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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/16671-8.txt b/16671-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0637b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/16671-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4461 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 643, +April 28, 1888, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 643, April 28, 1888 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 7, 2005 [EBook #16671] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 643 + + + + +NEW YORK, APRIL 28, 1888 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXV., No. 643. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHÆOLOGY.--The Subterranean Temples of India.--The + subterranean temples of India described and illustrated, the + wonderful works of the ancient dwellers in Hindostan.--3 + illustrations. 10275 + +II. BIOGRAPHY.--General F. Perrier.--Portrait and biography of + the French geodesian, his triangulations in Algiers and + Corsica.--1 illustration. 10264 + + The Crown Prince of Germany--Prince William and his son.-- + Biographical note of Prince William, the heir to the German + throne.--1 illustration. 10263 + +III. BIOLOGY.--Poisons.--Abstract of a lecture by Prof. MEYMOTT + TIDY, giving the relations of poisons to life. 10273 + + The President's Annual Address to the Royal Microscopical + Society.--The theory of putrefaction and putrefactive + organisms.--Exhaustive review of the subject. 10264 + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--Molecular Weights.--A new and simple method + of determining molecular weights for unvolatilizable + substances. 10271 + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Concrete.--By JOHN LUNDIE.--A practical + paper on the above subject.--The uses and proper methods of + handling concrete, machine mixing contrasted with hand + mixing. 10267 + + Timber and Some of its Diseases.--By H. MARSHALL WARD.--The + continuation of this important treatise on timber destruction, + the fungi affecting wood, and treatment of the troubles + arising therefrom. 10277 + +VI. ENGINEERING.--Estrade's High Speed Locomotive.--A comparative + review of the engineering features of M. Estrade's new + engine, designed for speeds of 77 to 80 miles an hour.--1 + illustration. 10266 + + Machine Designing.--By JOHN B. SWEET.--First portion of a + Franklin Institute lecture on this eminently practical + subject.--2 illustrations. 10267 + +VII. METEOROLOGY.--The Peak of Teneriffe.--Electrical and + meteorological observations on the summit of Teneriffe. 10265 + +VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--Analysis of a Hand Fire Grenade.--By + CHAS. CATLETT and R.C. PRICE.--The contents of a fire + grenade and its origin. 10271 + + How to Catch and Preserve Moths and Butterflies.--Practical + directions for collectors. 10275 + + The Clavi Harp.--A new instrument, a harp played by means of + keys arranged on a keyboard--1 illustration. 10275 + + Inquiries Regarding the Incubator.--By P.H. JACOBS.--Notes + concerning the incubator described in a previous issue + (SUPPLEMENT, No. 630).--Practical points. 10265 + +IX. PHYSICS.--The Direct Optical Projection of Electro-dynamic + Lines of Force, and other Electro-dynamic Phenomena.--By Prof. + J.W. MOORE--Second portion of this profusely illustrated paper, + giving a great variety of experiments on the phenomena of + loop-shaped conductors.--26 illustrations. 10272 + + The Mechanics of a Liquid.--An ingenious method of measuring + the volume of fibrous and porous substances without immersion + in any liquid.--1 illustration. 10269 + +X. PHYSIOLOGY.--Artificial Mother for Infants.--An apparatus + resembling an incubator for infants that are prematurely + born.--Results attained by its use.--1 illustration. 10274 + + Gastrostomy.--Artificial feeding for cases of obstructed + oesophagus.--The apparatus and its application.--2 + illustrations. 10274 + +XI. PHOTOGRAPHY.--How to Make Photo-Printing Plates.--The + process of making relief plates for printers. 10271 + +XII. TECHNOLOGY.--Improved Current Meter.--A simple apparatus + for measuring air and water currents without indexes or other + complications.--1 illustration. 10270 + + The Flower Industry of Grasse.--Methods of manufacturing + perfumes in France.--The industry as practiced in the town + of Grasse. 10270 + + Volute Double Distilling Condenser.--A distiller and condenser + for producing fresh water from sea water.--3 illustrations. 10269 + + The Argand Burner.--The origin of the invention of the Argand + burner. 10275 + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: THE CROWN PRINCE OF GERMANY--PRINCE WILLIAM AND SON +[From a Photograph]] + + + + +THE CROWN PRINCE OF GERMANY--PRINCE WILLIAM AND HIS SON. + + +At a moment when the entire world has its eyes fixed upon the invalid +of the Villa Zurio, it appears to us to be of interest to publish the +portrait of his son, Prince William. The military spirit of the +Hohenzollerns is found in him in all its force and exclusiveness. It +was hoped that the accession of the crown prince to the throne of +Germany would temper the harshness of it and modernize its aspect, but +the painful disease from which he is suffering warns us that the +moment may soon come in which the son will be called to succeed the +Emperor William, his grandfather, of whom he is morally the perfect +portrait. Like him, he loves the army, and makes it the object of his +entire attention. No colonel more scrupulously performs his duty than +he, when he enters the quarters of the regiment of red hussars whose +chief he is. + +His solicitude for the army manifests itself openly. It is not without +pride that he regards his eldest son, who will soon be six years old, +and who is already clad in the uniform of a fusilier of the Guard. +Prince William is a soldier in spirit, just as harsh toward himself as +severe toward others. So he is the friend and emulator of Prince Von +Bismarck, who sees in him the depositary of the military traditions of +the house of Prussia, and who is preparing him by his lessons and his +advice to receive and preserve the patrimony that his ancestors have +conquered. + +Prince William was born January 27, 1859. On the 29th of February, +1881, he married Princess Augusta Victoria, daughter of the Duke of +Sleswick-Holstein. Their eldest son, little Prince William, +represented with his father in our engraving, was born at Potsdam, May +6, 1882.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + + + + +GENERAL F. PERRIER. + + +Francois Perrier, who was born at Valleraugue (Gard), on the 18th of +April, 1835, descended from an honorable family of Protestants, of +Cevennes. After finishing his studies at the Lyceum of Nimes and at +St. Barbe College, he was received at the Polytechnic School in 1853, +and left it in 1857, as a staff officer. + +Endowed with perseverance and will, he owed all his grades and all his +success to his splendid conduct and his important labors. Lieutenant +in 1857, captain in 1860, major of cavalry in 1874, lieutenant-colonel +in 1879, he received a year before his death the stars of +brigadier-general. He was commander of the Legion of Honor and +president of the council-general of his department. + +General Perrier long ago made a name for himself in science. After +some remarkable publications upon the trigonometrical junction of +France and England (1861) and upon the triangulation and leveling of +Corsica (1865), he was put at the head of the geodesic service of the +army in 1879. In 1880, the learned geodesian was sent as a delegate to +the conference of Berlin for settling the boundaries of the new +Greco-Turkish frontiers. In January of the same year, he was elected a +member of the Academy of Sciences, as successor to M. De Tessan. He +was a member of the bureau of longitudes from 1875. + +In 1882, Perrier was sent to Florida to observe the transit of Venus. +Thanks to his activity and ability, his observations were a complete +success. Thenceforward, his celebrity continued to increase until his +last triangulating operations in Algeria. + +[Illustration: GENERAL FRANCOIS PERRIER.] + +"Do you not remember," said Mr. Janssen recently to the Academy of +Sciences, "the feeling of satisfaction that the whole country felt +when it learned the entire success of that grand geodesic operation +that united Spain with our Algeria over the Mediterranean, and passed +through France a meridian arc extending from the north of England as +far as to the Sahara, that is to say, an arc exceeding in length the +greatest arcs that had been measured up till then? This splendid +result attracted all minds, and rendered Perrier's name popular. But +how much had this success been prepared by long and conscientious +labors that cede in nothing to it in importance? The triangulation and +leveling of Corsica, and the connecting of it with the Continent; the +splendid operations executed in Algeria, which required fifteen years +of labor, and led to the measurement of an arc of parallels of nearly +10° in extent, that offers a very peculiar interest for the study of +the earth's figure; and, again, that revision of the meridian of +France in which it became necessary to utilize all the progress that +had been made since the beginning of the century in the construction +of instruments and in methods of observation and calculation. And it +must be added that General Perrier had formed a school of scientists +and devoted officers who were his co-laborers, and upon whom we must +now rely to continue his work." + +The merits of General Perrier gained him the honor of being placed at +the head of a service of high importance, the geographical service of +the army, to the organization of which he devoted his entire energy. + +In General Perrier, the man ceded in nothing to the worker and +scientist. Good, affable, generous, he joined liveliness and good +humor with courage and energy. Incessantly occupied with the +prosperity and grandeur of his country, he knew that true patriotism +does not consist in putting forth vain declamations, but in +endeavoring to accomplish useful and fruitful work.--_La Nature._ + +General Perrier died at Montpellier on the 20th of February, 1888. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PRESIDENT'S ANNUAL ADDRESS TO THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Delivered by the Rev. Dr. Dallinger, F.R.S., at the + annual meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society, Feb. 8, + 1888.--_Nature._] + + +Retrospect may involve regret, but can scarcely involve anxiety. To +one who fully appreciates the actual, and above all the potential, +importance of this society in its bearing upon the general progress of +scientific research in every field of physical inquiry, the +responsibilities of president will not be lightly, while they may +certainly be proudly, undertaken. + +I think it may be now fairly taken for granted that, as this society +has, from the outset, promoted and pointed to the higher scientific +perfection of the microscope, so now, more than ever, it is its +special function to place this in the forefront as its _raison +d'etre_. The microscope has been long enough in the hands of amateur +and expert alike to establish itself as an instrument having an +application to every actual and conceivable department of human +research; and while in the earliest days of this society it was +possible for a zealous Fellow to have seen, and been more or less +familiar with, all the applications to which it then had been put, it +is different to-day. Specialists in the most diverse areas of research +are assiduously applying the instrument to their various subjects, and +with results that, if we would estimate aright, we must survey with +instructed vision the whole ground which advancing science covers. + +From this it is manifest that this society cannot hope to infold, or +at least to organically bind to itself, men whose objects of research +are so diverse. + +But these are all none the less linked by one inseverable bond; it is +the microscope; and while, amid the inconceivable diversity of its +applications, it remains manifest that this society has for its +primary object the constant progress of the instrument--whether in its +mechanical construction or its optical appliances; whether the +improvements shall bear upon the use of high powers or low powers; +whether it shall be improvement that shall apply to its commercial +employment, its easier professional application, or its most exalted +scientific use; so long as this shall be the undoubted aim of the +Royal Microscopical Society, its existence may well be the pride of +Englishmen, and will commend itself more and more to men of all +countries. + +This, and this only, can lift such a society out of what I believe has +ceased to be its danger, that of forgetting that in proportion as the +optical principles of the microscope are understood, and the theory of +microscopical vision is made plain, the value of the instrument over +every region to which it can be applied, and in all the varied hands +that use it, is increased without definable limit. It is therefore by +such means that the true interests of science are promoted. + +It is one of the most admirable features of this society that it has +become cosmopolitan in its character in relation to the instrument, +and all the ever-improving methods of research employed with it. From +meeting to meeting it is not one country, or one continent even, that +is represented on our tables. Nay, more, not only are we made familiar +with improvements brought from every civilized part of the world, +referring alike to the microscope itself and every instrument devised +by specialists for its employment in every department of research; but +also, by the admirable persistence of Mr. Crisp and Mr. Jno. Mayall, +Jr., we are familiarized with every discovery of the old forms of the +instrument wherever found or originally employed. + +The value of all this cannot be overestimated, for it will, even where +prejudices as to our judgment may exist, gradually make it more and +more clear that this society exists to promote and acknowledge +improvements in every constituent of the microscope, come from +whatever source they may; and, in connection with this, to promote by +demonstrations, exhibitions, and monographs the finest applications of +the finest instruments for their respective purposes. + +To give all this its highest value, of course, the theoretical side of +our instrument must occupy the attention of the most accomplished +experts. We may not despair that our somewhat too practical past in +this respect may right itself in our own country; but meantime the +splendid work of German students and experts is placed by the wise +editors of our journal within the reach of all. + +I know of no higher hope for this important society than that it may +continue in ever increasing strength to promote, criticise, and +welcome from every quarter of the world whatever will improve the +microscope in itself and in any of its applications, from the most +simple to the most complex and important in which its employment is +possible. + +There are two points of some practical interest to which I desire for +a few moments to call your attention. The former has reference to the +group of organisms to which I have for so many years directed your +attention, viz., the "monads," which throughout I have called +"putrefactive organisms." + +There can be no longer any doubt that the destructive process of +putrefaction is essentially a process of fermentation. + +The fermentative saprophyte is as absolutely essential to the setting +up of destructive rotting or putrescence in a putrescible fluid as the +torula is to the setting up of alcoholic fermentation in a saccharine +fluid. Make the presence of torulæ impossible, and you exclude with +certainty fermentative action. + +In precisely the same way, provide a proteinaceous solution, capable +of the highest putrescence, but absolutely sterilized, and placed in +an optically pure or absolutely calcined air; and while these +conditions are maintained, no matter what length of time may be +suffered to elapse, the putrescible fluid will remain absolutely +without trace of decay. + +But suffer the slightest infection of the protected and pure air to +take place, or, from some putrescent source, inoculate your sterilized +fluid with the minutest atom, and shortly turbidity, offensive scent, +and destructive putrescence ensue. + +As in the alcoholic, lactic, or butyric ferments, the process set up +is shown to be dependent upon and concurrent with the vegetative +processes of the demonstrated organisms characterizing these ferments; +so it can be shown with equal clearness and certainty that the entire +process of what is known as putrescence is equally and as absolutely +dependent on the vital processes of a given and discoverable series of +organisms. + +Now it is quite customary to treat the fermentative agency in +putrefaction as if it were wholly bacterial, and, indeed, the +putrefactive group of bacteria are now known as saprophytes, or +saprophytic bacteria, as distinct from morphologically similar, but +physiologically dissimilar, forms known as parasitic or pathogenic +bacteria. + +It is indeed usually and justly admitted that _B. termo_ is the +exciting cause of fermentative putrefaction. Cohn has in fact +contended that it is the distinctive ferment of all putrefactions, and +that it is to decomposing proteinaceous solutions what _Torula +cerevisiæ_ is to the fermenting fluids containing sugar. + +In a sense, this is no doubt strictly true: it is impossible to find a +decomposing proteinaceous solution, at any stage, without finding this +form in vast abundance. + +But it is well to remember that in nature putrefactive ferments must +go on to an extent rarely imitated or followed in the laboratory. As a +rule, the pabulum in which the saprophytic organisms are provided and +"cultured" is infusions, or extracts of meat carefully filtered, and, +if vegetable matter is used, extracts of fruit, treated with equal +care, and if needful neutralized, are used in a similar way. To these +may be added all the forms of gelatine, employed in films, masses and +so forth. + +But in following the process of destructive fermentation as it takes +place in large masses of tissue, animal or vegetable, but far +preferably the former, as they lie in water at a constant temperature +of from 60° to 65° F., it will be seen that the fermentative process +is the work, not of one organism, nor, judging by the standard of our +present knowledge, of one specified class of vegetative forms, but by +organisms which, though related to each other, are in many respects +greatly dissimilar, not only morphologically, but also embryologically, +and even physiologically. + +Moreover, although this is a matter that will want most thorough and +efficient inquiry and research to understand properly its conditions, +yet it is sufficiently manifest that these organisms succeed each +other in a curious and even remarkable manner. Each does a part in the +work of fermentative destruction; each aids in splitting up into lower +and lower compounds the elements of which the masses of degrading +tissue are composed; while, apparently, each set in turn does by vital +action, coupled with excretion, (1) take up the substances necessary +for its own growth and multiplication; (2) carry on the fermentative +process; and (3) so change the immediate pabulum as to give rise to +conditions suitable for its immediate successor. Now the point of +special interest is that there is an apparent adaptation in the form, +functions, mode of multiplication, and order of succession in these +fermentative organisms, deserving study and fraught with instruction. + +Let it be remembered that the aim of nature in this fermentative +action is not the partial splitting of certain organic compounds, and +their reconstruction in simpler conditions, but the ultimate setting +free, by saprophytic action, of the elements locked up in great masses +of organic tissue--the sending back into nature of the only material +of which future organic structures are to be composed. + +I have said that there can be no question whatever that _Bacterium +termo_ is the pioneer of saprophytes. Exclude _B. termo_ (and +therefore with it all its congeners), and you can obtain no +putrefaction. But wherever, in ordinary circumstances, a decomposable +organic mass, say the body of a fish, or a considerable mass of the +flesh of a terrestrial animal, is exposed in water at a temperature of +60° to 65° F., _B. termo_ rapidly appears, and increases with a simply +astounding rapidity. It clothes the tissues like a skin, and diffuses +itself throughout the fluid. + +The exact chemical changes it thus effects are not at present clearly +known; but the fermentative action is manifestly concurrent with its +multiplication. It finds its pabulum in the mass it ferments by its +vegetative processes. But it also produces a visible change in the +enveloping fluid, and noxious gases continuously are thrown off. + +In the course of a week or more, dependent on the period of the year, +there is, not inevitably, but as a rule, a rapid accession of spiral +forms, such as _Spirillum volutans_, _S. undula_, and similar forms, +often accompanied by _Bacterium lineola_; and the whole interspersed +still with inconceivable multitudes of _B. termo_. + +These invest the rotting tissues liked an elastic garment, but are +always in a state of movement. These, again, manifestly further the +destructive ferment, and bring about a softness and flaccidity in the +decomposing tissues, while they without doubt, at the same time, have, +by their vital activity and possible secretions, affected the +condition of the changing organic mass. There can be, so far as my +observations go, no certainty as to when, after this, another form of +organism will present itself; nor, when it does, which of a limited +series it will be. But, in a majority of observed cases, a loosening +of the living investment of bacterial forms takes place, and +simultaneously with this, the access of one or two forms of my +putrefactive monads. They were among the first we worked at; and have +been, by means of recent lenses, among the last revised. Mr. S. Kent +named them _Cercomonas typica_ and _Monas dallingeri_ respectively. +They are both simple oval forms, but the former has a flagellum at +both ends of the longer axis of the body, while the latter has a +single flagellum in front. + +The principal difference is in their mode of multiplication by +fission. The former is in every way like a bacterium in its mode of +self-division. It divides, acquiring for each half a flagellum in +division, and then, in its highest vigor, in about four minutes, each +half divides again. + +The second form does not divide into two, but into many, and thus +although the whole process is slower, develops with greater rapidity. +But both ultimately multiply--that is, commence new generations--by +the equivalent of a sexual process. + +These would average about four times the size of _Bacterium termo_; +and when once they gain a place on and about the putrefying tissues, +their relatively powerful and incessant action, their enormous +multitude, and the manner in which they glide over, under, and beside +each other, as they invest the fermenting mass, is worthy of close +study. It has been the life history of these organisms, and not their +relations as ferment, that has specially occupied my fullest +attention; but it would be in a high degree interesting if we could +discover, or determine, what besides the vegetative or organic +processes of nutrition are being effected by one, or both, of these +organisms on the fast yielding mass. Still more would it be of +interest to discover what, if any, changes were wrought in the +pabulum, or fluid generally. For after some extended observations I +have found that it is only after one or other or both, of these +organisms have performed their part in the destructive ferment, that +subsequent and extremely interesting changes arise. + +It is true that in some three or four instances of this saprophytic +destruction of organic tissues, I have observed that, after the strong +bacterial investment, there has arisen, not the two forms just named, +nor either of them, but one or other of the striking forms now called +_Tetramitus rostratus_ and _Polytoma uvella_; but this has been in +relatively few instances. The rule is that _Cercomonas typica_ or its +congener precedes other forms, that not only succeed them in promoting +and carrying to a still further point the putrescence of the +fermenting substance, but appear to be aided in the accomplishment of +this by mechanical means. + +By this time the mass of tissue has ceased to cohere. The mass has +largely disintegrated, and there appears among the countless bacterial +and monad forms some one, and sometimes even three forms, that while +they at first swim and gyrate, and glide about the decomposing matter, +which is now much less closely invested by _Cercomonas typica_, or +those organisms that may have acted in its place, they also resort to +an entirely new mode of movement. + +One of these forms is _Heteromita rostrata_, which, it will be +remembered, in addition to a front flagellum, has also a long fiber or +flagellum-like appendage that gracefully trails as it swims. At +certain periods of its life they anchor themselves in countless +billions all over the fermenting tissues, and as I have described in +the life history of this form, they coil their anchored fiber, as does +a vorticellan, bringing the body to the level of the point of +anchorage, then shoot out the body with lightning-like rapidity, and +bring it down like a hammer on some point of the decomposition. It +rests here for a second or two, and repeats the process; and this is +taking place by what seems almost like rhythmic movement all over the +rotting tissue. The results are scarcely visible in the mass. But if a +group of these organisms be watched, attached to a small particle of +the fermenting tissue, it will be seen to gradually diminish, and at +length to disappear. + +Now, there are at least two other similar forms, one of which, +_Heteromita uncinata_, is similar in action, and the other of which, +_Dallingeria drysdali_, is much more powerful, being possessed of a +double anchor, and springing down upon the decadent mass with +relatively far greater power. + +Now, it is under the action of these last forms that in a period +varying from one month to two or three the entire substance of the +organic tissues disappears, and the decomposition has been designated +by me "exhausted"; nothing being left in the vessel but slightly +noxious and pale gray water, charged with carbonic acid, and a fine, +buff colored, impalpable sediment at the bottom. + +My purpose is not, by this brief notice, to give an exhaustive, or +even a sufficient account, of the progress of fermentative action, by +means of saprophytic organisms, on great masses of tissue; my +observations have been incidental, but they lead me to the conclusion +that the fermentative process is not only not carried through by what +are called saprophytic bacteria, but that a _series_ of fermentative +organisms arise, which succeed each other, the earlier ones preparing +the pabulum or altering the surrounding medium, so as to render it +highly favorable to a succeeding form. On the other hand, the +succeeding form has a special adaptation for carrying on the +fermentative destruction more efficiently from the period at which it +arises, and thus ultimately of setting free the chemical elements +locked up in dead organic compounds. + +That these later organisms are saprophytic, although not bacterial, +there can be no doubt. A set of experiments, recorded by me in the +proceedings of this society some years since, would go far to +establish this (_Monthly Microscopical Journal_, 1876, p. 288). But it +may be readily shown, by extremely simple experiments, that these +forms will set up fermentative decomposition rapidly if introduced in +either a desiccated or living condition, or in the spore state, into +suitable but sterilized pabulum. + +Thus while we have specific ferments which bring about definite and +specific results, and while even infusions of proteid substances may +be exhaustively fermented by saprophytic bacteria, the most important +of all ferments, that by which nature's dead organic masses are +removed, is one which there is evidence to show is brought about by +the successive vital activities of a series of adapted organisms, +which are forever at work in every region of the earth. + +There is one other matter of some interest and moment on which I would +say a few words. To thoroughly instructed biologists, such words will +be quite needless; but, in a society of this kind, the possibilities +that lie in the use of the instrument are associated with the +contingency of large error, especially in the biology of the minuter +forms of life, unless a well grounded biological knowledge form the +basis of all specific inference, to say nothing of deduction. + +I am the more encouraged to speak of the difficulty to which I refer, +because I have reason to know that it presents itself again and again +in the provincial societies of the country, and is often adhered to +with a tenacity worthy of a better cause. I refer to the danger that +always exists, that young or occasional observers are exposed to, amid +the complexities of minute animal and vegetable life, of concluding +that they have come upon absolute evidences of the transformation of +one minute form into another; that in fact they have demonstrated +cases of heterogenesis. + +This difficulty is not diminished by the fact that on the shelves of +most microscopical societies there is to be found some sort of +literature written in support of this strange doctrine. + +You will pardon me for allusion again to the field of inquiry in which +I have spent so many happy hours. It is, as you know, a region of life +in which we touch, as it were, the very margin of living things. If +nature were capricious anywhere, we might expect to find her so here. +If her methods were in a slovenly or only half determined condition, +we might expect to find it here. But it is not so. Know accurately +what you are doing, use the precautions absolutely essential, and +through years of the closest observation it will be seen that the +vegetative and vital processes generally, of the very simplest and +lowliest life forms, are as much directed and controlled by immutable +laws as the most complex and elevated. + +The life cycles, accurately known, of monads repeat themselves as +accurately as those of rotifers or planarians. + +And of course, on the very surface of the matter, the question +presents itself to the biologist why it should not be so. The +irrefragable philosophy of modern biology is that the most complex +forms of living creatures have derived their splendid complexity and +adaptations from the slow and majestically progressive variation and +survival from the simpler and the simplest forms. If, then, the +simplest forms of the present and the past were not governed by +accurate and unchanging laws of life, how did the rigid certainties +that manifestly and admittedly govern the more complex and the most +complex come into play? + +If our modern philosophy of biology be, as we know it is, true, then +it must be very strong evidence indeed that would lead us to conclude +that the laws seen to be universal break down and cease accurately to +operate where the objects become microscopic, and our knowledge of +them is by no means full, exhaustive, and clear. + +Moreover, looked at in the abstract, it is a little difficult to +conceive why there should be more uncertainty about the life processes +of a group of lowly living things than there should be about the +behavior, in reaction, of a given group of molecules. + +The triumph of modern knowledge is the certainty, which nothing can +shake, that nature's laws are immutable. The stability of her +processes, the precision of her action, and the universality of her +laws, is the basis of all science, to which biology forms no +exception. Once establish, by clear and unmistakable demonstration, +the life history of an organism, and truly some change must have come +over nature as a whole, if that life history be not the same to-morrow +as to-day; and the same to one observer, in the same conditions, as to +another. + +No amount of paradox would induce us to believe that the combining +proportions of hydrogen and oxygen had altered, in a specified +experimenter's hands, in synthetically producing water. + +We believe that the melting point of platinum and the freezing point +of mercury are the same as they were a hundred years ago, and as they +will be a hundred years hence. + +Now, carefully remember that so far as we can see at all, it must be +so with life. Life inheres in protoplasm; but just as you cannot get +_abstract matter_--that is, matter with no properties or modes of +motion--so you cannot get _abstract_ protoplasm. Every piece of living +protoplasm we see has a history; it is the inheritor of countless +millions of years. Its properties have been determined by its history. +It is the protoplasm of some definite form of life which has inherited +its specific history. It can be no more false to that inheritance than +an atom of oxygen can be false to its properties. + +All this, of course, within the lines of the great secular processes +of the Darwinian laws; which, by the way, could not operate at all if +caprice formed any part of the activities of nature. + +But let me give a practical instance of how what appears like fact may +override philosophy, if an incident, or even a group of incidents, +_per se_ are to control our judgment. + +Eighteen years ago I was paying much attention to vorticellæ. I was +observing with some pertinacity _Vorticella convallaria_; for one of +the calices in a group under observation was in a strange and +semi-encysted state, while the remainder were in full normal activity. + +I watched with great interest and care, and have in my folio still the +drawings made at the time. The stalk carrying this individual calyx +fell upon the branch of vegetable matter to which the vorticellan was +attached, and the calyx became perfectly globular; and at length there +emerged from it a small form with which, in this condition, I was +quite unfamiliar; it was small, tortoise-like in form, and crept over +the branch on setæ or hair-like pedicels; but, carefully followed, I +found it soon swam, and at length got the long neck-like appendage of +_Amphileptus anser_! + +Here then was the cup or calyx of a definite vorticellan form changing +into (?) an absolutely different infusorian, viz., _Amphileptus +anser_! + +Now I simply reported the _fact_ to the Liverpool Microscopical +Society, with no attempt at inference; but two years after I was able +to explain the mystery, for, finding in the same pond both _V. +convallaria_ and _A. anser_, I carefully watched their movements, and +saw the _Amphileptus_ seize and struggle with a calyx of +_convallaria_, and absolutely become encysted upon it, with the +results that I had reported two years before. + +And there can be no doubt but this is the key to the cases that come +to us again and again of minute forms suddenly changing into forms +wholly unlike. It is happily among the virtues of the man of science +to "rejoice in the truth," even though it be found at his expense; and +true workers, earnest seekers for nature's methods, in the obscurest +fields of her action, will not murmur that this source of danger to +younger microscopists has been pointed out, or recalled to them. + +And now I bid you, as your president, farewell. It has been all +pleasure to me to serve you. It has enlarged my friendships and my +interests, and although my work has linked me with the society for +many years, I have derived much profit from this more organic union +with it; and it is a source of encouragement to me, and will, I am +sure, be to you, that, after having done with simple pleasure what I +could, I am to be succeeded in this place of honor by so distinguished +a student of the phenomena of minute life as Dr. Hudson. I can but +wish him as happy a tenure of office as mine has been. + + * * * * * + + + + +INQUIRIES REGARDING THE INCUBATOR. + +P.H. JACOBS. + + +Space in the _Rural_ is valuable, and so important a subject as +artificial incubation cannot perhaps be made entirely plain to a +novice in a few articles; but as interested parties have written for +additional information, it may interest others to answer them here. +Among the questions asked are: "Does the incubator described in the +_Rural_ dispense entirely with the use of a lamp, using at intervals a +bucket of water to maintain proper temperature? I fear this will not +be satisfactory unless the incubator is kept in a warm room or +cellar." + +All incubators must be kept in a warm location, whether operated by a +lamp or otherwise. The warmer the room or cellar, the less warmth +required to be supplied. Bear in mind that the incubator recommended +has four inches of sawdust surrounding it, and more sawdust would +still be an advantage. The sawdust is not used to protect against the +outside temperature, but to absorb and hold a large amount of heat, +and that is the secret of its success. The directions given were to +first fill the tank with boiling water and allow it to remain for 24 +hours. In the meantime the sawdust absorbs the heat, and more boiling +water is then added until the egg-drawer is about 110 or 115 degrees. +By this time there is a quantity of stored heat in the sawdust. The +eggs will cool the drawer to 103. The loss of heat (due to its being +held by the sawdust) will be very slow. All that is needed then is to +supply that which will be lost in 12 hours, and a bucket of boiling +water should keep the heat about correct, if added twice a day, but it +may require more, as some consideration must be given to fluctuations +of the temperature of the atmosphere. The third week of incubation, +owing to animal heat from the embryo chicks, a bucket of boiling water +will sometimes hold temperature for 24 hours. No objection can be +urged against attaching a lamp arrangement, but a lamp is dangerous at +night, while the flame must be regulated according to temperature. The +object of giving the hot water method was to avoid lamps. We have a +large number of them in use (no lamps) here, and they are equal to any +others in results. + +With all due respect to some inquirers, the majority of them seem +afraid of the work. Now, there is some work with all incubators. What +is desired is to get rid of the anxiety. I stated that a bucket of +water twice a day would suffice. I trusted to the judgment of the +reader somewhat. Of course, if the heat in the egg drawer is 90 +degrees, and the weather cold, it may then take a wash boiler full of +water to get the temperature back to 103 degrees, but when it is at +103 keep it there, even if it occasionally requires two buckets of +boiling water. To judge of what may be required, let us suppose the +operator looks at the thermometer in the morning, and it is exactly +103 degrees. He estimates that it will lose a little by night, and +draws off half a bucket of water. At night he finds it at 102. Knowing +that it is on what we term "the down grade," he applies a bucket and a +half (always allowing for the night being colder than the day). As +stated, the sawdust will not allow the drawer to become too cold, as +it gives off heat to the drawer. And, as the sawdust absorbs, it is +not easy to have the heat too high. One need not even look at the +drawer until the proper times. No watching--the incubator regulates +itself. If a lamp is used, too much heat may accumulate. The flame +must be occasionally turned up or down, and the operator must remain +at home and watch it, while during the third week he will easily cook +his eggs. + +The incubator can be made at home for so small a sum (about $5 for the +tank, $1 for faucet, etc., with 116 feet of lumber) that it will cost +but little to try it. A piece of glass can be placed in front of the +egg drawer, if preferred. If the heat goes down to 90, or rises at +times to 105, no harm is done. But it works well, and hatches, the +proof being that hundreds are in use. I did not give the plan as a +theory or an experiment. They are in practical use here, and work +alongside of the more expensive ones, and have been in use for four +years. To use a lamp attachment, all that is necessary is to have a +No. 2 burner lamp with a riveted sheet-iron chimney, the chimney +fitting over the flame, like an ordinary globe, and extending the +chimney (using an elbow) through the tank from the rear, ending in +front. It should be soldered at the tank. The heat from the lamp will +then pass through the chimney and consequently warm the surrounding +water.--_Rural New-Yorker._ + +[For description and illustrations of this incubator see SUPPLEMENT, +No. 630.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PEAK OF TENERIFFE. + + +The Hon. Ralph Abercromby made a trip to the island of Teneriffe in +October, 1887, for the purpose of making some electrical and +meteorological observations, and now gives some of the results which +he obtained, which may be summarized as follows: The electrical +condition of the peak of Teneriffe was found to be the same as in +every other part of the world. The potential was moderately positive, +from 100 to 150 volts, at 5 ft. 5 in. from the ground, even at +considerable altitudes; but the tension rose to 549 volts on the +summit of the peak, 12,200 ft., and to 247 volts on the top of the +rock of Gayga, 7,100 feet. A large number of halos were seen +associated with local showers and cloud masses. The necessary ice dust +appeared to be formed by rising currents. The shadow of the peak was +seen projected against the sky at sunset. The idea of a southwest +current flowing directly over the northeast trade was found to be +erroneous. There was always a regular vertical succession of air +currents in intermediate directions at different levels from the +surface upward, so that the air was always circulating on a +complicated screw system. + + * * * * * + + + + +ESTRADE'S HIGH SPEED LOCOMOTIVE. + + +We illustrate a very remarkable locomotive, which has been constructed +from the designs of M. Estrade, a French engineer. This engine was +exhibited last year in Paris. Although the engine was built, M. +Estrade could not persuade any railway company to try it for him, and +finally he applied to the French government, who have at last +sanctioned the carrying out of experiments with it on one of the state +railway lines. The engine is in all respects so opposed to English +ideas that we have hitherto said nothing about it. As, however, it is +going to be tried, an importance is given to it which it did not +possess before; and, as a mechanical curiosity, we think it is worth +the consideration of our readers. + +In order that we may do M. Estrade no injustice, we reproduce here in +a condensed form, and in English, the arguments in its favor contained +in a paper written by M. Max de Nansouty, C.E., who brought M. +Estrade's views before the French Institution of Civil Engineers, on +May 21, 1886. M. Nansouty's paper has been prepared with much care, +and contains a great deal of useful data quite apart from the Estrade +engine. The paper in question is entitled "_Memoire relatif au +Materiel Roulant a Grand Vitesse_," D.M. Estrade. + +About thirty years ago, M. Estrade, formerly pupil of the Polytechnic +School, invented rolling stock for high speed under especial +conditions, and capable of leading to important results, more +especially with regard to speed. Following step by step the progress +made in the construction of railway stock, the inventor, from time to +time, modified and improved his original plan, and finally, in 1884, +arrived at the conception of a system entirely new in its fundamental +principles and in its execution. A description of this system is the +object of the memoir. + +The great number of types of locomotives and carriages now met with in +France, England, and the United States renders it difficult to combine +their advantages, as M. Estrade proposed to do, in a system responding +to the requirements of the constructor. His principal object, however, +has been to construct, under specially favorable conditions, a +locomotive, tender, and rolling stock adapted to each other, so as to +establish a perfect accord between these organs when in motion. It is, +in fact, a complete train, and not, as sometimes supposed, a +locomotive only, of an especial type, which has been the object he set +before him. Before entering into other considerations, we shall first +give a description of the stock proposed by M. Estrade. The idea of +the invention consists in the use of coupled wheels of large diameter +and in the adoption of a new system of double suspension. + +The locomotive and tender we illustrate were constructed by MM. Boulet +& Co. The locomotive is carried on six driving wheels, 8 feet 3 inches +in diameter. The total weight of the engine is thus utilized for +adhesion. The accompanying table gives the principal dimensions: + + +TABLE I. + + +---------------------------------------+ + | | ft. in. | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Total length of engine.| 32 8 | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Width between frames. | 4 1 | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Wheel base, total. | 16 9 | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Diameter of cylinder. | 1 6œ | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Length of stroke. | 2 3œ | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Grate surface. | 25 sq. feet. | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Total heating surface. | 1,400 sq. ft. | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Weight empty. | 38 tons. | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Weight full. | 42 tons. | + +---------------------------------------+ + + +The high speeds--77 to 80 miles an hour--in view of which this stock +has been constructed have, it will be seen, caused the elements +relative to the capacity of the boiler and the heating surfaces to be +developed as much as possible. It is in this, in fact, that one of the +great difficulties of the problem lies, the practical limit of +stability being fixed by the diameter of the driving wheels. Speed can +only be obtained by an expenditure of steam which soon becomes such as +rapidly to exhaust the engine unless the heating surface is very +large. + +The tender, also fitted with wheels of 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter, offers +no particular feature; it is simply arranged so as to carry the +greatest quantity of coal and water. + +M. Estrade has also designed carriages. One has been constructed by +MM. Reynaud, Bechade, Gire & Co., which has very few points in common +with those in general use. Independently of the division of the +compartments into two stories, wheels 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter are +employed, and the double system of suspension adopted. Two axles, 16 +ft. apart, support, by means of plate springs, an iron framing running +from end to end over the whole length, its extremities being curved +toward the ground. Each frame carries in its turn three other plate +springs, to which the body is suspended by means of iron tie-rods +serving to support it. This is then a double suspension, which at once +appears to be very superior to the systems adopted up to the present +time. The great diameter of the wheels has necessitated the division +into two stories. The lower story is formed of three equal parts, +lengthened toward the axles by narrow compartments, which can be +utilized for luggage or converted into lavatories, etc. Above is one +single compartment with a central passage, which is reached by +staircases at the end. All the vehicles of the same train are to be +united at this level by jointed platforms furnished with hand rails. +It is sufficient to point out the general disposition, without +entering into details which do not affect the system, and which must +vary for the different classes and according to the requirements of +the service. + +[Illustration: M. ESTRADE'S HIGH SPEED LOCOMOTIVE.] + +M. Nansouty draws a comparison between the diameters of the driving +wheels and cylinders of the principal locomotives now in use and those +of the Estrade engine as set forth in the following table. We only +give the figures for coupled engines: + + +TABLE II. + + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + | | Diameter of | Size of | | + | | driving wheels. | cylinder. | Position of | + | | ft. in. | in. in. | cylinder. | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Great Eastern | 7 0 | 18 × 24 | inside | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |South-Eastern | 7 0 | 19 × 26 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Glasgow and | | | | + |Southwestern | 6 1 | 18 × 26 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Midland, 1884 | 7 0 | 19 × 26 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |North-Eastern | 7 0 | 17œ × 24 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |London and | | | | + |North-Western | 6 6 | 17 × 24 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Lancashire and | | | | + |Yorkshire | 6 0 | 17œ × 26 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |North British | 6 4 | 17 × 24 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Nord | 7 0 | 17 × 24 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Paris-Orleans, 1884 | 6 8 | 17 × 23œ | outside. | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Ouest | 6 0 | 17Œ × 25œ| " | + +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +This table, the examination of which will be found very instructive, +shows that there are already in use: For locomotives with single +drivers, diameters of 9 ft., 8 ft. 1 in., and 8 ft.; (2) for +locomotives with four coupled wheels, diameters 6 ft. to 7 ft. There +is therefore an important difference between the diameters of the +coupled wheels of 7 ft. and those of 8 ft. 3 in., as conceived by M. +Estrade. However, the transition is not illogically sudden, and if the +conception is a bold one, "it cannot," says M. Nansouty, "on the other +hand, be qualified as rash." + +He goes on to consider, in the first place: Especial types of +uncoupled wheels, the diameters of which form useful samples for our +present case. The engines of the Bristol and Exeter line are express +tender engines, adopted on the English lines in 1853, some specimens +of which are still in use.