moderate opponents of slavery alike were in despair. Texas, they
+lamented, would fasten slavery upon the country forevermore. "No living
+man," cried one, "will see the end of slavery in the United States!"
+
+It so happened, however, that the events which, it was thought, would
+secure slavery let loose a storm against it. A sign appeared first on
+August 6, 1846, only a few months after war was declared on Mexico. On
+that day, David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, introduced into
+the House of Representatives a resolution to the effect that, as an
+express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory
+from the republic of Mexico, slavery should be forever excluded from
+every part of it. "The Wilmot Proviso," as the resolution was popularly
+called, though defeated on that occasion, was a challenge to the South.
+
+The South answered the challenge. Speaking in the House of
+Representatives, Robert Toombs of Georgia boldly declared: "In the
+presence of the living God, if by your legislation you seek to drive us
+from the territories of California and New Mexico ... I am for
+disunion." South Carolina announced that the day for talk had passed and
+the time had come to join her sister states "in resisting the
+application of the Wilmot Proviso at any and all hazards." A conference,
+assembled at Jackson, Mississippi, in the autumn of 1849, called a
+general convention of Southern states to meet at Nashville the following
+summer. The avowed purpose was to arrest "the course of aggression" and,
+if that was not possible, to provide "in the last resort for their
+separate welfare by the formation of a compact and union that will
+afford protection to their liberties and rights." States that had
+spurned South Carolina's plea for nullification in 1832 responded to
+this new appeal with alacrity--an augury of the secession to come.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print._
+
+HENRY CLAY]
+
+=The Great Debate of 1850.=--The temper of the country was white hot
+when Congress convened in December, 1849. It was a memorable session,
+memorable for the great men who took part in the debates and memorable
+for the grand Compromise of 1850 which it produced. In the Senate sat
+for the last time three heroic figures: Webster from the North, Calhoun
+from the South, and Clay from a border state. For nearly forty years
+these three had been leaders of men. All had grown old and gray in
+service. Calhoun was already broken in health and in a few months was to
+be borne from the political arena forever. Clay and Webster had but two
+more years in their allotted span.
+
+Experience, learning, statecraft--all these things they now marshaled in
+a mighty effort to solve the slavery problem. On January 29, 1850, Clay
+offered to the Senate a compromise granting concessions to both sides;
+and a few days later, in a powerful oration, he made a passionate appeal
+for a union of hearts through mutual sacrifices. Calhoun relentlessly
+demanded the full measure of justice for the South: equal rights in the
+territories bought by common blood; the return of runaway slaves as
+required by the Constitution; the suppression of the abolitionists; and
+the restoration of the balance of power between the North and the South.
+Webster, in his notable "Seventh of March speech," condemned the Wilmot
+Proviso, advocated a strict enforcement of the fugitive slave law,
+denounced the abolitionists, and made a final plea for the Constitution,
+union, and liberty. This was the address which called forth from
+Whittier the poem, "Ichabod," deploring the fall of the mighty one whom
+he thought lost to all sense of faith and honor.
+
+=The Terms of the Compromise of 1850.=--When the debates were closed,
+the results were totaled in a series of compromise measures, all of
+which were signed in September, 1850, by the new President, Millard
+Fillmore, who had taken office two months before on the death of Zachary
+Taylor. By these acts the boundaries of Texas were adjusted and the
+territory of New Mexico created, subject to the provision that all or
+any part of it might be admitted to the union "with or without slavery
+as their constitution may provide at the time of their admission." The
+Territory of Utah was similarly organized with the same conditions as to
+slavery, thus repudiating the Wilmot Proviso without guaranteeing
+slavery to the planters. California was admitted as a free state under a
+constitution in which the people of the territory had themselves
+prohibited slavery.
+
+The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, but slavery
+itself existed as before at the capital of the nation. This concession
+to anti-slavery sentiment was more than offset by a fugitive slave law,
+drastic in spirit and in letter. It placed the enforcement of its terms
+in the hands of federal officers appointed from Washington and so
+removed it from the control of authorities locally elected. It provided
+that masters or their agents, on filing claims in due form, might
+summarily remove their escaped slaves without affording their "alleged
+fugitives" the right of trial by jury, the right to witness, the right
+to offer any testimony in evidence. Finally, to "put teeth" into the
+act, heavy penalties were prescribed for all who obstructed or assisted
+in obstructing the enforcement of the law. Such was the Great Compromise
+of 1850.
+
+[Illustration: AN OLD CARTOON REPRESENTING WEBSTER "STEALING CLAY'S
+THUNDER"]
+
+=The Pro-slavery Triumph in the Election of 1852.=--The results of the
+election of 1852 seemed to show conclusively that the nation was weary
+of slavery agitation and wanted peace. Both parties, Whigs and
+Democrats, endorsed the fugitive slave law and approved the Great
+Compromise. The Democrats, with Franklin Pierce as their leader, swept
+the country against the war hero, General Winfield Scott, on whom the
+Whigs had staked their hopes. Even Webster, broken with grief at his
+failure to receive the nomination, advised his friends to vote for
+Pierce and turned away from politics to meditate upon approaching death.
+The verdict of the voters would seem to indicate that for the time
+everybody, save a handful of disgruntled agitators, looked upon Clay's
+settlement as the last word. "The people, especially the business men of
+the country," says Elson, "were utterly weary of the agitation and they
+gave their suffrages to the party that promised them rest." The Free
+Soil party, condemning slavery as "a sin against God and a crime against
+man," and advocating freedom for the territories, failed to carry a
+single state. In fact it polled fewer votes than it had four years
+earlier--156,000 as against nearly 3,000,000, the combined vote of the
+Whigs and Democrats. It is not surprising, therefore, that President
+Pierce, surrounded in his cabinet by strong Southern sympathizers, could
+promise to put an end to slavery agitation and to crush the abolition
+movement in the bud.
+
+=Anti-slavery Agitation Continued.=--The promise was more difficult to
+fulfill than to utter. In fact, the vigorous execution of one measure
+included in the Compromise--the fugitive slave law--only made matters
+worse. Designed as security for the planters, it proved a powerful
+instrument in their undoing. Slavery five hundred miles away on a
+Louisiana plantation was so remote from the North that only the
+strongest imagination could maintain a constant rage against it. "Slave
+catching," "man hunting" by federal officers on the streets of
+Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Chicago, or Milwaukee and in the hamlets
+and villages of the wide-stretching farm lands of the North was another
+matter. It brought the most odious aspects of slavery home to thousands
+of men and women who would otherwise have been indifferent to the
+system. Law-abiding business men, mechanics, farmers, and women, when
+they saw peaceful negroes, who had resided in their neighborhoods
+perhaps for years, torn away by federal officers and carried back to
+bondage, were transformed into enemies of the law. They helped slaves to
+escape; they snatched them away from officers who had captured them;
+they broke open jails and carried fugitives off to Canada.
+
+Assistance to runaway slaves, always more or less common in the North,
+was by this time organized into a system. Regular routes, known as
+"underground railways," were laid out across the free states into
+Canada, and trusted friends of freedom maintained "underground stations"
+where fugitives were concealed in the daytime between their long night
+journeys. Funds were raised and secret agents sent into the South to
+help negroes to flee. One negro woman, Harriet Tubman, "the Moses of her
+people," with headquarters at Philadelphia, is accredited with nineteen
+invasions into slave territory and the emancipation of three hundred
+negroes. Those who worked at this business were in constant peril. One
+underground operator, Calvin Fairbank, spent nearly twenty years in
+prison for aiding fugitives from justice. Yet perils and prisons did not
+stay those determined men and women who, in obedience to their
+consciences, set themselves to this lawless work.
+
+[Illustration: HARRIET BEECHER STOWE]
+
+From thrilling stories of adventure along the underground railways came
+some of the scenes and themes of the novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe,
+"Uncle Tom's Cabin," published two years after the Compromise of 1850.
+Her stirring tale set forth the worst features of slavery in vivid word
+pictures that caught and held the attention of millions of readers.
+Though the book was unfair to the South and was denounced as a hideous
+distortion of the truth, it was quickly dramatized and played in every
+city and town throughout the North. Topsy, Little Eva, Uncle Tom, the
+fleeing slave, Eliza Harris, and the cruel slave driver, Simon Legree,
+with his baying blood hounds, became living specters in many a home that
+sought to bar the door to the "unpleasant and irritating business of
+slavery agitation."
+
+
+THE DRIFT OF EVENTS TOWARD THE IRREPRESSIBLE CONFLICT
+
+=Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.=--To practical men, after all, the
+"rub-a-dub" agitation of a few abolitionists, an occasional riot over
+fugitive slaves, and the vogue of a popular novel seemed of slight or
+transient importance. They could point with satisfaction to the election
+returns of 1852; but their very security was founded upon shifting
+sands. The magnificent triumph of the pro-slavery Democrats in 1852
+brought a turn in affairs that destroyed the foundations under their
+feet. Emboldened by their own strength and the weakness of their
+opponents, they now dared to repeal the Missouri Compromise. The leader
+in this fateful enterprise was Stephen A. Douglas, Senator from
+Illinois, and the occasion for the deed was the demand for the
+organization of territorial government in the regions west of Iowa and
+Missouri.
+
+Douglas, like Clay and Webster before him, was consumed by a strong
+passion for the presidency, and, to reach his goal, it was necessary to
+win the support of the South. This he undoubtedly sought to do when he
+introduced on January 4, 1854, a bill organizing the Nebraska territory
+on the principle of the Compromise of 1850; namely, that the people in
+the territory might themselves decide whether they would have slavery or
+not. Unwittingly the avalanche was started.
+
+After a stormy debate, in which important amendments were forced on
+Douglas, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill became a law on May 30, 1854. The
+measure created two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and provided that
+they, or territories organized out of them, could come into the union as
+states "with or without slavery as their constitutions may prescribe at
+the time of their admission." Not content with this, the law went on to
+declare the Missouri Compromise null and void as being inconsistent with
+the principle of non-intervention by Congress with slavery in the states
+and territories. Thus by a single blow the very heart of the continent,
+dedicated to freedom by solemn agreement, was thrown open to slavery. A
+desperate struggle between slave owners and the advocates of freedom was
+the outcome in Kansas.
+
+If Douglas fancied that the North would receive the overthrow of the
+Missouri Compromise in the same temper that it greeted Clay's
+settlement, he was rapidly disillusioned. A blast of rage, terrific in
+its fury, swept from Maine to Iowa. Staid old Boston hanged him in
+effigy with an inscription--"Stephen A. Douglas, author of the infamous
+Nebraska bill: the Benedict Arnold of 1854." City after city burned him
+in effigy until, as he himself said, he could travel from the Atlantic
+coast to Chicago in the light of the fires. Thousands of Whigs and
+Free-soil Democrats deserted their parties which had sanctioned or at
+least tolerated the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, declaring that the startling
+measure showed an evident resolve on the part of the planters to rule
+the whole country. A gage of defiance was thrown down to the
+abolitionists. An issue was set even for the moderate and timid who had
+been unmoved by the agitation over slavery in the Far South. That issue
+was whether slavery was to be confined within its existing boundaries or
+be allowed to spread without interference, thereby placing the free
+states in the minority and surrendering the federal government wholly to
+the slave power.
+
+=The Rise of the Republican Party.=--Events of terrible significance,
+swiftly following, drove the country like a ship before a gale straight
+into civil war. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill rent the old parties asunder
+and called into being the Republican party. While that bill was pending
+in Congress, many Northern Whigs and Democrats had come to the
+conclusion that a new party dedicated to freedom in the territories must
+follow the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Several places claim to be
+the original home of the Republican party; but historians generally
+yield it to Wisconsin. At Ripon in that state, a mass meeting of Whigs
+and Democrats assembled in February, 1854, and resolved to form a new
+party if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass. At a second meeting a
+fusion committee representing Whigs, Free Soilers, and Democrats was
+formed and the name Republican--the name of Jefferson's old party--was
+selected. All over the country similar meetings were held and political
+committees were organized.
+
+When the presidential campaign of 1856 began the Republicans entered the
+contest. After a preliminary conference in Pittsburgh in February, they
+held a convention in Philadelphia at which was drawn up a platform
+opposing the extension of slavery to the territories. John C. Fremont,
+the distinguished explorer, was named for the presidency. The results
+of the election were astounding as compared with the Free-soil failure
+of the preceding election. Prominent men like Longfellow, Washington
+Irving, William Cullen Bryant, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and George William
+Curtis went over to the new party and 1,341,264 votes were rolled up for
+"free labor, free speech, free men, free Kansas, and Fremont."
+Nevertheless the victory of the Democrats was decisive. Their candidate,
+James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, was elected by a majority of 174 to 114
+electoral votes.
+
+[Illustration: SLAVE AND FREE SOIL ON EVE OF CIVIL WAR]
+
+=The Dred Scott Decision (1857).=--In his inaugural, Buchanan vaguely
+hinted that in a forthcoming decision the Supreme Court would settle one
+of the vital questions of the day. This was a reference to the Dred
+Scott case then pending. Scott was a slave who had been taken by his
+master into the upper Louisiana territory, where freedom had been
+established by the Missouri Compromise, and then carried back into his
+old state of Missouri. He brought suit for his liberty on the ground
+that his residence in the free territory made him free. This raised the
+question whether the law of Congress prohibiting slavery north of 36 deg.
+30' was authorized by the federal Constitution or not. The Court might
+have avoided answering it by saying that even though Scott was free in
+the territory, he became a slave again in Missouri by virtue of the law
+of that state. The Court, however, faced the issue squarely. It held
+that Scott had not been free anywhere and that, besides, the Missouri
+Compromise violated the Constitution and was null and void.
+
+The decision was a triumph for the South. It meant that Congress after
+all had no power to abolish slavery in the territories. Under the decree
+of the highest court in the land, that could be done only by an
+amendment to the Constitution which required a two-thirds vote in
+Congress and the approval of three-fourths of the states. Such an
+amendment was obviously impossible--the Southern states were too
+numerous; but the Republicans were not daunted. "We know," said Lincoln,
+"the Court that made it has often overruled its own decisions and we
+shall do what we can to have it overrule this." Legislatures of Northern
+states passed resolutions condemning the decision and the Republican
+platform of 1860 characterized the dogma that the Constitution carried
+slavery into the territories as "a dangerous political heresy at
+variance with the explicit provisions of that instrument itself ... with
+legislative and judicial precedent ... revolutionary in tendency and
+subversive of the peace and harmony of the country."
+
+=The Panic of 1857.=--In the midst of the acrimonious dispute over the
+Dred Scott decision, came one of the worst business panics which ever
+afflicted the country. In the spring and summer of 1857, fourteen
+railroad corporations, including the Erie, Michigan Central, and the
+Illinois Central, failed to meet their obligations; banks and insurance
+companies, some of them the largest and strongest institutions in the
+North, closed their doors; stocks and bonds came down in a crash on the
+markets; manufacturing was paralyzed; tens of thousands of working
+people were thrown out of employment; "hunger meetings" of idle men were
+held in the cities and banners bearing the inscription, "We want
+bread," were flung out. In New York, working men threatened to invade
+the Council Chamber to demand "work or bread," and the frightened mayor
+called for the police and soldiers. For this distressing state of
+affairs many remedies were offered; none with more zeal and persistence
+than the proposal for a higher tariff to take the place of the law of
+March, 1857, a Democratic measure making drastic reductions in the rates
+of duty. In the manufacturing districts of the North, the panic was
+ascribed to the "Democratic assault on business." So an old issue was
+again vigorously advanced, preparatory to the next presidential
+campaign.
+
+=The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.=--The following year the interest of the
+whole country was drawn to a series of debates held in Illinois by
+Lincoln and Douglas, both candidates for the United States Senate. In
+the course of his campaign Lincoln had uttered his trenchant saying that
+"a house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government
+cannot endure permanently half slave and half free." At the same time he
+had accused Douglas, Buchanan, and the Supreme Court of acting in
+concert to make slavery national. This daring statement arrested the
+attention of Douglas, who was making his campaign on the doctrine of
+"squatter sovereignty;" that is, the right of the people of each
+territory "to vote slavery up or down." After a few long-distance shots
+at each other, the candidates agreed to meet face to face and discuss
+the issues of the day. Never had such crowds been seen at political
+meetings in Illinois. Farmers deserted their plows, smiths their forges,
+and housewives their baking to hear "Honest Abe" and "the Little Giant."
+
+The results of the series of debates were momentous. Lincoln clearly
+defined his position. The South, he admitted, was entitled under the
+Constitution to a fair, fugitive slave law. He hoped that there might be
+no new slave states; but he did not see how Congress could exclude the
+people of a territory from admission as a state if they saw fit to adopt
+a constitution legalizing the ownership of slaves. He favored the
+gradual abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and the total
+exclusion of it from the territories of the United States by act of
+Congress.
+
+Moreover, he drove Douglas into a hole by asking how he squared
+"squatter sovereignty" with the Dred Scott decision; how, in other
+words, the people of a territory could abolish slavery when the Court
+had declared that Congress, the superior power, could not do it under
+the Constitution? To this baffling question Douglas lamely replied that
+the inhabitants of a territory, by "unfriendly legislation," might make
+property in slaves insecure and thus destroy the institution. This
+answer to Lincoln's query alienated many Southern Democrats who believed
+that the Dred Scott decision settled the question of slavery in the
+territories for all time. Douglas won the election to the Senate; but
+Lincoln, lifted into national fame by the debates, beat him in the
+campaign for President two years later.
+
+=John Brown's Raid.=--To the abolitionists the line of argument pursued
+by Lincoln, including his proposal to leave slavery untouched in the
+states where it existed, was wholly unsatisfactory. One of them, a grim
+and resolute man, inflamed by a hatred for slavery in itself, turned
+from agitation to violence. "These men are all talk; what is needed is
+action--action!" So spoke John Brown of New York. During the sanguinary
+struggle in Kansas he hurried to the frontier, gun and dagger in hand,
+to help drive slave owners from the free soil of the West. There he
+committed deeds of such daring and cruelty that he was outlawed and a
+price put upon his head. Still he kept on the path of "action." Aided by
+funds from Northern friends, he gathered a small band of his followers
+around him, saying to them: "If God be for us, who can be against us?"
+He went into Virginia in the autumn of 1859, hoping, as he explained,
+"to effect a mighty conquest even though it be like the last victory of
+Samson." He seized the government armory at Harper's Ferry, declared
+free the slaves whom he found, and called upon them to take up arms in
+defense of their liberty. His was a hope as forlorn as it was desperate.
+Armed forces came down upon him and, after a hard battle, captured him.
+Tried for treason, Brown was condemned to death. The governor of
+Virginia turned a deaf ear to pleas for clemency based on the ground
+that the prisoner was simply a lunatic. "This is a beautiful country,"
+said the stern old Brown glancing upward to the eternal hills on his way
+to the gallows, as calmly as if he were returning home from a long
+journey. "So perish all such enemies of Virginia. All such enemies of
+the Union. All such foes of the human race," solemnly announced the
+executioner as he fulfilled the judgment of the law.
+
+The raid and its grim ending deeply moved the country. Abolitionists
+looked upon Brown as a martyr and tolled funeral bells on the day of his
+execution. Longfellow wrote in his diary: "This will be a great day in
+our history; the date of a new revolution as much needed as the old
+one." Jefferson Davis saw in the affair "the invasion of a state by a
+murderous gang of abolitionists bent on inciting slaves to murder
+helpless women and children"--a crime for which the leader had met a
+felon's death. Lincoln spoke of the raid as absurd, the deed of an
+enthusiast who had brooded over the oppression of a people until he
+fancied himself commissioned by heaven to liberate them--an attempt
+which ended in "little else than his own execution." To Republican
+leaders as a whole, the event was very embarrassing. They were taunted
+by the Democrats with responsibility for the deed. Douglas declared his
+"firm and deliberate conviction that the Harper's Ferry crime was the
+natural, logical, inevitable result of the doctrines and teachings of
+the Republican party." So persistent were such attacks that the
+Republicans felt called upon in 1860 to denounce Brown's raid "as among
+the gravest of crimes."
+
+=The Democrats Divided.=--When the Democratic convention met at
+Charleston in the spring of 1860, a few months after Brown's execution,
+it soon became clear that there was danger ahead. Between the extreme
+slavery advocates of the Far South and the so-called pro-slavery
+Democrats of the Douglas type, there was a chasm which no appeals to
+party loyalty could bridge. As the spokesman of the West, Douglas knew
+that, while the North was not abolitionist, it was passionately set
+against an extension of slavery into the territories by act of Congress;
+that squatter sovereignty was the mildest kind of compromise acceptable
+to the farmers whose votes would determine the fate of the election.
+Southern leaders would not accept his opinion. Yancey, speaking for
+Alabama, refused to palter with any plan not built on the proposition
+that slavery was in itself right. He taunted the Northern Democrats with
+taking the view that slavery was wrong, but that they could not do
+anything about it. That, he said, was the fatal error--the cause of all
+discord, the source of "Black Republicanism," as well as squatter
+sovereignty. The gauntlet was thus thrown down at the feet of the
+Northern delegates: "You must not apologize for slavery; you must
+declare it right; you must advocate its extension." The challenge, so
+bluntly put, was as bluntly answered. "Gentlemen of the South,"
+responded a delegate from Ohio, "you mistake us. You mistake us. We will
+not do it."
+
+For ten days the Charleston convention wrangled over the platform and
+balloted for the nomination of a candidate. Douglas, though in the lead,
+could not get the two-thirds vote required for victory. For more than
+fifty times the roll of the convention was called without a decision.
+Then in sheer desperation the convention adjourned to meet later at
+Baltimore. When the delegates again assembled, their passions ran as
+high as ever. The division into two irreconcilable factions was
+unchanged. Uncompromising delegates from the South withdrew to Richmond,
+nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for President, and put forth
+a platform asserting the rights of slave owners in the territories and
+the duty of the federal government to protect them. The delegates who
+remained at Baltimore nominated Douglas and endorsed his doctrine of
+squatter sovereignty.
+
+=The Constitutional Union Party.=--While the Democratic party was being
+disrupted, a fragment of the former Whig party, known as the
+Constitutional Unionists, held a convention at Baltimore and selected
+national candidates: John Bell from Tennessee and Edward Everett from
+Massachusetts. A melancholy interest attached to this assembly. It was
+mainly composed of old men whose political views were those of Clay and
+Webster, cherished leaders now dead and gone. In their platform they
+sought to exorcise the evil spirit of partisanship by inviting their
+fellow citizens to "support the Constitution of the country, the union
+of the states, and the enforcement of the laws." The party that
+campaigned on this grand sentiment only drew laughter from the Democrats
+and derision from the Republicans and polled less than one-fourth the
+votes.
+
+=The Republican Convention.=--With the Whigs definitely forced into a
+separate group, the Republican convention at Chicago was fated to be
+sectional in character, although five slave states did send delegates.
+As the Democrats were split, the party that had led a forlorn hope four
+years before was on the high road to success at last. New and powerful
+recruits were found. The advocates of a high protective tariff and the
+friends of free homesteads for farmers and workingmen mingled with
+enthusiastic foes of slavery. While still firm in their opposition to
+slavery in the territories, the Republicans went on record in favor of a
+homestead law granting free lands to settlers and approved customs
+duties designed "to encourage the development of the industrial
+interests of the whole country." The platform was greeted with cheers
+which, according to the stenographic report of the convention, became
+loud and prolonged as the protective tariff and homestead planks were
+read.
+
+Having skillfully drawn a platform to unite the North in opposition to
+slavery and the planting system, the Republicans were also adroit in
+their selection of a candidate. The tariff plank might carry
+Pennsylvania, a Democratic state; but Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were
+equally essential to success at the polls. The southern counties of
+these states were filled with settlers from Virginia, North Carolina,
+and Kentucky who, even if they had no love for slavery, were no friends
+of abolition. Moreover, remembering the old fight on the United States
+Bank in Andrew Jackson's day, they were suspicious of men from the East.
+Accordingly, they did not favor the candidacy of Seward, the leading
+Republican statesman and "favorite son" of New York.
+
+After much trading and discussing, the convention came to the conclusion
+that Abraham Lincoln of Illinois was the most "available" candidate. He
+was of Southern origin, born in Kentucky in 1809, a fact that told
+heavily in the campaign in the Ohio Valley. He was a man of the soil,
+the son of poor frontier parents, a pioneer who in his youth had labored
+in the fields and forests, celebrated far and wide as "honest Abe, the
+rail-splitter." It was well-known that he disliked slavery, but was no
+abolitionist. He had come dangerously near to Seward's radicalism in his
+"house-divided-against-itself" speech but he had never committed himself
+to the reckless doctrine that there was a "higher law" than the
+Constitution. Slavery in the South he tolerated as a bitter fact;
+slavery in the territories he opposed with all his strength. Of his
+sincerity there could be no doubt. He was a speaker and writer of
+singular power, commanding, by the use of simple and homely language,
+the hearts and minds of those who heard him speak or read his printed
+words. He had gone far enough in his opposition to slavery; but not too
+far. He was the man of the hour! Amid lusty cheers from ten thousand
+throats, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency by the Republicans. In
+the ensuing election, he carried all the free states except New Jersey.
+
+
+=References=
+
+P.E. Chadwick, _Causes of the Civil War_ (American Nation Series).
+
+W.E. Dodd, _Statesmen of the Old South_.
+
+E. Engle, _Southern Sidelights_ (Sympathetic account of the Old South).
+
+A.B. Hart, _Slavery and Abolition_ (American Nation Series).
+
+J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vols. I and II.
+
+T.C. Smith, _Parties and Slavery_ (American Nation Series).
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Trace the decline of slavery in the North and explain it.
+
+2. Describe the character of early opposition to slavery.
+
+3. What was the effect of abolition agitation?
+
+4. Why did anti-slavery sentiment practically disappear in the South?
+
+5. On what grounds did Calhoun defend slavery?
+
+6. Explain how slave owners became powerful in politics.
+
+7. Why was it impossible to keep the slavery issue out of national
+politics?
+
+8. Give the leading steps in the long controversy over slavery in the
+territories.
+
+9. State the terms of the Compromise of 1850 and explain its failure.
+
+10. What were the startling events between 1850 and 1860?
+
+11. Account for the rise of the Republican party. What party had used
+the title before?
+
+12. How did the Dred Scott decision become a political issue?
+
+13. What were some of the points brought out in the Lincoln-Douglas
+debates?
+
+14. Describe the party division in 1860.
+
+15. What were the main planks in the Republican platform?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Extension of Cotton Planting.=--Callender, _Economic History of the
+United States_, pp. 760-768.
+
+=Abolition Agitation.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the United
+States_, Vol. VI, pp. 271-298.
+
+=Calhoun's Defense of Slavery.=--Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating
+American History_, pp. 247-257.
+
+=The Compromise of 1850.=--Clay's speech in Harding, _Select Orations_,
+pp. 267-289. The compromise laws in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book
+of American History_, pp. 383-394. Narrative account in McMaster, Vol.
+VIII, pp. 1-55; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 540-548.
+
+=The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.=--McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp.
+192-231; Elson, pp. 571-582.
+
+=The Dred Scott Case.=--McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp. 278-282. Compare the
+opinion of Taney and the dissent of Curtis in Macdonald, _Documentary
+Source Book_, pp. 405-420; Elson, pp. 595-598.
+
+=The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.=--Analysis of original speeches in
+Harding, _Select Orations_ pp. 309-341; Elson, pp. 598-604.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Calhoun, Clay, Webster, A.H. Stephens, Douglas,
+W.H. Seward, William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Harriet
+Beecher Stowe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION
+
+
+"The irrepressible conflict is about to be visited upon us through the
+Black Republican nominee and his fanatical, diabolical Republican
+party," ran an appeal to the voters of South Carolina during the
+campaign of 1860. If that calamity comes to pass, responded the governor
+of the state, the answer should be a declaration of independence. In a
+few days the suspense was over. The news of Lincoln's election came
+speeding along the wires. Prepared for the event, the editor of the
+Charleston _Mercury_ unfurled the flag of his state amid wild cheers
+from an excited throng in the streets. Then he seized his pen and wrote:
+"The tea has been thrown overboard; the revolution of 1860 has been
+initiated." The issue was submitted to the voters in the choice of
+delegates to a state convention called to cast off the yoke of the
+Constitution.
+
+
+THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY
+
+=Secession.=--As arranged, the convention of South Carolina assembled in
+December and without a dissenting voice passed the ordinance of
+secession withdrawing from the union. Bells were rung exultantly, the
+roar of cannon carried the news to outlying counties, fireworks lighted
+up the heavens, and champagne flowed. The crisis so long expected had
+come at last; even the conservatives who had prayed that they might
+escape the dreadful crash greeted it with a sigh of relief.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1861
+
+The border states (in purple) remained loyal.]
+
+South Carolina now sent forth an appeal to her sister states--states
+that had in Jackson's day repudiated nullification as leading to "the
+dissolution of the union." The answer that came this time was in a
+different vein. A month had hardly elapsed before five other
+states--Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana--had
+withdrawn from the union. In February, Texas followed. Virginia,
+hesitating until the bombardment of Fort Sumter forced a conclusion,
+seceded in April; but fifty-five of the one hundred and forty-three
+delegates dissented, foreshadowing the creation of the new state of West
+Virginia which Congress admitted to the union in 1863. In May, North
+Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee announced their independence.
+
+=Secession and the Theories of the Union.=--In severing their relations
+with the union, the seceding states denied every point in the Northern
+theory of the Constitution. That theory, as every one knows, was
+carefully formulated by Webster and elaborated by Lincoln. According to
+it, the union was older than the states; it was created before the
+Declaration of Independence for the purpose of common defense. The
+Articles of Confederation did but strengthen this national bond and the
+Constitution sealed it forever. The federal government was not a
+creature of state governments. It was erected by the people and derived
+its powers directly from them. "It is," said Webster, "the people's
+Constitution, the people's government; made for the people; made by the
+people; and answerable to the people. The people of the United States
+have declared that this Constitution shall be the supreme law." When a
+state questions the lawfulness of any act of the federal government, it
+cannot nullify that act or withdraw from the union; it must abide by the
+decision of the Supreme Court of the United States. The union of these
+states is perpetual, ran Lincoln's simple argument in the first
+inaugural; the federal Constitution has no provision for its own
+termination; it can be destroyed only by some action not provided for in
+the instrument itself; even if it is a compact among all the states the
+consent of all must be necessary to its dissolution; therefore no state
+can lawfully get out of the union and acts of violence against the
+United States are insurrectionary or revolutionary. This was the system
+which he believed himself bound to defend by his oath of office
+"registered in heaven."
+
+All this reasoning Southern statesmen utterly rejected. In their opinion
+the thirteen original states won their independence as separate and
+sovereign powers. The treaty of peace with Great Britain named them all
+and acknowledged them "to be free, sovereign, and independent states."
+The Articles of Confederation very explicitly declared that "each state
+retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence." The Constitution
+was a "league of nations" formed by an alliance of thirteen separate
+powers, each one of which ratified the instrument before it was put into
+effect. They voluntarily entered the union under the Constitution and
+voluntarily they could leave it. Such was the constitutional doctrine of
+Hayne, Calhoun, and Jefferson Davis. In seceding, the Southern states
+had only to follow legal methods, and the transaction would be correct
+in every particular. So conventions were summoned, elections were held,
+and "sovereign assemblies of the people" set aside the Constitution in
+the same manner as it had been ratified nearly four score years before.
+Thus, said the Southern people, the moral judgment was fulfilled and the
+letter of the law carried into effect.
+
+[Illustration: JEFFERSON DAVIS]
+
+=The Formation of the Confederacy.=--Acting on the call of Mississippi,
+a congress of delegates from the seceded states met at Montgomery,
+Alabama, and on February 8, 1861, adopted a temporary plan of union. It
+selected, as provisional president, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, a
+man well fitted by experience and moderation for leadership, a graduate
+of West Point, who had rendered distinguished service on the field of
+battle in the Mexican War, in public office, and as a member of
+Congress.
+
+In March, a permanent constitution of the Confederate states was
+drafted. It was quickly ratified by the states; elections were held in
+November; and the government under it went into effect the next year.
+This new constitution, in form, was very much like the famous instrument
+drafted at Philadelphia in 1787. It provided for a President, a Senate,
+and a House of Representatives along almost identical lines. In the
+powers conferred upon them, however, there were striking differences.
+The right to appropriate money for internal improvements was expressly
+withheld; bounties were not to be granted from the treasury nor import
+duties so laid as to promote or foster any branch of industry. The
+dignity of the state, if any might be bold enough to question it, was
+safeguarded in the opening line by the declaration that each acted "in
+its sovereign and independent character" in forming the Southern union.
+
+=Financing the Confederacy.=--No government ever set out upon its career
+with more perplexing tasks in front of it. The North had a monetary
+system; the South had to create one. The North had a scheme of taxation
+that produced large revenues from numerous sources; the South had to
+formulate and carry out a financial plan. Like the North, the
+Confederacy expected to secure a large revenue from customs duties,
+easily collected and little felt among the masses. To this expectation
+the blockade of Southern ports inaugurated by Lincoln in April, 1861,
+soon put an end. Following the precedent set by Congress under the
+Articles of Confederation, the Southern Congress resorted to a direct
+property tax apportioned among the states, only to meet the failure that
+might have been foretold.
+
+The Confederacy also sold bonds, the first issue bringing into the
+treasury nearly all the specie available in the Southern banks. This
+specie by unhappy management was early sent abroad to pay for supplies,
+sapping the foundations of a sound currency system. Large amounts of
+bonds were sold overseas, commanding at first better terms than those
+of the North in the markets of London, Paris, and Amsterdam, many an
+English lord and statesman buying with enthusiasm and confidence to
+lament within a few years the proofs of his folly. The difficulties of
+bringing through the blockade any supplies purchased by foreign bond
+issues, however, nullified the effect of foreign credit and forced the
+Confederacy back upon the device of paper money. In all approximately
+one billion dollars streamed from the printing presses, to fall in value
+at an alarming rate, reaching in January, 1863, the astounding figure of
+fifty dollars in paper money for one in gold. Every known device was
+used to prevent its depreciation, without result. To the issues of the
+Confederate Congress were added untold millions poured out by the states
+and by private banks.
+
+=Human and Material Resources.=--When we measure strength for strength
+in those signs of power--men, money, and supplies--it is difficult to
+see how the South was able to embark on secession and war with such
+confidence in the outcome. In the Confederacy at the final reckoning
+there were eleven states in all, to be pitted against twenty-two; a
+population of nine millions, nearly one-half servile, to be pitted
+against twenty-two millions; a land without great industries to produce
+war supplies and without vast capital to furnish war finances, joined in
+battle with a nation already industrial and fortified by property worth
+eleven billion dollars. Even after the Confederate Congress authorized
+conscription in 1862, Southern man power, measured in numbers, was
+wholly inadequate to uphold the independence which had been declared.
+How, therefore, could the Confederacy hope to sustain itself against
+such a combination of men, money, and materials as the North could
+marshal?
+
+=Southern Expectations.=--The answer to this question is to be found in
+the ideas that prevailed among Southern leaders. First of all, they
+hoped, in vain, to carry the Confederacy up to the Ohio River; and, with
+the aid of Missouri, to gain possession of the Mississippi Valley, the
+granary of the nation. In the second place, they reckoned upon a large
+and continuous trade with Great Britain--the exchange of cotton for war
+materials. They likewise expected to receive recognition and open aid
+from European powers that looked with satisfaction upon the breakup of
+the great American republic. In the third place, they believed that
+their control over several staples so essential to Northern industry
+would enable them to bring on an industrial crisis in the manufacturing
+states. "I firmly believe," wrote Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, in
+1860, "that the slave-holding South is now the controlling power of the
+world; that no other power would face us in hostility. Cotton, rice,
+tobacco, and naval stores command the world; and we have the sense to
+know it and are sufficiently Teutonic to carry it out successfully. The
+North without us would be a motherless calf, bleating about, and die of
+mange and starvation."
+
+There were other grounds for confidence. Having seized all of the
+federal military and naval supplies in the South, and having left the
+national government weak in armed power during their possession of the
+presidency, Southern leaders looked to a swift war, if it came at all,
+to put the finishing stroke to independence. "The greasy mechanics of
+the North," it was repeatedly said, "will not fight." As to disparity in
+numbers they drew historic parallels. "Our fathers, a mere handful,
+overcame the enormous power of Great Britain," a saying of ex-President
+Tyler, ran current to reassure the doubtful. Finally, and this point
+cannot be too strongly emphasized, the South expected to see a weakened
+and divided North. It knew that the abolitionists and the Southern
+sympathizers were ready to let the Confederate states go in peace; that
+Lincoln represented only a little more than one-third the voters of the
+country; and that the vote for Douglas, Bell, and Breckinridge meant a
+decided opposition to the Republicans and their policies.
+
+=Efforts at Compromise.=--Republican leaders, on reviewing the same
+facts, were themselves uncertain as to the outcome of a civil war and
+made many efforts to avoid a crisis. Thurlow Weed, an Albany journalist
+and politician who had done much to carry New York for Lincoln, proposed
+a plan for extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific.
+Jefferson Davis, warning his followers that a war if it came would be
+terrible, was prepared to accept the offer; but Lincoln, remembering his
+campaign pledges, stood firm as a rock against it. His followers in
+Congress took the same position with regard to a similar settlement
+suggested by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky.
+
+Though unwilling to surrender his solemn promises respecting slavery in
+the territories, Lincoln was prepared to give to Southern leaders a
+strong guarantee that his administration would not interfere directly or
+indirectly with slavery in the states. Anxious to reassure the South on
+this point, the Republicans in Congress proposed to write into the
+Constitution a declaration that no amendment should ever be made
+authorizing the abolition of or interference with slavery in any state.
+The resolution, duly passed, was sent forth on March 4, 1861, with the
+approval of Lincoln; it was actually ratified by three states before the
+storm of war destroyed it. By the irony of fate the thirteenth amendment
+was to abolish, not guarantee, slavery.
+
+
+THE WAR MEASURES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
+
+=Raising the Armies.=--The crisis at Fort Sumter, on April 12-14, 1861,
+forced the President and Congress to turn from negotiations to problems
+of warfare. Little did they realize the magnitude of the task before
+them. Lincoln's first call for volunteers, issued on April 15, 1861,
+limited the number to 75,000, put their term of service at three months,
+and prescribed their duty as the enforcement of the law against
+combinations too powerful to be overcome by ordinary judicial process.
+Disillusionment swiftly followed. The terrible defeat of the Federals at
+Bull Run on July 21 revealed the serious character of the task before
+them; and by a series of measures Congress put the entire man power of
+the country at the President's command. Under these acts, he issued new
+calls for volunteers. Early in August, 1862, he ordered a draft of
+militiamen numbering 300,000 for nine months' service. The results were
+disappointing--ominous--for only about 87,000 soldiers were added to the
+army. Something more drastic was clearly necessary.
+
+In March, 1863, Lincoln signed the inevitable draft law; it enrolled in
+the national forces liable to military duty all able-bodied male
+citizens and persons of foreign birth who had declared their intention
+to become citizens, between the ages of twenty and forty-five
+years--with exemptions on grounds of physical weakness and dependency.
+From the men enrolled were drawn by lot those destined to active
+service. Unhappily the measure struck a mortal blow at the principle of
+universal liability by excusing any person who found a substitute for
+himself or paid into the war office a sum, not exceeding three hundred
+dollars, to be fixed by general order. This provision, so crass and so
+obviously favoring the well-to-do, sowed seeds of bitterness which
+sprang up a hundredfold in the North.
+
+[Illustration: THE DRAFT RIOTS IN NEW YORK CITY]
+
+The beginning of the drawings under the draft act in New York City, on
+Monday, July 13, 1863, was the signal for four days of rioting. In the
+course of this uprising, draft headquarters were destroyed; the office
+of the _Tribune_ was gutted; negroes were seized, hanged, and shot; the
+homes of obnoxious Unionists were burned down; the residence of the
+mayor of the city was attacked; and regular battles were fought in the
+streets between the rioters and the police. Business stopped and a large
+part of the city passed absolutely into the control of the mob. Not
+until late the following Wednesday did enough troops arrive to restore
+order and enable the residents of the city to resume their daily
+activities. At least a thousand people had been killed or wounded and
+more than a million dollars' worth of damage done to property. The draft
+temporarily interrupted by this outbreak was then resumed and carried
+out without further trouble.
+
+The results of the draft were in the end distinctly disappointing to the
+government. The exemptions were numerous and the number who preferred
+and were able to pay $300 rather than serve exceeded all expectations.
+Volunteering, it is true, was stimulated, but even that resource could
+hardly keep the thinning ranks of the army filled. With reluctance
+Congress struck out the $300 exemption clause, but still favored the
+well-to-do by allowing them to hire substitutes if they could find them.
+With all this power in its hands the administration was able by January,
+1865, to construct a union army that outnumbered the Confederates two to
+one.
+
+=War Finance.=--In the financial sphere the North faced immense
+difficulties. The surplus in the treasury had been dissipated by 1861
+and the tariff of 1857 had failed to produce an income sufficient to
+meet the ordinary expenses of the government. Confronted by military and
+naval expenditures of appalling magnitude, rising from $35,000,000 in
+the first year of the war to $1,153,000,000 in the last year, the
+administration had to tap every available source of income. The duties
+on imports were increased, not once but many times, producing huge
+revenues and also meeting the most extravagant demands of the
+manufacturers for protection. Direct taxes were imposed on the states
+according to their respective populations, but the returns were
+meager--all out of proportion to the irritation involved. Stamp taxes
+and taxes on luxuries, occupations, and the earnings of corporations
+were laid with a weight that, in ordinary times, would have drawn forth
+opposition of ominous strength. The whole gamut of taxation was run.
+Even a tax on incomes and gains by the year, the first in the history of
+the federal government, was included in the long list.
+
+Revenues were supplemented by bond issues, mounting in size and interest
+rate, until in October, at the end of the war, the debt stood at
+$2,208,000,000. The total cost of the war was many times the money value
+of all the slaves in the Southern states. To the debt must be added
+nearly half a billion dollars in "greenbacks"--paper money issued by
+Congress in desperation as bond sales and revenues from taxes failed to
+meet the rising expenditures. This currency issued at par on
+questionable warrant from the Constitution, like all such paper, quickly
+began to decline until in the worst fortunes of 1864 one dollar in gold
+was worth nearly three in greenbacks.
+
+=The Blockade of Southern Ports.=--Four days after his call for
+volunteers, April 19, 1861, President Lincoln issued a proclamation
+blockading the ports of the Southern Confederacy. Later the blockade was
+extended to Virginia and North Carolina, as they withdrew from the
+union. Vessels attempting to enter or leave these ports, if they
+disregarded the warnings of a blockading ship, were to be captured and
+brought as prizes to the nearest convenient port. To make the order
+effective, immediate steps were taken to increase the naval forces,
+depleted by neglect, until the entire coast line was patrolled with such
+a number of ships that it was a rare captain who ventured to run the
+gantlet. The collision between the _Merrimac_ and the _Monitor_ in
+March, 1862, sealed the fate of the Confederacy. The exploits of the
+union navy are recorded in the falling export of cotton: $202,000,000 in
+1860; $42,000,000 in 1861; and $4,000,000 in 1862.
+
+The deadly effect of this paralysis of trade upon Southern war power may
+be readily imagined. Foreign loans, payable in cotton, could be
+negotiated but not paid off. Supplies could be purchased on credit but
+not brought through the drag net. With extreme difficulty could the
+Confederate government secure even paper for the issue of money and
+bonds. Publishers, in despair at the loss of supplies, were finally
+driven to the use of brown wrapping paper and wall paper. As the
+railways and rolling stock wore out, it became impossible to renew them
+from England or France. Unable to export their cotton, planters on the
+seaboard burned it in what were called "fires of patriotism." In their
+lurid light the fatal weakness of Southern economy stood revealed.
+
+[Illustration: A BLOCKADE RUNNER]
+
+=Diplomacy.=--The war had not advanced far before the federal government
+became involved in many perplexing problems of diplomacy in Europe. The
+Confederacy early turned to England and France for financial aid and for
+recognition as an independent power. Davis believed that the industrial
+crisis created by the cotton blockade would in time literally compel
+Europe to intervene in order to get this essential staple. The crisis
+came as he expected but not the result. Thousands of English textile
+workers were thrown out of employment; and yet, while on the point of
+starvation, they adopted resolutions favoring the North instead of
+petitioning their government to aid the South by breaking the blockade.
+
+With the ruling classes it was far otherwise. Napoleon III, the Emperor
+of the French, was eager to help in disrupting the American republic; if
+he could have won England's support, he would have carried out his
+designs. As it turned out he found plenty of sympathy across the Channel
+but not open and official cooeperation. According to the eminent
+historian, Rhodes, "four-fifths of the British House of Lords and most
+members of the House of Commons were favorable to the Confederacy and
+anxious for its triumph." Late in 1862 the British ministers, thus
+sustained, were on the point of recognizing the independence of the
+Confederacy. Had it not been for their extreme caution, for the constant
+and harassing criticism by English friends of the United States--like
+John Bright--and for the victories of Vicksburg and Gettysburg, both
+England and France would have doubtless declared the Confederacy to be
+one of the independent powers of the earth.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN BRIGHT]
+
+While stopping short of recognizing its independence, England and France
+took several steps that were in favor of the South. In proclaiming
+neutrality, they early accepted the Confederates as "belligerents" and
+accorded them the rights of people at war--a measure which aroused anger
+in the North at first but was later admitted to be sound. Otherwise
+Confederates taken in battle would have been regarded as "rebels" or
+"traitors" to be hanged or shot. Napoleon III proposed to Russia in 1861
+a coalition of powers against the North, only to meet a firm refusal.
+The next year he suggested intervention to Great Britain, encountering
+this time a conditional rejection of his plans. In 1863, not daunted by
+rebuffs, he offered his services to Lincoln as a mediator, receiving in
+reply a polite letter declining his proposal and a sharp resolution from
+Congress suggesting that he attend to his own affairs.
+
+In both England and France the governments pursued a policy of
+friendliness to the Confederate agents. The British ministry, with
+indifference if not connivance, permitted rams and ships to be built in
+British docks and allowed them to escape to play havoc under the
+Confederate flag with American commerce. One of them, the _Alabama_,
+built in Liverpool by a British firm and paid for by bonds sold in
+England, ran an extraordinary career and threatened to break the
+blockade. The course followed by the British government, against the
+protests of the American minister in London, was later regretted. By an
+award of a tribunal of arbitration at Geneva in 1872, Great Britain was
+required to pay the huge sum of $15,500,000 to cover the damages wrought
+by Confederate cruisers fitted out in England.
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM H. SEWARD]
+
+In all fairness it should be said that the conduct of the North
+contributed to the irritation between the two countries. Seward, the
+Secretary of State, was vindictive in dealing with Great Britain; had it
+not been for the moderation of Lincoln, he would have pursued a course
+verging in the direction of open war. The New York and Boston papers
+were severe in their attacks on England. Words were, on one occasion at
+least, accompanied by an act savoring of open hostility. In November,
+1861, Captain Wilkes, commanding a union vessel, overhauled the British
+steamer _Trent_, and carried off by force two Confederate agents, Mason
+and Slidell, sent by President Davis to represent the Confederacy at
+London and Paris respectively. This was a clear violation of the right
+of merchant vessels to be immune from search and impressment; and, in
+answer to the demand of Great Britain for the release of the two men,
+the United States conceded that it was in the wrong. It surrendered the
+two Confederate agents to a British vessel for safe conduct abroad, and
+made appropriate apologies.
+
+=Emancipation.=--Among the extreme war measures adopted by the Northern
+government must be counted the emancipation of the slaves in the states
+in arms against the union. This step was early and repeatedly suggested
+to Lincoln by the abolitionists; but was steadily put aside. He knew
+that the abolitionists were a mere handful, that emancipation might
+drive the border states into secession, and that the Northern soldiers
+had enlisted to save the union. Moreover, he had before him a solemn
+resolution passed by Congress on July 22, 1861, declaring the sole
+purpose of the war to be the salvation of the union and disavowing any
+intention of interfering with slavery.
+
+The federal government, though pledged to the preservation of slavery,
+soon found itself beaten back upon its course and out upon a new tack.
+Before a year had elapsed, namely on April 10, 1862, Congress resolved
+that financial aid should be given to any state that might adopt gradual
+emancipation. Six days later it abolished slavery in the District of
+Columbia. Two short months elapsed. On June 19, 1862, it swept slavery
+forever from the territories of the United States. Chief Justice Taney
+still lived, the Dred Scott decision stood as written in the book, but
+the Constitution had been re-read in the light of the Civil War. The
+drift of public sentiment in the North was being revealed.
+
+While these measures were pending in Congress, Lincoln was slowly making
+up his mind. By July of that year he had come to his great decision.
+Near the end of that month he read to his cabinet the draft of a
+proclamation of emancipation; but he laid it aside until a military
+achievement would make it something more than an idle gesture. In
+September, the severe check administered to Lee at Antietam seemed to
+offer the golden opportunity. On the 22d, the immortal document was
+given to the world announcing that, unless the states in arms returned
+to the union by January 1, 1863, the fatal blow at their "peculiar
+institution" would be delivered. Southern leaders treated it with slight
+regard, and so on the date set the promise was fulfilled. The
+proclamation was issued as a war measure, adopted by the President as
+commander-in-chief of the armed forces, on grounds of military
+necessity. It did not abolish slavery. It simply emancipated slaves in
+places then in arms against federal authority. Everywhere else slavery,
+as far as the Proclamation was concerned, remained lawful.
+
+[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN]
+
+To seal forever the proclamation of emancipation, and to extend freedom
+to the whole country, Congress, in January, 1865, on the urgent
+recommendation of Lincoln, transmitted to the states the thirteenth
+amendment, abolishing slavery throughout the United States. By the end
+of 1865 the amendment was ratified. The house was not divided against
+itself; it did not fall; it was all free.
+
+=The Restraint of Civil Liberty.=--As in all great wars, particularly
+those in the nature of a civil strife, it was found necessary to use
+strong measures to sustain opinion favorable to the administration's
+military policies and to frustrate the designs of those who sought to
+hamper its action. Within two weeks of his first call for volunteers,
+Lincoln empowered General Scott to suspend the writ of _habeas corpus_
+along the line of march between Philadelphia and Washington and thus to
+arrest and hold without interference from civil courts any one whom he
+deemed a menace to the union. At a later date the area thus ruled by
+military officers was extended by executive proclamation. By an act of
+March 3, 1863, Congress, desiring to lay all doubts about the
+President's power, authorized him to suspend the writ throughout the
+United States or in any part thereof. It also freed military officers
+from the necessity of surrendering to civil courts persons arrested
+under their orders, or even making answers to writs issued from such
+courts. In the autumn of that year the President, acting under the terms
+of this law, declared this ancient and honorable instrument for the
+protection of civil liberties, the _habeas corpus_, suspended throughout
+the length and breadth of the land. The power of the government was also
+strengthened by an act defining and punishing certain conspiracies,
+passed on July 31, 1861--a measure which imposed heavy penalties on
+those who by force, intimidation, or threat interfered with the
+execution of the law.
+
+Thus doubly armed, the military authorities spared no one suspected of
+active sympathy with the Southern cause. Editors were arrested and
+imprisoned, their papers suspended, and their newsboys locked up. Those
+who organized "peace meetings" soon found themselves in the toils of the
+law. Members of the Maryland legislature, the mayor of Baltimore, and
+local editors suspected of entertaining secessionist opinions, were
+imprisoned on military orders although charged with no offense, and were
+denied the privilege of examination before a civil magistrate. A Vermont
+farmer, too outspoken in his criticism of the government, found himself
+behind the bars until the government, in its good pleasure, saw fit to
+release him. These measures were not confined to the theater of war nor
+to the border states where the spirit of secession was strong enough to
+endanger the cause of union. They were applied all through the Northern
+states up to the very boundaries of Canada. Zeal for the national cause,
+too often supplemented by a zeal for persecution, spread terror among
+those who wavered in the singleness of their devotion to the union.
+
+These drastic operations on the part of military authorities, so foreign
+to the normal course of civilized life, naturally aroused intense and
+bitter hostility. Meetings of protest were held throughout the country.
+Thirty-six members of the House of Representatives sought to put on
+record their condemnation of the suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act,
+only to meet a firm denial by the supporters of the act. Chief Justice
+Taney, before whom the case of a man arrested under the President's
+military authority was brought, emphatically declared, in a long and
+learned opinion bristling with historical examples, that the President
+had no power to suspend the writ of _habeas corpus_. In Congress and
+out, Democrats, abolitionists, and champions of civil liberty denounced
+Lincoln and his Cabinet in unsparing terms. Vallandigham, a Democratic
+leader of Ohio, afterward banished to the South for his opposition to
+the war, constantly applied to Lincoln the epithet of "Caesar." Wendell
+Phillips saw in him "a more unlimited despot than the world knows this
+side of China."
+
+Sensitive to such stinging thrusts and no friend of wanton persecution,
+Lincoln attempted to mitigate the rigors of the law by paroling many
+political prisoners. The general policy, however, he defended in homely
+language, very different in tone and meaning from the involved reasoning
+of the lawyers. "Must I shoot a simple-minded soldier boy who deserts,
+while I must not touch a hair of the wily agitator who induces him to
+desert?" he asked in a quiet way of some spokesmen for those who
+protested against arresting people for "talking against the war." This
+summed up his philosophy. He was engaged in a war to save the union, and
+all measures necessary and proper to accomplish that purpose were
+warranted by the Constitution which he had sworn to uphold.
+
+=Military Strategy--North and South.=--The broad outlines of military
+strategy followed by the commanders of the opposing forces are clear
+even to the layman who cannot be expected to master the details of a
+campaign or, for that matter, the maneuvers of a single great battle.
+The problem for the South was one of defense mainly, though even for
+defense swift and paralyzing strokes at the North were later deemed
+imperative measures. The problem of the North was, to put it baldly, one
+of invasion and conquest. Southern territory had to be invaded and
+Southern armies beaten on their own ground or worn down to exhaustion
+there.
+
+In the execution of this undertaking, geography, as usual, played a
+significant part in the disposition of forces. The Appalachian ranges,
+stretching through the Confederacy to Northern Alabama, divided the
+campaigns into Eastern and Western enterprises. Both were of signal
+importance. Victory in the East promised the capture of the Confederate
+capital of Richmond, a stroke of moral worth, hardly to be
+overestimated. Victory in the West meant severing the Confederacy and
+opening the Mississippi Valley down to the Gulf.
+
+As it turned out, the Western forces accomplished their task first,
+vindicating the military powers of union soldiers and shaking the
+confidence of opposing commanders. In February, 1862, Grant captured
+Fort Donelson on the Tennessee River, rallied wavering unionists in
+Kentucky, forced the evacuation of Nashville, and opened the way for two
+hundred miles into the Confederacy. At Shiloh, Murfreesboro, Vicksburg,
+Chickamauga, Chattanooga, desperate fighting followed and, in spite of
+varying fortunes, it resulted in the discomfiture and retirement of
+Confederate forces to the Southeast into Georgia. By the middle of 1863,
+the Mississippi Valley was open to the Gulf, the initiative taken out of
+the hands of Southern commanders in the West, and the way prepared for
+Sherman's final stroke--the march from Atlanta to the sea--a maneuver
+executed with needless severity in the autumn of 1864.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL ULYSSES S. GRANT]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE]
+
+For the almost unbroken succession of achievements in the West by
+Generals Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Hooker against Albert Sidney
+Johnston, Bragg, Pemberton, and Hood, the union forces in the East
+offered at first an almost equally unbroken series of misfortunes and
+disasters. Far from capturing Richmond, they had been thrown on the
+defensive. General after general--McClellan, Pope, Burnside, Hooker, and
+Meade--was tried and found wanting. None of them could administer a
+crushing defeat to the Confederate troops and more than once the union
+soldiers were beaten in a fair battle. They did succeed, however, in
+delivering a severe check to advancing Confederates under General Robert
+E. Lee, first at Antietam in September, 1862, and then at Gettysburg in
+July, 1863--checks reckoned as victories though in each instance the
+Confederates escaped without demoralization. Not until the beginning of
+the next year, when General Grant, supplied with almost unlimited men
+and munitions, began his irresistible hammering at Lee's army, did the
+final phase of the war commence. The pitiless drive told at last.
+General Lee, on April 9, 1865, seeing the futility of further conflict,
+surrendered an army still capable of hard fighting, at Appomattox, not
+far from the capital of the Confederacy.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+THE FEDERAL MILITARY HOSPITAL AT GETTYSBURG]
+
+=Abraham Lincoln.=--The services of Lincoln to the cause of union defy
+description. A judicial scrutiny of the war reveals his thought and
+planning in every part of the varied activity that finally crowned
+Northern arms with victory. Is it in the field of diplomacy? Does
+Seward, the Secretary of State, propose harsh and caustic measures
+likely to draw England's sword into the scale? Lincoln counsels
+moderation. He takes the irritating message and with his own hand
+strikes out, erases, tones down, and interlines, exchanging for words
+that sting and burn the language of prudence and caution. Is it a matter
+of compromise with the South, so often proposed by men on both sides
+sick of carnage? Lincoln is always ready to listen and turns away only
+when he is invited to surrender principles essential to the safety of
+the union. Is it high strategy of war, a question of the general best
+fitted to win Gettysburg--Hooker, Sedgwick, or Meade? Lincoln goes in
+person to the War Department in the dead of night to take counsel with
+his Secretary and to make the fateful choice.
+
+Is it a complaint from a citizen, deprived, as he believes, of his civil
+liberties unjustly or in violation of the Constitution? Lincoln is ready
+to hear it and anxious to afford relief, if warrant can be found for it.
+Is a mother begging for the life of a son sentenced to be shot as a
+deserter? Lincoln hears her petition, and grants it even against the
+protests made by his generals in the name of military discipline. Do
+politicians sow dissensions in the army and among civilians? Lincoln
+grandly waves aside their petty personalities and invites them to think
+of the greater cause. Is it a question of securing votes to ratify the
+thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery? Lincoln thinks it not beneath
+his dignity to traffic and huckster with politicians over the trifling
+jobs asked in return by the members who hold out against him. Does a New
+York newspaper call him an ignorant Western boor? Lincoln's reply is a
+letter to a mother who has given her all--her sons on the field of
+battle--and an address at Gettysburg, both of which will live as long as
+the tongue in which they were written. These are tributes not only to
+his mastery of the English language but also to his mastery of all those
+sentiments of sweetness and strength which are the finest flowers of
+culture.
+
+Throughout the entire span of service, however, Lincoln was beset by
+merciless critics. The fiery apostles of abolition accused him of
+cowardice when he delayed the bold stroke at slavery. Anti-war Democrats
+lashed out at every step he took. Even in his own party he found no
+peace. Charles Sumner complained: "Our President is now dictator,
+_imperator_--whichever you like; but how vain to have the power of a
+god and not to use it godlike." Leaders among the Republicans sought to
+put him aside in 1864 and place Chase in his chair. "I hope we may never
+have a worse man," was Lincoln's quiet answer.
+
+Wide were the dissensions in the North during that year and the
+Republicans, while selecting Lincoln as their candidate again, cast off
+their old name and chose the simple title of the "Union party."
+Moreover, they selected a Southern man, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, to
+be associated with him as candidate for Vice President. This combination
+the Northern Democrats boldly confronted with a platform declaring that
+"after four years of failure to restore the union by the experiment of
+war, during which, under the pretence of military necessity or war power
+higher than the Constitution, the Constitution itself has been
+disregarded in every part and public liberty and private right alike
+trodden down ... justice, humanity, liberty, and public welfare demand
+that immediate efforts be made for a cessation of hostilities, to the
+end that peace may be restored on the basis of the federal union of the
+states." It is true that the Democratic candidate, General McClellan,
+sought to break the yoke imposed upon him by the platform, saying that
+he could not look his old comrades in the face and pronounce their
+efforts vain; but the party call to the nation to repudiate Lincoln and
+his works had gone forth. The response came, giving Lincoln 2,200,000
+votes against 1,800,000 for his opponent. The bitter things said about
+him during the campaign, he forgot and forgave. When in April, 1865, he
+was struck down by the assassin's hand, he above all others in
+Washington was planning measures of moderation and healing.
+
+
+THE RESULTS OF THE CIVIL WAR
+
+There is a strong and natural tendency on the part of writers to stress
+the dramatic and heroic aspects of war; but the long judgment of history
+requires us to include all other significant phases as well. Like every
+great armed conflict, the Civil War outran the purposes of those who
+took part in it. Waged over the nature of the union, it made a
+revolution in the union, changing public policies and constitutional
+principles and giving a new direction to agriculture and industry.
+
+=The Supremacy of the Union.=--First and foremost, the war settled for
+all time the long dispute as to the nature of the federal system. The
+doctrine of state sovereignty was laid to rest. Men might still speak of
+the rights of states and think of their commonwealths with affection,
+but nullification and secession were destroyed. The nation was supreme.
+
+=The Destruction of the Slave Power.=--Next to the vindication of
+national supremacy was the destruction of the planting aristocracy of
+the South--that great power which had furnished leadership of undoubted
+ability and had so long contested with the industrial and commercial
+interests of the North. The first paralyzing blow at the planters was
+struck by the abolition of slavery. The second and third came with the
+fourteenth (1868) and fifteenth (1870) amendments, giving the ballot to
+freedmen and excluding from public office the Confederate
+leaders--driving from the work of reconstruction the finest talents of
+the South. As if to add bitterness to gall and wormwood, the fourteenth
+amendment forbade the United States or any state to pay any debts
+incurred in aid of the Confederacy or in the emancipation of the
+slaves--plunging into utter bankruptcy the Southern financiers who had
+stripped their section of capital to support their cause. So the
+Southern planters found themselves excluded from public office and ruled
+over by their former bondmen under the tutelage of Republican leaders.
+Their labor system was wrecked and their money and bonds were as
+worthless as waste paper. The South was subject to the North. That which
+neither the Federalists nor the Whigs had been able to accomplish in the
+realm of statecraft was accomplished on the field of battle.
+
+=The Triumph of Industry.=--The wreck of the planting system was
+accompanied by a mighty upswing of Northern industry which made the old
+Whigs of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania stare in wonderment. The demands
+of the federal government for manufactured goods at unrestricted prices
+gave a stimulus to business which more than replaced the lost markets of
+the South. Between 1860 and 1870 the number of manufacturing
+establishments increased 79.6 per cent as against 14.2 for the previous
+decade; while the number of persons employed almost doubled. There was
+no doubt about the future of American industry.
+
+=The Victory for the Protective Tariff.=--Moreover, it was henceforth to
+be well protected. For many years before the war the friends of
+protection had been on the defensive. The tariff act of 1857 imposed
+duties so low as to presage a tariff for revenue only. The war changed
+all that. The extraordinary military expenditures, requiring heavy taxes
+on all sources, justified tariffs so high that a follower of Clay or
+Webster might well have gasped with astonishment. After the war was over
+the debt remained and both interest and principal had to be paid.
+Protective arguments based on economic reasoning were supported by a
+plain necessity for revenue which admitted no dispute.
+
+=A Liberal Immigration Policy.=--Linked with industry was the labor
+supply. The problem of manning industries became a pressing matter, and
+Republican leaders grappled with it. In the platform of the Union party
+adopted in 1864 it was declared "that foreign immigration, which in the
+past has added so much to the wealth, the development of resources, and
+the increase of power to this nation--the asylum of the oppressed of all
+nations--should be fostered and encouraged by a liberal and just
+policy." In that very year Congress, recognizing the importance of the
+problem, passed a measure of high significance, creating a bureau of
+immigration, and authorizing a modified form of indentured labor, by
+making it legal for immigrants to pledge their wages in advance to pay
+their passage over. Though the bill was soon repealed, the practice
+authorized by it was long continued. The cheapness of the passage
+shortened the term of service; but the principle was older than the
+days of William Penn.
+
+=The Homestead Act of 1862.=--In the immigration measure guaranteeing a
+continuous and adequate labor supply, the manufacturers saw an offset to
+the Homestead Act of 1862 granting free lands to settlers. The Homestead
+law they had resisted in a long and bitter congressional battle.
+Naturally, they had not taken kindly to a scheme which lured men away
+from the factories or enabled them to make unlimited demands for higher
+wages as the price of remaining. Southern planters likewise had feared
+free homesteads for the very good reason that they only promised to add
+to the overbalancing power of the North.
+
+In spite of the opposition, supporters of a liberal land policy made
+steady gains. Free-soil Democrats,--Jacksonian farmers and
+mechanics,--labor reformers, and political leaders, like Stephen A.
+Douglas of Illinois and Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, kept up the
+agitation in season and out. More than once were they able to force a
+homestead bill through the House of Representatives only to have it
+blocked in the Senate where Southern interests were intrenched. Then,
+after the Senate was won over, a Democratic President, James Buchanan,
+vetoed the bill. Still the issue lived. The Republicans, strong among
+the farmers of the Northwest, favored it from the beginning and pressed
+it upon the attention of the country. Finally the manufacturers yielded;
+they received their compensation in the contract labor law. In 1862
+Congress provided for the free distribution of land in 160-acre lots
+among men and women of strong arms and willing hearts ready to build
+their serried lines of homesteads to the Rockies and beyond.
+
+=Internal Improvements.=--If farmers and manufacturers were early
+divided on the matter of free homesteads, the same could hardly be said
+of internal improvements. The Western tiller of the soil was as eager
+for some easy way of sending his produce to market as the manufacturer
+was for the same means to transport his goods to the consumer on the
+farm. While the Confederate leaders were writing into their
+constitution a clause forbidding all appropriations for internal
+improvements, the Republican leaders at Washington were planning such
+expenditures from the treasury in the form of public land grants to
+railways as would have dazed the authors of the national road bill half
+a century earlier.
+
+=Sound Finance--National Banking.=--From Hamilton's day to Lincoln's,
+business men in the East had contended for a sound system of national
+currency. The experience of the states with paper money, painfully
+impressive in the years before the framing of the Constitution, had been
+convincing to those who understood the economy of business. The
+Constitution, as we have seen, bore the signs of this experience. States
+were forbidden to emit bills of credit: paper money, in short. This
+provision stood clear in the document; but judicial ingenuity had
+circumvented it in the age of Jacksonian Democracy. The states had
+enacted and the Supreme Court, after the death of John Marshall, had
+sustained laws chartering banking companies and authorizing them to
+issue paper money. So the country was beset by the old curse, the banks
+of Western and Southern states issuing reams of paper notes to help
+borrowers pay their debts.