[1] These engines have ten wheels, the +single drivers in the center, 9 ft. in diameter, and a four-wheeled +bogie at each end. The driving wheels have no flanges. The bogie +wheels are 4 ft. in diameter. The cylinders have a diameter of 16œ in. +and a piston stroke of 24 in. The boiler contains 180 tubes, and the +total weight of the engine is 42 tons. These locomotives, constructed +for 7 ft. gauge, have attained a speed of seventy-seven miles per +hour. + + [Footnote 1: M. Nansouty is mistaken. None of the Bristol and + Exeter tank engines with. 9 ft. wheels are in use, so far as we + know. ED. E.] + +The single driver locomotives of the Great Northern are powerful +engines in current use in England. The driving wheels carry 17 tons, +the heating surface is 1,160 square feet, the diameters of the +cylinders 18 in., and that of the driving wheels 8 ft. 1 in. We have +here, then, a diameter very near to that adopted by M. Estrade, and +which, together with the previous example, forms a precedent of great +interest. The locomotive of the Great Northern has a leading +four-wheeled bogie, which considerably increases the steadiness of the +engine, and counterbalances the disturbing effect of outside +cylinders. Acting on the same principles which have animated M. +Estrade, that is to say, with the aim of reducing the retarding +effects of rolling friction, the constructor of the locomotive of the +Great Northern has considerably increased the diameter of the wheels +of the bogie. In this engine all the bearing are inside, while the +cylinders are outside and horizontal. The tender has six wheels, also +of large dimensions. It is capable of containing three tons and a half +of coal and about 3,000 gallons of water. This type of engine is now +in current and daily use in England. + +M. Nansouty next considers the broad gauge Great Western engines with +8 ft. driving wheels. The diameters of their wheels approach those of +M. Estrade, and exceed considerably in size any lately proposed. M. +Nansouty dwells especially upon the boiler power of the Great Western +railway, because one of the objections made to M. Estrade's locomotive +by the learned societies has been the difficulty of supplying boiler +power enough for high speeds contemplated; and he deals at +considerable length with a large number of English engines of maximum +power, the dimensions and performance of which are too well known to +our readers to need reproduction here. + +Aware that a prominent weak point in M. Estrade's design is that, no +matter what size we make cylinders and wheels, we have ultimately to +depend on the boiler for power, M. Nansouty argues that M. Estrade +having provided more surface than is to be found in any other engine, +must be successful. But the total heating surface in the engine, which +we illustrate, is but 1,400 square feet, while that of the Great +Western engines, on which he lays such stress, is 2,300 square feet, +and the table which he gives of the heating surface of various English +engines really means very little. It is quite true that there are no +engines working in England with much over 1,500 square feet of +surface, except those on the broad gauge, but it does not follow that +because they manage to make an average of 53 miles an hour that an +addition of 500 square feet would enable them to run at a speed higher +by 20 miles an hour. There are engines in France, however, which have +as much as 1,600 square feet, as, for example, on the Paris-Orleans +line, but we have never heard that these engines attain a speed of 80 +miles an hour. + +Leaving the question of boiler power, M. Nansouty goes on to consider +the question of adhesion. About this he says: + +Is the locomotive proposed by M. Estrade under abnormal conditions as +to weight and adhesion? This appears to have been doubted, especially +taking into consideration its height and elegant appearance. We shall +again reply here by figures, while remarking that the adhesion of +locomotives increases with the speed, according to laws still unknown +or imperfectly understood, and that consequently for extreme speeds, +ignorance of the value of the coefficiency of adhesion f in the +formula + + d 2 I + fP = 0.65 p ------- - R + D + +renders it impossible to pronounce upon it before the trials earnestly +and justly demanded by the author of this new system. In present +practice f = 1/7 is admitted. M. Nansouty gives in a table a +_resume_ of the experience on this subject, and goes on: + +"The English engineers, as will be seen, make a single axle support +more than 17 tons. In France the maximum weight admitted is 14 tons, +and the constructor of the Estrade locomotive has kept a little below +this figure. The question of total weight appears to be secondary in a +great measure, for, taking the models with uncoupled wheels, the +English engines for great speed have on an average, for a smaller +total weight, an adhesion equal to that of the French locomotives. The +P.L.M. type of engine, which has eight wheels, four of which are +coupled, throws only 28.6 tons upon the latter, being 58 per cent. of +the total weight. On the other hand, that of the English Great Eastern +throws 68 per cent. of the total weight on the driving wheels. +Numerous other examples could be cited. We cannot, we repeat, give an +opinion rashly as to the calculation of adhesion for the high speed +Estrade locomotive before complete trials have taken place which will +enable us to judge of the particular coefficients for this entirely +new case." + +M. Nansouty then goes on to consider the question of curves, and says: + +"It has been asked, not without reason, notably by the Institution of +Civil Engineers of Paris, whether peculiar difficulties will not be +met with by M. Estrade's locomotive--with its three axles and large +coupled wheels--in getting round curves. We have seen in the preceding +tables that the driving wheels of the English locomotives with +independent wheels are as much as 8 ft. in diameter. The driving +wheels of the English locomotives with four coupled wheels are 7 ft. +in diameter. M. Estrade's locomotive has certainly six coupled wheels +with diameters never before tried, but these six coupled wheels +constitute the whole rolling length, while in the above engines a +leading axle or a bogie must be taken into account, independent, it is +true, but which must not be lost sight of, and which will in a great +measure equalize the difficulties of passing over the curves. + +"Is it opposed to absolute security to attack the line with driving +wheels? This generally admitted principle appears to rest rather on +theoretic considerations than on the results of actual experience. M. +Estrade, besides, sets in opposition to the disadvantages of attacking +the rails with driving wheels those which ensue from the use of wheels +of small diameter as liable to more wear and tear. We should further +note with particular care that the leading axle of this locomotive has +a certain transverse play, also that it is a driving axle. This +disposition is judicious and in accordance with the best known +principles." + +A careful perusal of M. Nansouty's memoir leaves us in much doubt as +to what M. Estrade's views are based on. So far as we understand him, +he seems to have worked on the theory that by the use of very large +wheels the rolling resistance of a train can be greatly diminished. On +this point, however, there is not a scrap of evidence derived from +railway practice to prove that any great advantage can be gained by +augmenting the diameters of wheels. In the next place, he is afraid +that he will not have adhesion enough to work up all his boiler power, +and, consequently, he couples his wheels, thereby greatly augmenting +the resistance of the engine. He forgets that large coupled wheels +were tried years ago on the Great Western Railway, and did not answer. +A single pair of drivers 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter would suffice to work +up all the power M. Estrade's boiler could supply at sixty miles an +hour, much less eighty miles an hour. On the London and Brighton line +Mr. Stroudley uses with success coupled leading wheels of large +diameter on his express engines, and we imagine that M. Estrade's +engine will get round corners safely enough, but it is not the right +kind of machine for eighty miles an hour, and so he will find out as +soon as a trial is made. The experiment is, however, a notable +experiment, and M. Estrade has our best wishes for his success.--_The +Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +CONCRETE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Read July 5, 1887, before the Western Society of + Engineers.] + +By JOHN LUNDIE. + + +The subject of cement and concrete has been so well treated of in +engineering literature, that to give an extended paper on the subject +would be but the collection and reiteration of platitudes familiar to +every engineer who has been engaged on foundation works of any +magnitude. It shall therefore be the object of this communication to +place before the society several notes, stated briefly and to the +point, rather as a basis for discussion than as an attempt at an +exhaustive treatment of the subject. + +Concrete is simply a low grade of masonry. It is a comparatively +simple matter to trace the line of continuity from heavy squared +ashlar blocks down through coursed and random rubble, to grouted +indiscriminate rubble, and finally to concrete. Improvements in the +manufacture of hydraulic cements have given an impetus to the use of +concrete, but its use is by no means of recent date. It is no uncommon +thing in the taking down of heavy walls several centuries old to find +that the method of building was to carry up face and back with rubble +and stiff mortar, and to fill the interior with bowlders and gravel, +the interstices of which were filled by grouting--the whole mass +becoming virtually a monolith. Modern quick-setting cement +accomplishes this object within a time consistent with the +requirements of modern engineering works; the formation of a +monolithic mass within a reasonable time and with materials requiring +as little handling as possible being the desideratum. + +The materials of concrete as used at present are cement, sand, gravel, +broken stone, and, of course, water. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to +say that one of the primary requirements in materials is that they +should be clean. Stone should be angular, gravel well washed, sand +coarse and sharp, cement fine and possessing a fair proportion of the +requirements laid down in the orthodox specification. The addition of +lime water, saccharated or otherwise, has been suggested as an +improvement over water pure and simple, but no satisfactory +experiments are on record justifying the addition of lime water. + +Regarding the mixing of cement and lime with saccharated water, the +writer made some experiments several months ago by mixing neat cement +and lime with pure water and with saccharated water, with the result +that the sugar proved positively detrimental to the cement, while it +increased the tenacity of briquettes of lime. + +Stone which will pass a 2 inch is usually specified for ordinary +concrete. It will be found that stone broken to this limit of size has +fifty per cent. of its bulk voids. This space must be filled by mortar +or preferably by gravel and mortar. If the mixing of concrete is +perfect, the proportion of stone, by bulk, to other materials should +be two to one. A percentage excess of other materials is, however, +usually allowed to compensate for imperfection in mixing. While an +excess of good mortar is not detrimental to concrete (as it will +harden in course of time to equal the stone), still on the score of +economy it is advisable to use gravel or a finer grade of stone in +addition to the 2 inch ring stone to fill the interstices--gravel is +cheaper than cement. The statement that excess in stone will give body +to concrete is a fallacy hardly worth contradicting. In short, the +proportion of material should be so graded that each particle of sand +should have its jacket of cement, necessitating the cement being finer +than the sand (this forms the mortar); then each pebble and stone +should have its jacket of mortar. The smaller the interstices between +the gravel and stones, the better. The quantity of water necessary to +make good concrete is a sorely debated question. The quantity +necessary depends on various considerations, and will probably be +different for what appears to be the same proportion of materials. It +is a well known fact that brick mortar is made very soft, and bricks +are often wet before being laid, while a very hard stone is usually +set with very stiff mortar. So in concrete the amount of water +necessarily depends, to a great extent, on the porosity or dryness of +the stone and other material used. But as to using a larger or smaller +quantity of water with given materials, as a matter of observation it +will be found that the water should only be limited by its effect in +washing away mortar from the stone. Where can better concrete be found +than that which has set under water? A certain definite amount of +water is necessary and sufficient to hydrate the cement; less than +that amount will be detrimental, while an excess can do no harm, +provided, as before mentioned, that it does not wash the mortar from +the stone. Again, dry concrete is apt to be very porous, which in +certain positions is a very grave objection to it--this, not only from +the fact of its porosity, but from the liability to disintegration +from water freezing in the crevices. + +Concrete, when ready to be placed in position, should be of the +consistency of a pulpy mass which will settle into place by its own +weight, every crevice being naturally filled. Pounding dry concrete is +apt to break adjacent work, which will never again set properly. There +should be no other object in pounding concrete than to assist it to +settle into the place it is intended to fill. This is one of the evils +concomitant with imperfection of mixing. The greater perfection of +mixing attained, the nearer we get to the ideal monolith. The less +handling concrete has after being mixed, the better. Immediately after +the mass is mixed setting commences; therefore the sooner it is in +position, the more perfect will be the hardened mass; and, on the +other hand, the more it is handled, the more is the process +interrupted and in like degree is the finished mass deteriorated. A +low drop will be found the best method of placing a batch in position. +Too much of a drop scatters the material and undoes the work of +thorough mixing. Let the mass drop and then let it alone. If of proper +temper, it will find its own place with very little trimming. Care +should be taken to wet adjacent porous material, or the wooden form +into which concrete is being placed; otherwise the water may be +extracted from the concrete, to its detriment. + +It has been found on removing boxing that the portion adjacent to the +wood was frequently friable and of poor quality, owing to the fact +just stated. It is usual to face or plaster concrete work after +removing the boxing. On breakwater work, where the writer was engaged, +the wall was faced with cement and flint grit, and this was found to +form a particularly hard and lasting protection to the face of the +work. + +Batches of concrete should be placed in position as if they were +stones in block masonry, as the union of one day's work with a +previous is not by any means so perfect as where one batch is placed +in contact with another which has not yet set. A slope cannot be added +to with the same degree of perfection that one horizontal layer can be +placed on another; consequently, where work must necessarily be +interrupted, it should be stepped, and not sloped off. + +Experience in concrete work has shown that its true place is in heavy +foundations, retaining walls, and such like, and then perfectly +independent of other material. Arches, thin walls, and such like are +very questionable structures in continuous concrete, and are on record +rather as failures than otherwise. This may to a certain degree be due +to the high coefficient of expansion Portland cement concrete has by +heat. This was found by Cunningham to be 0.000005 of its bulk for one +degree Fahrenheit. It is a matter which any intelligent observer may +remark, the invariable breakage of continuous concrete sidewalks, +while those made in small sections remain good. This may be traced to +expansion and contraction by heat, together with friction on the lower +side. + +In foundations, according to the same authority above quoted, properly +made Portland cement concrete may be trusted with a safe load of 25 +tons per square foot. + +In large masses concrete should be worked continuously, while in small +masses it should be moulded in small sections, which should be +independent of each other and simply form artificial stones. + +The facility with which concrete can be used in founding under water +renders it particularly suitable for subaqueous structures. The method +of dropping it from hopper barges in masses of 100 tons at a time, +inclosed in a bag of coarse stuff, has been successfully employed by +Dyce Cay and others. This can be carried on till the concrete appears +above water, when the ordinary method of boxing can be employed to +complete the work. This method was employed in the north pier +breakwater at Aberdeen, the breakwater being founded on the sand, with +a very broad base. The advantage of bags is apparent in the leveling +off of an uneven foundation. In breakwater works on the Tay, in +Scotland, where the writer was engaged, large blocks perforated +vertically were employed. These were constructed below high water +mark, and an air tight cover placed over them. They were lifted by +pontoons as the tide rose, and conveyed to and deposited in place, the +hollows being filled with air, serving to give buoyancy to the mass. +After placing in position the vertical hollows were filled with +concrete, so binding the whole together--they being placed vertically +over each other. + +As mentioned before, continuous stretches of concrete in small +sections should be guarded against, owing to expansion by heat; but +the fact of a few cracks appearing in heavy masses of concrete should +not cause apprehension. These occur from unequal settlement and other +causes. They should continue to be carefully grouted and faced until +settlement is complete. + +The use of concrete is becoming more and more general for foundation +works. The desideratum hitherto has been a perfect and at the same +time an economical mixer. Concrete can be mixed by hand and the +materials well incorporated, but this is an expensive and man-killing +method, as the handling of the wet mass by the shovel is extremely +hard work, besides which the slowness of the method allows part of a +large batch to set before the other is mixed, so that small batches, +with attendant extra handling, are necessary to make a good job. +Mixers with a multiplicity of knives to toss the material have been +used, but with little economical success. Of simple conveyers, such as +a worm screw, little need be said; they are not mixers, and it seems a +positive waste of time to pass material through a machine when it +comes out in little better shape than it is put in. A box of the shape +of a barrel has been used, it being trunnioned at the sides. The +objection to this is that the material is thrown from side to side as +a mass, there being a waste of energy in throwing about the material +in mass without accomplishing an equivalent amount of mixing. Then a +rectangular box has been used, trunnioned at opposite corners; but +here the grave objection is that the concrete collects in the corners, +and after a few turns it requires cleaning out, the material so +sticking in the corners that it gets clogged up and ceases to mix. + +The writer has just protected by letters patent a machine, in devising +which the following objects were borne in mind: + + 1st. That every motion of the machine should do some useful work. + Hitherto box or barrel mixers have gone on the principle of + throwing the material about indiscriminately, expecting that + somehow or other it would get mixed. + + 2d. That the sticking of the material anywhere within the mixer + should be obviated. + + 3d. That an easy discharge should be obtained. + + 4th. That the water should be introduced while the mixer + revolves. + +With these desiderata in view, a box was designed which in half a turn +gathers the material, then spreads it, and throws it from one side to +the other at the same time that water is being introduced through a +hollow trunnion. + +It is also so constructed that all the sides slope steeply toward the +discharge, and there is not a rectangular or acute angle within the +box. A machine has now been worked steadily for several weeks, putting +in the concrete in the foundations of the new Jackson Street bridge in +this city, by General Fitz-Simons. The result exceeds expectations. +The concrete is perfectly mixed, the discharge is simple, complete and +effective, and at the same time the cost of labor in mixing and +placing in position is lessened by 50 per cent. as compared with any +known to have been put in under similar circumstances.--_Jour. +Association of Engineering Societies._ + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE DESIGNING.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, + Philadelphia, Monday, Jan. 30, 1888. From the journal of the + Institute.] + +By JOHN E. SWEET. + + +"Carrying coals to Newcastle," the oft quoted comparison, fittingly +indicates the position I place myself in when attempting to address +members of this Institute on the subject of machine designing. + +Philadelphia, the birthplace of the great and nearly all the good work +in this, the noblest of all industrial arts, needs no help or praise +at my hands, but I hope her sons may be prevailed upon to do in their +right way what I shall try to do roughly--that is, formulate some +rules or establish principles by which we, who are not endowed with +genius, may so gauge our work as to avoid doing that which is truly +bad. No great author was ever made by studying grammar, rhetoric, +language, history, or by imitating some other author, however great. + +Neither has there ever been any great poet or artist produced by +training. But there are many writers who are not great authors, many +rhymsters who are not poets, and many painters who are not artists; +and while training will not make great men of them, it will help them +to avoid doing that which is absolutely bad, and so may it not be with +machine designing? If there are among you some who have a genius for +it, what I shall have to say will do you no good, for genius needs no +rules, no laws, no help, no training, and the sooner you let what I +have to say pass from your minds, the better. Rules only hamper the +man of genius; but for us, who either from choice or necessity work +away at machine designing without the gift, cannot some simple ruling +facts be determined and rules formulated or principles laid down by +which we can determine what is really good, and what bad? One of the +most important and one of the first things in the construction of a +building is the foundation, and the laws which govern its construction +can be stated in a breath, and ought to be understood by every one. +Assuming the ground upon which a building is to be built to be of +uniform density, _the width_ of the foundation should be in proportion +to the load, the foundation should taper equally on each side, and the +center of the foundation should be under the center of pressure. In +other words, it is as fatal to success to have too much foundation +under the light load as it is too little under a heavy one. + +Cannot we analyze causes and effects, cost and requirements, so as to +formulate some simple laws similar to the above by which we shall be +able to determine what is a good and what a bad arrangement of +machinery, foundation, framing or supports? A vast amount of work is +expended to make machines true, and the machines, or a large majority +of them, are expected to produce true work of some kind in turn. Then, +if this be admitted, cannot the following law be established, that +every machine should be so designed and constructed that when once +made true it will so remain, regardless of wear and all external +influences to which it is liable to be subjected? One tool maker says +that it is right, and another that it cannot be done. No matter +whether it can or cannot, is it not the thing wanted, and if so, is it +not an object worth striving for? One tool maker says that all machine +tools, engines, and machinery should set on solid stone foundations. +Should they? + +They do not always, for in substantial Philadelphia some machine tools +used by machine builders stand upon second floors, or, perhaps, higher +up. And of these machine tools none, or few at least, except those +mounted upon a single pedestal, are free from detrimental torsion +where the floor upon which they rest is distorted by unequal loading. +But, to first consider those of such magnitude as to render it +absolutely necessary to erect them--not rest them--on masonry, is due +consideration always taken to arrange an unequal foundation to support +the unequal loads?--and they cannot be expected to remain true if not. +When one has the good fortune to have a machine to design of such +extent that the masonry becomes the main part of it, what part of the +glory does he give to the mason? Is the masonry part of it always +satisfactory, and is not this resorting to the mason for a frame +rather than a support adopted on smaller machines than is necessary? +Is it necessary even in a planing machine of forty feet length of bed +and a thirty foot table? Could not the bed be cast in three pieces, +the center a rectangular box, 5 or 6 or 7 feet square, 20 feet long, +with internal end flanges, ways planed on its upper surface, and ends +squared off, a monster, perhaps, but if our civil engineers wanted +such a casting for a bridge, they'd get it. Add to this central +section two bevel pieces of half the length, and set the whole down +through the floor where your masonry would have been and rest the +whole on two cross walls, and you would have a structure that if once +made true would remain so regardless of external influences. Cost? +Yes; and so do Frodsham watches--more than "Waterbury." + +It may be claimed, in fact, I have seen lathes resting on six and +eight feet, engines on ten, and a planing machine on a dozen. Do they +remain true? Sometimes they do, and many times they do not. Is the +principle right? Not when it can be avoided; and when it cannot be +avoided, the true principle of foundation building should be +employed.... A strange example of depending on the stone foundation +for not simply support, but to resist strain, may be found in the +machines used for beveling the edges of boiler plate. Not so +particularly strange that the first one might have, like Topsy, +"growed," but strange because each builder copies the original. You +will remember it, a complete machine set upon a stone foundation, to +straighten and hold a plate, and another complete machine set down by +the side of it and bolted to the same stone to plane off the edge; a +lot of wasted material and a lot of wasted genius, it always seems to +me. Going around Robin Hood's barn is the old comparison. Why not hook +the tool carriage on the side of the clamping structure, and thus +dispense with one of the frames altogether? + +Many of the modern builders of what Chordal calls the hyphen Corliss +engine claim to have made a great advance by putting a post under the +center of the frame, but whether in acknowledgment that the frame +would be likely to go down or the stonework come up I could never make +out. What I should fear would be that the stone would come up and take +the frame with it. Every brick mason knows better than to bed mortar +under the center of a window sill; and this putting a prop under the +center of an engine girder seems a parallel case. They say Mr. Corliss +would have done the same thing if he had thought of it. I do not +believe it. If Mr. Corliss had found his frames too weak, he would +soon have found a way to make them stronger. + +John Richards, once a resident of this city, and likely the best +designer of wood-working machinery this country, if not the world, +ever saw, pointed out in some of his letters the true form for +constructing machine framing, and in a way that it had never been +forced on my mind before. As dozens, yes, hundreds, of new designs +have been brought out by machine tool makers and engine builders since +John Richards made a convert of me, without any one else, so far as I +know, having applied the principle in its broadest sense, I hope to +present the case to you in a material form, in the hope that it may be +more thoroughly appreciated. + +The usual form of lathe and planer beds or frames is two side plates +and a lot of cross girts; their duty is to guide the carriages or +tables in straight lines and carry loads resisting bending and +torsional strains. If a designer desires to make his lathe frame +stronger than the other fellows, he thinks, if he thinks at all, that +he will put in more iron, rather than, as he ought to think, How shall +I distribute the iron so it will do the most good? + +In illustration of this peculiar way of doing things, which is not +wholly confined to machine designers, I should like to relate a story, +and as I had to carry the large end of the joke, it may do for me to +tell it. + +While occupying a prominent position, and yet compelled to carry my +dinner, my wife thought the common dinner pail, with which you are +probably familiar (by sight, of course), was not quite the thing for a +professor (even by brevet) to be seen carrying through the streets. So +she interviewed the tinsmith to see if he could not get up something a +little more tony than the regulation fifty-cent sort. Oh, yes; he +could do that very nicely. How much would the best one he could make +cost? Well, if she could stand the racket, he could make one worth a +dollar. She thought she could, and the pail was ordered, made, and +delivered with pride. Perhaps you can guess the result. A facsimile of +the original, only twice the size. + +Now, this is a very fair illustration of the fallacy of making things +stronger by simply adding iron. To illustrate what I think a much +better way, I have had made these crude models (see Fig. 1), for the +full force of which, as I said before, I am indebted to John Richards; +and I would here add that the mechanic who has never learned anything +from John Richards is either a very good or very poor one, or has +never read what John Richards has written or heard what he has had to +say. + +Three models, as shown in Fig. 1, were exhibited; all were of the same +general dimensions and containing the same amount of material. The one +made on the box principle, c, proved to be fifty per cent. stiffer +in a vertical direction than either a or b, from twenty to fifty +times stiffer sidewise, and thirteen times more rigid against torsion +than either of the others. + +However strong a frame may be, its own weight and the weight of the +work upon it tends to spring it unless evenly distributed, and to +twist it unless evenly proportioned. For all small machines the single +post obviates all trouble, but for machine tools of from twice to a +half dozen times their own length the single post is not available. +Four legs are used for machines up to ten feet or so, and above that +legs various and then solid masonry. If the four legs were always set +upon solid masonry, and leveled perfectly when set, no question could +be raised against the usual arrangement, unless it be this: Ought they +not to be set nearly one-fourth the way from the end of the bed? or to +put it in another form: Will not the bed of an iron planing machine +twelve feet in length be equally as well supported by four legs if +each pair is set three feet from the ends--that is, six feet apart--as +by six legs, two pairs at the ends and one in the center, and the +pairs six feet apart? there being six feet of unsupported bed in +either case, with this advantage in favor of the four over the six, +settling of the foundation would not bend the bed. + +It is not likely that one-half of the four-legged machine tools used +in this country are resting upon stable foundations, nor that they +ever will be; and while this is a fact, it must also remain a fact +that they should be built so as to do their best on an unstable one. +Any one of the thousand iron planing machines of the country, if put +in good condition and set upon the ordinary wood floors, may be made +to plane work winding in either direction by shifting a moving load of +a few hundred pounds on the floor from one corner of the machine to +the other, and the ways of the ordinary turning lathe may be more +easily distorted still. Machine tool builders do not believe this, +simply because they have not tried it. That is, I suppose this must be +so, for the proof is so positive, and the remedy so simple, that it +does not seem possible they can know the fact and overlook it. The +remedy in the case of the planer is to rest the structure on the two +housings at the rear end and on a pair of legs about one-fourth of the +way back from the front, pivoted to the bed on a single bolt as near +the top as possible. + +[Illustration: a, b, c, Fig. 1, illustrate the models shown by +Mr. Sweet, which represented three forms of lathe and planer +construction. The box form, c, proved to be fifty per cent. stronger +in its vertical direction than either a or b, fifty times stronger +sideways than a and twenty times stronger than b, and more than +thirteen times stronger than either when subject to torsional strain. + +a, Fig. 2, represents an ordinary pinion tooth, and b shows one of +the same size strengthened by cutting put metal at the root; c and +d were models showing the same width of teeth extended to six times +the length, showing what would be their character if considered as +springs. ] + +A similar arrangement applies to the lathe and machine tools of that +character--that is, machines of considerable length in proportion to +their width, and with beds made sufficiently strong within themselves +to resist all bending and torsional strains, fill the requirements so +far as all except wear is concerned. That is, if the frames are once +made true, they will remain so, regardless of all external influences +that can be reasonably anticipated. + +Among wood-working machines there are many that cannot be built on the +single rectangular box plan--rested on three points of support. +Fortunately, the requirements are not such as demand absolute straight +and flat work, because in part from the fact that the material dealt +with will not remain straight and flat even if once made so, and in +the design of wood-working machinery it is of more importance to so +design that one section or element shall remain true within itself, +than that the various elements should remain true with one another. + +The lathe, the planing machine, the drilling machine, and many others +of the now standard machine tools will never be superseded, and will +for a long time to come remain subjects of alteration and attempted +improvement in every detail. The head stock of a lathe--the back gear +in particular--is about as hard a thing to improve as the link motion +of a locomotive. Some arrangement by which a single motion would +change from fast to slow, and a substitute for the flanges on the +pulleys, which are intended to keep the belt out of the gear, but +never do, might be improvements. If the flanges were cast on the head +stock itself, and stand still, rather than on the pulley, where they +keep turning, the belt would keep out from between the gear for a +certainty. One motion should fasten a foot stock, and as secure as it +is possible to secure it, and a single motion free it so it could be +moved from end to end of the bed. The reason any lathe takes more than +a single motion is because of elasticity in the parts, imperfection in +the planing, and from another cause, infinitely greater than the +others, the swinging of the hold-down bolts. + +Should not the propelling powers of a lathe slide be as near the point +of greatest resistance as possible, as is the case in a Sellers lathe, +and the guiding ways as close to the greatest resistance and +propelling power as possible, and all other necessary guiding surfaces +made to run as free as possible? + +A common expression to be found among the description of new lathes is +the one that says "the carriage has a long bearing on the ways." Long +is a relative word, and the only place I have seen any long slides +among the lathes in the market is in the advertisements. But if any +one has the courage to make a long one, they will need something +besides material to make a success of it. It needs only that the +guiding side that should be long, and that must be as rigid as +possible--nothing short of casting the apron in the same piece will be +strong enough, because with a long, elastic guide heavy work will +spring it down and wear it away at the center, and then with light +work it will ride at the ends, with a chattering cut as a consequence. + +An almost endless and likely profitless discussion has been indulged +in as to the proper way to guide a slide rest, and different opinions +exist. It is a question that, so far as principle is concerned, there +ought to be some way to settle which should not only govern the +question in regard to the slide rest of a lathe, but all slides that +work against a torsional resistance, as it may be called--that is, a +resistance that does not directly oppose the propelling power. In +other words, in a lathe the cutting point of the tool is not in line +with the lead screw or rack, and a twisting strain has to be resisted +by the slides, whereas in an upright drill the sliding sleeve is +directly over and in line with the drill, and subject to no side +strain. + +Does not the foregoing statement that "the propelling power should be +as near the resistance as possible, and the guide be as near in line +with the two as possible," embody the true principle? Neither of the +two methods in common use meets this requirement to its fullest +extent. The two-V New England plan seems like sending two men to do +what one can do much better alone; and the inconsistency of guiding by +the back edge of a flat bed is prominently shown by considering what +the result would be if carried to an extreme. If a slide such as is +used on a twenty inch lathe were placed upon a bed or shears twenty +feet wide, it would work badly, and that which is bad when carried to +an extreme cannot well be less than half bad when carried half way. + +The ease with which a cast iron bar can be sprung is many times +overlooked. There is another peculiarity about cast iron, and likely +other metals, which an exaggerated example renders more apparent than +can be done by direct statement. Cast iron, when subject to a bending +strain, acts like a stiff spring, but when subject to compression it +dents like a plastic substance. What I mean is this: If some plastic +substance, say a thick coating of mud in the street, be leveled off +true, and a board be laid upon it, it will fit, but if two heavy +weights be placed on the ends, the center will be thrown up in the air +far away from the mud; so, too, will the same thing occur if a +perfectly straight bar of cast iron be placed on a perfectly straight +planer bed--the two will fit; but when the ends of the bar are bolted +down, the center of the bar will be up to a surprising degree. And so +with sliding surfaces when working on oil. If to any extent elastic, +they will, when unequally loaded, settle through the oil where the +load exists and spring away where it is not. + +The tool post or tool holder that permits of a tool being raised or +lowered and turned around after the tool is set, without any sacrifice +of absolute stability, will be better than one in which either one of +these features is sacrificed. Handiness becomes the more desirable as +the machines are smaller, but handiness is not to be despised even in +a large machine, except where solidity is sacrificed to obtain it. + +The weak point in nearly all (and so nearly all that I feel pretty +safe in saying all) small planing machines is their absolute weakness +as regards their ability to resist torsional strain in the bed, and +both torsional and bending strain in the table. Is it an uncommon +thing to see the ways of a planer that has run any length of time cut? +In fact, is it not a pretty difficult thing to find one that is not +cut, and is this because they are overloaded? Not at all. Figure up at +even fifty pounds to the square inch of wearing surface what any +planer ought to carry, and you will find that it is not from +overloading. Twist the bed upon the floor (and any of them will twist +as easy as two basswood boards), and your table will rest the hardest +on two corners. Strap, or bolt, or wedge a casting upon the table, or +tighten up a piece between a pair of centers eight or ten inches above +the table, and bend the table to an extent only equal to the thickness +of the film of oil between the surface of the ways, and the large +wearing surface is reduced to two wearing points. In designing it +should always be kept in mind, or, in fact, it is found many times to +be the correct thing to do, to consider the piece as a stiff spring, +and the stiffer the better. The tooth of a gear wheel is a cast iron +spring, and if only treated as would be a spring, many less would be +broken. A point in evidence: + +The pinions in a train of rolls, which compel the two or more rolls to +travel in unison, are necessarily about as small at the pitch line as +the rolls themselves; they are subject to considerable strain and a +terrible hammering by back lash, and break discouragingly frequent, or +do when made of cast iron, if not of very coarse pitch, that is, with +very few teeth--eleven or twelve sometimes. + +In a certain case it became desirable to increase the number of teeth, +when it was found that the breakages occurred about as the square root +of their number. When the form was changed by cutting out at the root +in this form (Fig. 2), the breakage ceased. + +a, Fig. 2, shows an ordinary gear tooth, and b the form as +changed; c and d show the two forms of the same width, but +increased to six times the length. If the two are considered as +springs, it will be seen that d is much less likely to be broken by +a blow or strain. + +The remedy for the flimsy bed is the box section; the remedy for the +flimsy planer table is the deep box section, and with this advantage, +that the upper edge can be made to shelve over above the reversing +dogs to the full width between the housings. + +The parabolic form of housing is elegant in appearance, but +theoretically right only when of uniform cross section. In some of the +counterfeit sort the designers seem to have seen the original Sellers, +remembering the form just well enough to have got the curve wrong end +up, and knowing nothing of the principle, have succeeded in building a +housing that is absolutely weak and absolutely ugly, with just enough +of the original left to show from where it was stolen. If the housing +is constructed on the brace plan, should not the braces be straight, +as in the old Bement, and the center line of strain pass through the +center line of the brace? If the housing is to take the form of a +curve, the section should be practically uniform, and the curve drawn +by an artist. Many times housings are quite rigid enough in the +direction of the travel of the table, but weak against side pressure. +The hollow box section, with secure attachment to the bed and a deep +cross beam at the top, are the remedies. + +Raising and lowering cross heads, large and small, by two screws is a +slow and laborious job, and slow when done by power. Counterweights +just balancing the cross head, with metal straps rather than chains or +ropes, large wheels with small anti-friction journals, and the cross +head guarded by one post only, changes a slow to a quick arrangement, +and a task to a comfort. Housings of the hollow box section furnish an +excellent place for the counterweights. + +The moving head, which is not expected to move while under pressure, +seems to have settled into one form, and when hooked over a square +ledge at the top, a pretty satisfactory form, too. But in other +machines built in the form of planing machines, in which the head is +traversed while cutting, as is the case with the profiling machine, +the planer head form is not right. Both the propelling screw, or +whatever gives the side motion, should be as low down as possible, as +should also be the guide. + +There is a principle underlying the Sellers method of driving a planer +table that may be utilized in many ways. The endurance goes far beyond +any man's original expectations, and the explanation, very likely, +lies in the fact that the point of contact is always changing. To +apply the same principle to a common worm gear it is only necessary to +use a worm in a plain spur gear, with the teeth cut at an angle the +wrong way, and set the worm shaft at an angle double the amount, +rather than at 90°. Such a worm gear will, I fancy, outwear a dozen of +the scientific sort. It would likely be found a convenience to have +the head of a planing machine traverse by a handle or crank attached +to itself, so it could be operated like the slide rest of a lathe, +rather than as is now the case from the end of the cross head. The +principle should be to have things convenient, even at an additional +cost. Anything more than a single motion to lock the cross head to the +housing or stanchions should not be countenanced in small planers at +least. Many of the inferior machines show marked improvements over the +better sorts, so far as handiness goes, while there is nothing to +hinder the handy from being good and the good handy. + +When we consider that since the post-drilling machine first made its +appearance, there have been added Blasdell's quick return, the +automatic feed, belt-driven spindles, back gears placed where they +ought to be, with many minor improvements, it is not safe to assume +that the end has been reached; and when we consider that as a piece of +machine designing, considered in an artistic sense entirely, the +Bement post drill is the finest the world ever saw (the Porter-Allen +engine not excepted, which is saying a good deal), is it not strange +that of all mechanical designs none other has taken on such outrageous +forms as this? + +One thing that would seem to be desirable, and that ordinary skill +might devise, is some sort of snap clutch by which the main spindle +could be stopped instantly by touching a trigger with the foot; many +drills and accidents would be saved thereby. Of the many special +devices I have seen for use on a drilling machine, one used by Mr. +Lipe might be made of universal use. It is in the form of a bracket or +knee adjustably attached to the post, which has in its upper surface a +V into which round pieces of almost any size can be fastened, so that +the drill will pass through it diametrically. It is not only useful in +making holes through round bars, but straight through bosses and +collars as well. + +The radial drill has got so it points its nose in all directions but +skyward, but whether in its best form is not certain. The handle of +the belt shipper, in none that I have seen, follows around within +reach of the drill as conveniently as one would like. + +As the one suggestion I have to make in regard to the shaping machine +best illustrates the subject of maintaining true wearing surfaces, I +will leave it until I reach that part of my paper. + +(_To be continued._) + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MECHANICS OF A LIQUID. + + +A liquid comes in handy sometimes in measuring the volume of a +substance where the length, breadth, and thickness is difficult to get +at. It is a very simple operation, only requiring the material to be +plunged under water and measure the amount of displacement by giving +close attention to the overflow. It is a process that was first +brought into use in the days when jewelers and silversmiths were +inclined to be a little dishonest and to make the most of their +earnings out of the rule of their country. If we remember rightly, the +voice of some one crying "Eureka" was heard about that time from +somebody who had been taking a bath up in the country some two miles +from home. Tradition would have us believe that the inventor left for +the patent office long before his bathing exercises were half through +with, and that he did the most of his traveling at a lively rate while +on foot, but it is more reasonable to suppose that bath tubs were in +use in those days, and that he noticed, as every good philosopher +should, that his bathing solution was running over the edge of the tub +as fast as his body sunk below the surface. Taking to the heels is +something that we hear of even at this late day. + +[Illustration] + +It was not many years ago that an inventor of a siphon noticed how +water could be drawn up hill with a lamp wick, and the thought struck +him that with a soaking arrangement of this kind in one leg of the +siphon a flow of water could be obtained that would always be kept in +motion. Without taking a second thought he dropped his work in the hay +field, and ran all the way to London, a distance of twenty miles, to +lay his scheme before a learned man of science. He must have felt like +being carried home on a stretcher when he learned that a performance +of this kind was a failure. Among the others who have given an +exhibition of this kind we notice an observer who was more successful. +Being an overseer in a cotton mill, he had only to run over to his +dining room and secure two empty fruit jars and pipe them up, as +shown. He had had trouble in measuring volume by the liquid process by +having everything he attempted to measure get a thorough wetting, and +there were many substances that were to be experimented upon that +would not stand this part of the operation, such as fibers and a +number of pulverized materials. One of the jars was packed in tight, +nearly half full of cotton, and the other left entirely empty. The +question now is to measure the volume of cotton without bringing any +of the fibers in contact with the water. The liquid is poured into the +tunnel in the upright tube under head enough to partially fill the +jars when the overflow that stands on a level with the line, D E, is +open to allow the air in each jar to adjust itself as the straight +portions are wanted to work from. The overflow is then closed and head +enough of water put on to compress the air in the empty jar down into +half its volume. It may take a pipe long enough to reach up into the +second story, but it need not be a large one, and pipes round a cotton +mill are plentiful. In the jar containing cotton the water has not +risen so high, there being not so much air to compress, and comes to +rest on the line, C. Now we have this simple condition to work from. +If the water has risen so as to occupy half of the space that has been +taken up by the amount of air in one jar, it must have done the same +in the other, and if it could have been carried to twice the extent in +volume would reach the bottom of the jar in the one containing nothing +but air, and to the line, H I, in the jar containing cotton. + +The fibers then must have had an amount of material substance about +them to fill the remaining space entirely full, so that a particle of +air could not be taken into account anywhere. The cotton has produced +the same effect that a solid substance would do if it just filled the +space shown above the line, H I, for the water has risen into half the +space that is left below it. This enables an overseer to look into the +material substance of textile fibers by bringing into use the +elasticity of atmospheric air, reserving the liquid process for +measuring volume to govern the amount of compressibility.--_Boston +Journal of Commerce._ + + * * * * * + + + + +VOLUTE DOUBLE DISTILLING CONDENSER. + + +This distiller and condenser which we illustrate has been designed, +says _Engineering_, for the purpose of obtaining fresh water from sea +water. It is very compact, and the various details in connection with +it may be described as follows: Steam from the boiler is admitted into +the evaporator through a reducing valve at a pressure of about 60 lb., +and passing through the volute, B, evaporates the salt water contained +in the chamber, C; the vapor thus generated passing through the pipe, +D, into the volute condenser, E, where it is condensed. The fresh +water thus obtained flows into the filter, from which it is pumped +into suitable drinking tanks. + +[Illustration: VOLUTE DOUBLE DISTILLING APPARATUS.] + +The steam from the boiler after passing through the volute, B, is +conveyed by means of a pipe to the second volute, H, where it is +condensed, and the water resulting is conveyed by means of a pump to +the hot well or feed tank. The necessary condensing water enters at J +and is discharged at K. The method of keeping the supply of salt water +in the evaporator at a constant level is very efficient and ingenious. +To the main circulating discharge pipe, a small pipe, L, is fitted, +which is in communication with the chamber, M, and through this the +circulating sea water runs back until it attains a working level in +the evaporator, when a valve in the end of pipe, L, is closed by the +action of the float, N, the regulation of admission being thus +automatic and certain. The steam from the boiler can be regulated by +means of a stop valve, and the pressure in the evaporator should not +exceed 4 lb., while the pressure gauge is so arranged that the +pressure in both condenser and evaporator is shown at the same time. A +safety valve is fitted at the top of the condenser, and an automatic +blow-off valve, P, is arranged to blow off when a certain density of +brine has been attained in the evaporator. The "Esco" triple pump +(Fig. 3), which has been specially manufactured for this purpose, has +three suctions and deliveries, one for circulating water, the second +for the condensed steam, and a third for the filtered drinking water, +so that the latter is kept fresh and clean. + +The condenser and pumps are manufactured by Ernest Scott & Co., Close +Works, Newcastle on Tyne, and were shown by them at the late +exhibition in their town. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED CURRENT METER. + + +Paul Kotlarewsky, of St. Petersburg, has invented an instrument for +measuring or ascertaining the velocity of water and air currents. + +Upon the shaft or axis of the propeller wheel, or upon a shaft geared +therewith, there is a hermetically closed tube or receptacle, D, which +is placed at right angles with the shaft, and preferably so that its +longitudinal axis shall intersect the axis of said shaft. In this tube +or receptacle is placed a weight, such as a ball, which is free to +roll or slide back and forth in the tube. The effect of this +arrangement is, that as the shaft revolves, the weight will drop +alternately toward opposite ends of the tube, and its stroke, as it +brings up against either end, will be distinctly heard by the observer +as well as felt by him if, as is usually the case, the apparatus when +in use is held by him. By counting the strokes which occur during a +given period of time, the number of revolutions during that period can +readily be ascertained, and from that the velocity of the current to +be measured can be computed in the usual way. + +When the apparatus is submerged in water, by a rope held by the +observer, it will at once adjust itself to the direction of the +current. The force of the current, acting against the wings or blades +of the propeller wheel, puts the latter in revolution, and the tube, +D, will be carried around, and the sliding weight, according to the +position of the tube, will drop toward and bring up against +alternately opposite ends of said tube, making two strokes for every +revolution of the shaft. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FLOWER INDUSTRY OF GRASSE. + + +A paper on this subject was read before the Chemists' Assistants' +Association on March 8, by Mr. F.W. Warrick, and was listened to with +much interest. + +Mr. Warrick first apologized for presenting a paper on such a +frivolous subject to men who had shown themselves such ardent +advocates of the higher pharmacy, of the "ologies" in preference to +the groceries, perfumeries, and other "eries." But if perfumery could +not hope to take an elevated position in the materiæ pharmaceuticæ, it +might be accorded a place as an adjunct, if only on the plea that +those also serve who only stand and wait. + +Mr. Warrick mentioned that his family had been connected with this +industry for many years, and that for many of the facts in the paper +he was indebted to a cousin who had had twenty years' practical +experience in the South, and who was present that evening. + + +GRASSE. + +The town of Grasse is perhaps more celebrated than any other for its +connection with the perfume industry in a province which is itself +well known to be its home. + +This, the department of the Alpes Maritimes, forms the southeastern +corner of France. Its most prominent geographical features are an +elevated mountain range, a portion of the Alps, and a long seaboard +washed by the Mediterranean--whence the name Alpes Maritimes. + +The calcareous hills round Grasse and to the north of Nice are more or +less bare, though they were at one time well wooded; the reafforesting +of these parts has, however, made of late great progress. Nearer the +sea vegetation is less rare, and there many a promontory excites the +just admiration of the visitor by its growth of olives, orange and +lemon trees, and odoriferous shrubs. Who that has ever sojourned in +this province can wonder that Goethe's Mignon should have ardently +desired a return to these sunny regions? + +Visitors on these shores on the first day of this year found Goethe's +lines more poetical than true-- + + Where a wind ever soft from the blue heaven blows, + And the groves are of laurel, and myrtle, and rose; + +for they gathered round their fires and coughed and groaned in chorus, +and entertained each other with accounts of their ailments. But this +was exceptional, and the climate of the Alpes Maritimes is on the +whole as near perfection as anything earthly can be. This, however, is +not due to its latitude, but rather to its happy protection from the +north by its Alps and to its being bathed on the south by the warm +Mediterranean and the soft breezes of an eastern wind (which evidently +there bears a different reputation to that which it does with us). The +mistral, or cold breeze from the hills, is indeed the only climatic +enemy, if we except an occasional earthquake. + +The town of Grasse itself is situated in the southern portion of the +department, and enjoys its fair share of the advantages this situation +affords. It is about ten miles from Cannes (Lord Brougham's creation), +and, as the crow flies, twenty-five miles from Nice, though about +forty miles by rail, for the line runs down to Cannes and thence along +the shore to Nice. + +Built on the side of a hill some 1,000 feet above the level of the +sea, the town commands magnificent views over the surrounding country, +especially in the direction of the sea, which is gloriously visible. +An abundant stream, the Foux, issuing from the rocks just above the +town, is the all productive genius of the place; it feeds a hundred +fountains and as many factories, and then gives life to the +neighboring fields and gardens. + +The population of Grasse is about 12,000, and the flora of its +environs represents almost all the botany of Europe. Among the +splendid pasture lands, 7,000 feet above the sea, are fields of +lavender, thyme, etc. From 7,000 to 6,000 feet there are forests of +pine and other gymnosperms. From 6,000 to 4,000 feet firs and the +beech are the most prominent trees. Between 4,000 and 2,000 feet we +find our familiar friends the oak, the chestnut, cereals, maize, +potatoes. Below this is the Mediterranean region. Here orange, lemon, +fig, and olive trees, the vine, mulberry, etc., flourish in the open +as well as any number of exotics, palms, aloes, cactuses, castor oil +plants, etc. It is in this region that nature with lavish hand bestows +her flowers, which, unlike their compeers in other lands, are not born +to waste their fragrance on the desert air or to die "like the bubble +on the fountain," but rather (to paraphrase George Eliot's lofty +words) to die, and live again in fats and oils, made nobler by their +presence. + +The following are the plants put under contribution by the perfume +factories of the district, viz., the orange tree, bitter and sweet, +the lemon, eucalyptus, myrtle, bay laurel, cherry laurel, elder; the +labiates; lavender, spike, thyme, etc.; the umbelliferous fennel and +parsley, the composite wormwood and tarragon, and, more delicate than +these, the rose, geranium, cassie, jasmin, jonquil, mignonette, and +violet. + + +THE PERFUME FACTORY. + +In the perfume factory everything is done by steam. Starting from the +engine room at the bottom, the visitor next enters the receiving room, +where early in the morning the chattering, patois-speaking natives +come to deliver the flowers for the supply of which they have +contracted. The next room is occupied with a number of steam-jacketed +pans, a mill, and hydraulic presses. Next comes the still room, the +stills in which are all heated by steam. In the "extract" department, +which is next reached, are large tinned-copper drums, fitted with +stirrers, revolving in opposite directions on vertical axes. +Descending to the cellar--the coolest part of the building--we find +the simple apparatus used in the process of enfleurage. The apparatus +is of two kinds. The smaller is a frame fitted with a sheet of stout +glass. A number of these, all of the same size, when placed one on the +top of the other, form a tolerably air tight box. The larger is a +frame fitted with wire netting, over which a piece of molleton is +placed. The other rooms are used for bottling, labeling, etc. + +The following are some of the details of the cultivation and +extraction of perfumes as given in Mr. Warrick's paper: + + +ORANGE PERFUMES. + +The orange tree is produced from the pip, which is sown in a sheltered +uncovered bed. When the young plant is about 4 feet high, it is +transplanted and allowed a year to gain strength in its new +surroundings. It is then grafted with shoots from the Portugal or +Bigaradier. It requires much care in the first few years, must be well +manured, and during the summer well watered, and if at all exposed +must have its stem covered up with straw in winter. It is not expected +to yield a crop of flowers before the fourth year after +transplantation. The flowering begins toward the end of April and +lasts through May to the middle of June. The buds are picked when on +the point of opening by women, boys, and girls, who make use of a +tripod ladder to reach them. These villagers carry the fruits (or, +rather, flowers) of their day's labor to a flower agent or +commissionnaire, who weighs them, spreads them out in a cool place +(the flowers, not the villagers), where they remain until 1 or 2 A.M.; +he then puts them into sacks, and delivers them at the factory before +the sun has risen. They are here taken in hand at once; on exceptional +days as many as 160 tons being so treated in the whole province. After +the following season, say end of June, the farmers prune their trees; +these prunings are carted to the factory, where the leaves are +separated and made use of. + +During the autumn the ground round about the trees is well weeded, dug +about, and manured. The old practice of planting violets under the +orange trees is being abandoned. Later on in the year those blossoms +which escaped extermination have developed into fruits. These, when +destined for the production of the oil, are picked while green. + +The orange trees produce a second crop of flowers in autumn, sometimes +of sufficient importance to allow of their being taken to the +factories, and always of sufficient importance to provide brides with +the necessary bouquets. + +Nature having been thus assisted to deliver these, her wonderful +productions, the flowers, the leaves, and the fruits of the orange +tree, at the factory, man has to do the rest. He does it in the +following manner: + +The flowers are spread out on the stone floor of the receiving room in +a layer some 6 to 8 inches deep; they are taken in hand by young +girls, who separate the sepals, which are discarded. Such of the +petals as are destined for the production of orange flower water and +neroli are put into a still through a large canvas chute, and are +covered with water, which is measured by the filling of reservoirs on +the same floor. The manhole of the still is then closed, and the +contents are brought to boiling point by the passage of superheated +steam through the coils of a surrounding worm. The water and oil pass +over, are condensed, and fall into a Florentine receiver, where the +oil floating on the surface remains in the flask, while the water +escapes through the tube opening below. A piece of wood or cork is +placed in the receiver to break up the steam flowing from the still; +this gives time for the small globules of oil to cohere, while it +breaks the force of the downward current, thus preventing any of the +oil being carried away. + +The first portions of the water coming from the still are put into +large tinned copper vats, capable of holding some 500 gallons, and +there stored, to be drawn off as occasion may require into glass +carboys or tinned copper bottles. This water is an article of very +large consumption in France; our English cooks have no idea to what an +extent it is used by the _chefs_ in the land of the "darned mounseer." + +The oil is separated by means of a pipette, filtered, and bottled off. +It forms the oil of neroli of commerce; 1,000 kilos. of the flowers +yield 1 kilo. of oil. That obtained from the flowers of the +Bigaradier, or bitter orange, is the finer and more expensive quality. + +The delicate scent of orange flowers can be preserved quite unchanged +by another and more gentle process, viz., that of maceration. It was +noticed by some individual, whose name has not been handed down to us, +that bodies of the nature of fat and oil are absorbers of the +odor-imparting particles exhaled by plants. This property was seized +upon by some other genius equally unknown to fame, who utilized it to +transfer the odor of flowers to alcohol. + +Where oil is used it is the very finest olive, produced by the trees +in the neighborhood. This is put into copper vats holding about 50 +gallons; 1 cwt. of flowers is added. After some hours the flowers are +strained out by means of a large tin sieve. The oil is treated with +another cwt. of flowers and still another, until sufficiently +impregnated. It is then filtered through paper until it becomes quite +bright; lastly it is put into tins, and is ready for exportation or +for use in the production of extracts. + +Where fat is employed as the macerating agent, the fat used is a +properly adjusted mixture of lard and suet, both of which have been +purified and refined during the winter months, and kept stored away in +well closed tins. + +One cwt. of the fat is melted in a steam-jacketed pan, and poured into +a tinned copper vat capable of holding from 5 to 6 cwt. About 1 cwt. +of orange flowers being added, these are well stirred in with a wooden +spatula. After standing for a few hours, which time is not sufficient +for solidification to take place, the contents are poured into shallow +pans and heated to 60° C. The mixture thus rendered more fluid is +poured on to a tin sieve; the fat passes through, the flowers remain +behind. These naturally retain a large amount of macerating liquor. To +save this they are packed into strong canvas bags and subjected to +pressure between the plates of a powerful hydraulic press. The fat +squeezed out is accompanied by the moisture of the flowers, from which +it is separated by skimming. Being returned to the original vat, our +macerating medium receives another complement of flowers to rob of +their scent, and yet others, until the strength of the pomade desired +is reached. The fat is then remelted, decanted, and poured into tins +or glass jars. + +To make the extrait, the pomade is beaten up with alcohol in a special +air tight mixing machine holding some 12 gallons, stirrers moved by +steam power agitating the pomade in opposite directions. After some +hours' agitation a creamy liquid is produced, which, after resting, +separates, the alcohol now containing the perfume. By passing the +alcohol through tubes surrounded by iced water, the greater part of +the dissolved fat is removed. + +These are the processes applied to the flowers. The leaves are +distilled only for the oil of petit grain. This name was given to the +oil because it was formerly obtained from miniature orange fruits. +From 1,000 kilos. of leaves 2 kilos. of oil are obtained. + +The oil obtained from the fruit of the orange, like that of the lemon, +is extracted at Grasse by rolling the orange over the pricks of an +_ecueille_, an instrument with a hollow handle, into which the oil +flows. The oil is sometimes taken up by a sponge. Where the oil is +produced in larger quantities, as at Messina, more elaborate apparatus +is employed. A less fragrant oil is obtained by distilling the +raspings of the rind. + + +THE EUCALYPTUS, MYRTLE, ETC. + +Of later introduction than the trees of the orange family is the +Eucalyptus globulus, which, not being able to compete with the former +in the variety of nasal titillations it gives rise to, probably +consoles itself with coming off the distinct victor in the department +of power and penetration. The leaves and twigs of this tree are +distilled for oil. This oil is in large demand on the Continent, the +fact of there being no other species than the globulus in the +neighborhood being a guarantee of the uniformity of the product. + +Whereas the eucalyptus is but a newcomer in these regions, another +member of the same family, the common myrtle, can date its +introduction many centuries back. An oil is distilled from its leaves, +and also a water. + +Associated with the myrtle we find the leaves of the bay laurel, +forming the victorious wreaths of the ancients. The oil produced is +the oil of bay laurel, oil of sweet bay. This must not be confounded +with the oil of bays of the West Indies, the produce of the _Myrcia +acris_; nor yet with the cherry laurel, a member of yet another +family, the leaves of which are sometimes substituted for those of the +sweet bay. The leaves of this plant yield the cherry laurel water of +the B.P. It can hardly be said to be an article of perfumery. It also +yields an oil. + +Another water known to the British Pharmacopoeia is that produced from +the flowers of the elder, which flourishes round about Grasse. + +The rue also grows wild in these parts, and is distilled. + + +THE LABIATES. + +The family which overshadows all others in the quantity of essential +oils which it puts at the disposal of the Grassois and their neighbors +is that of the Labiatæ. Foremost among these we have the lavender, +spike, thyme, and rosemary. These are all of a vigorous and hardy +nature and require no cultivation. The tops of these plants are +generally distilled _in situ_, under contract with the Grasse +manufacturer, by the villagers in the immediate vicinity. The higher +the altitude at which these grow, the more esteemed the oil. The +finest oil of lavender is produced by distilling the flowers only. +About 100 tons of lavender, 25 of spike, 40 of thyme, and 20 of +rosemary are sent out from Grasse every year. + +Among the less abundant labiates of these parts is the melissa, which +yields, however, a very fragrant oil. + +In the same family we have the sage and the sweet or common basil, +also giving up their essential oils on distillation. + + +THE UMBELLIFERS. + +Whereas the flowers of the labiate family are treated by the +distillers as favorites are by the gods, and are cut off in their +youth, those of the Umbelliferæ are allowed to mature and develop into +the oil-yielding fruits. Its representatives, the fennel and parsley, +grow wild round about the town, and are laid under contribution by the +manufacturers. + +The Composites are represented by the wormwood and tarragon +(_Estragon_). + + +THE GERANIUM. + +Oil of geranium is produced from the rose or oak-leaved geranium, +cuttings of which are planted in well sheltered beds in October. +During the winter they are covered over with straw matting. In April +they are taken up, and planted in rows in fields or upon easily +irrigated terraces. Of water they require _quantum sufficit_; of +nature's other gift, which cheers and not inebriates--the glorious +sunshine--they cannot have too much. They soon grow into bushes three +or four feet high. At Nice they generally flower at the end of August. +At Grasse and cooler places they flower about the end of October. The +whole flowering plant is put into the still. + + +THE ROSE. + +Allied to the oil of geranium in odor are the products of the rose. +The Rose de Provence is the variety cultivated. It is grown on gentle +slopes facing the southeast. Young shoots are taken from a +five-year-old tree, and are planted in ground which has been well +broken up to a depth of three or four feet, in rows like vines. When +the young plant begins to branch out, the top of it is cut off about a +foot from the ground. During the first year the farmer picks off the +buds that appear, in order that the whole attention of the plant may +be taken up in developing its system. In the fourth or fifth year the +tree is in its full yielding condition. The flowering begins about +mid-April, and lasts through May to early June. On some days as many +as 150 tons of roses are gathered in the province of the Alpes +Maritimes. + +The buds on the point of opening are picked in the early morning. +Scott says they are "sweetest washed with morning dew." The purchaser +may think otherwise where the dew has to be paid for. + +The flowering season over, the trees are allowed to run wild. In +January they are pruned, and the branches left are entwined from tree +to tree all along the line, and form impenetrable fences. + +A rose tree will live to a good age, but does not yield much after its +seventh year. At that period it is dug up and burned, and corn, +potatoes, or some other crop is grown on the land for twelve months or +more. + +In the factory the petals are separated from the calyx, and are +distilled with water for the production of rose water and the otto. +For the production of the huile and pomade they are treated by +maceration. They are finished off, however, by the process of +enfleurage, in which the frames before alluded to are made use of. The +fat, or pomade, is spread on to the glass on both sides. The blossoms +are then lightly strewn on to the upper surface. A number of trays so +filled are placed one on the top of the other to a convenient height, +forming a tolerably air tight box. The next day the old flowers are +removed, and fresh ones are substituted for them. This is repeated +until the fat is sufficiently impregnated. From time to time the +surface of the absorbent is renewed by serrating it with a comb-like +instrument. This, of course, is necessary in order to give the hungry, +non-saturated lower layers a chance of doing their duty. + +Where oil is the absorbent, the wired frames are used in connection +with cloths. The cloth acts as the holder of the oil, and the flowers +are spread upon it, and the process is conducted in the same way as +with the frames with glass. + +From the pomade the extrait de rose is made in the same way as the +orange extrait. + + +CASSIE. + +The stronger, though less delicate, cassie is grown from seeds, which +are contained in pods which betray the connection of this plant with +the leguminous family. After being steeped in water they are sown in a +warm and well sheltered spot. When two feet high the young plant is +grafted and transplanted to the open ground--ground well exposed to +the sun and sheltered from the cold winds. It flourishes best in the +neighborhood of Grasse and Cannes. The season of flowering is from +October to January or February, according to the presence or absence +of frost. The flowers are gathered twice a week in the daytime, and +are brought to the factories in the evening. They are here subjected +to maceration. + + +JONQUIL. + +A plant of humbler growth is the jonquil. The bulbs of this are set +out in rows. The flowers put in an appearance about the end of March, +four or five on each stem. Each flower as it blooms is picked off at +the calyx. They are treated by maceration and enfleurage, chiefly the +latter. The harvesting period of the jonquil is of very short +duration, and it often takes two seasons for the perfumer to finish +off his pomades of extra strength. The crop is also very uncertain. + + +JASMIN. + +A more reliable crop is that of the jasmin. This plant is reared from +cuttings of the wild jasmin, which are put in the earth in rows with +trenches between. Level ground is chosen; if hillside only is +available, this is formed into a series of terraces. When strong +enough, the young stem is grafted with shoots of the _Jasminum +grandiflorum_. The first year it is allowed to run wild, the second it +is trained by means of rods, canes and other appliances. At the +approach of winter the plants are banked up with earth to half their +height. The exposed parts then die off. When the last frost of winter +is gone the earth is removed, and what remains of the shrub is trimmed +and tidied up for the coming season. It grows to four or five feet. +Support is given by means of horizontal and upright poles, which join +the plants of one row into a hedge-like structure. Water is provided +by means of the ditches already mentioned. When not used for this +purpose, the trenches allow of the passage of women and children to +gather the flowers. These begin to appear in sufficient quantity to +repay collecting about the middle of July. The jasmin is collected as +soon as possible after it blooms. This occurs in the evening, and up +to about August 15, early enough for the blossoms to be gathered the +same day. They are delivered at the factories at once, where they are +put on to the chassis immediately; the work on them continuing very +often till long after midnight. Later on in the year they are gathered +in the early morning directly the dew is off. The farmer is up +betimes, and as soon as he sees the blossoms are dry he sounds a bugle +(made from a sea shell) to announce the fact to those engaged to pick +for him. + + +TUBEROSE. + +The tuberose is planted in rows in a similar way to the jasmin. The +stems thrown up by the bulbs bear ten or twelve flowers. Each flower +as it blooms is picked off. The harvesting for the factories takes +place from about the first week in July to the middle of October. +There is an abundant yield, indeed, after this, but it is only of +service to the florist, the valued scent not being present in +sufficient quantity. The flowers are worked up at the factory directly +they arrive by the enfleurage process. + + +MIGNONETTE. + +The _reseda_, or mignonette, is planted from seed, as here in England. +The flowering tops are used to produce the huile or pomade. + + +VIOLETS. + +Last in order and least in size comes the violet. For "the flower of +sweetest smell is shy and lowly," and has taken a modest place in the +paper. + +Violets are planted out in October or April. October is preferred, as +it is the rainy season; nor are the young plants then exposed to the +heat of the sun or to the drought, as they would be if starting life +in April. + +The best place for them is in olive or orange groves, where they are +protected from the too powerful rays of the sun in summer and from the +extreme cold in winter. Specks of violets appear during November. By +December the green is quite overshadowed, and the whole plantation +appears of one glorious hue. For the leaves, having developed +sufficiently for the maintenance of the plant, rest on their oars, and +seem to take a silent pleasure in seeing the young buds they have +protected shoot past them and blossom in the open. + +The flowers are picked twice a week; they lose both color and flavor +if they are allowed to remain too long upon the plant. They are +gathered in the morning, and delivered at the factories by the +commissionnaires or agents in the afternoon, when they are taken in +hand at once. + +The products yielded by this flower are prized before all others in +the realms of perfumery, and cannot be improved; for, as one great +authority on all matters has said: "To throw a perfume on the violet +... were wasteful and ridiculous excess." + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO MAKE PHOTO. PRINTING PLATES. + + +The drawing intended for reproduction is pinned on a board and placed +squarely before a copying camera in a good, even light. The lens used +for this purpose must be capable of giving a perfectly sharp picture +right up to the edges, and must be of the class called rectilinear, +i.e., giving straight lines. The picture is then accurately focused +and brought to the required size. A plate is prepared in the dark room +by the collodion process, which is then exposed in the camera for the +proper time and developed in the ordinary way. After development, the +plate is fixed and strongly intensified, in order to render the white +portions of the drawings as opaque as possible. On looking through a +properly treated negative of this kind, it will be seen that the parts +representing the lines and black portions of the drawing are clear +glass, and the whites representing the paper a dense black. + +The negative, after drying, is ready for the next operation, i.e., +printing upon zinc. This is done in several ways. One method will, +however, be sufficient for the purpose here. I obtain a piece of the +bichromatized gelatine paper previously mentioned, and place it on the +face of the negative in a printing frame. This is exposed to sunlight +(if there is any) or daylight for a period varying from five to thirty +minutes, according to the strength of the light. This exposed piece of +paper is then covered all over with a thin coating of printing ink, +and wetted in a bath of cold water. In a few minutes the ink leaves +the white or protected parts of the paper, remaining only on the lines +where the light has passed through the negative and affected the +gelatine. We now have a transcript of the drawing in printing ink, on +a paper which, as soon as dry, is ready for laying down on a piece of +perfectly clean zinc, and passing through a press. The effect and +purpose of passing this cleaned sheet of zinc through the press in +contact with the picture on the gelatine paper is this: Owing to the +stronger attraction of the greasy ink for the clean metal than for the +gelatine, it leaves its original support, and attaches itself strongly +to the zinc, giving a beautifully sharp and clean impression of our +original drawing in greasy ink on the surface of the zinc. The zinc +plate is next damped and carefully rolled up with a roller charged +with more printing ink, and the image is thus made strong enough to +resist the first etching. This etching is done in a shallow bath, +which is so arranged that it can be rocked to and fro. For the first +etching, very weak solution of nitric acid and water is used. The +plate is placed with this acid solution in the bath, and steadily +rocked for five or ten minutes. The plate is then taken out, washed, +and again inked; then it is dusted over with powdered resin, which +sticks to the ink on the plate. After this the plate is heated until +the ink and resin on the lines melt together and form a strong +acid-resisting varnish over all the work. The plate is again put into +the acid etching bath and further etched. These operations are +repeated five or six times, until the zinc of the unprotected or white +part of the picture is etched deep enough to allow the lines to be +printed clean in a press, like ordinary type or an engraved wood +block. I ought perhaps to explain that between each etching the plate +is thoroughly inked, and that this ink is melted down the sides of the +line, so as to protect the sides as well as the top from the action of +the acid; were this neglected, the acid would soon eat out the lines +from below. The greatest skill and care is, therefore, necessary in +this work, especially so in the case of some of the exquisitely fine +blocks which are etched for some art publications. + +There are many details which are necessary to successful etching, but +those now given will be sufficient to convey to you generally the +method of making the zinc plate for the typographic block. After +etching there only remains the trimming of the zinc, a little touching +up, and mounting it on a block of mahogany or cherry of exact +thickness to render it type high, and it is now ready for insertion +with type in the printer's form. From a properly etched plate hundreds +of thousands of prints may be obtained, or it may be electrotyped or +stereotyped and multiplied indefinitely.--_G.S. Waterlow, Brit. Jour. +Photo._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF A HAND FIRE GRENADE. + +By CHAS. CATLETT and R.C. PRICE. + + +The analyses of several of these "fire extinguishers" have been +published, showing that they are composed essentially of an aqueous +solution of one or more of the following bodies; sodium, potassium, +ammonium, and calcium chlorides and sulphates, and in small amount +borax and sodium acetate; while their power of extinguishing fire is +but three or fourfold that of water. + +One of these grenades of a popular brand of which I have not found an +analysis was examined by Mr. Catlett with the following results: The +blue corked flask was so open as to show that it contained no gas +under pressure, and upon warming its contents, but 4 or 5 cubic inches +of a gas were given off. The grenade contained about 600 c.c. of a +neutral solution, which gave on analysis: + + + In 1000 c.c. In the Flask. + Grammes. Grains. + Calcium chloride¹ 92.50 850.8 + Magnesium " 18.71 173.2 + Sodium " 22.20 206.9 + Potassium " 1.14 10.6 + ------ ------ + 134.55 1241.5 + ¹Trace of bromide. + + +As this mixture of substances naturally suggested the composition of +the "mother liquors" from salt brines, Mr. Price made an analysis of +such a sample of "bittern" from the Snow Hill furnace, Kanawha Co., +W.Va., obtaining the following composition: + + + In 1000 c.c. In 200 c.c. + Grammes. Grains. + Calcium chloride¹ 299.70 925.8 + Magnesium " 56.93 175.7 + Strontium " 1.47 4.5 + Sodium " 20.16 62.2 + Potassium " 5.13 15.8 + ------ ------ + 383.39 1184.0 + ¹Trace of bromide. + + +There is of course some variation in the bittern obtained from +different brines, but it appears of interest to call attention to this +correspondence in composition, as indicating that the liquid for +filling such grenades is obtained by adding two volumes of water to +one of the "bittern." The latter statement is fairly proved by the +presence of the bromine, and certainly from an economical standpoint +such should be its method of manufacture.--_Amer. Chem. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +MOLECULAR WEIGHTS. + + +A new and most valuable method of determining the molecular weights of +non-volatile as well as volatile substances has just been brought into +prominence by Prof. Victor Meyer (_Berichte_, 1888, No. 3). The method +itself was discovered by M. Raoult, and finally perfected by him in +1886, but up to the present has been but little utilized by chemists. +It will be remembered that Prof. Meyer has recently discovered two +isomeric series of derivatives of benzil, differing only in the +position of the various groups in space. If each couple of isomers +possess the same molecular weight, a certain modification of the new +Van't Hoff-Wislicenus theory as to the position of atoms in space is +rendered necessary; but if the two are polymers, one having a +molecular weight n times that of the other, then the theory in its +present form will still hold. Hence it was imperative to determine +without doubt the molecular weight of some two typical isomers. But +the compounds in question are not volatile, so that vapor density +determinations were out of the question. In this difficulty Prof. +Meyer has tested the discovery of M. Raoult upon a number of compounds +of known molecular weights, and found it perfectly reliable and easy +of application. The method depends upon the lowering of the +solidifying point of a solvent, such as water, benzine, or glacial +acetic acid, by the introduction of a given weight of the substance +whose molecular weight is to be determined. The amount by which the +solidifying point is lowered is connected with the molecular weight, +M, by the following extremely simple formula: M = T x (P / C); where C +represents the amount by which the point of congelation is lowered, P +the weight of anhydrous substance dissolved in 100 grammes of the +solvent, and T a constant for the same solvent readily determined from +volatile substances whose molecular weights are well known. On +applying this law to the case of two isomeric benzil derivatives, the +molecular weights were found, as expected, to be identical, and not +multiples; hence Prof. Meyer is perfectly justified in introducing the +necessary modification in the "position in space" theory. Now that +this generalization of Raoult is placed upon a secure basis, it takes +its well merited rank along with that of Dulong and Petit as a most +valuable means of checking molecular weights, especially in +determining which of two or more possible values expresses the +truth.--_Nature._ + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 642, page 10258.] + + + + +THE DIRECT OPTICAL PROJECTION OF ELECTRO-DYNAMIC LINES OF FORCE AND +OTHER ELECTRO-DYNAMIC PHENOMENA.[1] + + [Footnote 1: An expansion of two papers read before the A.A.A.S. + at the Ann Arbor meeting.] + +By Prof. J.W. MOORE. + + +II. LOOPS. + +If the wire, with its lines of force, be bent into the form of a +vertical circle 1-1/8 in. in diameter, and fixed in a glass plate, +some of the lines of force will be seen parallel to the axis of the +circle. If the loop is horizontal, the lines become points. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14a.] + + +FIELDS OF LOOPS AND MAGNETS. + +Place now a vertical loop opposite to the pole of a short bar magnet +cemented to the glass plate with the N pole facing it. If the current +passes in one direction the field will be as represented by Fig. +14b; if it is reversed by the commutator, Fig. 14c is an image of +the spectrum. Applying Faraday's second principle, it appears that +attraction results in the first case, and repulsion in the second. The +usual method of stating the fact is, that if you face the loop and the +current circulates from left over to right, the N end of the needle +will be drawn into the loop. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14b.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14c.] + +It thus becomes evident that the loop is equivalent to a flat steel +plate, one surface of which is N and the other S. Facing the loop if +the current is right handed, the S side is toward you. + + +TO SHOW THE ACTUAL ATTRACTION AND REPULSION OF A MAGNET BY A "MAGNETIC +SHELL." + +Produce the field as before (Fig. 14), carry a suspended magnetic +needle over the field. It will tend to place itself parallel to the +lines of force, with the N pole in such a position that, if the +current passes clockwise as you look upon the plane of the loop, it +will be drawn into the loop. Reversing the position of the needle or +of current will show repulsion. + +Clerk Maxwell's method of stating the fact is that "every portion of +the circuit is acted on by a force urging it across the lines of +magnetic induction, so as to include a greater number of these lines +within the embrace of the circuit."[2] + + [Footnote 2: Electricity and Magnetism, Maxwell, p. 137, §§ 489, + 490.] + +If the horizontal loop is used (Fig. 14a), the needle tries to +assume a vertical position, with the N or S end down, according to the +direction of the current. + +If it is desired to show that if the magnet is fixed and the loop +free, the loop will be attracted or repelled, a special support is +needed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +A strip (Fig. 15) of brass, J, having two iron mercury cups, K_{1} +K_{2}, screwed near the ends, one insulated from the strip, is +fastened upon the horizontal arm of the ring support, Fig. 9, already +described. The cups may be given a slight vertical motion for accurate +adjustment. Small conductors (Figs. 16, 17, 18), which are circles, +rectangles, solenoids, etc., may be suspended from the top of the +plate by unspun silk, with the ends dipping into the mercury. The +apparatus is therefore an Ampere's stand, with the weight of the +movable circuit supported by silk and with means of adjusting the +contacts. The rectangles or circles are about two inches in their +extreme dimension. Horizontal and vertical astatic system are also +used--Figs. 18, 18a. The apparatus may be used with either the +horizontal or vertical lantern. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16. Fig. 17.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 18. Fig. 18a.] + +If the rectangle or circle is suspended and a magnet brought near it +when the current passes, the loop will be attracted or repelled, as +the law requires. The experiments usually performed with De la Rive's +floating battery may be exhibited. + +The great similarity between the loop and the magnet may be shown by +comparing the fields above (Figs. 14b, 14c) with the actual fields +of two bar magnets, Figs. 19, 19a. + +It will be noticed that the lines in Fig. 19, where unlike poles are +opposite, are gathered together as in Fig. 14b,--where the N end of +the magnet faces the S side of the magnetic shell; and that in 19a, +where two norths face, the line of repulsion has the same general +character as in 14c, in which the N end of the magnet faces the N +side of the shell. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19a.] + +Instead of placing the magnet perpendicular to the plane of the loop, +it may be placed parallel to its plane. Fig. 14d shows the magnet +and loop both vertical. + +The field shows that the magnet will be rotated, and will finally take +for stable equilibrium an axial position, with the N end pointing as +determined by the rule already given. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14d.] + +If two loops are placed with their axes in the same straight line as +follows, Figs. 14f, 14g, a reproduction of Figs. 14b and 14c +will become evident. + +It is obvious from these spectra that the two loops attract or repel +each other according to the direction of the current, which fact may +be shown by bringing a loop near to another loop suspended from the +ring stand, Fig. 9, or by using the ordinary apparatus for that +purpose--De la Rive's battery and Ampere's stand. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14f.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14g.] + +If two loops are placed in the same vertical plane, as in Figs. 14h +and 14i, there will be attraction or repulsion, according to the +direction of the adjacent currents. The fields become the same as +Figs. 8 and 8a, as may be seen by comparing them with those figures. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14h.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14i.] + +Having thus demonstrated the practical identity of a loop and a +magnet, we proceed to examine the effects produced by loops on +straight wires. + +If the loop is placed with a straight wire in its plane along one +edge, there will be attraction or repulsion, according to the +direction of the two currents, Figs. 20 and 20a, which are obviously +the same as Figs. 8 and 8a. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20a.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20b.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20c.] + +If the wire is placed parallel to the plane of the loop and to one +side, Figs. 20b and 20c, there will be rotation (same as Figs. +4b and 4c). + +If the loop is horizontal and the wire vertical and on one side, the +Figs. 20d, 20e are the same as 4d and 4e. + +If the loop is horizontal and the wire vertical and axial, 20f and +20g, there will be rotation, and the figures are mere duplicates of +4g and 4h. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20d.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20e.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20f.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20g.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20h.] + +Fig. 20h shows a view of 20f when the wire is horizontal and the +plane of the loop vertical. It is like 4i. + +To verify these facts, suspend a loop from Ampere's stand, Fig. 9, and +bring a straight wire near. + +A small rectangle or circle may be hung in a similar manner. When the +circuit is closed, it tends to place itself with its axis in a N and S +direction through the earth's influence. The supposition of an E and W +horizontal earth current will explain this action. + +To exemplify rotation of a vertical wire by a horizontal loop, Fig. 21 +may be shown. + +A circular copper vessel with a glass bottom (Fig. 21) has wound +around its rim several turns of insulated wire. In the center of the +vessel is a metallic upright upon the top of which is balanced in a +mercury cup a light copper [inverted U] shaped strip. The ends of the +inverted U dip into the dilute sulphuric acid contained in the +circular vessel. + +The current passes from, the battery, up the pillar, down the legs of +the U to the liquid, thence through the insulated wire back to the +battery. + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.] + +This is the usual form of apparatus, modified in size for the vertical +or horizontal lantern. + +(_To be continued._) + + * * * * * + + + + +POISONS. + + +"Poisons and poisoning" was the subject of a discourse a few days ago +at the Royal Institution. The lecturer, Professor Meymott Tidy, began +by directing attention to the derivation of the word "toxicology," the +science of poisons. The Greek word [Greek: toxon] signified primarily +that specially oriental weapon which we call a bow, but the word in +the earliest authors included in its meaning the arrow shot from the +bow. Dioscorides in the first century A.D. uses the word [Greek: to +toxikon] to signify the poison to smear arrows with. Thus, by giving +an enlarged sense to the word--for words ever strive to keep pace, if +possible, with scientific progress, we get our modern and significant +expression toxicology as the science of poisons and of poisoning. A +certain grim historical interest gathers around the story of poisons. + +It is a history worth studying, for poisons have played their part in +history. The "subtil serpent" taught men the power of a poisoned fang. +Poison was in the first instance a simple instrument of open warfare. +Thus, our savage ancestors tipped their arrows with the snake poison +in order to render them more deadly. The use of vegetable extracts for +this purpose belongs to a later period. The suggestion is not +unreasonable that if war chemists with their powders, their gun +cotton, and their explosives had not been invented, warlike nations +would have turned for their _instrumenta belli_ to toxicologists and +their poisons. At any rate, the toxicologists may claim that the very +cradle of science was rocked in the laboratory of the toxicological +worker. Early in the history of arrow tipping the admixture of blood +with the snake poison became a common practice. Even the use of animal +fluids alone is recorded--e.g., the arrows of Hercules, which were +dipped in the gall of the Lernæan hydra. Hercules himself at last fell +a victim to the blood stained tunic of the dead Centaur Nessus. As +late as the middle of the last century Blumenbach persuaded one of his +class to drink 7 oz. of warm bullock's blood in order to disprove the +then popular notion that even fresh blood was a poison. The young man +who consented to drink the blood did not die a martyr to science. + +The first important question we have to answer is, What do we mean by +a poison? The law has not defined a poison, although it requires at +times a definition. The popular definition of a poison is "a drug +which destroys life rapidly when taken in small quantity." The terms +"small quantity" as regards amount, and "rapidly" as regards time, are +as indefinite as Hodge's "piece of chalk" as regards size. The +professor defined a poison as "any substance which otherwise than by +the agency of heat or electricity is capable of destroying life, +either by chemical action on the tissues of the living body or by +physiological action by absorption into the living system." This +definition excepted from the list of poisons all agencies that +destroyed life by a simple mechanical action, thus drawing a +distinction between a "poison" and a "destructive thing." It explains +why nitrogen is not a poison and why carbonic acid is, although +neither can support life. This point the lecturer illustrated. A +poison must be capable of destroying life. It was nonsense to talk of +a "deadly poison." If a body be a poison, it is deadly; if it be not +deadly, it is not a poison. Three illustrations of the chemical +actions of poisons were selected. The first was sulphuric acid. Here +the molecular death of the part to which the acid was applied was due +to the tendency of sulphuric acid to combine with water. The stomach +became charred. The molecular death of certain tissues destroyed the +general functional rhythmicity of the system until the disturbance +became general, somatic death (that is, the death of the entire body) +resulting. The second illustration was poisoning by carbonic oxide. +The professor gave an illustrated description of the origin and +properties of the coloring matter of the blood, known as _hæmoglobin_, +drawing attention to its remarkable formation by a higher synthetical +act from the albumenoids in the animal body, and to the circumstance +that, contrary to general rule, both its oxidation and reduction may +be easily effected. It was explained that on this rhythmic action of +oxidizing and reducing _hæmoglobin_ life depended. + +Carbonic oxide, like oxygen, combined with _hæmoglobin_, produced a +comparatively stable compound; at any rate, a compound so stable that +it ceased to be the efficient oxygen carrier of normal _hæmoglobin_. +This interference with the ordinary action of _hæmoglobin_ constituted +poisoning by carbonic oxide. In connection with this subject the +lecturer referred to the use of the spectroscope as an analytical +agent, and showed the audience the spectrum of blood extracted from +the hat of the late Mr. Briggs (for the murder of whom Muller was +executed), and this was the first case in which the spectroscopic +appearances of blood formed the subject matter of evidence. The third +illustration of poisoning was poisoning by strychnine. Here again the +power of the drug for undergoing oxidation was illustrated. It was +noted that although our knowledge of the precise _modus operandi_ of +the poison was imperfect, nevertheless that the coincidence of the +first fit in the animal after its exhibition with the formation of +reduced _hæmoglobin_ in the body was important. + +There followed upon this view of the chemical action of poison in the +living body this question: Given a knowledge of certain properties of +the elements--for example, their atomic weights, their relative +position according to the periodic law, their spectroscopic character, +and so forth--or given a knowledge of the molecular constitution, +together with the general physical and chemical properties of +compounds--in other words, given such knowledge of the element or +compound as may be learned in a laboratory--does such knowledge afford +us any clew whereby to predicate the probable action of the element or +of the compound respectively on the living body? The researches of +Blake, Rabuteau, Richet, Bouchardat, Fraser, and Crum-Brown were +discussed, the results of their observations being that at present we +were unable to determine toxicity or physiological action by any +general chemical or physical researches. The lecturer pointed out that +such relationship was scarcely to be expected. Poisons acted on +different tissues, while even the same poison, according to the dose +administered and other conditions, expended its toxic activity in +different ways. + +Further, the allotropic modifications of elements and the isomerism of +compounds increased the difficulties. Why should yellow phosphorus be +an active poison and red phosphorus be inert? Why should piperine be +the poison of all poisons to keep you awake, and morphine the poison +of all poisons to send you asleep, although to the chemist these two +bodies were of identical composition? The lecturer urged that the +science of medicine (for the poisons of the toxicologist were the +medicines of the physician) must be experimental. Guard jealously +against all wanton cruelty to animals; but to deprive the higher +creation of life and health lest one of the lower creatures should +suffer was the very refinement of cruelty. "Are ye not of much more +value then they?" spoke a still small voice amid the noisy babble of +well intentioned enthusiasts.--_London Times._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTIFICIAL MOTHER FOR INFANTS. + + +All the journals have recently narrated the curious story of the +triplets that were born prematurely at the clinic of Assas Street. +Placed at their birth in an apparatus constructed on the principle of +an incubator, in order to finish their development therein, these +frail beings are doing wonderfully well, thanks to the assiduous care +bestowed upon them, and are even showing, it appears, a true emulation +to become persons of importance. + +Every one now knows the incubator or "artificial hen"--that box with a +glass top in which, under the influence of a mild heat, hens' eggs, +laid upon wire cloth, hatch of themselves in a few days, and allow +pretty little chicks to make their way out of the cracked shell. + +This ingenious apparatus, which has been adopted by most breeders, +gives so good results that it has already supplanted the mother hens +in all large poultry yards, and at present, thanks to it, large +numbers of eggs that formerly ended in omelets are now changing into +chickens. + +Although not belonging to the same race, a number of children at their +birth are none the less delicate than these little chicks. + +There are some that are so puny and frail among the many brought into +the world by the anæmic and jaded women of the present generation +that, in the first days of their existence, their blood, incapable of +warming them, threatens at every instant to congeal in their veins. +There are some which, born prematurely, are so incapable of taking +nourishment of themselves, of breathing and of moving, that they would +be fatally condemned to death were not haste made to take up their +development where nature left it, in order to carry it on and finish +it. In such a case it is not, as might be supposed, to the +exceptionally devoted care of the mother that the safety of these +delicate existences is confided. As the sitting hen often interferes +with the hatching of her eggs by too much solicitude, so the most +loving and attentive mother, in this case, would certainly prove more +prejudicial than useful to her nursling. So, for this difficult task +that she cannot perform, there is advantageously substituted for her +what is known as an artificial mother. This apparatus, which is +identical with the one employed for the incubation of chickens, +consists of a large square box, supporting, upon a double bottom, a +series of bowls of warm water. Above these vessels, which are renewed +as soon as the temperature lowers, is arranged a basket filled with +cotton, and in this is laid, as in a nest, the weak creature which +could not exist in the open air. + +[Illustration: STILL BIRTH WARMING APPARATUS.] + +Through the glass in the cover, the mother has every opportunity of +watching the growth of her new born babe; but this is all that she is +allowed to do. The feeding of the infant, which is regulated by the +physician at regular hours, is effected by means of a special rubber +apparatus, through the aid of an intelligent woman who has sole charge +of this essential operation. The aeration of the little being, which +is no less important, is assured by a free circulation, in the box, of +pure warm air, which is kept at a definite temperature and is +constantly renewed through a draught flue. The least variations in the +temperature are easily seen through a horizontal thermometer placed +beneath the glass. + +Thus protected against all those bad influences that are often so +fatal at the inception of life, even to the healthiest babes, +preserved from an excess or insufficiency of food, sheltered from cold +and dampness, protected against clumsy handling and against pernicious +microbes, sickly or prematurely born babies soon acquire enough +strength in the apparatus to be able, finally, like others, to face +the various perils that await us from the cradle. + +The results that have been obtained for some time back at Paris, where +the surroundings are so unfavorable, no longer leave any doubt as to +the excellence of the process. At the lying-in clinic of Assas Street, +Doctors Farnier, Chantreuil, and Budin succeeded in a few days in +bringing some infants born at six months (genuine human dolls, +weighing scarcely more than from 2Œ to 4œ pounds) up to the normal +weight of 7œ pounds.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + + + + +GASTROSTOMY. + + +Surgery has, as is well known, made great progress in recent years. +Apropos of this subject, we shall describe to our readers an operation +that was recently performed by one of our most skillful surgeons, Dr. +Terrillon, under peculiar circumstances, in which success is quite +rare. The subject was a man whose oesophagus was obstructed, and who +could no longer swallow any food, or drink the least quantity of +liquid, and to whom death was imminent. Dr. Terrillon made an incision +in the patient's stomach, and, through a tube, enabled him to take +nourishment and regain his strength. We borrow a few details +concerning the operation from a note presented by the doctor at one of +the last meetings of the Academy of Medicine. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--FEEDING A PATIENT THROUGH A STOMACHAL TUBE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DETAILS OF THE TUBE. C, rubber tube for +leading food to the stomach, E; B B', rubber balls, which, inflated +with air by means of the tube, T, and rubber ball, P, effect a +hermetic closing; A, stopper for the tube, C; R, cock of the air +tube.] + +Mr. X., fifty-three years of age, is a strong man of arthritic +temperament. He has suffered for several years with violent gastralgia +and obstinate dyspepsia, for which he has long used morphine. The +oesophagal symptoms appear to date back to the month of September, +1887, when he had a painful regurgitation of a certain quantity of +meat that he had swallowed somewhat rapidly. + +Since that epoch, the passage of solid food has been either painful or +difficult, and often followed by regurgitation. The food seemed to +stop at the level of the pit of the stomach. So he gave up solid food, +and confined himself to liquids or semi-liquids, which readily passed +up to December 20, 1887. At this epoch, he remarked that liquids were +swallowed with difficulty, especially at certain moments, they +remaining behind the sternum and afterward slowly descending or being +regurgitated. This state of things was more marked especially in the +first part of January. He was successfully sounded several times, but +soon the sound was not able to pass. Doctors Affre and Bazenet got him +to come to Paris, where he arrived February 5, 1888. + +For ten days, the patient had not been able to swallow anything but +about a quart of milk or bouillon in small doses. As soon as he had +swallowed the liquid, he experienced distress over the pit of the +stomach, followed by painful regurgitations. For three days, every +attempt made by Dr. Terrillon to remove the obstacle that evidently +existed at the level of the cardia entirely failed. Several times +after such attempts a little blood was brought out, but there was +never any hemorrhage. + +The patient suffered, grew lean and impatient, and was unable to +introduce into his stomach anything but a few spoonfuls of water from +time to time. As he was not cachectic and no apparent ganglion was +found, and as his thoracic respiration was perfect, it seemed to be +indicated that an incision should be made in his stomach. The patient +at once consented. + +The operation was performed February 9, at 11 o'clock, with the aid of +Dr. Routier, the patient being under the influence of chloroform. A +small aperture was made in the wall of the stomach and a red rubber +sound was at once introduced in the direction of the cardia and great +tuberosity. This gave exit to some yellowish gastric liquid. The tube +was fixed in the abdominal wall with a silver wire. The operation took +three quarters of an hour. The patient was not unduly weakened, and +awoke a short time afterward. He had no nausea, but merely a burning +thirst. The operation was followed by no peritoneal reaction or fever. +Three hours afterward, bouillon and milk were injected and easily +digested. + +Passing in silence the technical details, which would not interest the +majority of our readers, we shall be content to say that Mr. X., +thanks to this alimentation, has regained his strength, and is daily +taking his food as shown in Fig. 1. The aperture made in the stomach +permits of the introduction of the rubber apparatus shown in Fig. 2, +the object of which is to prevent the egress of the liquids of the +stomach and at the same time to introduce food. A funnel is fitted to +the tube, and the liquid or semi-liquid food is directly poured into +the stomach. Digestion proceeds with perfect regularity, and Mr. X., +who has presented himself, of his own accord, before the Academy, and +whom we have recently seen, has resumed his health and good +spirits.--_La Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO CATCH AND PRESERVE MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES. + + +There is no part of our country in which one cannot form a beautiful +local collection, and any young person who wants amusement, +instruction, and benefit from two, three, or more weeks in the country +can find all in catching butterflies and moths, arranging them, and +studying them up. + +Provide yourself first with two tools, a net and a poison bottle. The +net may be made of any light material. I find the thinnest Swiss +muslin best. Get a piece of iron wire, not as heavy as telegraph wire, +bend it in a circle of about ten inches diameter, with the ends +projecting from the circle two or three inches; lash this net frame to +the end of a light stick four or five feet long. Sew the net on the +wire. The net must be a bag whose depth is not quite the length of +your arm--so deep that when you hold the wire in one hand you can +easily reach the bottom with the bottle (to be described) in the other +hand. Never touch wing of moth or butterfly with your fingers. The +colors are in the dusty down (as you call it), which comes off at a +touch. Get a glass bottle or vial, with large, open mouth, and cork +which you can easily put in and take out. The bottles in which +druggists usually get quinine are the most convenient. It should not +be so large that you cannot easily carry it in your pocket. Let the +druggist put in the bottle a half ounce of cyanide of potassium; on +this pour water to the depth of about three-fourths of an inch, and +then sprinkle in and mix gently and evenly enough plaster of Paris to +form a thick cream, which will _set_ in a cake in the bottom of the +vial. Let it stand open an hour to set and dry, then wipe out the +inside of the vial above the cake and keep it corked. This is the +regular entomological poison bottle, used everywhere. An insect put in +it dies quietly at once. It will last several months. + +These two tools, the net and the poison bottle, are your catching and +killing instruments. You know where to look for butterflies. Moths are +vastly more numerous, and while equally beautiful, present more +varieties of beauty than butterflies. They can be found by daylight in +all kinds of weather, in the grass fields, in brush, in dark woods, +sometimes on flowers. Many spend the daytime spread out, others with +close shut wings on the trunks of trees in dark woods. The night moths +are more numerous and of great variety. They come around lamps, set +out on verandas in the night, in great numbers. A European fashion is +to spread on tree trunks a sirup made of brown sugar and rum, and +visit them once in a while at night with net and lantern. Catch your +moth in the net, take him out of it by cornering him with the open +mouth of your poison bottle, so that you secure him unrubbed. + +Now comes the work of stretching your moths. This is easy, but must be +done carefully. Provide your own stretching boards. These can be made +anywhere with hammer and nail and strips of wood. You want two flat +strips of wood about seven-eighths or three-fourths of an inch thick +and eight to fourteen inches long, nailed parallel to each other on +another strip, so as to leave a narrow open space between the two +parallel strips. Make two or three or more of these, with the slit or +space between the strips of various widths, for large and small moths +and butterflies. Make as many of them, with as various widths of slit, +as your catches may demand. Take your moth by the feet, gently in your +fingers, put a long pin down through his body, set the pin down in the +slit of the stretching board, so that the body of the moth will be at +the top of the slit and the wings can be laid out flat on the boards +on each side. Have ready narrow slips of white paper. Lay out one +_upper_ wing flat, raising it gently and carefully by using the point +of a pin to draw it with, until the lower edge of this upper wing is +nearly at a right angle with the body. Pin it there temporarily with +one pin, carefully, while you draw up the _under_ wing to a natural +position, and pin that. Put a slip of paper over both wings, pinning +one end above the upper and the other below the under wing, thus +holding both wings flat on the stretching board. Take out the pins +first put in the wings and let the paper do the holding. Treat the +opposite wings in the same way. Put as many moths or butterflies on +your stretching board as it will hold, and let them remain in a dry +room for two, three, or more days, according to size of moths and +dampness of climate. Put them in sunshine or near a stove to hasten +drying. When dry, take off the slips of paper, lift the moth out by +the pin through the body, and place him permanently in your +collection.--_Wm. C. Prime, in N.Y. Jour. of Commerce._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CLAVI HARP. + + +The beautiful instrument which we illustrate to-day is the invention +of M. Dietz, of Brussels. His grandfather was one of the first +manufacturers of upright pianos, and being struck with the +difficulties and defects of the harp, constructed, in 1810, an +instrument _à cordes pincées à clavier_--the strings connected with a +keyboard. + +Many improvements have from time to time been made on this model, +which at last arrived at the perfection exhibited in the newly +patented clavi harp. The difficulty of learning to play the ordinary +harp, and the inherent inconveniences of the instrument, limit its +use. It is furnished with catgut strings, which are affected by all +the influences of temperature, and require to be frequently tuned. The +necessity of playing the strings with the fingers renders it difficult +to obtain equality in the sounds. It gives only the natural sounds of +the diatonic gamut, and in order to obtain changes of modulation, the +pedals must be employed. Harmonics and shakes are very difficult to +execute on the harp, and--last, but not least--it is not provided with +dampers. The external form of the clavi harp resembles that of the +harp, and all the cords, or strings, are visible. The mechanism which +produces the sound is put into motion directly a key is depressed, and +acts in a similar manner to the fingers of a harpist; the strings +being pulled, not struck. The clavi harp is free from all the +objections inherent in the ordinary harp. The strings are of a +peculiar metal, covered with an insulating material, which has for its +object the production of sounds similar to that obtained from catgut +strings, and to prevent the strings from falling out of tune. The +keyboard, exactly like that of a piano, permits of playing in all +keys, without the employment of pedals. The clavi harp has two pedals. +The first, connected with the dampers, permits the playing of +sustained sounds, or damping them instantaneously. The second pedal +divides certain strings into two equal parts, to give the harmonic +octaves; by the aid of this pedal the performer can produce ten +harmonic sounds simultaneously; on the ordinary harp only four +simultaneous harmonics are possible. An ordinary keyboard being the +intermediary between the performer and the movement of the mechanical +"fingers" which pluck the strings, perfect equality of manipulation is +secured. The mechanical "fingers" instantaneously quit the strings on +which they operate, and are ready for further action. The "fingers" +are covered with suitable material, so that their contact with the +strings takes place with the softness necessary to obtain the most +beautiful tones possible. + +[Illustration: THE CLAVI HARP.] + +The clavi harp is much lighter than the piano--so that it can easily +be moved from room to room, or taken into an orchestra, by one or two +persons--and is of an elegant form, favorable to artistic decoration. +Sufficient will have been said to give a general idea of the new +instrument. + +It is undeniable that at the present day that beautiful instrument, +the harp, is seldom played; still seldomer well played. This is +attributable to the difficulties it presents to pupils. Its seven +pedals must be employed in different ways when notes are to be raised +or lowered a semitone; chromatic passages easy of execution on the +piano are almost impracticable on the harp. The same may be said of +the shake; and it is only after long and exclusive devotion to its +study that the harp can become endurable in the hands of an amateur, +or the means of furnishing a professional harpist with a moderate +income. It is needless to point out how far, in these respects, the +harp is surpassed by the clavi harp. + +Vocalists who accompany themselves on the harp are forced, by the +extension of their arms to reach the lower strings, and by frequent +employment of their feet on the pedals, into postures and movements +unfavorable to voice production; but they can accompany themselves +with ease on the clavi harp. + +Composers are restricted in the introduction of harp passages in their +orchestral scores, owing to the paucity of harpists. In some cases, +composers have written harp passages beyond the possibility of +execution by a single harpist, and the difficulty and cost of +providing two harpists have been inevitable. These difficulties will +disappear, and composers may give full play to their inspirations, +when the harp is displaced by the clavi harp.--_Building News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ARGAND BURNER. + + +Argand, a poor Swiss, invented a lamp with a wick fitted into a hollow +cylinder, up which a current of air was permitted to pass, thus giving +a supply of oxygen to the interior as well as the exterior of the +circular frame. At first Argand used the lamp without a glass chimney. +One day he was busy in his work room and sitting before the burning +lamp. His little brother was amusing himself by placing a bottomless +oil flask over different articles. Suddenly he placed it upon the +flame of the lamp, which instantly shot up the long, circular neck of +the flask with increased brilliancy. It did more, for it flashed into +Argand's mind the idea of the lamp chimney, by which his invention was +perfected. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SUBTERRANEAN TEMPLES OF INDIA. + + +During the last fifteen years Bombay has undergone a complete +transformation, and the English are now making of it one of the +prettiest cities that it is possible to see. The environs likewise +have been improved, and thanks to the railways and _bungalows_ (inns), +many excursions may now be easily made, and tourists can thus visit +the wonders of India, such as the subterranean temples of Ajunta, +Elephanta, Nassik, etc., without the difficulties of heretofore. + +The excavations of Elephanta are very near Bombay, and the trip in the +bay by boat to the island where they are located is a delightful one. +The deplorable state in which these temples now exist, with their +broken columns and statues, detracts much from their interest. The +temples of Ajunta, perhaps the most interesting of all, are easier of +access, and are situated 250 miles from Bombay and far from the +railway station at Pachora, where it is necessary to leave the cars. +Here an ox cart has to be obtained, and thirty miles have to be +traveled over roads that are almost impassable. It takes the oxen +fifteen hours to reach the bungalow of Furdapore, the last village +before the temples, and so it is necessary to purchase provisions. In +these wild and most picturesque places, the Hindoos cannot give you a +dinner, even of the most primitive character. It was formerly thought +that the subterranean temples of India were of an extraordinary +antiquity. + +The Hindoos still say that the gods constructed these works, but of +the national history of the country they are entirely ignorant, and +they do not, so to speak, know how to estimate the value of a century. +The researches made by Mr. Jas. Prinsep between 1830 and 1840 have +enlightened the scientific world as to the antiquity of the monuments +of India. He succeeded in deciphering the Buddhist inscriptions that +exist in all the north of India beyond the Indus as far as to the +banks of the Bengal. These discoveries opened the way to the work done +by Mr. Turnour on the Buddhist literature of Ceylon, and it was thus +that was determined the date of the birth of Sakya Muni, the founder +of Buddhism. He was born 625 B.C. and his death occurred eighty years +later, in 543. It is also certain that Buddhism did not become a true +religion until 300 years after these events, under the reign of Aoska. +The first subterranean temples cannot therefore be of a greater +antiquity. Researches that have been made more recently have in all +cases confirmed these different results, and we can now no longer +doubt that these temples have been excavated within a period of +fourteen centuries. + +Dasaratha, the grandson of Aoska, first excavated the temples known +under the name of Milkmaid, in Behar (Bengal), 200 B.C., and the +finishing of the last monument of Ellora, dedicated by Indradyumna to +Indra Subha, occurred during the twelfth century of our era. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--FACADE OF THE TEMPLE OF PANDU LENA.] + +We shall speak first of the temples of Pandu Lena, situated in the +vicinity of Nassik, near Bombay. These are less frequented by +travelers, and that is why I desired to make a sketch of them (Fig. 1). +The church of Pandu Lena is very ancient. Inscriptions have been found +upon its front, and in the interior on one of the pillars, that teach +us that it was excavated by an inhabitant of Nassik, under the reign +of King Krishna, in honor of King Badrakaraka, the fifth of the +dynasty of Sunga, who mounted the throne 129 B.C. + +The front of this church, all carved in the rock, is especially +remarkable by the perfection of the ornaments. In these it is to be +seen that the artist has endeavored to imitate in rock a structure +made of wood. This is the case in nearly all the subterranean temples, +and it is presumable that the architects of the time did their +composing after the reminiscences of the antique wooden monuments that +still existed in India at their epoch, but which for a long time have +been forever destroyed. The large bay placed over the small front door +gives a mysterious light in the nave of the church, and sends the rays +directly upon the main altar or _dagoba_, leaving the lateral columns +and porticoes in a semi-obscurity well calculated to inspire +meditation and prayer. + +The temples and monasteries of Ajunta, too, are of the highest +interest. They consist of 27 grottoes, of which four only are churches +or _chaityas_. The 23 other excavations compose the monasteries or +_viharas_. Begun 100 B.C., they have remained since the tenth century +of our era as we now see them. The subterranean monasteries are +majestic in appearance. Sustained by superb columns with curiously +sculptured capitals, they are ornamented with admirable frescoes which +make us live over again the ancient Hindoo life. The paintings are +unfortunately in a sad state, yet for the tourist they are an +inexhaustible source of interesting observations. + +The excavations, which have been made one after another in the wall of +volcanic rock of the mountain, form, like the latter, a sort of +semicircle. But the churches and monasteries have fronts whose +richness of ornamentation is unequaled. The profusion of the +sculptures and friezes, ornamented with the most artistic taste, +strikes you with so much the more admiration in that in these places +they offer a perfect and varied _ensemble_ of the true type of the +Buddhist religion during this long period of centuries. The +picturesque landscape that surrounds these astonishing sculptures adds +to the beauty of these various pictures. + +The temples of Ellora are no less remarkable, but they do not offer +the same artistic _ensemble_. The excavations may be divided into +three series: ten of them belong to the religion of Buddha, fourteen +to that of Brahma, and six to the Dravidian sect, which resembles that +of Jaius, of which we still have numerous specimens in the Indies. +Excavated in the same amygdaloid rock, the temples and monasteries +differ in aspect from those of Ajunta, on account of the form of the +mountain. Ajunta is a nearly vertical wall. At Ellora, the rock has a +gentle slope, so that, in order to have the desired height for +excavating the immense halls of the _viharas_ or the naves of the +_chaityas_, it became necessary to carve out a sort of forecourt in +front of each excavation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PLAN OF THE TEMPLES OF KYLAS.] + +Some of the churches thus have their entrance ornamented with +porticoes, and the immense monasteries (which are sometimes three +stories high) with lateral entrances and facades. The mountain has +also been excavated in other places, so as to form a relatively narrow +entrance, which gives access to the internal court of one of these +monasteries. It thus becomes nearly invisible to whoever passes along +the road formed on the sloping side of the mountain. The greatest +curiosity among the monuments of Ellora is the group of temples known +by the name of Kylas (Fig. 2). The monks have excavated the rocky +slope on three faces so as to isolate completely, in the center, an +immense block, out of which they have carved an admirable temple (see +T in the plan, Fig. 2), with its annexed chapels. These temples are +thus roofless and are sculptured externally in the form of pagodas. +Literally covered with sculptures composed with infinite art, they +form a very unique collection. These temples seem to rest upon a +fantastic base in which are carved in alto rilievo all the gods of +Hindoo mythology, along with symbolic monsters and rows of elephants. +These are so many caryatides of strange and mysterious aspect, +certainly designed to strike the imagination of the ancient Indian +population (Fig. 3). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--SUBTERRANEAN TEMPLE AT ELLORA.] + +Two flights of steps at S and S (Fig. 2) near the main entrance of +Kylas lead to the top of this unique base and to the floor of the +temples. + +The interior of the central pagoda, ornamented with sixteen +magnificent columns, formerly covered, like the walls, with paintings, +and the central sanctuary that contains the great idol, are composed +with a perfect understanding of architectural proportions. + +Exit from this temple is effected through two doors at the sides. +These open upon a platform where there are five pagodas of smaller +size that equal the central temple in the beauty of their sculptures +and the elegance of their proportions. + +Around these temples great excavations have been made in the sides of +the mountain. At A (Fig. 2), on a level with the ground, is seen a +great cloister ornamented with a series of bass reliefs representing +the principal gods of the Hindoo paradise. The side walls contain +large, two-storied halls ornamented with superb sculptures of various +divinities. Columns of squat proportions support the ceilings. A small +stairway, X (Fig. 2), leads to one of these halls. Communication was +formerly had with its counterpart by a stone bridge which is now +broken. There still exist two (P) which lead from the floor of the +central temple to the first story of the detached pavilion or +_mantapa_, D, and to that of the entrance pavilion or _gopura_, C. At +G we still see two sorts of obelisks ornamented with arabesques and +designed for holding the fires during religious fetes. At E are seen +two colossal elephants carved out of the rock. These structures, made +upon a general plan of remarkable character, are truly without an +equal in the entire world. + +We may thus see how much art feeling the architects of these remote +epochs possessed, and express our wonder at the extreme taste that +presided over all these marvelous subterranean structures.--_A. +Tissandier, in La Nature._ + + * * * * * + +[NATURE.] + + + + + +TIMBER, AND SOME OF ITS DISEASES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No, 640, p. 10222.] + +By H. MARSHALL WARD. + + +IV. + +Before proceeding further it will be of advantage to describe another +tree-killing fungus, which has long been well known to mycologists as +one of the commonest of our toadstools growing from rotten stumps and +decaying wood-work such as old water pipes, bridges, etc. This is +_Agaricus melleus_ (Fig. 15), a tawny yellow toadstool with a ring +round its stem, and its gills running down on the stem and bearing +white spores, and which springs in tufts from the base of dead and +dying trees during September and October. It is very common in this +country, and I have often found it on beeches and other trees in +Surrey, but it has been regarded as simply springing from the dead +rotten wood, etc., at the base of the tree. As a matter of fact, +however, this toadstool is traced to a series of dark shining strings, +looking almost like the purple-black leaf stalks of the maidenhair +fern, and these strings branch and meander in the wood of the tree, +and in the soil, and may attain even great lengths--several feet, for +instance. The interest of all this is enhanced when we know that until +the last few years these long black cords were supposed to be a +peculiar form of fungus, and were known as _Rhizomorpha_. They are, +however, the subterranean vegetative parts (mycelium) of the agaric we +are concerned with, and they can be traced without break of continuity +from the base of the toadstool into the soil and tree (Fig. 16). I +have several times followed these dark mycelial cords into the timber +of old beeches and spruce fir stumps, but they are also to be found in +oaks, plums, various conifers, and probably may occur in most of our +timber trees if opportunity offers. + +The most important point in this connection is that _Agaricus melleus_ +becomes in these cases a true parasite, producing fatal disease in the +attacked timber trees, and, as Hartig has conclusively proved, +spreading from one tree to another by means of the rhizomorphs under +ground. Only the last summer I had an opportunity of witnessing, on a +large scale, the damage that can be done to timber by this fungus. +Hundreds of spruce firs with fine tall stems, growing on the hillsides +of a valley in the Bavarian Alps, were shown to me as "victims to a +kind of rot." In most cases the trees (which at first sight appeared +only slightly unhealthy) gave a hollow sound when struck, and the +foresters told me that nearly every tree was rotten at the core. I had +found the mycelium of _Agaricus melleus_ in the rotting stumps of +previously felled trees all up and down the same valley, but it was +not satisfactory to simply assume that the "rot" was the same in both +cases, though the foresters assured me it was so. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--A small group of _Agaricus (Armillaria) +melleus_. The toadstool is tawny yellow, and produces white spores; +the gills are decurrent, and the stem bears a ring. The fine hair-like +appendages on the pileus should be bolder.] + +By the kindness of the forest manager I was allowed to fell one of +these trees. It was chosen at hazard, after the men had struck a large +number, to show me how easily the hollow trees could be detected by +the sound. The tree was felled by sawing close to the roots; the +interior was hollow for several feet up the stem, and two of the main +roots were hollow as far as we could poke canes, and no doubt further. +The dark-colored rotting mass around the hollow was wet and spongy, +and consisted of disintegrated wood held together by a mesh work of +the rhizomorphs. Further outward the wood was yellow, with white +patches scattered in the yellow matrix, and, again, the rhizomorph +strands were seen running in all directions through the mass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Sketch of the base of a young tree (s) killed +by _Agaricus melleus_, which has attacked the roots, and developed +rhizomorphs at r, and fructifications. To the right the +fructifications have been traced by dissection to the rhizomorph +strands which produced them.] + +Not to follow this particular case further--since we are concerned +with the general features of the diseases of timber--I may pass to the +consideration of the diagnosis of this disease caused by _Agaricus +melleus_, as contrasted with that due to _Trametes radiciperda_. + +Of course no botanist would confound the fructification of the +_Trametes_ with that of the _Agaricus_; but the fructifications of +such fungi only appear at certain seasons, and that of _Trametes +radiciperda_ may be underground, and it is important to be able to +distinguish such forms in the absence of the fructifications. + +The external symptoms of the disease, where young trees are concerned, +are similar in both cases. In a plantation at Freising, in Bavaria, +Prof. Hartig showed me young Weymouth pines (_P. Strobus_) attacked +and killed by _Agaricus melleus_. The leaves turn pale and yellow, and +the lower part of the stem--the so-called "collar"--begins to die and +rot, the cortex above still looking healthy. So far the symptoms might +be those due to the destructive action of other forms of tree-killing +fungi. + +On uprooting a young pine, killed or badly attacked by the agaric, the +roots are found to be matted together with a ball of earth permeated +by the resin which has flowed out; this is very pronounced in the case +of some pines, less so in others. On lifting up the scales of the +bark, there will be found, not the silky white, delicate mycelium of +the _Trametes_, but probably the dark cord-like rhizomorphs; there may +also be flat white rhizomorphs in the young stages, but they are +easily distinguished. These dark rhizomorphs may also be found +spreading around into the soil from the roots, and they look so much +like thin roots indeed that we can at once understand their +name--rhizomorph. The presence of the rhizomorphs and (in the case of +the resinous pines) the outflow of resin and sticking together of soil +and roots are good distinctive features. No less evident are the +differences to be found on examining the diseased timber, as +exemplified by Prof. Hartig's magnificent specimens. The wood attacked +assumes brown and bright yellow colors, and is marked by sharp brown +or nearly black lines, bounding areas of one color and separating them +from areas of another color. In some cases the yellow color is quite +bright--canary yellow, or nearly so. The white areas scattered in this +yellow matrix have no black specks in them, and can thus be +distinguished from those due to the _Trametes_. In advanced stages the +purple-black rhizomorphs will be found in the soft, spongy wood. + +The great danger of _Agaricus melleus_ is its power of extending +itself beneath the soil by means of the spreading rhizomorphs; these +are known to reach lengths of several feet, and to pass from root to +root, keeping a more or less horizontal course at a depth of six or +eight inches or so in the ground. On reaching the root of another +tree, the tips of the branched rhizomorph penetrate the living cortex, +and grow forward in the plane of the cambium, sending off smaller +ramifications into the medullary rays and (in the case of the pines, +etc.) into the resin passages. The hyphæ of the ultimate twigs enter +the tracheides, vessels, etc., of the wood, and delignify them, with +changes of color and substance as described. Reference must be made to +Prof. Hartig's publications for the details which serve to distinguish +histologically between timber attacked by _Agaricus melleus_ and by +_Trametes_ or other fungi. Enough has been said to show that diagnosis +is possible, and indeed to an expert not difficult. + +It is at least clear from the above sketch that we can distinguish +these two kinds of diseases of timber, and it will be seen on +reflection that this depends on knowledge of the structure and +functions of the timber and cambium on the one hand and proper +acquaintance with the biology of the fungi on the other. It is the +victory of the fungus over the timber in the struggle for existence +which brings about the disease; and one who is ignorant of these +points will be apt to go astray in any reasoning which concerns the +whole question. Any one knowing the facts and understanding their +bearings, on the contrary, possesses the key to a reasonable treatment +of the timber; and this is important, because the two diseases +referred to can be eradicated from young plantations and the areas of +their ravages limited in older forests. + +Suppose, for example, a plantation presents the following case. A tree +is found to turn sickly and die, with the symptoms described, and +trees immediately surrounding it are turning yellow. The first tree is +at once cut down, and its roots and timber examined, and the diagnosis +shows the presence of _Agaricus melleus_ or of _Trametes radiciperda_, +as the case may be. Knowing this, the expert also knows more. If the +timber is being destroyed by the _Trametes_, he knows that the +ravaging agent can travel from tree to tree by means of roots in +contact, and he at once cuts a ditch around the diseased area, taking +care to include the recently infected and neighboring trees. Then the +diseased timber is cut, because it will get worse the longer it +stands, and the diseased parts burnt. If _Agaricus melleus_ is the +destroying agent, a similar procedure is necessary; but regard must be +had to the much more extensive wanderings of the rhizomorphs in the +soil, and it may be imperative to cut the moat round more of the +neighboring trees. Nevertheless, it has also to be remembered that the +rhizomorphs run not far below the surface. However, my purpose here is +not to treat this subject in detail, but to indicate the lines along +which practical application of the truths of botanical science may be +looked for. The reader who wishes to go further into the subject may +consult special works. Of course the spores are a source of danger, +but need be by no means so much so where knowledge is intelligently +applied in removing young fructifications. + +I will now pass on to a few remarks on a class of disease-producing +timber fungi which present certain peculiarities in their biology. The +two fungi which have been described are true parasites, attacking the +roots of living trees, and causing disease in the timber by traveling +up the cambium, etc., into the stem; the fungi I am about to refer to +are termed wound parasites, because they attack the timber of trees at +the surfaces of wounds, such as cut branches, torn bark, frost cracks, +etc., and spread from thence into the sound timber. When we are +reminded how many sources of danger are here open in the shape of +wounds, there is no room for wonder that such fungi as these are so +widely spread. Squirrels, rats, cattle, etc., nibble or rub off bark; +snow and dew break branches; insects bore into stems; wind, hail, +etc., injure young parts of trees, and in fact small wounds are formed +in such quantities that if the fructifications of such fungi as those +referred to are permitted to ripen indiscriminately, the wonder is not +that access to the timber is gained, but rather that a tree of any +considerable age escapes at all. + +One of the commonest of these is _Polyporus sulphureus_, which does +great injury to all kinds of standing timber, especially the oak, +poplar, willow, hazel, pear, larch, and others. It is probably well +known to all foresters, as its fructification projects horizontally +from the diseased trunks as tiers of bracket-shaped bodies of a +cheese-like consistency; bright yellow below, where the numerous +minute pores are, and orange or somewhat vermilion above, giving the +substance a coral-like appearance. I have often seen it in the +neighborhood of Englefield Green and Windsor, and it is very common in +England generally. + +If the spore of this _Polyporus_ lodges on a wound which exposes the +cambium and young wood, the filaments grow into the medullary rays and +the vessels and soon spread in all directions in the timber, +especially longitudinally, causing the latter to assume a warm brown +color and to undergo decay. In the infested timber are to observed +radial and other crevices filled with the dense felt-like mycelium +formed by the common growth of the innumerable branched filaments. In +bad cases it is possible to strip sheets of this yellowish white felt +work out of the cracks, and on looking at the timber more closely (of +the oak, for instance), the vessels are found to be filled with the +fungus filaments, and look like long white streaks in longitudinal +sections of the wood--showing as white dots in transverse sections. + +It is not necessary to dwell on the details of the histology of the +diseased timber; the ultimate filaments of the fungus penetrate the +walls of all the cells and vessels, dissolve and destroy the starch in +the medullary rays, and convert the lignified walls of the wood +elements back again into cellulose. This evidently occurs by some +solvent action, and is due to a ferment excreted from the fungus +filaments, and the destroyed timber becomes reduced to a brown mass of +powder. + +I cannot leave this subject without referring to a remarkably +interesting museum specimen which Prof. Hartig showed and explained to +me last summer. This is a block of wood containing an enormous +irregularly spheroidal mass of the white felted mycelium of this +fungus, _Polyporus sulphureus_. The mass had been cut clean across, +and the section exposed a number of thin brown ovoid bodies embedded +in the closely woven felt; these bodies were of the size and shape of +acorns, but were simply hollow shells filled with the same felt-like +mycelium as that in which they were embedded. They were cut in all +directions, and so appeared as circles in some cases. These bodies +are, in fact, the outer shells of so many acorns, embedded in and +hollowed out by the mycelium of _Polyporus sulphureus_. Hartig's +ingenious explanation of their presence speaks for itself. A squirrel +had stored up the acorns in a hollow in the timber, and had not +returned to them--what tragedy intervenes must be left to the +imagination. The _Polyporus_ had then invaded the hollow, and the +acorns, and had dissolved and destroyed the cellular and starchy +contents of the latter, leaving only the cuticularized and corky +shells, looking exactly like fossil eggs in the matrix. I hardly think +geology can beat this for a true story. + +The three diseases so far described serve very well as types of a +number of others known to be due to the invasion of timber and the +dissolution of the walls of its cells, fibers, and vessels by +hymenomycetous fungi, i.e., by fungi allied to the toadstools and +polypores. They all "rot" the timber by destroying its structure and +substance, starting from the cambium and medullary rays. + +To mention one or two additional forms, _Trametes Pini_ is common on +pines, but, unlike its truly parasitic ally, _Tr. radiciperda_, which +attacks sound roots, it is a wound parasite, and seems able to gain +access to the timber only if the spores germinate on exposed surfaces. +The disease it produces is very like that caused by its ally; probably +none but an expert could distinguish between them, though the +differences are clear when the histology is understood. + +_Polyporus fulvus_ is remarkable because its hyphæ destroy the middle +lamella, and thus isolate the tracheides in the timber of firs; +_Polyporus borealis_ also produces disease in the timber of standing +conifers; _Polyporus igniarius_ is one of the commonest parasites on +trees such as the oak, etc., and produces in them a disease not unlike +that due to the last form mentioned; _Polyporus dryadeus_ also +destroys oaks, and is again remarkable because its hyphæ destroy the +middle lamella. + +With reference to the two fungi last mentioned I cannot avoid +describing a specimen in the Museum of Forest Botany in Munich, since +it seems to have a possible bearing on a very important question of +biology, viz., the action of soluble ferments. + +It has already been stated that some of these tree-killing fungi +excrete ferments which attack and dissolve starch grains, and it is +well known that starch grains are stored up in the cells of the +medullary rays found in timber. Now, _Polyporus dryadeus_ and _P. +igniarius_ are such fungi; their hyphæ excrete a ferment which +completely destroys the starch grains in the cells of the medullary +rays of the oak, a tree very apt to be attacked by these two +parasites, though _P. igniarius_, at any rate, attacks many other +dicotyledonous trees as well. It occasionally happens that an oak is +attacked by both of these polyporei, and their mycelia become +intermingled in the timber; when this is the case, the _starch grains +remain intact in those cells which are invaded simultaneously by the +hyphæ of both fungi_. Prof. Hartig lately showed me longitudinal +radial sections of oak timber thus attacked, and the medullary rays +showed up as glistening white plates. These plates consist of nearly +pure starch; the hyphæ have destroyed the cell walls, but left the +starch intact. It is easy to suggest that the two ferments acting +together exert (with respect to the starch) a sort of inhibitory +action one on the other; but it is also obvious that this is not the +ultimate explanation, and one feels that the matter deserves +investigation. + +It now becomes a question--What other types of timber diseases shall +be described? Of course the limits of a popular article are too narrow +for anything approaching an exhaustive treatment of such a subject, +and nothing has as yet been said of several other diseases due to +crust-like fungi often found on decaying stems, or of others due to +certain minute fungi which attack healthy roots. Then there is a class +of diseases which commence in the bark or cortex of trees, and extend +thence into the cambium and timber: some of these "cankers," as they +are often called, are proved to be due to the ravages of fungi, though +there is another series of apparently similar "cankers" which are +caused by variations in the environment--the atmosphere and weather +generally. + +It would need a long article to place the reader _au courant_ with the +chief results of what is known of these diseases, and I must be +content here with the bare statement that these "cankers" are in the +main due to local injury or destruction of the cambium. If the normal +cylindrical sheet of cambium is locally irritated or destroyed, no one +can wonder that the thickening layers of wood are not continued +normally at the locality in question; the uninjured cells are also +influenced, and abnormal cushions of tissue formed, which vary in +different cases. Now, in "cankers" this is--put shortly--what happens: +it may be, and often is, due to the local action of a parasitic +fungus; or it may be, and, again, often is, owing to injuries produced +by the weather, in the broad sense, and saprophytic organisms may +subsequently invade the wounds. + +The details as to how the injury thus set up is propagated to other +parts--how the "canker" spreads into the bark and wood around--_are_ +details, and would require considerable space for their description: +the chief point here is again the destructive action of mycelia of +various fungi, which by means of their powers of pervading the cells +and vessels of the wood, and of secreting soluble ferments which break +down the structure of the timber, render the latter diseased and unfit +for use. The only too well known larch disease is a case in point; but +since this is a subject which needs a chapter to itself, I may pass on +to more general remarks on what we have learned so far. + +It will be noticed that, whereas such fungi as _Trametes radiciperda_ +and _Agaricus melleus_ are true parasites which can attack the living +roots of trees, the other fungi referred to can only reach the +interior of the timber from the exposed surfaces of wounds. It has +been pointed out along what lines the special treatment of the former +diseases must be followed, and it only remains to say of the latter: +take care of the cortex and cambium of the tree, and the timber will +take care of itself. It is unquestionably true that the diseases due +to wound parasites can be avoided if no open wounds are allowed to +exist. Many a fine oak and beech perishes before its time, or its +timber becomes diseased and a high wind blows the tree down, because +the spores of one of these fungi alight on the cut or torn surface of +a pruned or broken branch. Of course it is not always possible to +carry out the surgical operations, so to speak, which are necessary to +protect a tree which has lost a limb, and in other cases no doubt +those responsible have to discuss whether it costs more to perform the +operations on a large scale than to risk the timber. With these +matters I have nothing to do here, but the fact remains that by +properly closing over open wounds, and allowing the surrounding +cambium to cover them up, as it will naturally do, the term of life of +many a valuable tree can be prolonged, and its timber not only +prevented from becoming diseased and deteriorating, but actually +increased in value. + +There is no need probably for me to repeat that, although the present +essay deals with certain diseases of timber due to fungi, there are +other diseases brought about entirely by inorganic agencies. Some of +these were touched upon in the last article, and I have already put +before the readers of _Nature_ some remarks as to how trees and their +timber may suffer from the roots being in an unsuitable medium. + +In the next paper it is proposed to deal with the so-called "dry rot" +in timber which has been felled and cut up--a disease which has +produced much distress at various times and in various countries. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 643, April 28, 1888 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 7, 2005 [EBook #16671] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 643</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, APRIL 28, 1888</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXV., No. 643.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> + +<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr><th colspan="3" align="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS</th></tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">I.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art01">ARCHÆOLOGY.—The Subterranean Temples of India.—The subterranean +temples of India described and illustrated, the wonderful +works of the ancient dwellers in Hindostan.—3 illustrations.</a></td> +<td align="left">10275</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">II.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art02">BIOGRAPHY.—General F. Perrier.—Portrait and biography of +the French geodesian, his triangulations in Algiers and Corsica. +—1 illustration.</a></td> +<td align="left">10264</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art03">The Crown Prince of Germany—Prince William and his son.— +Biographical note of Prince William, the heir to the German +throne.—1 illustration.</a></td> +<td align="left">10263</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">III.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art04">BIOLOGY.—Poisons.—Abstract of a lecture by Prof. MEYMOTT +TIDY, giving the relations of poisons to life.</a></td> +<td align="left">10273</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art05">The President's Annual Address to the Royal Microscopical Society. +—The theory of putrefaction and putrefactive organisms. +—Exhaustive review of the subject.</a></td> +<td align="left">10264</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">IV.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art06">CHEMISTRY.—Molecular Weights.—A new and simple method +of determining molecular weights for unvolatilizable substances.</a></td> +<td align="left">10271</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">V.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art07">CIVIL ENGINEERING.—Concrete.—By JOHN LUNDIE.—A practical +paper on the above subject.—The uses and proper methods of +handling concrete, machine mixing contrasted with hand mixing.</a></td> +<td align="left">10267</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art08">Timber and Some of its Diseases.—By H. MARSHALL WARD.— +The continuation of this important treatise on timber destruction, +the fungi affecting wood, and treatment of the troubles arising +therefrom.</a></td> +<td align="left">10277</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">VI.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art09">ENGINEERING.—Estrade's High Speed Locomotive.—A comparative +review of the engineering features of M. Estrade's new +engine, designed for speeds of 77 to 80 miles an hour.—1 illustration.</a></td> +<td align="left">10266</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art10">Machine Designing.—By JOHN B. SWEET.—First portion of a +Franklin Institute lecture on this eminently practical subject.—2 +illustrations.</a></td> +<td align="left">10267</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">VII.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art11">METEOROLOGY.—The Peak of Teneriffe.—Electrical and meteorological +observations on the summit of Teneriffe.</a></td> +<td align="left">10265</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">VIII.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art12">MISCELLANEOUS.—Analysis of a Hand Fire Grenade.—By +CHAS. CATLETT and R.C. PRICE.—The contents of a fire grenade +and its origin.</a></td> +<td align="left">10271</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art13">How to Catch and Preserve Moths and Butterflies.—Practical +directions for collectors.</a></td> +<td align="left">10275</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art14">The Clavi Harp.—A new instrument, a harp played by means of +keys arranged on a keyboard—1 illustration.</a></td> +<td align="left">10275</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art15">Inquiries Regarding the Incubator.—By P.H. JACOBS.—Notes +concerning the incubator described in a previous issue (<span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, +No. 630).—Practical points.</a></td> +<td align="left">10265</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">IX.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art16">PHYSICS.—The Direct Optical Projection of Electro-dynamic +Lines of Force, and other Electro-dynamic Phenomena.—By Prof. +J.W. MOORE—Second portion of this profusely illustrated paper, +giving a great variety of experiments on the phenomena of loop-shaped +conductors.—26 illustrations.</a></td> +<td align="left">10272</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art17">The Mechanics of a Liquid.—An ingenious method of measuring +the volume of fibrous and porous substances without immersion +in any liquid.—1 illustration.</a></td> +<td align="left">10269</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">X.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art18">PHYSIOLOGY.—Artificial Mother for Infants.—An apparatus resembling +an incubator for infants that are prematurely born.—Results +attained by its use.—1 illustration.</a></td> +<td align="left">10274</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art19">Gastrostomy.—Artificial feeding for cases of obstructed œsophagus.—The +apparatus and its application.—2 illustrations.</a></td> +<td align="left">10274</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">XI.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art20">PHOTOGRAPHY.—How to Make Photo-Printing Plates.—The +process of making relief plates for printers.</a></td> +<td align="left">10271</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">XII.</td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art21">TECHNOLOGY.—Improved Current Meter.—A simple apparatus +for measuring air and water currents without indexes or other +complications.—1 illustration.</a></td> +<td align="left">10270</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art22">The Flower Industry of Grasse.—Methods of manufacturing perfumes +in France.—The industry as practiced in the town of Grasse.</a></td> +<td align="left">10270</td> +</tr><tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art23">Volute Double Distilling Condenser.—A distiller and condenser +for producing fresh water from sea water.—3 illustrations.</a></td> +<td align="left">10269</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="left"></td> +<td align="left"><a href="#art24">The Argand Burner.—The origin of the invention of the Argand +burner.</a></td> +<td align="left">10275</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"><a name="Page_10263" id="Page_10263"></a><a href="./images/1.png"><img src="./images/1_th.png" alt="THE CROWN PRINCE OF GERMANY—PRINCE WILLIAM AND SON [From a Photograph" /></a><br /> THE CROWN PRINCE OF GERMANY—PRINCE WILLIAM AND SON [From a Photograph]</p> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a><a name="Page_10264" id="Page_10264"></a>THE CROWN PRINCE OF GERMANY—PRINCE WILLIAM AND HIS SON.</h2> + +<p>At a moment when the entire world has its eyes fixed upon the invalid +of the Villa Zurio, it appears to us to be of interest to publish the +portrait of his son, Prince William. The military spirit of the +Hohenzollerns is found in him in all its force and exclusiveness. It +was hoped that the accession of the crown prince to the throne of +Germany would temper the harshness of it and modernize its aspect, but +the painful disease from which he is suffering warns us that the +moment may soon come in which the son will be called to succeed the +Emperor William, his grandfather, of whom he is morally the perfect +portrait. Like him, he loves the army, and makes it the object of his +entire attention. No colonel more scrupulously performs his duty than +he, when he enters the quarters of the regiment of red hussars whose +chief he is.</p> + +<p>His solicitude for the army manifests itself openly. It is not without +pride that he regards his eldest son, who will soon be six years old, +and who is already clad in the uniform of a fusilier of the Guard. +Prince William is a soldier in spirit, just as harsh toward himself as +severe toward others. So he is the friend and emulator of Prince Von +Bismarck, who sees in him the depositary of the military traditions of +the house of Prussia, and who is preparing him by his lessons and his +advice to receive and preserve the patrimony that his ancestors have +conquered.