+
+In dealing with war finances, the Republicans attacked this ancient
+evil. By act of Congress in 1864, they authorized a series of national
+banks founded on the credit of government bonds and empowered to issue
+notes. The next year they stopped all bank paper sent forth under the
+authority of the states by means of a prohibitive tax. In this way, by
+two measures Congress restored federal control over the monetary system
+although it did not reestablish the United States Bank so hated by
+Jacksonian Democracy.
+
+=Destruction of States' Rights by Fourteenth Amendment.=--These acts and
+others not cited here were measures of centralization and consolidation
+at the expense of the powers and dignity of the states. They were all of
+high import, but the crowning act of nationalism was the fourteenth
+amendment which, among other things, forbade states to "deprive any
+person of life, liberty or property without due process of law." The
+immediate occasion, though not the actual cause of this provision, was
+the need for protecting the rights of freedmen against hostile
+legislatures in the South. The result of the amendment, as was
+prophesied in protests loud and long from every quarter of the
+Democratic party, was the subjection of every act of state, municipal,
+and county authorities to possible annulment by the Supreme Court at
+Washington. The expected happened.
+
+Few negroes ever brought cases under the fourteenth amendment to the
+attention of the courts; but thousands of state laws, municipal
+ordinances, and acts of local authorities were set aside as null and
+void under it. Laws of states regulating railway rates, fixing hours of
+labor in bakeshops, and taxing corporations were in due time to be
+annulled as conflicting with an amendment erroneously supposed to be
+designed solely for the protection of negroes. As centralized power over
+tariffs, railways, public lands, and other national concerns went to
+Congress, so centralized power over the acts of state and local
+authorities involving an infringement of personal and property rights
+was conferred on the federal judiciary, the apex of which was the
+Supreme Court at Washington. Thus the old federation of "independent
+states," all equal in rights and dignity, each wearing the "jewel of
+sovereignty" so celebrated in Southern oratory, had gone the way of all
+flesh under the withering blasts of Civil War.
+
+
+RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH
+
+=Theories about the Position of the Seceded States.=--On the morning of
+April 9, 1865, when General Lee surrendered his army to General Grant,
+eleven states stood in a peculiar relation to the union now declared
+perpetual. Lawyers and political philosophers were much perturbed and
+had been for some time as to what should be done with the members of the
+former Confederacy. Radical Republicans held that they were "conquered
+provinces" at the mercy of Congress, to be governed under such laws as
+it saw fit to enact and until in its wisdom it decided to readmit any or
+all of them to the union. Men of more conservative views held that, as
+the war had been waged by the North on the theory that no state could
+secede from the union, the Confederate states had merely attempted to
+withdraw and had failed. The corollary of this latter line of argument
+was simple: "The Southern states are still in the union and it is the
+duty of the President, as commander-in-chief, to remove the federal
+troops as soon as order is restored and the state governments ready to
+function once more as usual."
+
+=Lincoln's Proposal.=--Some such simple and conservative form of
+reconstruction had been suggested by Lincoln in a proclamation of
+December 8, 1863. He proposed pardon and a restoration of property,
+except in slaves, to nearly all who had "directly or by implication
+participated in the existing rebellion," on condition that they take an
+oath of loyalty to the union. He then announced that when, in any of the
+states named, a body of voters, qualified under the law as it stood
+before secession and equal in number to one-tenth the votes cast in
+1860, took the oath of allegiance, they should be permitted to
+reestablish a state government. Such a government, he added, should be
+recognized as a lawful authority and entitled to protection under the
+federal Constitution. With reference to the status of the former slaves
+Lincoln made it clear that, while their freedom must be recognized, he
+would not object to any legislation "which may yet be consistent as a
+temporary arrangement with their present condition as a laboring,
+landless, and homeless class."
+
+=Andrew Johnson's Plan--His Impeachment.=--Lincoln's successor, Andrew
+Johnson, the Vice President, soon after taking office, proposed to
+pursue a somewhat similar course. In a number of states he appointed
+military governors, instructing them at the earliest possible moment to
+assemble conventions, chosen "by that portion of the people of the said
+states who are loyal to the United States," and proceed to the
+organization of regular civil government. Johnson, a Southern man and a
+Democrat, was immediately charged by the Republicans with being too
+ready to restore the Southern states. As the months went by, the
+opposition to his measures and policies in Congress grew in size and
+bitterness. The contest resulted in the impeachment of Johnson by the
+House of Representatives in March, 1868, and his acquittal by the Senate
+merely because his opponents lacked one vote of the two-thirds required
+for conviction.
+
+=Congress Enacts "Reconstruction Laws."=--In fact, Congress was in a
+strategic position. It was the law-making body, and it could, moreover,
+determine the conditions under which Senators and Representatives from
+the South were to be readmitted. It therefore proceeded to pass a series
+of reconstruction acts--carrying all of them over Johnson's veto. These
+measures, the first of which became a law on March 2, 1867, betrayed an
+animus not found anywhere in Lincoln's plans or Johnson's proclamations.
+
+They laid off the ten states--the whole Confederacy with the exception
+of Tennessee--still outside the pale, into five military districts, each
+commanded by a military officer appointed by the President. They ordered
+the commanding general to prepare a register of voters for the election
+of delegates to conventions chosen for the purpose of drafting new
+constitutions. Such voters, however, were not to be, as Lincoln had
+suggested, loyal persons duly qualified under the law existing before
+secession but "the male citizens of said state, twenty-one years old and
+upward, of whatever race, color, or previous condition, ... except such
+as may be disfranchised for participation in the rebellion or for felony
+at common law." This was the death knell to the idea that the leaders of
+the Confederacy and their white supporters might be permitted to share
+in the establishment of the new order. Power was thus arbitrarily thrust
+into the hands of the newly emancipated male negroes and the handful of
+whites who could show a record of loyalty. That was not all. Each state
+was, under the reconstruction acts, compelled to ratify the fourteenth
+amendment to the federal Constitution as a price of restoration to the
+union.
+
+The composition of the conventions thus authorized may be imagined.
+Bondmen without the asking and without preparation found themselves the
+governing power. An army of adventurers from the North, "carpet baggers"
+as they were called, poured in upon the scene to aid in
+"reconstruction." Undoubtedly many men of honor and fine intentions gave
+unstinted service, but the results of their deliberations only
+aggravated the open wound left by the war. Any number of political
+doctors offered their prescriptions; but no effective remedy could be
+found. Under measures admittedly open to grave objections, the Southern
+states were one after another restored to the union by the grace of
+Congress, the last one in 1870. Even this grudging concession of the
+formalities of statehood did not mean a full restoration of honors and
+privileges. The last soldier was not withdrawn from the last Southern
+capital until 1877, and federal control over elections long remained as
+a sign of congressional supremacy.
+
+=The Status of the Freedmen.=--Even more intricate than the issues
+involved in restoring the seceded states to the union was the question
+of what to do with the newly emancipated slaves. That problem, often put
+to abolitionists before the war, had become at last a real concern. The
+thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery had not touched it at all. It
+declared bondmen free, but did nothing to provide them with work or
+homes and did not mention the subject of political rights. All these
+matters were left to the states, and the legislatures of some of them,
+by their famous "black codes," restored a form of servitude under the
+guise of vagrancy and apprentice laws. Such methods were in fact partly
+responsible for the reaction that led Congress to abandon Lincoln's
+policies and undertake its own program of reconstruction.
+
+Still no extensive effort was made to solve by law the economic problems
+of the bondmen. Radical abolitionists had advocated that the slaves when
+emancipated should be given outright the fields of their former
+masters; but Congress steadily rejected the very idea of confiscation.
+The necessity of immediate assistance it recognized by creating in 1865
+the Freedmen's Bureau to take care of refugees. It authorized the issue
+of food and clothing to the destitute and the renting of abandoned and
+certain other lands under federal control to former slaves at reasonable
+rates. But the larger problem of the relation of the freedmen to the
+land, it left to the slow working of time.
+
+Against sharp protests from conservative men, particularly among the
+Democrats, Congress did insist, however, on conferring upon the freedmen
+certain rights by national law. These rights fell into broad divisions,
+civil and political. By an act passed in 1866, Congress gave to former
+slaves the rights of white citizens in the matter of making contracts,
+giving testimony in courts, and purchasing, selling, and leasing
+property. As it was doubtful whether Congress had the power to enact
+this law, there was passed and submitted to the states the fourteenth
+amendment which gave citizenship to the freedmen, assured them of the
+privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, and declared
+that no state should deprive any person of his life, liberty, or
+property without due process of law. Not yet satisfied, Congress
+attempted to give social equality to negroes by the second civil rights
+bill of 1875 which promised to them, among other things, the full and
+equal enjoyment of inns, theaters, public conveyances, and places of
+amusement--a law later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
+
+The matter of political rights was even more hotly contested; but the
+radical Republicans, like Charles Sumner, asserted that civil rights
+were not secure unless supported by the suffrage. In this same
+fourteenth amendment they attempted to guarantee the ballot to all negro
+men, leaving the women to take care of themselves. The amendment
+declared in effect that when any state deprived adult male citizens of
+the right to vote, its representation in Congress should be reduced in
+the proportion such persons bore to the voting population.
+
+This provision having failed to accomplish its purpose, the fifteenth
+amendment was passed and ratified, expressly declaring that no citizen
+should be deprived of the right to vote "on account of race, color, or
+previous condition of servitude." To make assurance doubly secure,
+Congress enacted in 1870, 1872, and 1873 three drastic laws, sometimes
+known as "force bills," providing for the use of federal authorities,
+civil and military, in supervising elections in all parts of the Union.
+So the federal government, having destroyed chattel slavery, sought by
+legal decree to sweep away all its signs and badges, civil, social, and
+political. Never, save perhaps in some of the civil conflicts of Greece
+or Rome, had there occurred in the affairs of a nation a social
+revolution so complete, so drastic, and far-reaching in its results.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF THE SECTIONAL CONFLICT
+
+Just as the United States, under the impetus of Western enterprise,
+rounded out the continental domain, its very existence as a nation was
+challenged by a fratricidal conflict between two sections. This storm
+had been long gathering upon the horizon. From the very beginning in
+colonial times there had been a marked difference between the South and
+the North. The former by climate and soil was dedicated to a planting
+system--the cultivation of tobacco, rice, cotton, and sugar cane--and in
+the course of time slave labor became the foundation of the system. The
+North, on the other hand, supplemented agriculture by commerce, trade,
+and manufacturing. Slavery, though lawful, did not flourish there. An
+abundant supply of free labor kept the Northern wheels turning.
+
+This difference between the two sections, early noted by close
+observers, was increased with the advent of the steam engine and the
+factory system. Between 1815 and 1860 an industrial revolution took
+place in the North. Its signs were gigantic factories, huge aggregations
+of industrial workers, immense cities, a flourishing commerce, and
+prosperous banks. Finding an unfavorable reception in the South, the new
+industrial system was confined mainly to the North. By canals and
+railways New York, Boston, and Philadelphia were linked with the
+wheatfields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. A steel net wove North and
+Northwest together. A commercial net supplemented it. Western trade was
+diverted from New Orleans to the East and Eastern credit sustained
+Western enterprise.
+
+In time, the industrial North and the planting South evolved different
+ideas of political policy. The former looked with favor on protective
+tariffs, ship subsidies, a sound national banking system, and internal
+improvements. The farmers of the West demanded that the public domain be
+divided up into free homesteads for farmers. The South steadily swung
+around to the opposite view. Its spokesmen came to regard most of these
+policies as injurious to the planting interests.
+
+The economic questions were all involved in a moral issue. The Northern
+states, in which slavery was of slight consequence, had early abolished
+the institution. In the course of a few years there appeared
+uncompromising advocates of universal emancipation. Far and wide the
+agitation spread. The South was thoroughly frightened. It demanded
+protection against the agitators, the enforcement of its rights in the
+case of runaway slaves, and equal privileges for slavery in the new
+territories.
+
+With the passing years the conflict between the two sections increased
+in bitterness. It flamed up in 1820 and was allayed by the Missouri
+compromise. It took on the form of a tariff controversy and
+nullification in 1832. It appeared again after the Mexican war when the
+question of slavery in the new territories was raised. Again
+compromise--the great settlement of 1850--seemed to restore peace, only
+to prove an illusion. A series of startling events swept the country
+into war: the repeal of the Missouri compromise in 1854, the rise of the
+Republican party pledged to the prohibition of slavery in the
+territories, the Dred Scott decision of 1857, the Lincoln-Douglas
+debates, John Brown's raid, the election of Lincoln, and secession.
+
+The Civil War, lasting for four years, tested the strength of both North
+and South, in leadership, in finance, in diplomatic skill, in material
+resources, in industry, and in armed forces. By the blockade of Southern
+ports, by an overwhelming weight of men and materials, and by relentless
+hammering on the field of battle, the North was victorious.
+
+The results of the war were revolutionary in character. Slavery was
+abolished and the freedmen given the ballot. The Southern planters who
+had been the leaders of their section were ruined financially and almost
+to a man excluded from taking part in political affairs. The union was
+declared to be perpetual and the right of a state to secede settled by
+the judgment of battle. Federal control over the affairs of states,
+counties, and cities was established by the fourteenth amendment. The
+power and prestige of the federal government were enhanced beyond
+imagination. The North was now free to pursue its economic policies: a
+protective tariff, a national banking system, land grants for railways,
+free lands for farmers. Planting had dominated the country for nearly a
+generation. Business enterprise was to take its place.
+
+
+=References=
+
+NORTHERN ACCOUNTS
+
+J.K. Hosmer, _The Appeal to Arms_ and _The Outcome of the Civil War_
+(American Nation Series).
+
+J. Ropes, _History of the Civil War_ (best account of military
+campaigns).
+
+J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vols. III, IV, and V.
+
+J.T. Morse, _Abraham Lincoln_ (2 vols.).
+
+
+SOUTHERN ACCOUNTS
+
+W.E. Dodd, _Jefferson Davis_.
+
+Jefferson Davis, _Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government_.
+
+E. Pollard, _The Lost Cause_.
+
+A.H. Stephens, _The War between the States_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Contrast the reception of secession in 1860 with that given to
+nullification in 1832.
+
+2. Compare the Northern and Southern views of the union.
+
+3. What were the peculiar features of the Confederate constitution?
+
+4. How was the Confederacy financed?
+
+5. Compare the resources of the two sections.
+
+6. On what foundations did Southern hopes rest?
+
+7. Describe the attempts at a peaceful settlement.
+
+8. Compare the raising of armies for the Civil War with the methods
+employed in the World War. (See below, chapter XXV.)
+
+9. Compare the financial methods of the government in the two wars.
+
+10. Explain why the blockade was such a deadly weapon.
+
+11. Give the leading diplomatic events of the war.
+
+12. Trace the growth of anti-slavery sentiment.
+
+13. What measures were taken to restrain criticism of the government?
+
+14. What part did Lincoln play in all phases of the war?
+
+15. State the principal results of the war.
+
+16. Compare Lincoln's plan of reconstruction with that adopted by
+Congress.
+
+17. What rights did Congress attempt to confer upon the former slaves?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Was Secession Lawful?=--The Southern view by Jefferson Davis in
+Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating American History_, pp. 364-369.
+Lincoln's view, Harding, pp. 371-381.
+
+=The Confederate Constitution.=--Compare with the federal Constitution
+in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 424-433 and pp. 271-279.
+
+=Federal Legislative Measures.=--Prepare a table and brief digest of the
+important laws relating to the war. Macdonald, pp. 433-482.
+
+=Economic Aspects of the War.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United
+States_, pp. 279-301. Dewey, _Financial History of the United States_,
+Chaps. XII and XIII. Tabulate the economic measures of Congress in
+Macdonald.
+
+=Military Campaigns.=--The great battles are fully treated in Rhodes,
+_History of the Civil War_, and teachers desiring to emphasize military
+affairs may assign campaigns to members of the class for study and
+report. A briefer treatment in Elson, _History of the United States_,
+pp. 641-785.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--Lincoln, Davis, Lee, Grant, Sherman, and other
+leaders in civil and military affairs, with reference to local "war
+governors."
+
+=English and French Opinion of the War.=--Rhodes, _History of the United
+States_, Vol. IV, pp. 337-394.
+
+=The South during the War.=--Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. 343-382.
+
+=The North during the War.=--Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. 189-342.
+
+=Reconstruction Measures.=--Macdonald, _Source Book_, pp. 500-511;
+514-518; 529-530; Elson, pp. 786-799.
+
+=The Force Bills.=--Macdonald, pp. 547-551; 554-564.
+
+
+
+
+PART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH
+
+
+The outcome of the Civil War in the South was nothing short of a
+revolution. The ruling class, the law, and the government of the old
+order had been subverted. To political chaos was added the havoc wrought
+in agriculture, business, and transportation by military operations. And
+as if to fill the cup to the brim, the task of reconstruction was
+committed to political leaders from another section of the country,
+strangers to the life and traditions of the South.
+
+
+THE SOUTH AT THE CLOSE OF THE WAR
+
+=A Ruling Class Disfranchised.=--As the sovereignty of the planters had
+been the striking feature of the old regime, so their ruin was the
+outstanding fact of the new. The situation was extraordinary. The
+American Revolution was carried out by people experienced in the arts of
+self-government, and at its close they were free to follow the general
+course to which they had long been accustomed. The French Revolution
+witnessed the overthrow of the clergy and the nobility; but middle
+classes who took their places had been steadily rising in intelligence
+and wealth.
+
+The Southern Revolution was unlike either of these cataclysms. It was
+not brought about by a social upheaval, but by an external crisis. It
+did not enfranchise a class that sought and understood power, but
+bondmen who had played no part in the struggle. Moreover it struck down
+a class equipped to rule. The leading planters were almost to a man
+excluded from state and federal offices, and the fourteenth amendment
+was a bar to their return. All civil and military places under the
+authority of the United States and of the states were closed to every
+man who had taken an oath to support the Constitution as a member of
+Congress, as a state legislator, or as a state or federal officer, and
+afterward engaged in "insurrection or rebellion," or "given aid and
+comfort to the enemies" of the United States. This sweeping provision,
+supplemented by the reconstruction acts, laid under the ban most of the
+talent, energy, and spirit of the South.
+
+=The Condition of the State Governments.=--The legislative, executive,
+and judicial branches of the state governments thus passed into the
+control of former slaves, led principally by Northern adventurers or
+Southern novices, known as "Scalawags." The result was a carnival of
+waste, folly, and corruption. The "reconstruction" assembly of South
+Carolina bought clocks at $480 apiece and chandeliers at $650. To
+purchase land for former bondmen the sum of $800,000 was appropriated;
+and swamps bought at seventy-five cents an acre were sold to the state
+at five times the cost. In the years between 1868 and 1873, the debt of
+the state rose from about $5,800,000 to $24,000,000, and millions of the
+increase could not be accounted for by the authorities responsible for
+it.
+
+=Economic Ruin--Urban and Rural.=--No matter where Southern men turned
+in 1865 they found devastation--in the towns, in the country, and along
+the highways. Atlanta, the city to which Sherman applied the torch, lay
+in ashes; Nashville and Chattanooga had been partially wrecked; Richmond
+and Augusta had suffered severely from fires. Charleston was described
+by a visitor as "a city of ruins, of desolation, of vacant houses, of
+rotten wharves, of deserted warehouses, of weed gardens, of miles of
+grass-grown streets.... How few young men there are, how generally the
+young women are dressed in black! The flower of their proud aristocracy
+is buried on scores of battle fields."
+
+Those who journeyed through the country about the same time reported
+desolation equally widespread and equally pathetic. An English traveler
+who made his way along the course of the Tennessee River in 1870 wrote:
+"The trail of war is visible throughout the valley in burnt-up gin
+houses, ruined bridges, mills, and factories ... and large tracts of
+once cultivated land are stripped of every vestige of fencing. The
+roads, long neglected, are in disorder and, having in many places become
+impassable, new tracks have been made through the woods and fields
+without much respect to boundaries." Many a great plantation had been
+confiscated by the federal authorities while the owner was in
+Confederate service. Many more lay in waste. In the wake of the armies
+the homes of rich and poor alike, if spared the torch, had been
+despoiled of the stock and seeds necessary to renew agriculture.
+
+=Railways Dilapidated.=--Transportation was still more demoralized. This
+is revealed in the pages of congressional reports based upon first-hand
+investigations. One eloquent passage illustrates all the rest. From
+Pocahontas to Decatur, Alabama, a distance of 114 miles, we are told,
+the railroad was "almost entirely destroyed, except the road bed and
+iron rails, and they were in a very bad condition--every bridge and
+trestle destroyed, cross-ties rotten, buildings burned, water tanks
+gone, tracks grown up in weeds and bushes, not a saw mill near the line
+and the labor system of the country gone. About forty miles of the track
+were burned, the cross-ties entirely destroyed, and the rails bent and
+twisted in such a manner as to require great labor to straighten and a
+large portion of them requiring renewal."
+
+=Capital and Credit Destroyed.=--The fluid capital of the South, money
+and credit, was in the same prostrate condition as the material capital.
+The Confederate currency, inflated to the bursting point, had utterly
+collapsed and was as worthless as waste paper. The bonds of the
+Confederate government were equally valueless. Specie had nearly
+disappeared from circulation. The fourteenth amendment to the federal
+Constitution had made all "debts, obligations, and claims" incurred in
+aid of the Confederate cause "illegal and void." Millions of dollars
+owed to Northern creditors before the war were overdue and payment was
+pressed upon the debtors. Where such debts were secured by mortgages on
+land, executions against the property could be obtained in federal
+courts.
+
+
+THE RESTORATION OF WHITE SUPREMACY
+
+=Intimidation.=--In both politics and economics, the process of
+reconstruction in the South was slow and arduous. The first battle in
+the political contest for white supremacy was won outside the halls of
+legislatures and the courts of law. It was waged, in the main, by secret
+organizations, among which the Ku Klux Klan and the White Camelia were
+the most prominent. The first of these societies appeared in Tennessee
+in 1866 and held its first national convention the following year. It
+was in origin a social club. According to its announcement, its objects
+were "to protect the weak, the innocent, and the defenceless from the
+indignities, wrongs, and outrages of the lawless, the violent, and the
+brutal; and to succor the suffering, especially the widows and orphans
+of the Confederate soldiers." The whole South was called "the Empire"
+and was ruled by a "Grand Wizard." Each state was a realm and each
+county a province. In the secret orders there were enrolled over half a
+million men.
+
+The methods of the Ku Klux and the White Camelia were similar. Solemn
+parades of masked men on horses decked in long robes were held,
+sometimes in the daytime and sometimes at the dead of night. Notices
+were sent to obnoxious persons warning them to stop certain practices.
+If warning failed, something more convincing was tried. Fright was the
+emotion most commonly stirred. A horseman, at the witching hour of
+midnight, would ride up to the house of some offender, lift his head
+gear, take off a skull, and hand it to the trembling victim with the
+request that he hold it for a few minutes. Frequently violence was
+employed either officially or unofficially by members of the Klan. Tar
+and feathers were freely applied; the whip was sometimes laid on
+unmercifully, and occasionally a brutal murder was committed. Often the
+members were fired upon from bushes or behind trees, and swift
+retaliation followed. So alarming did the clashes become that in 1870
+Congress forbade interference with electors or going in disguise for the
+purpose of obstructing the exercise of the rights enjoyed under federal
+law.
+
+In anticipation of such a step on the part of the federal government,
+the Ku Klux was officially dissolved by the "Grand Wizard" in 1869.
+Nevertheless, the local societies continued their organization and
+methods. The spirit survived the national association. "On the whole,"
+says a Southern writer, "it is not easy to see what other course was
+open to the South.... Armed resistance was out of the question. And yet
+there must be some control had of the situation.... If force was denied,
+craft was inevitable."
+
+=The Struggle for the Ballot Box.=--The effects of intimidation were
+soon seen at elections. The freedman, into whose inexperienced hand the
+ballot had been thrust, was ordinarily loath to risk his head by the
+exercise of his new rights. He had not attained them by a long and
+laborious contest of his own and he saw no urgent reason why he should
+battle for the privilege of using them. The mere show of force, the mere
+existence of a threat, deterred thousands of ex-slaves from appearing at
+the polls. Thus the whites steadily recovered their dominance. Nothing
+could prevent it. Congress enacted force bills establishing federal
+supervision of elections and the Northern politicians protested against
+the return of former Confederates to practical, if not official, power;
+but all such opposition was like resistance to the course of nature.
+
+=Amnesty for Southerners.=--The recovery of white supremacy in this way
+was quickly felt in national councils. The Democratic party in the North
+welcomed it as a sign of its return to power. The more moderate
+Republicans, anxious to heal the breach in American unity, sought to
+encourage rather than to repress it. So it came about that amnesty for
+Confederates was widely advocated. Yet it must be said that the struggle
+for the removal of disabilities was stubborn and bitter. Lincoln, with
+characteristic generosity, in the midst of the war had issued a general
+proclamation of amnesty to nearly all who had been in arms against the
+Union, on condition that they take an oath of loyalty; but Johnson,
+vindictive toward Southern leaders and determined to make "treason
+infamous," had extended the list of exceptions. Congress, even more
+relentless in its pursuit of Confederates, pushed through the fourteenth
+amendment which worked the sweeping disabilities we have just described.
+
+To appeals for comprehensive clemency, Congress was at first adamant. In
+vain did men like Carl Schurz exhort their colleagues to crown their
+victory in battle with a noble act of universal pardon and oblivion.
+Congress would not yield. It would grant amnesty in individual cases;
+for the principle of proscription it stood fast. When finally in 1872,
+seven years after the surrender at Appomattox, it did pass the general
+amnesty bill, it insisted on certain exceptions. Confederates who had
+been members of Congress just before the war, or had served in other
+high posts, civil or military, under the federal government, were still
+excluded from important offices. Not until the summer of 1898, when the
+war with Spain produced once more a union of hearts, did Congress relent
+and abolish the last of the disabilities imposed on the Confederates.
+
+=The Force Bills Attacked and Nullified.=--The granting of amnesty
+encouraged the Democrats to redouble their efforts all along the line.
+In 1874 they captured the House of Representatives and declared war on
+the "force bills." As a Republican Senate blocked immediate repeal, they
+resorted to an ingenious parliamentary trick. To the appropriation bill
+for the support of the army they attached a "rider," or condition, to
+the effect that no troops should be used to sustain the Republican
+government in Louisiana. The Senate rejected the proposal. A deadlock
+ensued and Congress adjourned without making provision for the army.
+Satisfied with the technical victory, the Democrats let the army bill
+pass the next session, but kept up their fight on the force laws until
+they wrung from President Hayes a measure forbidding the use of United
+States troops in supervising elections. The following year they again
+had recourse to a rider on the army bill and carried it through, putting
+an end to the use of money for military control of elections. The
+reconstruction program was clearly going to pieces, and the Supreme
+Court helped along the process of dissolution by declaring parts of the
+laws invalid. In 1878 the Democrats even won a majority in the Senate
+and returned to power a large number of men once prominent in the
+Confederate cause.
+
+The passions of the war by this time were evidently cooling. A new
+generation of men was coming on the scene. The supremacy of the whites
+in the South, if not yet complete, was at least assured. Federal
+marshals, their deputies, and supervisors of elections still possessed
+authority over the polls, but their strength had been shorn by the
+withdrawal of United States troops. The war on the remaining remnants of
+the "force bills" lapsed into desultory skirmishing. When in 1894 the
+last fragment was swept away, the country took little note of the fact.
+The only task that lay before the Southern leaders was to write in the
+constitutions of their respective states the provisions of law which
+would clinch the gains so far secured and establish white supremacy
+beyond the reach of outside intervention.
+
+=White Supremacy Sealed by New State Constitutions.=--The impetus to
+this final step was given by the rise of the Populist movement in the
+South, which sharply divided the whites and in many communities threw
+the balance of power into the hands of the few colored voters who
+survived the process of intimidation. Southern leaders now devised new
+constitutions so constructed as to deprive negroes of the ballot by law.
+Mississippi took the lead in 1890; South Carolina followed five years
+later; Louisiana, in 1898; North Carolina, in 1900; Alabama and
+Maryland, in 1901; and Virginia, in 1902.
+
+The authors of these measures made no attempt to conceal their purposes.
+"The intelligent white men of the South," said Governor Tillman, "intend
+to govern here." The fifteenth amendment to the federal Constitution,
+however, forbade them to deprive any citizen of the right to vote on
+account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. This made
+necessary the devices of indirection. They were few, simple, and
+effective. The first and most easily administered was the ingenious
+provision requiring each prospective voter to read a section of the
+state constitution or "understand and explain it" when read to him by
+the election officers. As an alternative, the payment of taxes or the
+ownership of a small amount of property was accepted as a qualification
+for voting. Southern leaders, unwilling to disfranchise any of the poor
+white men who had stood side by side with them "in the dark days of
+reconstruction," also resorted to a famous provision known as "the
+grandfather clause." This plan admitted to the suffrage any man who did
+not have either property or educational qualifications, provided he had
+voted on or before 1867 or was the son or grandson of any such person.
+
+The devices worked effectively. Of the 147,000 negroes in Mississippi
+above the age of twenty-one, only about 8600 registered under the
+constitution of 1890. Louisiana had 127,000 colored voters enrolled in
+1896; under the constitution drafted two years later the registration
+fell to 5300. An analysis of the figures for South Carolina in 1900
+indicates that only about one negro out of every hundred adult males of
+that race took part in elections. Thus was closed this chapter of
+reconstruction.
+
+=The Supreme Court Refuses to Intervene.=--Numerous efforts were made to
+prevail upon the Supreme Court of the United States to declare such laws
+unconstitutional; but the Court, usually on technical grounds, avoided
+coming to a direct decision on the merits of the matter. In one case
+the Court remarked that it could not take charge of and operate the
+election machinery of Alabama; it concluded that "relief from a great
+political wrong, if done as alleged, by the people of a state and by the
+state itself, must be given by them, or by the legislative and executive
+departments of the government of the United States." Only one of the
+several schemes employed, namely, the "grandfather clause," was held to
+be a violation of the federal Constitution. This blow, effected in 1915
+by the decision in the Oklahoma and Maryland cases, left, however, the
+main structure of disfranchisement unimpaired.
+
+=Proposals to Reduce Southern Representation in Congress.=--These
+provisions excluding thousands of male citizens from the ballot did not,
+in express terms, deprive any one of the vote on account of race or
+color. They did not, therefore, run counter to the letter of the
+fifteenth amendment; but they did unquestionably make the states which
+adopted them liable to the operations of the fourteenth amendment. The
+latter very explicitly provides that whenever any state deprives adult
+male citizens of the right to vote (except in certain minor cases) the
+representation of the state in Congress shall be reduced in the
+proportion which such number of disfranchised citizens bears to the
+whole number of male citizens over twenty-one years of age.
+
+Mindful of this provision, those who protested against disfranchisement
+in the South turned to the Republican party for relief, asking for
+action by the political branches of the federal government as the
+Supreme Court had suggested. The Republicans responded in their platform
+of 1908 by condemning all devices designed to deprive any one of the
+ballot for reasons of color alone; they demanded the enforcement in
+letter and spirit of the fourteenth as well as all other amendments.
+Though victorious in the election, the Republicans refrained from
+reopening the ancient contest; they made no attempt to reduce Southern
+representation in the House. Southern leaders, while protesting against
+the declarations of their opponents, were able to view them as idle
+threats in no way endangering the security of the measures by which
+political reconstruction had been undone.
+
+=The Solid South.=--Out of the thirty-year conflict against "carpet-bag
+rule" there emerged what was long known as the "solid South"--a South
+that, except occasionally in the border states, never gave an electoral
+vote to a Republican candidate for President. Before the Civil War, the
+Southern people had been divided on political questions. Take, for
+example, the election of 1860. In all the fifteen slave states the
+variety of opinion was marked. In nine of them--Delaware, Virginia,
+Tennessee, Missouri, Maryland, Louisiana, Kentucky, Georgia, and
+Arkansas--the combined vote against the representative of the extreme
+Southern point of view, Breckinridge, constituted a safe majority. In
+each of the six states which were carried by Breckinridge, there was a
+large and powerful minority. In North Carolina Breckinridge's majority
+over Bell and Douglas was only 849 votes. Equally astounding to those
+who imagine the South united in defense of extreme views in 1860 was the
+vote for Bell, the Unionist candidate, who stood firmly for the
+Constitution and silence on slavery. In every Southern state Bell's vote
+was large. In Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee it was greater
+than that received by Breckinridge; in Georgia, it was 42,000 against
+51,000; in Louisiana, 20,000 against 22,000; in Mississippi, 25,000
+against 40,000.
+
+The effect of the Civil War upon these divisions was immediate and
+decisive, save in the border states where thousands of men continued to
+adhere to the cause of Union. In the Confederacy itself nearly all
+dissent was silenced by war. Men who had been bitter opponents joined
+hands in defense of their homes; when the armed conflict was over they
+remained side by side working against "Republican misrule and negro
+domination." By 1890, after Northern supremacy was definitely broken,
+they boasted that there were at least twelve Southern states in which no
+Republican candidate for President could win a single electoral vote.
+
+=Dissent in the Solid South.=--Though every one grew accustomed to speak
+of the South as "solid," it did not escape close observers that in a
+number of Southern states there appeared from time to time a fairly
+large body of dissenters. In 1892 the Populists made heavy inroads upon
+the Democratic ranks. On other occasions, the contests between factions
+within the Democratic party over the nomination of candidates revealed
+sharp differences of opinion. In some places, moreover, there grew up a
+Republican minority of respectable size. For example, in Georgia, Mr.
+Taft in 1908 polled 41,000 votes against 72,000 for Mr. Bryan; in North
+Carolina, 114,000 against 136,000; in Tennessee, 118,000 against
+135,000; in Kentucky, 235,000 against 244,000. In 1920, Senator Harding,
+the Republican candidate, broke the record by carrying Tennessee as well
+as Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Maryland.
+
+
+THE ECONOMIC ADVANCE OF THE SOUTH
+
+=The Break-up of the Great Estates.=--In the dissolution of chattel
+slavery it was inevitable that the great estate should give way before
+the small farm. The plantation was in fact founded on slavery. It was
+continued and expanded by slavery. Before the war the prosperous
+planter, either by inclination or necessity, invested his surplus in
+more land to add to his original domain. As his slaves increased in
+number, he was forced to increase his acreage or sell them, and he
+usually preferred the former, especially in the Far South. Still another
+element favored the large estate. Slave labor quickly exhausted the soil
+and of its own force compelled the cutting of the forests and the
+extension of the area under cultivation. Finally, the planter took a
+natural pride in his great estate; it was a sign of his prowess and his
+social prestige.
+
+In 1865 the foundations of the planting system were gone. It was
+difficult to get efficient labor to till the vast plantations. The
+planters themselves were burdened with debts and handicapped by lack of
+capital. Negroes commonly preferred tilling plots of their own, rented
+or bought under mortgage, to the more irksome wage labor under white
+supervision. The land hunger of the white farmer, once checked by the
+planting system, reasserted itself. Before these forces the plantation
+broke up. The small farm became the unit of cultivation in the South as
+in the North. Between 1870 and 1900 the number of farms doubled in every
+state south of the line of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, except in
+Arkansas and Louisiana. From year to year the process of breaking up
+continued, with all that it implied in the creation of land-owning
+farmers.
+
+=The Diversification of Crops.=--No less significant was the concurrent
+diversification of crops. Under slavery, tobacco, rice, and sugar were
+staples and "cotton was king." These were standard crops. The methods of
+cultivation were simple and easily learned. They tested neither the
+skill nor the ingenuity of the slaves. As the returns were quick, they
+did not call for long-time investments of capital. After slavery was
+abolished, they still remained the staples, but far-sighted
+agriculturists saw the dangers of depending upon a few crops. The mild
+climate all the way around the coast from Virginia to Texas and the
+character of the alluvial soil invited the exercise of more imagination.
+Peaches, oranges, peanuts, and other fruits and vegetables were found to
+grow luxuriantly. Refrigeration for steamships and freight cars put the
+markets of great cities at the doors of Southern fruit and vegetable
+gardeners. The South, which in planting days had relied so heavily upon
+the Northwest for its foodstuffs, began to battle for independence.
+Between 1880 and the close of the century the value of its farm crops
+increased from $660,000,000 to $1,270,000,000.
+
+=The Industrial and Commercial Revolution.=--On top of the radical
+changes in agriculture came an industrial and commercial revolution. The
+South had long been rich in natural resources, but the slave system had
+been unfavorable to their development. Rivers that would have turned
+millions of spindles tumbled unheeded to the seas. Coal and iron beds
+lay unopened. Timber was largely sacrificed in clearing lands for
+planting, or fell to earth in decay. Southern enterprise was consumed in
+planting. Slavery kept out the white immigrants who might have supplied
+the skilled labor for industry.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+STEEL MILLS--BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA]
+
+After 1865, achievement and fortune no longer lay on the land alone. As
+soon as the paralysis of the war was over, the South caught the
+industrial spirit that had conquered feudal Europe and the agricultural
+North. In the development of mineral wealth, enormous strides were
+taken. Iron ore of every quality was found, the chief beds being in
+Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, Georgia,
+Alabama, Arkansas, and Texas. Five important coal basins were uncovered:
+in Virginia, North Carolina, the Appalachian chain from Maryland to
+Northern Alabama, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Texas. Oil pools were found
+in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Texas. Within two decades, 1880 to 1900, the
+output of mineral wealth multiplied tenfold: from ten millions a year to
+one hundred millions. The iron industries of West Virginia and Alabama
+began to rival those of Pennsylvania. Birmingham became the Pittsburgh
+and Atlanta the Chicago of the South.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A SOUTHERN COTTON MILL IN A COTTON FIELD]
+
+In other lines of industry, lumbering and cotton manufacturing took a
+high rank. The development of Southern timber resources was in every
+respect remarkable, particularly in Louisiana, Arkansas, and
+Mississippi. At the end of the first decade of the twentieth century,
+primacy in lumber had passed from the Great Lakes region to the South.
+In 1913 eight Southern states produced nearly four times as much lumber
+as the Lake states and twice as much as the vast forests of Washington
+and Oregon.
+
+The development of the cotton industry, in the meantime, was similarly
+astounding. In 1865 cotton spinning was a negligible matter in the
+Southern states. In 1880 they had one-fourth of the mills of the
+country. At the end of the century they had one-half the mills, the two
+Carolinas taking the lead by consuming more than one-third of their
+entire cotton crop. Having both the raw materials and the power at hand,
+they enjoyed many advantages over the New England rivals, and at the
+opening of the new century were outstripping the latter in the
+proportion of spindles annually put into operation. Moreover, the cotton
+planters, finding a market at the neighboring mills, began to look
+forward to a day when they would be somewhat emancipated from absolute
+dependence upon the cotton exchanges of New York, New Orleans, and
+Liverpool.
+
+Transportation kept pace with industry. In 1860, the South had about ten
+thousand miles of railway. By 1880 the figure had doubled. During the
+next twenty years over thirty thousand miles were added, most of the
+increase being in Texas. About 1898 there opened a period of
+consolidation in which scores of short lines were united, mainly under
+the leadership of Northern capitalists, and new through service opened
+to the North and West. Thus Southern industries were given easy outlets
+to the markets of the nation and brought within the main currents of
+national business enterprise.
+
+=The Social Effects of the Economic Changes.=--As long as the slave
+system lasted and planting was the major interest, the South was bound
+to be sectional in character. With slavery gone, crops diversified,
+natural resources developed, and industries promoted, the social order
+of the ante-bellum days inevitably dissolved; the South became more and
+more assimilated to the system of the North. In this process several
+lines of development are evident.
+
+In the first place we see the steady rise of the small farmer. Even in
+the old days there had been a large class of white yeomen who owned no
+slaves and tilled the soil with their own hands, but they labored under
+severe handicaps. They found the fertile lands of the coast and river
+valleys nearly all monopolized by planters, and they were by the force
+of circumstances driven into the uplands where the soil was thin and the
+crops were light. Still they increased in numbers and zealously worked
+their freeholds.
+
+The war proved to be their opportunity. With the break-up of the
+plantations, they managed to buy land more worthy of their plows. By
+intelligent labor and intensive cultivation they were able to restore
+much of the worn-out soil to its original fertility. In the meantime
+they rose with their prosperity in the social and political scale. It
+became common for the sons of white farmers to enter the professions,
+while their daughters went away to college and prepared for teaching.
+Thus a more democratic tone was given to the white society of the South.
+Moreover the migration to the North and West, which had formerly carried
+thousands of energetic sons and daughters to search for new homesteads,
+was materially reduced. The energy of the agricultural population went
+into rehabilitation.
+
+The increase in the number of independent farmers was accompanied by the
+rise of small towns and villages which gave diversity to the life of the
+South. Before 1860 it was possible to travel through endless stretches
+of cotton and tobacco. The social affairs of the planter's family
+centered in the homestead even if they were occasionally interrupted by
+trips to distant cities or abroad. Carpentry, bricklaying, and
+blacksmithing were usually done by slaves skilled in simple handicrafts.
+Supplies were bought wholesale. In this way there was little place in
+plantation economy for villages and towns with their stores and
+mechanics.
+
+The abolition of slavery altered this. Small farms spread out where
+plantations had once stood. The skilled freedmen turned to agriculture
+rather than to handicrafts; white men of a business or mechanical bent
+found an opportunity to serve the needs of their communities. So local
+merchants and mechanics became an important element in the social
+system. In the county seats, once dominated by the planters, business
+and professional men assumed the leadership.
+
+Another vital outcome of this revolution was the transference of a large
+part of planting enterprise to business. Mr. Bruce, a Southern historian
+of fine scholarship, has summed up this process in a single telling
+paragraph: "The higher planting class that under the old system gave so
+much distinction to rural life has, so far as it has survived at all,
+been concentrated in the cities. The families that in the time of
+slavery would have been found only in the country are now found, with a
+few exceptions, in the towns. The transplantation has been practically
+universal. The talent, the energy, the ambition that formerly sought
+expression in the management of great estates and the control of hosts
+of slaves, now seek a field of action in trade, in manufacturing
+enterprises, or in the general enterprises of development. This was for
+the ruling class of the South the natural outcome of the great economic
+revolution that followed the war."
+
+As in all other parts of the world, the mechanical revolution was
+attended by the growth of a population of industrial workers dependent
+not upon the soil but upon wages for their livelihood. When Jefferson
+Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern Confederacy, there were
+approximately only one hundred thousand persons employed in Southern
+manufactures as against more than a million in Northern mills. Fifty
+years later, Georgia and Alabama alone had more than one hundred and
+fifty thousand wage-earners. Necessarily this meant also a material
+increase in urban population, although the wide dispersion of cotton
+spinning among small centers prevented the congestion that had
+accompanied the rise of the textile industry in New England. In 1910,
+New Orleans, Atlanta, Memphis, Nashville, and Houston stood in the same
+relation to the New South that Cincinnati, Chicago, Cleveland, and
+Detroit had stood to the New West fifty years before. The problems of
+labor and capital and municipal administration, which the earlier
+writers boasted would never perplex the planting South, had come in full
+force.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A GLIMPSE OF MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE]
+
+=The Revolution in the Status of the Slaves.=--No part of Southern
+society was so profoundly affected by the Civil War and economic
+reconstruction as the former slaves. On the day of emancipation, they
+stood free, but empty-handed, the owners of no tools or property, the
+masters of no trade and wholly inexperienced in the arts of self-help
+that characterized the whites in general. They had never been accustomed
+to looking out for themselves. The plantation bell had called them to
+labor and released them. Doles of food and clothing had been regularly
+made in given quantities. They did not understand wages, ownership,
+renting, contracts, mortgages, leases, bills, or accounts.
+
+When they were emancipated, four courses were open to them. They could
+flee from the plantation to the nearest town or city, or to the distant
+North, to seek a livelihood. Thousands of them chose this way,
+overcrowding cities where disease mowed them down. They could remain
+where they, were in their cabins and work for daily wages instead of
+food, clothing, and shelter. This second course the major portion of
+them chose; but, as few masters had cash to dispense, the new relation
+was much like the old, in fact. It was still one of barter. The planter
+offered food, clothing, and shelter; the former slaves gave their labor
+in return. That was the best that many of them could do.
+
+A third course open to freedmen was that of renting from the former
+master, paying him usually with a share of the produce of the land. This
+way a large number of them chose. It offered them a chance to become
+land owners in time and it afforded an easier life, the renter being, to
+a certain extent at least, master of his own hours of labor. The final
+and most difficult path was that to ownership of land. Many a master
+helped his former slaves to acquire small holdings by offering easy
+terms. The more enterprising and the more fortunate who started life as
+renters or wage-earners made their way upward to ownership in so many
+cases that by the end of the century, one-fourth of the colored laborers
+on the land owned the soil they tilled.
+
+In the meantime, the South, though relatively poor, made relatively
+large expenditures for the education of the colored population. By the
+opening of the twentieth century, facilities were provided for more than
+one-half of the colored children of school age. While in many respects
+this progress was disappointing, its significance, to be appreciated,
+must be derived from a comparison with the total illiteracy which
+prevailed under slavery.
+
+In spite of all that happened, however, the status of the negroes in the
+South continued to give a peculiar character to that section of the
+country. They were almost entirely excluded from the exercise of the
+suffrage, especially in the Far South. Special rooms were set aside for
+them at the railway stations and special cars on the railway lines. In
+the field of industry calling for technical skill, it appears, from the
+census figures, that they lost ground between 1890 and 1900--a condition
+which their friends ascribed to discriminations against them in law and
+in labor organizations and their critics ascribed to their lack of
+aptitude. Whatever may be the truth, the fact remained that at the
+opening of the twentieth century neither the hopes of the emancipators
+nor the fears of their opponents were realized. The marks of the
+"peculiar institution" were still largely impressed upon Southern
+society.
+
+The situation, however, was by no means unchanging. On the contrary
+there was a decided drift in affairs. For one thing, the proportion of
+negroes in the South had slowly declined. By 1900 they were in a
+majority in only two states, South Carolina and Mississippi. In
+Arkansas, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina the proportion of
+the white population was steadily growing. The colored migration
+northward increased while the westward movement of white farmers which
+characterized pioneer days declined. At the same time a part of the
+foreign immigration into the United States was diverted southward. As
+the years passed these tendencies gained momentum. The already huge
+colored quarters in some Northern cities were widely expanded, as whole
+counties in the South were stripped of their colored laborers. The race
+question, in its political and economic aspects, became less and less
+sectional, more and more national. The South was drawn into the main
+stream of national life. The separatist forces which produced the
+cataclysm of 1861 sank irresistibly into the background.
+
+
+=References=
+
+H.W. Grady, _The New South_ (1890).
+
+H.A. Herbert, _Why the Solid South_.
+
+W.G. Brown, _The Lower South_.
+
+E.G. Murphy, _Problems of the Present South_.
+
+B.T. Washington, _The Negro Problem_; _The Story of the Negro_; _The
+Future of the Negro_.
+
+A.B. Hart, _The Southern South_ and R.S. Baker, _Following the Color
+Line_ (two works by Northern writers).
+
+T.N. Page, _The Negro, the Southerner's Problem_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Give the three main subdivisions of the chapter.
+
+2. Compare the condition of the South in 1865 with that of the North.
+Compare with the condition of the United States at the close of the
+Revolutionary War. At the close of the World War in 1918.
+
+3. Contrast the enfranchisement of the slaves with the enfranchisement
+of white men fifty years earlier.
+
+4. What was the condition of the planters as compared with that of the
+Northern manufacturers?
+
+5. How does money capital contribute to prosperity? Describe the plight
+of Southern finance.
+
+6. Give the chief steps in the restoration of white supremacy.
+
+7. Do you know of any other societies to compare with the Ku Klux Klan?
+
+8. Give Lincoln's plan for amnesty. What principles do you think should
+govern the granting of amnesty?
+
+9. How were the "Force bills" overcome?
+
+10. Compare the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments with regard to the
+suffrage provisions.
+
+11. Explain how they may be circumvented.
+
+12. Account for the Solid South. What was the situation before 1860?
+
+13. In what ways did Southern agriculture tend to become like that of
+the North? What were the social results?
+
+14. Name the chief results of an "industrial revolution" in general. In
+the South, in particular.
+
+15. What courses were open to freedmen in 1865?
+
+16. Give the main features in the economic and social status of the
+colored population in the South.
+
+17. Explain why the race question is national now, rather than
+sectional.
+
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Amnesty for Confederates.=--Study carefully the provisions of the
+fourteenth amendment in the Appendix. Macdonald, _Documentary Source
+Book of American History_, pp. 470 and 564. A plea for amnesty in
+Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating American History_, pp. 467-488.
+
+=Political Conditions in the South in 1868.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction,
+Political and Economic_ (American Nation Series), pp. 109-123; Hart,
+_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 445-458,
+497-500; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 799-805.
+
+=Movement for White Supremacy.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction_, pp. 266-280;
+Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp. 39-58; Beard, _American
+Government and Politics_, pp. 454-457.
+
+=The Withdrawal of Federal Troops from the South.=--Sparks, _National
+Development_ (American Nation Series), pp. 84-102; Rhodes, _History of
+the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 1-12.
+
+=Southern Industry.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_, pp. 192-207; T.M. Young,
+_The American Cotton Industry_, pp. 54-99.
+
+=The Race Question.=--B.T. Washington, _Up From Slavery_ (sympathetic
+presentation); A.H. Stone, _Studies in the American Race Problem_
+(coldly analytical); Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 647-649,
+652-654, 663-669.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+BUSINESS ENTERPRISE AND THE REPUBLICAN PARTY
+
+
+If a single phrase be chosen to characterize American life during the
+generation that followed the age of Douglas and Lincoln, it must be
+"business enterprise"--the tremendous, irresistible energy of a virile
+people, mounting in numbers toward a hundred million and applied without
+let or hindrance to the developing of natural resources of unparalleled
+richness. The chief goal of this effort was high profits for the
+captains of industry, on the one hand; and high wages for the workers,
+on the other. Its signs, to use the language of a Republican orator in
+1876, were golden harvest fields, whirling spindles, turning wheels,
+open furnace doors, flaming forges, and chimneys filled with eager fire.
+The device blazoned on its shield and written over its factory doors was
+"prosperity." A Republican President was its "advance agent." Released
+from the hampering interference of the Southern planters and the
+confusing issues of the slavery controversy, business enterprise sprang
+forward to the task of winning the entire country. Then it flung its
+outposts to the uttermost parts of the earth--Europe, Africa, and the
+Orient--where were to be found markets for American goods and natural
+resources for American capital to develop.
+
+
+RAILWAYS AND INDUSTRY
+
+=The Outward Signs of Enterprise.=--It is difficult to comprehend all
+the multitudinous activities of American business energy or to appraise
+its effects upon the life and destiny of the American people; for beyond
+the horizon of the twentieth century lie consequences as yet undreamed
+of in our poor philosophy. Statisticians attempt to record its
+achievements in terms of miles of railways built, factories opened, men
+and women employed, fortunes made, wages paid, cities founded, rivers
+spanned, boxes, bales, and tons produced. Historians apply standards of
+comparison with the past. Against the slow and leisurely stagecoach,
+they set the swift express, rushing from New York to San Francisco in
+less time than Washington consumed in his triumphal tour from Mt. Vernon
+to New York for his first inaugural. Against the lazy sailing vessel
+drifting before a genial breeze, they place the turbine steamer crossing
+the Atlantic in five days or the still swifter airplane, in fifteen
+hours. For the old workshop where a master and a dozen workmen and
+apprentices wrought by hand, they offer the giant factory where ten
+thousand persons attend the whirling wheels driven by steam. They write
+of the "romance of invention" and the "captains of industry."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A CORNER IN THE BETHLEHEM STEEL WORKS]
+
+=The Service of the Railway.=--All this is fitting in its way. Figures
+and contrasts cannot, however, tell the whole story. Take, for example,
+the extension of railways. It is easy to relate that there were 30,000
+miles in 1860; 166,000 in 1890; and 242,000 in 1910. It is easy to show
+upon the map how a few straggling lines became a perfect mesh of closely
+knitted railways; or how, like the tentacles of a great monster, the few
+roads ending in the Mississippi Valley in 1860 were extended and
+multiplied until they tapped every wheat field, mine, and forest beyond
+the valley. All this, eloquent of enterprise as it truly is, does not
+reveal the significance of railways for American life. It does not
+indicate how railways made a continental market for American goods; nor
+how they standardized the whole country, giving to cities on the
+advancing frontier the leading features of cities in the old East; nor
+how they carried to the pioneer the comforts of civilization; nor yet
+how in the West they were the forerunners of civilization, the makers of
+homesteads, the builders of states.
+
+=Government Aid for Railways.=--Still the story is not ended. The
+significant relation between railways and politics must not be
+overlooked. The bounty of a lavish government, for example, made
+possible the work of railway promoters. By the year 1872 the Federal
+government had granted in aid of railways 155,000,000 acres of land--an
+area estimated as almost equal to Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut,
+Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The
+Union Pacific Company alone secured from the federal government a free
+right of way through the public domain, twenty sections of land with
+each mile of railway, and a loan up to fifty millions of dollars secured
+by a second mortgage on the company's property. More than half of the
+northern tier of states lying against Canada from Lake Michigan to the
+Pacific was granted to private companies in aid of railways and wagon
+roads. About half of New Mexico, Arizona, and California was also given
+outright to railway companies. These vast grants from the federal
+government were supplemented by gifts from the states in land and by
+subscriptions amounting to more than two hundred million dollars. The
+history of these gifts and their relation to the political leaders that
+engineered them would alone fill a large and interesting volume.
+
+=Railway Fortunes and Capital.=--Out of this gigantic railway promotion,
+the first really immense American fortunes were made. Henry Adams, the
+grandson of John Quincy Adams, related that his grandfather on his
+mother's side, Peter Brooks, on his death in 1849, left a fortune of two
+million dollars, "supposed to be the largest estate in Boston," then one
+of the few centers of great riches. Compared with the opulence that
+sprang out of the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, the Southern
+Pacific, with their subsidiary and component lines, the estate of Peter
+Brooks was a poor man's heritage.
+
+The capital invested in these railways was enormous beyond the
+imagination of the men of the stagecoach generation. The total debt of
+the United States incurred in the Revolutionary War--a debt which those
+of little faith thought the country could never pay--was reckoned at a
+figure well under $75,000,000. When the Union Pacific Railroad was
+completed, there were outstanding against it $27,000,000 in first
+mortgage bonds, $27,000,000 in second mortgage bonds held by the
+government, $10,000,000 in income bonds, $10,000,000 in land grant
+bonds, and, on top of that huge bonded indebtedness, $36,000,000 in
+stock--making $110,000,000 in all. If the amount due the United States
+government be subtracted, still there remained, in private hands, stocks
+and bonds exceeding in value the whole national debt of Hamilton's
+day--a debt that strained all the resources of the Federal government in
+1790. Such was the financial significance of the railways.
+
+[Illustration: RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1918]
+
+=Growth and Extension of Industry.=--In the field of manufacturing,
+mining, and metal working, the results of business enterprise far
+outstripped, if measured in mere dollars, the results of railway
+construction. By the end of the century there were about ten billion
+dollars invested in factories alone and five million wage-earners
+employed in them; while the total value of the output, fourteen billion
+dollars, was fifteen times the figure for 1860. In the Eastern states
+industries multiplied. In the Northwest territory, the old home of
+Jacksonian Democracy, they overtopped agriculture. By the end of the
+century, Ohio had almost reached and Illinois had surpassed
+Massachusetts in the annual value of manufacturing output.
+
+That was not all. Untold wealth in the form of natural resources was
+discovered in the South and West. Coal deposits were found in the
+Appalachians stretching from Pennsylvania down to Alabama, in Michigan,
+in the Mississippi Valley, and in the Western mountains from North
+Dakota to New Mexico. In nearly every coal-bearing region, iron was also
+discovered and the great fields of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota
+soon rivaled those of the Appalachian area. Copper, lead, gold, and
+silver in fabulous quantities were unearthed by the restless prospectors
+who left no plain or mountain fastness unexplored. Petroleum, first
+pumped from the wells of Pennsylvania in the summer of 1859, made new
+fortunes equaling those of trade, railways, and land speculation. It
+scattered its riches with an especially lavish hand through Oklahoma,
+Texas, and California.
+
+=The Trust--an Instrument of Industrial Progress.=--Business enterprise,
+under the direction of powerful men working single-handed, or of small
+groups of men pooling their capital for one or more undertakings, had
+not advanced far before there appeared upon the scene still mightier
+leaders of even greater imagination. New constructive genius now brought
+together and combined under one management hundreds of concerns or
+thousands of miles of railways, revealing the magic strength of
+cooeperation on a national scale. Price-cutting in oil, threatening ruin
+to those engaged in the industry, as early as 1879, led a number of
+companies in Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia to unite in
+price-fixing. Three years later a group of oil interests formed a close
+organization, placing all their stocks in the hands of trustees, among
+whom was John D. Rockefeller. The trustees, in turn, issued
+certificates representing the share to which each participant was
+entitled; and took over the management of the entire business. Such was
+the nature of the "trust," which was to play such an unique role in the
+progress of America.
+
+The idea of combination was applied in time to iron and steel, copper,
+lead, sugar, cordage, coal, and other commodities, until in each field
+there loomed a giant trust or corporation, controlling, if not most of
+the output, at least enough to determine in a large measure the prices
+charged to consumers. With the passing years, the railways, mills,
+mines, and other business concerns were transferred from individual
+owners to corporations. At the end of the nineteenth century, the whole
+face of American business was changed. Three-fourths of the output from
+industries came from factories under corporate management and only
+one-fourth from individual and partnership undertakings.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER]
+
+=The Banking Corporation.=--Very closely related to the growth of
+business enterprise on a large scale was the system of banking. In the
+old days before banks, a person with savings either employed them in his
+own undertakings, lent them to a neighbor, or hid them away where they
+set no industry in motion. Even in the early stages of modern business,
+it was common for a manufacturer to rise from small beginnings by
+financing extensions out of his own earnings and profits. This state of
+affairs was profoundly altered by the growth of the huge corporations
+requiring millions and even billions of capital. The banks, once an
+adjunct to business, became the leaders in business.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+WALL STREET, NEW YORK CITY]
+
+It was the banks that undertook to sell the stocks and bonds issued by
+new corporations and trusts and to supply them with credit to carry on
+their operations. Indeed, many of the great mergers or combinations in
+business were initiated by magnates in the banking world with millions
+and billions under their control. Through their connections with one
+another, the banks formed a perfect network of agencies gathering up the
+pennies and dollars of the masses as well as the thousands of the rich
+and pouring them all into the channels of business and manufacturing.
+In this growth of banking on a national scale, it was inevitable that a
+few great centers, like Wall Street in New York or State Street in
+Boston, should rise to a position of dominance both in concentrating the
+savings and profits of the nation and in financing new as well as old
+corporations.
+
+=The Significance of the Corporation.=--The corporation, in fact, became
+the striking feature of American business life, one of the most
+marvelous institutions of all time, comparable in wealth and power and
+the number of its servants with kingdoms and states of old. The effect
+of its rise and growth cannot be summarily estimated; but some special
+facts are obvious. It made possible gigantic enterprises once entirely
+beyond the reach of any individual, no matter how rich. It eliminated
+many of the futile and costly wastes of competition in connection with
+manufacture, advertising, and selling. It studied the cheapest methods
+of production and shut down mills that were poorly equipped or
+disadvantageously located. It established laboratories for research in
+industry, chemistry, and mechanical inventions. Through the sale of
+stocks and bonds, it enabled tens of thousands of people to become
+capitalists, if only in a small way. The corporation made it possible
+for one person to own, for instance, a $50 share in a million dollar
+business concern--a thing entirely impossible under a regime of
+individual owners and partnerships.
+
+There was, of course, another side to the picture. Many of the
+corporations sought to become monopolies and to make profits, not by
+economies and good management, but by extortion from purchasers.
+Sometimes they mercilessly crushed small business men, their
+competitors, bribed members of legislatures to secure favorable laws,
+and contributed to the campaign funds of both leading parties. Wherever
+a trust approached the position of a monopoly, it acquired a dominion
+over the labor market which enabled it to break even the strongest trade
+unions. In short, the power of the trust in finance, in manufacturing,
+in politics, and in the field of labor control can hardly be measured.
+
+=The Corporation and Labor.=--In the development of the corporation
+there was to be observed a distinct severing of the old ties between
+master and workmen, which existed in the days of small industries. For
+the personal bond between the owner and the employees was substituted a
+new relation. "In most parts of our country," as President Wilson once
+said, "men work, not for themselves, not as partners in the old way in
+which they used to work, but generally as employees--in a higher or
+lower grade--of great corporations." The owner disappeared from the
+factory and in his place came the manager, representing the usually
+invisible stockholders and dependent for his success upon his ability to
+make profits for the owners. Hence the term "soulless corporation,"
+which was to exert such a deep influence on American thinking about
+industrial relations.
+
+=Cities and Immigration.=--Expressed in terms of human life, this era of
+unprecedented enterprise meant huge industrial cities and an immense
+labor supply, derived mainly from European immigration. Here, too,
+figures tell only a part of the story. In Washington's day nine-tenths
+of the American people were engaged in agriculture and lived in the
+country; in 1890 more than one-third of the population dwelt in towns of
+2500 and over; in 1920 more than half of the population lived in towns
+of over 2500. In forty years, between 1860 and 1900, Greater New York
+had grown from 1,174,000 to 3,437,000; San Francisco from 56,000 to
+342,000; Chicago from 109,000 to 1,698,000. The miles of city tenements
+began to rival, in the number of their residents, the farm homesteads of
+the West. The time so dreaded by Jefferson had arrived. People were
+"piled upon one another in great cities" and the republic of small
+farmers had passed away.
+
+To these industrial centers flowed annually an ever-increasing tide of
+immigration, reaching the half million point in 1880; rising to
+three-quarters of a million three years later; and passing the million
+mark in a single year at the opening of the new century. Immigration was
+as old as America but new elements now entered the situation. In the
+first place, there were radical changes in the nationality of the
+newcomers. The migration from Northern Europe--England, Ireland,
+Germany, and Scandinavia--diminished; that from Italy, Russia, and
+Austria-Hungary increased, more than three-fourths of the entire number
+coming from these three lands between the years 1900 and 1910. These
+later immigrants were Italians, Poles, Magyars, Czechs, Slovaks,
+Russians, and Jews, who came from countries far removed from the
+language and the traditions of England whence came the founders of
+America.
+
+In the second place, the reception accorded the newcomers differed from
+that given to the immigrants in the early days. By 1890 all the free
+land was gone. They could not, therefore, be dispersed widely among the
+native Americans to assimilate quickly and unconsciously the habits and
+ideas of American life. On the contrary, they were diverted mainly to
+the industrial centers. There they crowded--nay, overcrowded--into
+colonies of their own where they preserved their languages, their
+newspapers, and their old-world customs and views.
+
+So eager were American business men to get an enormous labor supply that
+they asked few questions about the effect of this "alien invasion" upon
+the old America inherited from the fathers. They even stimulated the
+invasion artificially by importing huge armies of foreigners under
+contract to work in specified mines and mills. There seemed to be no
+limit to the factories, forges, refineries, and railways that could be
+built, to the multitudes that could be employed in conquering a
+continent. As for the future, that was in the hands of Providence!
+
+=Business Theories of Politics.=--As the statesmen of Hamilton's school
+and the planters of Calhoun's had their theories of government and
+politics, so the leaders in business enterprise had theirs. It was
+simple and easily stated. "It is the duty of the government," they
+urged, "to protect American industry against foreign competition by
+means of high tariffs on imported goods, to aid railways by generous
+grants of land, to sell mineral and timber lands at low prices to
+energetic men ready to develop them, and then to leave the rest to the
+initiative and drive of individuals and companies." All government
+interference with the management, prices, rates, charges, and conduct of
+private business they held to be either wholly pernicious or intolerably
+impertinent. Judging from their speeches and writings, they conceived
+the nation as a great collection of individuals, companies, and labor
+unions all struggling for profits or high wages and held together by a
+government whose principal duty was to keep the peace among them and
+protect industry against the foreign manufacturer. Such was the
+political theory of business during the generation that followed the
+Civil War.
+
+
+THE SUPREMACY OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY (1861-85)
+
+=Business Men and Republican Policies.=--Most of the leaders in industry
+gravitated to the Republican ranks. They worked in the North and the
+Republican party was essentially Northern. It was moreover--at least so
+far as the majority of its members were concerned--committed to
+protective tariffs, a sound monetary and banking system, the promotion
+of railways and industry by land grants, and the development of internal
+improvements. It was furthermore generous in its immigration policy. It
+proclaimed America to be an asylum for the oppressed of all countries
+and flung wide the doors for immigrants eager to fill the factories, man
+the mines, and settle upon Western lands. In a word the Republicans
+stood for all those specific measures which favored the enlargement and
+prosperity of business. At the same time they resisted government
+interference with private enterprise. They did not regulate railway
+rates, prosecute trusts for forming combinations, or prevent railway
+companies from giving lower rates to some shippers than to others. To
+sum it up, the political theories of the Republican party for three
+decades after the Civil War were the theories of American
+business--prosperous and profitable industries for the owners and "the
+full dinner pail" for the workmen. Naturally a large portion of those
+who flourished under its policies gave their support to it, voted for
+its candidates, and subscribed to its campaign funds.
+
+=Sources of Republican Strength in the North.=--The Republican party was
+in fact a political organization of singular power. It originated in a
+wave of moral enthusiasm, having attracted to itself, if not the
+abolitionists, certainly all those idealists, like James Russell Lowell
+and George William Curtis, who had opposed slavery when opposition was
+neither safe nor popular. To moral principles it added practical
+considerations. Business men had confidence in it. Workingmen, who
+longed for the independence of the farmer, owed to its indulgent land
+policy the opportunity of securing free homesteads in the West. The
+immigrant, landing penniless on these shores, as a result of the same
+beneficent system, often found himself in a little while with an estate
+as large as many a baronial domain in the Old World. Under a Republican
+administration, the union had been saved. To it the veterans of the war
+could turn with confidence for those rewards of service which the
+government could bestow: pensions surpassing in liberality anything that
+the world had ever seen. Under a Republican administration also the
+great debt had been created in the defense of the union, and to the
+Republican party every investor in government bonds could look for the
+full and honorable discharge of the interest and principal. The spoils
+system, inaugurated by Jacksonian Democracy, in turn placed all the
+federal offices in Republican hands, furnishing an army of party workers
+to be counted on for loyal service in every campaign.