</p> + +<p>Prince William was born January 27, 1859. On the 29th of February, +1881, he married Princess Augusta Victoria, daughter of the Duke of +Sleswick-Holstein. Their eldest son, little Prince William, +represented with his father in our engraving, was born at Potsdam, May +6, 1882.—<i>L'Illustration.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>GENERAL F. PERRIER.</h2> + +<p>Francois Perrier, who was born at Valleraugue (Gard), on the 18th of +April, 1835, descended from an honorable family of Protestants, of +Cevennes. After finishing his studies at the Lyceum of Nimes and at +St. Barbe College, he was received at the Polytechnic School in 1853, +and left it in 1857, as a staff officer.</p> + +<p>Endowed with perseverance and will, he owed all his grades and all his +success to his splendid conduct and his important labors. Lieutenant +in 1857, captain in 1860, major of cavalry in 1874, lieutenant-colonel +in 1879, he received a year before his death the stars of +brigadier-general. He was commander of the Legion of Honor and +president of the council-general of his department.</p> + +<p>General Perrier long ago made a name for himself in science. After +some remarkable publications upon the trigonometrical junction of +France and England (1861) and upon the triangulation and leveling of +Corsica (1865), he was put at the head of the geodesic service of the +army in 1879. In 1880, the learned geodesian was sent as a delegate to +the conference of Berlin for settling the boundaries of the new +Greco-Turkish frontiers. In January of the same year, he was elected a +member of the Academy of Sciences, as successor to M. De Tessan. He +was a member of the bureau of longitudes from 1875.</p> + +<p>In 1882, Perrier was sent to Florida to observe the transit of Venus. +Thanks to his activity and ability, his observations were a complete +success. Thenceforward, his celebrity continued to increase until his +last triangulating operations in Algeria.</p> + +<div class="center"><a href="./images/2.png"><img src="./images/2_th.png" alt="GENERAL FRANCOIS PERRIER." /></a><br />GENERAL FRANCOIS PERRIER.</div> + +<p>"Do you not remember," said Mr. Janssen recently to the Academy of +Sciences, "the feeling of satisfaction that the whole country felt +when it learned the entire success of that grand geodesic operation +that united Spain with our Algeria over the Mediterranean, and passed +through France a meridian arc extending from the north of England as +far as to the Sahara, that is to say, an arc exceeding in length the +greatest arcs that had been measured up till then? This splendid +result attracted all minds, and rendered Perrier's name popular. But +how much had this success been prepared by long and conscientious +labors that cede in nothing to it in importance? The triangulation and +leveling of Corsica, and the connecting of it with the Continent; the +splendid operations executed in Algeria, which required fifteen years +of labor, and led to the measurement of an arc of parallels of nearly +10° in extent, that offers a very peculiar interest for the study of +the earth's figure; and, again, that revision of the meridian of +France in which it became necessary to utilize all the progress that +had been made since the beginning of the century in the construction +of instruments and in methods of observation and calculation. And it +must be added that General Perrier had formed a school of scientists +and devoted officers who were his co-laborers, and upon whom we must +now rely to continue his work."</p> + +<p>The merits of General Perrier gained him the honor of being placed at +the head of a service of high importance, the geographical service of +the army, to the organization of which he devoted his entire energy.</p> + +<p>In General Perrier, the man ceded in nothing to the worker and +scientist. Good, affable, generous, he joined liveliness and good +humor with courage and energy. Incessantly occupied with the +prosperity and grandeur of his country, he knew that true patriotism +does not consist in putting forth vain declamations, but in +endeavoring to accomplish useful and fruitful work.—<i>La Nature.</i></p> + +<p>General Perrier died at Montpellier on the 20th of February, 1888.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>THE PRESIDENT'S ANNUAL ADDRESS TO THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL +SOCIETY.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<p>Retrospect may involve regret, but can scarcely involve anxiety. To +one who fully appreciates the actual, and above all the potential, +importance of this society in its bearing upon the general progress of +scientific research in every field of physical inquiry, the +responsibilities of president will not be lightly, while they may +certainly be proudly, undertaken.</p> + +<p>I think it may be now fairly taken for granted that, as this society +has, from the outset, promoted and pointed to the higher scientific +perfection of the microscope, so now, more than ever, it is its +special function to place this in the forefront as its <i>raison +d'etre</i>. The microscope has been long enough in the hands of amateur +and expert alike to establish itself as an instrument having an +application to every actual and conceivable department of human +research; and while in the earliest days of this society it was +possible for a zealous Fellow to have seen, and been more or less +familiar with, all the applications to which it then had been put, it +is different to-day. Specialists in the most diverse areas of research +are assiduously applying the instrument to their various subjects, and +with results that, if we would estimate aright, we must survey with +instructed vision the whole ground which advancing science covers.</p> + +<p>From this it is manifest that this society cannot hope to infold, or +at least to organically bind to itself, men whose objects of research +are so diverse.</p> + +<p>But these are all none the less linked by one inseverable bond; it is +the microscope; and while, amid the inconceivable diversity of its +applications, it remains manifest that this society has for its +primary object the constant progress of the instrument—whether in its +mechanical construction or its optical appliances; whether the +improvements shall bear upon the use of high powers or low powers; +whether it shall be improvement that shall apply to its commercial +employment, its easier professional application, or its most exalted +scientific use; so long as this shall be the undoubted aim of the +Royal Microscopical Society, its existence may well be the pride of +Englishmen, and will commend itself more and more to men of all +countries.</p> + +<p>This, and this only, can lift such a society out of what I believe has +ceased to be its danger, that of forgetting that in proportion as the +optical principles of the microscope are understood, and the theory of +microscopical vision is made plain, the value of the instrument over +every region to which it can be applied, and in all the varied hands +that use it, is increased without definable limit. It is therefore by +such means that the true interests of science are promoted.</p> + +<p>It is one of the most admirable features of this society that it has +become cosmopolitan in its character in relation to the instrument, +and all the ever-improving methods of research employed with it. From +meeting to meeting it is not one country, or one continent even, that +is represented on our tables. Nay, more, not only are we made familiar +with improvements brought from every civilized part of the world, +referring alike to the microscope itself and every instrument devised +by specialists for its employment in every department of research; but +also, by the admirable persistence of Mr. Crisp and Mr. Jno. Mayall, +Jr., we are familiarized with every discovery of the old forms of the +instrument wherever found or originally employed.</p> + +<p>The value of all this cannot be overestimated, for it will, even where +prejudices as to our judgment may exist, gradually make it more and +more clear that this society exists to promote and acknowledge +improvements in every constituent of the microscope, come from +whatever source they may; and, in connection with this, to promote by +demonstrations, exhibitions, and monographs the finest applications of +the finest instruments for their respective purposes.</p> + +<p>To give all this its highest value, of course, the theoretical side of +our instrument must occupy the attention of the most accomplished +experts. We may not despair that our somewhat too practical past in +this respect may right itself in our own country; but meantime the +splendid work of German students and experts is placed by the wise +editors of our journal within the reach of all.</p> + +<p>I know of no higher hope for this important society than that it may +continue in ever increasing strength to promote, criticise, and +welcome from every quarter of the world whatever will improve the +microscope in itself and in any of its applications, from the most +simple to the most complex and important in which its employment is +possible.</p> + +<p>There are two points of some practical interest to which I desire for +a few moments to call your attention. The former has reference to the +group of organisms to which I have for so many years directed your +attention, viz., the "monads," which throughout I have called +"putrefactive organisms."</p> + +<p>There can be no longer any doubt that the destructive process of +putrefaction is essentially a process of fermentation.</p> + +<p>The fermentative saprophyte is as absolutely essential to the setting +up of destructive rotting or putrescence in a putrescible fluid as the +torula is to the setting up of alcoholic fermentation in a saccharine +fluid. Make the presence of torulæ impossible, and you exclude with +certainty fermentative action.</p> + +<p>In precisely the same way, provide a proteinaceous solution, capable +of the highest putrescence, but absolutely sterilized, and placed in +an optically pure or absolutely calcined air; and while these +conditions are maintained, no matter what length of time may be +suffered to elapse, the putrescible fluid will remain absolutely +without trace of decay.</p> + +<p>But suffer the slightest infection of the protected and pure air to +take place, or, from some putrescent source, inoculate your sterilized +fluid with the minutest atom, and shortly turbidity, offensive scent, +and destructive putrescence ensue.</p> + +<p>As in the alcoholic, lactic, or butyric ferments, the process set up +is shown to be dependent upon and concurrent with the vegetative +processes of the demonstrated organisms characterizing these ferments; +so it can be shown with equal clearness and certainty that the entire +process of what is known as putrescence is equally and as absolutely +dependent on the vital processes of a given and discoverable series of +organisms.</p> + +<p>Now it is quite customary to treat the fermentative agency in +putrefaction as if it were wholly bacterial, and, indeed, the +putrefactive group of bacteria are now known as saprophytes, or +saprophytic bacteria, as distinct from morphologically similar, but +physiologically dissimilar, forms known as parasitic or pathogenic +bacteria.</p> + +<p>It is indeed usually and justly admitted that <i>B. termo</i> is the +exciting cause of fermentative putrefaction. Cohn has in fact +contended that it is the distinctive ferment of all putrefactions, and +that it is to decomposing proteinaceous solutions what <i>Torula +cerevisiæ</i> is to the fermenting fluids containing sugar.</p> + +<p>In a sense, this is no doubt strictly true: it is impossible to find a +decomposing proteinaceous solution, at any stage, without finding this +form in vast abundance.</p> + +<p>But it is well to remember that in nature putrefactive ferments must +go on to an extent rarely imitated or followed in the laboratory. As a +rule, the pabulum in which the saprophytic organisms are provided and +"cultured" is infusions, or extracts of meat carefully filtered, and, +if vegetable matter is used, extracts of fruit, treated with equal +care, and if needful neutralized, are used in a similar way. To these +may be added all the forms of gelatine, employed in films, masses and +so forth.</p> + +<p>But in following the process of destructive fermentation as it takes +place in large masses of tissue, animal or vegetable, but far +preferably the former, as they lie in water at a constant temperature +of from 60° to 65° F., it will be seen that the fermentative process +is the work, not of one organism, nor, judging by the standard of our +present knowledge, of one specified class of vegetative forms, but by +organisms which, though related to each other, are in many respects +greatly dissimilar, not only morphologically, but also +embryologically, and even physiologically.</p> + +<p>Moreover, although this is a matter that will want most thorough and +efficient inquiry and research to understand properly its conditions, +yet it is sufficiently manifest that these organisms succeed each +other in a curious and even remarkable manner. Each does a part in the +work of fermentative destruction; each aids in splitting up into lower +and lower compounds the elements of which the masses of degrading +tissue are composed; while, apparently, each set in turn does by vital +action, coupled with excretion, (1) take up the substances necessary +for its own growth and multiplication; (2) carry on the fermentative +process; and (3) so change the immediate pabulum as to give rise to +conditions suitable for its immediate successor. Now the point of +special interest is that there is an apparent adaptation in the form, +functions, mode of multiplication, and order of succession in these +fermentative organisms, deserving study and fraught with instruction.</p> + +<p>Let it be remembered that the aim of nature in this fermentative +action is not the partial splitting of certain organic compounds, and +their reconstruction in simpler conditions, but the ultimate setting +free, by saprophytic action, of the elements locked up in great masses +of organic tissue—the sending back into nature of the only material +of which future organic structures are to be composed.</p> + +<p>I have said that there can be no question whatever that <i>Bacterium +termo</i> is the pioneer of saprophytes. Exclude <i>B. termo</i> (and +therefore with it all its congeners), and you can obtain no +putrefaction. But wherever, in ordinary circumstances, a decomposable +organic mass, say the body of a fish, or a considerable mass of the +flesh of a terrestrial animal, is exposed in water at a temperature of +60° to 65° F., <i>B. termo</i> rapidly appears, and increases with a simply +astounding rapidity. It clothes the tissues like a skin, and diffuses +itself throughout the fluid.</p> + +<p>The exact chemical changes it thus effects are not at present clearly +known; but the fermentative action is manifestly concurrent with its +multiplication. It finds its pabulum in the mass it ferments by its +vegetative processes. But it also produces a visible change in the +enveloping fluid, and noxious gases continuously are thrown off.</p> + +<p>In the course of a week or more, dependent on the period of the year, +there is, not inevitably, but as a rule, a rapid accession of spiral +forms, such as <i>Spirillum volutans</i>, <i>S. undula</i>, and similar forms, +often accompanied by <i>Bacterium lineola</i>; and the whole interspersed +still with inconceivable multitudes of <i>B. termo</i>.</p> + +<p>These invest the rotting tissues liked an elastic garment, but are +always in a state of movement. These, again, manifestly further the +destructive ferment, and bring about a softness and flaccidity in the +decomposing tissues, while they without doubt, at the same time, have, +by their vital activity and possible secretions, affected the +condition of the changing organic mass. There can be, so far as my +observations go, no certainty as to when, after this, another form of +organism will present itself; nor, when it does, which of a limited +series it will be. But, in a majority of observed cases, a loosening +of the living investment of bacterial forms takes place, and +simultaneously with this, the access of one or two forms of my +putrefactive monads. They were among the first we worked at; and have +been, by means of recent lenses, among the last revised. Mr. S. Kent +named them <i>Cercomonas typica</i> and <i>Monas dallingeri</i> respectively. +They are both simple oval forms, but the former has a flagellum at +both ends of the longer axis of the body, while the latter has a +single flagellum in front.</p> + +<p>The principal difference is in their mode of multiplication by +fission. The former is in every way like a <a name="Page_10265" id="Page_10265"></a>bacterium in its mode of +self-division. It divides, acquiring for each half a flagellum in +division, and then, in its highest vigor, in about four minutes, each +half divides again.</p> + +<p>The second form does not divide into two, but into many, and thus +although the whole process is slower, develops with greater rapidity. +But both ultimately multiply—that is, commence new generations—by +the equivalent of a sexual process.</p> + +<p>These would average about four times the size of <i>Bacterium termo</i>; +and when once they gain a place on and about the putrefying tissues, +their relatively powerful and incessant action, their enormous +multitude, and the manner in which they glide over, under, and beside +each other, as they invest the fermenting mass, is worthy of close +study. It has been the life history of these organisms, and not their +relations as ferment, that has specially occupied my fullest +attention; but it would be in a high degree interesting if we could +discover, or determine, what besides the vegetative or organic +processes of nutrition are being effected by one, or both, of these +organisms on the fast yielding mass. Still more would it be of +interest to discover what, if any, changes were wrought in the +pabulum, or fluid generally. For after some extended observations I +have found that it is only after one or other or both, of these +organisms have performed their part in the destructive ferment, that +subsequent and extremely interesting changes arise.</p> + +<p>It is true that in some three or four instances of this saprophytic +destruction of organic tissues, I have observed that, after the strong +bacterial investment, there has arisen, not the two forms just named, +nor either of them, but one or other of the striking forms now called +<i>Tetramitus rostratus</i> and <i>Polytoma uvella</i>; but this has been in +relatively few instances. The rule is that <i>Cercomonas typica</i> or its +congener precedes other forms, that not only succeed them in promoting +and carrying to a still further point the putrescence of the +fermenting substance, but appear to be aided in the accomplishment of +this by mechanical means.</p> + +<p>By this time the mass of tissue has ceased to cohere. The mass has +largely disintegrated, and there appears among the countless bacterial +and monad forms some one, and sometimes even three forms, that while +they at first swim and gyrate, and glide about the decomposing matter, +which is now much less closely invested by <i>Cercomonas typica</i>, or +those organisms that may have acted in its place, they also resort to +an entirely new mode of movement.</p> + +<p>One of these forms is <i>Heteromita rostrata</i>, which, it will be +remembered, in addition to a front flagellum, has also a long fiber or +flagellum-like appendage that gracefully trails as it swims. At +certain periods of its life they anchor themselves in countless +billions all over the fermenting tissues, and as I have described in +the life history of this form, they coil their anchored fiber, as does +a vorticellan, bringing the body to the level of the point of +anchorage, then shoot out the body with lightning-like rapidity, and +bring it down like a hammer on some point of the decomposition. It +rests here for a second or two, and repeats the process; and this is +taking place by what seems almost like rhythmic movement all over the +rotting tissue. The results are scarcely visible in the mass. But if a +group of these organisms be watched, attached to a small particle of +the fermenting tissue, it will be seen to gradually diminish, and at +length to disappear.</p> + +<p>Now, there are at least two other similar forms, one of which, +<i>Heteromita uncinata</i>, is similar in action, and the other of which, +<i>Dallingeria drysdali</i>, is much more powerful, being possessed of a +double anchor, and springing down upon the decadent mass with +relatively far greater power.</p> + +<p>Now, it is under the action of these last forms that in a period +varying from one month to two or three the entire substance of the +organic tissues disappears, and the decomposition has been designated +by me "exhausted"; nothing being left in the vessel but slightly +noxious and pale gray water, charged with carbonic acid, and a fine, +buff colored, impalpable sediment at the bottom.</p> + +<p>My purpose is not, by this brief notice, to give an exhaustive, or +even a sufficient account, of the progress of fermentative action, by +means of saprophytic organisms, on great masses of tissue; my +observations have been incidental, but they lead me to the conclusion +that the fermentative process is not only not carried through by what +are called saprophytic bacteria, but that a <i>series</i> of fermentative +organisms arise, which succeed each other, the earlier ones preparing +the pabulum or altering the surrounding medium, so as to render it +highly favorable to a succeeding form. On the other hand, the +succeeding form has a special adaptation for carrying on the +fermentative destruction more efficiently from the period at which it +arises, and thus ultimately of setting free the chemical elements +locked up in dead organic compounds.</p> + +<p>That these later organisms are saprophytic, although not bacterial, +there can be no doubt. A set of experiments, recorded by me in the +proceedings of this society some years since, would go far to +establish this (<i>Monthly Microscopical Journal</i>, 1876, p. 288). But it +may be readily shown, by extremely simple experiments, that these +forms will set up fermentative decomposition rapidly if introduced in +either a desiccated or living condition, or in the spore state, into +suitable but sterilized pabulum.</p> + +<p>Thus while we have specific ferments which bring about definite and +specific results, and while even infusions of proteid substances may +be exhaustively fermented by saprophytic bacteria, the most important +of all ferments, that by which nature's dead organic masses are +removed, is one which there is evidence to show is brought about by +the successive vital activities of a series of adapted organisms, +which are forever at work in every region of the earth.</p> + +<p>There is one other matter of some interest and moment on which I would +say a few words. To thoroughly instructed biologists, such words will +be quite needless; but, in a society of this kind, the possibilities +that lie in the use of the instrument are associated with the +contingency of large error, especially in the biology of the minuter +forms of life, unless a well grounded biological knowledge form the +basis of all specific inference, to say nothing of deduction.</p> + +<p>I am the more encouraged to speak of the difficulty to which I refer, +because I have reason to know that it presents itself again and again +in the provincial societies of the country, and is often adhered to +with a tenacity worthy of a better cause. I refer to the danger that +always exists, that young or occasional observers are exposed to, amid +the complexities of minute animal and vegetable life, of concluding +that they have come upon absolute evidences of the transformation of +one minute form into another; that in fact they have demonstrated +cases of heterogenesis.</p> + +<p>This difficulty is not diminished by the fact that on the shelves of +most microscopical societies there is to be found some sort of +literature written in support of this strange doctrine.</p> + +<p>You will pardon me for allusion again to the field of inquiry in which +I have spent so many happy hours. It is, as you know, a region of life +in which we touch, as it were, the very margin of living things. If +nature were capricious anywhere, we might expect to find her so here. +If her methods were in a slovenly or only half determined condition, +we might expect to find it here. But it is not so. Know accurately +what you are doing, use the precautions absolutely essential, and +through years of the closest observation it will be seen that the +vegetative and vital processes generally, of the very simplest and +lowliest life forms, are as much directed and controlled by immutable +laws as the most complex and elevated.</p> + +<p>The life cycles, accurately known, of monads repeat themselves as +accurately as those of rotifers or planarians.</p> + +<p>And of course, on the very surface of the matter, the question +presents itself to the biologist why it should not be so. The +irrefragable philosophy of modern biology is that the most complex +forms of living creatures have derived their splendid complexity and +adaptations from the slow and majestically progressive variation and +survival from the simpler and the simplest forms. If, then, the +simplest forms of the present and the past were not governed by +accurate and unchanging laws of life, how did the rigid certainties +that manifestly and admittedly govern the more complex and the most +complex come into play?</p> + +<p>If our modern philosophy of biology be, as we know it is, true, then +it must be very strong evidence indeed that would lead us to conclude +that the laws seen to be universal break down and cease accurately to +operate where the objects become microscopic, and our knowledge of +them is by no means full, exhaustive, and clear.</p> + +<p>Moreover, looked at in the abstract, it is a little difficult to +conceive why there should be more uncertainty about the life processes +of a group of lowly living things than there should be about the +behavior, in reaction, of a given group of molecules.</p> + +<p>The triumph of modern knowledge is the certainty, which nothing can +shake, that nature's laws are immutable. The stability of her +processes, the precision of her action, and the universality of her +laws, is the basis of all science, to which biology forms no +exception. Once establish, by clear and unmistakable demonstration, +the life history of an organism, and truly some change must have come +over nature as a whole, if that life history be not the same to-morrow +as to-day; and the same to one observer, in the same conditions, as to +another.</p> + +<p>No amount of paradox would induce us to believe that the combining +proportions of hydrogen and oxygen had altered, in a specified +experimenter's hands, in synthetically producing water.</p> + +<p>We believe that the melting point of platinum and the freezing point +of mercury are the same as they were a hundred years ago, and as they +will be a hundred years hence.</p> + +<p>Now, carefully remember that so far as we can see at all, it must be +so with life. Life inheres in protoplasm; but just as you cannot get +<i>abstract matter</i>—that is, matter with no properties or modes of +motion—so you cannot get <i>abstract</i> protoplasm. Every piece of living +protoplasm we see has a history; it is the inheritor of countless +millions of years. Its properties have been determined by its history. +It is the protoplasm of some definite form of life which has inherited +its specific history. It can be no more false to that inheritance than +an atom of oxygen can be false to its properties.</p> + +<p>All this, of course, within the lines of the great secular processes +of the Darwinian laws; which, by the way, could not operate at all if +caprice formed any part of the activities of nature.</p> + +<p>But let me give a practical instance of how what appears like fact may +override philosophy, if an incident, or even a group of incidents, +<i>per se</i> are to control our judgment.</p> + +<p>Eighteen years ago I was paying much attention to vorticellæ. I was +observing with some pertinacity <i>Vorticella convallaria</i>; for one of +the calices in a group under observation was in a strange and +semi-encysted state, while the remainder were in full normal activity.</p> + +<p>I watched with great interest and care, and have in my folio still the +drawings made at the time. The stalk carrying this individual calyx +fell upon the branch of vegetable matter to which the vorticellan was +attached, and the calyx became perfectly globular; and at length there +emerged from it a small form with which, in this condition, I was +quite unfamiliar; it was small, tortoise-like in form, and crept over +the branch on setæ or hair-like pedicels; but, carefully followed, I +found it soon swam, and at length got the long neck-like appendage of +<i>Amphileptus anser</i>!</p> + +<p>Here then was the cup or calyx of a definite vorticellan form changing +into (?) an absolutely different infusorian, viz., <i>Amphileptus +anser</i>!</p> + +<p>Now I simply reported the <i>fact</i> to the Liverpool Microscopical +Society, with no attempt at inference; but two years after I was able +to explain the mystery, for, finding in the same pond both <i>V. +convallaria</i> and <i>A. anser</i>, I carefully watched their movements, and +saw the <i>Amphileptus</i> seize and struggle with a calyx of +<i>convallaria</i>, and absolutely become encysted upon it, with the +results that I had reported two years before.</p> + +<p>And there can be no doubt but this is the key to the cases that come +to us again and again of minute forms suddenly changing into forms +wholly unlike. It is happily among the virtues of the man of science +to "rejoice in the truth," even though it be found at his expense; and +true workers, earnest seekers for nature's methods, in the obscurest +fields of her action, will not murmur that this source of danger to +younger microscopists has been pointed out, or recalled to them.</p> + +<p>And now I bid you, as your president, farewell. It has been all +pleasure to me to serve you. It has enlarged my friendships and my +interests, and although my work has linked me with the society for +many years, I have derived much profit from this more organic union +with it; and it is a source of encouragement to me, and will, I am +sure, be to you, that, after having done with simple pleasure what I +could, I am to be succeeded in this place of honor by so distinguished +a student of the phenomena of minute life as Dr. Hudson. I can but +wish him as happy a tenure of office as mine has been.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Delivered by the Rev. Dr. Dallinger, F.R.S., at the +annual meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society, Feb. 8, +1888.—<i>Nature.</i></p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>INQUIRIES REGARDING THE INCUBATOR.</h2> + +<h3>P.H. JACOBS.</h3> + +<p>Space in the <i>Rural</i> is valuable, and so important a subject as +artificial incubation cannot perhaps be made entirely plain to a +novice in a few articles; but as interested parties have written for +additional information, it may interest others to answer them here. +Among the questions asked are: "Does the incubator described in the +<i>Rural</i> dispense entirely with the use of a lamp, using at intervals a +bucket of water to maintain proper temperature? I fear this will not +be satisfactory unless the incubator is kept in a warm room or +cellar."</p> + +<p>All incubators must be kept in a warm location, whether operated by a +lamp or otherwise. The warmer the room or cellar, the less warmth +required to be supplied. Bear in mind that the incubator recommended +has four inches of sawdust surrounding it, and more sawdust would +still be an advantage. The sawdust is not used to protect against the +outside temperature, but to absorb and hold a large amount of heat, +and that is the secret of its success. The directions given were to +first fill the tank with boiling water and allow it to remain for 24 +hours. In the meantime the sawdust absorbs the heat, and more boiling +water is then added until the egg-drawer is about 110 or 115 degrees. +By this time there is a quantity of stored heat in the sawdust. The +eggs will cool the drawer to 103. The loss of heat (due to its being +held by the sawdust) will be very slow. All that is needed then is to +supply that which will be lost in 12 hours, and a bucket of boiling +water should keep the heat about correct, if added twice a day, but it +may require more, as some consideration must be given to fluctuations +of the temperature of the atmosphere. The third week of incubation, +owing to animal heat from the embryo chicks, a bucket of boiling water +will sometimes hold temperature for 24 hours. No objection can be +urged against attaching a lamp arrangement, but a lamp is dangerous at +night, while the flame must be regulated according to temperature. The +object of giving the hot water method was to avoid lamps. We have a +large number of them in use (no lamps) here, and they are equal to any +others in results.</p> + +<p>With all due respect to some inquirers, the majority of them seem +afraid of the work. Now, there is some work with all incubators. What +is desired is to get rid of the anxiety. I stated that a bucket of +water twice a day would suffice. I trusted to the judgment of the +reader somewhat. Of course, if the heat in the egg drawer is 90 +degrees, and the weather cold, it may then take a wash boiler full of +water to get the temperature back to 103 degrees, but when it is at +103 keep it there, even if it occasionally requires two buckets of +boiling water. To judge of what may be required, let us suppose the +operator looks at the thermometer in the morning, and it is exactly +103 degrees. He estimates that it will lose a little by night, and +draws off half a bucket of water. At night he finds it at 102. Knowing +that it is on what we term "the down grade," he applies a bucket and a +half (always allowing for the night being colder than the day). As +stated, the sawdust will not allow the drawer to become too cold, as +it gives off heat to the drawer. And, as the sawdust absorbs, it is +not easy to have the heat too high. One need not even look at the +drawer until the proper times. No watching—the incubator regulates +itself. If a lamp is used, too much heat may accumulate. The flame +must be occasionally turned up or down, and the operator must remain +at home and watch it, while during the third week he will easily cook +his eggs.</p> + +<p>The incubator can be made at home for so small a sum (about $5 for the +tank, $1 for faucet, etc., with 116 feet of lumber) that it will cost +but little to try it. A piece of glass can be placed in front of the +egg drawer, if preferred. If the heat goes down to 90, or rises at +times to 105, no harm is done. But it works well, and hatches, the +proof being that hundreds are in use. I did not give the plan as a +theory or an experiment. They are in practical use here, and work +alongside of the more expensive ones, and have been in use for four +years. To use a lamp attachment, all that is necessary is to have a +No. 2 burner lamp with a riveted sheet-iron chimney, the chimney +fitting over the flame, like an ordinary globe, and extending the +chimney (using an elbow) through the tank from the rear, ending in +front. It should be soldered at the tank. The heat from the lamp will +then pass through the chimney and consequently warm the surrounding +water.—<i>Rural New-Yorker.</i></p> + +<p>[For description and illustrations of this incubator see <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, No. 630.]</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>THE PEAK OF TENERIFFE.</h2> + +<p>The Hon. Ralph Abercromby made a trip to the island of Teneriffe in +October, 1887, for the purpose of making some electrical and +meteorological observations, and now gives some of the results which +he obtained, which may be summarized as follows: The electrical +condition of the peak of Teneriffe was found to be the same as in +every other part of the world. The potential was moderately positive, +from 100 to 150 volts, at 5 ft. 5 in. from the ground, even at +considerable altitudes; but the tension rose to 549 volts on the +summit of the peak, 12,200 ft., and to 247 volts on the top of the +rock of Gayga, 7,100 feet. A large number of halos were seen +associated with local showers and cloud masses. The necessary ice dust +appeared to be formed by rising currents. The shadow of the peak was +seen projected against the sky at sunset. The idea of a southwest +current flowing directly over the northeast trade was found to be +erroneous. There was always a regular vertical succession of air +currents in intermediate directions at different levels from the +surface upward, so that the air was always circulating on a +complicated screw system.</p> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a><a name="Page_10266" id="Page_10266"></a>ESTRADE'S HIGH SPEED LOCOMOTIVE.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate a very remarkable locomotive, which has been constructed +from the designs of M. Estrade, a French engineer. This engine was +exhibited last year in Paris. Although the engine was built, M. +Estrade could not persuade any railway company to try it for him, and +finally he applied to the French government, who have at last +sanctioned the carrying out of experiments with it on one of the state +railway lines. The engine is in all respects so opposed to English +ideas that we have hitherto said nothing about it. As, however, it is +going to be tried, an importance is given to it which it did not +possess before; and, as a mechanical curiosity, we think it is worth +the consideration of our readers.</p> + +<p>In order that we may do M. Estrade no injustice, we reproduce here in +a condensed form, and in English, the arguments in its favor contained +in a paper written by M. Max de Nansouty, C.E., who brought M. +Estrade's views before the French Institution of Civil Engineers, on +May 21, 1886. M. Nansouty's paper has been prepared with much care, +and contains a great deal of useful data quite apart from the Estrade +engine. The paper in question is entitled "<i>Memoire relatif au +Materiel Roulant a Grand Vitesse</i>," D.M. Estrade.</p> + +<p>About thirty years ago, M. Estrade, formerly pupil of the Polytechnic +School, invented rolling stock for high speed under especial +conditions, and capable of leading to important results, more +especially with regard to speed. Following step by step the progress +made in the construction of railway stock, the inventor, from time to +time, modified and improved his original plan, and finally, in 1884, +arrived at the conception of a system entirely new in its fundamental +principles and in its execution. A description of this system is the +object of the memoir.</p> + +<p>The great number of types of locomotives and carriages now met with in +France, England, and the United States renders it difficult to combine +their advantages, as M. Estrade proposed to do, in a system responding +to the requirements of the constructor. His principal object, however, +has been to construct, under specially favorable conditions, a +locomotive, tender, and rolling stock adapted to each other, so as to +establish a perfect accord between these organs when in motion. It is, +in fact, a complete train, and not, as sometimes supposed, a +locomotive only, of an especial type, which has been the object he set +before him. Before entering into other considerations, we shall first +give a description of the stock proposed by M. Estrade. The idea of +the invention consists in the use of coupled wheels of large diameter +and in the adoption of a new system of double suspension.</p> + +<p>The locomotive and tender we illustrate were constructed by MM. Boulet +& Co. The locomotive is carried on six driving wheels, 8 feet 3 inches +in diameter. The total weight of the engine is thus utilized for +adhesion. The accompanying table gives the principal dimensions:</p> + +<h3>TABLE I.</h3> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="center">ft.</td><td align="center">in.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Total length of engine.</td><td align="right">32</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Width between frames.</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Wheel base, total.</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">9</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Diameter of cylinder.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">6œ</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Length of stroke.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">3œ</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Grate surface.</td><td colspan="2" align="left">25 sq. feet.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Total heating surface.</td><td colspan="2" align="center">1,400 sq. ft.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Weight empty.</td><td colspan="2" align="center">38 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Weight full.</td><td colspan="2" align="center">42 tons.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The high speeds—77 to 80 miles an hour—in view of which this stock +has been constructed have, it will be seen, caused the elements +relative to the capacity of the boiler and the heating surfaces to be +developed as much as possible. It is in this, in fact, that one of the +great difficulties of the problem lies, the practical limit of +stability being fixed by the diameter of the driving wheels. Speed can +only be obtained by an expenditure of steam which soon becomes such as +rapidly to exhaust the engine unless the heating surface is very +large.</p> + +<p>The tender, also fitted with wheels of 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter, offers +no particular feature; it is simply arranged so as to carry the +greatest quantity of coal and water.</p> + +<p>M. Estrade has also designed carriages. One has been constructed by +MM. Reynaud, Bechade, Gire & Co., which has very few points in common +with those in general use. Independently of the division of the +compartments into two stories, wheels 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter are +employed, and the double system of suspension adopted. Two axles, 16 +ft. apart, support, by means of plate springs, an iron framing running +from end to end over the whole length, its extremities being curved +toward the ground. Each frame carries in its turn three other plate +springs, to which the body is suspended by means of iron tie-rods +serving to support it. This is then a double suspension, which at once +appears to be very superior to the systems adopted up to the present +time. The great diameter of the wheels has necessitated the division +into two stories. The lower story is formed of three equal parts, +lengthened toward the axles by narrow compartments, which can be +utilized for luggage or converted into lavatories, etc. Above is one +single compartment with a central passage, which is reached by +staircases at the end. All the vehicles of the same train are to be +united at this level by jointed platforms furnished with hand rails. +It is sufficient to point out the general disposition, without +entering into details which do not affect the system, and which must +vary for the different classes and according to the requirements of +the service.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/4.png"><img src="./images/4_th.png" alt="M. ESTRADE'S HIGH SPEED LOCOMOTIVE." /></a><br /> M. ESTRADE'S HIGH SPEED LOCOMOTIVE.</p> + +<p>M. Nansouty draws a comparison between the diameters of the driving +wheels and cylinders of the principal locomotives now in use and those +of the Estrade engine as set forth in the following table. We only +give the figures for coupled engines:</p> + +<h3>TABLE II.</h3> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th rowspan="2"> </th><th>Diameter of<br /> driving wheels.</th><th>Size of<br />cylinder.</th><th>Position of cylinder.</th></tr> +<tr><td align="center">ft. in.</td><td align="center">in. in.</td><td align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Great Eastern</td><td align="center">7 0</td><td align="center">18 × 24</td><td align="center">inside</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">South-Eastern</td><td align="center">7 0</td><td align="center">19 × 26</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Glasgow and Southwestern</td><td align="center">6 1</td><td align="center">18 × 26</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Midland, 1884</td><td align="center">7 0</td><td align="center">19 × 26</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">North-Eastern</td><td align="center">7 0</td><td align="center">17œ × 24</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">London and North-Western</td><td align="center">6 6</td><td align="center">17 × 24</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Lancashire and Yorkshire</td><td align="center">6 0</td><td align="center">17œ × 26</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Nord</td><td align="center">7 0</td><td align="center">17 × 24</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Paris-Orleans, 1884</td><td align="center">6 8</td><td align="center">17 × 23œ</td><td align="center">outside.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ouest</td><td align="center">6 0</td><td align="center">17Œ × 25œ</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>This table, the examination of which will be found very instructive, +shows that there are already in use: For locomotives with single +drivers, diameters of 9 ft., 8 ft. 1 in., and 8 ft.; (2) for +locomotives with four coupled wheels, diameters 6 ft. to 7 ft. There +is therefore an important difference between the diameters of the +coupled wheels of 7 ft. and those of 8 ft. 3 in., as conceived by M. +Estrade. However, the transition is not illogically sudden, and if the +conception is a bold one, "it cannot," says M. Nansouty, "on the other +hand, be qualified as rash."</p> + +<p>He goes on to consider, in the first place: Especial types of +uncoupled wheels, the diameters of which form useful samples for our +present case. The engines of the Bristol and Exeter line are express +tender engines, adopted on the English lines in 1853, some specimens +of which are still in use.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2"><sup>1</sup></a> These engines have ten wheels, the +single drivers in the center, 9 ft. in diameter, and a four-wheeled +bogie at each end. The driving wheels have no flanges. The bogie +wheels are 4 ft. in diameter. The cylinders have a diameter of 16œ in. +and a piston stroke of 24 in. The boiler contains 180 tubes, and the +total weight of the engine is 42 tons. These locomotives, constructed +for 7 ft. gauge, have attained a speed of seventy-seven miles per +hour.</p> + +<p>The single driver locomotives of the Great Northern are powerful +engines in current use in England. The driving wheels carry 17 tons, +the heating surface is 1,160 square feet, the diameters of the +cylinders 18 in., and that of the driving wheels 8 ft. 1 in. We have +here, then, a diameter very near to that adopted by M. Estrade, and +which, together with the previous example, forms a precedent of great +interest. The locomotive of the Great Northern has a leading +four-wheeled bogie, which considerably increases the steadiness of the +engine, and counterbalances the disturbing effect of outside +cylinders. Acting on the same principles which have animated M. +Estrade, that is to say, with the aim of reducing the retarding +effects of rolling friction, the constructor of the locomotive of the +Great Northern has considerably increased the diameter of the wheels +of the bogie. In this engine all the bearing are inside, while the +cylinders are outside and horizontal. The tender has six wheels, also +of large dimensions. It is capable of containing three tons and a half +of coal and about 3,000 gallons of water. This type of engine is now +in current and daily use in England.</p> + +<p>M. Nansouty next considers the broad gauge Great Western engines with +8 ft. driving wheels. The diameters of their wheels approach those of +M. Estrade, and exceed considerably in size any lately proposed. M. +Nansouty dwells especially upon the boiler power of the Great Western +railway, because one of the objections made to M. Estrade's locomotive +by the learned societies has been the difficulty of supplying boiler +power enough for high speeds contemplated; and he deals at +considerable length with a large number of English engines of maximum +power, the dimensions and performance of which are too well known to +our readers to need reproduction here.</p> + +<p>Aware that a prominent weak point in M. Estrade's design is that, no +matter what size we make cylinders and wheels, we have ultimately to +depend on the boiler for power, M. Nansouty argues that M. Estrade +having provided more surface than is to be found in any other engine, +must be successful. But the total heating surface in the engine, which +we illustrate, is but 1,400 square feet, while that of the Great +Western engines, on which he lays such stress, is 2,300 square feet, +and the table which he gives of the heating surface of various English +engines really means very little. It is quite true that there are no +engines working in England with much over 1,500 square feet of +surface, except those on the broad gauge, but it does not follow that +because they manage to make an average of 53 miles an hour that an +addition of 500 square feet would enable them to run at a speed higher +by 20 miles an hour. There are engines in France, however, which have +as much as 1,600 square feet, as, for example, on the Paris-Orleans +line, but we have never heard that these engines attain a speed of 80 +miles an hour.</p> + +<p>Leaving the question of boiler power, M. Nansouty goes on to consider +the question of adhesion. About this he says:</p> + +<p><a name="Page_10267" id="Page_10267"></a>Is the locomotive proposed by M. Estrade under abnormal conditions as +to weight and adhesion? This appears to have been doubted, especially +taking into consideration its height and elegant appearance. We shall +again reply here by figures, while remarking that the adhesion of +locomotives increases with the speed, according to laws still unknown +or imperfectly understood, and that consequently for extreme speeds, +ignorance of the value of the coefficiency of adhesion <i>f</i> in the +formula</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="Equation"> +<tr><td align="center"><i>f</i>P = 0.65 <i>p</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>d</i> 2 I<br />————<br />D</td> +<td align="center"> - R</td> +</tr></table> +</div> + +<p>renders it impossible to pronounce upon it before the trials earnestly +and justly demanded by the author of this new system. In present +practice <i>f</i> = 1/7 is admitted. M. Nansouty gives in a table a <i>resume</i> +of the experience on this subject, and goes on:</p> + +<p>"The English engineers, as will be seen, make a single axle support +more than 17 tons. In France the maximum weight admitted is 14 tons, +and the constructor of the Estrade locomotive has kept a little below +this figure. The question of total weight appears to be secondary in a +great measure, for, taking the models with uncoupled wheels, the +English engines for great speed have on an average, for a smaller +total weight, an adhesion equal to that of the French locomotives. The +P.L.M. type of engine, which has eight wheels, four of which are +coupled, throws only 28.6 tons upon the latter, being 58 per cent. of +the total weight. On the other hand, that of the English Great Eastern +throws 68 per cent. of the total weight on the driving wheels. +Numerous other examples could be cited. We cannot, we repeat, give an +opinion rashly as to the calculation of adhesion for the high speed +Estrade locomotive before complete trials have taken place which will +enable us to judge of the particular coefficients for this entirely +new case."</p> + +<p>M. Nansouty then goes on to consider the question of curves, and says:</p> + +<p>"It has been asked, not without reason, notably by the Institution of +Civil Engineers of Paris, whether peculiar difficulties will not be +met with by M. Estrade's locomotive—with its three axles and large +coupled wheels—in getting round curves. We have seen in the preceding +tables that the driving wheels of the English locomotives with +independent wheels are as much as 8 ft. in diameter. The driving +wheels of the English locomotives with four coupled wheels are 7 ft. +in diameter. M. Estrade's locomotive has certainly six coupled wheels +with diameters never before tried, but these six coupled wheels +constitute the whole rolling length, while in the above engines a +leading axle or a bogie must be taken into account, independent, it is +true, but which must not be lost sight of, and which will in a great +measure equalize the difficulties of passing over the curves.</p> + +<p>"Is it opposed to absolute security to attack the line with driving +wheels? This generally admitted principle appears to rest rather on +theoretic considerations than on the results of actual experience. M. +Estrade, besides, sets in opposition to the disadvantages of attacking +the rails with driving wheels those which ensue from the use of wheels +of small diameter as liable to more wear and tear. We should further +note with particular care that the leading axle of this locomotive has +a certain transverse play, also that it is a driving axle. This +disposition is judicious and in accordance with the best known +principles."