+
+Of all these things Republican leaders made full and vigorous use,
+sometimes ascribing to the party, in accordance with ancient political
+usage, merits and achievements not wholly its own. Particularly was this
+true in the case of saving the union. "When in the economy of
+Providence, this land was to be purged of human slavery ... the
+Republican party came into power," ran a declaration in one platform.
+"The Republican party suppressed a gigantic rebellion, emancipated four
+million slaves, decreed the equal citizenship of all, and established
+universal suffrage," ran another. As for the aid rendered by the
+millions of Northern Democrats who stood by the union and the tens of
+thousands of them who actually fought in the union army, the Republicans
+in their zeal were inclined to be oblivious. They repeatedly charged the
+Democratic party "with being the same in character and spirit as when it
+sympathized with treason."
+
+=Republican Control of the South.=--To the strength enjoyed in the
+North, the Republicans for a long time added the advantages that came
+from control over the former Confederate states where the newly
+enfranchised negroes, under white leadership, gave a grateful support to
+the party responsible for their freedom. In this branch of politics,
+motives were so mixed that no historian can hope to appraise them all at
+their proper values. On the one side of the ledger must be set the
+vigorous efforts of the honest and sincere friends of the freedmen to
+win for them complete civil and political equality, wiping out not only
+slavery but all its badges of misery and servitude. On the same side
+must be placed the labor of those who had valiantly fought in forum and
+field to save the union and who regarded continued Republican supremacy
+after the war as absolutely necessary to prevent the former leaders in
+secession from coming back to power. At the same time there were
+undoubtedly some men of the baser sort who looked on politics as a game
+and who made use of "carpet-bagging" in the South to win the spoils that
+might result from it. At all events, both by laws and presidential acts,
+the Republicans for many years kept a keen eye upon the maintenance of
+their dominion in the South. Their declaration that neither the law nor
+its administration should admit any discrimination in respect of
+citizens by reason of race, color, or previous condition of servitude
+appealed to idealists and brought results in elections. Even South
+Carolina, where reposed the ashes of John C. Calhoun, went Republican in
+1872 by a vote of three to one!
+
+Republican control was made easy by the force bills described in a
+previous chapter--measures which vested the supervision of elections in
+federal officers appointed by Republican Presidents. These drastic
+measures, departing from American tradition, the Republican authors
+urged, were necessary to safeguard the purity of the ballot, not merely
+in the South where the timid freedman might readily be frightened from
+using it; but also in the North, particularly in New York City, where it
+was claimed that fraud was regularly practiced by Democratic leaders.
+
+The Democrats, on their side, indignantly denied the charges, replying
+that the force bills were nothing but devices created by the Republicans
+for the purpose of securing their continued rule through systematic
+interference with elections. Even the measures of reconstruction were
+deemed by Democratic leaders as thinly veiled schemes to establish
+Republican power throughout the country. "Nor is there the slightest
+doubt," exclaimed Samuel J. Tilden, spokesman of the Democrats in New
+York and candidate for President in 1876, "that the paramount object and
+motive of the Republican party is by these means to secure itself
+against a reaction of opinion adverse to it in our great populous
+Northern commonwealths.... When the Republican party resolved to
+establish negro supremacy in the ten states in order to gain to itself
+the representation of those states in Congress, it had to begin by
+governing the people of those states by the sword.... The next was the
+creation of new electoral bodies for those ten states, in which, by
+exclusions, by disfranchisements and proscriptions, by control over
+registration, by applying test oaths ... by intimidation and by every
+form of influence, three million negroes are made to predominate over
+four and a half million whites."
+
+=The War as a Campaign Issue.=--Even the repeal of force bills could not
+allay the sectional feelings engendered by the war. The Republicans
+could not forgive the men who had so recently been in arms against the
+union and insisted on calling them "traitors" and "rebels." The
+Southerners, smarting under the reconstruction acts, could regard the
+Republicans only as political oppressors. The passions of the war had
+been too strong; the distress too deep to be soon forgotten. The
+generation that went through it all remembered it all. For twenty
+years, the Republicans, in their speeches and platforms, made "a
+straight appeal to the patriotism of the Northern voters." They
+maintained that their party, which had saved the union and emancipated
+the slaves, was alone worthy of protecting the union and uplifting the
+freedmen.
+
+Though the Democrats, especially in the North, resented this policy and
+dubbed it with the expressive but inelegant phrase, "waving the bloody
+shirt," the Republicans refused to surrender a slogan which made such a
+ready popular appeal. As late as 1884, a leader expressed the hope that
+they might "wring one more President from the bloody shirt." They
+refused to let the country forget that the Democratic candidate, Grover
+Cleveland, had escaped military service by hiring a substitute; and they
+made political capital out of the fact that he had "insulted the
+veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic" by going fishing on
+Decoration Day.
+
+=Three Republican Presidents.=--Fortified by all these elements of
+strength, the Republicans held the presidency from 1869 to 1885. The
+three Presidents elected in this period, Grant, Hayes, and Garfield, had
+certain striking characteristics in common. They were all of origin
+humble enough to please the most exacting Jacksonian Democrat. They had
+been generals in the union army. Grant, next to Lincoln, was regarded as
+the savior of the Constitution. Hayes and Garfield, though lesser lights
+in the military firmament, had honorable records duly appreciated by
+veterans of the war, now thoroughly organized into the Grand Army of the
+Republic. It is true that Grant was not a politician and had never voted
+the Republican ticket; but this was readily overlooked. Hayes and
+Garfield on the other hand were loyal party men. The former had served
+in Congress and for three terms as governor of his state. The latter had
+long been a member of the House of Representatives and was Senator-elect
+when he received the nomination for President.
+
+All of them possessed, moreover, another important asset, which was not
+forgotten by the astute managers who led in selecting candidates. All
+of them were from Ohio--though Grant had been in Illinois when the
+summons to military duties came--and Ohio was a strategic state. It lay
+between the manufacturing East and the agrarian country to the West.
+Having growing industries and wool to sell it benefited from the
+protective tariff. Yet being mainly agricultural still, it was not
+without sympathy for the farmers who showed low tariff or free trade
+tendencies. Whatever share the East had in shaping laws and framing
+policies, it was clear that the West was to have the candidates. This
+division in privileges--not uncommon in political management--was always
+accompanied by a judicious selection of the candidate for Vice
+President. With Garfield, for example, was associated a prominent New
+York politician, Chester A. Arthur, who, as fate decreed, was destined
+to more than three years' service as chief magistrate, on the
+assassination of his superior in office.
+
+=The Disputed Election of 1876.=--While taking note of the long years of
+Republican supremacy, it must be recorded that grave doubts exist in the
+minds of many historians as to whether one of the three Presidents,
+Hayes, was actually the victor in 1876 or not. His Democratic opponent,
+Samuel J. Tilden, received a popular plurality of a quarter of a million
+and had a plausible claim to a majority of the electoral vote. At all
+events, four states sent in double returns, one set for Tilden and
+another for Hayes; and a deadlock ensued. Both parties vehemently
+claimed the election and the passions ran so high that sober men did not
+shrink from speaking of civil war again. Fortunately, in the end, the
+counsels of peace prevailed. Congress provided for an electoral
+commission of fifteen men to review the contested returns. The
+Democrats, inspired by Tilden's moderation, accepted the judgment in
+favor of Hayes even though they were not convinced that he was really
+entitled to the office.
+
+
+THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO REPUBLICAN RULE
+
+=Abuses in American Political Life.=--During their long tenure of
+office, the Republicans could not escape the inevitable consequences of
+power; that is, evil practices and corrupt conduct on the part of some
+who found shelter within the party. For that matter neither did the
+Democrats manage to avoid such difficulties in those states and cities
+where they had the majority. In New York City, for instance, the local
+Democratic organization, known as Tammany Hall, passed under the sway of
+a group of politicians headed by "Boss" Tweed. He plundered the city
+treasury until public-spirited citizens, supported by Samuel J. Tilden,
+the Democratic leader of the state, rose in revolt, drove the ringleader
+from power, and sent him to jail. In Philadelphia, the local Republican
+bosses were guilty of offenses as odious as those committed by New York
+politicians. Indeed, the decade that followed the Civil War was marred
+by so many scandals in public life that one acute editor was moved to
+inquire: "Are not all the great communities of the Western World growing
+more corrupt as they grow in wealth?"
+
+In the sphere of national politics, where the opportunities were
+greater, betrayals of public trust were even more flagrant. One
+revelation after another showed officers, high and low, possessed with
+the spirit of peculation. Members of Congress, it was found, accepted
+railway stock in exchange for votes in favor of land grants and other
+concessions to the companies. In the administration as well as the
+legislature the disease was rife. Revenue officers permitted whisky
+distillers to evade their taxes and received heavy bribes in return. A
+probe into the post-office department revealed the malodorous "star
+route frauds"--the deliberate overpayment of certain mail carriers whose
+lines were indicated in the official record by asterisks or stars. Even
+cabinet officers did not escape suspicion, for the trail of the serpent
+led straight to the door of one of them.
+
+In the lower ranges of official life, the spoils system became more
+virulent as the number of federal employees increased. The holders of
+offices and the seekers after them constituted a veritable political
+army. They crowded into Republican councils, for the Republicans, being
+in power, could alone dispense federal favors. They filled positions in
+the party ranging from the lowest township committee to the national
+convention. They helped to nominate candidates and draft platforms and
+elbowed to one side the busy citizen, not conversant with party
+intrigues, who could only give an occasional day to political matters.
+Even the Civil Service Act of 1883, wrung from a reluctant Congress two
+years after the assassination of Garfield, made little change for a long
+time. It took away from the spoilsmen a few thousand government
+positions, but it formed no check on the practice of rewarding party
+workers from the public treasury.
+
+On viewing this state of affairs, many a distinguished citizen became
+profoundly discouraged. James Russell Lowell, for example, thought he
+saw a steady decline in public morals. In 1865, hearing of Lee's
+surrender, he had exclaimed: "There is something magnificent in having a
+country to love!" Ten years later, when asked to write an ode for the
+centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, he could think only of a biting
+satire on the nation:
+
+    "Show your state legislatures; show your Rings;
+     And challenge Europe to produce such things
+     As high officials sitting half in sight
+     To share the plunder and fix things right.
+     If that don't fetch her, why, you need only
+     To show your latest style in martyrs,--Tweed:
+     She'll find it hard to hide her spiteful tears
+     At such advance in one poor hundred years."
+
+When his critics condemned him for this "attack upon his native land,"
+Lowell replied in sadness: "These fellows have no notion of what love of
+country means. It was in my very blood and bones. If I am not an
+American who ever was?... What fills me with doubt and dismay is the
+degradation of the moral tone. Is it or is it not a result of democracy?
+Is ours a 'government of the people, by the people, for the people,' or
+a Kakistocracy [a government of the worst], rather for the benefit of
+knaves at the cost of fools?"
+
+=The Reform Movement in Republican Ranks.=--The sentiments expressed by
+Lowell, himself a Republican and for a time American ambassador to
+England, were shared by many men in his party. Very soon after the close
+of the Civil War some of them began to protest vigorously against the
+policies and conduct of their leaders. In 1872, the dissenters, calling
+themselves Liberal Republicans, broke away altogether, nominated a
+candidate of their own, Horace Greeley, and put forward a platform
+indicting the Republican President fiercely enough to please the most
+uncompromising Democrat. They accused Grant of using "the powers and
+opportunities of his high office for the promotion of personal ends."
+They charged him with retaining "notoriously corrupt and unworthy men in
+places of power and responsibility." They alleged that the Republican
+party kept "alive the passions and resentments of the late civil war to
+use them for their own advantages," and employed the "public service of
+the government as a machinery of corruption and personal influence."
+
+It was not apparent, however, from the ensuing election that any
+considerable number of Republicans accepted the views of the Liberals.
+Greeley, though indorsed by the Democrats, was utterly routed and died
+of a broken heart. The lesson of his discomfiture seemed to be that
+independent action was futile. So, at least, it was regarded by most men
+of the rising generation like Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts, and
+Theodore Roosevelt, of New York. Profiting by the experience of Greeley
+they insisted in season and out that reformers who desired to rid the
+party of abuses should remain loyal to it and do their work "on the
+inside."
+
+=The Mugwumps and Cleveland Democracy in 1884.=--Though aided by
+Republican dissensions, the Democrats were slow in making headway
+against the political current. They were deprived of the energetic and
+capable leadership once afforded by the planters, like Calhoun, Davis,
+and Toombs; they were saddled by their opponents with responsibility for
+secession; and they were stripped of the support of the prostrate
+South. Not until the last Southern state was restored to the union, not
+until a general amnesty was wrung from Congress, not until white
+supremacy was established at the polls, and the last federal soldier
+withdrawn from Southern capitals did they succeed in capturing the
+presidency.
+
+The opportune moment for them came in 1884 when a number of
+circumstances favored their aspirations. The Republicans, leaving the
+Ohio Valley in their search for a candidate, nominated James G. Blaine
+of Maine, a vigorous and popular leader but a man under fire from the
+reformers in his own party. The Democrats on their side were able to
+find at this juncture an able candidate who had no political enemies in
+the sphere of national politics, Grover Cleveland, then governor of New
+York and widely celebrated as a man of "sterling honesty." At the same
+time a number of dissatisfied Republicans openly espoused the Democratic
+cause,--among them Carl Schurz, George William Curtis, Henry Ward
+Beecher, and William Everett, men of fine ideals and undoubted
+integrity. Though the "regular" Republicans called them "Mugwumps" and
+laughed at them as the "men milliners, the dilettanti, and carpet
+knights of politics," they had a following that was not to be despised.
+
+The campaign which took place that year was one of the most savage in
+American history. Issues were thrust into the background. The tariff,
+though mentioned, was not taken seriously. Abuse of the opposition was
+the favorite resource of party orators. The Democrats insisted that "the
+Republican party so far as principle is concerned is a reminiscence. In
+practice it is an organization for enriching those who control its
+machinery." For the Republican candidate, Blaine, they could hardly find
+words to express their contempt. The Republicans retaliated in kind.
+They praised their own good works, as of old, in saving the union, and
+denounced the "fraud and violence practiced by the Democracy in the
+Southern states." Seeing little objectionable in the public record of
+Cleveland as mayor of Buffalo and governor of New York, they attacked
+his personal character. Perhaps never in the history of political
+campaigns did the discussions on the platform and in the press sink to
+so low a level. Decent people were sickened. Even hot partisans shrank
+from their own words when, after the election, they had time to reflect
+on their heedless passions. Moreover, nothing was decided by the
+balloting. Cleveland was elected, but his victory was a narrow one. A
+change of a few hundred votes in New York would have sent his opponent
+to the White House instead.
+
+=Changing Political Fortunes (1888-96).=--After the Democrats had
+settled down to the enjoyment of their hard-earned victory, President
+Cleveland in his message of 1887 attacked the tariff as "vicious,
+inequitable, and illogical"; as a system of taxation that laid a burden
+upon "every consumer in the land for the benefit of our manufacturers."
+Business enterprise was thoroughly alarmed. The Republicans
+characterized the tariff message as a free-trade assault upon the
+industries of the country. Mainly on that issue they elected in 1888
+Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, a shrewd lawyer, a reticent politician, a
+descendant of the hero of Tippecanoe, and a son of the old Northwest.
+Accepting the outcome of the election as a vindication of their
+principles, the Republicans, under the leadership of William McKinley in
+the House of Representatives, enacted in 1890 a tariff law imposing the
+highest duties yet laid in our history. To their utter surprise,
+however, they were instantly informed by the country that their program
+was not approved. That very autumn they lost in the congressional
+elections, and two years later they were decisively beaten in the
+presidential campaign, Cleveland once more leading his party to victory.
+
+
+=References=
+
+L.H. Haney, _Congressional History of Railways_ (2 vols.).
+
+J.P. Davis, _Union Pacific Railway_.
+
+J.M. Swank, _History of the Manufacture of Iron_.
+
+M.T. Copeland, _The Cotton Manufacturing Industry in the United States_
+(Harvard Studies).
+
+E.W. Bryce, _Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century_.
+
+Ida Tarbell, _History of the Standard Oil Company_ (Critical).
+
+G.H. Montague, _Rise and Progress of the Standard Oil Company_
+(Friendly).
+
+H.P. Fairchild, _Immigration_, and F.J. Warne, _The Immigrant Invasion_
+(Both works favor exclusion).
+
+I.A. Hourwich, _Immigration_ (Against exclusionist policies).
+
+J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States, 1877-1896_, Vol. VIII.
+
+Edward Stanwood, _A History of the Presidency_, Vol. I, for the
+presidential elections of the period.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Contrast the state of industry and commerce at the close of the Civil
+War with its condition at the close of the Revolutionary War.
+
+2. Enumerate the services rendered to the nation by the railways.
+
+3. Explain the peculiar relation of railways to government.
+
+4. What sections of the country have been industrialized?
+
+5. How do you account for the rise and growth of the trusts? Explain
+some of the economic advantages of the trust.
+
+6. Are the people in cities more or less independent than the farmers?
+What was Jefferson's view?
+
+7. State some of the problems raised by unrestricted immigration.
+
+8. What was the theory of the relation of government to business in this
+period? Has it changed in recent times?
+
+9. State the leading economic policies sponsored by the Republican
+party.
+
+10. Why were the Republicans especially strong immediately after the
+Civil War?
+
+11. What illustrations can you give showing the influence of war in
+American political campaigns?
+
+12. Account for the strength of middle-western candidates.
+
+13. Enumerate some of the abuses that appeared in American political
+life after 1865.
+
+14. Sketch the rise and growth of the reform movement.
+
+15. How is the fluctuating state of public opinion reflected in the
+elections from 1880 to 1896?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Invention, Discovery, and Transportation.=--Sparks, _National
+Development_ (American Nation Series), pp. 37-67; Bogart, _Economic
+History of the United States_, Chaps. XXI, XXII, and XXIII.
+
+=Business and Politics.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series),
+pp. 92-107; Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VII, pp. 1-29,
+64-73, 175-206; Wilson, _History of the American People_, Vol. IV, pp.
+78-96.
+
+=Immigration.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United States_ (2d
+ed.), pp. 369-374; E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_,
+pp. 420-422, 434-437; Jenks and Lauck, _Immigration Problems_, Commons,
+_Races and Immigrants_.
+
+=The Disputed Election of 1876.=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own
+Time_, pp. 82-94; Dunning, _Reconstruction, Political and Economic_
+(American Nation Series), pp. 294-341; Elson, _History of the United
+States_, pp. 835-841.
+
+=Abuses in Political Life.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction_, pp. 281-293; see
+criticisms in party platforms in Stanwood, _History of the Presidency_,
+Vol. I; Bryce, _American Commonwealth_ (1910 ed.), Vol. II, pp. 379-448;
+136-167.
+
+=Studies of Presidential Administrations.=--(_a_) Grant, (_b_) Hayes,
+(_c_) Garfield-Arthur, (_d_) Cleveland, and (_e_) Harrison, in Haworth,
+_The United States in Our Own Time_, or in Paxson, _The New Nation_
+(Riverside Series), or still more briefly in Elson.
+
+=Cleveland Democracy.=--Haworth, _The United States_, pp. 164-183;
+Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 240-327; Elson,
+pp. 857-887.
+
+=Analysis of Modern Immigration Problems.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New
+York State, 1919), pp. 110-112.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT WEST
+
+
+At the close of the Civil War, Kansas and Texas were sentinel states on
+the middle border. Beyond the Rockies, California, Oregon, and Nevada
+stood guard, the last of them having been just admitted to furnish
+another vote for the fifteenth amendment abolishing slavery. Between the
+near and far frontiers lay a vast reach of plain, desert, plateau, and
+mountain, almost wholly undeveloped. A broad domain, extending from
+Canada to Mexico, and embracing the regions now included in Washington,
+Idaho, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, the Dakotas, and
+Oklahoma, had fewer than half a million inhabitants. It was laid out
+into territories, each administered under a governor appointed by the
+President and Senate and, as soon as there was the requisite number of
+inhabitants, a legislature elected by the voters. No railway line
+stretched across the desert. St. Joseph on the Missouri was the terminus
+of the Eastern lines. It required twenty-five days for a passenger to
+make the overland journey to California by the stagecoach system,
+established in 1858, and more than ten days for the swift pony express,
+organized in 1860, to carry a letter to San Francisco. Indians still
+roamed the plain and desert and more than one powerful tribe disputed
+the white man's title to the soil.
+
+
+THE RAILWAYS AS TRAIL BLAZERS
+
+=Opening Railways to the Pacific.=--A decade before the Civil War the
+importance of rail connection between the East and the Pacific Coast had
+been recognized. Pressure had already been brought to bear on Congress
+to authorize the construction of a line and to grant land and money in
+its aid. Both the Democrats and Republicans approved the idea, but it
+was involved in the slavery controversy. Indeed it was submerged in it.
+Southern statesmen wanted connections between the Gulf and the Pacific
+through Texas, while Northerners stood out for a central route.
+
+The North had its way during the war. Congress, by legislation initiated
+in 1862, provided for the immediate organization of companies to build a
+line from the Missouri River to California and made grants of land and
+loans of money to aid in the enterprise. The Western end, the Central
+Pacific, was laid out under the supervision of Leland Stanford. It was
+heavily financed by the Mormons of Utah and also by the state
+government, the ranchmen, miners, and business men of California; and it
+was built principally by Chinese labor. The Eastern end, the Union
+Pacific, starting at Omaha, was constructed mainly by veterans of the
+Civil War and immigrants from Ireland and Germany. In 1869 the two
+companies met near Ogden in Utah and the driving of the last spike,
+uniting the Atlantic and the Pacific, was the occasion of a great
+demonstration.
+
+Other lines to the Pacific were projected at the same time; but the
+panic of 1873 checked railway enterprise for a while. With the revival
+of prosperity at the end of that decade, construction was renewed with
+vigor and the year 1883 marked a series of railway triumphs. In February
+trains were running from New Orleans through Houston, San Antonio, and
+Yuma to San Francisco, as a result of a union of the Texas Pacific with
+the Southern Pacific and its subsidiary corporations. In September the
+last spike was driven in the Northern Pacific at Helena, Montana. Lake
+Superior was connected with Puget Sound. The waters explored by Joliet
+and Marquette were joined to the waters plowed by Sir Francis Drake
+while he was searching for a route around the world. That same year also
+a third line was opened to the Pacific by way of the Atchison, Topeka
+and Santa Fe, making connections through Albuquerque and Needles with
+San Francisco. The fondest hopes of railway promoters seemed to be
+realized.
+
+[Illustration: UNITED STATES IN 1870]
+
+=Western Railways Precede Settlement.=--In the Old World and on our
+Atlantic seaboard, railways followed population and markets. In the Far
+West, railways usually preceded the people. Railway builders planned
+cities on paper before they laid tracks connecting them. They sent
+missionaries to spread the gospel of "Western opportunity" to people in
+the Middle West, in the Eastern cities, and in Southern states. Then
+they carried their enthusiastic converts bag and baggage in long trains
+to the distant Dakotas and still farther afield. So the development of
+the Far West was not left to the tedious processes of time. It was
+pushed by men of imagination--adventurers who made a romance of
+money-making and who had dreams of empire unequaled by many kings of the
+past.
+
+These empire builders bought railway lands in huge tracts; they got more
+from the government; they overcame every obstacle of canon, mountain,
+and stream with the aid of science; they built cities according to the
+plans made by the engineers. Having the towns ready and railway and
+steamboat connections formed with the rest of the world, they carried
+out the people to use the railways, the steamships, the houses, and the
+land. It was in this way that "the frontier speculator paved the way for
+the frontier agriculturalist who had to be near a market before he could
+farm." The spirit of this imaginative enterprise, which laid out
+railways and towns in advance of the people, is seen in an advertisement
+of that day: "This extension will run 42 miles from York, northeast
+through the Island Lake country, and will have five good North Dakota
+towns. The stations on the line will be well equipped with elevators and
+will be constructed and ready for operation at the commencement of the
+grain season. Prospective merchants have been active in securing
+desirable locations at the different towns on the line. There are still
+opportunities for hotels, general merchandise, hardware, furniture, and
+drug stores, etc."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A TOWN ON THE PRAIRIE]
+
+Among the railway promoters and builders in the West, James J. Hill,
+of the Great Northern and allied lines, was one of the most forceful
+figures. He knew that tracks and trains were useless without passengers
+and freight; without a population of farmers and town dwellers. He
+therefore organized publicity in the Virginias, Iowa, Ohio, Indiana,
+Illinois, Wisconsin, and Nebraska especially. He sent out agents to tell
+the story of Western opportunity in this vein: "You see your children
+come out of school with no chance to get farms of their own because the
+cost of land in your older part of the country is so high that you can't
+afford to buy land to start your sons out in life around you. They have
+to go to the cities to make a living or become laborers in the mills or
+hire out as farm hands. There is no future for them there. If you are
+doing well where you are and can safeguard the future of your children
+and see them prosper around you, don't leave here. But if you want
+independence, if you are renting your land, if the money-lender is
+carrying you along and you are running behind year after year, you can
+do no worse by moving.... You farmers talk of free trade and protection
+and what this or that political party will do for you. Why don't you
+vote a homestead for yourself? That is the only thing Uncle Sam will
+ever give you. Jim Hill hasn't an acre of land to sell you. We are not
+in the real estate business. We don't want you to go out West and make a
+failure of it because the rates at which we haul you and your goods make
+the first transaction a loss.... We must have landless men for a manless
+land."
+
+Unlike steamship companies stimulating immigration to get the fares,
+Hill was seeking permanent settlers who would produce, manufacture, and
+use the railways as the means of exchange. Consequently he fixed low
+rates and let his passengers take a good deal of live stock and
+household furniture free. By doing this he made an appeal that was
+answered by eager families. In 1894 the vanguard of home seekers left
+Indiana in fourteen passenger coaches, filled with men, women, and
+children, and forty-eight freight cars carrying their household goods
+and live stock. In the ten years that followed, 100,000 people from the
+Middle West and the South, responding to his call, went to the Western
+country where they brought eight million acres of prairie land under
+cultivation.
+
+When Hill got his people on the land, he took an interest in everything
+that increased the productivity of their labor. Was the output of food
+for his freight cars limited by bad drainage on the farms? Hill then
+interested himself in practical ways of ditching and tiling. Were
+farmers hampered in hauling their goods to his trains by bad roads? In
+that case, he urged upon the states the improvement of highways. Did the
+traffic slacken because the food shipped was not of the best quality?
+Then live stock must be improved and scientific farming promoted. Did
+the farmers need credit? Banks must be established close at hand to
+advance it. In all conferences on scientific farm management,
+conservation of natural resources, banking and credit in relation to
+agriculture and industry, Hill was an active participant. His was the
+long vision, seeing in conservation and permanent improvements the
+foundation of prosperity for the railways and the people.
+
+Indeed, he neglected no opportunity to increase the traffic on the
+lines. He wanted no empty cars running in either direction and no wheat
+stored in warehouses for the lack of markets. So he looked to the Orient
+as well as to Europe as an outlet for the surplus of the farms. He sent
+agents to China and Japan to discover what American goods and produce
+those countries would consume and what manufactures they had to offer to
+Americans in exchange. To open the Pacific trade he bought two ocean
+monsters, the _Minnesota_ and the _Dakota_, thus preparing for
+emergencies West as well as East. When some Japanese came to the United
+States on their way to Europe to buy steel rails, Hill showed them how
+easy it was for them to make their purchase in this country and ship by
+way of American railways and American vessels. So the railway builder
+and promoter, who helped to break the virgin soil of the prairies, lived
+through the pioneer epoch and into the age of great finance. Before he
+died he saw the wheat fields of North Dakota linked with the spinning
+jennies of Manchester and the docks of Yokohama.
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF GRAZING AND AGRICULTURE
+
+=The Removal of the Indians.=--Unlike the frontier of New England in
+colonial days or that of Kentucky later, the advancing lines of home
+builders in the Far West had little difficulty with warlike natives.
+Indian attacks were made on the railway construction gangs; General
+Custer had his fatal battle with the Sioux in 1876 and there were minor
+brushes; but they were all of relatively slight consequence. The former
+practice of treating with the Indians as independent nations was
+abandoned in 1871 and most of them were concentrated in reservations
+where they were mainly supported by the government. The supervision of
+their affairs was vested in a board of commissioners created in 1869 and
+instructed to treat them as wards of the nation--a trust which
+unfortunately was often betrayed. A further step in Indian policy was
+taken in 1887 when provision was made for issuing lands to individual
+Indians, thus permitting them to become citizens and settle down among
+their white neighbors as farmers or cattle raisers. The disappearance of
+the buffalo, the main food supply of the wild Indians, had made them
+more tractable and more willing to surrender the freedom of the hunter
+for the routine of the reservation, ranch, or wheat field.
+
+=The Cowboy and Cattle Ranger.=--Between the frontier of farms and the
+mountains were plains and semi-arid regions in vast reaches suitable for
+grazing. As soon as the railways were open into the Missouri Valley,
+affording an outlet for stock, there sprang up to the westward cattle
+and sheep raising on an immense scale. The far-famed American cowboy was
+the hero in this scene. Great herds of cattle were bred in Texas; with
+the advancing spring and summer seasons, they were driven northward
+across the plains and over the buffalo trails. In a single year, 1884,
+it is estimated that nearly one million head of cattle were moved out of
+Texas to the North by four thousand cowboys, supplied with 30,000
+horses and ponies.
+
+During the two decades from 1870 to 1890 both the cattle men and the
+sheep raisers had an almost free run of the plains, using public lands
+without paying for the privilege and waging war on one another over the
+possession of ranges. At length, however, both had to go, as the
+homesteaders and land companies came and fenced in the plain and desert
+with endless lines of barbed wire. Already in 1893 a writer familiar
+with the frontier lamented the passing of the picturesque days: "The
+unique position of the cowboys among the Americans is jeopardized in a
+thousand ways. Towns are growing up on their pasture lands; irrigation
+schemes of a dozen sorts threaten to turn bunch-grass scenery into
+farm-land views; farmers are pre-empting valleys and the sides of
+waterways; and the day is not far distant when stock-raising must be
+done mainly in small herds, with winter corrals, and then the cowboy's
+days will end. Even now his condition disappoints those who knew him
+only half a dozen years ago. His breed seems to have deteriorated and
+his ranks are filling with men who work for wages rather than for the
+love of the free life and bold companionship that once tempted men into
+that calling. Splendid Cheyenne saddles are less and less numerous in
+the outfits; the distinctive hat that made its way up from Mexico may or
+may not be worn; all the civil authorities in nearly all towns in the
+grazing country forbid the wearing of side arms; nobody shoots up these
+towns any more. The fact is the old simon-pure cowboy days are gone
+already."
+
+=Settlement under the Homestead Act of 1862.=--Two factors gave a
+special stimulus to the rapid settlement of Western lands which swept
+away the Indians and the cattle rangers. The first was the policy of the
+railway companies in selling large blocks of land received from the
+government at low prices to induce immigration. The second was the
+operation of the Homestead law passed in 1862. This measure practically
+closed the long controversy over the disposition of the public domain
+that was suitable for agriculture. It provided for granting, without any
+cost save a small registration fee, public lands in lots of 160 acres
+each to citizens and aliens who declared their intention of becoming
+citizens. The one important condition attached was that the settler
+should occupy the farm for five years before his title was finally
+confirmed. Even this stipulation was waived in the case of the Civil War
+veterans who were allowed to count their term of military service as a
+part of the five years' occupancy required. As the soldiers of the
+Revolutionary and Mexican wars had advanced in great numbers to the
+frontier in earlier days, so now veterans led in the settlement of the
+middle border. Along with them went thousands of German, Irish, and
+Scandinavian immigrants, fresh from the Old World. Between 1867 and
+1874, 27,000,000 acres were staked out in quarter-section farms. In
+twenty years (1860-80), the population of Nebraska leaped from 28,000 to
+almost half a million; Kansas from 100,000 to a million; Iowa from
+600,000 to 1,600,000; and the Dakotas from 5000 to 140,000.
+
+=The Diversity of Western Agriculture.=--In soil, produce, and
+management, Western agriculture presented many contrasts to that of the
+East and South. In the region of arable and watered lands the typical
+American unit--the small farm tilled by the owner--appeared as usual;
+but by the side of it many a huge domain owned by foreign or Eastern
+companies and tilled by hired labor. Sometimes the great estate took the
+shape of the "bonanza farm" devoted mainly to wheat and corn and
+cultivated on a large scale by machinery. Again it assumed the form of
+the cattle ranch embracing tens of thousands of acres. Again it was a
+vast holding of diversified interest, such as the Santa Anita ranch near
+Los Angeles, a domain of 60,000 acres "cultivated in a glorious sweep of
+vineyards and orange and olive orchards, rich sheep and cattle pastures
+and horse ranches, their life and customs handed down from the Spanish
+owners of the various ranches which were swept into one estate."
+
+=Irrigation.=--In one respect agriculture in the Far West was unique. In
+a large area spreading through eight states, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming,
+Utah, Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of adjoining
+states, the rainfall was so slight that the ordinary crops to which the
+American farmer was accustomed could not be grown at all. The Mormons
+were the first Anglo-Saxons to encounter aridity, and they were baffled
+at first; but they studied it and mastered it by magnificent irrigation
+systems. As other settlers poured into the West the problem of the
+desert was attacked with a will, some of them replying to the
+commiseration of Eastern farmers by saying that it was easier to scoop
+out an irrigation ditch than to cut forests and wrestle with stumps and
+stones. Private companies bought immense areas at low prices, built
+irrigation works, and disposed of their lands in small plots. Some
+ranchers with an instinct for water, like that of the miner for metal,
+sank wells into the dry sand and were rewarded with gushers that "soused
+the thirsty desert and turned its good-for-nothing sand into
+good-for-anything loam." The federal government came to the aid of the
+arid regions in 1894 by granting lands to the states to be used for
+irrigation purposes. In this work Wyoming took the lead with a law which
+induced capitalists to invest in irrigation and at the same time
+provided for the sale of the redeemed lands to actual settlers. Finally
+in 1902 the federal government by its liberal Reclamation Act added its
+strength to that of individuals, companies, and states in conquering
+"arid America."
+
+"Nowhere," writes Powell, a historian of the West, in his picturesque
+_End of the Trail_, "has the white man fought a more courageous fight or
+won a more brilliant victory than in Arizona. His weapons have been the
+transit and the level, the drill and the dredge, the pick and the spade;
+and the enemy which he has conquered has been the most stubborn of all
+foes--the hostile forces of Nature.... The story of how the white man
+within the space of less than thirty years penetrated, explored, and
+mapped this almost unknown region; of how he carried law, order, and
+justice into a section which had never had so much as a speaking
+acquaintance with any one of the three before; of how, realizing the
+necessity for means of communication, he built highways of steel across
+this territory from east to west and from north to south; of how,
+undismayed by the savageness of the countenance which the desert turned
+upon him, he laughed and rolled up his sleeves, and spat upon his hands,
+and slashed the face of the desert with canals and irrigating ditches,
+and filled those ditches with water brought from deep in the earth or
+high in the mountains; and of how, in the conquered and submissive soil,
+he replaced the aloe with alfalfa, the mesquite with maize, the cactus
+with cotton, forms one of the most inspiring chapters in our history. It
+is one of the epics of civilization, this reclamation of the Southwest,
+and its heroes, thank God, are Americans.
+
+"Other desert regions have been redeemed by irrigation--Egypt, for
+example, and Mesopotamia and parts of the Sudan--but the people of all
+those regions lay stretched out in the shade of a convenient palm,
+metaphorically speaking, and waited for some one with more energy than
+themselves to come along and do the work. But the Arizonians, mindful of
+the fact that God, the government, and Carnegie help those who help
+themselves, spent their days wielding the pick and shovel, and their
+evenings in writing letters to Washington with toil-hardened hands.
+After a time the government was prodded into action and the great dams
+at Laguna and Roosevelt are the result. Then the people, organizing
+themselves into cooeperative leagues and water-users' associations, took
+up the work of reclamation where the government left off; it is to these
+energetic, persevering men who have drilled wells, plowed fields, and
+dug ditches through the length and breadth of that great region which
+stretches from Yuma to Tucson, that the metamorphosis of Arizona is
+due."
+
+The effect of irrigation wherever introduced was amazing. Stretches of
+sand and sagebrush gave way to fertile fields bearing crops of wheat,
+corn, fruits, vegetables, and grass. Huge ranches grazed by browsing
+sheep were broken up into small plots. The cowboy and ranchman vanished.
+In their place rose the prosperous community--a community unlike the
+township of Iowa or the industrial center of the East. Its intensive
+tillage left little room for hired labor. Its small holdings drew
+families together in village life rather than dispersing them on the
+lonely plain. Often the development of water power in connection with
+irrigation afforded electricity for labor-saving devices and lifted many
+a burden that in other days fell heavily upon the shoulders of the
+farmer and his family.
+
+
+MINING AND MANUFACTURING IN THE WEST
+
+=Mineral Resources.=--In another important particular the Far West
+differed from the Mississippi Valley states. That was in the
+predominance of mining over agriculture throughout a vast section.
+Indeed it was the minerals rather than the land that attracted the
+pioneers who first opened the country. The discovery of gold in
+California in 1848 was the signal for the great rush of prospectors,
+miners, and promoters who explored the valleys, climbed the hills,
+washed the sands, and dug up the soil in their feverish search for gold,
+silver, copper, coal, and other minerals. In Nevada and Montana the
+development of mineral resources went on all during the Civil War. Alder
+Gulch became Virginia City in 1863; Last Chance Gulch was named Helena
+in 1864; and Confederate Gulch was christened Diamond City in 1865. At
+Butte the miners began operations in 1864 and within five years had
+washed out eight million dollars' worth of gold. Under the gold they
+found silver; under silver they found copper.
+
+Even at the end of the nineteenth century, after agriculture was well
+advanced and stock and sheep raising introduced on a large scale,
+minerals continued to be the chief source of wealth in a number of
+states. This was revealed by the figures for 1910. The gold, silver,
+iron, and copper of Colorado were worth more than the wheat, corn, and
+oats combined; the copper of Montana sold for more than all the cereals
+and four times the price of the wheat. The interest of Nevada was also
+mainly mining, the receipts from the mineral output being $43,000,000 or
+more than one-half the national debt of Hamilton's day. The yield of the
+mines of Utah was worth four or five times the wheat crop; the coal of
+Wyoming brought twice as much as the great wool clip; the minerals of
+Arizona were totaled at $43,000,000 as against a wool clip reckoned at
+$1,200,000; while in Idaho alone of this group of states did the wheat
+crop exceed in value the output of the mines.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph from Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+LOGGING]
+
+=Timber Resources.=--The forests of the great West, unlike those of the
+Ohio Valley, proved a boon to the pioneers rather than a foe to be
+attacked. In Ohio and Indiana, for example, the frontier line of
+homemakers had to cut, roll, and burn thousands of trees before they
+could put out a crop of any size. Beyond the Mississippi, however,
+there were all ready for the breaking plow great reaches of almost
+treeless prairie, where every stick of timber was precious. In the other
+parts, often rough and mountainous, where stood primeval forests of the
+finest woods, the railroads made good use of the timber. They consumed
+acres of forests themselves in making ties, bridge timbers, and
+telegraph poles, and they laid a heavy tribute upon the forests for
+their annual upkeep. The surplus trees, such as had burdened the
+pioneers of the Northwest Territory a hundred years before, they carried
+off to markets on the east and west coasts.
+
+=Western Industries.=--The peculiar conditions of the Far West
+stimulated a rise of industries more rapid than is usual in new country.
+The mining activities which in many sections preceded agriculture called
+for sawmills to furnish timber for the mines and smelters to reduce and
+refine ores. The ranches supplied sheep and cattle for the packing
+houses of Kansas City as well as Chicago. The waters of the Northwest
+afforded salmon for 4000 cases in 1866 and for 1,400,000 cases in 1916.
+The fruits and vegetables of California brought into existence
+innumerable canneries. The lumber industry, starting with crude sawmills
+to furnish rough timbers for railways and mines, ended in specialized
+factories for paper, boxes, and furniture. As the railways preceded
+settlement and furnished a ready outlet for local manufactures, so they
+encouraged the early establishment of varied industries, thus creating a
+state of affairs quite unlike that which obtained in the Ohio Valley in
+the early days before the opening of the Erie Canal.
+
+=Social Effects of Economic Activities.=--In many respects the social
+life of the Far West also differed from that of the Ohio Valley. The
+treeless prairies, though open to homesteads, favored the great estate
+tilled in part by tenant labor and in part by migratory seasonal labor,
+summoned from all sections of the country for the harvests. The mineral
+resources created hundreds of huge fortunes which made the accumulations
+of eastern mercantile families look trivial by comparison. Other
+millionaires won their fortunes in the railway business and still more
+from the cattle and sheep ranges. In many sections the "cattle king," as
+he was called, was as dominant as the planter had been in the old South.
+Everywhere in the grazing country he was a conspicuous and important
+person. He "sometimes invested money in banks, in railroad stocks, or in
+city property.... He had his rating in the commercial reviews and could
+hobnob with bankers, railroad presidents, and metropolitan merchants....
+He attended party caucuses and conventions, ran for the state
+legislature, and sometimes defeated a lawyer or metropolitan 'business
+man' in the race for a seat in Congress. In proportion to their numbers,
+the ranchers ... have constituted a highly impressive class."
+
+Although many of the early capitalists of the great West, especially
+from Nevada, spent their money principally in the East, others took
+leadership in promoting the sections in which they had made their
+fortunes. A railroad pioneer, General Palmer, built his home at Colorado
+Springs, founded the town, and encouraged local improvements. Denver
+owed its first impressive buildings to the civic patriotism of Horace
+Tabor, a wealthy mine owner. Leland Stanford paid his tribute to
+California in the endowment of a large university. Colonel W.F. Cody,
+better known as "Buffalo Bill," started his career by building a "boom
+town" which collapsed, and made a large sum of money supplying buffalo
+meat to construction hands (hence his popular name). By his famous Wild
+West Show, he increased it to a fortune which he devoted mainly to the
+promotion of a western reclamation scheme.
+
+While the Far West was developing this vigorous, aggressive leadership
+in business, a considerable industrial population was springing up. Even
+the cattle ranges and hundreds of farms were conducted like factories in
+that they were managed through overseers who hired plowmen, harvesters,
+and cattlemen at regular wages. At the same time there appeared other
+peculiar features which made a lasting impression on western economic
+life. Mining, lumbering, and fruit growing, for instance, employed
+thousands of workers during the rush months and turned them out at other
+times. The inevitable result was an army of migratory laborers wandering
+from camp to camp, from town to town, and from ranch to ranch, without
+fixed homes or established habits of life. From this extraordinary
+condition there issued many a long and lawless conflict between capital
+and labor, giving a distinct color to the labor movement in whole
+sections of the mountain and coast states.
+
+
+THE ADMISSION OF NEW STATES
+
+=The Spirit of Self-Government.=--The instinct of self-government was
+strong in the western communities. In the very beginning, it led to the
+organization of volunteer committees, known as "vigilantes," to suppress
+crime and punish criminals. As soon as enough people were settled
+permanently in a region, they took care to form a more stable kind of
+government. An illustration of this process is found in the Oregon
+compact made by the pioneers in 1843, the spirit of which is reflected
+in an editorial in an old copy of the _Rocky Mountain News_: "We claim
+that any body or community of American citizens which from any cause or
+under any circumstances is cut off from or from isolation is so situated
+as not to be under any active and protecting branch of the central
+government, have a right, if on American soil, to frame a government and
+enact such laws and regulations as may be necessary for their own
+safety, protection, and happiness, always with the condition precedent,
+that they shall, at the earliest moment when the central government
+shall extend an effective organization and laws over them, give it their
+unqualified support and obedience."
+
+People who turned so naturally to the organization of local
+administration were equally eager for admission to the union as soon as
+any shadow of a claim to statehood could be advanced. As long as a
+region was merely one of the territories of the United States, the
+appointment of the governor and other officers was controlled by
+politics at Washington. Moreover the disposition of land, mineral
+rights, forests, and water power was also in the hands of national
+leaders. Thus practical considerations were united with the spirit of
+independence in the quest for local autonomy.
+
+=Nebraska and Colorado.=--Two states, Nebraska and Colorado, had little
+difficulty in securing admission to the union. The first, Nebraska, had
+been organized as a territory by the famous Kansas-Nebraska bill which
+did so much to precipitate the Civil War. Lying to the north of Kansas,
+which had been admitted in 1861, it escaped the invasion of slave owners
+from Missouri and was settled mainly by farmers from the North. Though
+it claimed a population of only 67,000, it was regarded with kindly
+interest by the Republican Congress at Washington and, reduced to its
+present boundaries, it received the coveted statehood in 1867.
+
+This was hardly accomplished before the people of Colorado to the
+southwest began to make known their demands. They had been organized
+under territorial government in 1861 when they numbered only a handful;
+but within ten years the aspect of their affairs had completely changed.
+The silver and gold deposits of the Leadville and Cripple Creek regions
+had attracted an army of miners and prospectors. The city of Denver,
+founded in 1858 and named after the governor of Kansas whence came many
+of the early settlers, had grown from a straggling camp of log huts into
+a prosperous center of trade. By 1875 it was reckoned that the
+population of the territory was not less than one hundred thousand; the
+following year Congress, yielding to the popular appeal, made Colorado a
+member of the American union.
+
+=Six New States (1889-1890).=--For many years there was a deadlock in
+Congress over the admission of new states. The spell was broken in 1889
+under the leadership of the Dakotas. For a long time the Dakota
+territory, organized in 1861, had been looked upon as the home of the
+powerful Sioux Indians whose enormous reservation blocked the advance of
+the frontier. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills, however, marked
+their doom. Even before Congress could open their lands to prospectors,
+pioneers were swarming over the country. Farmers from the adjoining
+Minnesota and the Eastern states, Scandinavians, Germans, and Canadians,
+came in swelling waves to occupy the fertile Dakota lands, now famous
+even as far away as the fjords of Norway. Seldom had the plow of man cut
+through richer soil than was found in the bottoms of the Red River
+Valley, and it became all the more precious when the opening of the
+Northern Pacific in 1883 afforded a means of transportation east and
+west. The population, which had numbered 135,000 in 1880, passed the
+half million mark before ten years had elapsed.
+
+Remembering that Nebraska had been admitted with only 67,000
+inhabitants, the Dakotans could not see why they should be kept under
+federal tutelage. At the same time Washington, far away on the Pacific
+Coast, Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming, boasting of their populations and
+their riches, put in their own eloquent pleas. But the members of
+Congress were busy with politics. The Democrats saw no good reason for
+admitting new Republican states until after their defeat in 1888. Near
+the end of their term the next year they opened the door for North and
+South Dakota, Washington, and Montana. In 1890, a Republican Congress
+brought Idaho and Wyoming into the union, the latter with woman
+suffrage, which had been granted twenty-one years before.
+
+=Utah.=--Although Utah had long presented all the elements of a
+well-settled and industrious community, its admission to the union was
+delayed on account of popular hostility to the practice of polygamy. The
+custom, it is true, had been prohibited by act of Congress in 1862; but
+the law had been systematically evaded. In 1882 Congress made another
+and more effective effort to stamp out polygamy. Five years later it
+even went so far as to authorize the confiscation of the property of the
+Mormon Church in case the practice of plural marriages was not stopped.
+Meanwhile the Gentile or non-Mormon population was steadily increasing
+and the leaders in the Church became convinced that the battle
+against the sentiment of the country was futile. At last in 1896 Utah
+was admitted as a state under a constitution which forbade plural
+marriages absolutely and forever. Horace Greeley, who visited Utah in
+1859, had prophesied that the Pacific Railroad would work a revolution
+in the land of Brigham Young. His prophecy had come true.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1912]
+
+=Rounding out the Continent.=--Three more territories now remained out
+of the Union. Oklahoma, long an Indian reservation, had been opened for
+settlement to white men in 1889. The rush upon the fertile lands of this
+region, the last in the history of America, was marked by all the frenzy
+of the final, desperate chance. At a signal from a bugle an army of men
+with families in wagons, men and women on horseback and on foot, burst
+into the territory. During the first night a city of tents was raised at
+Guthrie and Oklahoma City. In ten days wooden houses rose on the plains.
+In a single year there were schools, churches, business blocks, and
+newspapers. Within fifteen years there was a population of more than
+half a million. To the west, Arizona with a population of about 125,000
+and New Mexico with 200,000 inhabitants joined Oklahoma in asking for
+statehood. Congress, then Republican, looked with reluctance upon the
+addition of more Democratic states; but in 1907 it was literally
+compelled by public sentiment and a sense of justice to admit Oklahoma.
+In 1910 the House of Representatives went to the Democrats and within
+two years Arizona and New Mexico were "under the roof." So the
+continental domain was rounded out.
+
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF THE FAR WEST ON NATIONAL LIFE
+
+=The Last of the Frontier.=--When Horace Greeley made his trip west in
+1859 he thus recorded the progress of civilization in his journal:
+
+     "May 12th, Chicago.--Chocolate and morning journals last
+     seen on the hotel breakfast table.
+
+     23rd, Leavenworth (Kansas).--Room bells and bath tubs make
+     their final appearance.
+
+     26th, Manhattan.--Potatoes and eggs last recognized among
+     the blessings that 'brighten as they take their flight.'
+
+     27th, Junction City.--Last visitation of a boot-black, with
+     dissolving views of a board bedroom. Beds bid us good-by."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Panama-California Exposition_
+
+THE CANADIAN BUILDING AT THE PANAMA-CALIFORNIA INTERNATIONAL
+EXPOSITION, SAN DIEGO, 1915]
+
+Within thirty years travelers were riding across that country in Pullman
+cars and enjoying at the hotels all the comforts of a standardized
+civilization. The "wild west" was gone, and with it that frontier of
+pioneers and settlers who had long given such a bent and tone to
+American life and had "poured in upon the floor of Congress" such a long
+line of "backwoods politicians," as they were scornfully styled.
+
+=Free Land and Eastern Labor.=--It was not only the picturesque features
+of the frontier that were gone. Of far more consequence was the
+disappearance of free lands with all that meant for American labor. For
+more than a hundred years, any man of even moderate means had been able
+to secure a homestead of his own and an independent livelihood. For a
+hundred years America had been able to supply farms to as many
+immigrants as cared to till the soil. Every new pair of strong arms
+meant more farms and more wealth. Workmen in Eastern factories, mines,
+or mills who did not like their hours, wages, or conditions of labor,
+could readily find an outlet to the land. Now all that was over. By
+about 1890 most of the desirable land available under the Homestead act
+had disappeared. American industrial workers confronted a new situation.
+
+=Grain Supplants King Cotton.=--In the meantime a revolution was taking
+place in agriculture. Until 1860 the chief staples sold by America were
+cotton and tobacco. With the advance of the frontier, corn and wheat
+supplanted them both in agrarian economy. The West became the granary of
+the East and of Western Europe. The scoop shovel once used to handle
+grain was superseded by the towering elevator, loading and unloading
+thousands of bushels every hour. The refrigerator car and ship made the
+packing industry as stable as the production of cotton or corn, and gave
+an immense impetus to cattle raising and sheep farming. So the meat of
+the West took its place on the English dinner table by the side of bread
+baked from Dakotan wheat.
+
+=Aid in American Economic Independence.=--The effects of this economic
+movement were manifold and striking. Billions of dollars' worth of
+American grain, dairy produce, and meat were poured into European
+markets where they paid off debts due money lenders and acquired
+capital to develop American resources. Thus they accelerated the
+progress of American financiers toward national independence. The
+country, which had timidly turned to the Old World for capital in
+Hamilton's day and had borrowed at high rates of interest in London in
+Lincoln's day, moved swiftly toward the time when it would be among the
+world's first bankers and money lenders itself. Every grain of wheat and
+corn pulled the balance down on the American side of the scale.
+
+=Eastern Agriculture Affected.=--In the East as well as abroad the
+opening of the western granary produced momentous results. The
+agricultural economy of that part of the country was changed in many
+respects. Whole sections of the poorest land went almost out of
+cultivation, the abandoned farms of the New England hills bearing solemn
+witness to the competing power of western wheat fields. Sheep and cattle
+raising, as well as wheat and corn production, suffered at least a
+relative decline. Thousands of farmers cultivating land of the lower
+grade were forced to go West or were driven to the margin of
+subsistence. Even the herds that supplied Eastern cities with milk were
+fed upon grain brought halfway across the continent.
+
+=The Expansion of the American Market.=--Upon industry as well as
+agriculture, the opening of vast food-producing regions told in a
+thousand ways. The demand for farm machinery, clothing, boots, shoes,
+and other manufactures gave to American industries such a market as even
+Hamilton had never foreseen. Moreover it helped to expand far into the
+Mississippi Valley the industrial area once confined to the Northern
+seaboard states and to transform the region of the Great Lakes into an
+industrial empire. Herein lies the explanation of the growth of
+mid-western cities after 1865. Chicago, with its thirty-five railways,
+tapped every locality of the West and South. To the railways were added
+the water routes of the Lakes, thus creating a strategic center for
+industries. Long foresight carried the McCormick reaper works to
+Chicago before 1860. From Troy, New York, went a large stove plant. That
+was followed by a shoe factory from Massachusetts. The packing industry
+rose as a matter of course at a point so advantageous for cattle raisers
+and shippers and so well connected with Eastern markets.
+
+To the opening of the Far West also the Lake region was indebted for a
+large part of that water-borne traffic which made it "the Mediterranean
+basin of North America." The produce of the West and the manufactures of
+the East poured through it in an endless stream. The swift growth of
+shipbuilding on the Great Lakes helped to compensate for the decline of
+the American marine on the high seas. In response to this stimulus
+Detroit could boast that her shipwrights were able to turn out a ten
+thousand ton Leviathan for ore or grain about "as quickly as carpenters
+could put up an eight-room house." Thus in relation to the Far West the
+old Northwest territory--the wilderness of Jefferson's time--had taken
+the position formerly occupied by New England alone. It was supplying
+capital and manufactures for a vast agricultural empire West and South.
+
+=America on the Pacific.=--It has been said that the Mediterranean Sea
+was the center of ancient civilization; that modern civilization has
+developed on the shores of the Atlantic; and that the future belongs to
+the Pacific. At any rate, the sweep of the United States to the shores
+of the Pacific quickly exercised a powerful influence on world affairs
+and it undoubtedly has a still greater significance for the future.
+
+Very early regular traffic sprang up between the Pacific ports and the
+Hawaiian Islands, China, and Japan. Two years before the adjustment of
+the Oregon controversy with England, namely in 1844, the United States
+had established official and trading relations with China. Ten years
+later, four years after the admission of California to the union, the
+barred door of Japan was forced open by Commodore Perry. The commerce
+which had long before developed between the Pacific ports and Hawaii,
+China, and Japan now flourished under official care. In 1865 a ship
+from Honolulu carried sugar, molasses, and fruits from Hawaii to the
+Oregon port of Astoria. The next year a vessel from Hongkong brought
+rice, mats, and tea from China. An era of lucrative trade was opened.
+The annexation of Hawaii in 1898, the addition of the Philippines at the
+same time, and the participation of American troops in the suppression
+of the Boxer rebellion in Peking in 1900, were but signs and symbols of
+American power on the Pacific.
+
+[Illustration: _From an old print_
+
+COMMODORE PERRY'S MEN MAKING PRESENTS TO THE JAPANESE]
+
+=Conservation and the Land Problem.=--The disappearance of the frontier
+also brought new and serious problems to the governments of the states
+and the nation. The people of the whole United States suddenly were
+forced to realize that there was a limit to the rich, new land to
+exploit and to the forests and minerals awaiting the ax and the pick.
+Then arose in America the questions which had long perplexed the
+countries of the Old World--the scientific use of the soils and
+conservation of natural resources. Hitherto the government had followed
+the easy path of giving away arable land and selling forest and mineral
+lands at low prices. Now it had to face far more difficult and complex
+problems. It also had to consider questions of land tenure again,
+especially if the ideal of a nation of home-owning farmers was to be
+maintained. While there was plenty of land for every man or woman who
+wanted a home on the soil, it made little difference if single landlords
+or companies got possession of millions of acres, if a hundred men in
+one western river valley owned 17,000,000 acres; but when the good land
+for small homesteads was all gone, then was raised the real issue. At
+the opening of the twentieth century the nation, which a hundred years
+before had land and natural resources apparently without limit, was
+compelled to enact law after law conserving its forests and minerals.
+Then it was that the great state of California, on the very border of
+the continent, felt constrained to enact a land settlement measure
+providing government assistance in an effort to break up large holdings
+into small lots and to make it easy for actual settlers to acquire small
+farms. America was passing into a new epoch.
+
+
+=References=
+
+Henry Inman, _The Old Santa Fe Trail_.
+
+R.I. Dodge, _The Plains of the Great West_ (1877).
+
+C.H. Shinn, _The Story of the Mine_.
+
+Cy Warman, _The Story of the Railroad_.
+
+Emerson Hough, _The Story of the Cowboy_.
+
+H.H. Bancroft is the author of many works on the West but his writings
+will be found only in the larger libraries.
+
+Joseph Schafer, _History of the Pacific Northwest_ (ed. 1918).
+
+T.H. Hittel, _History of California_ (4 vols.).
+
+W.H. Olin, _American Irrigation Farming_.
+
+W.E. Smythe, _The Conquest of Arid America_.
+
+H.A. Millis, _The American-Japanese Problem_.
+
+E.S. Meany, _History of the State of Washington_.
+
+H.K. Norton, _The Story of California_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Name the states west of the Mississippi in 1865.
+
+2. In what manner was the rest of the western region governed?
+
+3. How far had settlement been carried?
+
+4. What were the striking physical features of the West?
+
+5. How was settlement promoted after 1865?
+
+6. Why was admission to the union so eagerly sought?
+
+7. Explain how politics became involved in the creation of new states.
+
+8. Did the West rapidly become like the older sections of the country?
+
+9. What economic peculiarities did it retain or develop?
+
+10. How did the federal government aid in western agriculture?
+
+11. How did the development of the West affect the East? The South?
+
+12. What relation did the opening of the great grain areas of the West
+bear to the growth of America's commercial and financial power?
+
+13. State some of the new problems of the West.
+
+14. Discuss the significance of American expansion to the Pacific Ocean.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Passing of the Wild West.=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own
+Times_, pp. 100-124.
+
+=The Indian Question.=--Sparks, _National Development_ (American Nation
+Series), pp. 265-281.
+
+=The Chinese Question.=--Sparks, _National Development_, pp. 229-250;
+Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 180-196.
+
+=The Railway Age.=--Schafer, _History of the Pacific Northwest_, pp.
+230-245; E.V. Smalley, _The Northern Pacific Railroad_; Paxson, _The New
+Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp. 20-26, especially the map on p. 23, and
+pp. 142-148.
+
+=Agriculture and Business.=--Schafer, _Pacific Northwest_, pp. 246-289.
+
+=Ranching in the Northwest.=--Theodore Roosevelt, _Ranch Life_, and
+_Autobiography_, pp. 103-143.
+
+=The Conquest of the Desert.=--W.E. Smythe, _The Conquest of Arid
+America_.
+
+=Studies of Individual Western States.=--Consult any good encyclopedia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+DOMESTIC ISSUES BEFORE THE COUNTRY (1865-1897)
+
+
+For thirty years after the Civil War the leading political parties,
+although they engaged in heated presidential campaigns, were not sharply
+and clearly opposed on many matters of vital significance. During none
+of that time was there a clash of opinion over specific issues such as
+rent the country in 1800 when Jefferson rode a popular wave to victory,
+or again in 1828 when Jackson's western hordes came sweeping into power.
+The Democrats, who before 1860 definitely opposed protective tariffs,
+federal banking, internal improvements, and heavy taxes, now spoke
+cautiously on all these points. The Republicans, conscious of the fact
+that they had been a minority of the voters in 1860 and warned by the
+early loss of the House of Representatives in 1874, also moved with
+considerable prudence among the perplexing problems of the day. Again
+and again the votes in Congress showed that no clear line separated all
+the Democrats from all the Republicans. There were Republicans who
+favored tariff reductions and "cheap money." There were Democrats who
+looked with partiality upon high protection or with indulgence upon the
+contraction of the currency. Only on matters relating to the coercion of
+the South was the division between the parties fairly definite; this
+could be readily accounted for on practical as well as sentimental
+grounds.
+
+After all, the vague criticisms and proposals that found their way into
+the political platforms did but reflect the confusion of mind prevailing
+in the country. The fact that, out of the eighteen years between 1875
+and 1893, the Democrats held the House of Representatives for fourteen
+years while the Republicans had every President but one showed that the
+voters, like the politicians, were in a state of indecision. Hayes had a
+Democratic House during his entire term and a Democratic Senate for two
+years of the four. Cleveland was confronted by a belligerent Republican
+majority in the Senate during his first administration; and at the same
+time was supported by a Democratic majority in the House. Harrison was
+sustained by continuous Republican successes in Senatorial elections;
+but in the House he had the barest majority from 1889 to 1891 and lost
+that altogether at the election held in the middle of his term. The
+opinion of the country was evidently unsettled and fluctuating. It was
+still distracted by memories of the dead past and uncertain as to the
+trend of the future.
+
+
+THE CURRENCY QUESTION
+
+Nevertheless these years of muddled politics and nebulous issues proved
+to be a period in which social forces were gathering for the great
+campaign of 1896. Except for three new features--the railways, the
+trusts, and the trade unions--the subjects of debate among the people
+were the same as those that had engaged their attention since the
+foundation of the republic: the currency, the national debt, banking,
+the tariff, and taxation.
+
+=Debtors and the Fall in Prices.=--For many reasons the currency
+question occupied the center of interest. As of old, the farmers and
+planters of the West and South were heavily in debt to the East for
+borrowed money secured by farm mortgages; and they counted upon the sale
+of cotton, corn, wheat, and hogs to meet interest and principal when
+due. During the war, the Western farmers had been able to dispose of
+their produce at high prices and thus discharge their debts with
+comparative ease; but after the war prices declined. Wheat that sold at
+two dollars a bushel in 1865 brought sixty-four cents twenty years
+later. The meaning of this for the farmers in debt--and nearly
+three-fourths of them were in that class--can be shown by a single
+illustration. A thousand-dollar mortgage on a Western farm could be paid
+off by five hundred bushels of wheat when prices were high; whereas it
+took about fifteen hundred bushels to pay the same debt when wheat was
+at the bottom of the scale. For the farmer, it must be remembered, wheat
+was the measure of his labor, the product of his toil under the summer
+sun; and in its price he found the test of his prosperity.
+
+=Creditors and Falling Prices.=--To the bondholders or creditors, on the
+other hand, falling prices were clear gain. If a fifty-dollar coupon on
+a bond bought seventy or eighty bushels of wheat instead of twenty or
+thirty, the advantage to the owner of the coupon was obvious. Moreover
+the advantage seemed to him entirely just. Creditors had suffered heavy
+losses when the Civil War carried prices skyward while the interest
+rates on their old bonds remained stationary. For example, if a man had
+a $1000 bond issued before 1860 and paying interest at five per cent, he
+received fifty dollars a year from it. Before the war each dollar would
+buy a bushel of wheat; in 1865 it would only buy half a bushel. When
+prices--that is, the cost of living--began to go down, creditors
+therefore generally regarded the change with satisfaction as a return to
+normal conditions.
+
+=The Cause of Falling Prices.=--The fall in prices was due, no doubt, to
+many factors. Among them must be reckoned the discontinuance of
+government buying for war purposes, labor-saving farm machinery,
+immigration, and the opening of new wheat-growing regions. The currency,
+too, was an element in the situation. Whatever the cause, the
+discontented farmers believed that the way to raise prices was to issue
+more money. They viewed it as a case of supply and demand. If there was
+a small volume of currency in circulation, prices would be low; if there
+was a large volume, prices would be high. Hence they looked with favor
+upon all plans to increase the amount of money in circulation. First
+they advocated more paper notes--greenbacks--and then they turned to
+silver as the remedy. The creditors, on the other hand, naturally
+approved the reduction of the volume of currency. They wished to see the
+greenbacks withdrawn from circulation and gold--a metal more limited in
+volume than silver--made the sole basis of the national monetary system.
+
+=The Battle over the Greenbacks.=--The contest between these factions
+began as early as 1866. In that year, Congress enacted a law authorizing
+the Treasury to withdraw the greenbacks from circulation. The paper
+money party set up a shrill cry of protest, and kept up the fight until,
+in 1878, it forced Congress to provide for the continuous re-issue of
+the legal tender notes as they came into the Treasury in payment of
+taxes and other dues. Then could the friends of easy money rejoice:
+
+    "Thou, Greenback, 'tis of thee
+     Fair money of the free,
+      Of thee we sing."
+
+=Resumption of Specie Payment.=--There was, however, another side to
+this victory. The opponents of the greenbacks, unable to stop the
+circulation of paper, induced Congress to pass a law in 1875 providing
+that on and after January 1, 1879, "the Secretary of the Treasury shall
+redeem in coin the United States legal tender notes then outstanding on
+their presentation at the office of the Assistant Treasurer of the
+United States in the City of New York in sums of not less than fifty
+dollars." "The way to resume," John Sherman had said, "is to resume."
+When the hour for redemption arrived, the Treasury was prepared with a
+large hoard of gold. "On the appointed day," wrote the assistant
+secretary, "anxiety reigned in the office of the Treasury. Hour after
+hour passed; no news from New York. Inquiry by wire showed that all was
+quiet. At the close of the day this message came: '$135,000 of notes
+presented for coin--$400,000 of gold for notes.' That was all.
+Resumption was accomplished with no disturbance. By five o'clock the
+news was all over the land, and the New York bankers were sipping their
+tea in absolute safety."
+
+=The Specie Problem--the Parity of Gold and Silver.=--Defeated in their
+efforts to stop "the present suicidal and destructive policy of
+contraction," the advocates of an abundant currency demanded an increase
+in the volume of silver in circulation. This precipitated one of the
+sharpest political battles in American history. The issue turned on
+legal as well as economic points. The Constitution gave Congress the
+power to coin money and it forbade the states to make anything but gold
+and silver legal tender in the payment of debts. It evidently
+contemplated the use of both metals in the currency system. Such, at
+least, was the view of many eminent statesmen, including no less a
+personage than James G. Blaine. The difficulty, however, lay in
+maintaining gold and silver coins on a level which would permit them to
+circulate with equal facility. Obviously, if the gold in a gold dollar
+exceeds the value of the silver in a silver dollar on the open market,
+men will hoard gold money and leave silver money in circulation. When,
+for example, Congress in 1792 fixed the ratio of the two metals at one
+to fifteen--one ounce of gold declared worth fifteen of silver--it was
+soon found that gold had been undervalued. When again in 1834 the ratio
+was put at one to sixteen, it was found that silver was undervalued.
+Consequently the latter metal was not brought in for coinage and silver
+almost dropped out of circulation. Many a silver dollar was melted down
+by silverware factories.
+
+=Silver Demonetized in 1873.=--So things stood in 1873. At that time,
+Congress, in enacting a mintage law, discontinued the coinage of the
+standard silver dollar, then practically out of circulation. This act
+was denounced later by the friends of silver as "the crime of '73," a
+conspiracy devised by the money power and secretly carried out. This
+contention the debates in Congress do not seem to sustain. In the course
+of the argument on the mint law it was distinctly said by one speaker at
+least: "This bill provides for the making of changes in the legal tender
+coin of the country and for substituting as legal tender, coin of only
+one metal instead of two as heretofore."
+
+=The Decline in the Value of Silver.=--Absorbed in the greenback
+controversy, the people apparently did not appreciate, at the time, the
+significance of the "demonetization" of silver; but within a few years
+several events united in making it the center of a political storm.
+Germany, having abandoned silver in 1871, steadily increased her demand
+for gold. Three years later, the countries of the Latin Union followed
+this example, thus helping to enhance the price of the yellow metal. All
+the while, new silver lodes, discovered in the Far West, were pouring
+into the market great streams of the white metal, bearing down the
+price. Then came the resumption of specie payment, which, in effect,
+placed the paper money on a gold basis. Within twenty years silver was
+worth in gold only about half the price of 1870.
+
+That there had been a real decline in silver was denied by the friends
+of that metal. They alleged that gold had gone up because it had been
+given a monopoly in the coinage markets of civilized governments. This
+monopoly, they continued, was the fruit of a conspiracy against the
+people conceived by the bankers of the world. Moreover, they went on,
+the placing of the greenbacks on a gold basis had itself worked a
+contraction of the currency; it lowered the prices of labor and produce
+to the advantage of the holders of long-term investments bearing a fixed
+rate of interest. When wheat sold at sixty-four cents a bushel, their
+search for relief became desperate, and they at last concentrated their
+efforts on opening the mints of the government for the free coinage of
+silver at the ratio of sixteen to one.
+
+=Republicans and Democrats Divided.=--On this question both Republicans
+and Democrats were divided, the line being drawn between the East on the
+one hand and the South and West on the other, rather than between the
+two leading parties. So trusted a leader as James G. Blaine avowed, in a
+speech delivered in the Senate in 1878, that, as the Constitution
+required Congress to make both gold and silver the money of the land,
+the only question left was that of fixing the ratio between them. He
+affirmed, moreover, the main contention of the silver faction that a
+reopening of the government mints of the world to silver would bring it
+up to its old relation with gold. He admitted also that their most
+ominous warnings were well founded, saying: "I believe the struggle now
+going on in this country and in other countries for a single gold
+standard would, if successful, produce widespread disaster throughout
+the commercial world. The destruction of silver as money and the
+establishment of gold as the sole unit of value must have a ruinous
+effect on all forms of property, except those investments which yield a
+fixed return."
+
+This was exactly the concession that the silver party wanted.
+"Three-fourths of the business enterprises of this country are conducted
+on borrowed capital," said Senator Jones, of Nevada. "Three-fourths of
+the homes and farms that stand in the names of the actual occupants have
+been bought on time and a very large proportion of them are mortgaged
+for the payment of some part of the purchase money. Under the operation
+of a shrinkage in the volume of money, this enormous mass of borrowers,
+at the maturity of their respective debts, though nominally paying no
+more than the amount borrowed, with interest, are in reality, in the
+amount of the principal alone, returning a percentage of value greater
+than they received--more in equity than they contracted to pay.... In
+all discussions of the subject the creditors attempt to brush aside the
+equities involved by sneering at the debtors."
+
+=The Silver Purchase Act (1878).=--Even before the actual resumption of
+specie payment, the advocates of free silver were a power to be reckoned
+with, particularly in the Democratic party. They had a majority in the
+House of Representatives in 1878 and they carried a silver bill through
+that chamber. Blocked by the Republican Senate they accepted a
+compromise in the Bland-Allison bill, which provided for huge monthly
+purchases of silver by the government for coinage into dollars. So
+strong was the sentiment that a two-thirds majority was mustered after
+President Hayes vetoed the measure.
+
+The effect of this act, as some had anticipated, was disappointing. It
+did not stay silver on its downward course. Thereupon the silver faction
+pressed through Congress in 1886 a bill providing for the issue of paper
+certificates based on the silver accumulated in the Treasury. Still
+silver continued to fall. Then the advocates of inflation declared that
+they would be content with nothing short of free coinage at the ratio of
+sixteen to one. If the issue had been squarely presented in 1890, there
+is good reason for believing that free silver would have received a
+majority in both houses of Congress; but it was not presented.
+
+=The Sherman Silver Purchase Act and the Bond Sales.=--Republican
+leaders, particularly from the East, stemmed the silver tide by a
+diversion of forces. They passed the Sherman Act of 1890 providing for
+large monthly purchases of silver and for the issue of notes redeemable
+in gold or silver at the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury. In
+a clause of superb ambiguity they announced that it was "the established
+policy of the United States to maintain the two metals on a parity with
+each other upon the present legal ratio or such other ratio as may be
+provided by law." For a while silver was buoyed up. Then it turned once
+more on its downward course. In the meantime the Treasury was in a sad
+plight. To maintain the gold reserve, President Cleveland felt compelled
+to sell government bonds; and to his dismay he found that as soon as the
+gold was brought in at the front door of the Treasury, notes were
+presented for redemption and the gold was quickly carried out at the
+back door. Alarmed at the vicious circle thus created, he urged upon
+Congress the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. For this he was
+roundly condemned by many of his own followers who branded his conduct
+as "treason to the party"; but the Republicans, especially from the
+East, came to his rescue and in 1893 swept the troublesome sections of
+the law from the statute book. The anger of the silver faction knew no
+bounds, and the leaders made ready for the approaching presidential
+campaign.
+
+
+THE PROTECTIVE TARIFF AND TAXATION
+
+=Fluctuation in Tariff Policy.=--As each of the old parties was divided
+on the currency question, it is not surprising that there was some
+confusion in their ranks over the tariff. Like the silver issue, the
+tariff tended to align the manufacturing East against the agricultural
+West and South rather than to cut directly between the two parties.
+Still the Republicans on the whole stood firmly by the rates imposed
+during the Civil War. If we except the reductions of 1872 which were
+soon offset by increases, we may say that those rates were substantially
+unchanged for nearly twenty years. When a revision was brought about,
+however, it was initiated by Republican leaders. Seeing a huge surplus
+of revenue in the Treasury in 1883, they anticipated popular clamor by
+revising the tariff on the theory that it ought to be reformed by its
+friends rather than by its enemies. On the other hand, it was the
+Republicans also who enacted the McKinley tariff bill of 1890, which
+carried protection to its highest point up to that time.
+
+The Democrats on their part were not all confirmed free traders or even
+advocates of tariff for revenue only. In Cleveland's first
+administration they did attack the protective system in the House, where
+they had a majority, and in this they were vigorously supported by the
+President. The assault, however, proved to be a futile gesture for it
+was blocked by the Republicans in the Senate. When, after the sweeping
+victory of 1892, the Democrats in the House again attempted to bring
+down the tariff by the Wilson bill of 1894, they were checkmated by
+their own party colleagues in the upper chamber. In the end they were
+driven into a compromise that looked more like a McKinley than a Calhoun
+tariff. The Republicans taunted them with being "babes in the woods."
+President Cleveland was so dissatisfied with the bill that he refused to
+sign it, allowing it to become a law, on the lapse of ten days, without
+his approval.
+
+=The Income Tax of 1894.=--The advocates of tariff reduction usually
+associated with their proposal a tax on incomes. The argument which
+they advanced in support of their program was simple. Most of the
+industries, they said, are in the East and the protective tariff which
+taxes consumers for the benefit of manufacturers is, in effect, a
+tribute laid upon the rest of the country. As an offset they offered a
+tax on large incomes; this owing to the heavy concentration of rich
+people in the East, would fall mainly upon the beneficiaries of
+protection. "We propose," said one of them, "to place a part of the
+burden upon the accumulated wealth of the country instead of placing it
+all upon the consumption of the people." In this spirit the sponsors of
+the Wilson tariff bill laid a tax upon all incomes of $4000 a year or
+more.
+
+In taking this step, the Democrats encountered opposition in their own
+party. Senator Hill, of New York, turned fiercely upon them, exclaiming:
+"The professors with their books, the socialists with their schemes, the
+anarchists with their bombs are all instructing the people in the ...
+principles of taxation." Even the Eastern Republicans were hardly as
+savage in their denunciation of the tax. But all this labor was wasted.
+The next year the Supreme Court of the United States declared the income
+tax to be a direct tax, and therefore null and void because it was laid
+on incomes wherever found and not apportioned among the states according
+to population. The fact that four of the nine judges dissented from this
+decision was also an index to the diversity of opinion that divided both
+parties.
+
+
+THE RAILWAYS AND TRUSTS
+
+=The Grangers and State Regulation.=--The same uncertainty about the
+railways and trusts pervaded the ranks of the Republicans and Democrats.
+As to the railways, the first firm and consistent demand for their
+regulation came from the West. There the farmers, in the early
+seventies, having got control in state legislatures, particularly in
+Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois, enacted drastic laws prescribing the
+maximum charges which companies could make for carrying freight and
+passengers. The application of these measures, however, was limited
+because the state could not fix the rates for transporting goods and
+passengers beyond its own borders. The power of regulating interstate
+commerce, under the Constitution, belonged to Congress.
+
+=The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.=--Within a few years, the movement
+which had been so effective in western legislatures appeared at
+Washington in the form of demands for the federal regulation of
+interstate rates. In 1887, the pressure became so strong that Congress
+created the interstate commerce commission and forbade many abuses on
+the part of railways; such as discriminating in charges between one
+shipper and another and granting secret rebates to favored persons. This
+law was a significant beginning; but it left the main question of
+rate-fixing untouched, much to the discontent of farmers and shippers.
+
+=The Sherman Anti-Trust Law of 1890.=--As in the case of the railways,
+attacks upon the trusts were first made in state legislatures, where it
+became the fashion to provide severe penalties for those who formed
+monopolies and "conspired to enhance prices." Republicans and Democrats
+united in the promotion of measures of this kind. As in the case of the
+railways also, the movement to curb the trusts soon had spokesmen at
+Washington. Though Blaine had declared that "trusts were largely a
+private affair with which neither the President nor any private citizen
+had any particular right to interfere," it was a Republican Congress
+that enacted in 1890 the first measure--the Sherman Anti-Trust
+Law--directed against great combinations in business. This act declared
+illegal "every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise,
+or conspiracy in restraint of trade and commerce among the several
+states or with foreign nations."
+
+=The Futility of the Anti-Trust Law.=--Whether the Sherman law was
+directed against all combinations or merely those which placed an
+"unreasonable restraint" on trade and competition was not apparent.
+Senator Platt of Connecticut, a careful statesman of the old school,
+averred: "The questions of whether the bill would be operative, of how
+it would operate, or whether it was within the power of Congress to
+enact it, have been whistled down the wind in this Senate as idle talk
+and the whole effort has been to get some bill headed: 'A bill to punish
+trusts,' with which to go to the country." Whatever its purpose, its
+effect upon existing trusts and upon the formation of new combinations
+was negligible. It was practically unenforced by President Harrison and
+President Cleveland, in spite of the constant demand for harsh action
+against "monopolies." It was patent that neither the Republicans nor the
+Democrats were prepared for a war on the trusts to the bitter end.
+
+
+THE MINOR PARTIES AND UNREST
+
+=The Demands of Dissenting Parties.=--From the election of 1872, when
+Horace Greeley made his ill-fated excursion into politics, onward, there
+appeared in each presidential campaign one, and sometimes two or more
+parties, stressing issues that appealed mainly to wage-earners and
+farmers. Whether they chose to call themselves Labor Reformers,
+Greenbackers, or Anti-monopolists, their slogans and their platforms all
+pointed in one direction. Even the Prohibitionists, who in 1872 started
+on their career with a single issue, the abolition of the liquor
+traffic, found themselves making declarations of faith on other matters
+and hopelessly split over the money question in 1896.
+
+A composite view of the platforms put forth by the dissenting parties
+from the administration of Grant to the close of Cleveland's second term
+reveals certain notions common to them all. These included among many
+others: the earliest possible payment of the national debt; regulation
+of the rates of railways and telegraph companies; repeal of the specie
+resumption act of 1875; the issue of legal tender notes by the
+government convertible into interest-bearing obligations on demand;
+unlimited coinage of silver as well as gold; a graduated inheritance
+tax; legislation to take from "land, railroad, money, and other gigantic
+corporate monopolies ... the powers they have so corruptly and unjustly
+usurped"; popular or direct election of United States Senators; woman
+suffrage; and a graduated income tax, "placing the burden of government
+on those who can best afford to pay instead of laying it on the farmers
+and producers."
+
+=Criticism of the Old Parties.=--To this long program of measures the
+reformers added harsh and acrid criticism of the old parties and
+sometimes, it must be said, of established institutions of government.
+"We denounce," exclaimed the Labor party in 1888, "the Democratic and
+Republican parties as hopelessly and shamelessly corrupt and by reason
+of their affiliation with monopolies equally unworthy of the suffrages
+of those who do not live upon public plunder." "The United States
+Senate," insisted the Greenbackers, "is a body composed largely of
+aristocratic millionaires who according to their own party papers
+generally purchased their elections in order to protect the great
+monopolies which they represent." Indeed, if their platforms are to be
+accepted at face value, the Greenbackers believed that the entire
+government had passed out of the hands of the people.
+
+=The Grangers.=--This unsparing, not to say revolutionary, criticism of
+American political life, appealed, it seems, mainly to farmers in the
+Middle West. Always active in politics, they had, before the Civil War,
+cast their lot as a rule with one or the other of the leading parties.
+In 1867, however, there grew up among them an association known as the
+"Patrons of Husbandry," which was destined to play a large role in the
+partisan contests of the succeeding decades. This society, which
+organized local lodges or "granges" on principles of secrecy and
+fraternity, was originally designed to promote in a general way the
+interests of the farmers. Its political bearings were apparently not
+grasped at first by its promoters. Yet, appealing as it did to the most
+active and independent spirits among the farmers and gathering to itself
+the strength that always comes from organization, it soon found itself
+in the hands of leaders more or less involved in politics. Where a few
+votes are marshaled together in a democracy, there is power.
+
+=The Greenback Party.=--The first extensive activity of the Grangers was
+connected with the attack on the railways in the Middle West which
+forced several state legislatures to reduce freight and passenger rates
+by law. At the same time, some leaders in the movement, no doubt
+emboldened by this success, launched in 1876 a new political party,
+popularly known as the Greenbackers, favoring a continued re-issue of
+the legal tenders. The beginnings were disappointing; but two years
+later, in the congressional elections, the Greenbackers swept whole
+sections of the country. Their candidates polled more than a million
+votes and fourteen of them were returned to the House of
+Representatives. To all outward signs a new and formidable party had
+entered the lists.
+
+The sanguine hopes of the leaders proved to be illusory. The quiet
+operations of the resumption act the following year, a revival of
+industry from a severe panic which had set in during 1873, the Silver
+Purchase Act, and the re-issue of Greenbacks cut away some of the
+grounds of agitation. There was also a diversion of forces to the silver
+faction which had a substantial support in the silver mine owners of the
+West. At all events the Greenback vote fell to about 300,000 in the
+election of 1880. A still greater drop came four years later and the
+party gave up the ghost, its sponsors returning to their former
+allegiance or sulking in their tents.
+
+=The Rise of the Populist Party.=--Those leaders of the old parties who
+now looked for a happy future unvexed by new factions were doomed to
+disappointment. The funeral of the Greenback party was hardly over
+before there arose two other political specters in the agrarian
+sections: the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union,
+particularly strong in the South and West; and the Farmers' Alliance,
+operating in the North. By 1890 the two orders claimed over three
+million members. As in the case of the Grangers many years before, the
+leaders among them found an easy way into politics. In 1892 they held a
+convention, nominated a candidate for President, and adopted the name of
+"People's Party," from which they were known as Populists. Their
+platform, in every line, breathed a spirit of radicalism. They declared
+that "the newspapers are largely subsidized or muzzled; public opinion
+silenced; business prostrate; our homes covered with mortgages; and the
+land concentrating in the hands of capitalists.... The fruits of the
+toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a
+few." Having delivered this sweeping indictment, the Populists put
+forward their remedies: the free coinage of silver, a graduated income
+tax, postal savings banks, and government ownership of railways and
+telegraphs. At the same time they approved the initiative, referendum,
+and popular election of Senators, and condemned the use of federal
+troops in labor disputes. On this platform, the Populists polled over a
+million votes, captured twenty-two presidential electors, and sent a
+powerful delegation to Congress.
+
+=Industrial Distress Augments Unrest.=--The four years intervening
+between the campaign of 1892 and the next presidential election brought
+forth many events which aggravated the ill-feeling expressed in the
+portentous platform of Populism. Cleveland, a consistent enemy of free
+silver, gave his powerful support to the gold standard and insisted on
+the repeal of the Silver Purchase Act, thus alienating an increasing
+number of his own party. In 1893 a grave industrial crisis fell upon the
+land: banks and business houses went into bankruptcy with startling
+rapidity; factories were closed; idle men thronged the streets hunting
+for work; and the prices of wheat and corn dropped to a ruinous level.
+Labor disputes also filled the crowded record. A strike at the Pullman
+car works in Chicago spread to the railways. Disorders ensued. President
+Cleveland, against the protests of the governor of Illinois, John P.
+Altgeld, dispatched troops to the scene of action. The United States
+district court at Chicago issued an injunction forbidding the president
+of the Railway Union, Eugene V. Debs, or his assistants to interfere
+with the transmission of the mails or interstate commerce in any form.
+For refusing to obey the order, Debs was arrested and imprisoned. With
+federal troops in possession of the field, with their leader in jail,
+the strikers gave up the battle, defeated but not subdued. To cap the
+climax the Supreme Court of the United States, the following year (1895)
+declared null and void the income tax law just enacted by Congress, thus
+fanning the flames of Populist discontent all over the West and South.
+
+
+THE SOUND MONEY BATTLE OF 1896
+
+=Conservative Men Alarmed.=--Men of conservative thought and leaning in
+both parties were by this time thoroughly disturbed. They looked upon
+the rise of Populism and the growth of labor disputes as the signs of a
+revolutionary spirit, indeed nothing short of a menace to American
+institutions and ideals. The income tax law of 1894, exclaimed the
+distinguished New York advocate, Joseph H. Choate, in an impassioned
+speech before the Supreme Court, "is communistic in its purposes and
+tendencies and is defended here upon principles as communistic,
+socialistic--what shall I call them--populistic as ever have been
+addressed to any political assembly in the world." Mr. Justice Field in
+the name of the Court replied: "The present assault upon capital is but
+the beginning. It will be but the stepping stone to others larger and
+more sweeping till our political conditions will become a war of the
+poor against the rich." In declaring the income tax unconstitutional, he
+believed that he was but averting greater evils lurking under its guise.
+As for free silver, nearly all conservative men were united in calling
+it a measure of confiscation and repudiation; an effort of the debtors
+to pay their obligations with money worth fifty cents on the dollar; the
+climax of villainies openly defended; a challenge to law, order, and
+honor.
+
+=The Republicans Come Out for the Gold Standard.=--It was among the
+Republicans that this opinion was most widely shared and firmly held. It
+was they who picked up the gauge thrown down by the Populists, though a
+host of Democrats, like Cleveland and Hill of New York, also battled
+against the growing Populist defection in Democratic ranks. When the
+Republican national convention assembled in 1896, the die was soon
+cast; a declaration of opposition to free silver save by international
+agreement was carried by a vote of eight to one. The Republican party,
+to use the vigorous language of Mr. Lodge, arrayed itself against "not
+only that organized failure, the Democratic party, but all the wandering
+forces of political chaos and social disorder ... in these bitter times
+when the forces of disorder are loose and the wreckers with their false
+lights gather at the shore to lure the ship of state upon the rocks."
+Yet it is due to historic truth to state that McKinley, whom the
+Republicans nominated, had voted in Congress for the free coinage of
+silver, was widely known as a bimetallist, and was only with difficulty
+persuaded to accept the unequivocal indorsement of the gold standard
+which was pressed upon him by his counselors. Having accepted it,
+however, he proved to be a valiant champion, though his major interest
+was undoubtedly in the protective tariff. To him nothing was more
+reprehensible than attempts "to array class against class, 'the classes
+against the masses,' section against section, labor against capital,
+'the poor against the rich,' or interest against interest." Such was the
+language of his acceptance speech. The whole program of Populism he now
+viewed as a "sudden, dangerous, and revolutionary assault upon law and
+order."
+
+=The Democratic Convention at Chicago.=--Never, save at the great
+disruption on the eve of the Civil War, did a Democratic national
+convention display more feeling than at Chicago in 1896. From the
+opening prayer to the last motion before the house, every act, every
+speech, every scene, every resolution evoked passions and sowed
+dissensions. Departing from long party custom, it voted down in anger a
+proposal to praise the administration of the Democratic President,
+Cleveland. When the platform with its radical planks, including free
+silver, was reported, a veritable storm broke. Senator Hill, trembling
+with emotion, protested against the departure from old tests of
+Democratic allegiance; against principles that must drive out of the
+party men who had grown gray in its service; against revolutionary,
+unwise, and unprecedented steps in the history of the party. Senator
+Vilas of Wisconsin, in great fervor, avowed that there was no difference
+in principle between the free coinage of silver--"the confiscation of
+one-half of the credits of the nation for the benefit of debtors"--and
+communism itself--"a universal distribution of property." In the triumph
+of that cause he saw the beginning of "the overthrow of all law, all
+justice, all security and repose in the social order."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+WILLIAM J. BRYAN IN 1898]
+
+=The Crown of Thorns Speech.=--The champions of free silver replied in
+strident tones. They accused the gold advocates of being the aggressors
+who had assailed the labor and the homes of the people. William Jennings
+Bryan, of Nebraska, voiced their sentiments in a memorable oration. He
+declared that their cause "was as holy as the cause of liberty--the
+cause of humanity." He exclaimed that the contest was between the idle
+holders of idle capital and the toiling millions. Then he named those
+for whom he spoke--the wage-earner, the country lawyer, the small
+merchant, the farmer, and the miner. "The man who is employed for wages
+is as much a business man as his employer. The attorney in a country
+town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great
+metropolis. The merchant at the cross roads store is as much a business
+man as the merchant of New York. The farmer ... is as much a business
+man as the man who goes upon the board of trade and bets upon the price
+of grain. The miners who go a thousand feet into the earth or climb two
+thousand feet upon the cliffs ... are as much business men as the few
+financial magnates who in a back room corner the money of the world....
+It is for these that we speak. We do not come as aggressors. Ours is not
+a war of conquest. We are fighting in defense of our homes, our
+families, and our posterity. We have petitioned and our petitions have
+been scorned. We have entreated and our entreaties have been
+disregarded. We have begged and they have mocked when our calamity came.
+We beg no longer; we entreat no more; we petition no more. We defy
+them.... We shall answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to
+them, 'You shall not press upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns.
+You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.'"
+
+=Bryan Nominated.=--In all the history of national conventions never had
+an orator so completely swayed a multitude; not even Yancey in his
+memorable plea in the Charleston convention of 1860 when, with grave and
+moving eloquence, he espoused the Southern cause against the impending
+fates. The delegates, after cheering Mr. Bryan until they could cheer no
+more, tore the standards from the floor and gathered around the Nebraska
+delegation to renew the deafening applause. The platform as reported was
+carried by a vote of two to one and the young orator from the West,
+hailed as America's Tiberius Gracchus, was nominated as the Democratic
+candidate for President. The South and West had triumphed over the East.
+The division was sectional, admittedly sectional--the old combination of
+power which Calhoun had so anxiously labored to build up a century
+earlier. The Gold Democrats were repudiated in terms which were clear to
+all. A few, unable to endure the thought of voting the Republican
+ticket, held a convention at Indianapolis where, with the sanction of
+Cleveland, they nominated candidates of their own and endorsed the gold
+standard in a forlorn hope.
+
+=The Democratic Platform.=--It was to the call from Chicago that the
+Democrats gave heed and the Republicans made answer. The platform on
+which Mr. Bryan stood, unlike most party manifestoes, was explicit in
+its language and its appeal. It denounced the practice of allowing
+national banks to issue notes intended to circulate as money on the
+ground that it was "in derogation of the Constitution," recalling
+Jackson's famous attack on the Bank in 1832. It declared that tariff
+duties should be laid "for the purpose of revenue"--Calhoun's doctrine.
+In demanding the free coinage of silver, it recurred to the practice
+abandoned in 1873. The income tax came next on the program. The platform
+alleged that the law of 1894, passed by a Democratic Congress, was "in
+strict pursuance of the uniform decisions of the Supreme Court for
+nearly a hundred years," and then hinted that the decision annulling the
+law might be reversed by the same body "as it may hereafter be
+constituted."
+
+The appeal to labor voiced by Mr. Bryan in his "crown of thorns" speech
+was reinforced in the platform. "As labor creates the wealth of the
+country," ran one plank, "we demand the passage of such laws as may be
+necessary to protect it in all its rights." Referring to the recent
+Pullman strike, the passions of which had not yet died away, the
+platform denounced "arbitrary interference by federal authorities in
+local affairs as a violation of the Constitution of the United States
+and a crime against free institutions." A special objection was lodged
+against "government by injunction as a new and highly dangerous form of
+oppression by which federal judges, in contempt of the laws of states
+and rights of citizens, become at once legislators, judges, and
+executioners." The remedy advanced was a federal law assuring trial by
+jury in all cases of contempt in labor disputes. Having made this
+declaration of faith, the Democrats, with Mr. Bryan at the head, raised
+their standard of battle.
+
+=The Heated Campaign.=--The campaign which ensued outrivaled in the
+range of its educational activities and the bitterness of its tone all
+other political conflicts in American history, not excepting the fateful
+struggle of 1860. Immense sums of money were contributed to the funds of
+both parties. Railway, banking, and other corporations gave generously
+to the Republicans; the silver miners, less lavishly but with the same
+anxiety, supported the Democrats. The country was flooded with
+pamphlets, posters, and handbills. Every public forum, from the great
+auditoriums of the cities to the "red schoolhouses" on the countryside,
+was occupied by the opposing forces.
+
+Mr. Bryan took the stump himself, visiting all parts of the country in
+special trains and addressing literally millions of people in the open
+air. Mr. McKinley chose the older and more formal plan. He received
+delegations at his home in Canton and discussed the issues of the
+campaign from his front porch, leaving to an army of well-organized
+orators the task of reaching the people in their home towns. Parades,
+processions, and monster demonstrations filled the land with politics.
+Whole states were polled in advance by the Republicans and the doubtful
+voters personally visited by men equipped with arguments and literature.
+Manufacturers, frightened at the possibility of disordered public
+credit, announced that they would close their doors if the Democrats won
+the election. Men were dismissed from public and private places on
+account of their political views, one eminent college president being
+forced out for advocating free silver. The language employed by
+impassioned and embittered speakers on both sides roused the public to a
+state of frenzy, once more showing the lengths to which men could go in
+personal and political abuse.
+
+=The Republican Victory.=--The verdict of the nation was decisive.
+McKinley received 271 of the 447 electoral votes, and 7,111,000 popular
+votes as against Bryan's 6,509,000. The congressional elections were
+equally positive although, on account of the composition of the Senate,
+the "hold-over" Democrats and Populists still enjoyed a power out of
+proportion to their strength as measured at the polls. Even as it was,
+the Republicans got full control of both houses--a dominion of the
+entire government which they were to hold for fourteen years--until the
+second half of Mr. Taft's administration, when they lost possession of
+the House of Representatives. The yoke of indecision was broken. The
+party of sound finance and protective tariffs set out upon its lease of
+power with untroubled assurance.
+
+
+REPUBLICAN MEASURES AND RESULTS
+
+=The Gold Standard and the Tariff.=--Yet strange as it may seem, the
+Republicans did not at once enact legislation making the gold dollar the
+standard for the national currency. Not until 1900 did they take that
+positive step. In his first inaugural President McKinley, as if still
+uncertain in his own mind or fearing a revival of the contest just
+closed, placed the tariff, not the money question, in the forefront.
+"The people have decided," he said, "that such legislation should be had
+as will give ample protection and encouragement to the industries and
+development of our country." Protection for American industries,
+therefore, he urged, is the task before Congress. "With adequate revenue
+secured, but not until then, we can enter upon changes in our fiscal
+laws." As the Republicans had only forty-six of the ninety Senators, and
+at least four of them were known advocates of free silver, the
+discretion exercised by the President in selecting the tariff for
+congressional debate was the better part of valor.
+
+Congress gave heed to the warning. Under the direction of Nelson P.
+Dingley, whose name was given to the bill, a tariff measure levying the
+highest rates yet laid in the history of American imposts was prepared
+and driven through the House of Representatives. The opposition
+encountered in the Senate, especially from the West, was overcome by
+concessions in favor of that section; but the duties on sugar, tin,
+steel, lumber, hemp, and in fact all of the essential commodities
+handled by combinations and trusts, were materially raised.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+PRESIDENT MCKINLEY AND HIS CABINET]
+
+=Growth of Combinations.=--The years that followed the enactment of the
+Dingley law were, whatever the cause, the most prosperous the country
+had witnessed for many a decade. Industries of every kind were soon
+running full blast; labor was employed; commerce spread more swiftly
+than ever to the markets of the world. Coincident with this progress was
+the organization of the greatest combinations and trusts the world had
+yet seen. In 1899 the smelters formed a trust with a capital of
+$65,000,000; in the same year the Standard Oil Company with a capital of
+over one hundred millions took the place of the old trust; and the
+Copper Trust was incorporated under the laws of New Jersey, its par
+value capital being fixed shortly afterward at $175,000,000. A year
+later the National Sugar Refining Company, of New Jersey, started with a
+capital of $90,000,000, adopting the policy of issuing to the
+stockholders no public statement of its earnings or financial condition.
+Before another twelvemonth had elapsed all previous corporate financing
+was reduced to small proportions by the flotation of the United States
+Steel Corporation with a capital of more than a billion dollars, an
+enterprise set in motion by the famous Morgan banking house of New York.
+
+In nearly all these gigantic undertakings, the same great leaders in
+finance were more or less intimately associated. To use the language of
+an eminent authority: "They are all allied and intertwined by their
+various mutual interests. For instance, the Pennsylvania Railroad
+interests are on the one hand allied with the Vanderbilts and on the
+other with the Rockefellers. The Vanderbilts are closely allied with the
+Morgan group.... Viewed as a whole we find the dominating influences in
+the trusts to be made up of a network of large and small capitalists,
+many allied to one another by ties of more or less importance, but all
+being appendages to or parts of the greater groups which are themselves
+dependent on and allied with the two mammoth or Rockefeller and Morgan
+groups. These two mammoth groups jointly ... constitute the heart of the
+business and commercial life of the nation." Such was the picture of
+triumphant business enterprise drawn by a financier within a few years
+after the memorable campaign of 1896.
+
+America had become one of the first workshops of the world. It was, by
+virtue of the closely knit organization of its business and finance, one
+of the most powerful and energetic leaders in the struggle of the giants
+for the business of the earth. The capital of the Steel Corporation
+alone was more than ten times the total national debt which the apostles
+of calamity in the days of Washington and Hamilton declared the nation
+could never pay. American industry, filling domestic markets to
+overflowing, was ready for new worlds to conquer.
+
+
+=References=
+
+F.W. Taussig, _Tariff History of the United States_.
+
+J.L. Laughlin, _Bimetallism in the United States_.
+
+A.B. Hepburn, _History of Coinage and Currency in the United States_.
+
+E.R.A. Seligman, _The Income Tax_.
+
+S.J. Buck, _The Granger Movement_ (Harvard Studies).
+
+F.H. Dixon, _State Railroad Control_.
+
+H.R. Meyer, _Government Regulation of Railway Rates_.
+
+W.Z. Ripley (editor), _Trusts, Pools, and Corporations_.
+
+R.T. Ely, _Monopolies and Trusts_.
+
+J.B. Clark, _The Control of Trusts_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What proof have we that the political parties were not clearly
+divided over issues between 1865 and 1896?
+
+2. Why is a fall in prices a loss to farmers and a gain to holders of
+fixed investments?
+
+3. Explain the theory that the quantity of money determines the prices
+of commodities.
+
+4. Why was it difficult, if not impossible, to keep gold and silver at a
+parity?
+
+5. What special conditions favored a fall in silver between 1870 and
+1896?
+
+6. Describe some of the measures taken to raise the value of silver.
+
+7. Explain the relation between the tariff and the income tax in 1894.
+
+8. How did it happen that the farmers led in regulating railway rates?
+
+9. Give the terms of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. What was its immediate
+effect?
+
+10. Name some of the minor parties. Enumerate the reforms they
+advocated.
+
+11. Describe briefly the experiments of the farmers in politics.
+
+12. How did industrial conditions increase unrest?
+
+13. Why were conservative men disturbed in the early nineties?
+
+14. Explain the Republican position in 1896.
+
+15. Give Mr. Bryan's doctrines in 1896. Enumerate the chief features of
+the Democratic platform.
+
+16. What were the leading measures adopted by the Republicans after
+their victory in 1896?
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Greenbacks and Resumption.=--Dewey, _Financial History of the United
+States_ (6th ed.), Sections 122-125, 154, and 378; MacDonald,
+_Documentary Source Book of American History_, pp. 446, 566; Hart,
+_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 531-533; Rhodes,
+_History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 97-101.
+
+=Demonetization and Coinage of Silver.=--Dewey, _Financial History_,
+Sections 170-173, 186, 189, 194; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_,
+pp. 174, 573, 593, 595; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 529-531;
+Rhodes, _History_, Vol. VIII, pp. 93-97.
+
+=Free Silver and the Campaign of 1896.=--Dewey, _National Problems_
+(American Nation Series), pp. 220-237, 314-328; Hart, _Contemporaries_,
+Vol. IV, pp. 533-538.
+
+=Tariff Revision.=--Dewey, _Financial History_, Sections 167, 180, 181,
+187, 192, 196; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 518-525; Rhodes,
+_History_, Vol. VIII, pp. 168-179, 346-351, 418-422.
+
+=Federal Regulation of Railways.=--Dewey, _National Problems_, pp.
+91-111; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 581-590; Hart,
+_Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 521-523; Rhodes, _History_, Vol. VIII,
+pp. 288-292.
+
+=The Rise and Regulation of Trusts.=--Dewey, _National Problems_, pp.
+188-202; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 591-593.
+
+=The Grangers and Populism.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside
+Series), pp. 20-37, 177-191, 208-223.
+
+=General Analysis of Domestic Problems.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New
+York State, 1920), pp. 137-142.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+AMERICA A WORLD POWER (1865-1900)
+
+
+It has now become a fashion, sanctioned by wide usage and by eminent
+historians, to speak of America, triumphant over Spain and possessed of
+new colonies, as entering the twentieth century in the role of "a world
+power," for the first time. Perhaps at this late day, it is useless to
+protest against the currency of the idea. Nevertheless, the truth is
+that from the fateful moment in March, 1775, when Edmund Burke unfolded
+to his colleagues in the British Parliament the resources of an
+invincible America, down to the settlement at Versailles in 1919 closing
+the drama of the World War, this nation has been a world power,
+influencing by its example, by its institutions, by its wealth, trade,
+and arms the course of international affairs. And it should be said also
+that neither in the field of commercial enterprise nor in that of
+diplomacy has it been wanting in spirit or ingenuity.
+
+When John Hay, Secretary of State, heard that an American citizen,
+Perdicaris, had been seized by Raisuli, a Moroccan bandit, in 1904, he
+wired his brusque message: "We want Perdicaris alive or Raisuli dead."
+This was but an echo of Commodore Decatur's equally characteristic
+answer, "Not a minute," given nearly a hundred years before to the
+pirates of Algiers begging for time to consider whether they would cease
+preying upon American merchantmen. Was it not as early as 1844 that the
+American commissioner, Caleb Cushing, taking advantage of the British
+Opium War on China, negotiated with the Celestial Empire a successful
+commercial treaty? Did he not then exultantly exclaim: "The laws of the
+Union follow its citizens and its banner protects them even within the
+domain of the Chinese Empire"? Was it not almost half a century before
+the battle of Manila Bay in 1898, that Commodore Perry with an adequate
+naval force "gently coerced Japan into friendship with us," leading all
+the nations of the earth in the opening of that empire to the trade of
+the Occident? Nor is it inappropriate in this connection to recall the
+fact that the Monroe Doctrine celebrates in 1923 its hundredth
+anniversary.
+
+
+AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS (1865-98)
+
+=French Intrigues in Mexico Blocked.=--Between the war for the union and
+the war with Spain, the Department of State had many an occasion to
+present the rights of America among the powers of the world. Only a
+little while after the civil conflict came to a close, it was called
+upon to deal with a dangerous situation created in Mexico by the
+ambitions of Napoleon III. During the administration of Buchanan, Mexico
+had fallen into disorder through the strife of the Liberal and the
+Clerical parties; the President asked for authority to use American
+troops to bring to a peaceful haven "a wreck upon the ocean, drifting
+about as she is impelled by different factions." Our own domestic crisis
+then intervened.
+
+Observing the United States heavily involved in its own problems, the
+great powers, England, France, and Spain, decided in the autumn of 1861
+to take a hand themselves in restoring order in Mexico. They entered
+into an agreement to enforce the claims of their citizens against Mexico
+and to protect their subjects residing in that republic. They invited
+the United States to join them, and, on meeting a polite refusal, they
+prepared for a combined military and naval demonstration on their own
+account. In the midst of this action England and Spain, discovering the
+sinister purposes of Napoleon, withdrew their troops and left the field
+to him.
+
+The French Emperor, it was well known, looked with jealousy upon the
+growth of the United States and dreamed of establishing in the Western
+hemisphere an imperial power to offset the American republic.
+Intervention to collect debts was only a cloak for his deeper designs.
+Throwing off that guise in due time, he made the Archduke Maximilian, a
+brother of the ruler of Austria, emperor in Mexico, and surrounded his
+throne by French soldiers, in spite of all protests.
+
+This insolent attack upon the Mexican republic, deeply resented in the
+United States, was allowed to drift in its course until 1865. At that
+juncture General Sheridan was dispatched to the Mexican border with a
+large armed force; General Grant urged the use of the American army to
+expel the French from this continent. The Secretary of State, Seward,
+counseled negotiation first, and, applying the Monroe Doctrine, was able
+to prevail upon Napoleon III to withdraw his troops. Without the support
+of French arms, the sham empire in Mexico collapsed like a house of
+cards and the unhappy Maximilian, the victim of French ambition and
+intrigue, met his death at the hands of a Mexican firing squad.
+
+=Alaska Purchased.=--The Mexican affair had not been brought to a close
+before the Department of State was busy with negotiations which resulted
+in the purchase of Alaska from Russia. The treaty of cession, signed on
+March 30, 1867, added to the United States a domain of nearly six
+hundred thousand square miles, a territory larger than Texas and nearly
+three-fourths the size of the Louisiana purchase. Though it was a
+distant colony separated from our continental domain by a thousand miles
+of water, no question of "imperialism" or "colonization foreign to
+American doctrines" seems to have been raised at the time. The treaty
+was ratified promptly by the Senate. The purchase price, $7,200,000, was
+voted by the House of Representatives after the display of some
+resentment against a system that compelled it to appropriate money to
+fulfill an obligation which it had no part in making. Seward, who
+formulated the treaty, rejoiced, as he afterwards said, that he had kept
+Alaska out of the hands of England.
+
+=American Interest in the Caribbean.=--Having achieved this diplomatic
+triumph, Seward turned to the increase of American power in another
+direction. He negotiated, with Denmark, a treaty providing for the
+purchase of the islands of St. John and St. Thomas in the West Indies,
+strategic points in the Caribbean for sea power. This project, long
+afterward brought to fruition by other men, was defeated on this
+occasion by the refusal of the Senate to ratify the treaty. Evidently it
+was not yet prepared to exercise colonial dominion over other races.
+
+Undaunted by the misadventure in Caribbean policies, President Grant
+warmly advocated the acquisition of Santo Domingo. This little republic
+had long been in a state of general disorder. In 1869 a treaty of
+annexation was concluded with its president. The document Grant
+transmitted to the Senate with his cordial approval, only to have it
+rejected. Not at all changed in his opinion by the outcome of his
+effort, he continued to urge the subject of annexation. Even in his last
+message to Congress he referred to it, saying that time had only proved
+the wisdom of his early course. The addition of Santo Domingo to the
+American sphere of protection was the work of a later generation. The
+State Department, temporarily checked, had to bide its time.
+
+=The _Alabama_ Claims Arbitrated.=--Indeed, it had in hand a far more
+serious matter, a vexing issue that grew out of Civil War diplomacy. The
+British government, as already pointed out in other connections, had
+permitted Confederate cruisers, including the famous _Alabama_, built in
+British ports, to escape and prey upon the commerce of the Northern
+states. This action, denounced at the time by our government as a grave
+breach of neutrality as well as a grievous injury to American citizens,
+led first to remonstrances and finally to repeated claims for damages
+done to American ships and goods. For a long time Great Britain was
+firm. Her foreign secretary denied all obligations in the premises,
+adding somewhat curtly that "he wished to say once for all that Her
+Majesty's government disclaimed any responsibility for the losses and
+hoped that they had made their position perfectly clear." Still
+President Grant was not persuaded that the door of diplomacy, though
+closed, was barred. Hamilton Fish, his Secretary of State, renewed the
+demand. Finally he secured from the British government in 1871 the
+treaty of Washington providing for the arbitration not merely of the
+_Alabama_ and other claims but also all points of serious controversy
+between the two countries.
+
+The tribunal of arbitration thus authorized sat at Geneva in
+Switzerland, and after a long and careful review of the arguments on
+both sides awarded to the United States the lump sum of $15,500,000 to
+be distributed among the American claimants. The damages thus allowed
+were large, unquestionably larger than strict justice required and it is
+not surprising that the decision excited much adverse comment in
+England. Nevertheless, the prompt payment by the British government
+swept away at once a great cloud of ill-feeling in America. Moreover,
+the spectacle of two powerful nations choosing the way of peaceful
+arbitration to settle an angry dispute seemed a happy, if illusory, omen
+of a modern method for avoiding the arbitrament of war.
+
+=Samoa.=--If the Senate had its doubts at first about the wisdom of
+acquiring strategic points for naval power in distant seas, the same
+could not be said of the State Department or naval officers. In 1872
+Commander Meade, of the United States navy, alive to the importance of
+coaling stations even in mid-ocean, made a commercial agreement with the
+chief of Tutuila, one of the Samoan Islands, far below the equator, in
+the southern Pacific, nearer to Australia than to California. This
+agreement, providing among other things for our use of the harbor of
+Pago Pago as a naval base, was six years later changed into a formal
+treaty ratified by the Senate.
+
+Such enterprise could not escape the vigilant eyes of England and
+Germany, both mindful of the course of the sea power in history. The
+German emperor, seizing as a pretext a quarrel between his consul in the
+islands and a native king, laid claim to an interest in the Samoan
+group. England, aware of the dangers arising from German outposts in the
+southern seas so near to Australia, was not content to stand aside. So
+it happened that all three countries sent battleships to the Samoan
+waters, threatening a crisis that was fortunately averted by friendly
+settlement. If, as is alleged, Germany entertained a notion of
+challenging American sea power then and there, the presence of British
+ships must have dispelled that dream.
+
+The result of the affair was a tripartite agreement by which the three
+powers in 1889 undertook a protectorate over the islands. But joint
+control proved unsatisfactory. There was constant friction between the
+Germans and the English. The spheres of authority being vague and open
+to dispute, the plan had to be abandoned at the end of ten years.
+England withdrew altogether, leaving to Germany all the islands except
+Tutuila, which was ceded outright to the United States. Thus one of the
+finest harbors in the Pacific, to the intense delight of the American
+navy, passed permanently under American dominion. Another triumph in
+diplomacy was set down to the credit of the State Department.
+
+=Cleveland and the Venezuela Affair.=--In the relations with South
+America, as well as in those with the distant Pacific, the diplomacy of
+the government at Washington was put to the test. For some time it had
+been watching a dispute between England and Venezuela over the western
+boundary of British Guiana and, on an appeal from Venezuela, it had
+taken a lively interest in the contest. In 1895 President Cleveland saw
+that Great Britain would yield none of her claims. After hearing the
+arguments of Venezuela, his Secretary of State, Richard T. Olney, in a
+note none too conciliatory, asked the British government whether it was
+willing to arbitrate the points in controversy. This inquiry he
+accompanied by a warning to the effect that the United States could not
+permit any European power to contest its mastery in this hemisphere.
+"The United States," said the Secretary, "is practically sovereign on
+this continent and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it
+confines its interposition.... Its infinite resources, combined with its
+isolated position, render it master of the situation and practically
+invulnerable against any or all other powers."
+
+The reply evoked from the British government by this strong statement
+was firm and clear. The Monroe Doctrine, it said, even if not so widely
+stretched by interpretation, was not binding in international law; the
+dispute with Venezuela was a matter of interest merely to the parties
+involved; and arbitration of the question was impossible. This response
+called forth President Cleveland's startling message of 1895. He asked
+Congress to create a commission authorized to ascertain by researches
+the true boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. He added that it
+would be the duty of this country "to resist by every means in its
+power, as a willful aggression upon its rights and interests, the
+appropriation by Great Britain of any lands or the exercise of
+governmental jurisdiction over any territory which, after investigation,
+we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela." The serious character
+of this statement he thoroughly understood. He declared that he was
+conscious of his responsibilities, intimating that war, much as it was
+to be deplored, was not comparable to "a supine submission to wrong and
+injustice and the consequent loss of national self-respect and honor."
+
+[Illustration: GROVER CLEVELAND]
+
+The note of defiance which ran through this message, greeted by shrill
+cries of enthusiasm in many circles, was viewed in other quarters as a
+portent of war. Responsible newspapers in both countries spoke of an
+armed settlement of the dispute as inevitable. Congress created the
+commission and appropriated money for the investigation; a body of
+learned men was appointed to determine the merits of the conflicting
+boundary claims. The British government, deaf to the clamor of the
+bellicose section of the London press, deplored the incident,
+courteously replied in the affirmative to a request for assistance in
+the search for evidence, and finally agreed to the proposition that the
+issue be submitted to arbitration. The outcome of this somewhat perilous
+dispute contributed not a little to Cleveland's reputation as "a
+sterling representative of the true American spirit." This was not
+diminished when the tribunal of arbitration found that Great Britain was
+on the whole right in her territorial claims against Venezuela.
+
+=The Annexation of Hawaii.=--While engaged in the dangerous Venezuela
+controversy, President Cleveland was compelled by a strange turn in
+events to consider the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands in the
+mid-Pacific. For more than half a century American missionaries had been
+active in converting the natives to the Christian faith and enterprising
+American business men had been developing the fertile sugar plantations.
+Both the Department of State and the Navy Department were fully
+conscious of the strategic relation of the islands to the growth of sea
+power and watched with anxiety any developments likely to bring them
+under some other Dominion.
+
+The country at large was indifferent, however, until 1893, when a
+revolution, headed by Americans, broke out, ending in the overthrow of
+the native government, the abolition of the primitive monarchy, and the
+retirement of Queen Liliuokalani to private life. This crisis, a
+repetition of the Texas affair in a small theater, was immediately
+followed by a demand from the new Hawaiian government for annexation to
+the United States. President Harrison looked with favor on the proposal,
+negotiated the treaty of annexation, and laid it before the Senate for
+approval. There it still rested when his term of office was brought to a
+close.
+
+Harrison's successor, Cleveland, it was well known, had doubts about the
+propriety of American action in Hawaii. For the purpose of making an
+inquiry into the matter, he sent a special commissioner to the islands.
+On the basis of the report of his agent, Cleveland came to the
+conclusion that "the revolution in the island kingdom had been
+accomplished by the improper use of the armed forces of the United
+States and that the wrong should be righted by a restoration of the
+queen to her throne." Such being his matured conviction, though the
+facts upon which he rested it were warmly controverted, he could do
+nothing but withdraw the treaty from the Senate and close the incident.
+
+To the Republicans this sharp and cavalier disposal of their plans,
+carried out in a way that impugned the motives of a Republican
+President, was nothing less than "a betrayal of American interests." In
+their platform of 1896 they made clear their position: "Our foreign
+policy should be at all times firm, vigorous, and dignified and all our
+interests in the Western hemisphere carefully watched and guarded. The
+Hawaiian Islands should be controlled by the United States and no
+foreign power should be permitted to interfere with them." There was no
+mistaking this view of the issue. As the vote in the election gave
+popular sanction to Republican policies, Congress by a joint resolution,
+passed on July 6, 1898, annexed the islands to the United States and
+later conferred upon them the ordinary territorial form of government.
+
+
+CUBA AND THE SPANISH WAR
+
+=Early American Relations with Cuba.=--The year that brought Hawaii
+finally under the American flag likewise drew to a conclusion another
+long controversy over a similar outpost in the Atlantic, one of the last
+remnants of the once glorious Spanish empire--the island of Cuba.
+
+For a century the Department of State had kept an anxious eye upon this
+base of power, knowing full well that both France and England, already
+well established in the West Indies, had their attention also fixed upon
+Cuba. In the administration of President Fillmore they had united in
+proposing to the United States a tripartite treaty guaranteeing Spain in
+her none too certain ownership. This proposal, squarely rejected,
+furnished the occasion for a statement of American policy which stood
+the test of all the years that followed; namely, that the affair was one
+between Spain and the United States alone.
+
+In that long contest in the United States for the balance of power
+between the North and South, leaders in the latter section often thought
+of bringing Cuba into the union to offset the free states. An
+opportunity to announce their purposes publicly was afforded in 1854 by
+a controversy over the seizure of an American ship by Cuban authorities.
+On that occasion three American ministers abroad, stationed at Madrid,
+Paris, and London respectively, held a conference and issued the
+celebrated "Ostend Manifesto." They united in declaring that Cuba, by
+her geographical position, formed a part of the United States, that
+possession by a foreign power was inimical to American interests, and
+that an effort should be made to purchase the island from Spain. In case
+the owner refused to sell, they concluded, with a menacing flourish, "by
+every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting it from
+Spain if we possess the power." This startling proclamation to the world
+was promptly disowned by the United States government.
+
+[Illustration: _=An old cartoon.=_
+
+A SIGHT TOO BAD
+
+_Struggling Cuba._ "You must be awfully near-sighted, Mr. President, not
+to recognize me." _U.S.G._ "No, I am far-sighted: for I can recognize
+France."]
+
+=Revolutions in Cuba.=--For nearly twenty years afterwards the Cuban
+question rested. Then it was revived in another form during President
+Grant's administrations, when the natives became engaged in a
+destructive revolt against Spanish officials. For ten years--1868-78--a
+guerrilla warfare raged in the island. American citizens, by virtue of
+their ancient traditions of democracy, naturally sympathized with a war
+for independence and self-government. Expeditions to help the insurgents
+were fitted out secretly in American ports. Arms and supplies were
+smuggled into Cuba. American soldiers of fortune joined their ranks. The
+enforcement of neutrality against the friends of Cuban independence, no
+pleasing task for a sympathetic President, the protection of American
+lives and property in the revolutionary area, and similar matters kept
+our government busy with Cuba for a whole decade.
+
+A brief lull in Cuban disorders was followed in 1895 by a renewal of the
+revolutionary movement. The contest between the rebels and the Spanish
+troops, marked by extreme cruelty and a total disregard for life and
+property, exceeded all bounds of decency, and once more raised the old
+questions that had tormented Grant's administration. Gomez, the leader
+of the revolt, intent upon provoking American interference, laid waste
+the land with fire and sword. By a proclamation of November 6, 1895, he
+ordered the destruction of sugar plantations and railway connections and
+the closure of all sugar factories. The work of ruin was completed by
+the ruthless Spanish general, Weyler, who concentrated the inhabitants
+from rural regions into military camps, where they died by the hundreds
+of disease and starvation. Stories of the atrocities, bad enough in
+simple form, became lurid when transmuted into American news and deeply
+moved the sympathies of the American people. Sermons were preached about
+Spanish misdeeds; orators demanded that the Cubans be sustained "in
+their heroic struggle for independence"; newspapers, scouting the
+ordinary forms of diplomatic negotiation, spurned mediation and demanded
+intervention and war if necessary.
+
+[Illustration: _Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+CUBAN REVOLUTIONISTS]
+
+=President Cleveland's Policy.=--Cleveland chose the way of peace. He
+ordered the observance of the rule of neutrality. He declined to act on
+a resolution of Congress in favor of giving to the Cubans the rights of
+belligerents. Anxious to bring order to the distracted island, he
+tendered to Spain the good offices of the United States as mediator in
+the contest--a tender rejected by the Spanish government with the broad
+hint that President Cleveland might be more vigorous in putting a stop
+to the unlawful aid in money, arms, and supplies, afforded to the
+insurgents by American sympathizers. Thereupon the President returned to
+the course he had marked out for himself, leaving "the public nuisance"
+to his successor, President McKinley.
+
+=Republican Policies.=--The Republicans in 1897 found themselves in a
+position to employ that "firm, vigorous, and dignified" foreign policy
+which they had approved in their platform. They had declared: "The
+government of Spain having lost control of Cuba and being unable to
+protect the property or lives of resident American citizens or to comply
+with its treaty obligations, we believe that the government of the
+United States should actively use its influence and good offices to
+restore peace and give independence to the island." The American
+property in Cuba to which the Republicans referred in their platform
+amounted by this time to more than fifty million dollars; the commerce
+with the island reached more than one hundred millions annually; and the
+claims of American citizens against Spain for property destroyed totaled
+sixteen millions. To the pleas of humanity which made such an effective
+appeal to the hearts of the American people, there were thus added
+practical considerations of great weight.
+
+=President McKinley Negotiates.=--In the face of the swelling tide of
+popular opinion in favor of quick, drastic, and positive action,
+McKinley chose first the way of diplomacy. A short time after his
+inauguration he lodged with the Spanish government a dignified protest
+against its policies in Cuba, thus opening a game of thrust and parry
+with the suave ministers at Madrid. The results of the exchange of
+notes were the recall of the obnoxious General Weyler, the appointment
+of a governor-general less bloodthirsty in his methods, a change in the
+policy of concentrating civilians in military camps, and finally a
+promise of "home rule" for Cuba. There is no doubt that the Spanish
+government was eager to avoid a war that could have but one outcome. The
+American minister at Madrid, General Woodford, was convinced that firm
+and patient pressure would have resulted in the final surrender of Cuba
+by the Spanish government.
+
+=The De Lome and the _Maine_ Incidents.=--Such a policy was defeated by
+events. In February, 1898, a private letter written by Senor de Lome,
+the Spanish ambassador at Washington, expressing contempt for the
+President of the United States, was filched from the mails and passed
+into the hands of a journalist, William R. Hearst, who published it to
+the world. In the excited state of American opinion, few gave heed to
+the grave breach of diplomatic courtesy committed by breaking open
+private correspondence. The Spanish government was compelled to recall
+De Lome, thus officially condemning his conduct.
+
+At this point a far more serious crisis put the pacific relations of the
+two negotiating countries in dire peril. On February 15, the battleship
+_Maine_, riding in the harbor of Havana, was blown up and sunk, carrying
+to death two officers and two hundred and fifty-eight members of the
+crew. This tragedy, ascribed by the American public to the malevolence
+of Spanish officials, profoundly stirred an already furious nation.
+When, on March 21, a commission of inquiry reported that the ill-fated
+ship had been blown up by a submarine mine which had in turn set off
+some of the ship's magazines, the worst suspicions seemed confirmed. If
+any one was inclined to be indifferent to the Cuban war for
+independence, he was now met by the vehement cry: "Remember the
+_Maine_!"
+
+=Spanish Concessions.=--Still the State Department, under McKinley's
+steady hand, pursued the path of negotiation, Spain proving more pliable
+and more ready with promises of reform in the island. Early in April,
+however, there came a decided change in the tenor of American diplomacy.
+On the 4th, McKinley, evidently convinced that promises did not mean
+performances, instructed our minister at Madrid to warn the Spanish
+government that as no effective armistice had been offered to the
+Cubans, he would lay the whole matter before Congress. This decision,
+every one knew, from the temper of Congress, meant war--a prospect which
+excited all the European powers. The Pope took an active interest in the
+crisis. France and Germany, foreseeing from long experience in world
+politics an increase of American power and prestige through war, sought
+to prevent it. Spain, hopeless and conscious of her weakness, at last
+dispatched to the President a note promising to suspend hostilities, to
+call a Cuban parliament, and to grant all the autonomy that could be
+reasonably asked.
+
+=President McKinley Calls for War.=--For reasons of his own--reasons
+which have never yet been fully explained--McKinley ignored the final
+program of concessions presented by Spain. At the very moment when his
+patient negotiations seemed to bear full fruit, he veered sharply from
+his course and launched the country into the war by sending to Congress
+his militant message of April 11, 1898. Without making public the last
+note he had received from Spain, he declared that he was brought to the
+end of his effort and the cause was in the hands of Congress. Humanity,
+the protection of American citizens and property, the injuries to
+American commerce and business, the inability of Spain to bring about
+permanent peace in the island--these were the grounds for action that
+induced him to ask for authority to employ military and naval forces in
+establishing a stable government in Cuba. They were sufficient for a
+public already straining at the leash.
+
+=The Resolution of Congress.=--There was no doubt of the outcome when
+the issue was withdrawn from diplomacy and placed in charge of Congress.
+Resolutions were soon introduced into the House of Representatives
+authorizing the President to employ armed force in securing peace and
+order in the island and "establishing by the free action of the people
+thereof a stable and independent government of their own." To the form
+and spirit of this proposal the Democrats and Populists took exception.
+In the Senate, where they were stronger, their position had to be
+reckoned with by the narrow Republican majority. As the resolution
+finally read, the independence of Cuba was recognized; Spain was called
+upon to relinquish her authority and withdraw from the island; and the
+President was empowered to use force to the extent necessary to carry
+the resolutions into effect. Furthermore the United States disclaimed
+"any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or
+control over said island except for the pacification thereof." Final
+action was taken by Congress on April 19, 1898, and approved by the
+President on the following day.
+
+=War and Victory.=--Startling events then followed in swift succession.
+The navy, as a result in no small measure of the alertness of Theodore
+Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Department, was ready for the
+trial by battle. On May 1, Commodore Dewey at Manila Bay shattered the
+Spanish fleet, marking the doom of Spanish dominion in the Philippines.
+On July 3, the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, in attempting to
+escape from Havana, was utterly destroyed by American forces under
+Commodore Schley. On July 17, Santiago, invested by American troops
+under General Shafter and shelled by the American ships, gave up the
+struggle. On July 25 General Miles landed in Porto Rico. On August 13,
+General Merritt and Admiral Dewey carried Manila by storm. The war was
+over.
+
+=The Peace Protocol.=--Spain had already taken cognizance of stern
+facts. As early as July 26, 1898, acting through the French ambassador,
+M. Cambon, the Madrid government approached President McKinley for a
+statement of the terms on which hostilities could be brought to a close.
+After some skirmishing Spain yielded reluctantly to the ultimatum. On
+August 12, the preliminary peace protocol was signed, stipulating that
+Cuba should be free, Porto Rico ceded to the United States, and Manila
+occupied by American troops pending the formal treaty of peace. On
+October 1, the commissioners of the two countries met at Paris to bring
+about the final settlement.
+
+=Peace Negotiations.=--When the day for the first session of the
+conference arrived, the government at Washington apparently had not made
+up its mind on the final disposition of the Philippines. Perhaps, before
+the battle of Manila Bay, not ten thousand people in the United States
+knew or cared where the Philippines were. Certainly there was in the
+autumn of 1898 no decided opinion as to what should be done with the
+fruits of Dewey's victory. President McKinley doubtless voiced the
+sentiment of the people when he stated to the peace commissioners on the
+eve of their departure that there had originally been no thought of
+conquest in the Pacific.
+
+The march of events, he added, had imposed new duties on the country.
+"Incidental to our tenure in the Philippines," he said, "is the
+commercial opportunity to which American statesmanship cannot be
+indifferent. It is just to use every legitimate means for the
+enlargement of American trade." On this ground he directed the
+commissioners to accept not less than the cession of the island of
+Luzon, the chief of the Philippine group, with its harbor of Manila. It
+was not until the latter part of October that he definitely instructed
+them to demand the entire archipelago, on the theory that the occupation
+of Luzon alone could not be justified "on political, commercial, or
+humanitarian grounds." This departure from the letter of the peace
+protocol was bitterly resented by the Spanish agents. It was with
+heaviness of heart that they surrendered the last sign of Spain's
+ancient dominion in the far Pacific.
+
+=The Final Terms of Peace.=--The treaty of peace, as finally agreed
+upon, embraced the following terms: the independence of Cuba; the
+cession of Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States;
+the settlement of claims filed by the citizens of both countries; the
+payment of twenty million dollars to Spain by the United States for the
+Philippines; and the determination of the status of the inhabitants of
+the ceded territories by Congress. The great decision had been made. Its
+issue was in the hands of the Senate where the Democrats and the
+Populists held the balance of power under the requirement of the
+two-thirds vote for ratification.
+
+=The Contest in America over the Treaty of Peace.=--The publication of
+the treaty committing the United States to the administration of distant
+colonies directed the shifting tides of public opinion into two distinct
+channels: support of the policy and opposition to it. The trend in
+Republican leadership, long in the direction marked out by the treaty,
+now came into the open. Perhaps a majority of the men highest in the
+councils of that party had undergone the change of heart reflected in
+the letters of John Hay, Secretary of State. In August of 1898 he had
+hinted, in a friendly letter to Andrew Carnegie, that he sympathized
+with the latter's opposition to "imperialism"; but he had added quickly:
+"The only question in my mind is how far it is now possible for us to
+withdraw from the Philippines." In November of the same year he wrote to
+Whitelaw Reid, one of the peace commissioners at Paris: "There is a wild
+and frantic attack now going on in the press against the whole
+Philippine transaction. Andrew Carnegie really seems to be off his
+head.... But all this confusion of tongues will go its way. The country
+will applaud the resolution that has been reached and you will return in
+the role of conquering heroes with your 'brows bound with oak.'"
+
+Senator Beveridge of Indiana and Senator Platt of Connecticut, accepting
+the verdict of history as the proof of manifest destiny, called for
+unquestioning support of the administration in its final step. "Every
+expansion of our territory," said the latter, "has been in accordance
+with the irresistible law of growth. We could no more resist the
+successive expansions by which we have grown to be the strongest nation
+on earth than a tree can resist its growth. The history of territorial
+expansion is the history of our nation's progress and glory. It is a
+matter to be proud of, not to lament. We should rejoice that Providence
+has given us the opportunity to extend our influence, our institutions,
+and our civilization into regions hitherto closed to us, rather than
+contrive how we can thwart its designs."
+
+This doctrine was savagely attacked by opponents of McKinley's policy,
+many a stanch Republican joining with the majority of Democrats in
+denouncing the treaty as a departure from the ideals of the republic.
+Senator Vest introduced in the Senate a resolution that "under the
+Constitution of the United States, no power is given to the federal
+Government to acquire territory to be held and governed permanently as
+colonies." Senator Hoar, of Massachusetts, whose long and honorable
+career gave weight to his lightest words, inveighed against the whole
+procedure and to the end of his days believed that the new drift into
+rivalry with European nations as a colonial power was fraught with
+genuine danger. "Our imperialistic friends," he said, "seem to have
+forgotten the use of the vocabulary of liberty. They talk about giving
+good government. 'We shall give them such a government as we think they
+are fitted for.' 'We shall give them a better government than they had
+before.' Why, Mr. President, that one phrase conveys to a free man and a
+free people the most stinging of insults. In that little phrase, as in a
+seed, is contained the germ of all despotism and of all tyranny.
+Government is not a gift. Free government is not to be given by all the
+blended powers of earth and heaven. It is a birthright. It belongs, as
+our fathers said, and as their children said, as Jefferson said, and as
+President McKinley said, to human nature itself."
+
+The Senate, more conservative on the question of annexation than the
+House of Representatives composed of men freshly elected in the stirring
+campaign of 1896, was deliberate about ratification of the treaty. The
+Democrats and Populists were especially recalcitrant. Mr. Bryan hurried
+to Washington and brought his personal influence to bear in favor of
+speedy action. Patriotism required ratification, it was said in one
+quarter. The country desires peace and the Senate ought not to delay, it
+was urged in another. Finally, on February 6, 1899, the requisite
+majority of two-thirds was mustered, many a Senator who voted for the
+treaty, however, sharing the misgivings of Senator Hoar as to the
+"dangers of imperialism." Indeed at the time, the Senators passed a
+resolution declaring that the policy to be adopted in the Philippines
+was still an open question, leaving to the future, in this way, the
+possibility of retracing their steps.
+
+=The Attitude of England.=--The Spanish war, while accomplishing the
+simple objects of those who launched the nation on that course, like all
+other wars, produced results wholly unforeseen. In the first place, it
+exercised a profound influence on the drift of opinion among European
+powers. In England, sympathy with the United States was from the first
+positive and outspoken. "The state of feeling here," wrote Mr. Hay, then
+ambassador in London, "is the best I have ever known. From every quarter
+the evidences of it come to me. The royal family by habit and tradition
+are most careful not to break the rules of strict neutrality, but even
+among them I find nothing but hearty kindness and--so far as is
+consistent with propriety--sympathy. Among the political leaders on both
+sides I find not only sympathy but a somewhat eager desire that 'the
+other fellows' shall not seem more friendly."