</p> + +<p>A careful perusal of M. Nansouty's memoir leaves us in much doubt as +to what M. Estrade's views are based on. So far as we understand him, +he seems to have worked on the theory that by the use of very large +wheels the rolling resistance of a train can be greatly diminished. On +this point, however, there is not a scrap of evidence derived from +railway practice to prove that any great advantage can be gained by +augmenting the diameters of wheels. In the next place, he is afraid +that he will not have adhesion enough to work up all his boiler power, +and, consequently, he couples his wheels, thereby greatly augmenting +the resistance of the engine. He forgets that large coupled wheels +were tried years ago on the Great Western Railway, and did not answer. +A single pair of drivers 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter would suffice to work +up all the power M. Estrade's boiler could supply at sixty miles an +hour, much less eighty miles an hour. On the London and Brighton line +Mr. Stroudley uses with success coupled leading wheels of large +diameter on his express engines, and we imagine that M. Estrade's +engine will get round corners safely enough, but it is not the right +kind of machine for eighty miles an hour, and so he will find out as +soon as a trial is made. The experiment is, however, a notable +experiment, and M. Estrade has our best wishes for his success.—<i>The +Engineer.</i></p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>M. Nansouty is mistaken. None of the Bristol and Exeter +tank engines with. 9 ft. wheels are in use, so far as we know. <span class="smcap">Ed. E.</span></p></div> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>CONCRETE.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + + +<h3>By JOHN LUNDIE.</h3> + +<p>The subject of cement and concrete has been so well treated of in +engineering literature, that to give an extended paper on the subject +would be but the collection and reiteration of platitudes familiar to +every engineer who has been engaged on foundation works of any +magnitude. It shall therefore be the object of this communication to +place before the society several notes, stated briefly and to the +point, rather as a basis for discussion than as an attempt at an +exhaustive treatment of the subject.</p> + +<p>Concrete is simply a low grade of masonry. It is a comparatively +simple matter to trace the line of continuity from heavy squared +ashlar blocks down through coursed and random rubble, to grouted +indiscriminate rubble, and finally to concrete. Improvements in the +manufacture of hydraulic cements have given an impetus to the use of +concrete, but its use is by no means of recent date. It is no uncommon +thing in the taking down of heavy walls several centuries old to find +that the method of building was to carry up face and back with rubble +and stiff mortar, and to fill the interior with bowlders and gravel, +the interstices of which were filled by grouting—the whole mass +becoming virtually a monolith. Modern quick-setting cement +accomplishes this object within a time consistent with the +requirements of modern engineering works; the formation of a +monolithic mass within a reasonable time and with materials requiring +as little handling as possible being the desideratum.</p> + +<p>The materials of concrete as used at present are cement, sand, gravel, +broken stone, and, of course, water. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to +say that one of the primary requirements in materials is that they +should be clean. Stone should be angular, gravel well washed, sand +coarse and sharp, cement fine and possessing a fair proportion of the +requirements laid down in the orthodox specification. The addition of +lime water, saccharated or otherwise, has been suggested as an +improvement over water pure and simple, but no satisfactory +experiments are on record justifying the addition of lime water.</p> + +<p>Regarding the mixing of cement and lime with saccharated water, the +writer made some experiments several months ago by mixing neat cement +and lime with pure water and with saccharated water, with the result +that the sugar proved positively detrimental to the cement, while it +increased the tenacity of briquettes of lime.</p> + +<p>Stone which will pass a 2 inch is usually specified for ordinary +concrete. It will be found that stone broken to this limit of size has +fifty per cent. of its bulk voids. This space must be filled by mortar +or preferably by gravel and mortar. If the mixing of concrete is +perfect, the proportion of stone, by bulk, to other materials should +be two to one. A percentage excess of other materials is, however, +usually allowed to compensate for imperfection in mixing. While an +excess of good mortar is not detrimental to concrete (as it will +harden in course of time to equal the stone), still on the score of +economy it is advisable to use gravel or a finer grade of stone in +addition to the 2 inch ring stone to fill the interstices—gravel is +cheaper than cement. The statement that excess in stone will give body +to concrete is a fallacy hardly worth contradicting. In short, the +proportion of material should be so graded that each particle of sand +should have its jacket of cement, necessitating the cement being finer +than the sand (this forms the mortar); then each pebble and stone +should have its jacket of mortar. The smaller the interstices between +the gravel and stones, the better. The quantity of water necessary to +make good concrete is a sorely debated question. The quantity +necessary depends on various considerations, and will probably be +different for what appears to be the same proportion of materials. It +is a well known fact that brick mortar is made very soft, and bricks +are often wet before being laid, while a very hard stone is usually +set with very stiff mortar. So in concrete the amount of water +necessarily depends, to a great extent, on the porosity or dryness of +the stone and other material used. But as to using a larger or smaller +quantity of water with given materials, as a matter of observation it +will be found that the water should only be limited by its effect in +washing away mortar from the stone. Where can better concrete be found +than that which has set under water? A certain definite amount of +water is necessary and sufficient to hydrate the cement; less than +that amount will be detrimental, while an excess can do no harm, +provided, as before mentioned, that it does not wash the mortar from +the stone. Again, dry concrete is apt to be very porous, which in +certain positions is a very grave objection to it—this, not only from +the fact of its porosity, but from the liability to disintegration +from water freezing in the crevices.</p> + +<p>Concrete, when ready to be placed in position, should be of the +consistency of a pulpy mass which will settle into place by its own +weight, every crevice being naturally filled. Pounding dry concrete is +apt to break adjacent work, which will never again set properly. There +should be no other object in pounding concrete than to assist it to +settle into the place it is intended to fill. This is one of the evils +concomitant with imperfection of mixing. The greater perfection of +mixing attained, the nearer we get to the ideal monolith. The less +handling concrete has after being mixed, the better. Immediately after +the mass is mixed setting commences; therefore the sooner it is in +position, the more perfect will be the hardened mass; and, on the +other hand, the more it is handled, the more is the process +interrupted and in like degree is the finished mass deteriorated. A +low drop will be found the best method of placing a batch in position. +Too much of a drop scatters the material and undoes the work of +thorough mixing. Let the mass drop and then let it alone. If of proper +temper, it will find its own place with very little trimming. Care +should be taken to wet adjacent porous material, or the wooden form +into which concrete is being placed; otherwise the water may be +extracted from the concrete, to its detriment.</p> + +<p>It has been found on removing boxing that the portion adjacent to the +wood was frequently friable and of poor quality, owing to the fact +just stated. It is usual to face or plaster concrete work after +removing the boxing. On breakwater work, where the writer was engaged, +the wall was faced with cement and flint grit, and this was found to +form a particularly hard and lasting protection to the face of the +work.</p> + +<p>Batches of concrete should be placed in position as if they were +stones in block masonry, as the union of one day's work with a +previous is not by any means so perfect as where one batch is placed +in contact with another which has not yet set. A slope cannot be added +to with the same degree of perfection that one horizontal layer can be +placed on another; consequently, where work must necessarily be +interrupted, it should be stepped, and not sloped off.</p> + +<p>Experience in concrete work has shown that its true place is in heavy +foundations, retaining walls, and such like, and then perfectly +independent of other material. Arches, thin walls, and such like are +very questionable structures in continuous concrete, and are on record +rather as failures than otherwise. This may to a certain degree be due +to the high coefficient of expansion Portland cement concrete has by +heat. This was found by Cunningham to be 0.000005 of its bulk for one +degree Fahrenheit. It is a matter which any intelligent observer may +remark, the invariable breakage of continuous concrete sidewalks, +while those made in small sections remain good. This may be traced to +expansion and contraction by heat, together with friction on the lower +side.</p> + +<p>In foundations, according to the same authority above quoted, properly +made Portland cement concrete may be trusted with a safe load of 25 +tons per square foot.</p> + +<p>In large masses concrete should be worked continuously, while in small +masses it should be moulded in small sections, which should be +independent of each other and simply form artificial stones.</p> + +<p>The facility with which concrete can be used in founding under water +renders it particularly suitable for subaqueous structures. The method +of dropping it from hopper barges in masses of 100 tons at a time, +inclosed in a bag of coarse stuff, has been successfully employed by +Dyce Cay and others. This can be carried on till the concrete appears +above water, when the ordinary method of boxing can be employed to +complete the work. This method was employed in the north pier +breakwater at Aberdeen, the breakwater being founded on the sand, with +a very broad base. The advantage of bags is apparent in the leveling +off of an uneven foundation. In breakwater works on the Tay, in +Scotland, where the writer was engaged, large blocks perforated +vertically were employed. These were constructed below high water +mark, and an air tight cover placed over them. They were lifted by +pontoons as the tide rose, and conveyed to and deposited in place, the +hollows being filled with air, serving to give buoyancy to the mass. +After placing in position the vertical hollows were filled with +concrete, so binding the whole together—they being placed vertically +over each other.</p> + +<p>As mentioned before, continuous stretches of concrete in small +sections should be guarded against, owing to expansion by heat; but +the fact of a few cracks appearing in heavy masses of concrete should +not cause apprehension. These occur from unequal settlement and other +causes. They should continue to be carefully grouted and faced until +settlement is complete.</p> + +<p>The use of concrete is becoming more and more general for foundation +works. The desideratum hitherto has been a perfect and at the same +time an economical mixer. Concrete can be mixed by hand and the +materials well incorporated, but this is an expensive and man-killing +method, as the handling of the wet mass by the shovel is extremely +hard work, besides which the slowness of the method allows part of a +large batch to set before the other is mixed, so that small batches, +with attendant extra handling, are necessary to make a good job. +Mixers with a multiplicity of knives to toss the material have been +used, but with little economical success. Of simple conveyers, such as +a worm screw, little need be said; they are not mixers, and it seems a +positive waste of time to pass material through a machine when it +comes out in little better shape than it is put in. A box of the shape +of a barrel has been used, it being trunnioned at the sides. The +objection to this is that the material is thrown from side to side as +a mass, there being a waste of energy in throwing about the material +in mass without accomplishing an equivalent amount of mixing. Then a +rectangular box has been used, trunnioned at opposite corners; but +here the grave objection is that the concrete collects in the corners, +and after a few turns it requires cleaning out, the material so +sticking in the corners that it gets clogged up and ceases to mix.</p> + +<p>The writer has just protected by letters patent a machine, in devising +which the following objects were borne in mind:</p> + +<div class="note"> +<p> 1st. That every motion of the machine should do some useful + work. Hitherto box or barrel mixers have gone on the + principle of throwing the material about indiscriminately, + expecting that somehow or other it would get mixed.</p> + +<p> 2d. That the sticking of the material anywhere within the + mixer should be obviated.</p> + +<p> 3d. That an easy discharge should be obtained.</p> + +<p> 4th. That the water should be introduced while the mixer + revolves.</p> +</div> + +<p>With these desiderata in view, a box was designed which in half a turn +gathers the material, then spreads it, and throws it from one side to +the other at the same time that water is being introduced through a +hollow trunnion.</p> + +<p>It is also so constructed that all the sides slope steeply toward the +discharge, and there is not a rectangular or acute angle within the +box. A machine has now been worked steadily for several weeks, putting +in the concrete in the foundations of the new Jackson Street bridge in +this city, by General Fitz-Simons. The result exceeds expectations. +The concrete is perfectly mixed, the discharge is simple, complete and +effective, and at the same time the cost of labor in mixing and +placing in position is lessened by 50 per cent. as compared with any +known to have been put in under similar circumstances.—<i>Jour. +Association of Engineering Societies.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Read July 5, 1887, before the Western Society of +Engineers.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>MACHINE DESIGNING.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By JOHN E. SWEET.</h3> + +<p>"Carrying coals to Newcastle," the oft quoted comparison, fittingly +indicates the position I place myself in when attempting to address +members of this Institute on the subject of machine designing.</p> + +<p>Philadelphia, the birthplace of the great and nearly all the good work +in this, the noblest of all industrial arts, needs no help or praise +at my hands, but I hope her sons may be prevailed upon to do in their +right way what I shall try to do roughly—that is, formulate some +rules or establish principles by which we, who are not endowed with +genius, may so gauge our work as to avoid doing that which is truly +bad. No great author was ever made by studying grammar, rhetoric, +language, history, or by imitating some other author, however great.</p> + +<p>Neither has there ever been any great poet or artist produced by +training. But there are many writers who are not great authors, many +rhymsters who are not poets, and many painters who are not artists; +and while training will not make great men of them, it will help them +to avoid doing that which is absolutely bad, and so may it not be with +machine designing? If there are among you some who have a genius for +it, what I shall have to say will do you no good, for genius needs no +rules, no laws, no help, no training, and the sooner you let what I +have to say pass from your minds, the better. Rules only hamper the +man of genius; but for us, who either from choice or necessity work +away at machine designing without the gift, cannot some simple ruling +facts be determined and rules formulated or principles laid down by +which we can determine what <a name="Page_10268" id="Page_10268"></a>is really good, and what bad? One of the +most important and one of the first things in the construction of a +building is the foundation, and the laws which govern its construction +can be stated in a breath, and ought to be understood by every one. +Assuming the ground upon which a building is to be built to be of +uniform density, <i>the width</i> of the foundation should be in proportion +to the load, the foundation should taper equally on each side, and the +center of the foundation should be under the center of pressure. In +other words, it is as fatal to success to have too much foundation +under the light load as it is too little under a heavy one.</p> + +<p>Cannot we analyze causes and effects, cost and requirements, so as to +formulate some simple laws similar to the above by which we shall be +able to determine what is a good and what a bad arrangement of +machinery, foundation, framing or supports? A vast amount of work is +expended to make machines true, and the machines, or a large majority +of them, are expected to produce true work of some kind in turn. Then, +if this be admitted, cannot the following law be established, that +every machine should be so designed and constructed that when once +made true it will so remain, regardless of wear and all external +influences to which it is liable to be subjected? One tool maker says +that it is right, and another that it cannot be done. No matter +whether it can or cannot, is it not the thing wanted, and if so, is it +not an object worth striving for? One tool maker says that all machine +tools, engines, and machinery should set on solid stone foundations. +Should they?</p> + +<p>They do not always, for in substantial Philadelphia some machine tools +used by machine builders stand upon second floors, or, perhaps, higher +up. And of these machine tools none, or few at least, except those +mounted upon a single pedestal, are free from detrimental torsion +where the floor upon which they rest is distorted by unequal loading. +But, to first consider those of such magnitude as to render it +absolutely necessary to erect them—not rest them—on masonry, is due +consideration always taken to arrange an unequal foundation to support +the unequal loads?—and they cannot be expected to remain true if not. +When one has the good fortune to have a machine to design of such +extent that the masonry becomes the main part of it, what part of the +glory does he give to the mason? Is the masonry part of it always +satisfactory, and is not this resorting to the mason for a frame +rather than a support adopted on smaller machines than is necessary? +Is it necessary even in a planing machine of forty feet length of bed +and a thirty foot table? Could not the bed be cast in three pieces, +the center a rectangular box, 5 or 6 or 7 feet square, 20 feet long, +with internal end flanges, ways planed on its upper surface, and ends +squared off, a monster, perhaps, but if our civil engineers wanted +such a casting for a bridge, they'd get it. Add to this central +section two bevel pieces of half the length, and set the whole down +through the floor where your masonry would have been and rest the +whole on two cross walls, and you would have a structure that if once +made true would remain so regardless of external influences. Cost? +Yes; and so do Frodsham watches—more than "Waterbury."</p> + +<p>It may be claimed, in fact, I have seen lathes resting on six and +eight feet, engines on ten, and a planing machine on a dozen. Do they +remain true? Sometimes they do, and many times they do not. Is the +principle right? Not when it can be avoided; and when it cannot be +avoided, the true principle of foundation building should be +employed.... A strange example of depending on the stone foundation +for not simply support, but to resist strain, may be found in the +machines used for beveling the edges of boiler plate. Not so +particularly strange that the first one might have, like Topsy, +"growed," but strange because each builder copies the original. You +will remember it, a complete machine set upon a stone foundation, to +straighten and hold a plate, and another complete machine set down by +the side of it and bolted to the same stone to plane off the edge; a +lot of wasted material and a lot of wasted genius, it always seems to +me. Going around Robin Hood's barn is the old comparison. Why not hook +the tool carriage on the side of the clamping structure, and thus +dispense with one of the frames altogether?</p> + +<p>Many of the modern builders of what Chordal calls the hyphen Corliss +engine claim to have made a great advance by putting a post under the +center of the frame, but whether in acknowledgment that the frame +would be likely to go down or the stonework come up I could never make +out. What I should fear would be that the stone would come up and take +the frame with it. Every brick mason knows better than to bed mortar +under the center of a window sill; and this putting a prop under the +center of an engine girder seems a parallel case. They say Mr. Corliss +would have done the same thing if he had thought of it. I do not +believe it. If Mr. Corliss had found his frames too weak, he would +soon have found a way to make them stronger.</p> + +<p>John Richards, once a resident of this city, and likely the best +designer of wood-working machinery this country, if not the world, +ever saw, pointed out in some of his letters the true form for +constructing machine framing, and in a way that it had never been +forced on my mind before. As dozens, yes, hundreds, of new designs +have been brought out by machine tool makers and engine builders since +John Richards made a convert of me, without any one else, so far as I +know, having applied the principle in its broadest sense, I hope to +present the case to you in a material form, in the hope that it may be +more thoroughly appreciated.</p> + +<p>The usual form of lathe and planer beds or frames is two side plates +and a lot of cross girts; their duty is to guide the carriages or +tables in straight lines and carry loads resisting bending and +torsional strains. If a designer desires to make his lathe frame +stronger than the other fellows, he thinks, if he thinks at all, that +he will put in more iron, rather than, as he ought to think, How shall +I distribute the iron so it will do the most good?</p> + +<p>In illustration of this peculiar way of doing things, which is not +wholly confined to machine designers, I should like to relate a story, +and as I had to carry the large end of the joke, it may do for me to +tell it.</p> + +<p>While occupying a prominent position, and yet compelled to carry my +dinner, my wife thought the common dinner pail, with which you are +probably familiar (by sight, of course), was not quite the thing for a +professor (even by brevet) to be seen carrying through the streets. +So she interviewed the tinsmith to see if he could not get up +something a little more tony than the regulation fifty-cent sort. Oh, +yes; he could do that very nicely. How much would the best one he +could make cost? Well, if she could stand the racket, he could make +one worth a dollar. She thought she could, and the pail was ordered, +made, and delivered with pride. Perhaps you can guess the result. A +facsimile of the original, only twice the size.</p> + +<p>Now, this is a very fair illustration of the fallacy of making things +stronger by simply adding iron. To illustrate what I think a much +better way, I have had made these crude models (see Fig. 1), for the +full force of which, as I said before, I am indebted to John Richards; +and I would here add that the mechanic who has never learned anything +from John Richards is either a very good or very poor one, or has +never read what John Richards has written or heard what he has had to +say.</p> + +<p>Three models, as shown in Fig. 1, were exhibited; all were of the same +general dimensions and containing the same amount of material. The one +made on the box principle, <i>c</i>, proved to be fifty per cent. stiffer +in a vertical direction than either a or <i>b</i>, from twenty to fifty +times stiffer sidewise, and thirteen times more rigid against torsion +than either of the others.</p> + +<p>However strong a frame may be, its own weight and the weight of the +work upon it tends to spring it unless evenly distributed, and to +twist it unless evenly proportioned. For all small machines the single +post obviates all trouble, but for machine tools of from twice to a +half dozen times their own length the single post is not available. +Four legs are used for machines up to ten feet or so, and above that +legs various and then solid masonry. If the four legs were always set +upon solid masonry, and leveled perfectly when set, no question could +be raised against the usual arrangement, unless it be this: Ought they +not to be set nearly one-fourth the way from the end of the bed? or to +put it in another form: Will not the bed of an iron planing machine +twelve feet in length be equally as well supported by four legs if +each pair is set three feet from the ends—that is, six feet apart—as +by six legs, two pairs at the ends and one in the center, and the +pairs six feet apart? there being six feet of unsupported bed in +either case, with this advantage in favor of the four over the six, +settling of the foundation would not bend the bed.</p> + +<p>It is not likely that one-half of the four-legged machine tools used +in this country are resting upon stable foundations, nor that they +ever will be; and while this is a fact, it must also remain a fact +that they should be built so as to do their best on an unstable one. +Any one of the thousand iron planing machines of the country, if put +in good condition and set upon the ordinary wood floors, may be made +to plane work winding in either direction by shifting a moving load of +a few hundred pounds on the floor from one corner of the machine to +the other, and the ways of the ordinary turning lathe may be more +easily distorted still. Machine tool builders do not believe this, +simply because they have not tried it. That is, I suppose this must be +so, for the proof is so positive, and the remedy so simple, that it +does not seem possible they can know the fact and overlook it. The +remedy in the case of the planer is to rest the structure on the two +housings at the rear end and on a pair of legs about one-fourth of the +way back from the front, pivoted to the bed on a single bolt as near +the top as possible.</p> + +<div class="center"><img src="./images/6.png" alt="Fig. 1 and 2" /> +<div class="note"> +<p> +<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> Fig. 1, Mr. Sweet, which represented three forms of lathe and planer +construction. The box form, <i>c</i>, proved to be fifty per cent. stronger +in its vertical direction than either a or <i>b</i>, fifty times stronger +sideways than a and twenty times stronger than <i>b</i>, and more than +thirteen times stronger than either when subject to torsional strain.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Fig. 2, represents an ordinary pinion tooth, and <i>b</i> shows one of +the same size strengthened by cutting put metal at the root; <i>c</i> and +<i>d</i> were models showing the same width of teeth extended to six times +the length, showing what would be their character if considered as +springs.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>A similar arrangement applies to the lathe and machine tools of that +character—that is, machines of considerable length in proportion to +their width, and with beds made sufficiently strong within themselves +to resist all bending and torsional strains, fill the requirements so +far as all except wear is concerned. That is, if the frames are once +made true, they will remain so, regardless of all external influences +that can be reasonably anticipated.</p> + +<p>Among wood-working machines there are many that cannot be built on the +single rectangular box plan—rested on three points of support. +Fortunately, the requirements are not such as demand absolute straight +and flat work, because in part from the fact that the material dealt +with will not remain straight and flat even if once made so, and in +the design of wood-working machinery it is of more importance to so +design that one section or element shall remain true within itself, +than that the various elements should remain true with one another.</p> + +<p>The lathe, the planing machine, the drilling machine, and many others +of the now standard machine tools will never be superseded, and will +for a long time to come remain subjects of alteration and attempted +improvement in every detail. The head stock of a lathe—the back gear +in particular—is about as hard a thing to improve as the link motion +of a locomotive. Some arrangement by which a single motion would +change from fast to slow, and a substitute for the flanges on the +pulleys, which are intended to keep the belt out of the gear, but +never do, might be improvements. If the flanges were cast on the head +stock itself, and stand still, rather than on the pulley, where they +keep turning, the belt would keep out from between the gear for a +certainty. One motion should fasten a foot stock, and as secure as it +is possible to secure it, and a single motion free it so it could be +moved from end to end of the bed. The reason any lathe takes more than +a single motion is because of elasticity in the parts, imperfection in +the planing, and from another cause, infinitely greater than the +others, the swinging of the hold-down bolts.</p> + +<p>Should not the propelling powers of a lathe slide be as near the point +of greatest resistance as possible, as is the case in a Sellers lathe, +and the guiding ways as close to the greatest resistance and +propelling power as possible, and all other necessary guiding surfaces +made to run as free as possible?</p> + +<p>A common expression to be found among the description of new lathes is +the one that says "the carriage has a long bearing on the ways." Long +is a relative word, and the only place I have seen any long slides +among the lathes in the market is in the advertisements. But if any +one has the courage to make a long one, they will need something +besides material to make a success of it. It needs only that the +guiding side that should be long, and that must be as rigid as +possible—nothing short of casting the apron in the same piece will be +strong enough, because with a long, elastic guide heavy work will +spring it down and wear it away at the center, and then with light +work it will ride at the ends, with a chattering cut as a consequence.</p> + +<p>An almost endless and likely profitless discussion has been indulged +in as to the proper way to guide a slide rest, and different opinions +exist. It is a question that, so far as principle is concerned, there +ought to be some way to settle which should not only govern the +question in regard to the slide rest of a lathe, but all slides that +work against a torsional resistance, as it may be called—that is, a +resistance that does not directly oppose the propelling power. In +other words, in a lathe the cutting point of the tool is not in line +with the lead screw or rack, and a twisting strain has to be resisted +by the slides, whereas in an upright drill the sliding sleeve is +directly over and in line with the drill, and subject to no side +strain.</p> + +<p>Does not the foregoing statement that "the propelling power should be +as near the resistance as possible, and the guide be as near in line +with the two as possible," embody the true principle? Neither of the +two methods in common use meets this requirement to its fullest +extent. The two-V New England plan seems like sending two men to do +what one can do much better alone; and the inconsistency of guiding by +the back edge of a flat bed is prominently shown by considering what +the result would be if carried to an extreme. If a slide such as is +used on a twenty inch lathe were placed upon a bed or shears twenty +feet wide, it would work badly, and that which is bad when carried to +an extreme cannot well be less than half bad when carried half way.</p> + +<p>The ease with which a cast iron bar can be sprung is many times +overlooked. There is another peculiarity about cast iron, and likely +other metals, which an exaggerated example renders more apparent than +can be done by direct statement. Cast iron, when subject to a bending +strain, acts like a stiff spring, but when subject to compression it +dents like a plastic substance. What I mean is this: If some plastic +substance, say a thick coating of mud in the street, be leveled off +true, and a board be laid upon it, it will fit, but if two heavy +weights be placed on the ends, the center will be thrown up in the air +far away from the mud; so, too, will the same thing occur if a +perfectly straight bar of cast iron be placed on a perfectly straight +planer bed—the two will fit; but when the ends of the bar are bolted +down, the center of the bar will be up to a surprising degree. And so +with sliding surfaces when working on oil. If to any extent elastic, +they will, when unequally loaded, settle through the oil where the +load exists and spring away where it is not.</p> + +<p>The tool post or tool holder that permits of a tool being raised or +lowered and turned around after the tool is set, without any sacrifice +of absolute stability, will be better than one in which either one of +these features is sacrificed. Handiness becomes the more desirable as +the machines are smaller, but handiness is not to be despised even in +a large machine, except where solidity is sacrificed to obtain it.</p> + +<p>The weak point in nearly all (and so nearly all that I feel pretty +safe in saying all) small planing machines is their absolute weakness +as regards their ability to resist torsional strain in the bed, and +both torsional and bending strain in the table. Is it an uncommon +thing to see the ways of a planer that has run any length of time cut? +In fact, is it not a pretty difficult thing to find one that is not +cut, and is this because they are overloaded? Not at all. Figure up at +even fifty pounds to the square inch of wearing surface what any +planer ought to carry, and you will find that it is not from +overloading. Twist the bed upon the floor (and any of them will twist +as easy as two basswood boards), and your table will rest the hardest +on two corners. Strap, or bolt, or wedge a casting upon the table, or +tighten up a piece between a pair of centers eight or ten inches above +the table, and bend the table to an extent only equal to the thickness +of the film of oil between the surface of the ways, and the large +wearing surface is reduced to two wearing points. In designing it +should always be kept in mind, or, in fact, it is found many times to +be the correct thing to do, to consider the piece as a stiff spring, +and the stiffer the better. The tooth of a gear wheel is a cast iron +spring, and if only treated as would be a spring, many less would be +broken. A point in evidence:</p> + +<p>The pinions in a train of rolls, which compel the two or more rolls to +travel in unison, are necessarily about as small at the pitch line as +the rolls themselves; they are subject to considerable strain and a +terrible hammering by back lash, and break discouragingly frequent, or +do when made of cast iron, if not of very coarse pitch, that is, with +very few teeth—eleven or twelve sometimes.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_10269" id="Page_10269"></a>In a certain case it became desirable to increase the number of +teeth, when it was found that the breakages occurred about as the +square root of their number. When the form was changed by cutting out +at the root in this form (Fig. 2), the breakage ceased.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Fig. 2, shows an ordinary gear tooth, and <i>b</i> the form as changed; +<i>c</i> and <i>d</i> show the two forms of the same width, but increased to six +times the length. If the two are considered as springs, it will be +seen that <i>d</i> is much less likely to be broken by a blow or strain.</p> + +<p>The remedy for the flimsy bed is the box section; the remedy for the +flimsy planer table is the deep box section, and with this advantage, +that the upper edge can be made to shelve over above the reversing +dogs to the full width between the housings.</p> + +<p>The parabolic form of housing is elegant in appearance, but +theoretically right only when of uniform cross section. In some of the +counterfeit sort the designers seem to have seen the original Sellers, +remembering the form just well enough to have got the curve wrong end +up, and knowing nothing of the principle, have succeeded in building a +housing that is absolutely weak and absolutely ugly, with just enough +of the original left to show from where it was stolen. If the housing +is constructed on the brace plan, should not the braces be straight, +as in the old Bement, and the center line of strain pass through the +center line of the brace? If the housing is to take the form of a +curve, the section should be practically uniform, and the curve drawn +by an artist. Many times housings are quite rigid enough in the +direction of the travel of the table, but weak against side pressure. +The hollow box section, with secure attachment to the bed and a deep +cross beam at the top, are the remedies.</p> + +<p>Raising and lowering cross heads, large and small, by two screws is a +slow and laborious job, and slow when done by power. Counterweights +just balancing the cross head, with metal straps rather than chains or +ropes, large wheels with small anti-friction journals, and the cross +head guarded by one post only, changes a slow to a quick arrangement, +and a task to a comfort. Housings of the hollow box section furnish an +excellent place for the counterweights.</p> + +<p>The moving head, which is not expected to move while under pressure, +seems to have settled into one form, and when hooked over a square +ledge at the top, a pretty satisfactory form, too. But in other +machines built in the form of planing machines, in which the head is +traversed while cutting, as is the case with the profiling machine, +the planer head form is not right. Both the propelling screw, or +whatever gives the side motion, should be as low down as possible, as +should also be the guide.</p> + +<p>There is a principle underlying the Sellers method of driving a planer +table that may be utilized in many ways. The endurance goes far beyond +any man's original expectations, and the explanation, very likely, +lies in the fact that the point of contact is always changing. To +apply the same principle to a common worm gear it is only necessary to +use a worm in a plain spur gear, with the teeth cut at an angle the +wrong way, and set the worm shaft at an angle double the amount, +rather than at 90°. Such a worm gear will, I fancy, outwear a dozen of +the scientific sort. It would likely be found a convenience to have +the head of a planing machine traverse by a handle or crank attached +to itself, so it could be operated like the slide rest of a lathe, +rather than as is now the case from the end of the cross head. The +principle should be to have things convenient, even at an additional +cost. Anything more than a single motion to lock the cross head to the +housing or stanchions should not be countenanced in small planers at +least. Many of the inferior machines show marked improvements over the +better sorts, so far as handiness goes, while there is nothing to +hinder the handy from being good and the good handy.</p> + +<p>When we consider that since the post-drilling machine first made its +appearance, there have been added Blasdell's quick return, the +automatic feed, belt-driven spindles, back gears placed where they +ought to be, with many minor improvements, it is not safe to assume +that the end has been reached; and when we consider that as a piece of +machine designing, considered in an artistic sense entirely, the +Bement post drill is the finest the world ever saw (the Porter-Allen +engine not excepted, which is saying a good deal), is it not strange +that of all mechanical designs none other has taken on such outrageous +forms as this?</p> + +<p>One thing that would seem to be desirable, and that ordinary skill +might devise, is some sort of snap clutch by which the main spindle +could be stopped instantly by touching a trigger with the foot; many +drills and accidents would be saved thereby. Of the many special +devices I have seen for use on a drilling machine, one used by Mr. +Lipe might be made of universal use. It is in the form of a bracket or +knee adjustably attached to the post, which has in its upper surface a +V into which round pieces of almost any size can be fastened, so that +the drill will pass through it diametrically. It is not only useful in +making holes through round bars, but straight through bosses and +collars as well.</p> + +<p>The radial drill has got so it points its nose in all directions but +skyward, but whether in its best form is not certain. The handle of +the belt shipper, in none that I have seen, follows around within +reach of the drill as conveniently as one would like.</p> + +<p>As the one suggestion I have to make in regard to the shaping machine +best illustrates the subject of maintaining true wearing surfaces, I +will leave it until I reach that part of my paper.</p> + +<p class="center">(<i>To be continued.</i>)</p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, +Philadelphia, Monday, Jan. 30, 1888. From the journal of the +Institute.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>THE MECHANICS OF A LIQUID.</h2> + +<p>A liquid comes in handy sometimes in measuring the volume of a +substance where the length, breadth, and thickness is difficult to get +at. It is a very simple operation, only requiring the material to be +plunged under water and measure the amount of displacement by giving +close attention to the overflow. It is a process that was first +brought into use in the days when jewelers and silversmiths were +inclined to be a little dishonest and to make the most of their +earnings out of the rule of their country. If we remember rightly, the +voice of some one crying "Eureka" was heard about that time from +somebody who had been taking a bath up in the country some two miles +from home. Tradition would have us believe that the inventor left for +the patent office long before his bathing exercises were half through +with, and that he did the most of his traveling at a lively rate while +on foot, but it is more reasonable to suppose that bath tubs were in +use in those days, and that he noticed, as every good philosopher +should, that his bathing solution was running over the edge of the tub +as fast as his body sunk below the surface. Taking to the heels is +something that we hear of even at this late day.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/7a.png"><img src="./images/7a_th.png" alt="" /></a></p> + +<p>It was not many years ago that an inventor of a siphon noticed how +water could be drawn up hill with a lamp wick, and the thought struck +him that with a soaking arrangement of this kind in one leg of the +siphon a flow of water could be obtained that would always be kept in +motion. Without taking a second thought he dropped his work in the hay +field, and ran all the way to London, a distance of twenty miles, to +lay his scheme before a learned man of science. He must have felt like +being carried home on a stretcher when he learned that a performance +of this kind was a failure. Among the others who have given an +exhibition of this kind we notice an observer who was more successful. +Being an overseer in a cotton mill, he had only to run over to his +dining room and secure two empty fruit jars and pipe them up, as +shown. He had had trouble in measuring volume by the liquid process by +having everything he attempted to measure get a thorough wetting, and +there were many substances that were to be experimented upon that +would not stand this part of the operation, such as fibers and a +number of pulverized materials. One of the jars was packed in tight, +nearly half full of cotton, and the other left entirely empty. The +question now is to measure the volume of cotton without bringing any +of the fibers in contact with the water. The liquid is poured into the +tunnel in the upright tube under head enough to partially fill the +jars when the overflow that stands on a level with the line, D E, is +open to allow the air in each jar to adjust itself as the straight +portions are wanted to work from. The overflow is then closed and head +enough of water put on to compress the air in the empty jar down into +half its volume. It may take a pipe long enough to reach up into the +second story, but it need not be a large one, and pipes round a cotton +mill are plentiful. In the jar containing cotton the water has not +risen so high, there being not so much air to compress, and comes to +rest on the line, C. Now we have this simple condition to work from. +If the water has risen so as to occupy half of the space that has been +taken up by the amount of air in one jar, it must have done the same +in the other, and if it could have been carried to twice the extent in +volume would reach the bottom of the jar in the one containing nothing +but air, and to the line, H I, in the jar containing cotton.</p> + +<p>The fibers then must have had an amount of material substance about +them to fill the remaining space entirely full, so that a particle of +air could not be taken into account anywhere. The cotton has produced +the same effect that a solid substance would do if it just filled the +space shown above the line, H I, for the water has risen into half the +space that is left below it. This enables an overseer to look into the +material substance of textile fibers by bringing into use the +elasticity of atmospheric air, reserving the liquid process for +measuring volume to govern the amount of compressibility.—<i>Boston +Journal of Commerce.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>VOLUTE DOUBLE DISTILLING CONDENSER.</h2> + +<p>This distiller and condenser which we illustrate has been designed, +says <i>Engineering</i>, for the purpose of obtaining fresh water from sea +water. It is very compact, and the various details in connection with +it may be described as follows: Steam from the boiler is admitted into +the evaporator through a reducing valve at a pressure of about 60 lb., +and passing through the volute, B, evaporates the salt water contained +in the chamber, C; the vapor thus generated passing through the pipe, +D, into the volute condenser, E, where it is condensed. The fresh +water thus obtained flows into the filter, from which it is pumped +into suitable drinking tanks.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/7b.png"><img src="./images/7b_th.png" alt="VOLUTE DOUBLE DISTILLING APPARATUS." /></a><br /> VOLUTE DOUBLE DISTILLING APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>The steam from the boiler after passing through the volute, B, is +conveyed by means of a pipe to the second volute, H, where it is +condensed, and the water resulting is conveyed by means of a pump to +the hot well or feed tank. The necessary condensing water enters at J +and is discharged at K. The method of keeping the supply of salt water +in the evaporator at a constant level is very efficient and ingenious. +To the main circulating discharge pipe, a small pipe, L, is fitted, +which is in communication with the chamber, M, and through this the +circulating sea water runs back until it attains a working level in +the evaporator, when a valve in the end of pipe, L, is closed by the +action of the float, N, the regulation of admission being thus +automatic and certain. The steam from the boiler can be regulated by +means of a stop valve, and the pressure in the evaporator should not +exceed 4 lb., while the pressure gauge is so arranged that the +pressure in both condenser and evaporator is shown at the same time. A +safety valve is fitted at the top of the condenser, and an automatic +blow-off valve, P, is arranged to blow off when a certain density of +brine has been attained in the evaporator. The "Esco" triple pump +(Fig. 3), which has been specially manufactured for this purpose, has +three suctions and deliveries, one for circulating <a name="Page_10270" id="Page_10270"></a>water, the second +for the condensed steam, and a third for the filtered drinking water, +so that the latter is kept fresh and clean.</p> + +<p>The condenser and pumps are manufactured by Ernest Scott & Co., Close +Works, Newcastle on Tyne, and were shown by them at the late +exhibition in their town.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>IMPROVED CURRENT METER.</h2> + +<p>Paul Kotlarewsky, of St. Petersburg, has invented an instrument for +measuring or ascertaining the velocity of water and air currents.</p> + +<p>Upon the shaft or axis of the propeller wheel, or upon a shaft geared +therewith, there is a hermetically closed tube or receptacle, D, which +is placed at right angles with the shaft, and preferably so that its +longitudinal axis shall intersect the axis of said shaft. In this tube +or receptacle is placed a weight, such as a ball, which is free to +roll or slide back and forth in the tube. The effect of this +arrangement is, that as the shaft revolves, the weight will drop +alternately toward opposite ends of the tube, and its stroke, as it +brings up against either end, will be distinctly heard by the observer +as well as felt by him if, as is usually the case, the apparatus when +in use is held by him. By counting the strokes which occur during a +given period of time, the number of revolutions during that period can +readily be ascertained, and from that the velocity of the current to +be measured can be computed in the usual way.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/8.png" alt="" /></p> + +<p>When the apparatus is submerged in water, by a rope held by the +observer, it will at once adjust itself to the direction of the +current. The force of the current, acting against the wings or blades +of the propeller wheel, puts the latter in revolution, and the tube, +D, will be carried around, and the sliding weight, according to the +position of the tube, will drop toward and bring up against +alternately opposite ends of said tube, making two strokes for every +revolution of the shaft.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>THE FLOWER INDUSTRY OF GRASSE.</h2> + +<p>A paper on this subject was read before the Chemists' Assistants' +Association on March 8, by Mr. F.W. Warrick, and was listened to with +much interest.</p> + +<p>Mr. Warrick first apologized for presenting a paper on such a +frivolous subject to men who had shown themselves such ardent +advocates of the higher pharmacy, of the "ologies" in preference to +the groceries, perfumeries, and other "eries." But if perfumery could +not hope to take an elevated position in the materiæ pharmaceuticæ, it +might be accorded a place as an adjunct, if only on the plea that +those also serve who only stand and wait.</p> + +<p>Mr. Warrick mentioned that his family had been connected with this +industry for many years, and that for many of the facts in the paper +he was indebted to a cousin who had had twenty years' practical +experience in the South, and who was present that evening.</p> + +<h3>GRASSE.</h3> + +<p>The town of Grasse is perhaps more celebrated than any other for its +connection with the perfume industry in a province which is itself +well known to be its home.</p> + +<p>This, the department of the Alpes Maritimes, forms the southeastern +corner of France. Its most prominent geographical features are an +elevated mountain range, a portion of the Alps, and a long seaboard +washed by the Mediterranean—whence the name Alpes Maritimes.</p> + +<p>The calcareous hills round Grasse and to the north of Nice are more or +less bare, though they were at one time well wooded; the reafforesting +of these parts has, however, made of late great progress. Nearer the +sea vegetation is less rare, and there many a promontory excites the +just admiration of the visitor by its growth of olives, orange and +lemon trees, and odoriferous shrubs. Who that has ever sojourned in +this province can wonder that Goethe's Mignon should have ardently +desired a return to these sunny regions?</p> + +<p>Visitors on these shores on the first day of this year found Goethe's +lines more poetical than true—</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>Where a wind ever soft from the blue heaven blows,<br /> +And the groves are of laurel, and myrtle, and rose;</p> +</div> + +<p>for they gathered round their fires and coughed and groaned in chorus, +and entertained each other with accounts of their ailments. But this +was exceptional, and the climate of the Alpes Maritimes is on the +whole as near perfection as anything earthly can be. This, however, is +not due to its latitude, but rather to its happy protection from the +north by its Alps and to its being bathed on the south by the warm +Mediterranean and the soft breezes of an eastern wind (which evidently +there bears a different reputation to that which it does with us). The +mistral, or cold breeze from the hills, is indeed the only climatic +enemy, if we except an occasional earthquake.</p> + +<p>The town of Grasse itself is situated in the southern portion of the +department, and enjoys its fair share of the advantages this situation +affords. It is about ten miles from Cannes (Lord Brougham's creation), +and, as the crow flies, twenty-five miles from Nice, though about +forty miles by rail, for the line runs down to Cannes and thence along +the shore to Nice.