+
+Joseph Chamberlain, the distinguished Liberal statesman, thinking no
+doubt of the continental situation, said in a political address at the
+very opening of the war that the next duty of Englishmen "is to
+establish and maintain bonds of permanent unity with our kinsmen across
+the Atlantic.... I even go so far as to say that, terrible as war may
+be, even war would be cheaply purchased if, in a great and noble cause,
+the Stars and Stripes and the Union Jack should wave together over an
+Anglo-Saxon alliance." To the American ambassador he added
+significantly that he did not "care a hang what they say about it on the
+continent," which was another way of expressing the hope that the
+warning to Germany and France was sufficient. This friendly English
+opinion, so useful to the United States when a combination of powers to
+support Spain was more than possible, removed all fears as to the
+consequences of the war. Henry Adams, recalling days of humiliation in
+London during the Civil War, when his father was the American
+ambassador, coolly remarked that it was "the sudden appearance of
+Germany as the grizzly terror" that "frightened England into America's
+arms"; but the net result in keeping the field free for an easy triumph
+of American arms was none the less appreciated in Washington where,
+despite outward calm, fears of European complications were never absent.
+
+
+AMERICAN POLICIES IN THE PHILIPPINES AND THE ORIENT
+
+=The Filipino Revolt against American Rule.=--In the sphere of domestic
+politics, as well as in the field of foreign relations, the outcome of
+the Spanish war exercised a marked influence. It introduced at once
+problems of colonial administration and difficulties in adjusting trade
+relations with the outlying dominions. These were furthermore
+complicated in the very beginning by the outbreak of an insurrection
+against American sovereignty in the Philippines. The leader of the
+revolt, Aguinaldo, had been invited to join the American forces in
+overthrowing Spanish dominion, and he had assumed, apparently without
+warrant, that independence would be the result of the joint operations.
+When the news reached him that the American flag had been substituted
+for the Spanish flag, his resentment was keen. In February, 1899, there
+occurred a slight collision between his men and some American soldiers.
+The conflict thus begun was followed by serious fighting which finally
+dwindled into a vexatious guerrilla warfare lasting three years and
+costing heavily in men and money. Atrocities were committed by the
+native insurrectionists and, sad to relate, they were repaid in kind;
+it was argued in defense of the army that the ordinary rules of warfare
+were without terror to men accustomed to fighting like savages. In vain
+did McKinley assure the Filipinos that the institutions and laws
+established in the islands would be designed "not for our satisfaction
+or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness,
+peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands." Nothing
+short of military pressure could bring the warring revolutionists to
+terms.
+
+=Attacks on Republican "Imperialism."=--The Filipino insurrection,
+following so quickly upon the ratification of the treaty with Spain,
+moved the American opponents of McKinley's colonial policies to redouble
+their denunciation of what they were pleased to call "imperialism."
+Senator Hoar was more than usually caustic in his indictment of the new
+course. The revolt against American rule did but convince him of the
+folly hidden in the first fateful measures. Everywhere he saw a
+conspiracy of silence and injustice. "I have failed to discover in the
+speeches, public or private, of the advocates of this war," he contended
+in the Senate, "or in the press which supports it and them, a single
+expression anywhere of a desire to do justice to the people of the
+Philippine Islands, or of a desire to make known to the people of the
+United States the truth of the case.... The catchwords, the cries, the
+pithy and pregnant phrases of which their speech is full, all mean
+dominion. They mean perpetual dominion.... There is not one of these
+gentlemen who will rise in his place and affirm that if he were a
+Filipino he would not do exactly as the Filipinos are doing; that he
+would not despise them if they were to do otherwise. So much at least
+they owe of respect to the dead and buried history--the dead and buried
+history so far as they can slay and bury it--of their country." In the
+way of practical suggestions, the Senator offered as a solution of the
+problem: the recognition of independence, assistance in establishing
+self-government, and an invitation to all powers to join in a guarantee
+of freedom to the islands.
+
+=The Republican Answer.=--To McKinley and his supporters, engaged in a
+sanguinary struggle to maintain American supremacy, such talk was more
+than quixotic; it was scarcely short of treasonable. They pointed out
+the practical obstacles in the way of uniform self-government for a
+collection of seven million people ranging in civilization from the most
+ignorant hill men to the highly cultivated inhabitants of Manila. The
+incidents of the revolt and its repression, they admitted, were painful
+enough; but still nothing as compared with the chaos that would follow
+the attempt of a people who had never had experience in such matters to
+set up and sustain democratic institutions. They preferred rather the
+gradual process of fitting the inhabitants of the islands for
+self-government. This course, in their eyes, though less poetic, was
+more in harmony with the ideals of humanity. Having set out upon it,
+they pursued it steadfastly to the end. First, they applied force
+without stint to the suppression of the revolt. Then they devoted such
+genius for colonial administration as they could command to the
+development of civil government, commerce, and industry.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A PHILIPPINE HOME]
+
+=The Boxer Rebellion in China.=--For a nation with a world-wide trade,
+steadily growing, as the progress of home industries redoubled the zeal
+for new markets, isolation was obviously impossible. Never was this
+clearer than in 1900 when a native revolt against foreigners in China,
+known as the Boxer uprising, compelled the United States to join with
+the powers of Europe in a military expedition and a diplomatic
+settlement. The Boxers, a Chinese association, had for some time carried
+on a campaign of hatred against all aliens in the Celestial empire,
+calling upon the natives to rise in patriotic wrath and drive out the
+foreigners who, they said, "were lacerating China like tigers." In the
+summer of 1900 the revolt flamed up in deeds of cruelty. Missionaries
+and traders were murdered in the provinces; foreign legations were
+stoned; the German ambassador, one of the most cordially despised
+foreigners, was killed in the streets of Peking; and to all appearances
+a frightful war of extermination had begun. In the month of June nearly
+five hundred men, women, and children, representing all nations, were
+besieged in the British quarters in Peking under constant fire of
+Chinese guns and in peril of a terrible death.
+
+=Intervention in China.=--Nothing but the arrival of armed forces, made
+up of Japanese, Russian, British, American, French, and German soldiers
+and marines, prevented the destruction of the beleaguered aliens. When
+once the foreign troops were in possession of the Chinese capital,
+diplomatic questions of the most delicate character arose. For more than
+half a century, the imperial powers of Europe had been carving up the
+Chinese empire, taking to themselves territory, railway concessions,
+mining rights, ports, and commercial privileges at the expense of the
+huge but helpless victim. The United States alone among the great
+nations, while as zealous as any in the pursuit of peaceful trade, had
+refrained from seizing Chinese territory or ports. Moreover, the
+Department of State had been urging European countries to treat China
+with fairness, to respect her territorial integrity, and to give her
+equal trading privileges with all nations.
+
+=The American Policy of the "Open Door."=--In the autumn of 1899,
+Secretary Hay had addressed to London, Berlin, Rome, Paris, Tokyo, and
+St. Petersburg his famous note on the "open door" policy in China. In
+this document he proposed that existing treaty ports and vested
+interests of the several foreign countries should be respected; that
+the Chinese government should be permitted to extend its tariffs to all
+ports held by alien powers except the few free ports; and that there
+should be no discrimination in railway and port charges among the
+citizens of foreign countries operating in the empire. To these
+principles the governments addressed by Mr. Hay, finally acceded with
+evident reluctance.
+
+[Illustration: AMERICAN DOMINIONS IN THE PACIFIC]
+
+On this basis he then proposed the settlement that had to follow the
+Boxer uprising. "The policy of the Government of the United States," he
+said to the great powers, in the summer of 1900, "is to seek a solution
+which may bring about permanent safety and peace to China, preserve
+Chinese territorial and administrative entity, protect all rights
+guaranteed to friendly powers by treaty and international law, and
+safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impartial trade with
+all parts of the Chinese empire." This was a friendly warning to the
+world that the United States would not join in a scramble to punish the
+Chinese by carving out more territory. "The moment we acted," said Mr.
+Hay, "the rest of the world paused and finally came over to our ground;
+and the German government, which is generally brutal but seldom silly,
+recovered its senses, and climbed down off its perch."
+
+In taking this position, the Secretary of State did but reflect the
+common sense of America. "We are, of course," he explained, "opposed to
+the dismemberment of that empire and we do not think that the public
+opinion of the United States would justify this government in taking
+part in the great game of spoliation now going on." Heavy damages were
+collected by the European powers from China for the injuries inflicted
+upon their citizens by the Boxers; but the United States, finding the
+sum awarded in excess of the legitimate claims, returned the balance in
+the form of a fund to be applied to the education of Chinese students in
+American universities. "I would rather be, I think," said Mr. Hay, "the
+dupe of China than the chum of the Kaiser." By pursuing a liberal
+policy, he strengthened the hold of the United States upon the
+affections of the Chinese people and, in the long run, as he remarked
+himself, safeguarded "our great commercial interests in that Empire."
+
+=Imperialism in the Presidential Campaign of 1900.=--It is not strange
+that the policy pursued by the Republican administration in disposing of
+the questions raised by the Spanish War became one of the first issues
+in the presidential campaign of 1900. Anticipating attacks from every
+quarter, the Republicans, in renominating McKinley, set forth their
+position in clear and ringing phrases: "In accepting by the treaty of
+Paris the just responsibility of our victories in the Spanish War the
+President and Senate won the undoubted approval of the American people.
+No other course was possible than to destroy Spain's sovereignty
+throughout the West Indies and in the Philippine Islands. That course
+created our responsibility, before the world and with the unorganized
+population whom our intervention had freed from Spain, to provide for
+the maintenance of law and order, and for the establishment of good
+government and for the performance of international obligations. Our
+authority could not be less than our responsibility, and wherever
+sovereign rights were extended it became the high duty of the government
+to maintain its authority, to put down armed insurrection, and to confer
+the blessings of liberty and civilization upon all the rescued peoples.
+The largest measure of self-government consistent with their welfare and
+our duties shall be secured to them by law." To give more strength to
+their ticket, the Republican convention, in a whirlwind of enthusiasm,
+nominated for the vice presidency, against his protest, Theodore
+Roosevelt, the governor of New York and the hero of the Rough Riders, so
+popular on account of their Cuban campaign.
+
+The Democrats, as expected, picked up the gauntlet thrown down with such
+defiance by the Republicans. Mr. Bryan, whom they selected as their
+candidate, still clung to the currency issue; but the main emphasis,
+both of the platform and the appeal for votes, was on the "imperialistic
+program" of the Republican administration. The Democrats denounced the
+treatment of Cuba and Porto Rico and condemned the Philippine policy in
+sharp and vigorous terms. "As we are not willing," ran the platform, "to
+surrender our civilization or to convert the Republic into an empire, we
+favor an immediate declaration of the Nation's purpose to give to the
+Filipinos, first, a stable form of government; second, independence;
+third, protection from outside interference.... The greedy commercialism
+which dictated the Philippine policy of the Republican administration
+attempts to justify it with the plea that it will pay, but even this
+sordid and unworthy plea fails when brought to the test of facts. The
+war of 'criminal aggression' against the Filipinos entailing an annual
+expense of many millions has already cost more than any possible profit
+that could accrue from the entire Philippine trade for years to come....
+We oppose militarism. It means conquest abroad and intimidation and
+oppression at home. It means the strong arm which has ever been fatal to
+free institutions. It is what millions of our citizens have fled from in
+Europe. It will impose upon our peace-loving people a large standing
+army, an unnecessary burden of taxation, and would be a constant menace
+to their liberties." Such was the tenor of their appeal to the voters.
+
+With the issues clearly joined, the country rejected the Democratic
+candidate even more positively than four years before. The popular vote
+cast for McKinley was larger and that cast for Bryan smaller than in the
+silver election. Thus vindicated at the polls, McKinley turned with
+renewed confidence to the development of the policies he had so far
+advanced. But fate cut short his designs. In the September following his
+second inauguration, he was shot by an anarchist while attending the
+Buffalo exposition. "What a strange and tragic fate it has been of
+mine," wrote the Secretary of State, John Hay, on the day of the
+President's death, "to stand by the bier of three of my dearest friends,
+Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley, three of the gentlest of men, all risen
+to the head of the state and all done to death by assassins." On
+September 14, 1901, the Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, took up the
+lines of power that had fallen from the hands of his distinguished
+chief, promising to continue "absolutely unbroken" the policies he had
+inherited.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS
+
+The economic aspects of the period between 1865 and 1900 may be readily
+summed up: the recovery of the South from the ruin of the Civil War, the
+extension of the railways, the development of the Great West, and the
+triumph of industry and business enterprise. In the South many of the
+great plantations were broken up and sold in small farms, crops were
+diversified, the small farming class was raised in the scale of social
+importance, the cotton industry was launched, and the coal, iron,
+timber, and other resources were brought into use. In the West the free
+arable land was practically exhausted by 1890 under the terms of the
+Homestead Act; gold, silver, copper, coal and other minerals were
+discovered in abundance; numerous rail connections were formed with the
+Atlantic seaboard; the cowboy and the Indian were swept away before a
+standardized civilization of electric lights and bathtubs. By the end of
+the century the American frontier had disappeared. The wild, primitive
+life so long associated with America was gone. The unity of the nation
+was established.
+
+In the field of business enterprise, progress was most marked. The
+industrial system, which had risen and flourished before the Civil War,
+grew into immense proportions and the industrial area was extended from
+the Northeast into all parts of the country. Small business concerns
+were transformed into huge corporations. Individual plants were merged
+under the management of gigantic trusts. Short railway lines were
+consolidated into national systems. The industrial population of
+wage-earners rose into the tens of millions. The immigration of aliens
+increased by leaps and bounds. The cities overshadowed the country. The
+nation that had once depended upon Europe for most of its manufactured
+goods became a competitor of Europe in the markets of the earth.
+
+In the sphere of politics, the period witnessed the recovery of white
+supremacy in the South; the continued discussion of the old questions,
+such as the currency, the tariff, and national banking; and the
+injection of new issues like the trusts and labor problems. As of old,
+foreign affairs were kept well at the front. Alaska was purchased from
+Russia; attempts were made to extend American influence in the Caribbean
+region; a Samoan island was brought under the flag; and the Hawaiian
+islands were annexed. The Monroe Doctrine was applied with vigor in the
+dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain.
+
+Assistance was given to the Cubans in their revolutionary struggle
+against Spain and thus there was precipitated a war which ended in the
+annexation of Porto Rico and the Philippines. American influence in the
+Pacific and the Orient was so enlarged as to be a factor of great weight
+in world affairs. Thus questions connected with foreign and "imperial"
+policies were united with domestic issues to make up the warp and woof
+of politics. In the direction of affairs, the Republicans took the
+leadership, for they held the presidency during all the years, except
+eight, between 1865 and 1900.
+
+
+=References=
+
+J.W. Foster, _A Century of American Diplomacy_; _American Diplomacy in
+the Orient_.
+
+W.F. Reddaway, _The Monroe Doctrine_.
+
+J.H. Latane, _The United States and Spanish America_.
+
+A.C. Coolidge, _United States as a World Power_.
+
+A.T. Mahan, _Interest of the United States in the Sea Power_.
+
+F.E. Chadwick, _Spanish-American War_.
+
+D.C. Worcester, _The Philippine Islands and Their People_.
+
+M.M. Kalaw, _Self-Government in the Philippines_.
+
+L.S. Rowe, _The United States and Porto Rico_.
+
+F.E. Chadwick, _The Relations of the United States and Spain_.
+
+W.R. Shepherd, _Latin America_; _Central and South America_.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Tell the story of the international crisis that developed soon after
+the Civil War with regard to Mexico.
+
+2. Give the essential facts relating to the purchase of Alaska.
+
+3. Review the early history of our interest in the Caribbean.
+
+4. Amid what circumstances was the Monroe Doctrine applied in
+Cleveland's administration?
+
+5. Give the causes that led to the war with Spain.
+
+6. Tell the leading events in that war.
+
+7. What was the outcome as far as Cuba was concerned? The outcome for
+the United States?
+
+8. Discuss the attitude of the Filipinos toward American sovereignty in
+the islands.
+
+9. Describe McKinley's colonial policy.
+
+10. How was the Spanish War viewed in England? On the Continent?
+
+11. Was there a unified American opinion on American expansion?
+
+12. Was this expansion a departure from our traditions?
+
+13. What events led to foreign intervention in China?
+
+14. Explain the policy of the "open door."
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Hawaii and Venezuela.=--Dewey, _National Problems_ (American Nation
+Series), pp. 279-313; Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 600-602;
+Hart, _American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 612-616.
+
+=Intervention in Cuba.=--Latane, _America as a World Power_ (American
+Nation Series), pp. 3-28; Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp.
+597-598; Roosevelt, _Autobiography_, pp. 223-277; Haworth, _The United
+States in Our Own Time_, pp. 232-256; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV,
+pp. 573-578.
+
+=The War with Spain.=--Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+889-896.
+
+=Terms of Peace with Spain.=--Latane, pp. 63-81; Macdonald, pp. 602-608;
+Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 588-590.
+
+=The Philippine Insurrection.=--Latane, pp. 82-99.
+
+=Imperialism as a Campaign Issue.=--Latane, pp. 120-132; Haworth, pp.
+257-277; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 604-611.
+
+=Biographical Studies.=--William McKinley, M.A. Hanna, John Hay;
+Admirals, George Dewey, W.T. Sampson, and W.S. Schley; and Generals,
+W.R. Shafter, Joseph Wheeler, and H.W. Lawton.
+
+=General Analysis of American Expansion.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New
+York State, 1920), pp. 142-147.
+
+
+
+
+PART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF REPUBLICAN POLICIES (1901-13)
+
+
+=The Personality and Early Career of Roosevelt.=--On September 14, 1901,
+when Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office, the presidency passed
+to a new generation and a leader of a new type recalling, if comparisons
+must be made, Andrew Jackson rather than any Republican predecessor.
+Roosevelt was brusque, hearty, restless, and fond of action--"a young
+fellow of infinite dash and originality," as John Hay remarked of him;
+combining the spirit of his old college, Harvard, with the breezy
+freedom of the plains; interested in everything--a new species of game,
+a new book, a diplomatic riddle, or a novel theory of history or
+biology. Though only forty-three years old he was well versed in the art
+of practical politics. Coming upon the political scene in the early
+eighties, he had associated himself with the reformers in the Republican
+party; but he was no Mugwump. From the first he vehemently preached the
+doctrine of party loyalty; if beaten in the convention, he voted the
+straight ticket in the election. For twenty years he adhered to this
+rule and during a considerable portion of that period he held office as
+a spokesman of his party. He served in the New York legislature, as head
+of the metropolitan police force, as federal civil service commissioner
+under President Harrison, as assistant secretary of the navy under
+President McKinley, and as governor of the Empire state. Political
+managers of the old school spoke of him as "brilliant but erratic"; they
+soon found him equal to the shrewdest in negotiation and action.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+ROOSEVELT TALKING TO THE ENGINEER OF A RAILROAD TRAIN]
+
+
+FOREIGN AFFAIRS
+
+=The Panama Canal.=--The most important foreign question confronting
+President Roosevelt on the day of his inauguration, that of the Panama
+Canal, was a heritage from his predecessor. The idea of a water route
+across the isthmus, long a dream of navigators, had become a living
+issue after the historic voyage of the battleship _Oregon_ around South
+America during the Spanish War. But before the United States could act
+it had to undo the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, made with Great Britain in
+1850, providing for the construction of the canal under joint
+supervision. This was finally effected by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty of
+1901 authorizing the United States to proceed alone, on condition that
+there should be no discriminations against other nations in the matter
+of rates and charges.
+
+This accomplished, it was necessary to decide just where the canal
+should be built. One group in Congress favored the route through
+Nicaragua; in fact, two official commissions had already approved that
+location. Another group favored cutting the way through Panama after
+purchasing the rights of the old French company which, under the
+direction of De Lesseps, the hero of the Suez Canal, had made a costly
+failure some twenty years before. After a heated argument over the
+merits of the two plans, preference was given to the Panama route. As
+the isthmus was then a part of Colombia, President Roosevelt proceeded
+to negotiate with the government at Bogota a treaty authorizing the
+United States to cut a canal through its territory. The treaty was
+easily framed, but it was rejected by the Colombian senate, much to the
+President's exasperation. "You could no more make an agreement with the
+Colombian rulers," he exclaimed, "than you could nail jelly to a wall."
+He was spared the necessity by a timely revolution. On November 3, 1903,
+Panama renounced its allegiance to Colombia and three days later the
+United States recognized its independence.
+
+[Illustration: _Courtesy of Panama Canal, Washington, D.C._
+
+DEEPEST EXCAVATED PORTION OF PANAMA CANAL, SHOWING GOLD HILL ON
+RIGHT AND CONTRACTOR'S HILL ON LEFT. JUNE, 1913]
+
+This amazing incident was followed shortly by the signature of a treaty
+between Panama and the United States in which the latter secured the
+right to construct the long-discussed canal, in return for a guarantee
+of independence and certain cash payments. The rights and property of
+the French concern were then bought, and the final details settled. A
+lock rather than a sea-level canal was agreed upon. Construction by the
+government directly instead of by private contractors was adopted.
+Scientific medicine was summoned to stamp out the tropical diseases
+that had made Panama a plague spot. Finally, in 1904, as the President
+said, "the dirt began to fly." After surmounting formidable
+difficulties--engineering, labor, and sanitary--the American forces in
+1913 joined the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific. Nearly eight
+thousand miles were cut off the sea voyage from New York to San
+Francisco. If any were inclined to criticize President Roosevelt for
+the way in which he snapped off negotiations with Colombia and
+recognized the Panama revolutionists, their attention was drawn to the
+magnificent outcome of the affair. Notwithstanding the treaty with Great
+Britain, Congress passed a tolls bill discriminating in rates in favor
+of American ships. It was only on the urgent insistence of President
+Wilson that the measure was later repealed.
+
+=The Conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War.=--The applause which greeted
+the President's next diplomatic stroke was unmarred by censure of any
+kind. In the winter of 1904 there broke out between Japan and Russia a
+terrible conflict over the division of spoils in Manchuria. The fortunes
+of war were with the agile forces of Nippon. In this struggle, it seems,
+President Roosevelt's sympathies were mainly with the Japanese, although
+he observed the proprieties of neutrality. At all events, Secretary Hay
+wrote in his diary on New Year's Day, 1905, that the President was
+"quite firm in his view that we cannot permit Japan to be robbed a
+second time of her victory," referring to the fact that Japan, ten years
+before, after defeating China on the field of battle, had been forced by
+Russia, Germany, and France to forego the fruits of conquest.
+
+Whatever the President's personal feelings may have been, he was aware
+that Japan, despite her triumphs over Russia, was staggering under a
+heavy burden of debt. At a suggestion from Tokyo, he invited both
+belligerents in the summer of 1905 to join in a peace conference. The
+celerity of their reply was aided by the pressure of European bankers,
+who had already come to a substantial agreement that the war must stop.
+After some delay, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, was chosen as the meeting
+place for the spokesmen of the two warring powers. Roosevelt presided
+over the opening ceremonies with fine urbanity, thoroughly enjoying the
+justly earned honor of being for the moment at the center of the world's
+interest. He had the satisfaction of seeing the conference end in a
+treaty of peace and amity.
+
+=The Monroe Doctrine Applied to Germany.=--Less spectacular than the
+Russo-Japanese settlement but not less important was a diplomatic
+passage-at-arms with Germany over the Monroe Doctrine. This clash grew
+out of the inability or unwillingness of the Venezuelan government to
+pay debts due foreign creditors. Having exhausted their patience in
+negotiations, England and Germany, in December 1901, sent battleships to
+establish what they characterized as "a peaceful blockade" of Venezuelan
+ports. Their action was followed by the rupture of diplomatic relations;
+there was a possibility that war and the occupation of Venezuelan
+territory might result.
+
+While unwilling to stand between a Latin-American country and its
+creditors, President Roosevelt was determined that debt collecting
+should not be made an excuse for European countries to seize territory.
+He therefore urged arbitration of the dispute, winning the assent of
+England and Italy. Germany, with a somewhat haughty air, refused to take
+the milder course. The President, learning of this refusal, called the
+German ambassador to the White House and informed him in very precise
+terms that, unless the Imperial German Government consented to
+arbitrate, Admiral Dewey would be ordered to the scene with instructions
+to prevent Germany from seizing any Venezuelan territory. A week passed
+and no answer came from Berlin. Not baffled, the President again took
+the matter up with the ambassador, this time with even more firmness; he
+stated in language admitting of but one meaning that, unless within
+forty-eight hours the Emperor consented to arbitration, American
+battleships, already coaled and cleared, would sail for Venezuelan
+waters. The hint was sufficient. The Kaiser accepted the proposal and
+the President, with the fine irony of diplomacy, complimented him
+publicly on "being so stanch an advocate of arbitration." In terms of
+the Monroe Doctrine this action meant that the United States, while not
+denying the obligations of debtors, would not permit any move on the
+part of European powers that might easily lead to the temporary or
+permanent occupation of Latin-American territory.
+
+=The Santo Domingo Affair.=--The same issue was involved in a
+controversy over Santo Domingo which arose in 1904. The Dominican
+republic, like Venezuela, was heavily in debt, and certain European
+countries declared that, unless the United States undertook to look
+after the finances of the embarrassed debtor, they would resort to armed
+coercion. What was the United States to do? The danger of having some
+European power strongly intrenched in Santo Domingo was too imminent to
+be denied. President Roosevelt acted with characteristic speed, and
+notwithstanding strong opposition in the Senate was able, in 1907, to
+effect a treaty arrangement which placed Dominican finances under
+American supervision.
+
+In the course of the debate over this settlement, a number of
+interesting questions arose. It was pertinently asked whether the
+American navy should be used to help creditors collect their debts
+anywhere in Latin-America. It was suggested also that no sanction should
+be given to the practice among European governments of using armed force
+to collect private claims. Opponents of President Roosevelt's policy,
+and they were neither few nor insignificant, urged that such matters
+should be referred to the Hague Court or to special international
+commissions for arbitration. To this the answer was made that the United
+States could not surrender any question coming under the terms of the
+Monroe Doctrine to the decision of an international tribunal. The
+position of the administration was very clearly stated by President
+Roosevelt himself. "The country," he said, "would certainly decline to
+go to war to prevent a foreign government from collecting a just debt;
+on the other hand, it is very inadvisable to permit any foreign power to
+take possession, even temporarily, of the customs houses of an American
+republic in order to enforce the payment of its obligations; for such a
+temporary occupation might turn into a permanent occupation. The only
+escape from these alternatives may at any time be that we must
+ourselves undertake to bring about some arrangement by which so much as
+possible of a just obligation shall be paid." The Monroe Doctrine was
+negative. It denied to European powers a certain liberty of operation in
+this hemisphere. The positive obligations resulting from its application
+by the United States were points now emphasized and developed.
+
+=The Hague Conference.=--The controversies over Latin-American relations
+and his part in bringing the Russo-Japanese War to a close naturally
+made a deep impression upon Roosevelt, turning his mind in the direction
+of the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The subject was
+moreover in the air. As if conscious of impending calamity, the
+statesmen of the Old World, to all outward signs at least, seemed
+searching for a way to reduce armaments and avoid the bloody and costly
+trial of international causes by the ancient process of battle. It was
+the Czar, Nicholas II, fated to die in one of the terrible holocausts
+which he helped to bring upon mankind, who summoned the delegates of the
+nations in the first Hague Peace Conference in 1899. The conference did
+nothing to reduce military burdens or avoid wars but it did recognize
+the right of friendly nations to offer the services of mediation to
+countries at war and did establish a Court at the Hague for the
+arbitration of international disputes.
+
+Encouraged by this experiment, feeble as it was, President Roosevelt in
+1904 proposed a second conference, yielding to the Czar the honor of
+issuing the call. At this great international assembly, held at the
+Hague in 1907, the representatives of the United States proposed a plan
+for the compulsory arbitration of certain matters of international
+dispute. This was rejected with contempt by Germany. Reduction of
+armaments, likewise proposed in the conference, was again deferred. In
+fact, nothing was accomplished beyond agreement upon certain rules for
+the conduct of "civilized warfare," casting a somewhat lurid light upon
+the "pacific" intentions of most of the powers assembled.
+
+=The World Tour of the Fleet.=--As if to assure the world then that the
+United States placed little reliance upon the frail reed of peace
+conferences, Roosevelt the following year (1908) made an imposing
+display of American naval power by sending a fleet of sixteen
+battleships on a tour around the globe. On his own authority, he ordered
+the ships to sail out of Hampton Roads and circle the earth by way of
+the Straits of Magellan, San Francisco, Australia, the Philippines,
+China, Japan, and the Suez Canal. This enterprise was not, as some
+critics claimed, a "mere boyish flourish." President Roosevelt knew how
+deep was the influence of sea power on the fate of nations. He was aware
+that no country could have a wide empire of trade and dominion without
+force adequate to sustain it. The voyage around the world therefore
+served a double purpose. It interested his own country in the naval
+program of the government, and it reminded other powers that the
+American giant, though quiet, was not sleeping in the midst of
+international rivalries.
+
+
+COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
+
+=A Constitutional Question Settled.=--In colonial administration, as in
+foreign policy, President Roosevelt advanced with firm step in a path
+already marked out. President McKinley had defined the principles that
+were to control the development of Porto Rico and the Philippines. The
+Republican party had announced a program of pacification, gradual
+self-government, and commercial improvement. The only remaining question
+of importance, to use the popular phrase,--"Does the Constitution follow
+the flag?"--had been answered by the Supreme Court of the United States.
+Although it was well known that the Constitution did not contemplate the
+government of dependencies, such as the Philippines and Porto Rico, the
+Court, by generous and ingenious interpretations, found a way for
+Congress to apply any reasonable rules required by the occasion.
+
+=Porto Rico.=--The government of Porto Rico was a relatively simple
+matter. It was a single island with a fairly homogeneous population
+apart from the Spanish upper class. For a time after military occupation
+in 1898, it was administered under military rule. This was succeeded by
+the establishment of civil government under the "organic act" passed by
+Congress in 1900. The law assured to the Porto Ricans American
+protection but withheld American citizenship--a boon finally granted in
+1917. It provided for a governor and six executive secretaries appointed
+by the President with the approval of the Senate; and for a legislature
+of two houses--one elected by popular native vote, and an upper chamber
+composed of the executive secretaries and five other persons appointed
+in the same manner. Thus the United States turned back to the provincial
+system maintained by England in Virginia or New York in old colonial
+days. The natives were given a voice in their government and the power
+of initiating laws; but the final word both in law-making and
+administration was vested in officers appointed in Washington. Such was
+the plan under which the affairs of Porto Rico were conducted by
+President Roosevelt. It lasted until the new organic act of 1917.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph from Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+A SUGAR MILL, PORTO RICO]
+
+=The Philippines.=--The administration of the Philippines presented far
+more difficult questions. The number of islands, the variety of
+languages and races, the differences in civilization all combined to
+challenge the skill of the government. Moreover, there was raging in
+1901 a stubborn revolt against American authority, which had to be
+faced. Following the lines laid down by President McKinley, the
+evolution of American policy fell into three stages. At first the
+islands were governed directly by the President under his supreme
+military power. In 1901 a civilian commission, headed by William Howard
+Taft, was selected by the President and charged with the government of
+the provinces in which order had been restored. Six years later, under
+the terms of an organic act, passed by Congress in 1902, the third stage
+was reached. The local government passed into the hands of a governor
+and commission, appointed by the President and Senate, and a
+legislature--one house elected by popular vote and an upper chamber
+composed of the commission. This scheme, like that obtaining in Porto
+Rico, remained intact until a Democratic Congress under President
+Wilson's leadership carried the colonial administration into its fourth
+phase by making both houses elective. Thus, by the steady pursuit of a
+liberal policy, self-government was extended to the dependencies; but it
+encouraged rather than extinguished the vigorous movement among the
+Philippine natives for independence.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+MR TAFT IN THE PHILIPPINES]
+
+=Cuban Relations.=--Within the sphere of colonial affairs, Cuba, though
+nominally independent, also presented problems to the government at
+Washington. In the fine enthusiasm that accompanied the declaration of
+war on Spain, Congress, unmindful of practical considerations,
+recognized the independence of Cuba and disclaimed "any disposition or
+intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said
+island except for the pacification thereof." In the settlement that
+followed the war, however, it was deemed undesirable to set the young
+republic adrift upon the stormy sea of international politics without a
+guiding hand. Before withdrawing American troops from the island,
+Congress, in March, 1901, enacted, and required Cuba to approve, a
+series of restrictions known as the Platt amendment, limiting her power
+to incur indebtedness, securing the right of the United States to
+intervene whenever necessary to protect life and property, and reserving
+to the United States coaling stations at certain points to be agreed
+upon. The Cubans made strong protests against what they deemed
+"infringements of their sovereignty"; but finally with good grace
+accepted their fate. Even when in 1906 President Roosevelt landed
+American troops in the island to quell a domestic dissension, they
+acquiesced in the action, evidently regarding it as a distinct warning
+that they should learn to manage their elections in an orderly manner.
+
+
+THE ROOSEVELT DOMESTIC POLICIES
+
+=Social Questions to the Front.=--From the day of his inauguration to
+the close of his service in 1909, President Roosevelt, in messages,
+speeches, and interviews, kept up a lively and interesting discussion of
+trusts, capital, labor, poverty, riches, lawbreaking, good citizenship,
+and kindred themes. Many a subject previously touched upon only by
+representatives of the minor and dissenting parties, he dignified by a
+careful examination. That he did this with any fixed design or policy in
+mind does not seem to be the case. He admitted himself that when he
+became President he did not have in hand any settled or far-reaching
+plan of social betterment. He did have, however, serious convictions on
+general principles. "I was bent upon making the government," he wrote,
+"the most efficient possible instrument in helping the people of the
+United States to better themselves in every way, politically, socially,
+and industrially. I believed with all my heart in real and
+thorough-going democracy and I wished to make the democracy industrial
+as well as political, although I had only partially formulated the
+method I believed we should follow." It is thus evident at least that he
+had departed a long way from the old idea of the government as nothing
+but a great policeman keeping order among the people in a struggle over
+the distribution of the nation's wealth and resources.
+
+=Roosevelt's View of the Constitution.=--Equally significant was
+Roosevelt's attitude toward the Constitution and the office of
+President. He utterly repudiated the narrow construction of our national
+charter. He held that the Constitution "should be treated as the
+greatest document ever devised by the wit of man to aid a people in
+exercising every power necessary for its own betterment, not as a
+strait-jacket cunningly fashioned to strangle growth." He viewed the
+presidency as he did the Constitution. Strict constructionists of the
+Jeffersonian school, of whom there were many on occasion even in the
+Republican party, had taken a view that the President could do nothing
+that he was not specifically authorized by the Constitution to do.
+Roosevelt took exactly the opposite position. It was his opinion that it
+was not only the President's right but his duty "to do anything that the
+needs of the nation demanded unless such action was forbidden by the
+Constitution or the laws." He went on to say that he acted "for the
+common well-being of all our people whenever and in whatever manner was
+necessary, unless prevented by direct constitutional or legislative
+prohibition."
+
+=The Trusts and Railways.=--To the trust question, Roosevelt devoted
+especial attention. This was unavoidable. By far the larger part of the
+business of the country was done by corporations as distinguished from
+partnerships and individual owners. The growth of these gigantic
+aggregations of capital had been the leading feature in American
+industrial development during the last two decades of the nineteenth
+century. In the conquest of business by trusts and "the resulting
+private fortunes of great magnitude," the Populists and the Democrats
+had seen a grievous danger to the republic. "Plutocracy has taken the
+place of democracy; the tariff breeds trusts; let us destroy therefore
+the tariff and the trusts"--such was the battle cry which had been taken
+up by Bryan and his followers.
+
+President Roosevelt countered vigorously. He rejected the idea that the
+trusts were the product of the tariff or of governmental action of any
+kind. He insisted that they were the outcome of "natural economic
+forces": (1) destructive competition among business men compelling them
+to avoid ruin by cooeperation in fixing prices; (2) the growth of markets
+on a national scale and even international scale calling for vast
+accumulations of capital to carry on such business; (3) the possibility
+of immense savings by the union of many plants under one management. In
+the corporation he saw a new stage in the development of American
+industry. Unregulated competition he regarded as "the source of evils
+which all men concede must be remedied if this civilization of ours is
+to survive." The notion, therefore, that these immense business concerns
+should be or could be broken up by a decree of law, Roosevelt considered
+absurd.
+
+At the same time he proposed that "evil trusts" should be prevented from
+"wrong-doing of any kind"; that is, punished for plain swindling, for
+making agreements to limit output, for refusing to sell to customers who
+dealt with rival firms, and for conspiracies with railways to ruin
+competitors by charging high freight rates and for similar abuses.
+Accordingly, he proposed, not the destruction of the trusts, but their
+regulation by the government. This, he contended, would preserve the
+advantages of business on a national scale while preventing the evils
+that accompanied it. The railway company he declared to be a public
+servant. "Its rates should be just to and open to all shippers alike."
+So he answered those who thought that trusts and railway combinations
+were private concerns to be managed solely by their owners without let
+or hindrance and also those who thought trusts and railway combinations
+could be abolished by tariff reduction or criminal prosecution.
+
+=The Labor Question.=--On the labor question, then pressing to the front
+in public interest, President Roosevelt took advanced ground for his
+time. He declared that the working-man, single-handed and empty-handed,
+threatened with starvation if unemployed, was no match for the employer
+who was able to bargain and wait. This led him, accordingly, to accept
+the principle of the trade union; namely, that only by collective
+bargaining can labor be put on a footing to measure its strength equally
+with capital. While he severely arraigned labor leaders who advocated
+violence and destructive doctrines, he held that "the organization of
+labor into trade unions and federations is necessary, is beneficent, and
+is one of the greatest possible agencies in the attainment of a true
+industrial, as well as a true political, democracy in the United
+States." The last resort of trade unions in labor disputes, the strike,
+he approved in case negotiations failed to secure "a fair deal."
+
+He thought, however, that labor organizations, even if wisely managed,
+could not solve all the pressing social questions of the time. The aid
+of the government at many points he believed to be necessary to
+eliminate undeserved poverty, industrial diseases, unemployment, and the
+unfortunate consequences of industrial accidents. In his first message
+of 1901, for instance, he urged that workers injured in industry should
+have certain and ample compensation. From time to time he advocated
+other legislation to obtain what he called "a larger measure of social
+and industrial justice."
+
+=Great Riches and Taxation.=--Even the challenge of the radicals, such
+as the Populists, who alleged that "the toil of millions is boldly
+stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a few"--challenges which his
+predecessors did not consider worthy of notice--President Roosevelt
+refused to let pass without an answer. In his first message he denied
+the truth of the common saying that the rich were growing richer and the
+poor were growing poorer. He asserted that, on the contrary, the average
+man, wage worker, farmer, and small business man, was better off than
+ever before in the history of our country. That there had been abuses in
+the accumulation of wealth he did not pretend to ignore, but he believed
+that even immense fortunes, on the whole, represented positive benefits
+conferred upon the country. Nevertheless he felt that grave dangers to
+the safety and the happiness of the people lurked in great inequalities
+of wealth. In 1906 he wrote that he wished it were in his power to
+prevent the heaping up of enormous fortunes. The next year, to the
+astonishment of many leaders in his own party, he boldly announced in a
+message to Congress that he approved both income and inheritance taxes,
+then generally viewed as Populist or Democratic measures. He even took
+the stand that such taxes should be laid in order to bring about a more
+equitable distribution of wealth and greater equality of opportunity
+among citizens.
+
+
+LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE ACTIVITIES
+
+=Economic Legislation.=--When President Roosevelt turned from the field
+of opinion he found himself in a different sphere. Many of his views
+were too advanced for the members of his party in Congress, and where
+results depended upon the making of new laws, his progress was slow.
+Nevertheless, in his administrations several measures were enacted that
+bore the stamp of his theories, though it could hardly be said that he
+dominated Congress to the same degree as did some other Presidents. The
+Hepburn Railway Act of 1906 enlarged the interstate commerce commission;
+it extended the commission's power over oil pipe lines, express
+companies, and other interstate carriers; it gave the commission the
+right to reduce rates found to be unreasonable and discriminatory; it
+forbade "midnight tariffs," that is, sudden changes in rates favoring
+certain shippers; and it prohibited common carriers from transporting
+goods owned by themselves, especially coal, except for their own proper
+use. Two important pure food and drug laws, enacted during the same
+year, were designed to protect the public against diseased meats and
+deleterious foods and drugs. A significant piece of labor legislation
+was an act of the same Congress making interstate railways liable to
+damages for injuries sustained by their employees. When this measure was
+declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court it was reenacted with the
+objectionable clauses removed. A second installment of labor legislation
+was offered in the law of 1908 limiting the hours of railway employees
+engaged as trainmen or telegraph operators.
+
+[Illustration: _Courtesy United States Reclamation Service._
+
+THE ROOSEVELT DAM, PHOENIX, ARIZONA]
+
+=Reclamation and Conservation.=--The open country--the deserts, the
+forests, waterways, and the public lands--interested President Roosevelt
+no less than railway and industrial questions. Indeed, in his first
+message to Congress he placed the conservation of natural resources
+among "the most vital internal problems" of the age, and forcibly
+emphasized an issue that had been discussed in a casual way since
+Cleveland's first administration. The suggestion evoked an immediate
+response in Congress. Under the leadership of Senator Newlands, of
+Nevada, the Reclamation Act of 1902 was passed, providing for the
+redemption of the desert areas of the West. The proceeds from the sale
+of public lands were dedicated to the construction of storage dams and
+sluiceways to hold water and divert it as needed to the thirsty sands.
+Furthermore it was stipulated that the rents paid by water users should
+go into a reclamation fund to continue the good work forever.
+Construction was started immediately under the terms of the law. Within
+seventeen years about 1,600,000 acres had been reclaimed and more than a
+million were actually irrigated. In the single year 1918, the crops of
+the irrigated districts were valued at approximately $100,000,000.
+
+In his first message, also, President Roosevelt urged the transfer of
+all control over national forests to trained men in the Bureau of
+Forestry--a recommendation carried out in 1907 when the Forestry Service
+was created. In every direction noteworthy advances were made in the
+administration of the national domain. The science of forestry was
+improved and knowledge of the subject spread among the people. Lands in
+the national forest available for agriculture were opened to settlers.
+Water power sites on the public domain were leased for a term of years
+to private companies instead of being sold outright. The area of the
+national forests was enlarged from 43 million acres to 194 million acres
+by presidential proclamation--more than 43 million acres being added in
+one year, 1907. The men who turned sheep and cattle to graze on the
+public lands were compelled to pay a fair rental, much to their
+dissatisfaction. Fire prevention work was undertaken in the forests on a
+large scale, reducing the appalling, annual destruction of timber.
+Millions of acres of coal land, such as the government had been
+carelessly selling to mining companies at low figures, were withdrawn
+from sale and held until Congress was prepared to enact laws for the
+disposition of them in the public interest. Prosecutions were
+instituted against men who had obtained public lands by fraud and vast
+tracts were recovered for the national domain. An agitation was begun
+which bore fruit under the administrations of Taft and Wilson in laws
+reserving to the federal government the ownership of coal, water power,
+phosphates, and other natural resources while authorizing corporations
+to develop them under leases for a period of years.
+
+=The Prosecution of the Trusts.=--As an executive, President Roosevelt
+was also a distinct "personality." His discrimination between "good" and
+"bad" trusts led him to prosecute some of them with vigor. On his
+initiative, the Northern Securities Company, formed to obtain control of
+certain great western railways, was dissolved by order of the Supreme
+Court. Proceedings were instituted against the American Tobacco Company
+and the Standard Oil Company as monopolies in violation of the Sherman
+Anti-Trust law. The Sugar Trust was found guilty of cheating the New
+York customs house and some of the minor officers were sent to prison.
+Frauds in the Post-office Department were uncovered and the offenders
+brought to book. In fact hardly a week passed without stirring news of
+"wrong doers" and "malefactors" haled into federal courts.
+
+=The Great Coal Strike.=--The Roosevelt theory that the President could
+do anything for public welfare not forbidden by the Constitution and the
+laws was put to a severe test in 1902. A strike of the anthracite coal
+miners, which started in the summer, ran late into the autumn.
+Industries were paralyzed for the want of coal; cities were threatened
+with the appalling menace of a winter without heat. Governors and mayors
+were powerless and appealed for aid. The mine owners rejected the
+demands of the men and refused to permit the arbitration of the points
+in dispute, although John Mitchell, the leader of the miners, repeatedly
+urged it. After observing closely the course affairs, President
+Roosevelt made up his mind that the situation was intolerable. He
+arranged to have the federal troops, if necessary, take possession of
+the mines and operate them until the strike could be settled. He then
+invited the contestants to the White House and by dint of hard labor
+induced them to accept, as a substitute or compromise, arbitration by a
+commission which he appointed. Thus, by stepping outside the
+Constitution and acting as the first citizen of the land, President
+Roosevelt averted a crisis of great magnitude.
+
+=The Election of 1904.=--The views and measures which he advocated with
+such vigor aroused deep hostility within as well as without his party.
+There were rumors of a Republican movement to defeat his nomination in
+1904 and it was said that the "financial and corporation interests" were
+in arms against him. A prominent Republican paper in New York City
+accused him of having "stolen Mr. Bryan's thunder," by harrying the
+trusts and favoring labor unions. When the Republican convention
+assembled in Chicago, however, the opposition disappeared and Roosevelt
+was nominated by acclamation.
+
+This was the signal for a change on the part of Democratic leaders. They
+denounced the President as erratic, dangerous, and radical and decided
+to assume the moderate role themselves. They put aside Mr. Bryan and
+selected as their candidate, Judge Alton B. Parker, of New York, a man
+who repudiated free silver and made a direct appeal for the conservative
+vote. The outcome of the reversal was astounding. Judge Parker's vote
+fell more than a million below that cast for Bryan in 1900; of the 476
+electoral votes he received only 140. Roosevelt, in addition to sweeping
+the Republican sections, even invaded Democratic territory, carrying the
+state of Missouri. Thus vindicated at the polls, he became more
+outspoken than ever. His leadership in the party was so widely
+recognized that he virtually selected his own successor.
+
+
+THE ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT TAFT
+
+=The Campaign of 1908.=--Long before the end of his elective term,
+President Roosevelt let it be known that he favored as his successor,
+William Howard Taft, of Ohio, his Secretary of War. To attain this end
+he used every shred of his powerful influence. When the Republican
+convention assembled, Mr. Taft easily won the nomination. Though the
+party platform was conservative in tone, he gave it a progressive tinge
+by expressing his personal belief in the popular election of United
+States Senators, an income tax, and other liberal measures. President
+Roosevelt announced his faith in the Republican candidate and appealed
+to the country for his election.
+
+The turn in Republican affairs now convinced Mr. Bryan that the signs
+were propitious for a third attempt to win the presidency. The disaster
+to Judge Parker had taught the party that victory did not lie in a
+conservative policy. With little difficulty, therefore, the veteran
+leader from Nebraska once more rallied the Democrats around his
+standard, won the nomination, and wrote a platform vigorously attacking
+the tariff, trusts, and monopolies. Supported by a loyal following, he
+entered the lists, only to meet another defeat. Though he polled almost
+a million and a half more votes than did Judge Parker in 1904, the palm
+went to Mr. Taft.
+
+=The Tariff Revision and Party Dissensions.=--At the very beginning of
+his term, President Taft had to face the tariff issue. He had met it in
+the campaign. Moved by the Democratic demand for a drastic reduction, he
+had expressed opinions which were thought to imply a "downward
+revision." The Democrats made much of the implication and the
+Republicans from the Middle West rejoiced in it. Pressure was coming
+from all sides. More than ten years had elapsed since the enactment of
+the Dingley bill and the position of many industries had been altered
+with the course of time. Evidently the day for revision--at best a
+thankless task--had arrived. Taft accepted the inevitable and called
+Congress in a special session. Until the midsummer of 1909, Republican
+Senators and Representatives wrangled over tariff schedules, the
+President making little effort to influence their decisions. When on
+August 5 the Payne-Aldrich bill became a law, a breach had been made in
+Republican ranks. Powerful Senators from the Middle West had spoken
+angrily against many of the high rates imposed by the bill. They had
+even broken with their party colleagues to vote against the entire
+scheme of tariff revision.
+
+=The Income Tax Amendment.=--The rift in party harmony was widened by
+another serious difference of opinion. During the debate on the tariff
+bill, there was a concerted movement to include in it an income tax
+provision--this in spite of the decision of the Supreme Court in 1895
+declaring it unconstitutional. Conservative men were alarmed by the
+evident willingness of some members to flout a solemn decree of that
+eminent tribunal. At the same time they saw a powerful combination of
+Republicans and Democrats determined upon shifting some of the burden of
+taxation to large incomes. In the press of circumstances, a compromise
+was reached. The income tax bill was dropped for the present; but
+Congress passed the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution, authorizing
+taxes upon incomes from whatever source they might be derived, without
+reference to any apportionment among the states on the basis of
+population. The states ratified the amendment and early in 1913 it was
+proclaimed.
+
+=President Taft's Policies.=--After the enactment of the tariff bill,
+Taft continued to push forward with his legislative program. He
+recommended, and Congress created, a special court of commerce with
+jurisdiction, among other things, over appeals from the interstate
+commerce commission, thus facilitating judicial review of the railway
+rates fixed and the orders issued by that body. This measure was quickly
+followed by an act establishing a system of postal savings banks in
+connection with the post office--a scheme which had long been opposed by
+private banks. Two years later, Congress defied the lobby of the express
+companies and supplemented the savings banks with a parcels post system,
+thus enabling the American postal service to catch up with that of other
+progressive nations. With a view to improving the business
+administration of the federal government, the President obtained from
+Congress a large appropriation for an economy and efficiency commission
+charged with the duty of inquiring into wasteful and obsolete methods
+and recommending improved devices and practices. The chief result of
+this investigation was a vigorous report in favor of a national budget
+system, which soon found public backing.
+
+President Taft negotiated with England and France general treaties
+providing for the arbitration of disputes which were "justiciable" in
+character even though they might involve questions of "vital interest
+and national honor." They were coldly received in the Senate and so
+amended that Taft abandoned them altogether. A tariff reciprocity
+agreement with Canada, however, he forced through Congress in the face
+of strong opposition from his own party. After making a serious breach
+in Republican ranks, he was chagrined to see the whole scheme come to
+naught by the overthrow of the Liberals in the Canadian elections of
+1911.
+
+=Prosecution of the Trusts.=--The party schism was even enlarged by what
+appeared to be the successful prosecution of several great combinations.
+In two important cases, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the
+Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company on the ground that
+they violated the Sherman Anti-Trust law. In taking this step Chief
+Justice White was at some pains to state that the law did not apply to
+combinations which did not "unduly" restrain trade. His remark,
+construed to mean that the Court would not interfere with corporations
+as such, became the subject of a popular outcry against the President
+and the judges.
+
+
+PROGRESSIVE INSURGENCY AND THE ELECTION OF 1912
+
+=Growing Dissensions.=--All in all, Taft's administration from the first
+day had been disturbed by party discord. High words had passed over the
+tariff bill and disgruntled members of Congress could not forget them.
+To differences over issues were added quarrels between youth and old
+age. In the House of Representatives there developed a group of young
+"insurgent" Republicans who resented the dominance of the Speaker,
+Joseph G. Cannon, and other members of the "old guard," as they named
+the men of long service and conservative minds. In 1910, the insurgents
+went so far as to join with the Democrats in a movement to break the
+Speaker's sway by ousting him from the rules committee and depriving him
+of the power to appoint its members. The storm was brewing. In the
+autumn of that year the Democrats won a clear majority in the House of
+Representatives and began an open battle with President Taft by
+demanding an immediate downward revision of the tariff.
+
+=The Rise of the Progressive Republicans.=--Preparatory to the campaign
+of 1912, the dissenters within the Republican party added the prefix
+"Progressive" to their old title and began to organize a movement to
+prevent the renomination of Mr. Taft. As early as January 21, 1911, they
+formed a Progressive Republican League at the home of Senator La
+Follette of Wisconsin and launched an attack on the Taft measures and
+policies. In October they indorsed Mr. La Follette as "the logical
+Republican candidate" and appealed to the party for support. The
+controversy over the tariff had grown into a formidable revolt against
+the occupant of the White House.
+
+=Roosevelt in the Field.=--After looking on for a while, ex-President
+Roosevelt took a hand in the fray. Soon after his return in 1910 from a
+hunting trip in Africa and a tour in Europe, he made a series of
+addresses in which he formulated a progressive program. In a speech in
+Kansas, he favored regulation of the trusts, a graduated income tax
+bearing heavily on great fortunes, tariff revision schedule by schedule,
+conservation of natural resources, labor legislation, the direct
+primary, and the recall of elective officials. In an address before the
+Ohio state constitutional convention in February, 1912, he indorsed the
+initiative and referendum and announced a doctrine known as the "recall
+of judicial decisions." This was a new and radical note in American
+politics. An ex-President of the United States proposed that the people
+at the polls should have the right to reverse the decision of a judge
+who set aside any act of a state legislature passed in the interests of
+social welfare. The Progressive Republicans, impressed by these
+addresses, turned from La Follette to Roosevelt and on February 24,
+induced him to come out openly as a candidate against Taft for the
+Republican nomination.
+
+=The Split in the Republican Party.=--The country then witnessed the
+strange spectacle of two men who had once been close companions engaged
+in a bitter rivalry to secure a majority of the delegates to the
+Republican convention to be held at Chicago. When the convention
+assembled, about one-fourth of the seats were contested, the delegates
+for both candidates loudly proclaiming the regularity of their election.
+In deciding between the contestants the national committee, after the
+usual hearings, settled the disputes in such a way that Taft received a
+safe majority. After a week of negotiation, Roosevelt and his followers
+left the Republican party. Most of his supporters withdrew from the
+convention and the few who remained behind refused to answer the roll
+call. Undisturbed by this formidable bolt, the regular Republicans went
+on with their work. They renominated Mr. Taft and put forth a platform
+roundly condemning such Progressive doctrines as the recall of judges.
+
+=The Formation of the Progressive Party.=--The action of the Republicans
+in seating the Taft delegates was vigorously denounced by Roosevelt. He
+declared that the convention had no claim to represent the voters of the
+Republican party; that any candidate named by it would be "the
+beneficiary of a successful fraud"; and that it would be deeply
+discreditable to any man to accept the convention's approval under such
+circumstances. The bitterness of his followers was extreme. On July 8, a
+call went forth for a "Progressive" convention to be held in Chicago on
+August 5. The assembly which duly met on that day was a unique political
+conference. Prominence was given to women delegates, and "politicians"
+were notably absent. Roosevelt himself, who was cheered as a conquering
+hero, made an impassioned speech setting forth his "confession of
+faith." He was nominated by acclamation; Governor Hiram Johnson of
+California was selected as his companion candidate for Vice President.
+The platform endorsed such political reforms as woman suffrage, direct
+primaries, the initiative, referendum, and recall, popular election of
+United States Senators, and the short ballot. It favored a program of
+social legislation, including the prohibition of child labor and minimum
+wages for women. It approved the regulation, rather than the
+dissolution, of the trusts. Like apostles in a new and lofty cause, the
+Progressives entered a vigorous campaign for the election of their
+distinguished leader.
+
+=Woodrow Wilson and the Election of 1912.=--With the Republicans
+divided, victory loomed up before the Democrats. Naturally, a terrific
+contest over the nomination occurred at their convention in Baltimore.
+Champ Clark, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and Governor
+Woodrow Wilson, of New Jersey, were the chief contestants. After tossing
+to and fro for seven long, hot days, and taking forty-six ballots, the
+delegates, powerfully influenced by Mr. Bryan, finally decided in favor
+of the governor. As a professor, a writer on historical and political
+subjects, and the president of Princeton University, Mr. Wilson had
+become widely known in public life. As the governor of New Jersey he had
+attracted the support of the progressives in both parties. With grim
+determination he had "waged war on the bosses," and pushed through the
+legislature measures establishing direct primaries, regulating public
+utilities, and creating a system of workmen's compensation in
+industries. During the presidential campaign that followed Governor
+Wilson toured the country and aroused great enthusiasm by a series of
+addresses later published under the title of _The New Freedom_. He
+declared that "the government of the United States is at present the
+foster child of the special interests." He proposed to free the country
+by breaking the dominance of "the big bankers, the big manufacturers,
+the big masters of commerce, the heads of railroad corporations and of
+steamship corporations."
+
+In the election Governor Wilson easily secured a majority of the
+electoral votes, and his party, while retaining possession of the House
+of Representatives, captured the Senate as well. The popular verdict,
+however, indicated a state of confusion in the country. The combined
+Progressive and Republican vote exceeded that of the Democrats by
+1,300,000. The Socialists, with Eugene V. Debs as their candidate again,
+polled about 900,000 votes, more than double the number received four
+years before. Thus, as the result of an extraordinary upheaval the
+Republicans, after holding the office of President for sixteen years,
+passed out of power, and the government of the country was intrusted to
+the Democrats under the leadership of a man destined to be one of the
+outstanding figures of the modern age, Woodrow Wilson.
+
+
+=General References=
+
+J.B. Bishop, _Theodore Roosevelt and His Time_ (2 vols.).
+
+Theodore Roosevelt, _Autobiography_; _New Nationalism_; _Progressive
+Principles_.
+
+W.H. Taft, _Popular Government_.
+
+Walter Weyl, _The New Democracy_.
+
+H. Croly, _The Promise of American Life_.
+
+J.B. Bishop, _The Panama Gateway_.
+
+J.B. Scott, _The Hague Peace Conferences_.
+
+W.B. Munro (ed.), _Initiative, Referendum, and Recall_.
+
+C.R. Van Hise, _The Conservation of Natural Resources_.
+
+Gifford Pinchot, _The Fight for Conservation_.
+
+W.F. Willoughby, _Territories and Dependencies of the United States_
+(1905).
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=Roosevelt and "Big Business."=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own
+Time_, pp. 281-289; F.A. Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation
+Series), pp. 40-75; Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp.
+293-307.
+
+=Our Insular Possessions.=--Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.
+896-904.
+
+=Latin-American Relations.=--Haworth, pp. 294-299; Ogg, pp. 254-257.
+
+=The Panama Canal.=--Haworth, pp. 300-309; Ogg, pp. 266-277; Paxson, pp.
+286-292; Elson, pp. 906-911.
+
+=Conservation.=--Haworth, pp. 331-334; Ogg, pp. 96-115; Beard, _American
+Government and Politics_ (3d ed.), pp. 401-416.
+
+=Republican Dissensions under Taft's Administration.=--Haworth, pp.
+351-360; Ogg, pp. 167-186; Paxson, pp. 324-342; Elson, pp. 916-924.
+
+=The Campaign of 1912.=--Haworth, pp. 360-379; Ogg, pp. 187-208.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Compare the early career of Roosevelt with that of some other
+President.
+
+2. Name the chief foreign and domestic questions of the Roosevelt-Taft
+administrations.
+
+3. What international complications were involved in the Panama Canal
+problem?
+
+4. Review the Monroe Doctrine. Discuss Roosevelt's applications of it.
+
+5. What is the strategic importance of the Caribbean to the United
+States?
+
+6. What is meant by the sea power? Trace the voyage of the fleet around
+the world and mention the significant imperial and commercial points
+touched.
+
+7. What is meant by the question: "Does the Constitution follow the
+flag?"
+
+8. Trace the history of self-government in Porto Rico. In the
+Philippines.
+
+9. What is Cuba's relation to the United States?
+
+10. What was Roosevelt's theory of our Constitution?
+
+11. Give Roosevelt's views on trusts, labor, taxation.
+
+12. Outline the domestic phases of Roosevelt's administrations.
+
+13. Account for the dissensions under Taft.
+
+14. Trace the rise of the Progressive movement.
+
+15. What was Roosevelt's progressive program?
+
+16. Review Wilson's early career and explain the underlying theory of
+_The New Freedom_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE SPIRIT OF REFORM IN AMERICA
+
+
+AN AGE OF CRITICISM
+
+=Attacks on Abuses in American Life.=--The crisis precipitated by the
+Progressive uprising was not a sudden and unexpected one. It had been
+long in preparation. The revolt against corruption in politics which
+produced the Liberal Republican outbreak in the seventies and the
+Mugwump movement of the eighties was followed by continuous criticism of
+American political and economic development. From 1880 until his death
+in 1892, George William Curtis, as president of the Civil Service Reform
+Association, kept up a running fire upon the abuses of the spoils
+system. James Bryce, an observant English scholar and man of affairs, in
+his great work, _The American Commonwealth_, published in 1888, by
+picturing fearlessly the political rings and machines which dominated
+the cities, gave the whole country a fresh shock. Six years later Henry
+D. Lloyd, in a powerful book entitled _Wealth against Commonwealth_,
+attacked in scathing language certain trusts which had destroyed their
+rivals and bribed public officials. In 1903 Miss Ida Tarbell, an author
+of established reputation in the historical field, gave to the public an
+account of the Standard Oil Company, revealing the ruthless methods of
+that corporation in crushing competition. About the same time Lincoln
+Steffens exposed the sordid character of politics in several
+municipalities in a series of articles bearing the painful heading: _The
+Shame of the Cities_. The critical spirit appeared in almost every form;
+in weekly and monthly magazines, in essays and pamphlets, in editorials
+and news stories, in novels like Churchill's _Coniston_ and Sinclair's
+_The Jungle_. It became so savage and so wanton that the opening years
+of the twentieth century were well named "the age of the muckrakers."
+
+=The Subjects of the Criticism.=--In this outburst of invective, nothing
+was spared. It was charged that each of the political parties had fallen
+into the hands of professional politicians who devoted their time to
+managing conventions, making platforms, nominating candidates, and
+dictating to officials; in return for their "services" they sold offices
+and privileges. It was alleged that mayors and councils had bargained
+away for private benefit street railway and other franchises. It was
+asserted that many powerful labor unions were dominated by men who
+blackmailed employers. Some critics specialized in descriptions of the
+poverty, slums, and misery of great cities. Others took up "frenzied
+finance" and accused financiers of selling worthless stocks and bonds to
+an innocent public. Still others professed to see in the accumulations
+of millionaires the downfall of our republic.
+
+=The Attack on "Invisible Government."=--Some even maintained that the
+control of public affairs had passed from the people to a sinister
+minority called "the invisible government." So eminent and conservative
+a statesman as the Hon. Elihu Root lent the weight of his great name to
+such an imputation. Speaking of his native state, New York, he said:
+"What is the government of this state? What has it been during the forty
+years of my acquaintance with it? The government of the Constitution?
+Oh, no; not half the time or half way.... From the days of Fenton and
+Conkling and Arthur and Cornell and Platt, from the days of David B.
+Hill down to the present time, the government of the state has presented
+two different lines of activity: one, of the constitutional and
+statutory officers of the state and the other of the party leaders; they
+call them party bosses. They call the system--I don't coin the
+phrase--the system they call 'invisible government.' For I don't know
+how many years Mr. Conkling was the supreme ruler in this state. The
+governor did not count, the legislature did not count, comptrollers and
+secretaries of state and what not did not count. It was what Mr.
+Conkling said, and in a great outburst of public rage he was pulled
+down. Then Mr. Platt ruled the state; for nigh upon twenty years he
+ruled it. It was not the governor; it was not the legislature; it was
+Mr. Platt. And the capital was not here [in Albany]; it was at 49
+Broadway; Mr. Platt and his lieutenants. It makes no difference what
+name you give, whether you call it Fenton or Conkling or Cornell or
+Arthur or Platt or by the names of men now living. The ruler of the
+state during the greater part of the forty years of my acquaintance with
+the state government has not been any man authorized by the constitution
+or by law.... The party leader is elected by no one, accountable to no
+one, bound by no oath of office, removable by no one."
+
+=The Nation Aroused.=--With the spirit of criticism came also the spirit
+of reform. The charges were usually exaggerated; often wholly false; but
+there was enough truth in them to warrant renewed vigilance on the part
+of American democracy. President Roosevelt doubtless summed up the
+sentiment of the great majority of citizens when he demanded the
+punishment of wrong-doers in 1907, saying: "It makes not a particle of
+difference whether these crimes are committed by a capitalist or by a
+laborer, by a leading banker or manufacturer or railroad man or by a
+leading representative of a labor union. Swindling in stocks, corrupting
+legislatures, making fortunes by the inflation of securities, by
+wrecking railroads, by destroying competitors through rebates--these
+forms of wrong-doing in the capitalist are far more infamous than any
+ordinary form of embezzlement or forgery." The time had come, he added,
+to stop "muckraking" and proceed to the constructive work of removing
+the abuses that had grown up.
+
+
+POLITICAL REFORMS
+
+=The Public Service.=--It was a wise comprehension of the needs of
+American democracy that led the friends of reform to launch and to
+sustain for more than half a century a movement to improve the public
+service. On the one side they struck at the spoils system; at the right
+of the politicians to use public offices as mere rewards for partisan
+work. The federal civil service act of 1883 opened the way to reform by
+establishing five vital principles in law: (1) admission to office, not
+on the recommendation of party workers, but on the basis of competitive
+examinations; (2) promotion for meritorious service of the government
+rather than of parties; (3) no assessment of office holders for campaign
+funds; (4) permanent tenure during good behavior; and (5) no dismissals
+for political reasons. The act itself at first applied to only 14,000
+federal offices, but under the constant pressure from the reformers it
+was extended until in 1916 it covered nearly 300,000 employees out of an
+executive force of approximately 414,000. While gaining steadily at
+Washington, civil service reformers carried their agitation into the
+states and cities. By 1920 they were able to report ten states with
+civil service commissions and the merit system well intrenched in more
+than three hundred municipalities.
+
+In excluding spoilsmen from public office, the reformers were, in a
+sense, engaged in a negative work: that of "keeping the rascals out."
+But there was a second and larger phase to their movement, one
+constructive in character: that of getting skilled, loyal, and efficient
+servants into the places of responsibility. Everywhere on land and sea,
+in town and country, new burdens were laid upon public officers. They
+were called upon to supervise the ships sailing to and from our ports;
+to inspect the water and milk supplies of our cities; to construct and
+operate great public works, such as the Panama and Erie canals; to
+regulate the complicated rates of railway companies; to safeguard health
+and safety in a thousand ways; to climb the mountains to fight forest
+fires; and to descend into the deeps of the earth to combat the deadly
+coal gases that assail the miners. In a word, those who labored to
+master the secrets and the powers of nature were summoned to the aid of
+the government: chemists, engineers, architects, nurses, surgeons,
+foresters--the skilled in all the sciences, arts, and crafts.
+
+Keeping rascals out was no task at all compared with the problem of
+finding competent people for all the technical offices. "Now," said the
+reformers, "we must make attractive careers in the government work for
+the best American talent; we must train those applying for admission and
+increase the skill of those already in positions of trust; we must see
+to it that those entering at the bottom have a chance to rise to the
+top; in short, we must work for a government as skilled and efficient as
+it is strong, one commanding all the wisdom and talent of America that
+public welfare requires."
+
+=The Australian Ballot.=--A second line of attack on the political
+machines was made in connection with the ballot. In the early days
+elections were frequently held in the open air and the poll was taken by
+a show of hands or by the enrollment of the voters under names of their
+favorite candidates. When this ancient practice was abandoned in favor
+of the printed ballot, there was still no secrecy about elections. Each
+party prepared its own ballot, often of a distinctive color, containing
+the names of its candidates. On election day, these papers were handed
+out to the voters by party workers. Any one could tell from the color of
+the ballot dropped into the box, or from some mark on the outside of the
+folded ballot, just how each man voted. Those who bought votes were sure
+that their purchases were "delivered." Those who intimidated voters
+could know when their intimidation was effective. In this way the party
+ballot strengthened the party machine.
+
+As a remedy for such abuses, reformers, learning from the experience of
+Australia, urged the adoption of the "Australian ballot." That ballot,
+though it appeared in many forms, had certain constant features. It was
+official, that is, furnished by the government, not by party workers; it
+contained the names of all candidates of all parties; it was given out
+only in the polling places; and it was marked in secret. The first state
+to introduce it was Massachusetts. The year was 1888. Before the end of
+the century it had been adopted by nearly all the states in the union.
+The salutary effect of the reform in reducing the amount of cheating
+and bribery in elections was beyond all question.
+
+=The Direct Primary.=--In connection with the uprising against machine
+politics, came a call for the abolition of the old method of nominating
+candidates by conventions. These time-honored party assemblies, which
+had come down from the days of Andrew Jackson, were, it was said, merely
+conclaves of party workers, sustained by the spoils system, and
+dominated by an inner circle of bosses. The remedy offered in this case
+was again "more democracy," namely, the abolition of the party
+convention and the adoption of the direct primary. Candidates were no
+longer to be chosen by secret conferences. Any member of a party was to
+be allowed to run for any office, to present his name to his party by
+securing signatures to a petition, and to submit his candidacy to his
+fellow partisans at a direct primary--an election within the party. In
+this movement Governor La Follette of Wisconsin took the lead and his
+state was the first in the union to adopt the direct primary for
+state-wide purposes. The idea spread, rapidly in the West, more slowly
+in the East. The public, already angered against "the bosses," grasped
+eagerly at it. Governor Hughes in New York pressed it upon the unwilling
+legislature. State after state accepted it until by 1918 Rhode Island,
+Delaware, Connecticut, and New Mexico were the only states that had not
+bowed to the storm. Still the results were disappointing and at that
+very time the pendulum was beginning to swing backward.
+
+=Popular Election of Federal Senators.=--While the movement for direct
+primaries was still advancing everywhere, a demand for the popular
+election of Senators, usually associated with it, swept forward to
+victory. Under the original Constitution, it had been expressly provided
+that Senators should be chosen by the legislatures of the states. In
+practice this rule transferred the selection of Senators to secret
+caucuses of party members in the state legislatures. In connection with
+these caucuses there had been many scandals, some direct proofs of
+brazen bribery and corruption, and dark hints besides. The Senate was
+called by its detractors "a millionaires' club" and it was looked upon
+as the "citadel of conservatism." The prescription in this case was
+likewise "more democracy"--direct election of Senators by popular vote.
+
+This reform was not a new idea. It had been proposed in Congress as
+early as 1826. President Johnson, an ardent advocate, made it the
+subject of a special message in 1868 Not long afterward it appeared in
+Congress. At last in 1893, the year after the great Populist upheaval,
+the House of Representatives by the requisite two-thirds vote
+incorporated it in an amendment to the federal Constitution. Again and
+again it passed the House; but the Senate itself was obdurate. Able
+Senators leveled their batteries against it. Mr. Hoar of Massachusetts
+declared that it would transfer the seat of power to the "great cities
+and masses of population"; that it would "overthrow the whole scheme of
+the Senate and in the end the whole scheme of the national Constitution
+as designed and established by the framers of the Constitution and the
+people who adopted it."
+
+Failing in the Senate, advocates of popular election made a rear assault
+through the states. They induced state legislatures to enact laws
+requiring the nomination of candidates for the Senate by the direct
+primary, and then they bound the legislatures to abide by the popular
+choice. Nevada took the lead in 1899. Shortly afterward Oregon, by the
+use of the initiative and referendum, practically bound legislators to
+accept the popular nominee and the country witnessed the spectacle of a
+Republican legislature "electing" a Democrat to represent the state in
+the Senate at Washington. By 1910 three-fourths of the states had
+applied the direct primary in some form to the choice of Senators. Men
+selected by that method began to pour in upon the floors of Congress;
+finally in 1912 the two-thirds majority was secured for an amendment to
+the federal Constitution providing for the popular election of Senators.
+It was quickly ratified by the states. The following year it was
+proclaimed in effect.
+
+=The Initiative and Referendum.=--As a corrective for the evils which
+had grown up in state legislatures there arose a demand for the
+introduction of a Swiss device known as the initiative and referendum.
+The initiative permits any one to draw up a proposed bill; and, on
+securing a certain number of signatures among the voters, to require the
+submission of the measure to the people at an election. If the bill thus
+initiated receives a sufficient majority, it becomes a law. The
+referendum allows citizens who disapprove any act passed by the
+legislature to get up a petition against it and thus bring about a
+reference of the measure to the voters at the polls for approval or
+rejection. These two practices constitute a form of "direct government."
+
+These devices were prescribed "to restore the government to the people."
+The Populists favored them in their platform of 1896. Mr. Bryan, two
+years later, made them a part of his program, and in the same year South
+Dakota adopted them. In 1902 Oregon, after a strenuous campaign, added a
+direct legislation amendment to the state constitution. Within ten years
+all the Southwestern, Mountain, and Pacific states, except Texas and
+Wyoming, had followed this example. To the east of the Mississippi,
+however, direct legislation met a chilly reception. By 1920 only five
+states in this section had accepted it: Maine, Massachusetts, Ohio,
+Michigan, and Maryland, the last approving the referendum only.
+
+=The Recall.=--Executive officers and judges, as well as legislatures,
+had come in for their share of criticism, and it was proposed that they
+should likewise be subjected to a closer scrutiny by the public. For
+this purpose there was advanced a scheme known as the recall--which
+permitted a certain percentage of the voters to compel any officer, at
+any time during his term, to go before the people at a new election.
+This feature of direct government, tried out first in the city of Los
+Angeles, was extended to state-wide uses in Oregon in 1908. It failed,
+however, to capture popular imagination to the same degree as the
+initiative and referendum. At the end of ten years' agitation, only ten
+states, mainly in the West, had adopted it for general purposes, and
+four of them did not apply it to the judges of the courts. Still it was
+extensively acclaimed in cities and incorporated into hundreds of
+municipal laws and charters.
+
+As a general proposition, direct government in all its forms was
+bitterly opposed by men of a conservative cast of mind. It was denounced
+by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge as "nothing less than a complete revolution
+in the fabric of our government and in the fundamental principles upon
+which that government rests." In his opinion, it promised to break down
+the representative principle and "undermine and overthrow the bulwarks
+of ordered liberty and individual freedom." Mr. Taft shared Mr. Lodge's
+views and spoke of direct government with scorn. "Votes," he exclaimed,
+"are not bread ... referendums do not pay rent or furnish houses,
+recalls do not furnish clothes, initiatives do not supply employment or
+relieve inequalities of condition or of opportunity."
+
+=Commission Government for Cities.=--In the restless searching out of
+evils, the management of cities early came under critical scrutiny. City
+government, Mr. Bryce had remarked, was the one conspicuous failure in
+America. This sharp thrust, though resented by some, was accepted as a
+warning by others. Many prescriptions were offered by doctors of the
+body politic. Chief among them was the idea of simplifying the city
+government so that the light of public scrutiny could shine through it.
+"Let us elect only a few men and make them clearly responsible for the
+city government!" was the new cry in municipal reform. So, many city
+councils were reduced in size; one of the two houses, which several
+cities had adopted in imitation of the federal government, was
+abolished; and in order that the mayor could be held to account, he was
+given the power to appoint all the chief officials. This made the mayor,
+in some cases, the only elective city official and gave the voters a
+"short ballot" containing only a few names--an idea which some proposed
+to apply also to the state government.
+
+A further step in the concentration of authority was taken in Galveston,
+Texas, where the people, looking upon the ruin of their city wrought by
+the devastating storm of 1901, and confronted by the difficult problems
+of reconstruction, felt the necessity for a more businesslike management
+of city affairs and instituted a new form of local administration. They
+abolished the old scheme of mayor and council and vested all power in
+five commissioners, one of whom, without any special prerogatives, was
+assigned to the office of "mayor president." In 1908, the commission
+form of government, as it was soon characterized, was adopted by Des
+Moines, Iowa. The attention of all municipal reformers was drawn to it
+and it was hailed as the guarantee of a better day. By 1920, more than
+four hundred cities, including Memphis, Spokane, Birmingham, Newark, and
+Buffalo, had adopted it. Still the larger cities like New York and
+Chicago kept their boards of aldermen.
+
+=The City Manager Plan.=--A few years' experience with commission
+government revealed certain patent defects. The division of the work
+among five men was frequently found to introduce dissensions and
+irresponsibility. Commissioners were often lacking in the technical
+ability required to manage such difficult matters as fire and police
+protection, public health, public works, and public utilities. Some one
+then proposed to carry over into city government an idea from the
+business world. In that sphere the stockholders of each corporation
+elect the directors and the directors, in turn, choose a business
+manager to conduct the affairs of the company. It was suggested that the
+city commissioners, instead of attempting to supervise the details of
+the city administration, should select a manager to do this. The scheme
+was put into effect in Sumter, South Carolina, in 1912. Like the
+commission plan, it became popular. Within eight years more than one
+hundred and fifty towns and cities had adopted it. Among the larger
+municipalities were Dayton, Springfield (Ohio), Akron, Kalamazoo, and
+Phoenix. It promised to create a new public service profession, that of
+city manager.
+
+
+MEASURES OF ECONOMIC REFORM
+
+=The Spirit of American Reform.=--The purification of the ballot, the
+restriction of the spoils system, the enlargement of direct popular
+control over the organs of government were not the sole answers made by
+the reformers to the critics of American institutions. Nor were they the
+most important. In fact, they were regarded not as ends in themselves,
+but as means to serve a wider purpose. That purpose was the promotion of
+the "general welfare." The concrete objects covered by that broad term
+were many and varied; but they included the prevention of extortion by
+railway and other corporations, the protection of public health, the
+extension of education, the improvement of living conditions in the
+cities, the elimination of undeserved poverty, the removal of gross
+inequalities in wealth, and more equality of opportunity.
+
+All these things involved the use of the powers of government. Although
+a few clung to the ancient doctrine that the government should not
+interfere with private business at all, the American people at large
+rejected that theory as vigorously as they rejected the doctrines of an
+extreme socialism which exalts the state above the individual. Leaders
+representing every shade of opinion proclaimed the government an
+instrument of common welfare to be used in the public interest. "We must
+abandon definitely," said Roosevelt, "the _laissez-faire_ theory of
+political economy and fearlessly champion a system of increased
+governmental control, paying no attention to the cries of worthy people
+who denounce this as socialistic." This view was shared by Mr. Taft, who
+observed: "Undoubtedly the government can wisely do much more ... to
+relieve the oppressed, to create greater equality of opportunity, to
+make reasonable terms for labor in employment, and to furnish vocational
+education." He was quick to add his caution that "there is a line beyond
+which the government cannot go with any good practical results in
+seeking to make men and society better."
+
+=The Regulation of Railways.=--The first attempts to use the government
+in a large way to control private enterprise in the public interest were
+made by the Northwestern states in the decade between 1870 and 1880.
+Charges were advanced by the farmers, particularly those organized into
+Granges, that the railways extorted the highest possible rates for
+freight and passengers, that favoritism was shown to large shippers,
+that fraudulent stocks and bonds were sold to the innocent public. It
+was claimed that railways were not like other enterprises, but were
+"quasi-public" concerns, like the roads and ferries, and thus subject to
+government control. Accordingly laws were enacted bringing the railroads
+under state supervision. In some cases the state legislature fixed the
+maximum rates to be charged by common carriers, and in other cases
+commissions were created with the power to establish the rates after an
+investigation. This legislation was at first denounced in the East as
+nothing less than the "confiscation" of the railways in the interest of
+the farmers. Attempts to have the Supreme Court of the United States
+declare it unconstitutional were made without avail; still a principle
+was finally laid down to the effect that in fixing rates state
+legislatures and commissions must permit railway companies to earn a
+"fair" return on the capital invested.
+
+In a few years the Granger spirit appeared in Congress. An investigation
+revealed a long list of abuses committed by the railways against
+shippers and travelers. The result was the interstate commerce act of
+1887, which created the Interstate Commerce Commission, forbade
+discriminations in rates, and prohibited other objectionable practices
+on the part of railways. This measure was loosely enforced and the
+abuses against which it was directed continued almost unabated. A demand
+for stricter control grew louder and louder. Congress was forced to
+heed. In 1903 it enacted the Elkins law, forbidding railways to charge
+rates other than those published, and laid penalties upon the officers
+and agents of companies, who granted secret favors to shippers, and upon
+shippers who accepted them. Three years later a still more drastic step
+was taken by the passage of the Hepburn act. The Interstate Commerce
+Commission was authorized, upon complaint of some party aggrieved, and
+after a public hearing, to determine whether just and reasonable rates
+had been charged by the companies. In effect, the right to fix freight
+and passenger rates was taken out of the hands of the owners of the
+railways engaged in interstate commerce and vested in the hands of the
+Interstate Commerce Commission. Thus private property to the value of
+$20,000,000,000 or more was declared to be a matter of public concern
+and subject to government regulation in the common interest.
+
+=Municipal Utilities.=--Similar problems arose in connection with the
+street railways, electric light plants, and other utilities in the great
+cities. In the beginning the right to construct such undertakings was
+freely, and often corruptly, granted to private companies by city
+councils. Distressing abuses arose in connection with such practices.
+Many grants or franchises were made perpetual, or perhaps for a term of
+999 years. The rates charged and services rendered were left largely to
+the will of the companies holding the franchises. Mergers or unions of
+companies were common and the public was deluged with stocks and bonds
+of doubtful value; bankruptcies were frequent. The connection between
+the utility companies and the politicians was, to say the least, not
+always in the public interest.
+
+American ingenuity was quick to devise methods for eliminating such
+evils. Three lines of progress were laid out by the reformers. One group
+proposed that such utilities should be subject to municipal or state
+regulation, that the formation of utility companies should be under
+public control, and that the issue of stocks and bonds must be approved
+by public authority. In some cases state, and in other cases municipal,
+commissions were created to exercise this great power over "quasi-public
+corporations." Wisconsin, by laws enacted in 1907, put all heat, light,
+water works, telephone, and street railway companies under the
+supervision of a single railway commission. Other states followed this
+example rapidly. By 1920 the principle of public control over municipal
+utilities was accepted in nearly every section of the union.
+
+A second line of reform appeared in the "model franchise" for utility
+corporations. An illustration of this tendency was afforded by the
+Chicago street railway settlement of 1906. The total capital of the
+company was fixed at a definite sum, its earnings were agreed upon, and
+the city was given the right to buy and operate the system if it desired
+to do so. In many states, about the same time, it was provided that no
+franchises to utility companies could run more than twenty-five years.
+
+A third group of reformers were satisfied with nothing short of
+municipal ownership. They proposed to drive private companies entirely
+out of the field and vest the ownership and management of municipal
+plants in the city itself. This idea was extensively applied to electric
+light and water works plants, but to street railways in only a few
+cities, including San Francisco and Seattle. In New York the subways are
+owned by the city but leased for operation.
+
+=Tenement House Control.=--Among the other pressing problems of the
+cities was the overcrowding in houses unfit for habitation. An inquiry
+in New York City made under the authority of the state in 1902 revealed
+poverty, misery, slums, dirt, and disease almost beyond imagination. The
+immediate answer was the enactment of a tenement house law prescribing
+in great detail the size of the rooms, the air space, the light and the
+sanitary arrangement for all new buildings. An immense improvement
+followed and the idea was quickly taken up in other states having large
+industrial centers. In 1920 New York made a further invasion of the
+rights of landlords by assuring to the public "reasonable rents" for
+flats and apartments.
+
+=Workmen's Compensation.=--No small part of the poverty in cities was
+due to the injury of wage-earners while at their trade. Every year the
+number of men and women killed or wounded in industry mounted higher.
+Under the old law, the workman or his family had to bear the loss unless
+the employer had been guilty of some extraordinary negligence. Even in
+that case an expensive lawsuit was usually necessary to recover
+"damages." In short, although employers insured their buildings and
+machinery against necessary risks from fire and storm, they allowed
+their employees to assume the heavy losses due to accidents. The
+injustice of this, though apparent enough now, was once not generally
+recognized. It was said to be unfair to make the employer pay for
+injuries for which he was not personally responsible; but the argument
+was overborne.
+
+[Illustration: AN EAST SIDE STREET IN NEW YORK]
+
+About 1910 there set in a decided movement in the direction of lifting
+the burden of accidents from the unfortunate victims. In the first
+place, laws were enacted requiring employers to pay damages in certain
+amounts according to the nature of the case, no matter how the accident
+occurred, as long as the injured person was not guilty of willful
+negligence. By 1914 more than one-half the states had such laws. In the
+second place, there developed schemes of industrial insurance in the
+form of automatic grants made by state commissions to persons injured in
+industries, the funds to be provided by the employers or the state or by
+both. By 1917 thirty-six states had legislation of this type.
+
+=Minimum Wages and Mothers' Pensions.=--Another source of poverty,
+especially among women and children, was found to be the low wages paid
+for their labor. Report after report showed this. In 1912 Massachusetts
+took a significant step in the direction of declaring the minimum wages
+which might be paid to women and children. Oregon, the following year,
+created a commission with power to prescribe minimum wages in certain
+industries, based on the cost of living, and to enforce the rates fixed.
+Within a short time one-third of the states had legislation of this
+character. To cut away some of the evils of poverty and enable widows to
+keep their homes intact and bring up their children, a device known as
+mothers' pensions became popular during the second decade of the
+twentieth century. At the opening of 1913 two states, Colorado and
+Illinois, had laws authorizing the payment from public funds of definite
+sums to widows with children. Within four years, thirty-five states had
+similar legislation.
+
+=Taxation and Great Fortunes.=--As a part of the campaign waged against
+poverty by reformers there came a demand for heavy taxes upon great
+fortunes, particularly taxes upon inheritances or estates passing to
+heirs on the decease of the owners. Roosevelt was an ardent champion of
+this type of taxation and dwelt upon it at length in his message to
+Congress in 1907. "Such a tax," he said, "would help to preserve a
+measurable equality of opportunity for the people of the generations
+growing to manhood.... Our aim is to recognize what Lincoln pointed out:
+the fact that there are some respects in which men are obviously not
+equal; but also to insist that there should be equality of self-respect
+and of mutual respect, an equality of rights before the law, and at
+least an approximate equality in the conditions under which each man
+obtains the chance to show the stuff that is in him when compared with
+his fellows."
+
+The spirit of the new age was, therefore, one of reform, not of
+revolution. It called for no evolutionary or utopian experiments, but
+for the steady and progressive enactment of measures aimed at admitted
+abuses and designed to accomplish tangible results in the name of public
+welfare.
+
+
+=General References=
+
+J. Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_.
+
+R.C. Brooks, _Corruption in American Life_.
+
+E.A. Ross, _Changing America_.
+
+P.L. Haworth, _America in Ferment_.
+
+E.R.A. Seligman, _The Income Tax_.
+
+W.Z. Ripley, _Railroads: Rates and Regulation_.
+
+E.S. Bradford, _Commission Government in American Cities_.
+
+H.R. Seager, _A Program of Social Reform_.
+
+C. Zueblin, _American Municipal Progress_.
+
+W.E. Walling, _Progressivism and After_.
+
+_The American Year Book_ (an annual publication which contains reviews
+of reform legislation).
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+="The Muckrakers."=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp.
+309-323.
+
+=Civil Service Reform.=--Beard, _American Government and Politics_ (3d
+ed.), pp. 222-230; Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation Series),
+pp. 135-142.
+
+=Direct Government.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 461-473; Ogg,
+pp. 160-166.
+
+=Popular Election of Senators.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp.
+241-244; Ogg, pp. 149-150.
+
+=Party Methods.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 656-672.
+
+=Ballot Reform.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 672-705.
+
+=Social and Economic Legislation.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp.
+721-752.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Who were some of the critics of abuses in American life?
+
+2. What particular criticisms were advanced?
+
+3. How did Elihu Root define "invisible government"?
+
+4. Discuss the use of criticism as an aid to progress in a democracy.
+
+5. Explain what is meant by the "merit system" in the civil service.
+Review the rise of the spoils system.
+
+6. Why is the public service of increasing importance? Give some of its
+new problems.
+
+7. Describe the Australian ballot and the abuses against which it is
+directed.
+
+8. What are the elements of direct government? Sketch their progress in
+the United States.
+
+9. Trace the history of popular election of Senators.
+
+10. Explain the direct primary. Commission government. The city manager
+plan.
+
+11. How does modern reform involve government action? On what theory is
+it justified?
+
+12. Enumerate five lines of recent economic reform.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE NEW POLITICAL DEMOCRACY
+
+
+=Women in Public Affairs.=--The social legislation enacted in response
+to the spirit of reform vitally affected women in the home and in
+industry and was promoted by their organizations. Where they did not
+lead, they were affiliated with movements for social improvement. No
+cause escaped their attention; no year passed without widening the range
+of their interests. They served on committees that inquired into the
+problems of the day; they appeared before legislative assemblies to
+advocate remedies for the evils they discovered. By 1912 they were a
+force to be reckoned with in national politics. In nine states complete
+and equal suffrage had been established, and a widespread campaign for a
+national suffrage amendment was in full swing. On every hand lay
+evidences that their sphere had been broadened to include public
+affairs. This was the culmination of forces that had long been
+operating.
+
+=A New Emphasis in History.=--A movement so deeply affecting important
+interests could not fail to find a place in time in the written record
+of human progress. History often began as a chronicle of kings and
+queens, knights and ladies, written partly to amuse and partly to
+instruct the classes that appeared in its pages. With the growth of
+commerce, parliaments, and international relations, politics and
+diplomacy were added to such chronicles of royal and princely doings.
+After the rise of democracy, industry, and organized labor, the
+transactions of everyday life were deemed worthy of a place in the pages
+of history. In each case history was rewritten and the past rediscovered
+in the light of the new age. So it will be with the rise and growth of
+women's political power. The history of their labor, their education,
+their status in society, their influence on the course of events will be
+explored and given its place in the general record.
+
+It will be a history of change. The superior position which women enjoy
+in America to-day is the result of a slow evolution from an almost
+rightless condition in colonial times. The founders of America brought
+with them the English common law. Under that law, a married woman's
+personal property--jewels, money, furniture, and the like--became her
+husband's property; the management of her lands passed into his control.
+Even the wages she earned, if she worked for some one else, belonged to
+him. Custom, if not law, prescribed that women should not take part in
+town meetings or enter into public discussions of religious questions.
+Indeed it is a far cry from the banishment of Anne Hutchinson from
+Massachusetts in 1637, for daring to dispute with the church fathers, to
+the political conventions of 1920 in which women sat as delegates, made
+nominating speeches, and served on committees. In the contrast between
+these two scenes may be measured the change in the privileges of women
+since the landing of the Pilgrims. The account of this progress is a
+narrative of individual effort on the part of women, of organizations
+among them, of generous aid from sympathetic men in the long agitation
+for the removal of civil and political disabilities. It is in part also
+a narrative of irresistible economic change which drew women into
+industry, created a leisure class, gave women wages and incomes, and
+therewith economic independence.
+
+
+THE RISE OF THE WOMAN MOVEMENT
+
+=Protests of Colonial Women.=--The republican spirit which produced
+American independence was of slow and steady growth. It did not spring
+up full-armed in a single night. It was, on the contrary, nourished
+during a long period of time by fireside discussions as well as by
+debates in the public forum. Women shared that fireside sifting of
+political principles and passed on the findings of that scrutiny in
+letters to their friends, newspaper articles, and every form of written
+word. How widespread was this potent, though not spectacular force, is
+revealed in the collections of women's letters, articles, songs, dramas,
+and satirical "skits" on English rule that have come down to us. In this
+search into the reasons of government, some women began to take thought
+about laws that excluded them from the ballot. Two women at least left
+their protests on record. Abigail, the ingenious and witty wife of John
+Adams, wrote to her husband, in March, 1776, that women objected "to all
+arbitrary power whether of state or males" and demanded political
+privileges in the new order then being created. Hannah Lee Corbin, the
+sister of "Lighthorse" Harry Lee, protested to her brother against the
+taxation of women without representation.
+
+[Illustration: ABIGAIL ADAMS]
+
+=The Stir among European Women.=--Ferment in America, in the case of
+women as of men, was quickened by events in Europe. In 1792, Mary
+Wollstonecraft published in England the _Vindication of the Rights of
+Women_--a book that was destined to serve the cause of liberty among
+women as the writings of Locke and Paine had served that of men. The
+specific grievances which stirred English women were men's invasion of
+women's industries, such as spinning and weaving; the denial of equal
+educational opportunities; and political disabilities. In France also
+the great Revolution raised questionings about the status of women. The
+rights of "citizenesses" as well as the rights of "citizens" were
+examined by the boldest thinkers. This in turn reacted upon women in the
+United States.
+
+=Leadership in America.=--The origins of the American woman movement are
+to be found in the writings of a few early intellectual leaders. During
+the first decades of the nineteenth century, books, articles, and
+pamphlets about women came in increasing numbers from the press. Lydia
+Maria Child wrote a history of women; Margaret Fuller made a critical
+examination of the status of women in her time; and Mrs. Elizabeth Ellet
+supplemented the older histories by showing what an important part women
+had played in the American Revolution.
+
+=The Struggle for Education.=--Along with criticism, there was carried
+on a constructive struggle for better educational facilities for women
+who had been from the beginning excluded from every college in the
+country. In this long battle, Emma Willard and Mary Lyon led the way;
+the former founded a seminary at Troy, New York; and the latter made the
+beginnings of Mount Holyoke College in Massachusetts. Oberlin College in
+Ohio, established in 1833, opened its doors to girls and from it were
+graduated young students to lead in the woman movement. Sarah J. Hale,
+who in 1827 became the editor of a "Ladies' Magazine," published in
+Boston, conducted a campaign for equal educational opportunities which
+helped to bear fruit in the founding of Vassar College shortly after the
+Civil War.
+
+=The Desire to Effect Reforms.=--As they came to study their own history
+and their own part in civilization, women naturally became deeply
+interested in all the controversies going on around them. The temperance
+question made a special appeal to them and they organized to demand the
+right to be heard on it. In 1846 the "Daughters of Temperance" formed a
+secret society favoring prohibition. They dared to criticize the
+churches for their indifference and were so bold as to ask that
+drunkenness be made a ground for divorce.
+
+The slavery issue even more than temperance called women into public
+life. The Grimke sisters of South Carolina emancipated their bondmen,
+and one of these sisters, exiled from Charleston for her "Appeal to the
+Christian Women of the South," went North to work against the slavery
+system. In 1837 the National Women's Anti-Slavery Convention met in New
+York; seventy-one women delegates represented eight states. Three years
+later eight American women, five of them in Quaker costume, attended the
+World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, much to the horror of the men,
+who promptly excluded them from the sessions on the ground that it was
+not fitting for women to take part in such meetings.
+
+In other spheres of activity, especially social service, women steadily
+enlarged their interest. Nothing human did they consider alien to them.
+They inveighed against cruel criminal laws and unsanitary prisons. They
+organized poor relief and led in private philanthropy. Dorothea Dix
+directed the movement that induced the New York legislature to establish
+in 1845 a separate asylum for the criminal insane. In the same year
+Sarah G. Bagley organized the Lowell Female Reform Association for the
+purpose of reducing the long hours of labor for women, safeguarding "the
+constitutions of future generations." Mrs. Eliza Woodson Farnham, matron
+in Sing Sing penitentiary, was known throughout the nation for her
+social work, especially prison reform. Wherever there were misery and
+suffering, women were preparing programs of relief.
+
+=Freedom of Speech for Women.=--In the advancement of their causes, of
+whatever kind, women of necessity had to make public appeals and take
+part in open meetings. Here they encountered difficulties. The
+appearance of women on the platform was new and strange. Naturally it
+was widely resented. Antoinette Brown, although she had credentials as a
+delegate, was driven off the platform of a temperance convention in New
+York City simply because she was a woman. James Russell Lowell, editor
+of the "Atlantic Monthly," declined a poem from Julia Ward Howe on the
+theory that no woman could write a poem; but he added on second thought
+that he might consider an article in prose. Nathaniel Hawthorne,
+another editor, even objected to something in prose because to him "all
+ink-stained women were equally detestable." To the natural resentment
+against their intrusion into new fields was added that aroused by their
+ideas and methods. As temperance reformers, they criticized in a caustic
+manner those who would not accept their opinions. As opponents of
+slavery they were especially bitter. One of their conventions, held at
+Philadelphia in 1833, passed a resolution calling on all women to leave
+those churches that would not condemn every form of human bondage. This
+stirred against them many of the clergy who, accustomed to having women
+sit silent during services, were in no mood to treat such a revolt
+leniently. Then came the last straw. Women decided that they would
+preach--out of the pulpit first, and finally in it.
+
+=Women in Industry.=--The period of this ferment was also the age of the
+industrial revolution in America, the rise of the factory system, and
+the growth of mill towns. The labor of women was transferred from the
+homes to the factories. Then arose many questions: the hours of labor,
+the sanitary conditions of the mills, the pressure of foreign
+immigration on native labor, the wages of women as compared with those
+of men, and the right of married women to their own earnings. Labor
+organizations sprang up among working women. The mill girls of Lowell,
+Massachusetts, mainly the daughters of New England farmers, published a
+magazine, "The Lowell Offering." So excellent were their writings that
+the French statesman, Thiers, carried a copy of their paper into the
+Chamber of Deputies to show what working women could achieve in a
+republic. As women were now admittedly earning their own way in the
+world by their own labor, they began to talk of their "economic
+independence."
+
+=The World Shaken by Revolution.=--Such was the quickening of women's
+minds in 1848 when the world was startled once more by a revolution in
+France which spread to Germany, Poland, Austria, Hungary, and Italy.
+Once more the people of the earth began to explore the principles of
+democracy and expound human rights. Women, now better educated and more
+"advanced" in their ideas, played a role of still greater importance in
+that revolution. They led in agitations and uprisings. They suffered
+from reaction and persecution. From their prison in France, two of them
+who had been jailed for too much insistence on women's rights exchanged
+greetings with American women who were raising the same issue here. By
+this time the women had more supporters among the men. Horace Greeley,
+editor of the New York _Tribune_, though he afterwards recanted, used
+his powerful pen in their behalf. Anti-slavery leaders welcomed their
+aid and repaid them by urging the enfranchisement of women.
+
+=The Woman's Rights Convention of 1848.=--The forces, moral and
+intellectual, which had been stirring among women, crystallized a few
+months after the outbreak of the European revolution in the first
+Woman's Rights Convention in the history of America. It met at Seneca
+Falls, New York, in 1848, on the call of Lucretia Mott, Martha Wright,
+Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Mary Ann McClintock, three of them Quakers.
+Accustomed to take part in church meetings with men, the Quakers
+naturally suggested that men as well as women be invited to attend the
+convention. Indeed, a man presided over the conference, for that
+position seemed too presumptuous even for such stout advocates of
+woman's rights.
+
+The deliberations of the Seneca Falls convention resulted in a
+Declaration of Rights modeled after the Declaration of Independence. For
+example, the preamble began: "When in the course of human events it
+becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to assume among
+the people of the earth a position different from that which they have
+hitherto occupied...." So also it closed: "Such has been the patient
+suffering of women under this government and such is now the necessity
+which constrains them to demand the equal station to which they are
+entitled." Then followed the list of grievances, the same number which
+had been exhibited to George III in 1776. Especially did they assail the
+disabilities imposed upon them by the English common law imported into
+America--the law which denied married women their property, their wages,
+and their legal existence as separate persons. All these grievances they
+recited to "a candid world." The remedies for the evils which they
+endured were then set forth in detail. They demanded "equal rights" in
+the colleges, trades, and professions; equal suffrage; the right to
+share in all political offices, honors, and emoluments; the right to
+complete equality in marriage, including equal guardianship of the
+children; and for married women the right to own property, to keep
+wages, to make contracts, to transact business, and to testify in the
+courts of justice. In short, they declared women to be persons as men
+are persons and entitled to all the rights and privileges of human
+beings. Such was the clarion call which went forth to the world in
+1848--to an amused and contemptuous world, it must be admitted--but to a
+world fated to heed and obey.
+
+=The First Gains in Civil Liberty.=--The convention of 1848 did not make
+political enfranchisement the leading issue. Rather did it emphasize the
+civil disabilities of women which were most seriously under discussion
+at the time. Indeed, the New York legislature of that very year, as the
+result of a twelve years' agitation, passed the Married Woman's Property
+Act setting aside the general principles of the English common law as
+applied to women and giving them many of the "rights of man." California
+and Wisconsin followed in 1850; Massachusetts in 1854; and Kansas in
+1859. Other states soon fell into line. Women's earnings and
+inheritances were at last their own in some states at least. In a little
+while laws were passed granting women rights as equal guardians of their
+children and permitting them to divorce their husbands on the grounds of
+cruelty and drunkenness.
+
+By degrees other steps were taken. The Woman's Medical College of
+Pennsylvania was founded in 1850, and the Philadelphia School of Design
+for Women three years later. In 1852 the American Women's Educational
+Association was formed to initiate an agitation for enlarged
+educational opportunities for women. Other colleges soon emulated the
+example of Oberlin: the University of Utah in 1850; Hillsdale College in
+Michigan in 1855; Baker University in Kansas in 1858; and the University
+of Iowa in 1860. New trades and professions were opened to women and old
+prejudices against their activities and demands slowly gave way.
+
+
+THE NATIONAL STRUGGLE FOR WOMAN SUFFRAGE
+
+=The Beginnings of Organization.=--As women surmounted one obstacle
+after another, the agitation for equal suffrage came to the front. If
+any year is to be fixed as the date of its beginning, it may very well
+be 1850, when the suffragists of Ohio urged the state constitutional
+convention to confer the vote upon them. With apparent spontaneity there
+were held in the same year state suffrage conferences in Indiana,
+Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts; and connections were formed among the
+leaders of these meetings. At the same time the first national suffrage
+convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts, on the call of
+eighty-nine leading men and women representing six states. Accounts of
+the convention were widely circulated in this country and abroad.
+English women,--for instance, Harriet Martineau,--sent words of
+appreciation for the work thus inaugurated. It inspired a leading
+article in the "Westminster Review," which deeply interested the
+distinguished economist, John Stuart Mill. Soon he was the champion of
+woman suffrage in the British Parliament and the author of a powerful
+tract _The Subjection of Women_, widely read throughout the
+English-speaking world. Thus do world movements grow. Strange to relate
+the women of England were enfranchised before the adoption of the
+federal suffrage amendment in America.
+
+The national suffrage convention of 1850 was followed by an
+extraordinary outburst of agitation. Pamphlets streamed from the press.
+Petitions to legislative bodies were drafted, signed, and presented.
+There were addresses by favorite orators like Garrison, Phillips, and
+Curtis, and lectures and poems by men like Emerson, Longfellow, and
+Whittier. In 1853 the first suffrage paper was founded by the wife of a
+member of Congress from Rhode Island. By this time the last barrier to
+white manhood suffrage in the North had been swept away and the woman's
+movement was gaining momentum every year.
+
+=The Suffrage Movement Checked by the Civil War.=--Advocates of woman
+suffrage believed themselves on the high road to success when the Civil
+War engaged the energies and labors of the nation. Northern women became
+absorbed in the struggle to preserve the union. They held no suffrage
+conventions for five years. They transformed their associations into
+Loyalty Leagues. They banded together to buy only domestic goods when
+foreign imports threatened to ruin American markets. They rolled up
+monster petitions in favor of the emancipation of slaves. In hospitals,
+in military prisons, in agriculture, and in industry they bore their
+full share of responsibility. Even when the New York legislature took
+advantage of their unguarded moments and repealed the law giving the
+mother equal rights with the father in the guardianship of children,
+they refused to lay aside war work for agitation. As in all other wars,
+their devotion was unstinted and their sacrifices equal to the
+necessities of the hour.
+
+=The Federal Suffrage Amendment.=--Their plans and activities, when the
+war closed, were shaped by events beyond their control. The emancipation
+of the slaves and their proposed enfranchisement made prominent the
+question of a national suffrage for the first time in our history.
+Friends of the colored man insisted that his civil liberties would not
+be safe unless he was granted the right to vote. The woman suffragists
+very pertinently asked why the same principle did not apply to women.
+The answer which they received was negative. The fourteenth amendment to
+the federal Constitution, adopted in 1868, definitely put women aside by
+limiting the scope of its application, so far as the suffrage was
+concerned, to the male sex. In making manhood suffrage national,
+however, it nationalized the issue.
+
+This was the signal for the advocates of woman suffrage. In March, 1869,
+their proposed amendment was introduced in Congress by George W. Julian
+of Indiana. It provided that no citizen should be deprived of the vote
+on account of sex, following the language of the fifteenth amendment
+which forbade disfranchisement on account of race. Support for the
+amendment, coming from many directions, led the suffragists to believe
+that their case was hopeful. In their platform of 1872, for example, the
+Republicans praised the women for their loyal devotion to freedom,
+welcomed them to spheres of wider usefulness, and declared that the
+demand of any class of citizens for additional rights deserved
+"respectful consideration."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+SUSAN B. ANTHONY]
+
+Experience soon demonstrated, however, that praise was not the ballot.
+Indeed the suffragists already had realized that a tedious contest lay
+before them. They had revived in 1866 their regular national convention.
+They gave the name of "The Revolution" to their paper, edited by
+Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. They formed a national
+suffrage association and organized annual pilgrimages to Congress to
+present their claims. Such activities bore some results. Many eminent
+congressmen were converted to their cause and presented it ably to their
+colleagues of both chambers. Still the subject was ridiculed by the
+newspapers and looked upon as freakish by the masses.
+
+=The State Campaigns.=--Discouraged by the outcome of the national
+campaign, suffragists turned to the voters of the individual states and
+sought the ballot at their hands. Gains by this process were painfully
+slow. Wyoming, it is true, while still a territory, granted suffrage to
+women in 1869 and continued it on becoming a state twenty years later,
+in spite of strong protests in Congress. In 1893 Colorado established
+complete political equality. In Utah, the third suffrage state, the
+cause suffered many vicissitudes. Women were enfranchised by the
+territorial legislature; they were deprived of the ballot by Congress in
+1887; finally in 1896 on the admission of Utah to the union they
+recovered their former rights. During the same year, 1896, Idaho
+conferred equal suffrage upon the women. This was the last suffrage
+victory for more than a decade.
+
+=The Suffrage Cause in Congress.=--In the midst of the meager gains
+among the states there were occasional flurries of hope for immediate
+action on the federal amendment. Between 1878 and 1896 the Senate
+committee reported the suffrage resolution by a favorable majority on
+five different occasions. During the same period, however, there were
+nine unfavorable reports and only once did the subject reach the point
+of a general debate. At no time could anything like the required
+two-thirds vote be obtained.
+
+=The Changing Status of Women.=--While the suffrage movement was
+lagging, the activities of women in other directions were steadily
+multiplying. College after college--Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Smith, Wellesley,
+to mention a few--was founded to give them the advantages of higher
+education. Other institutions, especially the state universities of the
+West, opened their doors to women, and women were received into the
+professions of law and medicine. By the rapid growth of public high
+schools in which girls enjoyed the same rights as boys, education was
+extended still more widely. The number of women teachers increased by
+leaps and bounds.
+
+Meanwhile women were entering nearly every branch of industry and
+business. How many of them worked at gainful occupations before 1870 we
+do not know; but from that year forward we have the records of the
+census. Between 1870 and 1900 the proportion of women in the professions
+rose from less than two per cent to more than ten per cent; in trade and
+transportation from 24.8 per cent to 43.2 per cent; and in manufacturing
+from 13 to 19 per cent. In 1910, there were over 8,000,000 women
+gainfully employed as compared with 30,000,000 men. When, during the war
+on Germany, the government established the principle of equal pay for
+equal work and gave official recognition to the value of their services
+in industry, it was discovered how far women had traveled along the road
+forecast by the leaders of 1848.
+
+=The Club Movement among Women.=--All over the country women's societies
+and clubs were started to advance this or that reform or merely to study
+literature, art, and science. In time these women's organizations of all
+kinds were federated into city, state, and national associations and
+drawn into the consideration of public questions. Under the leadership
+of Frances Willard they made temperance reform a vital issue. They took
+an interest in legislation pertaining to prisons, pure food, public
+health, and municipal government, among other things. At their sessions
+and conferences local, state, and national issues were discussed until
+finally, it seems, everything led to the quest of the franchise. By
+solemn resolution in 1914 the National Federation of Women's Clubs,
+representing nearly two million club women, formally endorsed woman
+suffrage. In the same year the National Education Association, speaking
+for the public school teachers of the land, added its seal of approval.
+
+=State and National Action.=--Again the suffrage movement was in full
+swing in the states. Washington in 1910, California in 1911, Oregon,
+Kansas, and Arizona in 1912, Nevada and Montana in 1914 by popular vote
+enfranchised their women. Illinois in 1913 conferred upon them the right
+to vote for President of the United States. The time had arrived for a
+new movement. A number of younger suffragists sought to use the votes of
+women in the equal suffrage states to compel one or both of the national
+political parties to endorse and carry through Congress the federal
+suffrage amendment. Pressure then came upon Congress from every
+direction: from the suffragists who made a straight appeal on the
+grounds of justice; and from the suffragists who besought the women of
+the West to vote against candidates for President, who would not approve
+the federal amendment. In 1916, for the first time, a leading
+presidential candidate, Mr. Charles E. Hughes, speaking for the
+Republicans, endorsed the federal amendment and a distinguished
+ex-President, Roosevelt, exerted a powerful influence to keep it an
+issue in the campaign.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+CONFERENCE OF MEN AND WOMEN DELEGATES AT A NATIONAL CONVENTION IN
+1920]
+
+=National Enfranchisement.=--After that, events moved rapidly. The great
+state of New York adopted equal suffrage in 1917. Oklahoma, South
+Dakota, and Michigan swung into line the following year; several other
+states, by legislative action, gave women the right to vote for
+President. In the meantime the suffrage battle at Washington grew
+intense. Appeals and petitions poured in upon Congress and the
+President. Militant suffragists held daily demonstrations in Washington.
+On September 30, 1918, President Wilson, who, two years before, had
+opposed federal action and endorsed suffrage by state adoption only,
+went before Congress and urged the passage of the suffrage amendment to
+the Constitution. In June, 1919, the requisite two-thirds vote was
+secured; the resolution was carried and transmitted to the states for
+ratification. On August 28, 1920, the thirty-sixth state, Tennessee,
+approved the amendment, making three-fourths of the states as required
+by the Constitution. Thus woman suffrage became the law of the land. A
+new political democracy had been created. The age of agitation was
+closed and the epoch of responsible citizenship opened.
+
+
+=General References=
+
+Edith Abbott, _Women in Industry_.
+
+C.P. Gilman, _Woman and Economics_.
+
+I.H. Harper, _Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony_.
+
+E.R. Hecker, _Short History of Woman's Rights_.
+
+S.B. Anthony and I.H. Harper, _History of Woman Suffrage_ (4 vols.).
+
+J.W. Taylor, _Before Vassar Opened_.
+
+A.H. Shaw, _The Story of a Pioneer_.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Rise of the Woman Suffrage Movement.=--McMaster, _History of the
+People of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 116-121; K. Porter,
+_History of Suffrage in the United States_, pp. 135-145.
+
+=The Development of the Suffrage Movement.=--Porter, pp. 228-254; Ogg,
+_National Progress_ (American Nation Series), pp. 151-156 and p. 382.
+
+=Women's Labor in the Colonial Period.=--E. Abbott, _Women in Industry_,
+pp. 10-34.
+
+=Women and the Factory System.=--Abbott, pp. 35-62.
+
+=Early Occupations for Women.=--Abbott, pp. 63-85.
+
+=Women's Wages.=--Abbott, pp. 262-316.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Why were women involved in the reform movements of the new century?
+
+2. What is history? What determines the topics that appear in written
+history?
+
+3. State the position of women under the old common law.
+
+4. What part did women play in the intellectual movement that preceded
+the American Revolution?
+
+5. Explain the rise of the discussion of women's rights.
+
+6. What were some of the early writings about women?
+
+7. Why was there a struggle for educational opportunities?
+
+8. How did reform movements draw women into public affairs and what were
+the chief results?
+
+9. Show how the rise of the factory affected the life and labor of
+women.
+
+10. Why is the year 1848 an important year in the woman movement?
+Discuss the work of the Seneca Falls convention.
+
+11. Enumerate some of the early gains in civil liberty for women.
+
+12. Trace the rise of the suffrage movement. Show the effect of the
+Civil War.
+
+13. Review the history of the federal suffrage amendment.
+
+14. Summarize the history of the suffrage in the states.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY
+
+
+=The New Economic Age.=--The spirit of criticism and the measures of
+reform designed to meet it, which characterized the opening years of the
+twentieth century, were merely the signs of a new age. The nation had
+definitely passed into industrialism. The number of city dwellers
+employed for wages as contrasted with the farmers working on their own
+land was steadily mounting. The free land, once the refuge of restless
+workingmen of the East and the immigrants from Europe, was a thing of
+the past. As President Roosevelt later said in speaking of the great
+coal strike, "a few generations ago, the American workman could have
+saved money, gone West, and taken up a homestead. Now the free lands
+were gone. In earlier days, a man who began with a pick and shovel might
+come to own a mine. That outlet was now closed as regards the immense
+majority.... The majority of men who earned wages in the coal industry,
+if they wished to progress at all, were compelled to progress not by
+ceasing to be wage-earners but by improving the conditions under which
+all the wage-earners of the country lived and worked."
+
+The disappearance of the free land, President Roosevelt went on to say,
+also produced "a crass inequality in the bargaining relation of the
+employer and the individual employee standing alone. The great
+coal-mining and coal-carrying companies which employed their tens of
+thousands could easily dispense with the services of any particular
+miner. The miner, on the other hand, however expert, could not dispense
+with the companies. He needed a job; his wife and children would starve
+if he did not get one.... Individually the miners were impotent when
+they sought to enter a wage contract with the great companies; they
+could make fair terms only by uniting into trade unions to bargain
+collectively." It was of this state of affairs that President Taft spoke
+when he favored the modification of the common law "so as to put
+employees of little power and means on a level with their employers in
+adjusting and agreeing upon their mutual obligations."
+
+John D. Rockefeller, Jr., on the side of the great captains of industry,
+recognized the same facts. He said: "In the early days of the
+development of industry, the employer and capital investor were
+frequently one. Daily contact was had between him and his employees, who
+were his friends and neighbors.... Because of the proportions which
+modern industry has attained, employers and employees are too often
+strangers to each other.... Personal relations can be revived only
+through adequate representation of the employees. Representation is a
+principle which is fundamentally just and vital to the successful
+conduct of industry.... It is not consistent for us as Americans to
+demand democracy in government and practice autocracy in industry....
+With the developments what they are in industry to-day, there is sure to
+come a progressive evolution from aristocratic single control, whether
+by capital, labor, or the state, to democratic, cooeperative control by
+all three."
+
+
+COOePERATION BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES
+
+=Company Unions.=--The changed economic life described by the three
+eminent men just quoted was acknowledged by several great companies and
+business concerns. All over the country decided efforts were made to
+bridge the gulf which industry and the corporation had created. Among
+the devices adopted was that of the "company union." In one of the
+Western lumber mills, for example, all the employees were invited to
+join a company organization; they held monthly meetings to discuss
+matters of common concern; they elected a "shop committee" to confer
+with the representatives of the company; and periodically the agents of
+the employers attended the conferences of the men to talk over matters
+of mutual interest. The function of the shop committee was to consider
+wages, hours, safety rules, sanitation, recreation and other problems.
+Whenever any employee had a grievance he took it up with the foreman
+and, if it was not settled to his satisfaction, he brought it before the
+shop committee. If the members of the shop committee decided in favor of
+the man with a grievance, they attempted to settle the matter with the
+company's agents. All these things failing, the dispute was transferred
+to a grand meeting of all the employees with the employers'
+representatives, in common council. A deadlock, if it ensued from such a
+conference, was broken by calling in impartial arbitrators selected by
+both sides from among citizens outside the mill. Thus the employees were
+given a voice in all decisions affecting their work and welfare; rights
+and grievances were treated as matters of mutual interest rather than
+individual concern. Representatives of trade unions from outside,
+however, were rigidly excluded from all negotiations between employers
+and the employees.
+
+=Profit-sharing.=--Another proposal for drawing capital and labor
+together was to supplement the wage system by other ties. Sometimes lump
+sums were paid to employees who remained in a company's service for a
+definite period of years. Again they were given a certain percentage of
+the annual profits. In other instances, employees were allowed to buy
+stock on easy terms and thus become part owners in the concern. This
+last plan was carried so far by a large soap manufacturing company that
+the employees, besides becoming stockholders, secured the right to elect
+representatives to serve on the board of directors who managed the
+entire business. So extensive had profit-sharing become by 1914 that the
+Federal Industrial Relations Committee, appointed by the President,
+deemed it worthy of a special study. Though opposed by regular trade
+unions, it was undoubtedly growing in popularity.
+
+=Labor Managers and Welfare Work.=--Another effort of employers to meet
+the problems of the new age appeared in the appointment of specialists,
+known as employment managers, whose task it was to study the relations
+existing between masters and workers and discover practical methods for
+dealing with each grievance as it arose. By 1918, hundreds of big
+companies had recognized this modern "profession" and universities were
+giving courses of instruction on the subject to young men and women. In
+that year a national conference of employment managers was held at
+Rochester, New York. The discussion revealed a wide range of duties
+assigned to managers, including questions of wages, hours, sanitation,
+rest rooms, recreational facilities, and welfare work of every kind
+designed to make the conditions in mills and factories safer and more
+humane. Thus it was evident that hundreds of employers had abandoned the
+old idea that they were dealing merely with individual employees and
+that their obligations ended with the payment of any wages they saw fit
+to fix. In short, they were seeking to develop a spirit of cooeperation
+to take the place of competition and enmity; and to increase the
+production of commodities by promoting the efficiency and happiness of
+the producers.
+
+
+THE RISE AND GROWTH OF ORGANIZED LABOR
+
+=The American Federation of Labor.=--Meanwhile a powerful association of
+workers representing all the leading trades and crafts, organized into
+unions of their own, had been built up outside the control of employers.
+This was the American Federation of Labor, a nation-wide union of
+unions, founded in 1886 on the basis of beginnings made five years
+before. At the time of its establishment it had approximately 150,000
+members. Its growth up to the end of the century was slow, for the total
+enrollment in 1900 was only 300,000. At that point the increase became
+marked. The membership reached 1,650,000 in 1904 and more than 3,000,000
+in 1919. To be counted in the ranks of organized labor were several
+strong unions, friendly to the Federation, though not affiliated with
+it. Such, for example, were the Railway Brotherhoods with more than half
+a million members. By the opening of 1920 the total strength of
+organized labor was put at about 4,000,000 members, meaning, if we
+include their families, that nearly one-fifth of the people of the
+United States were in some positive way dependent upon the operations of
+trade unions.
+
+=Historical Background.=--This was the culmination of a long and
+significant history. Before the end of the eighteenth century, the
+skilled workmen--printers, shoemakers, tailors, and carpenters--had, as
+we have seen, formed local unions in the large cities. Between 1830 and
+1860, several aggressive steps were taken in the American labor
+movement. For one thing, the number of local unions increased by leaps
+and bounds in all the industrial towns. For another, there was
+established in every large manufacturing city a central labor body
+composed of delegates from the unions of the separate trades. In the
+local union the printers or the cordwainers, for example, considered
+only their special trade problems. In the central labor union, printers,
+cordwainers, iron molders, and other craftsmen considered common
+problems and learned to cooeperate with one another in enforcing the
+demands of each craft. A third step was the federation of the unions of
+the same craftsmen in different cities. The printers of New York,
+Philadelphia, Boston, and other towns, for instance, drew together and
+formed a national trade union of printers built upon the local unions of
+that craft. By the eve of the Civil War there were four or five powerful
+national unions of this character. The expansion of the railway made
+travel and correspondence easier and national conventions possible even
+for workmen of small means. About 1834 an attempt was made to federate
+the unions of all the different crafts into a national organization; but
+the effort was premature.
+
+_The National Labor Union._--The plan which failed in 1834 was tried
+again in the sixties. During the war, industries and railways had
+flourished as never before; prices had risen rapidly; the demand for
+labor had increased; wages had mounted slowly, but steadily. Hundreds of
+new local unions had been founded and eight or ten national trade unions
+had sprung into being. The time was ripe, it seemed, for a national
+consolidation of all labor's forces; and in 1866, the year after the
+surrender of General Lee at Appomattox, the "National Labor Union" was
+formed at Baltimore under the leadership of an experienced organizer,
+W.H. Sylvis of the iron molders. The purpose of the National Labor Union
+was not merely to secure labor's standard demands touching hours, wages,
+and conditions of work or to maintain the gains already won. It leaned
+toward political action and radical opinions. Above all, it sought to
+eliminate the conflict between capital and labor by making workingmen
+the owners of shops through the formation of cooeperative industries. For
+six years the National Labor Union continued to hold conferences and
+carry on its propaganda; but most of the cooeperative enterprises failed,
+political dissensions arose, and by 1872 the experiment had come to an
+end.
+
+_The Knights of Labor._--While the National Labor Union was
+experimenting, there grew up in the industrial world a more radical
+organization known as the "Noble Order of the Knights of Labor." It was
+founded in Philadelphia in 1869, first as a secret society with rituals,
+signs, and pass words; "so that no spy of the boss can find his way into
+the lodge room to betray his fellows," as the Knights put it. In form
+the new organization was simple. It sought to bring all laborers,
+skilled and unskilled, men and women, white and colored, into a mighty
+body of local and national unions without distinction of trade or craft.
+By 1885, ten years after the national organization was established, it
+boasted a membership of over 700,000. In philosophy, the Knights of
+Labor were socialistic, for they advocated public ownership of the
+railways and other utilities and the formation of cooeperative societies
+to own and manage stores and factories.
+
+As the Knights were radical in spirit and their strikes, numerous and
+prolonged, were often accompanied by violence, the organization alarmed
+employers and the general public, raising up against itself a vigorous
+opposition. Weaknesses within, as well as foes from without, started the
+Knights on the path to dissolution. They waged more strikes than they
+could carry on successfully; their cooeperative experiments failed as
+those of other labor groups before them had failed; and the rank and
+file could not be kept in line. The majority of the members wanted
+immediate gains in wages or the reduction of hours; when their hopes
+were not realized they drifted away from the order. The troubles were
+increased by the appearance of the American Federation of Labor, a still
+mightier organization composed mainly of skilled workers who held
+strategic positions in industry. When they failed to secure the
+effective support of the Federation in their efforts to organize the
+unskilled, the employers closed in upon them; then the Knights declined
+rapidly in power. By 1890 they were a negligible factor and in a short
+time they passed into the limbo of dead experiments.
+
+=The Policies of the American Federation.=--Unlike the Knights of Labor,
+the American Federation of Labor sought, first of all, to be very
+practical in its objects and methods. It avoided all kinds of
+socialistic theories and attended strictly to the business of organizing
+unions for the purpose of increasing wages, shortening hours, and
+improving working conditions for its members. It did not try to include
+everybody in one big union but brought together the employees of each
+particular craft whose interests were clearly the same. To prepare for
+strikes and periods of unemployment, it raised large funds by imposing
+heavy dues and created a benefit system to hold men loyally to the
+union. In order to permit action on a national scale, it gave the
+superior officers extensive powers over local unions.
+
+While declaring that employers and employees had much in common, the
+Federation strongly opposed company unions. Employers, it argued, were
+affiliated with the National Manufacturers' Association or with similar
+employers' organizations; every important industry was now national in
+scope; and wages and hours, in view of competition with other shops,
+could not be determined in a single factory, no matter how amicable
+might be the relations of the company and its workers in that particular
+plant. For these reasons, the Federation declared company unions and
+local shop committees inherently weak; it insisted that hours, wages,
+and other labor standards should be fixed by general trade agreements
+applicable to all the plants of a given industry, even if subject to
+local modifications.
+
+At the same time, the Federation, far from deliberately antagonizing
+employers, sought to enlist their cooeperation and support. It affiliated
+with the National Civic Federation, an association of business men,
+financiers, and professional men, founded in 1900 to promote friendly
+relations in the industrial world. In brief, the American Federation of
+Labor accepted the modern industrial system and, by organization within
+it, endeavored to secure certain definite terms and conditions for trade
+unionists.
+
+
+THE WIDER RELATIONS OF ORGANIZED LABOR
+
+=The Socialists.=--The trade unionism "pure and simple," espoused by the
+American Federation of Labor, seemed to involve at first glance nothing
+but businesslike negotiations with employers. In practice it did not
+work out that way. The Federation was only six years old when a new
+organization, appealing directly for the labor vote--namely, the
+Socialist Labor Party--nominated a candidate for President, launched
+into a national campaign, and called upon trade unionists to desert the
+older parties and enter its fold.
+
+The socialistic idea, introduced into national politics in 1892, had
+been long in germination. Before the Civil War, a number of reformers,
+including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Horace Greeley, and Wendell Phillips,
+deeply moved by the poverty of the great industrial cities, had
+earnestly sought relief in the establishment of cooeperative or
+communistic colonies. They believed that people should go into the
+country, secure land and tools, own them in common so that no one could
+profit from exclusive ownership, and produce by common labor the food
+and clothing necessary for their support. For a time this movement
+attracted wide interest, but it had little vitality. Nearly all the
+colonies failed. Selfishness and indolence usually disrupted the best of
+them.
+
+In the course of time this "Utopian" idea was abandoned, and another set
+of socialist doctrines, claiming to be more "scientific," appeared
+instead. The new school of socialists, adopting the principles of a
+German writer and agitator, Karl Marx, appealed directly to workingmen.
+It urged them to unite against the capitalists, to get possession of the
+machinery of government, and to introduce collective or public ownership
+of railways, land, mines, mills, and other means of production. The
+Marxian socialists, therefore, became political. They sought to organize
+labor and to win elections. Like the other parties they put forward
+candidates and platforms. The Socialist Labor party in 1892, for
+example, declared in favor of government ownership of utilities, free
+school books, woman suffrage, heavy income taxes, and the referendum.
+The Socialist party, founded in 1900, with Eugene V. Debs, the leader of
+the Pullman strike, as its candidate, called for public ownership of all
+trusts, monopolies, mines, railways; and the chief means of production.
+In the course of time the vote of the latter organization rose to
+considerable proportions, reaching almost a million in 1912. It declined
+four years later and then rose in 1920 to about the same figure.
+
+In their appeal for votes, the socialists of every type turned first to
+labor. At the annual conventions of the American Federation of Labor
+they besought the delegates to endorse socialism. The president of the
+Federation, Samuel Gompers, on each occasion took the floor against
+them. He repudiated socialism and the socialists, on both theoretical
+and practical grounds. He opposed too much public ownership, declaring
+that the government was as likely as any private employer to oppress
+labor. The approval of socialism, he maintained, would split the
+Federation on the rock of politics, weaken it in its fight for higher
+wages and shorter hours, and prejudice the public against it. At every
+turn he was able to vanquish the socialists in the Federation, although
+he could not prevent it from endorsing public ownership of the railways
+at the convention of 1920.
+
+=The Extreme Radicals.=--Some of the socialists, defeated in their
+efforts to capture organized labor and seeing that the gains in
+elections were very meager, broke away from both trade unionism and
+politics. One faction, the Industrial Workers of the World, founded in
+1905, declared themselves opposed to all capitalists, the wages system,
+and craft unions. They asserted that the "working class and the
+employing class have nothing in common" and that trade unions only
+pitted one set of workers against another set. They repudiated all
+government ownership and the government itself, boldly proclaiming their
+intention to unite all employees into one big union and seize the
+railways, mines, and mills of the country. This doctrine, so
+revolutionary in tone, called down upon the extremists the condemnation
+of the American Federation of Labor as well as of the general public. At
+its convention in 1919, the Federation went on record as "opposed to
+Bolshevism, I.W.W.-ism, and the irresponsible leadership that encourages
+such a policy." It announced its "firm adherence to American ideals."
+
+=The Federation and Political Issues.=--The hostility of the Federation
+to the socialists did not mean, however, that it was indifferent to
+political issues or political parties. On the contrary, from time to
+time, at its annual conventions, it endorsed political and social
+reforms, such as the initiative, referendum, and recall, the abolition
+of child labor, the exclusion of Oriental labor, old-age pensions, and
+government ownership. Moreover it adopted the policy of "rewarding
+friends and punishing enemies" by advising members to vote for or
+against candidates according to their stand on the demands of organized
+labor.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+SAMUEL GOMPERS AND OTHER LABOR LEADERS]
+
+This policy was pursued with especial zeal in connection with disputes
+over the use of injunctions in labor controversies. An injunction is a
+bill or writ issued by a judge ordering some person or corporation to do
+or to refrain from doing something. For example, a judge may order a
+trade union to refrain from interfering with non-union men or to
+continue at work handling goods made by non-union labor; and he may fine
+or imprison those who disobey his injunction, the penalty being
+inflicted for "contempt of court." This ancient legal device came into
+prominence in connection with nation-wide railway strikes in 1877. It
+was applied with increasing frequency after its effective use against
+Eugene V. Debs in the Pullman strike of 1894.
+
+Aroused by the extensive use of the writ, organized labor demanded that
+the power of judges to issue injunctions in labor disputes be limited by
+law. Representatives of the unions sought support from the Democrats and
+the Republicans; they received from the former very specific and cordial
+endorsement. In 1896 the Democratic platform denounced "government by
+injunction as a new and highly dangerous form of oppression." Mr.
+Gompers, while refusing to commit the Federation to Democratic politics,
+privately supported Mr. Bryan. In 1908, he came out openly and boasted
+that eighty per cent of the votes of the Federation had been cast for
+the Democratic candidate. Again in 1912 the same policy was pursued. The
+reward was the enactment in 1914 of a federal law exempting trade unions
+from prosecution as combinations in restraint of trade, limiting the use
+of the injunction in labor disputes, and prescribing trial by jury in
+case of contempt of court. This measure was hailed by Mr. Gompers as the
+"Magna Carta of Labor" and a vindication of his policy. As a matter of
+fact, however, it did not prevent the continued use of injunctions
+against trade unions. Nevertheless Mr. Gompers was unshaken in his
+conviction that organized labor should not attempt to form an
+independent political party or endorse socialist or other radical
+economic theories.
+
+=Organized Labor and the Public.=--Besides its relations to employers,
+radicals within its own ranks, and political questions, the Federation
+had to face responsibilities to the general public. With the passing of
+time these became heavy and grave. While industries were small and
+conflicts were local in character, a strike seldom affected anybody but
+the employer and the employees immediately involved in it. When,
+however, industries and trade unions became organized on a national
+scale and a strike could paralyze a basic enterprise like coal mining or
+railways, the vital interests of all citizens were put in jeopardy.
+Moreover, as increases in wages and reductions in hours often added
+directly to the cost of living, the action of the unions affected the
+well-being of all--the food, clothing, and shelter of the whole people.
+
+For the purpose of meeting the issue raised by this state of affairs, it
+was suggested that employers and employees should lay their disputes
+before commissions of arbitration for decision and settlement. President
+Cleveland, in a message of April 2, 1886, proposed such a method for
+disposing of industrial controversies, and two years later Congress
+enacted a voluntary arbitration law applicable to the railways. The
+principle was extended in 1898 and again in 1913, and under the
+authority of the federal government many contentions in the railway
+world were settled by arbitration.
+
+The success of such legislation induced some students of industrial
+questions to urge that unions and employers should be compelled to
+submit all disputes to official tribunals of arbitration. Kansas
+actually passed such a law in 1920. Congress in the Esch-Cummins railway
+bill of the same year created a federal board of nine members to which
+all railway controversies, not settled by negotiation, must be
+submitted. Strikes, however, were not absolutely forbidden. Generally
+speaking, both employers and employees opposed compulsory adjustments
+without offering any substitute in case voluntary arbitration should not
+be accepted by both parties to a dispute.
+
+
+IMMIGRATION AND AMERICANIZATION
+
+=The Problems of Immigration.=--From its very inception, the American
+Federation of Labor, like the Knights of Labor before it, was confronted
+by numerous questions raised by the ever swelling tide of aliens coming
+to our shores. In its effort to make each trade union all-inclusive, it
+had to wrestle with a score or more languages. When it succeeded in
+thoroughly organizing a craft, it often found its purposes defeated by
+an influx of foreigners ready to work for lower wages and thus undermine
+the foundations of the union.
+
+At the same time, persons outside the labor movement began to be
+apprehensive as they contemplated the undoubted evil, as well as the
+good, that seemed to be associated with the "alien invasion." They saw
+whole sections of great cities occupied by people speaking foreign
+tongues, reading only foreign newspapers, and looking to the Old World
+alone for their ideas and their customs. They witnessed an expanding
+army of total illiterates, men and women who could read and write no
+language at all; while among those aliens who could read few there were
+who knew anything of American history, traditions, and ideals. Official
+reports revealed that over twenty per cent of the men of the draft army
+during the World War could not read a newspaper or write a letter home.
+Perhaps most alarming of all was the discovery that thousands of alien
+men are in the United States only on a temporary sojourn, solely to make
+money and return home with their savings. These men, willing to work for
+low wages and live in places unfit for human beings, have no stake in
+this country and do not care what becomes of it.