</p> + +<p>Built on the side of a hill some 1,000 feet above the level of the +sea, the town commands magnificent views over the surrounding country, +especially in the direction of the sea, which is gloriously visible. +An abundant stream, the Foux, issuing from the rocks just above the +town, is the all productive genius of the place; it feeds a hundred +fountains and as many factories, and then gives life to the +neighboring fields and gardens.</p> + +<p>The population of Grasse is about 12,000, and the flora of its +environs represents almost all the botany of Europe. Among the +splendid pasture lands, 7,000 feet above the sea, are fields of +lavender, thyme, etc. From 7,000 to 6,000 feet there are forests of +pine and other gymnosperms. From 6,000 to 4,000 feet firs and the +beech are the most prominent trees. Between 4,000 and 2,000 feet we +find our familiar friends the oak, the chestnut, cereals, maize, +potatoes. Below this is the Mediterranean region. Here orange, lemon, +fig, and olive trees, the vine, mulberry, etc., flourish in the open +as well as any number of exotics, palms, aloes, cactuses, castor oil +plants, etc. It is in this region that nature with lavish hand bestows +her flowers, which, unlike their compeers in other lands, are not born +to waste their fragrance on the desert air or to die "like the bubble +on the fountain," but rather (to paraphrase George Eliot's lofty +words) to die, and live again in fats and oils, made nobler by their +presence.</p> + +<p>The following are the plants put under contribution by the perfume +factories of the district, viz., the orange tree, bitter and sweet, +the lemon, eucalyptus, myrtle, bay laurel, cherry laurel, elder; the +labiates; lavender, spike, thyme, etc.; the umbelliferous fennel and +parsley, the composite wormwood and tarragon, and, more delicate than +these, the rose, geranium, cassie, jasmin, jonquil, mignonette, and +violet.</p> + +<h3>THE PERFUME FACTORY.</h3> + +<p>In the perfume factory everything is done by steam. Starting from the +engine room at the bottom, the visitor next enters the receiving room, +where early in the morning the chattering, patois-speaking natives +come to deliver the flowers for the supply of which they have +contracted. The next room is occupied with a number of steam-jacketed +pans, a mill, and hydraulic presses. Next comes the still room, the +stills in which are all heated by steam. In the "extract" department, +which is next reached, are large tinned-copper drums, fitted with +stirrers, revolving in opposite directions on vertical axes. +Descending to the cellar—the coolest part of the building—we find +the simple apparatus used in the process of enfleurage. The apparatus +is of two kinds. The smaller is a frame fitted with a sheet of stout +glass. A number of these, all of the same size, when placed one on the +top of the other, form a tolerably air tight box. The larger is a +frame fitted with wire netting, over which a piece of molleton is +placed. The other rooms are used for bottling, labeling, etc.</p> + +<p>The following are some of the details of the cultivation and +extraction of perfumes as given in Mr. Warrick's paper:</p> + +<h3>ORANGE PERFUMES.</h3> + +<p>The orange tree is produced from the pip, which is sown in a sheltered +uncovered bed. When the young plant is about 4 feet high, it is +transplanted and allowed a year to gain strength in its new +surroundings. It is then grafted with shoots from the Portugal or +Bigaradier. It requires much care in the first few years, must be well +manured, and during the summer well watered, and if at all exposed +must have its stem covered up with straw in winter. It is not expected +to yield a crop of flowers before the fourth year after +transplantation. The flowering begins toward the end of April and +lasts through May to the middle of June. The buds are picked when on +the point of opening by women, boys, and girls, who make use of a +tripod ladder to reach them. These villagers carry the fruits (or, +rather, flowers) of their day's labor to a flower agent or +commissionnaire, who weighs them, spreads them out in a cool place +(the flowers, not the villagers), where they remain until 1 or 2 A.M.; +he then puts them into sacks, and delivers them at the factory before +the sun has risen. They are here taken in hand at once; on exceptional +days as many as 160 tons being so treated in the whole province. After +the following season, say end of June, the farmers prune their trees; +these prunings are carted to the factory, where the leaves are +separated and made use of.</p> + +<p>During the autumn the ground round about the trees is well weeded, dug +about, and manured. The old practice of planting violets under the +orange trees is being abandoned. Later on in the year those blossoms +which escaped extermination have developed into fruits. These, when +destined for the production of the oil, are picked while green.</p> + +<p>The orange trees produce a second crop of flowers in autumn, sometimes +of sufficient importance to allow of their being taken to the +factories, and always of sufficient importance to provide brides with +the necessary bouquets.</p> + +<p>Nature having been thus assisted to deliver these, her wonderful +productions, the flowers, the leaves, and the fruits of the orange +tree, at the factory, man has to do the rest. He does it in the +following manner:</p> + +<p>The flowers are spread out on the stone floor of the receiving room in +a layer some 6 to 8 inches deep; they are taken in hand by young +girls, who separate the sepals, which are discarded. Such of the +petals as are destined for the production of orange flower water and +neroli are put into a still through a large canvas chute, and are +covered with water, which is measured by the filling of reservoirs on +the same floor. The manhole of the still is then closed, and the +contents are brought to boiling point by the passage of superheated +steam through the coils of a surrounding worm. The water and oil pass +over, are condensed, and fall into a Florentine receiver, where the +oil floating on the surface remains in the flask, while the water +escapes through the tube opening below. A piece of wood or cork is +placed in the receiver to break up the steam flowing from the still; +this gives time for the small globules of oil to cohere, while it +breaks the force of the downward current, thus preventing any of the +oil being carried away.</p> + +<p>The first portions of the water coming from the still are put into +large tinned copper vats, capable of holding some 500 gallons, and +there stored, to be drawn off as occasion may require into glass +carboys or tinned copper bottles. This water is an article of very +large consumption in France; our English cooks have no idea to what an +extent it is used by the <i>chefs</i> in the land of the "darned mounseer."</p> + +<p>The oil is separated by means of a pipette, filtered, and bottled off. +It forms the oil of neroli of commerce; 1,000 kilos. of the flowers +yield 1 kilo. of oil. That obtained from the flowers of the +Bigaradier, or bitter orange, is the finer and more expensive quality.</p> + +<p>The delicate scent of orange flowers can be preserved quite unchanged +by another and more gentle process, viz., that of maceration. It was +noticed by some individual, whose name has not been handed down to us, +that bodies of the nature of fat and oil are absorbers of the +odor-imparting particles exhaled by plants. This property was seized +upon by some other genius equally unknown to fame, who utilized it to +transfer the odor of flowers to alcohol.</p> + +<p>Where oil is used it is the very finest olive, produced by the trees +in the neighborhood. This is put into copper vats holding about 50 +gallons; 1 cwt. of flowers is added. After some hours the flowers are +strained out by means of a large tin sieve. The oil is treated with +another cwt. of flowers and still another, until sufficiently +impregnated. It is then filtered through paper until it becomes quite +bright; lastly it is put into tins, and is ready for exportation or +for use in the production of extracts.</p> + +<p>Where fat is employed as the macerating agent, the fat used is a +properly adjusted mixture of lard and suet, both of which have been +purified and refined during the winter months, and kept stored away in +well closed tins.</p> + +<p>One cwt. of the fat is melted in a steam-jacketed pan, and poured into +a tinned copper vat capable of holding from 5 to 6 cwt. About 1 cwt. +of orange flowers being added, these are well stirred in with a wooden +spatula. After standing for a few hours, which time is not sufficient +for solidification to take place, the contents are poured into shallow +pans and heated to 60° C. The mixture thus rendered more fluid is +poured on to a tin sieve; the fat passes through, the flowers remain +behind. These naturally retain a large amount of macerating liquor. To +save this they are packed into strong canvas bags and subjected to +pressure between the plates of a powerful hydraulic press. The fat +squeezed out is accompanied by the moisture of the flowers, from which +it is separated by skimming. Being returned to the original vat, our +macerating medium receives another complement of flowers to rob of +their scent, and yet others, until the strength of the pomade desired +is reached. The fat is then remelted, decanted, and poured into tins +or glass jars.</p> + +<p>To make the extrait, the pomade is beaten up with alcohol in a special +air tight mixing machine holding some 12 gallons, stirrers moved by +steam power agitating the pomade in opposite directions. After some +hours' agitation a creamy liquid is produced, which, after resting, +separates, the alcohol now containing the perfume. By passing the +alcohol through tubes surrounded by iced water, the greater part of +the dissolved fat is removed.</p> + +<p>These are the processes applied to the flowers. The leaves are +distilled only for the oil of petit grain. This name was given to the +oil because it was formerly obtained from miniature orange fruits. +From 1,000 kilos. of leaves 2 kilos. of oil are obtained.</p> + +<p>The oil obtained from the fruit of the orange, like that of the lemon, +is extracted at Grasse by rolling the orange over the pricks of an +<i>ecueille</i>, an instrument with a hollow handle, into which the oil +flows. The oil is sometimes taken up by a sponge. Where the oil is +produced in larger quantities, as at Messina, more elaborate apparatus +is employed. A less fragrant oil is obtained by distilling the +raspings of the rind.</p> + +<h3>THE EUCALYPTUS, MYRTLE, ETC.</h3> + +<p>Of later introduction than the trees of the orange family is the +Eucalyptus globulus, which, not being able to compete with the former +in the variety of nasal titillations it gives rise to, probably +consoles itself with coming off the distinct victor in the department +of power and penetration. The leaves and twigs of this tree are +distilled for oil. This oil is in large demand on the Continent, the +fact of there being no other species than the globulus in the +neighborhood being a guarantee of the uniformity of the product.</p> + +<p>Whereas the eucalyptus is but a newcomer in these regions, another +member of the same family, the common myrtle, can date its +introduction many centuries back. An oil is distilled from its leaves, +and also a water.</p> + +<p>Associated with the myrtle we find the leaves of the bay laurel, +forming the victorious wreaths of the ancients. The oil produced is +the oil of bay laurel, oil of sweet bay. This must not be confounded +with the oil of bays of the West Indies, the produce of the <i>Myrcia +acris</i>; nor yet with the cherry laurel, a member of yet another +family, the leaves of which are sometimes substituted for those of the +sweet bay. The leaves of this plant yield the cherry laurel water of +the B.P. It can hardly be said to be an article of perfumery. It also +yields an oil.</p> + +<p>Another water known to the British Pharmacopoeia is that produced from +the flowers of the elder, which flourishes round about Grasse.</p> + +<p>The rue also grows wild in these parts, and is distilled.</p> + + +<h3>THE LABIATES.</h3> + +<p>The family which overshadows all others in the quantity of essential +oils which it puts at the disposal of the Grassois and their neighbors +is that of the Labiatæ. Foremost among these we have the lavender, +spike, thyme, and rosemary. These are all of a vigorous and hardy +nature and require no cultivation. <a name="Page_10271" id="Page_10271"></a>The tops of these plants are +generally distilled <i>in situ</i>, under contract with the Grasse +manufacturer, by the villagers in the immediate vicinity. The higher +the altitude at which these grow, the more esteemed the oil. The +finest oil of lavender is produced by distilling the flowers only. +About 100 tons of lavender, 25 of spike, 40 of thyme, and 20 of +rosemary are sent out from Grasse every year.</p> + +<p>Among the less abundant labiates of these parts is the melissa, which +yields, however, a very fragrant oil.</p> + +<p>In the same family we have the sage and the sweet or common basil, +also giving up their essential oils on distillation.</p> + +<h3>THE UMBELLIFERS.</h3> + +<p>Whereas the flowers of the labiate family are treated by the +distillers as favorites are by the gods, and are cut off in their +youth, those of the Umbelliferæ are allowed to mature and develop into +the oil-yielding fruits. Its representatives, the fennel and parsley, +grow wild round about the town, and are laid under contribution by the +manufacturers.</p> + +<p>The Composites are represented by the wormwood and tarragon +(<i>Estragon</i>).</p> + +<h3>THE GERANIUM.</h3> + +<p>Oil of geranium is produced from the rose or oak-leaved geranium, +cuttings of which are planted in well sheltered beds in October. +During the winter they are covered over with straw matting. In April +they are taken up, and planted in rows in fields or upon easily +irrigated terraces. Of water they require <i>quantum sufficit</i>; of +nature's other gift, which cheers and not inebriates—the glorious +sunshine—they cannot have too much. They soon grow into bushes three +or four feet high. At Nice they generally flower at the end of August. +At Grasse and cooler places they flower about the end of October. The +whole flowering plant is put into the still.</p> + +<h3>THE ROSE.</h3> + +<p>Allied to the oil of geranium in odor are the products of the rose. +The Rose de Provence is the variety cultivated. It is grown on gentle +slopes facing the southeast. Young shoots are taken from a +five-year-old tree, and are planted in ground which has been well +broken up to a depth of three or four feet, in rows like vines. When +the young plant begins to branch out, the top of it is cut off about a +foot from the ground. During the first year the farmer picks off the +buds that appear, in order that the whole attention of the plant may +be taken up in developing its system. In the fourth or fifth year the +tree is in its full yielding condition. The flowering begins about +mid-April, and lasts through May to early June. On some days as many +as 150 tons of roses are gathered in the province of the Alpes +Maritimes.</p> + +<p>The buds on the point of opening are picked in the early morning. +Scott says they are "sweetest washed with morning dew." The purchaser +may think otherwise where the dew has to be paid for.</p> + +<p>The flowering season over, the trees are allowed to run wild. In +January they are pruned, and the branches left are entwined from tree +to tree all along the line, and form impenetrable fences.</p> + +<p>A rose tree will live to a good age, but does not yield much after its +seventh year. At that period it is dug up and burned, and corn, +potatoes, or some other crop is grown on the land for twelve months or +more.</p> + +<p>In the factory the petals are separated from the calyx, and are +distilled with water for the production of rose water and the otto. +For the production of the huile and pomade they are treated by +maceration. They are finished off, however, by the process of +enfleurage, in which the frames before alluded to are made use of. The +fat, or pomade, is spread on to the glass on both sides. The blossoms +are then lightly strewn on to the upper surface. A number of trays so +filled are placed one on the top of the other to a convenient height, +forming a tolerably air tight box. The next day the old flowers are +removed, and fresh ones are substituted for them. This is repeated +until the fat is sufficiently impregnated. From time to time the +surface of the absorbent is renewed by serrating it with a comb-like +instrument. This, of course, is necessary in order to give the hungry, +non-saturated lower layers a chance of doing their duty.</p> + +<p>Where oil is the absorbent, the wired frames are used in connection +with cloths. The cloth acts as the holder of the oil, and the flowers +are spread upon it, and the process is conducted in the same way as +with the frames with glass.</p> + +<p>From the pomade the extrait de rose is made in the same way as the +orange extrait.</p> + +<h3>CASSIE.</h3> + +<p>The stronger, though less delicate, cassie is grown from seeds, which +are contained in pods which betray the connection of this plant with +the leguminous family. After being steeped in water they are sown in a +warm and well sheltered spot. When two feet high the young plant is +grafted and transplanted to the open ground—ground well exposed to +the sun and sheltered from the cold winds. It flourishes best in the +neighborhood of Grasse and Cannes. The season of flowering is from +October to January or February, according to the presence or absence +of frost. The flowers are gathered twice a week in the daytime, and +are brought to the factories in the evening. They are here subjected +to maceration.</p> + +<h3>JONQUIL.</h3> + +<p>A plant of humbler growth is the jonquil. The bulbs of this are set +out in rows. The flowers put in an appearance about the end of March, +four or five on each stem. Each flower as it blooms is picked off at +the calyx. They are treated by maceration and enfleurage, chiefly the +latter. The harvesting period of the jonquil is of very short +duration, and it often takes two seasons for the perfumer to finish +off his pomades of extra strength. The crop is also very uncertain.</p> + +<h3>JASMIN.</h3> + +<p>A more reliable crop is that of the jasmin. This plant is reared from +cuttings of the wild jasmin, which are put in the earth in rows with +trenches between. Level ground is chosen; if hillside only is +available, this is formed into a series of terraces. When strong +enough, the young stem is grafted with shoots of the <i>Jasminum +grandiflorum</i>. The first year it is allowed to run wild, the second it +is trained by means of rods, canes and other appliances. At the +approach of winter the plants are banked up with earth to half their +height. The exposed parts then die off. When the last frost of winter +is gone the earth is removed, and what remains of the shrub is trimmed +and tidied up for the coming season. It grows to four or five feet. +Support is given by means of horizontal and upright poles, which join +the plants of one row into a hedge-like structure. Water is provided +by means of the ditches already mentioned. When not used for this +purpose, the trenches allow of the passage of women and children to +gather the flowers. These begin to appear in sufficient quantity to +repay collecting about the middle of July. The jasmin is collected as +soon as possible after it blooms. This occurs in the evening, and up +to about August 15, early enough for the blossoms to be gathered the +same day. They are delivered at the factories at once, where they are +put on to the chassis immediately; the work on them continuing very +often till long after midnight. Later on in the year they are gathered +in the early morning directly the dew is off. The farmer is up +betimes, and as soon as he sees the blossoms are dry he sounds a bugle +(made from a sea shell) to announce the fact to those engaged to pick +for him.</p> + +<h3>TUBEROSE.</h3> + +<p>The tuberose is planted in rows in a similar way to the jasmin. The +stems thrown up by the bulbs bear ten or twelve flowers. Each flower +as it blooms is picked off. The harvesting for the factories takes +place from about the first week in July to the middle of October. +There is an abundant yield, indeed, after this, but it is only of +service to the florist, the valued scent not being present in +sufficient quantity. The flowers are worked up at the factory directly +they arrive by the enfleurage process.</p> + +<h3>MIGNONETTE.</h3> + +<p>The <i>reseda</i>, or mignonette, is planted from seed, as here in England. +The flowering tops are used to produce the huile or pomade.</p> + +<h3>VIOLETS.</h3> + +<p>Last in order and least in size comes the violet. For "the flower of +sweetest smell is shy and lowly," and has taken a modest place in the +paper.</p> + +<p>Violets are planted out in October or April. October is preferred, as +it is the rainy season; nor are the young plants then exposed to the +heat of the sun or to the drought, as they would be if starting life +in April.</p> + +<p>The best place for them is in olive or orange groves, where they are +protected from the too powerful rays of the sun in summer and from the +extreme cold in winter. Specks of violets appear during November. By +December the green is quite overshadowed, and the whole plantation +appears of one glorious hue. For the leaves, having developed +sufficiently for the maintenance of the plant, rest on their oars, and +seem to take a silent pleasure in seeing the young buds they have +protected shoot past them and blossom in the open.</p> + +<p>The flowers are picked twice a week; they lose both color and flavor +if they are allowed to remain too long upon the plant. They are +gathered in the morning, and delivered at the factories by the +commissionnaires or agents in the afternoon, when they are taken in +hand at once.</p> + +<p>The products yielded by this flower are prized before all others in +the realms of perfumery, and cannot be improved; for, as one great +authority on all matters has said: "To throw a perfume on the violet +... were wasteful and ridiculous excess."</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>HOW TO MAKE PHOTO. PRINTING PLATES.</h2> + +<p>The drawing intended for reproduction is pinned on a board and placed +squarely before a copying camera in a good, even light. The lens used +for this purpose must be capable of giving a perfectly sharp picture +right up to the edges, and must be of the class called rectilinear, +<i>i.e.</i>, giving straight lines. The picture is then accurately focused +and brought to the required size. A plate is prepared in the dark room +by the collodion process, which is then exposed in the camera for the +proper time and developed in the ordinary way. After development, the +plate is fixed and strongly intensified, in order to render the white +portions of the drawings as opaque as possible. On looking through a +properly treated negative of this kind, it will be seen that the parts +representing the lines and black portions of the drawing are clear +glass, and the whites representing the paper a dense black.</p> + +<p>The negative, after drying, is ready for the next operation, <i>i.e.</i>, +printing upon zinc. This is done in several ways. One method will, +however, be sufficient for the purpose here. I obtain a piece of the +bichromatized gelatine paper previously mentioned, and place it on the +face of the negative in a printing frame. This is exposed to sunlight +(if there is any) or daylight for a period varying from five to thirty +minutes, according to the strength of the light. This exposed piece of +paper is then covered all over with a thin coating of printing ink, +and wetted in a bath of cold water. In a few minutes the ink leaves +the white or protected parts of the paper, remaining only on the lines +where the light has passed through the negative and affected the +gelatine. We now have a transcript of the drawing in printing ink, on +a paper which, as soon as dry, is ready for laying down on a piece of +perfectly clean zinc, and passing through a press. The effect and +purpose of passing this cleaned sheet of zinc through the press in +contact with the picture on the gelatine paper is this: Owing to the +stronger attraction of the greasy ink for the clean metal than for the +gelatine, it leaves its original support, and attaches itself strongly +to the zinc, giving a beautifully sharp and clean impression of our +original drawing in greasy ink on the surface of the zinc. The zinc +plate is next damped and carefully rolled up with a roller charged +with more printing ink, and the image is thus made strong enough to +resist the first etching. This etching is done in a shallow bath, +which is so arranged that it can be rocked to and fro. For the first +etching, very weak solution of nitric acid and water is used. The +plate is placed with this acid solution in the bath, and steadily +rocked for five or ten minutes. The plate is then taken out, washed, +and again inked; then it is dusted over with powdered resin, which +sticks to the ink on the plate. After this the plate is heated until +the ink and resin on the lines melt together and form a strong +acid-resisting varnish over all the work. The plate is again put into +the acid etching bath and further etched. These operations are +repeated five or six times, until the zinc of the unprotected or white +part of the picture is etched deep enough to allow the lines to be +printed clean in a press, like ordinary type or an engraved wood +block. I ought perhaps to explain that between each etching the plate +is thoroughly inked, and that this ink is melted down the sides of the +line, so as to protect the sides as well as the top from the action of +the acid; were this neglected, the acid would soon eat out the lines +from below. The greatest skill and care is, therefore, necessary in +this work, especially so in the case of some of the exquisitely fine +blocks which are etched for some art publications.</p> + +<p>There are many details which are necessary to successful etching, but +those now given will be sufficient to convey to you generally the +method of making the zinc plate for the typographic block. After +etching there only remains the trimming of the zinc, a little touching +up, and mounting it on a block of mahogany or cherry of exact +thickness to render it type high, and it is now ready for insertion +with type in the printer's form. From a properly etched plate hundreds +of thousands of prints may be obtained, or it may be electrotyped or +stereotyped and multiplied indefinitely.—<i>G.S. Waterlow, Brit. Jour. +Photo.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>ANALYSIS OF A HAND FIRE GRENADE.</h2> + +<h3>By CHAS. CATLETT and R.C. PRICE.</h3> + +<p>The analyses of several of these "fire extinguishers" have been +published, showing that they are composed essentially of an aqueous +solution of one or more of the following bodies; sodium, potassium, +ammonium, and calcium chlorides and sulphates, and in small amount +borax and sodium acetate; while their power of extinguishing fire is +but three or fourfold that of water.</p> + +<p>One of these grenades of a popular brand of which I have not found an +analysis was examined by Mr. Catlett with the following results: The +blue corked flask was so open as to show that it contained no gas +under pressure, and upon warming its contents, but 4 or 5 cubic inches +of a gas were given off. The grenade contained about 600 c.c. of a +neutral solution, which gave on analysis:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col align="center" /><col span="2" align="right" /> +</colgroup> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td align="right">In 1000 c.c.</td><td align="right">In the Flask.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td align="right">Grammes.</td><td align="right">Grains.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Calcium</td><td align="center">chloride¹</td><td align="right">92.50</td><td align="right">850.8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Magnesium</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18.71</td><td align="right">173.2</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sodium</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">22.20</td><td align="right">206.9</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Potassium</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">1.14</td><td align="right">10.6</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td align="right">———</td><td align="right">———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td align="right">134.55</td><td align="right">1241.5</td></tr> +</table> +<p class="center">¹Trace of bromide.</p> +</div> + + +<p>As this mixture of substances naturally suggested the composition of +the "mother liquors" from salt brines, Mr. Price made an analysis of +such a sample of "bittern" from the Snow Hill furnace, Kanawha Co., +W.Va., obtaining the following composition:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col align="center" /><col span="2" align="right" /> +</colgroup> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td align="right">In 1000 c.c.</td><td align="right">In the Flask.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td align="right">Grammes.</td><td align="right">Grains.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Calcium</td><td align="center">chloride¹</td><td align="right">299.70</td><td align="right">925.8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Magnesium</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">56.93</td><td align="right">175.7</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Strontium</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">1.47</td><td align="right">4.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sodium</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">20.16</td><td align="right">62.2</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Potassium</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">5.13</td><td align="right">15.8</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td align="right">———</td><td align="right">———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td align="right">383.39</td><td align="right">1184.0</td></tr> +</table> +<p class="center">¹Trace of bromide.</p> +</div> + +<p>There is of course some variation in the bittern obtained from +different brines, but it appears of interest to call attention to this +correspondence in composition, as indicating that the liquid for +filling such grenades is obtained by adding two volumes of water to +one of the "bittern." The latter statement is fairly proved by the +presence of the bromine, and certainly from an economical standpoint +such should be its method of manufacture.—<i>Amer. Chem. Jour.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>MOLECULAR WEIGHTS.</h2> + +<p>A new and most valuable method of determining the molecular weights of +non-volatile as well as volatile substances has just been brought into +prominence by Prof. Victor Meyer (<i>Berichte</i>, 1888, No. 3). The method +itself was discovered by M. Raoult, and finally perfected by him in +1886, but up to the present has been but little utilized by chemists. +It will be remembered that Prof. Meyer has recently discovered two +isomeric series of derivatives of benzil, differing only in the +position of the various groups in space. If each couple of isomers +possess the same molecular weight, a certain modification of the new +Van't Hoff-Wislicenus theory as to the position of atoms in space is +rendered necessary; but if the two are polymers, one having a +molecular weight n times that of the other, then the theory in its +present form will still hold. Hence it was imperative to determine +without doubt the molecular weight of some two typical isomers. But +the compounds in question are not volatile, so that vapor density +determinations were out of the question. In this difficulty Prof. +Meyer has tested the discovery of M. Raoult upon a number of compounds +of known molecular weights, and found it perfectly reliable and easy +of application. The method depends upon the lowering of the +solidifying point of a solvent, such as water, benzine, or glacial +acetic acid, by the introduction of a given weight of the substance +whose molecular weight is to be determined. The amount by which the +solidifying point is lowered is connected with the molecular weight, +M, by the following extremely simple formula: M = T x (P / C); where C +represents the amount by which the point of congelation is lowered, P +the weight of anhydrous substance dissolved in 100 grammes of the +solvent, and T a constant for the same solvent readily determined from +volatile substances whose molecular weights are well known. On +applying this law to the case of two isomeric benzil derivatives, the +molecular weights were found, as expected, to be identical, and not +multiples; hence Prof. Meyer is perfectly justified in introducing +<a name="Page_10272" id="Page_10272"></a>the necessary modification in the "position in space" theory. Now +that this generalization of Raoult is placed upon a secure basis, it +takes its well merited rank along with that of Dulong and Petit as a +most valuable means of checking molecular weights, especially in +determining which of two or more possible values expresses the +truth.—<i>Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<div class="center">[Continued from <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, No. 642, page 10258.]</div> + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>THE DIRECT OPTICAL PROJECTION OF ELECTRO-DYNAMIC LINES OF FORCE +AND OTHER ELECTRO-DYNAMIC PHENOMENA.<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Prof. J.W. MOORE.</h3> + +<h3>II. LOOPS.</h3> + +<p>If the wire, with its lines of force, be bent into the form of a +vertical circle 1⅛ in. in diameter, and fixed in a glass plate, +some of the lines of force will be seen parallel to the axis of the +circle. If the loop is horizontal, the lines become points.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10a.png" alt="Fig. 14." /><br /> Fig. 14.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10b.png" alt="Fig. 14a." /><br /> Fig. 14<i>a</i>.</p> + +<h3>FIELDS OF LOOPS AND MAGNETS.</h3> + +<p>Place now a vertical loop opposite to the pole of a short bar magnet +cemented to the glass plate with the N pole facing it. If the current +passes in one direction the field will be as represented by Fig. 14<i>b</i>; +if it is reversed by the commutator, Fig. 14<i>c</i> is an image of the +spectrum. Applying Faraday's second principle, it appears that +attraction results in the first case, and repulsion in the second. The +usual method of stating the fact is, that if you face the loop and the +current circulates from left over to right, the N end of the needle +will be drawn into the loop.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10c.png" alt="Fig. 14b." /><br /> Fig. 14<i>b</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10d.png" alt="Fig. 14c." /><br /> Fig. 14<i>c</i>.</p> + +<p>It thus becomes evident that the loop is equivalent to a flat steel +plate, one surface of which is N and the other S. Facing the loop if +the current is right handed, the S side is toward you.</p> + +<h3>TO SHOW THE ACTUAL ATTRACTION AND REPULSION OF A MAGNET BY A +"MAGNETIC SHELL."</h3> + +<p>Produce the field as before (Fig. 14), carry a suspended magnetic +needle over the field. It will tend to place itself parallel to the +lines of force, with the N pole in such a position that, if the +current passes clockwise as you look upon the plane of the loop, it +will be drawn into the loop. Reversing the position of the needle or +of current will show repulsion.</p> + +<p>Clerk Maxwell's method of stating the fact is that "every portion of +the circuit is acted on by a force urging it across the lines of +magnetic induction, so as to include a greater number of these lines +within the embrace of the circuit."<a name="FNanchor_2_6" id="FNanchor_2_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_6"><sup>2</sup></a></p> + + +<p>If the horizontal loop is used (Fig. 14<i>a</i>), the needle tries to assume +a vertical position, with the N or S end down, according to the +direction of the current.</p> + +<p>If it is desired to show that if the magnet is fixed and the loop +free, the loop will be attracted or repelled, a special support is +needed.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10e.png" alt="Fig. 15" /><br /> Fig. 15</p> + +<p>A strip (Fig. 15) of brass, J, having two iron mercury cups, K<sub>1</sub> K<sub>2</sub>, +screwed near the ends, one insulated from the strip, is fastened upon +the horizontal arm of the ring support, Fig. 9, already described. The +cups may be given a slight vertical motion for accurate adjustment. +Small conductors (Figs. 16, 17, 18), which are circles, rectangles, +solenoids, etc., may be suspended from the top of the plate by unspun +silk, with the ends dipping into the mercury. The apparatus is +therefore an Ampere's stand, with the weight of the movable circuit +supported by silk and with means of adjusting the contacts. The +rectangles or circles are about two inches in their extreme dimension. +Horizontal and vertical astatic system are also used—Figs. 18, 18<i>a</i>. +The apparatus may be used with either the horizontal or vertical +lantern.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10f.png" alt="Fig. 16. Fig. 17." /><br /> Fig. 16. Fig. 17.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10g.png" alt="Fig. 18. Fig. 18a." /><br /> Fig. 18. Fig. 18<i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>If the rectangle or circle is suspended and a magnet brought near it +when the current passes, the loop will be attracted or repelled, as +the law requires. The experiments usually performed with De la Rive's +floating battery may be exhibited.</p> + +<p>The great similarity between the loop and the magnet may be shown by +comparing the fields above (Figs. 14<i>b</i>, 14<i>c</i>) with the actual fields of +two bar magnets, Figs. 19, 19<i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that the lines in Fig. 19, where unlike poles are +opposite, are gathered together as in Fig. 14<i>b</i>,—where the N end of +the magnet faces the S side of the magnetic shell; and that in 19<i>a</i>, +where two norths face, the line of repulsion has the same general +character as in 14<i>c</i>, in which the N end of the magnet faces the N side +of the shell.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10h.png" alt="Fig. 19." /><br /> Fig. 19.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10i.png" alt="Fig. 19a." /><br /> Fig. 19<i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>Instead of placing the magnet perpendicular to the plane of the loop, +it may be placed parallel to its plane. Fig. 14<i>d</i> shows the magnet and +loop both vertical.</p> + +<p>The field shows that the magnet will be rotated, and will finally take +for stable equilibrium an axial position, with the N end pointing as +determined by the rule already given.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10j.png" alt="Fig. 14d." /><br /> Fig. 14<i>d</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_10273" id="Page_10273"></a>If two loops are placed with their axes in the same straight line as +follows, Figs. 14<i>f</i>, 14<i>g</i>, a reproduction of Figs. 14<i>b</i> and 14<i>c</i> will +become evident.</p> + +<p>It is obvious from these spectra that the two loops attract or repel +each other according to the direction of the current, which fact may +be shown by bringing a loop near to another loop suspended from the +ring stand, Fig. 9, or by using the ordinary apparatus for that +purpose—De la Rive's battery and Ampere's stand.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10k.png" alt="Fig. 14f." /><br /> Fig. 14<i>f</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10l.png" alt="Fig. 14g." /><br /> Fig. 14<i>g</i>.</p> + +<p>If two loops are placed in the same vertical plane, as in Figs. 14<i>h</i> +and 14<i>i</i>, there will be attraction or repulsion, according to the +direction of the adjacent currents. The fields become the same as +Figs. 8 and 8<i>a</i>, as may be seen by comparing them with those figures.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11a.png" alt="Fig. 14h." /><br /> Fig. 14<i>h</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11b.png" alt="Fig. 14i." /><br /> Fig. 14<i>i</i>.</p> + +<p>Having thus demonstrated the practical identity of a loop and a +magnet, we proceed to examine the effects produced by loops on +straight wires.</p> + +<p>If the loop is placed with a straight wire in its plane along one +edge, there will be attraction or repulsion, according to the +direction of the two currents, Figs. 20 and 20<i>a</i>, which are obviously +the same as Figs. 8 and 8<i>a</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11c.png" alt="Fig. 20." /><br /> Fig. 20.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11d.png" alt="Fig. 20a." /><br /> Fig. 20<i>a</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11e.png" alt="Fig. 20b." /><br /> Fig. 20<i>b</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11f.png" alt="Fig. 20c." /><br /> Fig. 20<i>c</i>.</p> + +<p>If the wire is placed parallel to the plane of the loop and to one +side, Figs. 20<i>b</i> and 20<i>c</i>, there will be rotation (same as Figs. 4<i>b</i> and +4<i>c</i>).</p> + +<p>If the loop is horizontal and the wire vertical and on one side, the +Figs. 20<i>d</i>, 20<i>e</i> are the same as 4<i>d</i> and 4<i>e</i>.</p> + +<p>If the loop is horizontal and the wire vertical and axial, 20<i>f</i> and +20<i>g</i>, there will be rotation, and the figures are mere duplicates of 4<i>g</i> +and 4<i>h</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11g.png" alt="Fig. 20d." /><br /> Fig. 20<i>d</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11h.png" alt="Fig. 20e." /><br /> Fig. 20<i>e</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11i.png" alt="Fig. 20f." /><br /> Fig. 20<i>f</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11j.png" alt="Fig. 20g." /><br /> Fig. 20<i>g</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11k.png" alt="Fig. 20h." /><br /> Fig. 20<i>h</i>.</p> + +<p>Fig. 20<i>h</i> shows a view of 20<i>f</i> when the wire is horizontal and the plane +of the loop vertical. It is like 4<i>i</i>.</p> + +<p>To verify these facts, suspend a loop from Ampere's stand, Fig. 9, and +bring a straight wire near.</p> + +<p>A small rectangle or circle may be hung in a similar manner. When the +circuit is closed, it tends to place itself with its axis in a N and S +direction through the earth's influence. The supposition of an E and W +horizontal earth current will explain this action.</p> + +<p>To exemplify rotation of a vertical wire by a horizontal loop, Fig. 21 +may be shown.</p> + +<p>A circular copper vessel with a glass bottom (Fig. 21) has wound +around its rim several turns of insulated wire. In the center of the +vessel is a metallic upright upon the top of which is balanced in a +mercury cup a light copper [inverted U] shaped strip. The ends of the +inverted U dip into the dilute sulphuric acid contained in the +circular vessel.</p> + +<p>The current passes from, the battery, up the pillar, down the legs of +the U to the liquid, thence through the insulated wire back to the +battery.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11l.png" alt="Fig. 21." /><br /> Fig. 21.</p> + +<p>This is the usual form of apparatus, modified in size for the vertical +or horizontal lantern.</p> + +<p class="center">(<i>To be continued.</i>)</p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>An expansion of two papers read before the A.A.A.S. at +the Ann Arbor meeting.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2_6" id="Footnote_2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_6">[2]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Electricity and Magnetism, Maxwell, p. 137, §§ 489, 490.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>POISONS.</h2> + +<p>"Poisons and poisoning" was the subject of a discourse a few days ago +at the Royal Institution. The lecturer, Professor Meymott Tidy, began +by directing attention to the derivation of the word "toxicology," the +science of poisons. The Greek word <ins class="translit" title="Greek: toxon">τοξσν</ins> signified primarily +that specially oriental weapon which we call a bow, but the word in +the earliest authors included in its meaning the arrow shot from the +bow. Dioscorides in the first century A.D. uses the word +<ins class="translit" title="Greek: to toxikon">το τοξικον</ins> to signify the poison to smear arrows with. Thus, by giving +an enlarged sense to the word—for words ever strive to keep pace, if +possible, with scientific progress, we get our modern and significant +expression toxicology as the science of poisons and of poisoning. A +certain grim historical interest gathers around the story of poisons.</p> + +<p>It is a history worth studying, for poisons have played their part in +history. The "subtil serpent" taught men the power of a poisoned fang. +Poison was in the first instance a simple instrument of open warfare. +Thus, our savage ancestors tipped their arrows with the snake poison +in order to render them more deadly. The use of vegetable extracts for +this purpose belongs to a later period. The suggestion is not +unreasonable that if war chemists with their powders, their gun +cotton, and their explosives had not been invented, warlike nations +would have turned for their <i>instrumenta belli</i> to toxicologists and +their poisons. At any rate, the toxicologists may claim that the very +cradle of science was rocked in the laboratory of the toxicological +worker. Early in the history of arrow tipping the admixture of blood +with the snake poison became a common practice. Even the use of animal +fluids alone is recorded—<i>e.g.</i>, the arrows of Hercules, which were dipped +in the gall of the Lernæan hydra. Hercules himself at last fell a +victim to the blood stained tunic of the dead Centaur Nessus. As late +as the middle of the last century Blumenbach persuaded one of his +class to drink 7 oz. of warm bullock's blood in order to disprove the +then popular notion that even fresh blood was a poison. The young man +who consented to drink the blood did not die a martyr to science.</p> + +<p>The first important question we have to answer is, What do we mean by +a poison? The law has not defined a poison, although it requires at +times a definition. The popular definition of a poison is "a drug +which destroys life rapidly when taken in small quantity." The terms +"small quantity" as regards amount, and "rapidly" as regards time, are +as indefinite as Hodge's "piece of chalk" as regards size. The +professor defined a poison as "any substance which otherwise than by +the agency of heat or electricity is capable of destroying life, +either by chemical action on the tissues of the living body or by +physiological action by absorption into the living system." This +definition excepted from the list of poisons all agencies that +destroyed life by a simple mechanical action, thus drawing a +distinction between a "poison" and a "destructive thing." It explains +why nitrogen is not a poison and why carbonic acid is, although +neither can support life. This point the lecturer illustrated. A +poison must be capable of destroying life. It was nonsense to talk of +a "deadly poison." If a body be a poison, it is deadly; if it be not +deadly, it is not a poison. Three illustrations of the chemical +actions of poisons were selected. The first was sulphuric acid. Here +the molecular death of the part to which the acid was applied was due +to the tendency of sulphuric acid to combine with water. The stomach +became charred. The molecular death of certain tissues destroyed the +general functional rhythmicity of the system until the disturbance +became general, somatic death (that is, the death of the entire body) +resulting. The second illustration was poisoning by carbonic oxide. +The professor gave an illustrated description of the origin and +properties of the coloring matter of the blood, known as <i>hæmoglobin</i>, +drawing attention to its remarkable formation by a higher synthetical +act from the albumenoids in the animal body, and to the circumstance +that, contrary to general rule, both its oxidation and reduction may +be easily effected. It was explained that on this rhythmic action of +oxidizing and reducing <i>hæmoglobin</i> life depended.</p> + +<p>Carbonic oxide, like oxygen, combined with <i>hæmoglobin</i>, produced a +comparatively stable compound; at any rate, a compound so stable that +it ceased to be the efficient oxygen carrier of normal <i>hæmoglobin</i>. +This interference with the ordinary action of <i>hæmoglobin</i> constituted +poisoning by carbonic oxide. In connection with this subject the +lecturer referred to the use <a name="Page_10274" id="Page_10274"></a>of the spectroscope as an analytical +agent, and showed the audience the spectrum of blood extracted from +the hat of the late Mr. Briggs (for the murder of whom Muller was +executed), and this was the first case in which the spectroscopic +appearances of blood formed the subject matter of evidence. The third +illustration of poisoning was poisoning by strychnine. Here again the +power of the drug for undergoing oxidation was illustrated. It was +noted that although our knowledge of the precise <i>modus operandi</i> of +the poison was imperfect, nevertheless that the coincidence of the +first fit in the animal after its exhibition with the formation of +reduced <i>hæmoglobin</i> in the body was important.</p> + +<p>There followed upon this view of the chemical action of poison in the +living body this question: Given a knowledge of certain properties of +the elements—for example, their atomic weights, their relative +position according to the periodic law, their spectroscopic character, +and so forth—or given a knowledge of the molecular constitution, +together with the general physical and chemical properties of +compounds—in other words, given such knowledge of the element or +compound as may be learned in a laboratory—does such knowledge afford +us any clew whereby to predicate the probable action of the element or +of the compound respectively on the living body? The researches of +Blake, Rabuteau, Richet, Bouchardat, Fraser, and Crum-Brown were +discussed, the results of their observations being that at present we +were unable to determine toxicity or physiological action by any +general chemical or physical researches. The lecturer pointed out that +such relationship was scarcely to be expected. Poisons acted on +different tissues, while even the same poison, according to the dose +administered and other conditions, expended its toxic activity in +different ways.</p> + +<p>Further, the allotropic modifications of elements and the isomerism of +compounds increased the difficulties. Why should yellow phosphorus be +an active poison and red phosphorus be inert? Why should piperine be +the poison of all poisons to keep you awake, and morphine the poison +of all poisons to send you asleep, although to the chemist these two +bodies were of identical composition? The lecturer urged that the +science of medicine (for the poisons of the toxicologist were the +medicines of the physician) must be experimental. Guard jealously +against all wanton cruelty to animals; but to deprive the higher +creation of life and health lest one of the lower creatures should +suffer was the very refinement of cruelty. "Are ye not of much more +value then they?" spoke a still small voice amid the noisy babble of +well intentioned enthusiasts.—<i>London Times.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>ARTIFICIAL MOTHER FOR INFANTS.</h2> + +<p>All the journals have recently narrated the curious story of the +triplets that were born prematurely at the clinic of Assas Street. +Placed at their birth in an apparatus constructed on the principle of +an incubator, in order to finish their development therein, these +frail beings are doing wonderfully well, thanks to the assiduous care +bestowed upon them, and are even showing, it appears, a true emulation +to become persons of importance.</p> + +<p>Every one now knows the incubator or "artificial hen"—that box with a +glass top in which, under the influence of a mild heat, hens' eggs, +laid upon wire cloth, hatch of themselves in a few days, and allow +pretty little chicks to make their way out of the cracked shell.</p> + +<p>This ingenious apparatus, which has been adopted by most breeders, +gives so good results that it has already supplanted the mother hens +in all large poultry yards, and at present, thanks to it, large +numbers of eggs that formerly ended in omelets are now changing into +chickens.</p> + +<p>Although not belonging to the same race, a number of children at their +birth are none the less delicate than these little chicks.</p> + +<p>There are some that are so puny and frail among the many brought into +the world by the anæmic and jaded women of the present generation +that, in the first days of their existence, their blood, incapable of +warming them, threatens at every instant to congeal in their veins. +There are some which, born prematurely, are so incapable of taking +nourishment of themselves, of breathing and of moving, that they would +be fatally condemned to death were not haste made to take up their +development where nature left it, in order to carry it on and finish +it. In such a case it is not, as might be supposed, to the +exceptionally devoted care of the mother that the safety of these +delicate existences is confided. As the sitting hen often interferes +with the hatching of her eggs by too much solicitude, so the most +loving and attentive mother, in this case, would certainly prove more +prejudicial than useful to her nursling. So, for this difficult task +that she cannot perform, there is advantageously substituted for her +what is known as an artificial mother. This apparatus, which is +identical with the one employed for the incubation of chickens, +consists of a large square box, supporting, upon a double bottom, a +series of bowls of warm water. Above these vessels, which are renewed +as soon as the temperature lowers, is arranged a basket filled with +cotton, and in this is laid, as in a nest, the weak creature which +could not exist in the open air.