+
+=The Restriction of Immigration.=--In all this there was, strictly
+speaking, no cause for surprise. Since the foundation of our republic
+the policy of the government had been to encourage the coming of the
+alien. For nearly one hundred years no restraining act was passed by
+Congress, while two important laws positively encouraged it; namely, the
+homestead act of 1862 and the contract immigration law of 1864. Not
+until American workingmen came into open collision with cheap Chinese
+labor on the Pacific Coast did the federal government spread the first
+measure of limitation on the statute books. After the discovery of gold,
+and particularly after the opening of the railway construction era, a
+horde of laborers from China descended upon California. Accustomed to
+starvation wages and indifferent to the conditions of living, they
+threatened to cut the American standard to the point of subsistence. By
+1876 the protest of American labor was loud and long and both the
+Republicans and the Democrats gave heed to it. In 1882 Congress enacted
+a law prohibiting the admission of Chinese laborers to the United States
+for a term of ten years--later extended by legislation. In a little
+while the demand arose for the exclusion of the Japanese as well. In
+this case no exclusion law was passed; but an understanding was reached
+by which Japan agreed not to issue passports to her laborers authorizing
+them to come to the United States. By act of Congress in 1907 the
+President was empowered to exclude any laborers who, having passports to
+Canada, Hawaii, or Mexico, attempted to enter our country.
+
+These laws and agreements, however, did not remove all grounds for the
+agitation of the subject. They were difficult to enforce and it was
+claimed by residents of the Coast that in spite of federal authority
+Oriental laborers were finding their way into American ports. Moreover,
+several Western states, anxious to preserve the soil for American
+ownership, enacted laws making it impossible for Chinese and Japanese to
+buy land outright; and in other ways they discriminated against
+Orientals. Such proceedings placed the federal government in an
+embarrassing position. By treaty it had guaranteed specific rights to
+Japanese citizens in the United States, and the government at Tokyo
+contended that the state laws just cited violated the terms of the
+international agreement. The Western states were fixed in their
+determination to control Oriental residents; Japan was equally
+persistent in asking that no badge of inferiority be attached to her
+citizens. Subjected to pressure on both sides, the federal government
+sought a way out of the deadlock.
+
+Having embarked upon the policy of restriction in 1882, Congress readily
+extended it. In that same year it barred paupers, criminals, convicts,
+and the insane. Three years later, mainly owing to the pressure of the
+Knights of Labor, it forbade any person, company, or association to
+import aliens under contract. By an act of 1887, the contract labor
+restriction was made even more severe. In 1903, anarchists were excluded
+and the bureau of immigration was transferred from the Treasury
+Department to the Department of Commerce and Labor, in order to provide
+for a more rigid execution of the law. In 1907 the classes of persons
+denied admission were widened to embrace those suffering from physical
+and mental defects and otherwise unfit for effective citizenship. When
+the Department of Labor was established in 1913 the enforcement of the
+law was placed in the hands of the Secretary of Labor, W.B. Wilson, who
+was a former leader in the American Federation of Labor.
+
+=The Literacy Test.=--Still the advocates of restriction were not
+satisfied. Still organized labor protested and demanded more protection
+against the competition of immigrants. In 1917 it won a thirty-year
+battle in the passage of a bill excluding "all aliens over sixteen years
+of age, physically capable of reading, who cannot read the English
+language or some other language or dialect, including Hebrew or
+Yiddish." Even President Wilson could not block it, for a two-thirds
+vote to overcome his veto was mustered in Congress.
+
+This act, while it served to exclude illiterates, made no drastic cut in
+the volume of immigration. Indeed a material reduction was resolutely
+opposed in many quarters. People of certain nationalities already in the
+United States objected to every barrier that shut out their own kinsmen.
+Some Americans of the old stock still held to the idea that the United
+States should continue to be an asylum for "the oppressed of the earth."
+Many employers looked upon an increased labor supply as the means of
+escaping what they called "the domination of trade unions." In the babel
+of countless voices, the discussion of these vital matters went on in
+town and country.
+
+=Americanization.=--Intimately connected with the subject of immigration
+was a call for the "Americanization" of the alien already within our
+gates. The revelation of the illiteracy in the army raised the cry and
+the demand was intensified when it was found that many of the leaders
+among the extreme radicals were foreign in birth and citizenship.
+Innumerable programs for assimilating the alien to American life were
+drawn up, and in 1919 a national conference on the subject was held in
+Washington under the auspices of the Department of the Interior. All
+were agreed that the foreigner should be taught to speak and write the
+language and understand the government of our country. Congress was
+urged to lend aid in this vast undertaking. America, as ex-President
+Roosevelt had said, was to find out "whether it was a nation or a
+boarding-house."
+
+
+=General References=
+
+J.R. Commons and Associates, _History of Labor in the United States_ (2
+vols.).
+
+Samuel Gompers, _Labor and the Common Welfare_.
+
+W.E. Walling, _Socialism as It Is_.
+
+W.E. Walling (and Others), _The Socialism of Today_.
+
+R.T. Ely, _The Labor Movement in America_.
+
+T.S. Adams and H. Sumner, _Labor Problems_.
+
+J.G. Brooks, _American Syndicalism_ and _Social Unrest_.
+
+P.F. Hall, _Immigration and Its Effects on the United States_.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=The Rise of Trade Unionism.=--Mary Beard, _Short History of the
+American Labor Movement_, pp. 10-18, 47-53, 62-79; Carlton, _Organized
+Labor in American History_, pp. 11-44.
+
+=Labor and Politics.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp. 33-46, 54-61,
+103-112; Carlton, pp. 169-197; Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation
+Series), pp. 76-85.
+
+=The Knights of Labor.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp. 116-126; Dewey,
+_National Problems_ (American Nation Series), pp. 40-49.
+
+=The American Federation of Labor--Organization and Policies.=--Beard,
+_Short History_, pp. 86-112.
+
+=Organized Labor and the Socialists.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp.
+126-149.
+
+=Labor and the Great War.=--Carlton, pp. 282-306; Beard, _Short
+History_, pp. 150-170.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. What are the striking features of the new economic age?
+
+2. Give Mr. Rockefeller's view of industrial democracy.
+
+3. Outline the efforts made by employers to establish closer relations
+with their employees.
+
+4. Sketch the rise and growth of the American Federation of Labor.
+
+5. How far back in our history does the labor movement extend?
+
+6. Describe the purposes and outcome of the National Labor Union and the
+Knights of Labor.
+
+7. State the chief policies of the American Federation of Labor.
+
+8. How does organized labor become involved with outside forces?
+
+9. Outline the rise of the socialist movement. How did it come into
+contact with the American Federation?
+
+10. What was the relation of the Federation to the extreme radicals? To
+national politics? To the public?
+
+11. Explain the injunction.
+
+12. Why are labor and immigration closely related?
+
+13. Outline the history of restrictions on immigration.
+
+14. What problems arise in connection with the assimilation of the alien
+to American life?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR
+
+
+"The welfare, the happiness, the energy, and the spirit of the men and
+women who do the daily work in our mines and factories, on our
+railroads, in our offices and ports of trade, on our farms, and on the
+sea are the underlying necessity of all prosperity." Thus spoke Woodrow
+Wilson during his campaign for election. In this spirit, as President,
+he gave the signal for work by summoning Congress in a special session
+on April 7, 1913. He invited the cooeperation of all "forward-looking
+men" and indicated that he would assume the role of leadership. As an
+evidence of his resolve, he appeared before Congress in person to read
+his first message, reviving the old custom of Washington and Adams. Then
+he let it be known that he would not give his party any rest until it
+fulfilled its pledges to the country. When Democratic Senators balked at
+tariff reductions, they were sharply informed that the party had
+plighted its word and that no excuses or delays would be tolerated.
+
+
+DOMESTIC LEGISLATION
+
+=Financial Measures.=--Under this spirited leadership Congress went to
+work, passing first the Underwood tariff act of 1913, which made a
+downward revision in the rates of duty, fixing them on the average about
+twenty-six per cent lower than the figures of 1907. The protective
+principle was retained, but an effort was made to permit a moderate
+element of foreign competition. As a part of the revenue act Congress
+levied a tax on incomes as authorized by the sixteenth amendment to the
+Constitution. The tax which roused such party passions twenty years
+before was now accepted as a matter of course.
+
+Having disposed of the tariff, Congress took up the old and vexatious
+currency question and offered a new solution in the form of the federal
+reserve law of December, 1913. This measure, one of the most interesting
+in the history of federal finance, embraced four leading features. In
+the first place, it continued the prohibition on the issuance of notes
+by state banks and provided for a national currency. In the second
+place, it put the new banking system under the control of a federal
+reserve board composed entirely of government officials. To prevent the
+growth of a "central money power," it provided, in the third place, for
+the creation of twelve federal reserve banks, one in each of twelve
+great districts into which the country is divided. All local national
+banks were required and certain other banks permitted to become members
+of the new system and share in its control. Finally, with a view to
+expanding the currency, a step which the Democrats had long urged upon
+the country, the issuance of paper money, under definite safeguards, was
+authorized.
+
+Mindful of the agricultural interest, ever dear to the heart of
+Jefferson's followers, the Democrats supplemented the reserve law by the
+Farm Loan Act of 1916, creating federal agencies to lend money on farm
+mortgages at moderate rates of interest. Within a year $20,000,000 had
+been lent to farmers, the heaviest borrowing being in nine Western and
+Southern states, with Texas in the lead.
+
+=Anti-trust Legislation.=--The tariff and currency laws were followed by
+three significant measures relative to trusts. Rejecting utterly the
+Progressive doctrine of government regulation, President Wilson
+announced that it was the purpose of the Democrats "to destroy monopoly
+and maintain competition as the only effective instrument of business
+liberty." The first step in this direction, the Clayton Anti-trust Act,
+carried into great detail the Sherman law of 1890 forbidding and
+penalizing combinations in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. In
+every line it revealed a determined effort to tear apart the great
+trusts and to put all business on a competitive basis. Its terms were
+reinforced in the same year by a law creating a Federal Trade Commission
+empowered to inquire into the methods of corporations and lodge
+complaints against concerns "using any unfair method of competition." In
+only one respect was the severity of the Democratic policy relaxed. An
+act of 1918 provided that the Sherman law should not apply to companies
+engaged in export trade, the purpose being to encourage large
+corporations to enter foreign commerce.
+
+The effect of this whole body of anti-trust legislation, in spite of
+much labor on it, remained problematical. Very few combinations were
+dissolved as a result of it. Startling investigations were made into
+alleged abuses on the part of trusts; but it could hardly be said that
+huge business concerns had lost any of their predominance in American
+industry.
+
+=Labor Legislation.=--By no mere coincidence, the Clayton Anti-trust law
+of 1914 made many concessions to organized labor. It declared that "the
+labor of a human being is not a commodity or an article of commerce,"
+and it exempted unions from prosecution as "combinations in restraint of
+trade." It likewise defined and limited the uses which the federal
+courts might make of injunctions in labor disputes and guaranteed trial
+by jury to those guilty of disobedience (see p. 581).
+
+The Clayton law was followed the next year by the Seamen's Act giving
+greater liberty of contract to American sailors and requiring an
+improvement of living conditions on shipboard. This was such a drastic
+law that shipowners declared themselves unable to meet foreign
+competition under its terms, owing to the low labor standards of other
+countries.
+
+Still more extraordinary than the Seamen's Act was the Adamson law of
+1916 fixing a standard eight-hour work-day for trainmen on railroads--a
+measure wrung from Congress under a threat of a great strike by the four
+Railway Brotherhoods. This act, viewed by union leaders as a triumph,
+called forth a bitter denunciation of "trade union domination," but it
+was easier to criticize than to find another solution of the problem.
+
+Three other laws enacted during President Wilson's administration were
+popular in the labor world. One of them provided compensation for
+federal employees injured in the discharge of their duties. Another
+prohibited the labor of children under a certain age in the industries
+of the nation. A third prescribed for coal miners in Alaska an
+eight-hour day and modern safeguards for life and health. There were
+positive proofs that organized labor had obtained a large share of power
+in the councils of the country.
+
+=Federal and State Relations.=--If the interference of the government
+with business and labor represented a departure from the old idea of
+"the less government the better," what can be said of a large body of
+laws affecting the rights of states? The prohibition of child labor
+everywhere was one indication of the new tendency. Mr. Wilson had once
+declared such legislation unconstitutional; the Supreme Court declared
+it unconstitutional; but Congress, undaunted, carried it into effect
+under the guise of a tax on goods made by children below the age limit.
+There were other indications of the drift. Large sums of money were
+appropriated by Congress in 1916 to assist the states in building and
+maintaining highways. The same year the Farm Loan Act projected the
+federal government into the sphere of local money lending. In 1917
+millions of dollars were granted to states in aid of vocational
+education, incidentally imposing uniform standards throughout the
+country. Evidently the government was no longer limited to the duties of
+the policeman.
+
+=The Prohibition Amendment.=--A still more significant form of
+intervention in state affairs was the passage, in December, 1917, of an
+amendment to the federal Constitution establishing national prohibition
+of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as beverages. This
+was the climax of a historical movement extending over half a century.
+In 1872, a National Prohibition party, launched three years before,
+nominated its first presidential candidate and inaugurated a campaign of
+agitation. Though its vote was never large, the cause for which it
+stood found increasing favor among the people. State after state by
+popular referendum abolished the liquor traffic within its borders. By
+1917 at least thirty-two of the forty-eight were "dry." When the federal
+amendment was submitted for approval, the ratification was surprisingly
+swift. In a little more than a year, namely, on January 16, 1919, it was
+proclaimed. Twelve months later the amendment went into effect.
+
+
+COLONIAL AND FOREIGN POLICIES
+
+=The Philippines and Porto Rico.=--Independence for the Philippines and
+larger self-government for Porto Rico had been among the policies of the
+Democratic party since the campaign of 1900. President Wilson in his
+annual messages urged upon Congress more autonomy for the Filipinos and
+a definite promise of final independence. The result was the Jones
+Organic Act for the Philippines passed in 1916. This measure provided
+that the upper as well as the lower house of the Philippine legislature
+should be elected by popular vote, and declared it to be the intention
+of the United States to grant independence "as soon as a stable
+government can be established." This, said President Wilson on signing
+the bill, is "a very satisfactory advance in our policy of extending to
+them self-government and control of their own affairs." The following
+year Congress, yielding to President Wilson's insistence, passed a new
+organic act for Porto Rico, making both houses of the legislature
+elective and conferring American citizenship upon the inhabitants of the
+island.
+
+[Illustration: THE CARIBBEAN REGION]
+
+=American Power in the Caribbean.=--While extending more self-government
+to its dominions, the United States enlarged its sphere of influence in
+the Caribbean. The supervision of finances in Santo Domingo, inaugurated
+in Roosevelt's administration, was transformed into a protectorate under
+Wilson. In 1914 dissensions in the republic led to the landing of
+American marines to "supervise" the elections. Two years later, an
+officer in the American navy, with authority from Washington, placed
+the entire republic "in a state of military occupation." He proceeded to
+suspend the government and laws of the country, exile the president,
+suppress the congress, and substitute American military authority. In
+1919 a consulting board of four prominent Dominicans was appointed to
+aid the American military governor; but it resigned the next year after
+making a plea for the restoration of independence to the republic. For
+all practical purposes, it seemed, the sovereignty of Santo Domingo had
+been transferred to the United States.
+
+In the neighboring republic of Haiti, a similar state of affairs
+existed. In the summer of 1915 a revolution broke out there--one of a
+long series beginning in 1804--and our marines were landed to restore
+order. Elections were held under the supervision of American officers,
+and a treaty was drawn up placing the management of Haitian finances and
+the local constabulary under American authority. In taking this action,
+our Secretary of State was careful to announce: "The United States
+government has no purpose of aggression and is entirely disinterested in
+promoting this protectorate." Still it must be said that there were
+vigorous protests on the part of natives and American citizens against
+the conduct of our agents in the island. In 1921 President Wilson was
+considering withdrawal.
+
+In line with American policy in the West Indian waters was the purchase
+in 1917 of the Danish Islands just off the coast of Porto Rico. The
+strategic position of the islands, especially in relation to Haiti and
+Porto Rico, made them an object of American concern as early as 1867,
+when a treaty of purchase was negotiated only to be rejected by the
+Senate of the United States. In 1902 a second arrangement was made, but
+this time it was defeated by the upper house of the Danish parliament.
+The third treaty brought an end to fifty years of bargaining and the
+Stars and Stripes were raised over St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John, and
+numerous minor islands scattered about in the neighborhood. "It would be
+suicidal," commented a New York newspaper, "for America, on the
+threshold of a great commercial expansion in South America, to suffer a
+Heligoland, or a Gibraltar, or an Aden to be erected by her rivals at
+the mouth of her Suez." On the mainland American power was strengthened
+by the establishment of a protectorate over Nicaragua in 1916.
+
+=Mexican Relations.=--The extension of American enterprise southward
+into Latin America, of which the operations in the Caribbean regions
+were merely one phase, naturally carried Americans into Mexico to
+develop the natural resources of that country. Under the iron rule of
+General Porfirio Diaz, established in 1876 and maintained with only a
+short break until 1911, Mexico had become increasingly attractive to our
+business men. On the invitation of President Diaz, they had invested
+huge sums in Mexican lands, oil fields, and mines, and had laid the
+foundations of a new industrial order. The severe regime instituted by
+Diaz, however, stirred popular discontent. The peons, or serfs, demanded
+the break-up of the great estates, some of which had come down from the
+days of Cortez. Their clamor for "the restoration of the land to the
+people could not be silenced." In 1911 Diaz was forced to resign and
+left the country.
+
+Mexico now slid down the path to disorder. Revolutions and civil
+commotions followed in swift succession. A liberal president, Madero,
+installed as the successor to Diaz, was deposed in 1913 and brutally
+murdered. Huerta, a military adventurer, hailed for a time as another
+"strong man," succeeded Madero whose murder he was accused of
+instigating. Although Great Britain and nearly all the powers of Europe
+accepted the new government as lawful, the United States steadily
+withheld recognition. In the meantime Mexico was torn by insurrections
+under the leadership of Carranza, a friend of Madero, Villa, a bandit of
+generous pretensions, and Zapata, a radical leader of the peons. Without
+the support of the United States, Huerta was doomed.
+
+In the summer of 1914, the dictator resigned and fled from the capital,
+leaving the field to Carranza. For six years the new president,
+recognized by the United States, held a precarious position which he
+vigorously strove to strengthen against various revolutionary movements.
+At length in 1920, he too was deposed and murdered, and another military
+chieftain, Obregon, installed in power.
+
+These events right at our door could not fail to involve the government
+of the United States. In the disorders many American citizens lost their
+lives. American property was destroyed and land owned by Americans was
+confiscated. A new Mexican constitution, in effect nationalizing the
+natural resources of the country, struck at the rights of foreign
+investors. Moreover the Mexican border was in constant turmoil. Even in
+the last days of his administration, Mr. Taft felt compelled to issue a
+solemn warning to the Mexican government protesting against the
+violation of American rights.
+
+President Wilson, soon after his inauguration, sent a commissioner to
+Mexico to inquire into the situation. Although he declared a general
+policy of "watchful waiting," he twice came to blows with Mexican
+forces. In 1914 some American sailors at Tampico were arrested by a
+Mexican officer; the Mexican government, although it immediately
+released the men, refused to make the required apology for the incident.
+As a result President Wilson ordered the landing of American forces at
+Vera Cruz and the occupation of the city. A clash of arms followed in
+which several Americans were killed. War seemed inevitable, but at this
+juncture the governments of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile tendered their
+good offices as mediators. After a few weeks of negotiation, during
+which Huerta was forced out of power, American forces were withdrawn
+from Vera Cruz and the incident closed.
+
+In 1916 a second break in amicable relations occurred. In the spring of
+that year a band of Villa's men raided the town of Columbus, New Mexico,
+killing several citizens and committing robberies. A punitive expedition
+under the command of General Pershing was quickly sent out to capture
+the offenders. Against the protests of President Carranza, American
+forces penetrated deeply into Mexico without effecting the object of
+the undertaking. This operation lasted until January, 1917, when the
+imminence of war with Germany led to the withdrawal of the American
+soldiers. Friendly relations were resumed with the Mexican government
+and the policy of "watchful waiting" was continued.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES AND THE EUROPEAN WAR
+
+=The Outbreak of the War.=--In the opening days of August, 1914, the
+age-long jealousies of European nations, sharpened by new imperial
+ambitions, broke out in another general conflict such as had shaken the
+world in the days of Napoleon. On June 28, the heir to the
+Austro-Hungarian throne was assassinated at Serajevo, the capital of
+Bosnia, an Austrian province occupied mainly by Serbs. With a view to
+stopping Serbian agitation for independence, Austria-Hungary laid the
+blame for this incident on the government of Serbia and made humiliating
+demands on that country. Germany at once proposed that the issue should
+be regarded as "an affair which should be settled solely between
+Austria-Hungary and Serbia"; meaning that the small nation should be
+left to the tender mercies of a great power. Russia refused to take this
+view. Great Britain proposed a settlement by mediation. Germany backed
+up Austria to the limit. To use the language of the German authorities:
+"We were perfectly aware that a possible warlike attitude of
+Austria-Hungary against Serbia might bring Russia upon the field and
+that it might therefore involve us in a war, in accordance with our
+duties as allies. We could not, however, in these vital interests of
+Austria-Hungary which were at stake, advise our ally to take a yielding
+attitude not compatible with his dignity nor deny him our assistance."
+That made the war inevitable.
+
+Every day of the fateful August, 1914, was crowded with momentous
+events. On the 1st, Germany declared war on Russia. On the 2d, the
+Germans invaded the little duchy of Luxemburg and notified the King of
+Belgium that they were preparing to violate the neutrality of his realm
+on their way to Paris. On the same day, Great Britain, anxiously
+besought by the French government, promised the aid of the British navy
+if German warships made hostile demonstrations in the Channel. August
+3d, the German government declared war on France. The following day,
+Great Britain demanded of Germany respect for Belgian neutrality and,
+failing to receive the guarantee, broke off diplomatic relations. On the
+5th, the British prime minister announced that war had opened between
+England and Germany. The storm now broke in all its pitiless fury.
+
+=The State of American Opinion.=--Although President Wilson promptly
+proclaimed the neutrality of the United States, the sympathies of a
+large majority of the American people were without doubt on the side of
+Great Britain and France. To them the invasion of the little kingdom of
+Belgium and the horrors that accompanied German occupation were odious
+in the extreme. Moreover, they regarded the German imperial government
+as an autocratic power wielded in the interest of an ambitious military
+party. The Kaiser, William II, and the Crown Prince were the symbols of
+royal arrogance. On the other hand, many Americans of German descent, in
+memory of their ties with the Fatherland, openly sympathized with the
+Central Powers; and many Americans of Irish descent, recalling their
+long and bitter struggle for home rule in Ireland, would have regarded
+British defeat as a merited redress of ancient grievances.
+
+Extremely sensitive to American opinion, but ill informed about it, the
+German government soon began systematic efforts to present its cause to
+the people of the United States in the most favorable light possible.
+Dr. Bernhard Dernburg, the former colonial secretary of the German
+empire, was sent to America as a special agent. For months he filled the
+newspapers, magazines, and periodicals with interviews, articles, and
+notes on the justice of the Teutonic cause. From a press bureau in New
+York flowed a stream of pamphlets, leaflets, and cartoons. A magazine,
+"The Fatherland," was founded to secure "fair play for Germany and
+Austria." Several professors in American universities, who had received
+their training in Germany, took up the pen in defense of the Central
+Empires. The German language press, without exception it seems, the
+National German Alliance, minor German societies, and Lutheran churches
+came to the support of the German cause. Even the English language
+papers, though generally favorable to the Entente Allies, opened their
+columns in the interest of equal justice to the spokesmen for all the
+contending powers of Europe.
+
+Before two weeks had elapsed the controversy had become so intense that
+President Wilson (August 18, 1914) was moved to caution his countrymen
+against falling into angry disputes. "Every man," he said, "who really
+loves America will act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality which
+is the spirit of impartiality and fairness and friendliness to all
+concerned.... We must be impartial in thought as well as in action, must
+put a curb upon our sentiments as well as upon every transaction that
+might be construed as a preference of one party to the struggle before
+another."
+
+=The Clash over American Trade.=--As in the time of the Napoleonic wars,
+the conflict in Europe raised fundamental questions respecting rights of
+Americans trading with countries at peace as well as those at war. On
+this point there existed on August 1, 1914, a fairly definite body of
+principles by which nations were bound. Among them the following were of
+vital significance. In the first place, it was recognized that an enemy
+merchant ship caught on the high seas was a legitimate prize of war
+which might be seized and confiscated. In the second place, it was
+agreed that "contraband of war" found on an enemy or neutral ship was a
+lawful prize; any ship suspected of carrying it was liable to search and
+if caught with forbidden goods was subject to seizure. In the third
+place, international law prescribed that a peaceful merchant ship,
+whether belonging to an enemy or to a neutral country, should not be
+destroyed or sunk without provision for the safety of crew and
+passengers. In the fourth place, it was understood that a belligerent
+had the right, if it could, to blockade the ports of an enemy and
+prevent the ingress and egress of all ships; but such a blockade, to be
+lawful, had to be effective.
+
+These general principles left undetermined two important matters: "What
+is an effective blockade?" and "What is contraband of war?" The task of
+answering these questions fell to Great Britain as mistress of the seas.
+Although the German submarines made it impossible for her battleships to
+maintain a continuous patrol of the waters in front of blockaded ports,
+she declared the blockade to be none the less "effective" because her
+navy was supreme. As to contraband of war Great Britain put such a broad
+interpretation upon the term as to include nearly every important
+article of commerce. Early in 1915 she declared even cargoes of grain
+and flour to be contraband, defending the action on the ground that the
+German government had recently taken possession of all domestic stocks
+of corn, wheat, and flour.
+
+A new question arose in connection with American trade with the neutral
+countries surrounding Germany. Great Britain early began to intercept
+ships carrying oil, gasoline, and copper--all war materials of prime
+importance--on the ground that they either were destined ultimately to
+Germany or would release goods for sale to Germans. On November 2, 1914,
+the English government announced that the Germans wore sowing mines in
+open waters and that therefore the whole of the North Sea was a military
+zone. Ships bound for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were ordered to come
+by the English Channel for inspection and sailing directions. In effect,
+Americans were now licensed by Great Britain to trade in certain
+commodities and in certain amounts with neutral countries.
+
+Against these extraordinary measures, the State Department at Washington
+lodged pointed objections, saying: "This government is reluctantly
+forced to the conclusion that the present policy of His Majesty's
+government toward neutral ships and cargoes exceeds the manifest
+necessity of a belligerent and constitutes restrictions upon the rights
+of American citizens on the high seas, which are not justified by the
+rules of international law or required under the principle of
+self-preservation."
+
+=Germany Begins the Submarine Campaign.=--Germany now announced that, on
+and after February 18, 1915, the whole of the English Channel and the
+waters around Great Britain would be deemed a war zone and that every
+enemy ship found therein would be destroyed. The German decree added
+that, as the British admiralty had ordered the use of neutral flags by
+English ships in time of distress, neutral vessels would be in danger of
+destruction if found in the forbidden area. It was clear that Germany
+intended to employ submarines to destroy shipping. A new factor was thus
+introduced into naval warfare, one not provided for in the accepted laws
+of war. A warship overhauling a merchant vessel could easily take its
+crew and passengers on board for safe keeping as prescribed by
+international law; but a submarine ordinarily could do nothing of the
+sort. Of necessity the lives and the ships of neutrals, as well as of
+belligerents, were put in mortal peril. This amazing conduct Germany
+justified on the ground that it was mere retaliation against Great
+Britain for her violations of international law.
+
+The response of the United States to the ominous German order was swift
+and direct. On February 10, 1915, it warned Germany that if her
+commanders destroyed American lives and ships in obedience to that
+decree, the action would "be very hard indeed to reconcile with the
+friendly relations happily subsisting between the two governments." The
+American note added that the German imperial government would be held to
+"strict accountability" and all necessary steps would be taken to
+safeguard American lives and American rights. This was firm and clear
+language, but the only response which it evoked from Germany was a
+suggestion that, if Great Britain would allow food supplies to pass
+through the blockade, the submarine campaign would be dropped.
+
+=Violations of American Rights.=--Meanwhile Germany continued to ravage
+shipping on the high seas. On January 28, a German raider sank the
+American ship, _William P. Frye_, in the South Atlantic; on March 28, a
+British ship, the _Falaba_, was sunk by a submarine and many on board,
+including an American citizen, were killed; and on April 28, a German
+airplane dropped bombs on the American steamer _Cushing_. On the morning
+of May 1, 1915, Americans were astounded to see in the newspapers an
+advertisement, signed by the German Imperial Embassy, warning travelers
+of the dangers in the war zone and notifying them that any who ventured
+on British ships into that area did so at their own risk. On that day,
+the _Lusitania_, a British steamer, sailed from New York for Liverpool.
+On May 7, without warning, the ship was struck by two torpedoes and in a
+few minutes went down by the bow, carrying to death 1153 persons
+including 114 American men, women, and children. A cry of horror ran
+through the country. The German papers in America and a few American
+people argued that American citizens had been duly warned of the danger
+and had deliberately taken their lives into their own hands; but the
+terrible deed was almost universally condemned by public opinion.
+
+=The _Lusitania_ Notes.=--On May 14, the Department of State at
+Washington made public the first of three famous notes on the
+_Lusitania_ case. It solemnly informed the German government that "no
+warning that an unlawful and inhumane act will be committed can possibly
+be accepted as an excuse or palliation for that act or as an abatement
+of the responsibility for its commission." It called upon the German
+government to disavow the act, make reparation as far as possible, and
+take steps to prevent "the recurrence of anything so obviously
+subversive of the principles of warfare." The note closed with a clear
+caution to Germany that the government of the United States would not
+"omit any word or any act necessary to the performance of its sacred
+duty of maintaining the rights of the United States and its citizens and
+of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment." The die was cast;
+but Germany in reply merely temporized.
+
+In a second note, made public on June 11, the position of the United
+States was again affirmed. William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of
+State, had resigned because the drift of President Wilson's policy was
+not toward mediation but the strict maintenance of American rights, if
+need be, by force of arms. The German reply was still evasive and German
+naval commanders continued their course of sinking merchant ships. In a
+third and final note of July 21, 1915, President Wilson made it clear to
+Germany that he meant what he said when he wrote that he would maintain
+the rights of American citizens. Finally after much discussion and
+shifting about, the German ambassador on September 1, 1915, sent a brief
+note to the Secretary of State: "Liners will not be sunk by our
+submarines without warning and without safety of the lives of
+non-combatants, provided the liners do not try to escape or offer
+resistance." Editorially, the New York _Times_ declared: "It is a
+triumph not only of diplomacy but of reason, of humanity, of justice,
+and of truth." The Secretary of State saw in it "a recognition of the
+fundamental principles for which we have contended."
+
+=The Presidential Election of 1916.=--In the midst of this crisis came
+the presidential campaign. On the Republican side everything seemed to
+depend upon the action of the Progressives. If the breach created in
+1912 could be closed, victory was possible; if not, defeat was certain.
+A promise of unity lay in the fact that the conventions of the
+Republicans and Progressives were held simultaneously in Chicago. The
+friends of Roosevelt hoped that both parties would select him as their
+candidate; but this hope was not realized. The Republicans chose, and
+the Progressives accepted, Charles E. Hughes, an associate justice of
+the federal Supreme Court who, as governor of New York, had won a
+national reputation by waging war on "machine politicians."
+
+In the face of the clamor for expressions of sympathy with one or the
+other of the contending powers of Europe, the Republicans chose a middle
+course, declaring that they would uphold all American rights "at home
+and abroad, by land and by sea." This sentiment Mr. Hughes echoed in his
+acceptance speech. By some it was interpreted to mean a firmer policy in
+dealing with Great Britain; by others, a more vigorous handling of the
+submarine menace. The Democrats, on their side, renominated President
+Wilson by acclamation, reviewed with pride the legislative achievements
+of the party, and commended "the splendid diplomatic victories of our
+great President who has preserved the vital interests of our government
+and its citizens and kept us out of war."
+
+In the election which ensued President Wilson's popular vote exceeded
+that cast for Mr. Hughes by more than half a million, while his
+electoral vote stood 277 to 254. The result was regarded, and not
+without warrant, as a great personal triumph for the President. He had
+received the largest vote yet cast for a presidential candidate. The
+Progressive party practically disappeared, and the Socialists suffered a
+severe set-back, falling far behind the vote of 1912.
+
+=President Wilson Urges Peace upon the Warring Nations.=--Apparently
+convinced that his pacific policies had been profoundly approved by his
+countrymen, President Wilson, soon after the election, addressed "peace
+notes" to the European belligerents. On December 16, the German Emperor
+proposed to the Allied Powers that they enter into peace negotiations, a
+suggestion that was treated as a mere political maneuver by the opposing
+governments. Two days later President Wilson sent a note to the warring
+nations asking them to avow "the terms upon which war might be
+concluded." To these notes the Central Powers replied that they were
+ready to meet their antagonists in a peace conference; and Allied Powers
+answered by presenting certain conditions precedent to a satisfactory
+settlement. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson in an address before
+the Senate, declared it to be a duty of the United States to take part
+in the establishment of a stable peace on the basis of certain
+principles. These were, in short: "peace without victory"; the right of
+nationalities to freedom and self-government; the independence of
+Poland; freedom of the seas; the reduction of armaments; and the
+abolition of entangling alliances. The whole world was discussing the
+President's remarkable message, when it was dumbfounded to hear, on
+January 31, that the German ambassador at Washington had announced the
+official renewal of ruthless submarine warfare.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES AT WAR
+
+=Steps toward War.=--Three days after the receipt of the news that the
+German government intended to return to its former submarine policy,
+President Wilson severed diplomatic relations with the German empire. At
+the same time he explained to Congress that he desired no conflict with
+Germany and would await an "overt act" before taking further steps to
+preserve American rights. "God grant," he concluded, "that we may not be
+challenged to defend them by acts of willful injustice on the part of
+the government of Germany." Yet the challenge came. Between February 26
+and April 2, six American merchant vessels were torpedoed, in most cases
+without any warning and without regard to the loss of American lives.
+President Wilson therefore called upon Congress to answer the German
+menace. The reply of Congress on April 6 was a resolution, passed with
+only a few dissenting votes, declaring the existence of a state of war
+with Germany. Austria-Hungary at once severed diplomatic relations with
+the United States; but it was not until December 7 that Congress, acting
+on the President's advice, declared war also on that "vassal of the
+German government."
+
+=American War Aims.=--In many addresses at the beginning and during the
+course of the war, President Wilson stated the purposes which actuated
+our government in taking up arms. He first made it clear that it was a
+war of self-defense. "The military masters of Germany," he exclaimed,
+"denied us the right to be neutral." Proof of that lay on every hand.
+Agents of the German imperial government had destroyed American lives
+and American property on the high seas. They had filled our communities
+with spies. They had planted bombs in ships and munition works. They had
+fomented divisions among American citizens.
+
+Though assailed in many ways and compelled to resort to war, the United
+States sought no material rewards. "The world must be made safe for
+democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of
+political liberty. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no
+conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves."
+
+In a very remarkable message read to Congress on January 8, 1918,
+President Wilson laid down his famous "fourteen points" summarizing the
+ideals for which we were fighting. They included open treaties of peace,
+openly arrived at; absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas; the
+removal, as far as possible, of trade barriers among nations; reduction
+of armaments; adjustment of colonial claims in the interest of the
+populations concerned; fair and friendly treatment of Russia; the
+restoration of Belgium; righting the wrong done to France in 1871 in the
+matter of Alsace-Lorraine; adjustment of Italian frontiers along the
+lines of nationality; more liberty for the peoples of Austria-Hungary;
+the restoration of Serbia and Rumania; the readjustment of the Turkish
+Empire; an independent Poland; and an association of nations to afford
+mutual guarantees to all states great and small. On a later occasion
+President Wilson elaborated the last point, namely, the formation of a
+league of nations to guarantee peace and establish justice among the
+powers of the world. Democracy, the right of nations to determine their
+own fate, a covenant of enduring peace--these were the ideals for which
+the American people were to pour out their blood and treasure.
+
+=The Selective Draft.=--The World War became a war of nations. The
+powers against which we were arrayed had every able-bodied man in
+service and all their resources, human and material, thrown into the
+scale. For this reason, President Wilson summoned the whole people of
+the United States to make every sacrifice necessary for victory.
+Congress by law decreed that the national army should be chosen from all
+male citizens and males not enemy aliens who had declared their
+intention of becoming citizens. By the first act of May 18, 1917, it
+fixed the age limits at twenty-one to thirty-one inclusive. Later, in
+August, 1918, it extended them to eighteen and forty-five. From the men
+of the first group so enrolled were chosen by lot the soldiers for the
+World War who, with the regular army and the national guard, formed the
+American Expeditionary Force upholding the American cause on the
+battlefields of Europe. "The whole nation," said the President, "must be
+a team in which each man shall play the part for which he is best
+fitted."
+
+=Liberty Loans and Taxes.=--In order that the military and naval forces
+should be stinted in no respect, the nation was called upon to place its
+financial resources at the service of the government. Some urged the
+"conscription of wealth as well as men," meaning the support of the war
+out of taxes upon great fortunes; but more conservative counsels
+prevailed. Four great Liberty Loans were floated, all the agencies of
+modern publicity being employed to enlist popular interest. The first
+loan had four and a half million subscribers; the fourth more than
+twenty million. Combined with loans were heavy taxes. A progressive tax
+was laid upon incomes beginning with four per cent on incomes in the
+lower ranges and rising to sixty-three per cent of that part of any
+income above $2,000,000. A progressive tax was levied upon inheritances.
+An excess profits tax was laid upon all corporations and partnerships,
+rising in amount to sixty per cent of the net income in excess of
+thirty-three per cent on the invested capital. "This," said a
+distinguished economist, "is the high-water mark in the history of
+taxation. Never before in the annals of civilization has an attempt been
+made to take as much as two-thirds of a man's income by taxation."
+
+=Mobilizing Material Resources.=--No stone was left unturned to provide
+the arms, munitions, supplies, and transportation required in the
+gigantic undertaking. Between the declaration of war and the armistice,
+Congress enacted law after law relative to food supplies, raw materials,
+railways, mines, ships, forests, and industrial enterprises. No power
+over the lives and property of citizens, deemed necessary to the
+prosecution of the armed conflict, was withheld from the government. The
+farmer's wheat, the housewife's sugar, coal at the mines, labor in the
+factories, ships at the wharves, trade with friendly countries, the
+railways, banks, stores, private fortunes--all were mobilized and laid
+under whatever obligations the government deemed imperative. Never was a
+nation more completely devoted to a single cause.
+
+A law of August 10, 1917, gave the President power to fix the prices of
+wheat and coal and to take almost any steps necessary to prevent
+monopoly and excessive prices. By a series of measures, enlarging the
+principles of the shipping act of 1916, ships and shipyards were brought
+under public control and the government was empowered to embark upon a
+great ship-building program. In December, 1917, the government assumed
+for the period of the war the operation of the railways under a
+presidential proclamation which was elaborated in March, 1918, by act of
+Congress. In the summer of 1918 the express, telephone, and telegraph
+business of the entire country passed under government control. By war
+risk insurance acts allowances were made for the families of enlisted
+men, compensation for injuries was provided, death benefits were
+instituted, and a system of national insurance was established in the
+interest of the men in service. Never before in the history of the
+country had the government taken such a wise and humane view of its
+obligations to those who served on the field of battle or on the seas.
+
+=The Espionage and Sedition Acts.=--By the Espionage law of June 15,
+1917, and the amending law, known as the Sedition act, passed in May of
+the following year, the government was given a drastic power over the
+expression of opinion. The first measure penalized those who conveyed
+information to a foreign country to be used to the injury of the United
+States; those who made false statements designed to interfere with the
+military or naval forces of the United States; those who attempted to
+stir up insubordination or disloyalty in the army and navy; and those
+who willfully obstructed enlistment. The Sedition act was still more
+severe and sweeping in its terms. It imposed heavy penalties upon any
+person who used "abusive language about the government or institutions
+of the country." It authorized the dismissal of any officer of the
+government who committed "disloyal acts" or uttered "disloyal language,"
+and empowered the Postmaster General to close the mails to persons
+violating the law. This measure, prepared by the Department of Justice,
+encountered vigorous opposition in the Senate, where twenty-four
+Republicans and two Democrats voted against it. Senator Johnson of
+California denounced it as a law "to suppress the freedom of the press
+in the United States and to prevent any man, no matter who he is, from
+expressing legitimate criticism concerning the present government." The
+constitutionality of the acts was attacked; but they were sustained by
+the Supreme Court and stringently enforced.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+THE LAUNCHING OF A SHIP AT THE GREAT NAVAL YARDS, NEWARK, N.J.]
+
+=Labor and the War.=--In view of the restlessness of European labor
+during the war and especially the proletarian revolution in Russia in
+November, 1917, some anxiety was early expressed as to the stand which
+organized labor might take in the United States. It was, however, soon
+dispelled. Samuel Gompers, speaking for the American Federation of
+Labor, declared that "this is labor's war," and pledged the united
+support of all the unions. There was some dissent. The Socialist party
+denounced the war as a capitalist quarrel; but all the protests combined
+were too slight to have much effect. American labor leaders were sent to
+Europe to strengthen the wavering ranks of trade unionists in war-worn
+England, France, and Italy. Labor was given representation on the
+important boards and commissions dealing with industrial questions.
+Trade union standards were accepted by the government and generally
+applied in industry. The Department of Labor became one of the powerful
+war centers of the nation. In a memorable address to the American
+Federation of Labor, President Wilson assured the trade unionists that
+labor conditions should not be made unduly onerous by the war and
+received in return a pledge of loyalty from the Federation. Recognition
+of labor's contribution to winning the war was embodied in the treaty of
+peace, which provided for a permanent international organization to
+promote the world-wide effort of labor to improve social conditions.
+"The league of nations has for its object the establishment of universal
+peace," runs the preamble to the labor section of the treaty, "and such
+a peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice....
+The failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of labor is an
+obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve the
+conditions in their own countries."
+
+=The American Navy in the War.=--As soon as Congress declared war the
+fleet was mobilized, American ports were thrown open to the warships of
+the Allies, immediate provision was made for increasing the number of
+men and ships, and a contingent of war vessels was sent to cooeperate
+with the British and French in their life-and-death contest with
+submarines. Special effort was made to stimulate the production of
+"submarine chasers" and "scout cruisers" to be sent to the danger zone.
+Convoys were provided to accompany the transports conveying soldiers to
+France. Before the end of the war more than three hundred American
+vessels and 75,000 officers and men were operating in European waters.
+Though the German fleet failed to come out and challenge the sea power
+of the Allies, the battleships of the United States were always ready to
+do their full duty in such an event. As things turned out, the service
+of the American navy was limited mainly to helping in the campaign that
+wore down the submarine menace to Allied shipping.
+
+=The War in France.=--Owing to the peculiar character of the warfare in
+France, it required a longer time for American military forces to get
+into action; but there was no unnecessary delay. Soon after the
+declaration of war, steps were taken to give military assistance to the
+Allies. The regular army was enlarged and the troops of the national
+guard were brought into national service. On June 13, General John J.
+Pershing, chosen head of the American Expeditionary Forces, reached
+Paris and began preparations for the arrival of our troops. In June, the
+vanguard of the army reached France. A slow and steady stream followed.
+As soon as the men enrolled under the draft were ready, it became a
+flood. During the period of the war the army was enlarged from about
+190,000 men to 3,665,000, of whom more than 2,000,000 were in France
+when the armistice was signed.
+
+Although American troops did not take part on a large scale until the
+last phase of the war in 1918, several battalions of infantry were in
+the trenches by October, 1917, and had their first severe encounter with
+the Germans early in November. In January, 1918, they took over a part
+of the front line as an American sector. In March, General Pershing
+placed our forces at the disposal of General Foch, commander-in-chief of
+the Allied armies. The first division, which entered the Montdidier
+salient in April, soon was engaged with the enemy, "taking with splendid
+dash the town of Cantigny and all other objectives, which were organized
+and held steadfastly against vicious counter attacks and galling
+artillery fire."
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+TROOPS RETURNING FROM FRANCE]
+
+When the Germans launched their grand drives toward the Marne and Paris,
+in June and July, 1918, every available man was placed at General Foch's
+command. At Belleau Wood, at Chateau-Thierry, and other points along the
+deep salient made by the Germans into the French lines, American
+soldiers distinguished themselves by heroic action. They also played an
+important role in the counter attack that "smashed" the salient and
+drove the Germans back.
+
+In September, American troops, with French aid, "wiped out" the German
+salient at St. Mihiel. By this time General Pershing was ready for the
+great American drive to the northeast in the Argonne forest, while he
+also cooeperated with the British in the assault on the Hindenburg line.
+In the Meuse-Argonne battle, our soldiers encountered some of the most
+severe fighting of the war and pressed forward steadily against the most
+stubborn resistance from the enemy. On the 6th of November, reported
+General Pershing, "a division of the first corps reached a point on the
+Meuse opposite Sedan, twenty-five miles from our line of departure. The
+strategical goal which was our highest hope was gained. We had cut the
+enemy's main line of communications and nothing but a surrender or an
+armistice could save his army from complete disaster." Five days later
+the end came. On the morning of November 11, the order to cease firing
+went into effect. The German army was in rapid retreat and
+demoralization had begun. The Kaiser had abdicated and fled into
+Holland. The Hohenzollern dreams of empire were shattered. In the
+fifty-second month, the World War, involving nearly every civilized
+nation on the globe, was brought to a close. More than 75,000 American
+soldiers and sailors had given their lives. More than 250,000 had been
+wounded or were missing or in German prison camps.
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN BATTLE LINES OF THE VARIOUS YEARS OF THE
+WORLD WAR]
+
+
+THE SETTLEMENT AT PARIS
+
+=The Peace Conference.=--On January 18, 1919, a conference of the Allied
+and Associated Powers assembled to pronounce judgment upon the German
+empire and its defeated satellites: Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and
+Turkey. It was a moving spectacle. Seventy-two delegates spoke for
+thirty-two states. The United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and
+Japan had five delegates each. Belgium, Brazil, and Serbia were each
+assigned three. Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, China, Greece,
+Hedjaz, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Siam, and Czechoslovakia were
+allotted two apiece. The remaining states of New Zealand, Bolivia, Cuba,
+Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru,
+and Uruguay each had one delegate. President Wilson spoke in person for
+the United States. England, France, and Italy were represented by their
+premiers: David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau, and Vittorio Orlando.
+
+[Illustration: PREMIERS LLOYD GEORGE, ORLANDO AND CLEMENCEAU AND
+PRESIDENT WILSON AT PARIS]
+
+=The Supreme Council.=--The real work of the settlement was first
+committed to a Supreme Council of ten representing the United States,
+Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. This was later reduced to five
+members. Then Japan dropped out and finally Italy, leaving only
+President Wilson and the Premiers, Lloyd George and Clemenceau, the
+"Big Three," who assumed the burden of mighty decisions. On May 6, their
+work was completed and in a secret session of the full conference the
+whole treaty of peace was approved, though a few of the powers made
+reservations or objections. The next day the treaty was presented to the
+Germans who, after prolonged protests, signed on the last day of grace,
+June 28. This German treaty was followed by agreements with Austria,
+Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Collectively these great documents formed
+the legal basis of the general European settlement.
+
+=The Terms of the Settlement.=--The combined treaties make a huge
+volume. The German treaty alone embraces about 80,000 words.
+Collectively they cover an immense range of subjects which may be
+summarized under five heads: (1) The territorial settlement in Europe;
+(2) the destruction of German military power; (3) reparations for
+damages done by Germany and her allies; (4) the disposition of German
+colonies and protectorates; and (5) the League of Nations.
+
+Germany was reduced by the cession of Alsace-Lorraine to France and the
+loss of several other provinces. Austria-Hungary was dissolved and
+dismembered. Russia was reduced by the creation of new states on the
+west. Bulgaria was stripped of her gains in the recent Balkan wars.
+Turkey was dismembered. Nine new independent states were created:
+Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Esthonia, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia,
+Armenia, and Hedjaz. Italy, Greece, Rumania, and Serbia were enlarged by
+cessions of territory and Serbia was transformed into the great state of
+Jugoslavia.
+
+The destruction of German military power was thorough. The entire navy,
+with minor exceptions, was turned over to the Allied and Associated
+Powers; Germany's total equipment for the future was limited to six
+battleships and six light cruisers, with certain small vessels but no
+submarines. The number of enlisted men and officers for the army was
+fixed at not more than 100,000; the General Staff was dissolved; and the
+manufacture of munitions restricted.
+
+Germany was compelled to accept full responsibility for all damages; to
+pay five billion dollars in cash and goods, and to make certain other
+payments which might be ordered from time to time by an inter-allied
+reparations commission. She was also required to deliver to Belgium,
+France, and Italy, millions of tons of coal every year for ten years;
+while by way of additional compensation to France the rich coal basin of
+the Saar was placed under inter-allied control to be exploited under
+French administration for a period of at least fifteen years. Austria
+and the other associates of Germany were also laid under heavy
+obligations to the victors. Damages done to shipping by submarines and
+other vessels were to be paid for on the basis of ton for ton.
+
+The disposition of the German colonies and the old Ottoman empire
+presented knotty problems. It was finally agreed that the German
+colonies and Turkish provinces which were in a backward stage of
+development should be placed under the tutelage of certain powers acting
+as "mandatories" holding them in "a sacred trust of civilization." An
+exception to the mandatory principle arose in the case of German rights
+in Shantung, all of which were transferred directly to Japan. It was
+this arrangement that led the Chinese delegation to withhold their
+signatures from the treaty.
+
+=The League of Nations.=--High among the purposes which he had in mind
+in summoning the nation to arms, President Wilson placed the desire to
+put an end to war. All through the United States the people spoke of the
+"war to end war." No slogan called forth a deeper response from the
+public. The President himself repeatedly declared that a general
+association of nations must be formed to guard the peace and protect all
+against the ambitions of the few. "As I see it," he said in his address
+on opening the Fourth Liberty Loan campaign, "the constitution of the
+League of Nations and the clear definition of its objects must be a
+part, in a sense the most essential part, of the peace settlement
+itself."
+
+Nothing was more natural, therefore, than Wilson's insistence at Paris
+upon the formation of an international association. Indeed he had gone
+to Europe in person largely to accomplish that end. Part One of the
+treaty with Germany, the Covenant of the League of Nations, was due to
+his labors more than to any other influence. Within the League thus
+created were to be embraced all the Allied and Associated Powers and
+nearly all the neutrals. By a two-thirds vote of the League Assembly the
+excluded nations might be admitted.
+
+The agencies of the League of Nations were to be three in number: (1) a
+permanent secretariat located at Geneva; (2) an Assembly consisting of
+one delegate from each country, dominion, or self-governing colony
+(including Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and India); (3)
+and a Council consisting of representatives of the United States, Great
+Britain, France, Italy, and Japan, and four other representatives
+selected by the Assembly from time to time.
+
+The duties imposed on the League and the obligations accepted by its
+members were numerous and important. The Council was to take steps to
+formulate a scheme for the reduction of armaments and to submit a plan
+for the establishment of a permanent Court of International Justice. The
+members of the League (Article X) were to respect and preserve as
+against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing
+political independence of all the associated nations. They were to
+submit to arbitration or inquiry by the Council all disputes which could
+not be adjusted by diplomacy and in no case to resort to war until three
+months after the award. Should any member disregard its covenants, its
+action would be considered an act of war against the League, which would
+accordingly cut off the trade and business of the hostile member and
+recommend through the Council to the several associated governments the
+military measures to be taken. In case the decision in any arbitration
+of a dispute was unanimous, the members of the League affected by it
+were to abide by it.
+
+Such was the settlement at Paris and such was the association of nations
+formed to promote the peace of the world. They were quickly approved by
+most of the powers, and the first Assembly of the League of Nations met
+at Geneva late in 1920.
+
+=The Treaty in the United States.=--When the treaty was presented to the
+United States Senate for approval, a violent opposition appeared. In
+that chamber the Republicans had a slight majority and a two-thirds vote
+was necessary for ratification. The sentiment for and against the treaty
+ran mainly along party lines; but the Republicans were themselves
+divided. The major portion, known as "reservationists," favored
+ratification with certain conditions respecting American rights; while a
+small though active minority rejected the League of Nations in its
+entirety, announcing themselves to be "irreconcilables." The grounds of
+this Republican opposition lay partly in the terms of peace imposed on
+Germany and partly in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Exception
+was taken to the clauses which affected the rights of American citizens
+in property involved in the adjustment with Germany, but the burden of
+criticism was directed against the League. Article X guaranteeing
+against external aggression the political independence and territorial
+integrity of the members of the League was subjected to a specially
+heavy fire; while the treatment accorded to China and the sections
+affecting American internal affairs were likewise attacked as "unjust
+and dangerous." As an outcome of their deliberations, the Republicans
+proposed a long list of reservations which touched upon many of the
+vital parts of the treaty. These were rejected by President Wilson as
+amounting in effect to a "nullification of the treaty." As a deadlock
+ensued the treaty was definitely rejected, owing to the failure of its
+sponsors to secure the requisite two-thirds vote.
+
+[Illustration: EUROPE]
+
+=The League of Nations in the Campaign of 1920.=--At this juncture the
+presidential campaign of 1920 opened. The Republicans, while condemning
+the terms of the proposed League, endorsed the general idea of an
+international agreement to prevent war. Their candidate, Senator
+Warren G. Harding of Ohio, maintained a similar position without saying
+definitely whether the League devised at Paris could be recast in such a
+manner as to meet his requirements. The Democrats, on the other hand,
+while not opposing limitations clarifying the obligations of the United
+States, demanded "the immediate ratification of the treaty without
+reservations which would impair its essential integrity." The Democratic
+candidate, Governor James M. Cox, of Ohio, announced his firm conviction
+that the United States should "go into the League," without closing the
+door to mild reservations; he appealed to the country largely on that
+issue. The election of Senator Harding, in an extraordinary "landslide,"
+coupled with the return of a majority of Republicans to the Senate, made
+uncertain American participation in the League of Nations.
+
+=The United States and International Entanglements.=--Whether America
+entered the League or not, it could not close its doors to the world and
+escape perplexing international complications. It had ever-increasing
+financial and commercial connections with all other countries. Our
+associates in the recent war were heavily indebted to our government.
+The prosperity of American industries depended to a considerable extent
+upon the recovery of the impoverished and battle-torn countries of
+Europe.
+
+There were other complications no less specific. The United States was
+compelled by force of circumstances to adopt a Russian policy. The
+government of the Czar had been overthrown by a liberal revolution,
+which in turn had been succeeded by an extreme, communist
+"dictatorship." The Bolsheviki, or majority faction of the socialists,
+had obtained control of the national council of peasants, workingmen,
+and soldiers, called the soviet, and inaugurated a radical regime. They
+had made peace with Germany in March, 1918. Thereupon the United States
+joined England, France, and Japan in an unofficial war upon them. After
+the general settlement at Paris in 1919, our government, while
+withdrawing troops from Siberia and Archangel, continued in its refusal
+to recognize the Bolshevists or to permit unhampered trade with them.
+President Wilson repeatedly denounced them as the enemies of
+civilization and undertook to lay down for all countries the principles
+which should govern intercourse with Russia.
+
+Further international complications were created in connection with the
+World War, wholly apart from the terms of peace or the League of
+Nations. The United States had participated in a general European
+conflict which changed the boundaries of countries, called into being
+new nations, and reduced the power and territories of the vanquished.
+Accordingly, it was bound to face the problem of how far it was prepared
+to cooeperate with the victors in any settlement of Europe's
+difficulties. By no conceivable process, therefore, could America be
+disentangled from the web of world affairs. Isolation, if desirable, had
+become impossible. Within three hundred years from the founding of the
+tiny settlements at Jamestown and Plymouth, America, by virtue of its
+institutions, its population, its wealth, and its commerce, had become
+first among the nations of the earth. By moral obligations and by
+practical interests its fate was thus linked with the destiny of all
+mankind.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR
+
+The astounding industrial progress that characterized the period
+following the Civil War bequeathed to the new generation many perplexing
+problems connected with the growth of trusts and railways, the
+accumulation of great fortunes, the increase of poverty in the
+industrial cities, the exhaustion of the free land, and the acquisition
+of dominions in distant seas. As long as there was an abundance of land
+in the West any able-bodied man with initiative and industry could
+become an independent farmer. People from the cities and immigrants from
+Europe had always before them that gateway to property and prosperity.
+When the land was all gone, American economic conditions inevitably
+became more like those of Europe.
+
+Though the new economic questions had been vigorously debated in many
+circles before his day, it was President Roosevelt who first discussed
+them continuously from the White House. The natural resources of the
+country were being exhausted; he advocated their conservation. Huge
+fortunes were being made in business creating inequalities in
+opportunity; he favored reducing them by income and inheritance taxes.
+Industries were disturbed by strikes; he pressed arbitration upon
+capital and labor. The free land was gone; he declared that labor was in
+a less favorable position to bargain with capital and therefore should
+organize in unions for collective bargaining. There had been wrong-doing
+on the part of certain great trusts; those responsible should be
+punished.
+
+The spirit of reform was abroad in the land. The spoils system was
+attacked. It was alleged that the political parties were dominated by
+"rings and bosses." The United States Senate was called "a millionaires'
+club." Poverty and misery were observed in the cities. State
+legislatures and city governments were accused of corruption.
+
+In answer to the charges, remedies were proposed and adopted. Civil
+service reform was approved. The Australian ballot, popular election of
+Senators, the initiative, referendum, and recall, commission and city
+manager plans for cities, public regulation of railways, compensation
+for those injured in industries, minimum wages for women and children,
+pensions for widows, the control of housing in the cities--these and a
+hundred other reforms were adopted and tried out. The national watchword
+became: "America, Improve Thyself."
+
+The spirit of reform broke into both political parties. It appeared in
+many statutes enacted by Congress under President Taft's leadership. It
+disrupted the Republicans temporarily in 1912 when the Progressive party
+entered the field. It led the Democratic candidate in that year,
+Governor Wilson, to make a "progressive appeal" to the voters. It
+inspired a considerable program of national legislation under President
+Wilson's two administrations.
+
+In the age of change, four important amendments to the federal
+constitution, the first in more than forty years, were adopted. The
+sixteenth empowered Congress to lay an income tax. The seventeenth
+assured popular election of Senators. The eighteenth made prohibition
+national. The nineteenth, following upon the adoption of woman suffrage
+in many states, enfranchised the women of the nation.
+
+In the sphere of industry, equally great changes took place. The major
+portion of the nation's business passed into the hands of corporations.
+In all the leading industries of the country labor was organized into
+trade unions and federated in a national organization. The power of
+organized capital and organized labor loomed upon the horizon. Their
+struggles, their rights, and their place in the economy of the nation
+raised problems of the first magnitude.
+
+While the country was engaged in a heated debate upon its domestic
+issues, the World War broke out in Europe in 1914. As a hundred years
+before, American rights upon the high seas became involved at once. They
+were invaded on both sides; but Germany, in addition to assailing
+American ships and property, ruthlessly destroyed American lives. She
+set at naught the rules of civilized warfare upon the sea. Warnings from
+President Wilson were without avail. Nothing could stay the hand of the
+German war party.
+
+After long and patient negotiations, President Wilson in 1917 called
+upon the nation to take up arms against an assailant that had in effect
+declared war upon America. The answer was swift and firm. The national
+resources, human and material, were mobilized. The navy was enlarged, a
+draft army created, huge loans floated, heavy taxes laid, and the spirit
+of sacrifice called forth in a titanic struggle against an autocratic
+power that threatened to dominate Europe and the World.
+
+In the end, American financial, naval, and military assistance counted
+heavily in the scale. American sailors scoured the seas searching for
+the terrible submarines. American soldiers took part in the last great
+drives that broke the might of Germany's army. Such was the nation's
+response to the President's summons to arms in a war "for democracy" and
+"to end war."
+
+When victory crowned the arms of the powers united against Germany,
+President Wilson in person took part in the peace council. He sought to
+redeem his pledge to end wars by forming a League of Nations to keep the
+peace. In the treaty drawn at the close of the war the first part was a
+covenant binding the nations in a permanent association for the
+settlement of international disputes. This treaty, the President offered
+to the United States Senate for ratification and to his country for
+approval.
+
+Once again, as in the days of the Napoleonic wars, the people seriously
+discussed the place of America among the powers of the earth. The Senate
+refused to ratify the treaty. World politics then became an issue in the
+campaign of 1920. Though some Americans talked as if the United States
+could close its doors and windows against all mankind, the victor in the
+election, Senator Harding, of Ohio, knew better. The election returns
+were hardly announced before he began to ask the advice of his
+countrymen on the pressing theme that would not be downed: "What part
+shall America--first among the nations of the earth in wealth and
+power--assume at the council table of the world?"
+
+
+=General References=
+
+Woodrow Wilson, _The New Freedom_.
+
+C.L. Jones, _The Caribbean Interests of the United States_.
+
+H.P. Willis, _The Federal Reserve_.
+
+C.W. Barron, _The Mexican Problem_ (critical toward Mexico).
+
+L.J. de Bekker, _The Plot against Mexico_ (against American
+intervention).
+
+Theodore Roosevelt, _America and the World War_.
+
+E.E. Robinson and V.J. West, _The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson_.
+
+J.S. Bassett, _Our War with Germany_.
+
+Carlton J.H. Hayes, _A Brief History of the Great War_.
+
+J.B. McMaster, _The United States in the World War_.
+
+
+=Research Topics=
+
+=President Wilson's First Term.=--Elson, _History of the United States_,
+pp. 925-941.
+
+=The Underwood Tariff Act.=--Ogg, _National Progress_ (The American
+Nation Series), pp. 209-226.
+
+=The Federal Reserve System.=--Ogg, pp. 228-232.
+
+=Trust and Labor Legislation.=--Ogg, pp. 232-236.
+
+=Legislation Respecting the Territories.=--Ogg, pp. 236-245.
+
+=American Interests in the Caribbean.=--Ogg, pp. 246-265.
+
+=American Interests in the Pacific.=--Ogg, pp. 304-324.
+
+=Mexican Affairs.=--Haworth, pp. 388-395; Ogg, pp. 284-304.
+
+=The First Phases of the European War.=--Haworth, pp. 395-412; Ogg, pp.
+325-343.
+
+=The Campaign of 1916.=--Haworth, pp. 412-418; Ogg, pp. 364-383.
+
+=America Enters the War.=--Haworth, pp. 422-440; pp. 454-475. Ogg, pp.
+384-399; Elson, pp. 951-970.
+
+=Mobilizing the Nation.=--Haworth, pp. 441-453.
+
+=The Peace Settlement.=--Haworth, pp. 475-497; Elson, pp. 971-982.
+
+
+=Questions=
+
+1. Enumerate the chief financial measures of the Wilson administration.
+Review the history of banks and currency and give the details of the
+Federal reserve law.
+
+2. What was the Wilson policy toward trusts? Toward labor?
+
+3. Review again the theory of states' rights. How has it fared in recent
+years?
+
+4. What steps were taken in colonial policies? In the Caribbean?
+
+5. Outline American-Mexican relations under Wilson.
+
+6. How did the World War break out in Europe?
+
+7. Account for the divided state of opinion in America.
+
+8. Review the events leading up to the War of 1812. Compare them with
+the events from 1914 to 1917.
+
+9. State the leading principles of international law involved and show
+how they were violated.
+
+10. What American rights were assailed in the submarine campaign?
+
+11. Give Wilson's position on the _Lusitania_ affair.
+
+12. How did the World War affect the presidential campaign of 1916?
+
+13. How did Germany finally drive the United States into war?
+
+14. State the American war aims given by the President.
+
+15. Enumerate the measures taken by the government to win the war.
+
+16. Review the part of the navy in the war. The army.
+
+17. How were the terms of peace formulated?
+
+18. Enumerate the principal results of the war.
+
+19. Describe the League of Nations.
+
+20. Trace the fate of the treaty in American politics.
+
+21. Can there be a policy of isolation for America?
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+We the people of the United States, in order to form a more
+perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide
+for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the
+blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
+establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
+
+
+ARTICLE I
+
+SECTION 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a
+Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House
+of Representatives.
+
+
+SECTION 2. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members
+chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the
+electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for
+electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature.
+
+2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to
+the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
+United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
+State in which he shall be chosen.
+
+3. Representatives and direct taxes[3] shall be apportioned among the
+several States which may be included within this Union, according to
+their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
+whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
+term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all
+other persons.[3] The actual enumeration shall be made within three
+years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
+within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall
+by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for
+every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one
+representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of
+New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight,
+Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York
+six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six,
+Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia
+three.
+
+4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the
+executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such
+vacancies.
+
+5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other
+officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.
+
+
+SECTION 3. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two
+senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six
+years; and each senator shall have one vote.[4]
+
+2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first
+election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes.
+The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the
+expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of
+the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth
+year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if
+vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the
+legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary
+appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then
+fill such vacancies.[5]
+
+3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age
+of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and
+who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he
+shall be chosen.
+
+4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the
+Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.
+
+5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President
+_pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall
+exercise the office of President of the United States.
+
+6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When
+sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the
+President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall
+preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of
+two-thirds of the members present.
+
+7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to
+removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office
+of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: but the party
+convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial,
+judgment, and punishment, according to law.
+
+
+SECTION 4. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for
+senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the
+legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or
+alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.
+
+2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such
+meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by
+law appoint a different day.
+
+
+SECTION 5. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns
+and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall
+constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn
+from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of
+absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House
+may provide.
+
+2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its
+members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the concurrence of
+two-thirds, expel a member.
+
+3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to
+time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment
+require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on
+any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be
+entered on the journal.
+
+4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the
+consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other
+place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
+
+
+SECTION 6. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a
+compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out
+of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except
+treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
+during their attendance at the sessions of their respective Houses, and
+in going to and returning from the same; and, for any speech or debate
+in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
+
+2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was
+elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the
+United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof
+shall have been increased during such time; and no person, holding any
+office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during
+his continuance in office.
+
+
+SECTION 7. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House
+of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments
+as on other bills.
+
+2. Every bill, which shall have passed the House of Representatives; and
+the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President
+of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he
+shall return it with his objections to that House, in which it shall
+have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their
+journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration
+two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent,
+together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall
+likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House,
+it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses
+shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons
+voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each
+House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President
+within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to
+him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it,
+unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which
+case it shall not be a law.
+
+3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the
+Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a
+question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the
+United States and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved
+by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of
+the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and
+limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.
+
+
+SECTION 8. The Congress shall have power: 1. To lay and collect taxes,
+duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the
+common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties,
+imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
+
+2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
+
+3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several
+States, and with the Indian tribes;
+
+4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on
+the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
+
+5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and
+fix the standard of weights and measures;
+
+6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and
+current coin of the United States;
+
+7. To establish post offices and post roads;
+
+8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for
+limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
+respective writings and discoveries;
+
+9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
+
+10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high
+seas, and offences against the law of nations;
+
+11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules
+concerning captures on land and water;
+
+12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that
+use shall be for a longer term than two years;
+
+13. To provide and maintain a navy;
+
+14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and
+naval forces;
+
+15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the
+Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions;
+
+16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia,
+and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service
+of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the
+appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia
+according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.
+
+17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such
+district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
+particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the
+government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all
+places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which
+the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals,
+dock-yards, and other needful buildings;--and
+
+18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying
+into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this
+Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
+department or officer thereof.
+
+
+SECTION 9. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the
+States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited
+by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight,
+but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten
+dollars for each person.
+
+2. The privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended,
+unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may
+require it.
+
+3. No bill of attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed.
+
+4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in
+proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be
+taken.[6]
+
+5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State.
+
+6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue
+to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall vessels bound
+to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in
+another.
+
+7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of
+appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the
+receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from
+time to time.
+
+8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no
+person, holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without
+the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office,
+or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State.
+
+
+SECTION 10. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
+confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit
+bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in
+payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, _ex post facto_ law, or
+law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of
+nobility.
+
+2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts
+or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary
+for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and
+imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use
+of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject
+to the revision and control of the Congress.
+
+3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of
+tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any
+agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or
+engage in war unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as
+will not admit of delay.
+
+
+ARTICLE II
+
+SECTION 1. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the
+United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of
+four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same
+term, be elected, as follows:
+
+2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof
+may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators
+and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress;
+but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust
+or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.[7] The
+electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for
+two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same
+State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons
+voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall
+sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of
+the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The
+President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House
+of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then
+be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the
+President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors
+appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and
+have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall
+immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person
+have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House
+shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the
+President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from
+each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a
+member or members from two-thirds of the States and a majority of all
+the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the
+choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes
+of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain
+two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by
+ballot the Vice-President.[8]
+
+3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the
+day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same
+throughout the United States.
+
+4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United
+States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be
+eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be
+eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
+thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United
+States.
+
+5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death,
+resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said
+office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress
+may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or
+inability both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what
+officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act
+accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be
+elected.
+
+6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
+compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the
+period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive
+within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of
+them.
+
+7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the
+following oath or affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I
+will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States,
+and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the
+Constitution of the United States."
+
+
+SECTION 2. 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and
+navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States,
+when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require
+the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the
+executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their
+respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and
+pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of
+impeachment.
+
+2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
+Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present
+concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of
+the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the
+United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for,
+and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest
+the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the
+President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
+
+3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen
+during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall
+expire at the end of their next session.
+
+
+SECTION 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information
+on the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such
+measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on
+extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in
+case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
+adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper;
+he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take
+care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the
+officers of the United States.
+
+
+SECTION 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the
+United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and
+conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.
+
+
+ARTICLE III
+
+SECTION 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in
+one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from
+time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and
+inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and
+shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which
+shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.
+
+
+SECTION 2. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and
+equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States,
+and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to
+all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;--to
+all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to
+which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies between two
+or more States;--between a State and citizens of another
+State;[9]--between citizens of different States;--between citizens of
+the same State claiming lands under grants of different States;--and
+between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens,
+or subjects.
+
+2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court
+shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before
+mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as
+to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the
+Congress shall make.
+
+3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by
+jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes
+shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the
+trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have
+directed.
+
+
+SECTION 3. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in
+levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them
+aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the
+testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in
+open court.
+
+2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason,
+but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture
+except during the life of the person attainted.
+
+
+ARTICLE IV
+
+SECTION 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the
+public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And
+the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such
+acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.
+
+
+SECTION 2. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all
+privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.
+
+2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime,
+who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on
+demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be
+delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the
+crime.
+
+3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws
+thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or
+regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall
+be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may
+be due.
+
+
+SECTION 3. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this
+Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the
+jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction
+of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the
+legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.
+
+2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful
+rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
+belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall
+be so construed as to prejudice any claims, of the United States, or of
+any particular State.
+
+
+SECTION 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this
+Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them
+against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the
+executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic
+violence.
+
+
+ARTICLE V
+
+The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
+necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
+application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States,
+shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case,
+shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution,
+when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several
+States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the
+other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided
+that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight
+hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth
+clauses in the ninth Section of the first article; and that no State,
+without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the
+Senate.
+
+
+ARTICLE VI
+
+1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the
+adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
+States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
+
+2. This Constitution and the laws of the United States which shall be
+made in pursuance thereof and all treaties made, or which shall be made,
+under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of
+the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything
+in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary
+notwithstanding.
+
+3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of
+the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers,
+both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by
+oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test
+shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust
+under the United States.
+
+
+ARTICLE VII
+
+The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient
+for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so
+ratifying the same.
+
+Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the
+seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven
+hundred and eighty-seven and of the independence of the United States of
+America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our
+names,
+
+     G^O. WASHINGTON--
+     Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia
+
+[and thirty-eight members from all the States except Rhode Island.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the
+United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the
+legislatures of the several States pursuant to the fifth article of the
+original Constitution.
+
+
+ARTICLE I[10]
+
+Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
+prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of
+speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
+assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
+
+
+ARTICLE II
+
+A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free
+State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
+infringed.
+
+
+ARTICLE III
+
+No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without
+the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
+prescribed by law.
+
+
+ARTICLE IV
+
+The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
+and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
+violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause,
+supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place
+to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
+
+
+ARTICLE V
+
+No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous
+crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in
+cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in
+actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be
+subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or
+limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness
+against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
+due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
+without just compensation.
+
+
+ARTICLE VI
+
+In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a
+speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district
+wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
+been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and
+cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against
+him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor,
+and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence.
+
+
+ARTICLE VII
+
+In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
+twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no
+fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the
+United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
+
+
+ARTICLE VIII
+
+Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor
+cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
+
+
+ARTICLE IX
+
+The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be
+construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
+
+
+ARTICLE X
+
+The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
+prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively,
+or to the people.
+
+
+ARTICLE XI[11]
+
+The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend
+to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the
+United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects
+of any foreign State.
+
+
+ARTICLE XII[12]
+
+The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot
+for President and Vice-President, one of whom at least shall not be an
+inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their
+ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the
+person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists
+of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as
+Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they
+shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the
+government of the United States, directed to the President of the
+Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate
+and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes
+shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes
+for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of
+the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such
+majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding
+three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of
+Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But
+in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the
+representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this
+purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the
+States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice.
+And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President
+whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth
+day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as
+President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional
+disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of
+votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be
+a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person
+have a majority, then from the two highest members on the list, the
+Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall
+consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of
+the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person
+constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible
+to that of Vice-President of the United States.
+
+
+ARTICLE XIII[13]
+
+SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a
+punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted,
+shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
+jurisdiction.
+
+SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
+appropriate legislation.
+
+
+ARTICLE XIV[14]
+
+SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and
+subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States
+and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any
+law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
+United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty,
+or property without due process of law; nor deny to any person within
+its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
+
+SECTION 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States
+according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of
+persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right
+to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and
+Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the
+executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the
+legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such
+State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States,
+or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other
+crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the
+proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the
+whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
+
+SECTION 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress,
+or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or
+military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having
+previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of
+the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an
+executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution
+of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion
+against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But
+Congress may by two-thirds vote of each House, remove such disability.
+
+SECTION 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States,
+authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and
+bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall
+not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall
+assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or
+rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or
+emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims
+shall be held illegal and void.
+
+SECTION 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate
+legislation, the provisions of this article.
+
+
+ARTICLE XV[15]
+
+SECTION 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not
+be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of
+race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
+
+SECTION 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
+appropriate legislation.
+
+
+ARTICLE XVI[16]
+
+The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from
+whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States,
+and without regard to any census or enumeration.
+
+
+ARTICLE XVII[17]
+
+The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from
+each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each
+senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the
+qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the
+State legislature.
+
+When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate,
+the executive authority of each State shall issue writs of election to
+fill such vacancies: _Provided_ that the legislature of any State may
+empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the
+people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.
+
+This amendment shall not be so construed as to effect the election or
+term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the
+Constitution.
+
+
+ARTICLE XVIII[18]
+
+SECTION 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the
+manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the
+importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United
+States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for
+beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
+
+SECTION 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent
+power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
+
+SECTION 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been
+ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the
+several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from
+the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.
+
+
+ARTICLE XIX[19]
+
+The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied
+or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex.
+
+The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
+legislation.
+
+
+
+POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES: 1920, 1910, 1900
+
++---------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+|      STATES         |                  POPULATION                |
++                     +--------------+--------------+--------------+
+|                     |     1920     |     1910     |     1900     |
++---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+|United States        | 105,708,771  |  91,972,266  |  75,994,575  |
++---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+|Alabama              |   2,348,174  |   2,138,093  |   1,828,697  |
+|Arizona              |     333,903  |     204,354  |     122,931  |
+|Arkansas             |   1,752,204  |   1,574,449  |   1,311,564  |
+|California           |   3,426,861  |   2,377,549  |   1,485,053  |
+|Colorado             |     939,629  |     799,024  |     539,700  |
+|Connecticut          |   1,380,631  |   1,114,756  |     908,420  |
+|Delaware             |     223,003  |     202,322  |     184,735  |
+|District of Columbia |     437,571  |     331,069  |     278,718  |
+|Florida              |     968,470  |     752,619  |     528,542  |
+|Georgia              |   2,895,832  |   2,609,121  |   2,216,331  |
+|Idaho                |     431,866  |     325,594  |     161,772  |
+|Illinois             |   6,485,280  |   5,638,591  |   4,821,550  |
+|Indiana              |   2,930,390  |   2,700,876  |   2,516,462  |
+|Iowa                 |   2,404,021  |   2,224,771  |   2,231,853  |
+|Kansas               |   1,769,257  |   1,690,949  |   1,470,495  |
+|Kentucky             |   2,416,630  |   2,289,905  |   2,147,174  |
+|Louisiana            |   1,798,509  |   1,656,388  |   1,381,625  |
+|Maine                |     768,014  |     742,371  |     694,466  |
+|Maryland             |   1,449,661  |   1,295,346  |   1,188,044  |
+|Massachusetts        |   3,852,356  |   3,366,416  |   2,805,346  |
+|Michigan             |   3,668,412  |   2,810,173  |   2,420,982  |
+|Minnesota            |   2,387,125  |   2,075,708  |   1,751,394  |
+|Mississippi          |   1,790,618  |   1,797,114  |   1,551,270  |
+|Missouri             |   3,404,055  |   3,293,335  |   3,106,665  |
+|Montana              |     548,889  |     376,053  |     243,329  |
+|Nebraska             |   1,296,372  |   1,192,214  |   1,066,300  |
+|Nevada               |      77,407  |      81,875  |      42,335  |
+|New Hampshire        |     443,407  |     430,572  |     411,588  |
+|New Jersey           |   3,155,900  |   2,537,167  |   1,883,669  |
+|New Mexico           |     360,350  |     327,301  |     195,310  |
+|New York             |  10,384,829  |   9,113,614  |   7,268,894  |
+|North Carolina       |   2,559,123  |   2,206,287  |   1,893,810  |
+|North Dakota         |     645,680  |     577,056  |     319,146  |
+|Ohio                 |   5,759,394  |   4,767,121  |   4,157,545  |
+|Oklahoma             |   2,028,283  |   1,657,155  |     790,391  |
+|Oregon               |     783,389  |     672,765  |     413,536  |
+|Pennsylvania         |   8,720,017  |   7,665,111  |   6,302,115  |
+|Rhode Island         |     604,397  |     542,610  |     428,556  |
+|South Carolina       |   1,683,724  |   1,515,400  |   1,340,316  |
+|South Dakota         |     636,547  |     583,888  |     401,570  |
+|Tennessee            |   2,337,885  |   2,184,789  |   2,020,616  |
+|Texas                |   4,663,228  |   3,896,542  |   3,048,710  |
+|Utah                 |     449,396  |     373,351  |     276,749  |
+|Vermont              |     352,428  |     355,956  |     343,641  |
+|Virginia             |   2,309,187  |   2,061,612  |   1,854,184  |
+|Washington           |   1,356,621  |   1,141,990  |     518,103  |
+|West Virginia        |   1,463,701  |   1,221,119  |     958,800  |
+|Wisconsin            |   2,632,067  |   2,333,860  |   2,069,042  |
+|Wyoming              |     194,402  |     145,965  |      92,531  |
++---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] Partly superseded by the 14th Amendment, p. 639.
+
+[4] See the 17th Amendment, p. 641.
+
+[5] _Ibid._, p. 641.
+
+[6] See the 16th Amendment, p. 640.
+
+[7] The following paragraph was in force only from 1788 to 1803.
+
+[8] Superseded by the 12th Amendment, p. 638.
+
+[9] See the 11th Amendment, p. 638.
+
+[10] First ten amendments proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 1789.
+Proclaimed to be in force Dec. 15, 1791.
+
+[11] Proposed Sept. 5, 1794. Declared in force January 8, 1798.
+
+[12] Adopted in 1804.
+
+[13] Adopted in 1865.
+
+[14] Adopted in 1868.
+
+[15] Proposed February 27, 1869. Declared in force March 30, 1870.
+
+[16] Passed July, 1909; proclaimed February 25, 1913.
+
+[17] Passed May, 1912, in lieu of paragraph one, Section 3, Article I,
+of the Constitution and so much of paragraph two of the same Section as
+relates to the filling of vacancies; proclaimed May 31, 1913.
+
+[18] Ratified January 16, 1919.
+
+[19] Ratified August 26, 1920.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+TABLE OF PRESIDENTS
+
+NAME                    STATE  PARTY     YEAR IN    VICE-PRESIDENT
+                                         OFFICE
+1 George Washington      Va.    Fed.    1789-1797   John Adams
+2 John Adams             Mass.  Fed.    1797-1801   Thomas Jefferson
+3 Thomas Jefferson       Va.    Rep.    1801-1809   Aaron Burr
+                                                    George Clinton
+4 James Madison          Va.    Rep.    1809-1817   George Clinton
+                                                    Elbridge Gerry
+5 James Monroe           Va.    Rep.    1817-1825   Daniel D. Tompkins
+6 John Q. Adams          Mass.  Rep.    1825-1829   John C. Calhoun
+7 Andrew Jackson         Tenn.  Dem.    1829-1837   John C. Calhoun
+                                                    Martin Van Buren
+8 Martin Van Buren       N.Y.   Dem.    1837-1841   Richard M. Johnson
+9 Wm. H. Harrison        Ohio   Whig    1841-1841   John Tyler
+10 John Tyler[20]        Va.    Whig    1841-1845
+11 James K. Polk         Tenn.  Dem.    1845-1849   George M. Dallas
+12 Zachary Taylor        La.    Whig    1849-1850   Millard Fillmore
+13 Millard Fillmore[20]  N.Y.   Whig    1850-1853
+14 Franklin Pierce       N.H.   Dem.    1853-1857   William R. King
+15 James Buchanan        Pa.    Dem.    1857-1861   J.C. Breckinridge
+16 Abraham Lincoln       Ill.   Rep.    1861-1865   Hannibal Hamlin
+                                                    Andrew Johnson
+17 Andrew Johnson[20]    Tenn.  Rep.    1865-1869
+18 Ulysses S. Grant      Ill.   Rep.    1869-1877   Schuyler Colfax
+                                                    Henry Wilson
+19 Rutherford B. Hayes   Ohio   Rep.    1877-1881   Wm. A. Wheeler
+20 James A. Garfield     Ohio   Rep.    1881-1881   Chester A. Arthur
+21 Chester A. Arthur[20] N.Y.   Rep.    1881-1885
+22 Grover Cleveland      N.Y.   Dem.    1885-1889   Thomas A. Hendricks
+23 Benjamin Harrison     Ind.   Rep.    1889-1893   Levi P. Morton
+24 Grover Cleveland      N.Y.   Dem.    1893-1897   Adlai E. Stevenson
+25 William McKinley      Ohio   Rep.    1897-1901   Garrett A. Hobart
+                                                    Theodore Roosevelt
+26 Theodore Roosevelt[20]N.Y.   Rep.    1901-1909   Chas. W. Fairbanks
+27 William H. Taft       Ohio   Rep.    1909-1913   James S. Sherman
+28 Woodrow Wilson        N.J.   Dem.    1913-1921   Thomas R. Marshall
+29 Warren G. Harding     Ohio   Rep.    1921-       Calvin Coolidge
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] Promoted from the vice-presidency on the death of the president.
+
+POPULATION OF THE OUTLYING POSSESSIONS: 1920 AND 1910
+
+----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------
+                AREA                    |     1920     |     1910
+----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------
+United States with outlying possessions |117,857,509   | 101,146,530
+                                        +--------------+---------------
+Continental United States               |105,708,771   | 91,972,266
+Outlying Possessions                    | 12,148,738   |  9,174,264
+                                        +--------------|---------------
+  Alaska                                |     54,899   |     64,356
+  American Samoa                        |      8,056   |      7,251[21]
+  Guam                                  |     13,275   |     11,806
+  Hawaii                                |    255,912   |    191,909
+  Panama Canal Zone                     |     22,858   |     62,810[21]
+  Porto Rico                            |  1,299,809   |  1,118,012
+  Military  and  naval,  etc.,  service |              |
+    abroad                              |    117,238   |     55,608
+  Philippine Islands                    |10,350,640[22]|  7,635,426[23]
+  Virgin Islands of the United States   |    26,051[24]|     27,086[25]
+----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21] Population in 1912.
+
+[22] Population in 1918.
+
+[23] Population in 1903.
+
+[24] Population in 1917.
+
+[25] Population in 1911.
+
+
+
+
+A TOPICAL SYLLABUS
+
+As a result of a wholesome reaction against the purely chronological
+treatment of history, there is now a marked tendency in the direction of
+a purely topical handling of the subject. The topical method, however,
+may also be pushed too far. Each successive stage of any topic can be
+understood only in relation to the forces of the time. For that reason,
+the best results are reached when there is a combination of the
+chronological and the topical methods. It is therefore suggested that
+the teacher first follow the text closely and then review the subject
+with the aid of this topical syllabus. The references are to pages.
+
+
+=Immigration=
+
+     I. Causes: religious (1-2, 4-11, 302), economic (12-17, 302-303),
+        and political (302-303).
+     II. Colonial immigration.
+       1. Diversified character: English, Scotch-Irish, Irish, Jews,
+          Germans and other peoples (6-12).
+       2. Assimilation to an American type; influence of the land
+          system (23-25, 411).
+       3. Enforced immigration: indentured servitude, slavery, etc.
+          (13-17).
+     III. Immigration between 1789-1890.
+       1. Nationalities: English, Irish, Germans, and Scandinavians
+          (278, 302-303).
+       2. Relations to American life (432-433, 445).
+     IV. Immigration and immigration questions after 1890.
+       1. Change in nationalities (410-411).
+       2. Changes in economic opportunities (411).
+       3. Problems of congestion and assimilation (410).
+       4. Relations to labor and illiteracy (582-586).
+       5. Oriental immigration (583).
+       6. The restriction of immigration (583-585).
+
+=Expansion of the United States=
+
+     I. Territorial growth.
+       1. Territory of the United States in 1783 (134 and color map).
+       2. Louisiana purchase, 1803 (188-193 and color map).
+       3. Florida purchase, 1819 (204).
+       4. Annexation of Texas, 1845 (278-281).
+       5. Acquisition of Arizona, New Mexico, California, and other
+          territory at close of Mexican War, 1848 (282-283).
+       6. The Gadsden purchase, 1853 (283).
+       7. Settlement of the Oregon boundary question, 1846 (284-286).
+       8. Purchase of Alaska from Russia, 1867 (479).
+       9. Acquisition of Tutuila in Samoan group, 1899 (481-482).
+       10. Annexation of Hawaii, 1898 (484).
+       11. Acquisition of Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam at
+           close of Spanish War, 1898 (493-494).
+       12. Acquisition of Panama Canal strip, 1904 (508-510).
+       13. Purchase of Danish West Indies, 1917 (593).
+       14. Extension of protectorate over Haiti, Santo Domingo, and
+           Nicaragua (593-594).
+     II. Development of colonial self-government.
+       1. Hawaii (485).
+       2. Philippines (516-518).
+       3. Porto Rico (515-516).
+     III. Sea power.
+       1. In American Revolution (118).
+       2. In the War of 1812 (193-201).
+       3. In the Civil War (353-354).
+       4. In the Spanish-American War (492).
+       5. In the Caribbean region (512-519).
+       6. In the Pacific (447-448, 481).
+       7. The role of the American navy (515).
+
+=The Westward Advance of the People=
+
+     I. Beyond the Appalachians.
+       1. Government and land system (217-231).
+       2. The routes (222-224).
+       3. The settlers (221-223, 228-230).
+       4. Relations with the East (230-236).
+     II. Beyond the Mississippi.
+       1. The lower valley (271-273).
+       2. The upper valley (275-276).
+     III. Prairies, plains, and desert.
+       1. Cattle ranges and cowboys (276-278, 431-432).
+       2. The free homesteads (432-433).
+       3. Irrigation (434-436, 523-525).
+     IV. The Far West.
+       1. Peculiarities of the West (433-440).
+       2. The railways (425-431).
+       3. Relations to the East and Europe (443-447).
+       4. American power in the Pacific (447-449).
+
+=The Wars of American History=
+
+     I. Indian wars (57-59).
+     II. Early colonial wars: King William's, Queen Anne's, and King
+         George's (59).
+     III. French and Indian War (Seven Years' War), 1754-1763 (59-61).
+     IV. Revolutionary War, 1775-1783 (99-135).
+     V. The War of 1812, 1812-1815 (193-201).
+     VI. The Mexican War, 1845-1848 (276-284).
+     VII. The Civil War, 1861-1865 (344-375).
+     VIII. The Spanish War, 1898 (485-497).
+     IX. The World War, 1914-1918 [American participation, 1917-1918]
+         (596-625).
+
+=Government=
+
+     I. Development of the American system of government.
+       1. Origin and growth of state government.
+         _a._ The trading corporation (2-4), religious congregation
+              (4-5), and proprietary system (5-6).
+         _b._ Government of the colonies (48-53).
+         _c._ Formation of the first state constitutions (108-110).
+         _d._ The admission of new states (_see_ Index under each
+              state).
+         _e._ Influence of Jacksonian Democracy (238-247).
+         _f._ Growth of manhood suffrage (238-244).
+         _g._ Nullification and state sovereignty (180-182, 251-257).
+         _h._ The doctrine of secession (345-346).
+         _i._ Effects of the Civil War on position of states (366,
+              369-375).
+         _j._ Political reform--direct government--initiative,
+              referendum, and recall (540-544).
+       2. Origin and growth of national government.
+         _a._ British imperial control over the colonies (64-72).
+         _b._ Attempts at intercolonial union--New England
+              Confederation, Albany plan (61-62).
+         _c._ The Stamp Act Congress (85-86).
+         _d._ The Continental Congresses (99-101).
+         _e._ The Articles of Confederation (110-111, 139-143).
+         _f._ The formation of the federal Constitution (143-160).
+         _g._ Development of the federal Constitution.
+           (1) Amendments 1-11--rights of persons and states (163).
+           (2) Twelfth amendment--election of President (184, note).
+           (3) Amendments 13-15--Civil War settlement (358, 366, 369,
+               370, 374, 375).
+           (4) Sixteenth amendment--income tax (528-529).
+           (5) Seventeenth amendment--election of Senators (541-542).
+           (6) Eighteenth amendment--prohibition (591-592).
+           (7) Nineteenth amendment--woman suffrage (563-568).
+       3. Development of the suffrage.
+         _a._ Colonial restrictions (51-52).
+         _b._ Provisions of the first state constitutions
+              (110, 238-240).
+         _c._ Position under federal Constitution of 1787 (149).
+         _d._ Extension of manhood suffrage (241-244).
+         _e._ Extension and limitation of negro suffrage (373-375,
+              382-387).
+         _f._ Woman suffrage (560-568).
+     II. Relation of government to economic and social welfare.
+       1. Debt and currency.
+         _a._ Colonial paper money (80).
+         _b._ Revolutionary currency and debt (125-127).
+         _c._ Disorders under Articles of Confederation (140-141).
+         _d._ Powers of Congress under the Constitution to coin money
+              (_see_ Constitution in the Appendix).
+         _e._ First United States bank notes (167).
+         _f._ Second United States bank notes (257).
+         _g._ State bank notes (258).
+         _h._ Civil War greenbacks and specie payment (352-353, 454).
+         _i._ The Civil War debt (252).
+         _j._ Notes of National Banks under act of 1864 (369).
+         _k._ Demonetization of silver and silver legislation
+              (452-458).
+         _l._ The gold standard (472).
+         _m._ The federal reserve notes (589).
+         _n._ Liberty bonds (606).
+       2. Banking systems.
+         _a._ The first United States bank (167).
+         _b._ The second United States bank--origin and destruction
+              (203, 257-259).
+         _c._ United States treasury system (263).
+         _d._ State banks (258).
+         _e._ The national banking system of 1864 (369).
+         _f._ Services of banks (407-409).
+         _g._ Federal reserve system (589).
+       3. The tariff.
+         _a._ British colonial system (69-72).
+         _b._ Disorders under Articles of Confederation (140).
+         _c._ The first tariff under the Constitution (150, 167-168).
+         _d._ Development of the tariff, 1816-1832 (252-254).
+         _f._ Tariff and nullification (254-256).
+         _g._ Development to the Civil War--attitude of South and West
+              (264, 309-314, 357).
+         _h._ Republicans and Civil War tariffs (352, 367).
+         _i._ Revival of the tariff controversy under Cleveland (422).
+         _j._ Tariff legislation after 1890--McKinley bill (422),
+              Wilson bill (459), Dingley bill (472), Payne-Aldrich bill
+              (528), Underwood bill (588).
+       4. Foreign and domestic commerce and transportation
+          (_see_ Tariff, Immigration, and Foreign Relations).
+         _a._ British imperial regulations (69-72).
+         _b._ Confusion under Articles of Confederation (140).
+         _c._ Provisions of federal Constitution (150).
+         _d._ Internal improvements--aid to roads, canals, etc.
+              (230-236).
+         _e._ Aid to railways (403).
+         _f._ Service of railways (402).
+         _g._ Regulation of railways (460-461, 547-548).
+         _h._ Control of trusts and corporations (461-462, 589-590).
+       5. Land and natural resources.
+         _a._ British control over lands (80).
+         _b._ Early federal land measures (219-221).
+         _c._ The Homestead act (368, 432-445).
+         _d._ Irrigation and reclamation (434-436, 523-525).
+         _e._ Conservation of natural resources (523-526).
+       6. Legislation advancing human rights and general welfare
+          (_see_ Suffrage).
+         _a._ Abolition of slavery: civil and political rights of
+              negroes (357-358, 373-375).
+         _b._ Extension of civil and political rights to women
+              (554-568).
+         _c._ Legislation relative to labor conditions (549-551,
+              579-581, 590-591).
+         _d._ Control of public utilities (547-549).
+         _e._ Social reform and the war on poverty (549-551).
+         _f._ Taxation and equality of opportunity (551-552).
+
+=Political Parties and Political Issues=
+
+     I. The Federalists _versus_ the Anti-Federalists [Jeffersonian
+        Republicans] from about 1790 to about 1816 (168-208, 201-203).
+       1. Federalist leaders: Hamilton, John Adams, John Marshall,
+          Robert Morris.
+       2. Anti-Federalist leaders: Jefferson, Madison, Monroe.
+       3. Issues: funding the debt, assumption of state debts, first
+          United States bank, taxation, tariff, strong central
+          government _versus_ states' rights, and the Alien and
+          Sedition acts.
+     II. Era of "Good Feeling" from about 1816 to about 1824, a period
+         of no organized party opposition (248).
+     III. The Democrats [former Jeffersonian Republicans] _versus_ the
+          Whigs [or National Republicans] from about 1832 to 1856
+         (238-265, 276-290, 324-334).
+       1. Democratic leaders: Jackson, Van Buren, Calhoun, Benton.
+       2. Whig leaders: Webster and Clay.
+       3. Issues: second United States bank, tariff, nullification,
+          Texas, internal improvements, and disposition of Western
+          lands.
+     IV. The Democrats _versus_ the Republicans from about 1856 to the
+         present time (334-377, 388-389, 412-422, 451-475, 489-534,
+         588-620).
+       1. Democratic leaders: Jefferson Davis, Tilden, Cleveland,
+          Bryan, and Wilson.
+       2. Republican leaders: Lincoln, Blaine, McKinley, Roosevelt.
+       3. Issues: Civil War and reconstruction, currency, tariff,
+          taxation, trusts, railways, foreign policies, imperialism,
+          labor questions, and policies with regard to land and
+          conservation.
+     V. Minor political parties.
+       1. Before the Civil War: Free Soil (319) and Labor Parties
+          (306-307).
+       2. Since the Civil War: Greenback (463-464), Populist (464),
+          Liberal Republican (420), Socialistic (577-579), Progressive
+         (531-534, 602-603).
+
+=The Economic Development of the United States=
+
+     I. The land and natural resources.
+       1. The colonial land system: freehold, plantation, and manor
+          (20-25).
+       2. Development of the freehold in the West (220-221, 228-230).
+       3. The Homestead act and its results (368, 432-433).
+       4. The cattle range and cowboy (431-432).
+       5. Disappearance of free land (443-445).
+       6. Irrigation and reclamation (434-436).
+       7. Movement for the conservation of resources (523-526).
+     II. Industry.
+       1. The rise of local and domestic industries (28-32).
+       2. British restrictions on American enterprise (67-69, 70-72).
+       3. Protective tariffs (see above, 648-649).
+       4. Development of industry previous to the Civil War (295-307).
+       5. Great progress of industry after the war (401-406).
+       6. Rise and growth of trusts and combinations (406-412,
+          472-474).
+     III. Commerce and transportation.
+       1. Extent of colonial trade and commerce (32-35).
+       2. British regulation (69-70).
+       3. Effects of the Revolution and the Constitution
+          (139-140, 154).
+       4. Growth of American shipping (195-196).
+       5. Waterways and canals (230-236).
+       6. Rise and extension of the railway system (298-300).
+       7. Growth of American foreign trade (445-449).
+     IV. Rise of organized labor.
+       1. Early phases before the Civil War: local unions, city
+          federations, and national unions in specific trades
+          (304-307).
+       2. The National Trade Union, 1866-1872 (574-575).
+       3. The Knights of Labor (575-576).
+       4. The American Federation of Labor (573-574).
+         _a._ Policies of the Federation (576-577).
+         _b._ Relations to politics (579-581).
+         _c._ Contests with socialists and radicals (577-579).
+         _d._ Problems of immigration (582-585).
+       5. The relations of capital and labor.
+         _a._ The corporation and labor (410, 570-571).
+         _b._ Company unions and profit-sharing (571-572).
+         _c._ Welfare work (573).
+         _d._ Strikes (465, 526, 580-581).
+         _e._ Arbitration (581-582).
+
+=American Foreign Relations=
+
+     I. Colonial period.
+       1. Indian relations (57-59).
+       2. French relations (59-61).
+     II. Period of conflict and independence.
+       1. Relations with Great Britain (77-108, 116-125, 132-135).
+       2. Establishment of connections with European powers (128).
+       3. The French alliance of 1778 (128-130).
+       4. Assistance of Holland and Spain (130).
+     III. Relations with Great Britain since 1783.
+       1. Commercial settlement in Jay treaty of 1794 (177-178).
+       2. Questions arising out of European wars [1793-1801]
+          (176-177, 180).
+       3. Blockade and embargo problems (193-199).
+       4. War of 1812 (199-201).
+       5. Monroe Doctrine and Holy Alliance (205-207).
+       6. Maine boundary--Webster-Ashburton treaty (265).
+       7. Oregon boundary (284-286).
+       8. Attitude of Great Britain during Civil War (354-355).
+       9. Arbitration of _Alabama_ claims (480-481).
+       10. The Samoan question (481-482)
+       11. The Venezuelan question (482-484).
+       12. British policy during Spanish-American War (496-497).
+       13. Controversy over blockade, 1914-1917 (598-600).
+       14. The World War (603-620).
+     IV. Relations with France.
+       1. The colonial wars (59-61).
+       2. The French alliance of 1778 (128-130).
+       3. Controversies over the French Revolution (128-130).
+       4. Commercial questions arising out of the European wars
+          (176-177, 180, 193-199).
+       5. Attitude of Napoleon III toward the Civil War (354-355).
+       6. The Mexican entanglement (478-479).
+       7. The World War (596-620).
+     V. Relations with Germany.
+       1. Negotiations with Frederick, king of Prussia (128).
+       2. The Samoan controversy (481-482).
+       3. Spanish-American War (491).
+       4. The Venezuelan controversy (512).
+       5. The World War (596-620).
+     VI. Relations with the Orient.
+       1. Early trading connections (486-487).
+       2. The opening of China (447).
+       3. The opening of Japan (448).
+       4. The Boxer rebellion and the "open door" policy (499-502).
+       5. Roosevelt and the close of the Russo-Japanese War (511).
+       6. The Oriental immigration question (583-584).
+     VII. The United States and Latin America.
+       1. Mexican relations.
+         _a._ Mexican independence and the Monroe Doctrine (205-207).
+         _b._ Mexico and French intervention--policy of the United
+              States (478-479).
+         _c._ The overthrow of Diaz (1911) and recent questions
+              (594-596).
+       2. Cuban relations.
+         _a._ Slavery and the "Ostend Manifesto" (485-486).
+         _b._ The revolutionary period, 1867-1877 (487).
+         _c._ The revival of revolution (487-491).
+         _d._ American intervention and the Spanish War (491-496).
+         _e._ The Platt amendment and American protection (518-519).
+       3. Caribbean and other relations.
+         _a._ Acquisition of Porto Rico (493).
+         _b._ The acquisition of the Panama Canal strip (508-510).
+         _c._ Purchase of Danish West Indies (593).
+         _d._ Venezuelan controversies (482-484, 512).
+         _e._ Extension of protectorate over Haiti, Santo Domingo,
+              and Nicaragua (513-514, 592-594).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abolition, 318, 331
+
+Adams, Abigail, 556
+
+Adams, John, 97, 128, 179ff.
+
+Adams, J.Q., 247, 319
+
+Adams, Samuel, 90, 99, 108
+
+Adamson law, 590
+
+Aguinaldo, 497
+
+Alabama, admission, 227
+
+_Alabama_ claims, 480
+
+Alamance, battle, 92
+
+Alamo, 280
+
+Alaska, purchase, 479
+
+Albany, plan of union, 62
+
+Algonquins, 57
+
+Alien law, 180
+
+Amendment, method of, 156
+
+Amendments to federal Constitution: first eleven, 163
+  twelfth, 184, note
+  thirteenth, 358
+  fourteenth, 366, 369, 387
+  fifteenth, 358
+  sixteenth, 528
+  seventeenth, 542
+  eighteenth, 591
+  nineteenth, 563ff.
+
+American expeditionary force, 610
+
+American  Federation  of  Labor,  573, 608
+
+Americanization, 585
+
+Amnesty, for Confederates, 383
+
+Andros, 65
+
+Annapolis, convention, 144
+
+Antietam, 357
+
+Anti-Federalists, 169
+
+Anti-slavery. _See_ Abolition
+
+Anthony, Susan, 564
+
+Appomattox, 363
+
+Arbitration:  international,  480,  514, 617
+  labor disputes, 582
+
+Arizona, admission, 443
+
+Arkansas, admission, 272
+
+Arnold, Benedict, 114, 120
+
+Articles of Confederation, 110, 139ff., 146
+
+Ashburton, treaty, 265
+
+Assembly, colonial, 49ff., 89ff.
+
+Assumption, 164ff.
+
+Atlanta, 361
+
+Australian ballot, 540
+
+
+Bacon, Nathaniel, 58
+
+Ballot:  Australian, 540
+  short, 544
+
+Baltimore, Lord, 6
+
+Bank: first U.S., 167
+  second, 203, 257ff.
+
+Banking system:  state, 300
+  U.S. national, 369
+  services of, 407
+  _See also_ Federal reserve
+
+Barry, John, 118
+
+Bastille, 172
+
+Bell, John, 341
+
+Belleau Wood, 611
+
+Berlin decree, 194
+
+Blockade: by England and France, 193ff.
+  Southern ports, 353
+  law and practice in 1914, 598ff.
+
+Bond servants, 13ff.
+
+Boone, Daniel, 28, 218
+
+Boston:  massacre, 91
+  evacuation, 116
+  port bill, 94
+
+Bowdoin, Governor, 142
+
+Boxer rebellion, 499
+
+Brandywine, 129
+
+Breckinridge, J.C., 340
+
+Bright, John, 355
+
+Brown, John, 338
+
+Brown University, 45
+
+Bryan, W.J., 468ff., 495, 502, 503, 527
+
+Buchanan, James, 335, 368
+
+Budget system, 529
+
+Bull Run, 350
+
+Bunker Hill, 102
+
+Burgoyne, General, 116, 118, 130
+
+Burke, Edmund, 87, 96ff., 132, 175
+
+Burr, Aaron, 183, 231
+
+Business. _See_  Industry
+
+
+Calhoun, J.C., 198ff., 203, 208, 281, 321, 328
+
+California, 286ff.
+
+Canada, 61, 114, 530
+
+Canals, 233, 298, 508
+
+Canning, British premier, 206
+
+Cannon, J.G., 530
+
+Cantigny, 611
+
+Caribbean, 479
+
+Carpet baggers, 373
+
+Cattle ranger, 431ff.
+
+Caucus, 245
+
+Censorship. _See_ Newspapers
+
+Charles I, 3
+
+Charles II, 65
+
+Charleston, 36, 116
+
+Charters, colonial, 2ff., 41
+
+Chase, Justice, 187
+
+Chateau-Thierry, 611
+
+Checks and balances, 153
+
+_Chesapeake_, the, 195
+
+Chickamauga, 361
+
+Child labor law, 591
+
+China, 447, 499ff.
+
+Chinese labor, 583
+
+Churches, colonial, 39ff., 42, 43
+
+Cities, 35, 36, 300ff., 395, 410, 544
+
+City manager plan, 545
+
+Civil liberty, 358ff., 561
+
+Civil service, 419, 536, 538ff.
+
+Clarendon, Lord, 6
+
+Clark, G.R., 116, 218
+
+Clay, Henry, 198, 203, 248, 261, 328
+
+Clayton anti-trust act, 489
+
+Clergy. _See_ Churches
+
+Cleveland, Grover, 421, 465, 482, 484, 489, 582
+
+Clinton, Sir Henry, 119
+
+Colorado, admission, 441
+
+Combination. _See_ Trusts
+
+Commerce, colonial, 33ff.
+  disorders after 1781, 140
+  Constitutional provisions on, 154
+  Napoleonic wars, 176, 193ff.
+  domestic growth of, 307
+  congressional regulation of, 460ff., 547
+  _See also_ Trusts and Railways
+
+Commission government, 544
+
+Committees of correspondence, 108
+
+_Commonsense_, pamphlet, 103
+
+Communism, colonial, 20f.
+
+Company, trading, 2f.
+
+Compromises: of Constitution, 148, 150, 151
+  Missouri, 325, 332
+  of 1850, 328ff.
+  Crittenden, 350
+
+Conciliation, with England, 131
+
+Concord, battle, 100
+
+Confederacy, Southern, 346ff.
+
+Confederation: New England, 61f.
+  _See also_ Articles of
+
+Congregation, religious, 4
+
+Congress:  stamp act, 85
+  continental, 99ff.
+  under Articles, 139f.
+  under Constitution, 152
+  powers of, 153
+
+Connecticut: founded, 4ff.
+  self-government, 49
+  _See also_ Suffrage
+  constitutions, state
+
+Conservation, 523ff.
+
+Constitution: formation of, 143ff.
+  _See also_ Amendment
+
+_Constitution_, the, 200
+
+Constitutions, state, 109ff., 238ff., 385ff.
+
+Constitutional union party, 340
+
+Contract labor law, 584
+
+Convention: 1787, 144ff.
+  nominating, 405
+
+Convicts, colonial, 15
+
+Conway Cabal, 120
+
+Cornwallis, General, 116, 119, 131
+
+Corporation and labor, 571. _See also_ Trusts
+
+Cotton. _See_ Planting system
+
+Cowboy, 431ff.
+
+Cowpens, battle, 116
+
+Cox, J.M., 619
+
+_Crisis, The_, pamphlet, 115
+
+Crittenden Compromise, 350
+
+Cuba, 485ff., 518
+
+Cumberland Gap, 223
+
+Currency. _See_ Banking
+
+
+Danish West Indies, purchased, 593
+
+Dartmouth College, 45
+
+Daughters of liberty, 84
+
+Davis, Jefferson, 346ff.
+
+Deane, Silas, 128
+
+Debs, E.V., 465, 534
+
+Debt, national, 164ff.
+
+Decatur, Commodore, 477
+
+Declaration of Independence, 101ff.
+
+Defense, national, 154
+
+De Kalb, 121
+
+Delaware, 3, 49
+
+De Lome affair, 490
+
+Democratic party, name assumed, 260
+  _See also_ Anti-Federalists
+
+Dewey, Admiral, 492
+
+Diplomacy: of the Revolution, 127ff.
+  Civil War, 354
+
+Domestic industry, 28
+
+Donelson, Fort, 361
+
+Dorr Rebellion, 243
+
+Douglas, Stephen A., 333, 337, 368
+
+Draft: Civil War, 351
+  World War, 605
+
+Draft riots, 351
+
+Dred Scott case, 335, 338
+
+Drug act, 523
+
+Duquesne, Fort, 60
+
+Dutch, 3, 12
+
+
+East India Company, 93
+
+Education, 43ff., 557, 591
+
+Electors, popular election of, 245
+
+Elkins law, 547
+
+Emancipation, 357ff.
+
+Embargo acts, 186ff.
+
+England: Colonial policy of, 64ff.
+  Revolutionary War, 99ff.
+  Jay treaty, 177
+  War of 1812, 198ff.
+  Monroe Doctrine, 206
+  Ashburton treaty, 265
+  Civil War, 354
+  _Alabama_ claims, 480
+  Samoa, 481
+  Venezuela question, 482
+  Spanish War, 496
+  World War, 596ff.
+
+Erie Canal, 233
+
+Esch-Cummins bill, 582
+
+Espionage act, 607
+
+Excess profits tax, 606
+
+Executive, federal, plans for, 151
+
+Expunging resolution, 260
+
+
+Farm loan act, 589
+
+Federal reserve act, 589
+
+Federal trade commission, 590
+
+_Federalist_, the, 158
+
+Federalists, 168ff., 201ff.
+
+Feudal elements in colonies, 21f.
+
+Filipino revolt. _See_ Philippines
+
+Fillmore, President, 485
+
+Finances: colonial, 64
+  revolutionary, 125ff.
+  disorders, 140
+  Civil War, 347, 352ff.
+  World War, 606
+  _See also_ Banking
+
+Fishing industry, 31
+
+Fleet, world tour, 515
+
+Florida, 134, 204
+
+Foch, General, 611
+
+Food and fuel law, 607
+
+Force bills, 384 ff., 375
+
+Forests, national, 525ff.
+
+Fourteen points, 605
+
+Fox, C.J., 132
+
+France: colonization, 59ff.
+  French and Indian War, 60ff.
+  American Revolution, 116, 123, 128ff.
+  French Revolution, 165ff.
+  Quarrel with, 180
+  Napoleonic wars, 193ff.
+  Louisiana purchase, 190
+  French Revolution of 1830, 266
+  Civil War, 354
+  Mexican affair, 478
+  World War, 596ff.
+
+Franchises, utility, 548
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, 45, 62, 82, 86, 128, 134
+
+Freedmen. _See_ Negro
+
+Freehold. _See_ Land
+
+Free-soil party, 319
+
+Fremont, J.C., 288, 334
+
+French. _See_ France
+
+Friends, the, 5
+
+Frontier. _See_ Land
+
+Fugitive slave act, 329
+
+Fulton, Robert, 231, 234
+
+Fundamental articles, 5
+
+Fundamental orders, 5
+
+
+Gage, General, 95, 100
+
+Garfield, President, 416
+
+Garrison, William Lloyd, 318
+
+_Gaspee_, the, 92
+
+Gates, General, 116, 120, 131
+
+Genet, 177
+
+George I, 66
+
+George II, 4, 66, 82
+
+George III, 77ff.
+
+Georgia: founded, 4
+  royal province, 49
+  state constitution, 109
+  _See also_ Secession
+
+Germans: colonial immigration, 9ff.
+  in Revolutionary War, 102ff.
+  later immigration, 303
+
+Germany: Samoa, 481
+  Venezuela affair, 512
+  World War, 596f.
+
+Gerry, Elbridge, 148
+
+Gettysburg, 362
+
+Gibbon, Edward, 133
+
+Gold: discovery, 288
+  standard, 466, 472
+
+Gompers, Samuel, 573, 608
+
+Governor, royal, 49ff.
+
+Grandfather clause, 386f.
+
+Grangers, 460ff.
+
+Grant, General, 361, 416, 480, 487
+
+Great Britain. _See_ England
+
+Greeley, Horace, 420
+
+Greenbacks, 454ff.
+
+Greenbackers, 462ff.
+
+Greene, General, 117, 120
+
+Grenville, 79ff.
+
+Guilford, battle, 117
+
+
+Habeas corpus, 358
+
+Hague conferences, 514
+
+Haiti, 593
+
+Hamilton, Alexander, 95, 143, 158, 162, 168ff., 231
+
+Harding, W.G., 389, 619
+
+Harlem Heights, battle, 114
+
+Harper's Ferry, 339
+
+Harrison, Benjamin, 422, 484
+
+Harrison, W.H., 198, 263f.
+
+Hartford convention, 201ff., 238
+
+Harvard, 44
+
+Hawaii, 484f.
+
+Hay, John, 477, 500ff.
+
+Hayne, Robert, 256
+
+Hays, President, 416f.
+
+Henry, Patrick, 85
+
+Hepburn act, 523
+
+Hill, James J., 429
+
+Holland, 130
+
+Holy Alliance, 205
+
+Homestead act, 368, 432
+
+Hooker, Thomas, 5
+
+Houston, Sam, 279ff.
+
+Howe, General, 118
+
+Hughes, Charles E., 602
+
+Huguenots, 10
+
+Hume, David, 132
+
+Hutchinson, Anne, 5
+
+
+Idaho, admission, 442
+
+Income tax, 459, 466, 528, 588, 606
+
+Inheritance tax, 606
+
+Illinois, admission, 226
+
+Illiteracy, 585
+
+Immigration: colonial, 1-17
+  before Civil War, 302, 367
+  after Civil War, 410ff.
+  problems of, 582ff.
+
+Imperialism, 494ff., 498f., 502ff.
+
+Implied powers, 212
+
+Impressment of seamen, 194
+
+Indentured servants, 13f.
+
+Independence, Declaration of, 107
+
+Indiana, admission, 226
+
+Indians, 57ff., 81, 431
+
+Industry: colonial, 28ff.
+  growth of, 296ff.
+  during Civil War, 366
+  after 1865, 390ff., 401ff., 436ff., 559
+  _See also_ Trusts
+
+Initiative, the, 543
+
+Injunction, 465, 580
+
+Internal improvements, 260, 368
+
+Interstate commerce act, 461, 529
+
+Intolerable acts, 93
+
+Invisible government, 537
+
+Iowa, admission, 275
+
+Irish, 11, 302
+
+Iron. _See_ Industry
+
+Irrigation, 434ff., 523ff.
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew, 201, 204, 246, 280
+
+Jacobins, 174
+
+James I, 3
+
+James II, 65
+
+Jamestown, 3, 21
+
+Japan, relations with, 447, 511, 583
+
+Jay, John, 128, 158, 177
+
+Jefferson, Thomas: Declaration of Independence, 107
+  Secretary of State, 162ff.
+  political leader, 169
+  as President, 183ff.
+  Monroe Doctrine, 206, 231
+
+Jews, migration of, 11
+
+Johnson, Andrew, 365, 368, 371f.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 132
+
+Joliet, 59
+
+Jones, John Paul, 118
+
+Judiciary: British system, 67
+  federal, 152
+
+
+Kansas, admission, 441
+
+Kansas-Nebraska bill, 333
+
+Kentucky: admission, 224
+  Resolutions, 182
+
+King George's War, 59
+
+King Philip's War, 57
+
+King William's War, 59
+
+King's College (Columbia), 45
+
+Knights of Labor, 575ff.
+
+Kosciusko, 121
+
+Ku Klux Klan, 382
+
+
+Labor:  rise of organized, 304
+  parties, 462ff.
+  question, 521
+  American Federation, 573ff.
+  legislation, 590
+  World War, 608ff.
+
+Lafayette, 121
+
+La Follette, Senator, 531
+
+Land: tenure 20ff.
+  sales restricted, 80
+  Western survey, 219
+  federal sales policy, 220
+  Western tenure, 228
+  disappearance of free, 445
+  new problems, 449
+  _See also_ Homestead act
+
+La Salle, 59
+
+Lawrence, Captain, 200
+
+League of Nations, 616ff.
+
+Le Boeuf, Fort, 59
+
+Lee, General Charles, 131
+
+Lee, R.E., 357
+
+Lewis and Clark expedition, 193
+
+Lexington, battle, 100
+
+Liberal Republicans, 420
+
+Liberty loan, 606
+
+Lincoln: Mexican War, 282
+  Douglas debates, 336f.
+  election, 341
+  Civil War, 344ff.
+  reconstruction, 371
+
+Literacy test, 585
+
+Livingston, R.R., 191
+
+Locke, John, 95
+
+London Company, 3
+
+Long Island, battle, 114
+
+Lords of trade, 67ff.
+
+Louis XVI, 171ff.
+
+Louisiana: ceded to Spain, 61
+  purchase, 190ff.
+  admission, 227
+
+Loyalists. _See_ Tories
+
+_Lusitania_, the, 601ff.
+
+
+McClellan, General, 362, 365
+
+McCulloch _vs._ Maryland, 211
+
+McKinley, William, 422, 467ff., 489ff.
+
+Macaulay, Catherine, 132
+
+Madison, James, 158, 197ff.
+
+Maine, 325
+
+_Maine_, the, 490
+
+Manila Bay, battle, 492
+
+Manors, colonial, 22
+
+Manufactures. _See_ Industry
+
+Marbury _vs._ Madison, 209
+
+Marietta, 220
+
+Marion, Francis, 117, 120
+
+Marquette, 59
+
+Marshall, John, 208ff.
+
+Martineau, Harriet, 267
+
+Maryland, founded, 6, 49, 109, 239, 242
+
+Massachusetts: founded, 3ff.
+  _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Industry, Revolutionary War,
+     Constitutions, state, Suffrage, Commerce, and Industry
+
+Massachusetts Bay Company, 3
+  founded, 3ff.
+  _See also_ Immigration, Royal province
+
+_Mayflower_ compact, 4
+
+Mercantile theory, 69
+
+Merchants. _See_ Commerce
+
+_Merrimac_, the, 353
+
+Meuse-Argonne, battle, 612
+
+Mexico: and Texas, 278ff.
+  later relations, 594f.
+
+Michigan, admission, 273
+
+Midnight appointees, 187
+
+Milan Decree, 194
+
+Militia, Revolutionary War, 122
+
+Minimum wages, 551
+
+Minnesota, admission, 275
+
+Mississippi River, and West, 189f.
+
+Missouri Compromise, 207, 227, 271, 325, 332
+
+Molasses act, 71
+
+Money, paper, 80, 126, 155, 369
+
+_Monitor_, the, 353
+
+Monroe, James, 204ff., 191
+
+Monroe Doctrine, 205, 512
+
+Montana, admission, 442
+
+Montgomery, General, 114
+
+Morris, Robert, 127
+
+Mothers' pensions, 551
+
+Mohawks, 57
+
+Muckraking, 536f.
+
+Mugwumps, 420
+
+Municipal ownership, 549
+
+
+Napoleon I, 190
+
+Napoleon III: Civil War, 354f.
+  Mexico, 477
+
+National Labor Union, 574
+
+National road, 232
+
+Nationalism, colonial, 56ff.
+
+Natural rights, 95
+
+Navigation acts, 69
+
+Navy: in Revolution, 188
+  War of 1812, 195
+  Civil War, 353
+  World War, 610.
+  _See also_ Sea Power
+
+Nebraska, admission, 441
+
+Negro: Civil rights, 370ff.
+  in agriculture, 393ff.
+  status of, 396ff.
+  _See also_ Slavery
+
+New England: colonial times, 6ff., 35, 40ff.
+  _See also_ Industry, Suffrage, Commerce, and Wars
+
+New Hampshire: founded, 4ff.
+  _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Suffrage, and Constitutions,
+    state
+
+New Jersey, founded, 6.
+   _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Suffrage, and
+     Constitutions, state
+
+Newlands, Senator, 524
+
+New Mexico, admission, 443
+
+New Orleans, 59, 190
+  battle, 201
+
+Newspapers, colonial, 46ff.
+
+New York: founded by Dutch, 3
+  transferred to English, 49
+  _See also_ Dutch, Immigration, Royal province, Commerce, Suffrage,
+    and Constitutions, state
+
+New York City, colonial, 36
+
+Niagara, Fort, 59
+
+Nicaragua protectorate, 594
+
+Non-intercourse act, 196ff.
+
+Non-importation, 84ff., 99
+
+North, Lord, 100, 131, 133
+
+North Carolina: founded, 6.
+  _See also_ Royal province, Immigration, Suffrage, and Constitutions,
+    state
+
+North Dakota, admission, 442
+
+Northwest Ordinance, 219
+
+Nullification, 182, 251ff.
+
+
+Oglethorpe, James, 3
+
+Ohio, admission, 225
+
+Oklahoma, admission, 443
+
+Open door policy, 500
+
+Oregon, 284ff.
+
+Ostend Manifesto, 486
+
+Otis, James, 88, 95f.
+
+
+Pacific, American influence, 447
+
+Paine, Thomas, 103, 115, 175
+
+Panama Canal, 508ff.
+
+Panics: 1837, 262
+  1857, 336
+  1873, 464
+  1893, 465
+
+Parcel post, 529
+
+Parker, A.B., 527
+
+Parties: rise of, 168ff.
+  Federalists, 169ff.
+  Anti-Federalists (Jeffersonian Republicans), 169ff.
+  Democrats, 260
+  Whigs, 260ff.
+  Republicans, 334ff.
+  Liberal Republicans, 420
+  Constitutional union, 340
+  minor parties, 462ff.
+
+Paterson, William, 196ff.
+
+Penn, William, 6
+
+Pennsylvania: founded, 6
+  _See also_ Penn, Germans, Immigration, Industry, Revolutionary War,
+    Constitutions, state, Suffrage
+
+Pennsylvania University, 45
+
+Pensions, soldiers and sailors, 413, 607
+  mothers', 551
+
+Pequots, 57
+
+Perry, O.H., 200
+
+Pershing, General, 610
+
+Philadelphia, 36, 116
+
+Philippines, 492ff., 516ff., 592
+
+Phillips, Wendell, 320
+
+Pierce, Franklin, 295, 330
+
+Pike, Z., 193, 287
+
+Pilgrims, 4
+
+Pinckney, Charles, 148
+
+Pitt, William, 61, 79, 87, 132
+
+Planting system, 22f., 25, 149, 389, 393ff.
+
+Plymouth, 4, 21
+
+Polk, J.K., 265, 285f.
+
+Polygamy, 290f.
+
+Populist party, 464
+
+Porto Rico, 515, 592
+
+Postal savings bank, 529
+
+Preble, Commodore, 196
+
+Press. _See_ Newspapers
+
+Primary, direct, 541
+
+Princeton, battle, 129
+  University, 45
+
+Profit sharing, 572
+
+Progressive party, 531f.
+
+Prohibition, 591f.
+
+Proprietary colonies, 3, 6
+
+Provinces, royal, 49ff.
+
+Public service, 538ff.
+
+Pulaski, 121
+
+Pullman strike, 465
+
+Pure food act, 523
+
+Puritans, 3, 7, 40ff.
+
+
+Quakers, 6ff.
+
+Quartering act, 83
+
+Quebec act, 94
+
+Queen Anne's War, 59
+
+Quit rents, 21f.
+
+
+Radicals, 579
+
+Railways,  298, 402, 425, 460ff., 547, 621
+
+Randolph, Edmund, 146, 147, 162
+
+Ratification, of Constitution, 156ff.
+
+Recall, 543
+
+Reclamation, 523ff.
+
+Reconstruction, 370ff.
+
+Referendum, the, 543
+
+Reign of terror, 174
+
+Republicans: Jeffersonian, 179
+  rise of present party, 334ff.
+  supremacy of, 412ff.
+  _See also_ McKinley, Roosevelt, and Taft
+
+Resumption, 454
+
+Revolution: American, 99ff.
+  French, 171ff.
+  Russian, 619
+
+Rhode Island: founded, 4ff.
+  self-government, 49
+  _See also_ Suffrage
+
+Roosevelt, Theodore, 492, 500ff., 531, 570
+
+Royal province, 49ff.
+
+Russia, 205, 207, 355, 479, 619
+
+Russo-Japanese War, 511f.
+
+
+Saint Mihiel, 612
+
+Samoa, 481
+
+San Jacinto, 280
+
+Santa Fe trail, 287
+
+Santo Domingo, 480, 513, 592
+
+Saratoga, battle, 116, 130
+
+Savannah, 116, 131
+
+Scandinavians, 278
+
+Schools. _See_ Education
+
+Scott, General, 283, 330
+
+Scotch-Irish, 7ff.
+
+Seamen's act, 590
+
+Sea power: American Revolution, 118
+  Napoleonic wars, 193ff.
+  Civil War, 353
+  Caribbean, 593
+  Pacific, 447
+  World War, 610ff.
+
+Secession, 344ff.
+
+Sedition: act of 1798, 180ff., 187
+  of 1918, 608
+
+Senators, popular election, 527, 541ff.
+
+Seven Years' War, 60ff.
+
+Sevier, John, 218
+
+Seward, W.H., 322, 342
+
+Shafter, General, 492
+
+Shays's rebellion, 142
+
+Sherman, General, 361
+
+Sherman: anti-trust law, 461
+  silver act, 458
+
+Shiloh, 361
+
+Shipping. _See_ Commerce
+
+Shipping act, 607
+
+Silver, free, 455ff.
+
+Slavery: colonial, 16f.
+  trade, 150
+  in Northwest, 219
+  decline in North, 316f.
+  growth in South, 320ff.
+  and the Constitution, 324
+  and territories, 325ff.
+  compromises, 350
+  abolished, 357ff.
+
+Smith, Joseph, 290
+
+Socialism, 577ff.
+
+Solid South, 388
+
+Solomon, Hayn, 126
+
+Sons of liberty, 82
+
+South: economic and political views, 309ff.
+  _See also_ Slavery and Planting system, and Reconstruction
+
+South Carolina: founded, 6
+  nullification, 253ff.
+  _See also_ Constitutions, state, Suffrage, Slavery, and Secession
+
+South Dakota, 442
+
+Spain: and Revolution, 130
+  Louisiana, 190
+  Monroe Doctrine, 205
+  Spanish War, 490ff.
+
+Spoils system, 244, 250, 418, 536ff.
+
+Stamp act, 82ff.
+
+Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 564
+
+States: disorders under Articles of Confederation, 141
+  constitutions, federal limits on, 155
+  position after Civil War, 366ff.
+  _See also_ Suffrage, Nullification, and Secession
+
+Steamboat, 234
+
+Stowe, H.B., 332
+
+Strikes: of 1877, 581
+  Pullman, 581
+  coal, 526
+  _See also_ Labor
+
+Submarine campaign, 600ff.
+
+Suffrage: colonial, 42, 51
+  first state constitutions, 239
+  White manhood, 242
+  Negro, 374ff., 385f.
+  Woman, 110, 562ff.
+
+Sugar act, 81
+
+Sumner, Charles, 319
+
+Sumter, Fort, 350
+
+Swedes, 3, 13
+
+
+Taft, W.H., 527ff.
+
+Tammany Hall, 306, 418
+
+Taney, Chief Justice, 357
+
+Tariff: first, 167
+  of 1816, 203
+  development of, 251ff.
+  abominations, 249, 253
+  nullification, 251
+  of 1842, 264
+  Southern views of, 309ff.
+  of 1857, 337
+  Civil War, 367
+  Wilson bill, 459
+  McKinley bill, 422
+  Dingley bill, 472
+  Payne-Aldrich, 528
+  Underwood, 588
+
+Taxation: and representation, 149
+  and Constitution, 154
+  Civil War, 353
+  and wealth, 522, 551
+  and World War, 606
+
+Tea act, 88
+
+Tea party, 92
+
+Tenement house reform, 549
+
+Tennessee, 28, 224
+
+Territories, Northwest, 219
+  South of the Ohio, 219
+  _See also_ Slavery and Compromise
+
+Texas, 278ff.
+
+Tippecanoe, battle, 198
+
+Tocqueville, 267
+
+Toleration, religious, 42
+
+Tories, colonial, 84
+  in Revolution, 112
+
+Townshend acts, 80, 87
+
+Trade, colonial, 70
+  legislation, 70. _See_ Commerce
+
+Transylvania company, 28
+
+Treasury, independent, 263
+
+Treaties, of 1763, 61
+  alliance with France, 177
+  of 1783 with England, 134
+  Jay, 177, 218
+  Louisiana purchase, 191f.
+  of 1815, 201
+  Ashburton, 265
+  of 1848 with Mexico, 283
+  Washington with England, 481
+  with Spain, 492
+  Versailles (1919), 612ff.
+
+Trenton, battle, 116
+
+Trollope, Mrs., 268
+
+Trusts, 405ff., 461, 472ff., 521, 526, 530
+
+Tweed, W.M., 418
+
+Tyler, President, 264ff., 281, 349
+
+
+"Uncle Tom's Cabin," 332
+
+Union party, 365
+
+Unions. _See_ Labor
+
+Utah, 290ff., 329, 442
+
+Utilities, municipal, 548
+
+
+Vallandigham, 360
+
+Valley Forge, 116, 129
+
+Van Buren, Martin, 262
+
+Venango, Fort, 59
+
+Venezuela, 482ff., 512
+
+Vermont, 223
+
+Vicksburg, 361
+
+Virginia: founded, 3.
+  _See also_ Royal province, Constitutions, state, Planting system,
+    Slavery, Secession, and Immigration
+
+
+Walpole, Sir Robert, 66
+
+Wars: colonial, 57ff.
+  Revolutionary, 99ff.
+  of 1812, 199ff.
+  Mexican, 282ff.
+  Civil, 344ff.
+  Spanish, 490ff.
+  World, 596ff.
+
+Washington: warns French, 60
+  in French war, 63
+  commander-in-chief, 101ff.
+  and movement for Constitution, 142ff.
+  as President, 166ff.
+  Farewell Address, 178
+
+Washington City, 166
+
+Washington State, 442
+
+Webster, 256, 265, 328
+
+Welfare work, 573
+
+Whigs: English, 78
+  colonial, 83
+  rise of party, 260ff., 334, 340
+
+Whisky Rebellion, 171
+
+White Camelia, 382
+
+White Plains, battle, 114
+
+Whitman, Marcus, 284
+
+William and Mary College, 45
+
+Williams, Roger, 5, 42
+
+Wilmot Proviso, 326
+
+Wilson, James, 147
+
+Wilson, Woodrow, election, 533f.
+  administrations, 588ff.
+
+Winthrop, John, 3
+
+Wisconsin, admission, 274
+
+Witchcraft, 41
+
+Wollstonecraft, Mary, 556
+
+Women: colonial, 28
+  Revolutionary War, 124
+  labor, 305
+  education and civil rights, 554ff.
+  suffrage, 562ff.
+
+Workmen's compensation, 549
+
+Writs of assistance, 88
+
+Wyoming, admission, 442
+
+
+X, Y, Z affair, 180
+
+
+Yale, 44
+
+Young, Brigham, 290
+
+
+Zenger, Peter, 48
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Transcriber's notes:
+
+Punctuation normalized in all _Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._
+
+Superscripted letters are denoted with a caret. For example, G^O
+WASHINGTON.
+
+Period added after Mass on verso page. Original read "Mass, U.S.A."
+
+Chapter I, page 19, period added to pp. 55-159 and pp. 242-244.
+
+Chapter IV, page 61 cooperation changed to cooeperation twice to match
+rest of text usage. Also on page 620.
+
+Chapter VI, page 121 changed maneuvered to manoevered.
+
+Chapter VIII, page 185, period added to "Vol." Original read "Vol III,"
+
+Chapter X, page 219, changed coordinate to cooerdinate to reflect rest of
+text usage.
+
+Chapter X, page 234, Italicized habeus corpus to match rest of text.
+
+Chapter XI, page 257 changed reestablished to reestablished to conform
+to rest of text usage.
+
+Chapter XI, page 259 changed reelection to reelection
+
+Chapter XII, page 269 added period after "Vol" Vol. II
+
+Chapter XII, page 270. Title of work reads "_Selected Documents of
+United States History, 1776-1761_". Research shows the document does
+have this title.
+
+Chapter XV, page 351. changed "bout" to "about". "for only about"
+
+Chapter XVI, page 385. changed "provisons" to "provisions".
+
+Chapter XX, page 478. changed "aniversary" to "anniversary".
+
+Chapter XXIV, page 579 word "on" changed to "one" "five commissioners,
+one of whom,"
+
+Topical Syllabus. Missing periods added to normalize punctuation in
+entries such as on page 648 (4) Sixteenth Amendment--income tax
+(528-529).
+
+Appendix, page 631, comma changed to semi-colon on "bills of credit;" to
+match rest of list. Also on "obligation of contracts;"
+
+Index, page 657, changed "Freesoil" to Free-soil to match rest of text
+usage.
+
+Index, page 660, space removed from "396 ff." changed to "status of,
+396ff."
+
+Index, Page 662, added comma to States: disorders under Articles of
+Constitution, 141]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States
+by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***
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