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/12c.png"><img src="./images/12c_th.png" alt="STILL BIRTH WARMING APPARATUS." /></a><br /> STILL BIRTH WARMING APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>Through the glass in the cover, the mother has every opportunity of +watching the growth of her new born babe; but this is all that she is +allowed to do. The feeding of the infant, which is regulated by the +physician at regular hours, is effected by means of a special rubber +apparatus, through the aid of an intelligent woman who has sole charge +of this essential operation. The aeration of the little being, which +is no less important, is assured by a free circulation, in the box, of +pure warm air, which is kept at a definite temperature and is +constantly renewed through a draught flue. The least variations in the +temperature are easily seen through a horizontal thermometer placed +beneath the glass.</p> + +<p>Thus protected against all those bad influences that are often so +fatal at the inception of life, even to the healthiest babes, +preserved from an excess or insufficiency of food, sheltered from cold +and dampness, protected against clumsy handling and against pernicious +microbes, sickly or prematurely born babies soon acquire enough +strength in the apparatus to be able, finally, like others, to face +the various perils that await us from the cradle.</p> + +<p>The results that have been obtained for some time back at Paris, where +the surroundings are so unfavorable, no longer leave any doubt as to +the excellence of the process. At the lying-in clinic of Assas Street, +Doctors Farnier, Chantreuil, and Budin succeeded in a few days in +bringing some infants born at six months (genuine human dolls, +weighing scarcely more than from 2Œ to 4œ pounds) up to the normal +weight of 7œ pounds.—<i>L'Illustration.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>GASTROSTOMY.</h2> + +<p>Surgery has, as is well known, made great progress in recent years. +Apropos of this subject, we shall describe to our readers an operation +that was recently performed by one of our most skillful surgeons, Dr. +Terrillon, under peculiar circumstances, in which success is quite +rare. The subject was a man whose œsophagus was obstructed, and who +could no longer swallow any food, or drink the least quantity of +liquid, and to whom death was imminent. Dr. Terrillon made an incision +in the patient's stomach, and, through a tube, enabled him to take +nourishment and regain his strength. We borrow a few details +concerning the operation from a note presented by the doctor at one of +the last meetings of the Academy of Medicine.</p> + +<div class="center"><a href="./images/12a.png"><img src="./images/12a_th.png" alt="Fig. 1." /></a> +<br /><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—FEEDING A PATIENT THROUGH A STOMACHAL TUBE. +<br /><br /></div> + +<div class="center"><img src="./images/12b.png" alt="Fig. 2" /> +<div class="longcaption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—DETAILS OF THE TUBE. C, rubber tube for +leading food to the stomach, E; B B', rubber balls, which, inflated +with air by means of the tube, T, and rubber ball, P, effect a +hermetic closing; A, stopper for the tube, C; R, cock of the air +tube.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. X., fifty-three years of age, is a strong man of arthritic +temperament. He has suffered for several years with violent gastralgia +and obstinate dyspepsia, for which he has long used morphine. The +œsophagal <a name="Page_10275" id="Page_10275"></a>symptoms appear to date back to the month of September, +1887, when he had a painful regurgitation of a certain quantity of +meat that he had swallowed somewhat rapidly.</p> + +<p>Since that epoch, the passage of solid food has been either painful or +difficult, and often followed by regurgitation. The food seemed to +stop at the level of the pit of the stomach. So he gave up solid food, +and confined himself to liquids or semi-liquids, which readily passed +up to December 20, 1887. At this epoch, he remarked that liquids were +swallowed with difficulty, especially at certain moments, they +remaining behind the sternum and afterward slowly descending or being +regurgitated. This state of things was more marked especially in the +first part of January. He was successfully sounded several times, but +soon the sound was not able to pass. Doctors Affre and Bazenet got him +to come to Paris, where he arrived February 5, 1888.</p> + +<p>For ten days, the patient had not been able to swallow anything but +about a quart of milk or bouillon in small doses. As soon as he had +swallowed the liquid, he experienced distress over the pit of the +stomach, followed by painful regurgitations. For three days, every +attempt made by Dr. Terrillon to remove the obstacle that evidently +existed at the level of the cardia entirely failed. Several times +after such attempts a little blood was brought out, but there was +never any hemorrhage.</p> + +<p>The patient suffered, grew lean and impatient, and was unable to +introduce into his stomach anything but a few spoonfuls of water from +time to time. As he was not cachectic and no apparent ganglion was +found, and as his thoracic respiration was perfect, it seemed to be +indicated that an incision should be made in his stomach. The patient +at once consented.</p> + +<p>The operation was performed February 9, at 11 o'clock, with the aid of +Dr. Routier, the patient being under the influence of chloroform. A +small aperture was made in the wall of the stomach and a red rubber +sound was at once introduced in the direction of the cardia and great +tuberosity. This gave exit to some yellowish gastric liquid. The tube +was fixed in the abdominal wall with a silver wire. The operation took +three quarters of an hour. The patient was not unduly weakened, and +awoke a short time afterward. He had no nausea, but merely a burning +thirst. The operation was followed by no peritoneal reaction or fever. +Three hours afterward, bouillon and milk were injected and easily +digested.</p> + +<p>Passing in silence the technical details, which would not interest the +majority of our readers, we shall be content to say that Mr. X., +thanks to this alimentation, has regained his strength, and is daily +taking his food as shown in Fig. 1. The aperture made in the stomach +permits of the introduction of the rubber apparatus shown in Fig. 2, +the object of which is to prevent the egress of the liquids of the +stomach and at the same time to introduce food. A funnel is fitted to +the tube, and the liquid or semi-liquid food is directly poured into +the stomach. Digestion proceeds with perfect regularity, and Mr. X., +who has presented himself, of his own accord, before the Academy, and +whom we have recently seen, has resumed his health and good +spirits.—<i>La Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>HOW TO CATCH AND PRESERVE MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES.</h2> + +<p>There is no part of our country in which one cannot form a beautiful +local collection, and any young person who wants amusement, +instruction, and benefit from two, three, or more weeks in the country +can find all in catching butterflies and moths, arranging them, and +studying them up.</p> + +<p>Provide yourself first with two tools, a net and a poison bottle. The +net may be made of any light material. I find the thinnest Swiss +muslin best. Get a piece of iron wire, not as heavy as telegraph wire, +bend it in a circle of about ten inches diameter, with the ends +projecting from the circle two or three inches; lash this net frame to +the end of a light stick four or five feet long. Sew the net on the +wire. The net must be a bag whose depth is not quite the length of +your arm—so deep that when you hold the wire in one hand you can +easily reach the bottom with the bottle (to be described) in the other +hand. Never touch wing of moth or butterfly with your fingers. The +colors are in the dusty down (as you call it), which comes off at a +touch. Get a glass bottle or vial, with large, open mouth, and cork +which you can easily put in and take out. The bottles in which +druggists usually get quinine are the most convenient. It should not +be so large that you cannot easily carry it in your pocket. Let the +druggist put in the bottle a half ounce of cyanide of potassium; on +this pour water to the depth of about three-fourths of an inch, and +then sprinkle in and mix gently and evenly enough plaster of Paris to +form a thick cream, which will <i>set</i> in a cake in the bottom of the +vial. Let it stand open an hour to set and dry, then wipe out the +inside of the vial above the cake and keep it corked. This is the +regular entomological poison bottle, used everywhere. An insect put in +it dies quietly at once. It will last several months.</p> + +<p>These two tools, the net and the poison bottle, are your catching and +killing instruments. You know where to look for butterflies. Moths are +vastly more numerous, and while equally beautiful, present more +varieties of beauty than butterflies. They can be found by daylight in +all kinds of weather, in the grass fields, in brush, in dark woods, +sometimes on flowers. Many spend the daytime spread out, others with +close shut wings on the trunks of trees in dark woods. The night moths +are more numerous and of great variety. They come around lamps, set +out on verandas in the night, in great numbers. A European fashion is +to spread on tree trunks a sirup made of brown sugar and rum, and +visit them once in a while at night with net and lantern. Catch your +moth in the net, take him out of it by cornering him with the open +mouth of your poison bottle, so that you secure him unrubbed.</p> + +<p>Now comes the work of stretching your moths. This is easy, but must be +done carefully. Provide your own stretching boards. These can be made +anywhere with hammer and nail and strips of wood. You want two flat +strips of wood about seven-eighths or three-fourths of an inch thick +and eight to fourteen inches long, nailed parallel to each other on +another strip, so as to leave a narrow open space between the two +parallel strips. Make two or three or more of these, with the slit or +space between the strips of various widths, for large and small moths +and butterflies. Make as many of them, with as various widths of slit, +as your catches may demand. Take your moth by the feet, gently in your +fingers, put a long pin down through his body, set the pin down in the +slit of the stretching board, so that the body of the moth will be at +the top of the slit and the wings can be laid out flat on the boards +on each side. Have ready narrow slips of white paper. Lay out one +<i>upper</i> wing flat, raising it gently and carefully by using the point +of a pin to draw it with, until the lower edge of this upper wing is +nearly at a right angle with the body. Pin it there temporarily with +one pin, carefully, while you draw up the <i>under</i> wing to a natural +position, and pin that. Put a slip of paper over both wings, pinning +one end above the upper and the other below the under wing, thus +holding both wings flat on the stretching board. Take out the pins +first put in the wings and let the paper do the holding. Treat the +opposite wings in the same way. Put as many moths or butterflies on +your stretching board as it will hold, and let them remain in a dry +room for two, three, or more days, according to size of moths and +dampness of climate. Put them in sunshine or near a stove to hasten +drying. When dry, take off the slips of paper, lift the moth out by +the pin through the body, and place him permanently in your +collection.—<i>Wm. C. Prime, in N.Y. Jour. of Commerce.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>THE CLAVI HARP.</h2> + +<p>The beautiful instrument which we illustrate to-day is the invention +of M. Dietz, of Brussels. His grandfather was one of the first +manufacturers of upright pianos, and being struck with the +difficulties and defects of the harp, constructed, in 1810, an +instrument <i>à cordes pincées à clavier</i>—the strings connected with a +keyboard.</p> + +<p>Many improvements have from time to time been made on this model, +which at last arrived at the perfection exhibited in the newly +patented clavi harp. The difficulty of learning to play the ordinary +harp, and the inherent inconveniences of the instrument, limit its +use. It is furnished with catgut strings, which are affected by all +the influences of temperature, and require to be frequently tuned. The +necessity of playing the strings with the fingers renders it difficult +to obtain equality in the sounds. It gives only the natural sounds of +the diatonic gamut, and in order to obtain changes of modulation, the +pedals must be employed. Harmonics and shakes are very difficult to +execute on the harp, and—last, but not least—it is not provided with +dampers. The external form of the clavi harp resembles that of the +harp, and all the cords, or strings, are visible. The mechanism which +produces the sound is put into motion directly a key is depressed, and +acts in a similar manner to the fingers of a harpist; the strings +being pulled, not struck. The clavi harp is free from all the +objections inherent in the ordinary harp. The strings are of a +peculiar metal, covered with an insulating material, which has for its +object the production of sounds similar to that obtained from catgut +strings, and to prevent the strings from falling out of tune. The +keyboard, exactly like that of a piano, permits of playing in all +keys, without the employment of pedals. The clavi harp has two pedals. +The first, connected with the dampers, permits the playing of +sustained sounds, or damping them instantaneously. The second pedal +divides certain strings into two equal parts, to give the harmonic +octaves; by the aid of this pedal the performer can produce ten +harmonic sounds simultaneously; on the ordinary harp only four +simultaneous harmonics are possible. An ordinary keyboard being the +intermediary between the performer and the movement of the mechanical +"fingers" which pluck the strings, perfect equality of manipulation is +secured. The mechanical "fingers" instantaneously quit the strings on +which they operate, and are ready for further action. The "fingers" +are covered with suitable material, so that their contact with the +strings takes place with the softness necessary to obtain the most +beautiful tones possible.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/13.png"><img src="./images/13_th.png" alt="THE CLAVI HARP." /></a><br /> THE CLAVI HARP.</p> + +<p>The clavi harp is much lighter than the piano—so that it can easily +be moved from room to room, or taken into an orchestra, by one or two +persons—and is of an elegant form, favorable to artistic decoration. +Sufficient will have been said to give a general idea of the new +instrument.</p> + +<p>It is undeniable that at the present day that beautiful instrument, +the harp, is seldom played; still seldomer well played. This is +attributable to the difficulties it presents to pupils. Its seven +pedals must be employed in different ways when notes are to be raised +or lowered a semitone; chromatic passages easy of execution on the +piano are almost impracticable on the harp. The same may be said of +the shake; and it is only after long and exclusive devotion to its +study that the harp can become endurable in the hands of an amateur, +or the means of furnishing a professional harpist with a moderate +income. It is needless to point out how far, in these respects, the +harp is surpassed by the clavi harp.</p> + +<p>Vocalists who accompany themselves on the harp are forced, by the +extension of their arms to reach the lower strings, and by frequent +employment of their feet on the pedals, into postures and movements +unfavorable to voice production; but they can accompany themselves +with ease on the clavi harp.</p> + +<p>Composers are restricted in the introduction of harp passages in their +orchestral scores, owing to the paucity of harpists. In some cases, +composers have written harp passages beyond the possibility of +execution by a single harpist, and the difficulty and cost of +providing two harpists have been inevitable. These difficulties will +disappear, and composers may give full play to their inspirations, +when the harp is displaced by the clavi harp.—<i>Building News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>THE ARGAND BURNER.</h2> + +<p>Argand, a poor Swiss, invented a lamp with a wick fitted into a hollow +cylinder, up which a current of air was permitted to pass, thus giving +a supply of oxygen to the interior as well as the exterior of the +circular frame. At first Argand used the lamp without a glass chimney. +One day he was busy in his work room and sitting before the burning +lamp. His little brother was amusing himself by placing a bottomless +oil flask over different articles. Suddenly he placed it upon the +flame of the lamp, which instantly shot up the long, circular neck of +the flask with increased brilliancy. It did more, for it flashed into +Argand's mind the idea of the lamp chimney, by which his invention was +perfected.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a><a name="Page_10276" id="Page_10276"></a>THE SUBTERRANEAN TEMPLES OF INDIA.</h2> + +<p>During the last fifteen years Bombay has undergone a complete +transformation, and the English are now making of it one of the +prettiest cities that it is possible to see. The environs likewise +have been improved, and thanks to the railways and <i>bungalows</i> (inns), +many excursions may now be easily made, and tourists can thus visit +the wonders of India, such as the subterranean temples of Ajunta, +Elephanta, Nassik, etc., without the difficulties of heretofore.</p> + +<p>The excavations of Elephanta are very near Bombay, and the trip in the +bay by boat to the island where they are located is a delightful one. +The deplorable state in which these temples now exist, with their +broken columns and statues, detracts much from their interest. The +temples of Ajunta, perhaps the most interesting of all, are easier of +access, and are situated 250 miles from Bombay and far from the +railway station at Pachora, where it is necessary to leave the cars. +Here an ox cart has to be obtained, and thirty miles have to be +traveled over roads that are almost impassable. It takes the oxen +fifteen hours to reach the bungalow of Furdapore, the last village +before the temples, and so it is necessary to purchase provisions. In +these wild and most picturesque places, the Hindoos cannot give you a +dinner, even of the most primitive character. It was formerly thought +that the subterranean temples of India were of an extraordinary +antiquity.</p> + +<p>The Hindoos still say that the gods constructed these works, but of +the national history of the country they are entirely ignorant, and +they do not, so to speak, know how to estimate the value of a century. +The researches made by Mr. Jas. Prinsep between 1830 and 1840 have +enlightened the scientific world as to the antiquity of the monuments +of India. He succeeded in deciphering the Buddhist inscriptions that +exist in all the north of India beyond the Indus as far as to the +banks of the Bengal. These discoveries opened the way to the work done +by Mr. Turnour on the Buddhist literature of Ceylon, and it was thus +that was determined the date of the birth of Sakya Muni, the founder +of Buddhism. He was born 625 B.C. and his death occurred eighty years +later, in 543. It is also certain that Buddhism did not become a true +religion until 300 years after these events, under the reign of Aoska. +The first subterranean temples cannot therefore be of a greater +antiquity. Researches that have been made more recently have in all +cases confirmed these different results, and we can now no longer +doubt that these temples have been excavated within a period of +fourteen centuries.</p> + +<p>Dasaratha, the grandson of Aoska, first excavated the temples known +under the name of Milkmaid, in Behar (Bengal), 200 B.C., and the +finishing of the last monument of Ellora, dedicated by Indradyumna to +Indra Subha, occurred during the twelfth century of our era.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/14a.png"> +<img src="./images/14a_th.png" alt="Fig. 1" /></a> +<br /><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—FACADE OF THE TEMPLE OF PANDU LENA.</p> + + +<p>We shall speak first of the temples of Pandu Lena, situated in the +vicinity of Nassik, near Bombay. These are less frequented by +travelers, and that is why I desired to make a sketch of them (Fig. +1). The church of Pandu Lena is very ancient. Inscriptions have been +found upon its front, and in the interior on one of the pillars, that +teach us that it was excavated by an inhabitant of Nassik, under the +reign of King Krishna, in honor of King Badrakaraka, the fifth of the +dynasty of Sunga, who mounted the throne 129 B.C.</p> + +<p>The front of this church, all carved in the rock, is especially +remarkable by the perfection of the ornaments. In these it is to be +seen that the artist has endeavored to imitate in rock a structure +made of wood. This is the case in nearly all the subterranean temples, +and it is presumable that the architects of the time did their +composing after the reminiscences of the antique wooden monuments that +still existed in India at their epoch, but which for a long time have +been forever destroyed. The large bay placed over the small front door +gives a mysterious light in the nave of the church, and sends the rays +directly upon the main altar or <i>dagoba</i>, leaving the lateral columns +and porticoes in a semi-obscurity well calculated to inspire +meditation and prayer.</p> + +<p>The temples and monasteries of Ajunta, too, are of the highest +interest. They consist of 27 grottoes, of which four only are churches +or <i>chaityas</i>. The 23 other excavations compose the monasteries or +<i>viharas</i>. Begun 100 B.C., they have remained since the tenth century +of our era as we now see them. The subterranean monasteries are +majestic in appearance. Sustained by <a name="Page_10277" id="Page_10277"></a>superb columns with curiously +sculptured capitals, they are ornamented with admirable frescoes which +make us live over again the ancient Hindoo life. The paintings are +unfortunately in a sad state, yet for the tourist they are an +inexhaustible source of interesting observations.</p> + +<p>The excavations, which have been made one after another in the wall of +volcanic rock of the mountain, form, like the latter, a sort of +semicircle. But the churches and monasteries have fronts whose +richness of ornamentation is unequaled. The profusion of the +sculptures and friezes, ornamented with the most artistic taste, +strikes you with so much the more admiration in that in these places +they offer a perfect and varied <i>ensemble</i> of the true type of the +Buddhist religion during this long period of centuries. The +picturesque landscape that surrounds these astonishing sculptures adds +to the beauty of these various pictures.</p> + +<p>The temples of Ellora are no less remarkable, but they do not offer +the same artistic <i>ensemble</i>. The excavations may be divided into +three series: ten of them belong to the religion of Buddha, fourteen +to that of Brahma, and six to the Dravidian sect, which resembles that +of Jaius, of which we still have numerous specimens in the Indies. +Excavated in the same amygdaloid rock, the temples and monasteries +differ in aspect from those of Ajunta, on account of the form of the +mountain. Ajunta is a nearly vertical wall. At Ellora, the rock has a +gentle slope, so that, in order to have the desired height for +excavating the immense halls of the <i>viharas</i> or the naves of the +<i>chaityas</i>, it became necessary to carve out a sort of forecourt in +front of each excavation.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/14b.png"> +<img src="./images/14b_th.png" alt="Fig. 2" /></a> +<br /><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—PLAN OF THE TEMPLES OF KYLAS.</p> + + +<p>Some of the churches thus have their entrance ornamented with +porticoes, and the immense monasteries (which are sometimes three +stories high) with lateral entrances and facades. The mountain has +also been excavated in other places, so as to form a relatively narrow +entrance, which gives access to the internal court of one of these +monasteries. It thus becomes nearly invisible to whoever passes along +the road formed on the sloping side of the mountain. The greatest +curiosity among the monuments of Ellora is the group of temples known +by the name of Kylas (Fig. 2). The monks have excavated the rocky +slope on three faces so as to isolate completely, in the center, an +immense block, out of which they have carved an admirable temple (see +T in the plan, Fig. 2), with its annexed chapels. These temples are +thus roofless and are sculptured externally in the form of pagodas. +Literally covered with sculptures composed with infinite art, they +form a very unique collection. These temples seem to rest upon a +fantastic base in which are carved in alto rilievo all the gods of +Hindoo mythology, along with symbolic monsters and rows of elephants. +These are so many caryatides of strange and mysterious aspect, +certainly designed to strike the imagination of the ancient Indian +population (Fig. 3).</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/14c.png"> +<img src="./images/14c_th.png" alt="Fig. 3." /></a> +<br /><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.—SUBTERRANEAN TEMPLE AT ELLORA. +</p> + +<p>Two flights of steps at S and S (Fig. 2) near the main entrance of +Kylas lead to the top of this unique base and to the floor of the +temples.</p> + +<p>The interior of the central pagoda, ornamented with sixteen +magnificent columns, formerly covered, like the walls, with paintings, +and the central sanctuary that contains the great idol, are composed +with a perfect understanding of architectural proportions.</p> + +<p>Exit from this temple is effected through two doors at the sides. +These open upon a platform where there are five pagodas of smaller +size that equal the central temple in the beauty of their sculptures +and the elegance of their proportions.</p> + +<p>Around these temples great excavations have been made in the sides of +the mountain. At A (Fig. 2), on a level with the ground, is seen a +great cloister ornamented with a series of bass reliefs representing +the principal gods of the Hindoo paradise. The side walls contain +large, two-storied halls ornamented with superb sculptures of various +divinities. Columns of squat proportions support the ceilings. A small +stairway, X (Fig. 2), leads to one of these halls. Communication was +formerly had with its counterpart by a stone bridge which is now +broken. There still exist two (P) which lead from the floor of the +central temple to the first story of the detached pavilion or +<i>mantapa</i>, D, and to that of the entrance pavilion or <i>gopura</i>, C. At +G we still see two sorts of obelisks ornamented with arabesques and +designed for holding the fires during religious fetes. At E are seen +two colossal elephants carved out of the rock. These structures, made +upon a general plan of remarkable character, are truly without an +equal in the entire world.</p> + +<p>We may thus see how much art feeling the architects of these remote +epochs possessed, and express our wonder at the extreme taste that +presided over all these marvelous subterranean structures.—<i>A. +Tissandier, in La Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<div class="center">[<span class="smcap">Nature.</span>]</div> + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>TIMBER, AND SOME OF ITS DISEASES.<a name="FNanchor_1_7" id="FNanchor_1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_7"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By H. MARSHALL WARD.</h3> + +<h3>IV.</h3> + +<p>Before proceeding further it will be of advantage to describe another +tree-killing fungus, which has long been well known to mycologists as +one of the commonest of our toadstools growing from rotten stumps and +decaying wood-work such as old water pipes, bridges, etc. This is +<i>Agaricus melleus</i> (Fig. 15), a tawny yellow toadstool with a ring +round its stem, and its gills running down on the stem and bearing +white spores, and which springs in tufts from the base of dead and +dying trees during September and October. It is very common in this +country, and I have often found it on beeches and other trees in +Surrey, but it has been regarded as simply springing from the dead +rotten wood, etc., at the base of the tree. As a matter of fact, +however, this toadstool is traced to a series of dark shining strings, +looking almost like the purple-black leaf stalks of the maidenhair +fern, and these strings branch and meander in the wood of the tree, +and in the soil, and may attain even great lengths—several feet, for +instance. The interest of all this is enhanced when we know that until +the last few years these long black cords were supposed to be a +peculiar form of fungus, and were known as <i>Rhizomorpha</i>. They are, +however, the subterranean vegetative parts (mycelium) of the agaric +we are concerned with, and they can be traced without break of +continuity from the base of the toadstool into the soil and tree (Fig. +16). I have several times followed these dark mycelial cords into the +timber of old beeches and spruce fir stumps, but they are also to be +found in oaks, plums, various conifers, and probably may occur in most +of our timber trees if opportunity offers.</p> + +<p>The most important point in this connection is that <i>Agaricus melleus</i> +becomes in these cases a true parasite, producing fatal disease in the +attacked timber trees, and, as Hartig has conclusively proved, +spreading from one tree to another by means of the rhizomorphs under +ground. Only the last summer I had an opportunity of witnessing, on a +large scale, the damage that can be done to timber by this fungus. +Hundreds of spruce firs with fine tall stems, growing on the hillsides +of a valley in the Bavarian Alps, were shown to me as "victims to a +kind of rot." In most cases the trees (which at first sight appeared +only slightly unhealthy) gave a hollow sound when struck, and the +foresters told me that nearly every tree was rotten at the core. I had +found the mycelium of <i>Agaricus melleus</i> in the rotting stumps of +previously felled trees all up and down the same valley, but it was +not satisfactory to simply assume that the "rot" was the same in both +cases, though the foresters assured me it was so.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<img src="./images/15a.png" alt="Fig. 15" /> +<p class="longcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15.—A small group of <i>Agaricus (Armillaria) +melleus</i>. The toadstool is tawny yellow, and produces white spores; +the gills are decurrent, and the stem bears a ring. The fine hair-like +appendages on the pileus should be bolder.</p></div> + +<p>By the kindness of the forest manager I was allowed to fell one of +these trees. It was chosen at hazard, after the men had struck a large +number, to show me how easily the hollow trees could be detected by +the sound. The tree was felled by sawing close to the roots; the +interior was hollow for several feet up the stem, and two of the main +roots were hollow as far as we could poke canes, and no doubt further. +The dark-colored rotting mass around the hollow was wet and spongy, +and consisted of disintegrated wood held together by a mesh work of +the rhizomorphs. Further outward the wood was yellow, with white +patches scattered in the yellow matrix, and, again, the rhizomorph +strands were seen running in all directions through the mass.</p> + +<div class="center"><img src="./images/15b.png" alt="Fig. 16" /> +<p class="longcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16.—Sketch of the base of a young tree (<i>s</i>) killed +by <i>Agaricus melleus</i>, which has attacked the roots, and developed +rhizomorphs at r, and fructifications. To the right the +fructifications have been traced by dissection to the rhizomorph +strands which produced them.</p></div> + +<p>Not to follow this particular case further—since we are concerned +with the general features of the diseases of timber—I may pass to the +consideration of the diagnosis of this disease caused by <i>Agaricus +melleus</i>, as contrasted with that due to <i>Trametes radiciperda</i>.</p> + +<p>Of course no botanist would confound the fructification of the +<i>Trametes</i> with that of the <i>Agaricus</i>; but the fructifications of +such fungi only appear at certain seasons, and that of <i>Trametes +radiciperda</i> may be underground, and it is important to be able to +distinguish such forms in the absence of the fructifications.</p> + +<p>The external symptoms of the disease, where young trees are +concerned, are similar in both cases. In a plantation at Freising, in +Bavaria, Prof. Hartig showed me young Weymouth pines (<i>P. Strobus</i>) +attacked and killed by <i>Agaricus melleus</i>. The leaves turn pale and +yellow, and the lower part of the stem—the so-called "collar"—begins +to die and rot, the cortex above still looking healthy. So far the +symptoms might be those due to the destructive action of other forms +of tree-killing fungi.</p> + +<p>On uprooting a young pine, killed or badly attacked by the agaric, the +roots are found to be matted together with a ball of earth permeated +by the resin which has flowed out; this is very pronounced in the case +of some pines, less so in others. On lifting up the scales of the +bark, there will be found, not the silky white, delicate mycelium of +the <i>Trametes</i>, but probably the dark cord-like rhizomorphs; there may +also be flat white rhizomorphs in the young stages, but they are +easily distinguished. These dark rhizomorphs may also be found +spreading around into the soil from the roots, and they look so much +like thin roots indeed that we can at once understand their +name—rhizomorph. The presence of the rhizomorphs and (in the case of +the resinous pines) the outflow of resin and sticking together of soil +and roots are good distinctive features. No less evident are the +differences to be found on examining the diseased timber, as +exemplified by Prof. Hartig's magnificent specimens. The wood attacked +assumes brown and bright yellow colors, and is marked by sharp brown +or nearly black lines, bounding areas of one color and separating them +from areas of another color. In some cases the yellow color is quite +bright—canary yellow, or nearly so. The white areas scattered in this +yellow matrix have no black specks in them, and can thus be +distinguished from those due to the <i>Trametes</i>. In advanced stages the +purple-black rhizomorphs will be found in the soft, spongy wood.</p> + +<p>The great danger of <i>Agaricus melleus</i> is its power of extending +itself beneath the soil by means of the spreading rhizomorphs; these +are known to reach lengths of several feet, and to pass from root to +root, keeping a more or less horizontal course at a depth of six or +eight inches or so in the ground. On reaching the root of another +tree, the tips of the branched rhizomorph penetrate the living cortex, +and grow forward in the plane of the cambium, sending off smaller +ramifications into the medullary rays and (in the case of the pines, +etc.) into the resin passages. The hyphæ of the ultimate twigs enter +the tracheides, vessels, etc., of the wood, and delignify them, with +changes of color and substance as described. Reference must be made to +Prof. Hartig's publications for the details which serve to distinguish +histologically between timber attacked by <i>Agaricus melleus</i> and by +<i>Trametes</i> or other fungi. Enough has been said to show that diagnosis +is possible, and indeed to an expert not difficult.</p> + +<p>It is at least clear from the above sketch that we can distinguish +these two kinds of diseases of timber, and it will be seen on +reflection that this depends on knowledge of the structure and +functions of the timber and cambium on the one hand and proper +acquaintance with the biology of the fungi on the other. It is the +victory of the fungus over the timber in the struggle for existence +which brings about the disease; and one who is ignorant of these +points will be apt to go astray in any reasoning which concerns the +whole question. Any one knowing the facts and understanding their +bearings, on the contrary, possesses the key to a reasonable treatment +of the timber; and this is important, because the two diseases +referred to can be eradicated from young plantations and the areas of +their ravages limited in older forests.</p> + +<p>Suppose, for example, a plantation presents the following case. A tree +is found to turn sickly and die, with the symptoms described, and +trees immediately surrounding it are turning yellow. The first tree is +at once cut down, and its roots and timber examined, and the diagnosis +shows the presence of <i>Agaricus melleus</i> or of <i>Trametes radiciperda</i>, +as the case may be. Knowing this, the expert also knows more. If the +timber is being destroyed by the <i>Trametes</i>, he knows that the +ravaging agent can travel from tree to tree by means of roots in +contact, and he at once cuts a ditch around the diseased area, taking +care to include the recently infected and neighboring trees. Then the +diseased timber is cut, because it will get worse the longer it +stands, and the diseased parts burnt. If <i>Agaricus melleus</i> is the +destroying agent, a similar procedure is necessary; but regard must be +had to the much more extensive wanderings of the rhizomorphs in the +soil, and it may be imperative to cut the moat round more of the +neighboring trees. Nevertheless, it has also to be remembered that the +rhizomorphs run not far below the surface. However, my purpose here is +not to treat this subject in detail, but to indicate the lines along +which practical application of the truths of botanical science may be +looked for. The reader who wishes to go further into the subject may +consult special works. Of course the spores are a source of danger, +but need be by no means so much so where knowledge is intelligently +applied in removing young fructifications.</p> + +<p>I will now pass on to a few remarks on a class of disease-producing +timber fungi which present certain peculiarities in their biology. The +two fungi which have been described are true parasites, attacking the +roots of living trees, and causing disease in the timber by traveling +up the cambium, etc., into the stem; the fungi I am about to refer to +are termed wound parasites, because they attack the timber of trees at +the surfaces of wounds, such as cut branches, torn bark, frost cracks, +etc., and spread from thence into the sound timber. When we are +reminded how many sources of danger are here open in the shape of +wounds, there is no room for wonder that such fungi as these are so +widely spread. Squirrels, rats, cattle, etc., nibble or rub off bark; +snow and dew break branches; insects bore into stems; wind, hail, +etc., injure young parts of trees, and in fact small wounds are formed +in such quantities that if the fructifications of such fungi as those +referred to are permitted to ripen indiscriminately, the wonder is not +that access to the timber is gained, but rather that a tree of any +considerable age escapes at all.</p> + +<p>One of the commonest of these is <i>Polyporus sulphureus</i>, which does +great injury to all kinds of standing timber, especially the oak, +poplar, willow, hazel, pear, larch, and others. It is probably well +known to all foresters, as its fructification projects horizontally +from the diseased trunks as tiers of bracket-shaped bodies of <a name="Page_10278" id="Page_10278"></a>a +cheese-like consistency; bright yellow below, where the numerous +minute pores are, and orange or somewhat vermilion above, giving the +substance a coral-like appearance. I have often seen it in the +neighborhood of Englefield Green and Windsor, and it is very common in +England generally.</p> + +<p>If the spore of this <i>Polyporus</i> lodges on a wound which exposes the +cambium and young wood, the filaments grow into the medullary rays and +the vessels and soon spread in all directions in the timber, +especially longitudinally, causing the latter to assume a warm brown +color and to undergo decay. In the infested timber are to observed +radial and other crevices filled with the dense felt-like mycelium +formed by the common growth of the innumerable branched filaments. In +bad cases it is possible to strip sheets of this yellowish white felt +work out of the cracks, and on looking at the timber more closely (of +the oak, for instance), the vessels are found to be filled with the +fungus filaments, and look like long white streaks in longitudinal +sections of the wood—showing as white dots in transverse sections.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary to dwell on the details of the histology of the +diseased timber; the ultimate filaments of the fungus penetrate the +walls of all the cells and vessels, dissolve and destroy the starch in +the medullary rays, and convert the lignified walls of the wood +elements back again into cellulose. This evidently occurs by some +solvent action, and is due to a ferment excreted from the fungus +filaments, and the destroyed timber becomes reduced to a brown mass of +powder.</p> + +<p>I cannot leave this subject without referring to a remarkably +interesting museum specimen which Prof. Hartig showed and explained to +me last summer. This is a block of wood containing an enormous +irregularly spheroidal mass of the white felted mycelium of this +fungus, <i>Polyporus sulphureus</i>. The mass had been cut clean across, +and the section exposed a number of thin brown ovoid bodies embedded +in the closely woven felt; these bodies were of the size and shape of +acorns, but were simply hollow shells filled with the same felt-like +mycelium as that in which they were embedded. They were cut in all +directions, and so appeared as circles in some cases. These bodies +are, in fact, the outer shells of so many acorns, embedded in and +hollowed out by the mycelium of <i>Polyporus sulphureus</i>. Hartig's +ingenious explanation of their presence speaks for itself. A squirrel +had stored up the acorns in a hollow in the timber, and had not +returned to them—what tragedy intervenes must be left to the +imagination. The <i>Polyporus</i> had then invaded the hollow, and the +acorns, and had dissolved and destroyed the cellular and starchy +contents of the latter, leaving only the cuticularized and corky +shells, looking exactly like fossil eggs in the matrix. I hardly think +geology can beat this for a true story.</p> + +<p>The three diseases so far described serve very well as types of a +number of others known to be due to the invasion of timber and the +dissolution of the walls of its cells, fibers, and vessels by +hymenomycetous fungi, <i>i.e.</i>, by fungi allied to the toadstools and +polypores. They all "rot" the timber by destroying its structure and +substance, starting from the cambium and medullary rays.</p> + +<p>To mention one or two additional forms, <i>Trametes Pini</i> is common on +pines, but, unlike its truly parasitic ally, <i>Tr. radiciperda</i>, which +attacks sound roots, it is a wound parasite, and seems able to gain +access to the timber only if the spores germinate on exposed surfaces. +The disease it produces is very like that caused by its ally; probably +none but an expert could distinguish between them, though the +differences are clear when the histology is understood.</p> + +<p><i>Polyporus fulvus</i> is remarkable because its hyphæ destroy the middle +lamella, and thus isolate the tracheides in the timber of firs; +<i>Polyporus borealis</i> also produces disease in the timber of standing +conifers; <i>Polyporus igniarius</i> is one of the commonest parasites on +trees such as the oak, etc., and produces in them a disease not unlike +that due to the last form mentioned; <i>Polyporus dryadeus</i> also +destroys oaks, and is again remarkable because its hyphæ destroy the +middle lamella.</p> + +<p>With reference to the two fungi last mentioned I cannot avoid +describing a specimen in the Museum of Forest Botany in Munich, since +it seems to have a possible bearing on a very important question of +biology, viz., the action of soluble ferments.</p> + +<p>It has already been stated that some of these tree-killing fungi +excrete ferments which attack and dissolve starch grains, and it is +well known that starch grains are stored up in the cells of the +medullary rays found in timber. Now, <i>Polyporus dryadeus</i> and <i>P. +igniarius</i> are such fungi; their hyphæ excrete a ferment which +completely destroys the starch grains in the cells of the medullary +rays of the oak, a tree very apt to be attacked by these two +parasites, though <i>P. igniarius</i>, at any rate, attacks many other +dicotyledonous trees as well. It occasionally happens that an oak is +attacked by both of these polyporei, and their mycelia become +intermingled in the timber; when this is the case, the <i>starch grains +remain intact in those cells which are invaded simultaneously by the +hyphæ of both fungi</i>. Prof. Hartig lately showed me longitudinal +radial sections of oak timber thus attacked, and the medullary rays +showed up as glistening white plates. These plates consist of nearly +pure starch; the hyphæ have destroyed the cell walls, but left the +starch intact. It is easy to suggest that the two ferments acting +together exert (with respect to the starch) a sort of inhibitory +action one on the other; but it is also obvious that this is not the +ultimate explanation, and one feels that the matter deserves +investigation.</p> + +<p>It now becomes a question—What other types of timber diseases shall +be described? Of course the limits of a popular article are too narrow +for anything approaching an exhaustive treatment of such a subject, +and nothing has as yet been said of several other diseases due to +crust-like fungi often found on decaying stems, or of others due to +certain minute fungi which attack healthy roots. Then there is a class +of diseases which commence in the bark or cortex of trees, and extend +thence into the cambium and timber: some of these "cankers," as they +are often called, are proved to be due to the ravages of fungi, though +there is another series of apparently similar "cankers" which are +caused by variations in the environment—the atmosphere and weather +generally.</p> + +<p>It would need a long article to place the reader <i>au courant</i> with the +chief results of what is known of these diseases, and I must be +content here with the bare statement that these "cankers" are in the +main due to local injury or destruction of the cambium. If the normal +cylindrical sheet of cambium is locally irritated or destroyed, no one +can wonder that the thickening layers of wood are not continued +normally at the locality in question; the uninjured cells are also +influenced, and abnormal cushions of tissue formed, which vary in +different cases. Now, in "cankers" this is—put shortly—what happens: +it may be, and often is, due to the local action of a parasitic +fungus; or it may be, and, again, often is, owing to injuries produced +by the weather, in the broad sense, and saprophytic organisms may +subsequently invade the wounds.</p> + +<p>The details as to how the injury thus set up is propagated to other +parts—how the "canker" spreads into the bark and wood around—<i>are</i> +details, and would require considerable space for their description: +the chief point here is again the destructive action of mycelia of +various fungi, which by means of their powers of pervading the cells +and vessels of the wood, and of secreting soluble ferments which break +down the structure of the timber, render the latter diseased and unfit +for use. The only too well known larch disease is a case in point; but +since this is a subject which needs a chapter to itself, I may pass on +to more general remarks on what we have learned so far.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that, whereas such fungi as <i>Trametes radiciperda</i> +and <i>Agaricus melleus</i> are true parasites which can attack the living +roots of trees, the other fungi referred to can only reach the +interior of the timber from the exposed surfaces of wounds. It has +been pointed out along what lines the special treatment of the former +diseases must be followed, and it only remains to say of the latter: +take care of the cortex and cambium of the tree, and the timber will +take care of itself. It is unquestionably true that the diseases due +to wound parasites can be avoided if no open wounds are allowed to +exist. Many a fine oak and beech perishes before its time, or its +timber becomes diseased and a high wind blows the tree down, because +the spores of one of these fungi alight on the cut or torn surface of +a pruned or broken branch. Of course it is not always possible to +carry out the surgical operations, so to speak, which are necessary to +protect a tree which has lost a limb, and in other cases no doubt +those responsible have to discuss whether it costs more to perform the +operations on a large scale than to risk the timber. With these +matters I have nothing to do here, but the fact remains that by +properly closing over open wounds, and allowing the surrounding +cambium to cover them up, as it will naturally do, the term of life of +many a valuable tree can be prolonged, and its timber not only +prevented from becoming diseased and deteriorating, but actually +increased in value.</p> + +<p>There is no need probably for me to repeat that, although the present +essay deals with certain diseases of timber due to fungi, there are +other diseases brought about entirely by inorganic agencies. Some of +these were touched upon in the last article, and I have already put +before the readers of <i>Nature</i> some remarks as to how trees and their +timber may suffer from the roots being in an unsuitable medium.</p> + +<p>In the next paper it is proposed to deal with the so-called "dry rot" +in timber which has been felled and cut up—a disease which has +produced much distress at various times and in various countries.</p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_7" id="Footnote_1_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_7">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>Continued from <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, No, 640, p. 10222.</p></div> + +<hr /> + + +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h2> + +<h3>Architects and Builders Edition</h3> + +<p class="center">$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.</p> + +<p>This is a Special Edition of the <span class="smcap">Scientific American</span>, issued +monthly—on the first day of the month. 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differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e51c5ea --- /dev/null +++ b/16671-h/images/8.png diff --git a/16671-h/images/title.png b/16671-h/images/title.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..00b2f06 --- /dev/null +++ b/16671-h/images/title.png diff --git a/16671-h/images/title_th.png b/16671-h/images/title_th.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..38980be --- /dev/null +++ b/16671-h/images/title_th.png diff --git a/16671.txt b/16671.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e6f48c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/16671.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4461 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 643, +April 28, 1888, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 643, April 28, 1888 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 7, 2005 [EBook #16671] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 643 + + + + +NEW YORK, APRIL 28, 1888 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXV., No. 643. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHAEOLOGY.--The Subterranean Temples of India.--The + subterranean temples of India described and illustrated, the + wonderful works of the ancient dwellers in Hindostan.--3 + illustrations. 10275 + +II. BIOGRAPHY.--General F. Perrier.--Portrait and biography of + the French geodesian, his triangulations in Algiers and + Corsica.--1 illustration. 10264 + + The Crown Prince of Germany--Prince William and his son.-- + Biographical note of Prince William, the heir to the German + throne.--1 illustration. 10263 + +III. BIOLOGY.--Poisons.--Abstract of a lecture by Prof. MEYMOTT + TIDY, giving the relations of poisons to life. 10273 + + The President's Annual Address to the Royal Microscopical + Society.--The theory of putrefaction and putrefactive + organisms.--Exhaustive review of the subject. 10264 + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--Molecular Weights.--A new and simple method + of determining molecular weights for unvolatilizable + substances. 10271 + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Concrete.--By JOHN LUNDIE.--A practical + paper on the above subject.--The uses and proper methods of + handling concrete, machine mixing contrasted with hand + mixing. 10267 + + Timber and Some of its Diseases.--By H. MARSHALL WARD.--The + continuation of this important treatise on timber destruction, + the fungi affecting wood, and treatment of the troubles + arising therefrom. 10277 + +VI. ENGINEERING.--Estrade's High Speed Locomotive.--A comparative + review of the engineering features of M. Estrade's new + engine, designed for speeds of 77 to 80 miles an hour.--1 + illustration. 10266 + + Machine Designing.--By JOHN B. SWEET.--First portion of a + Franklin Institute lecture on this eminently practical + subject.--2 illustrations. 10267 + +VII. METEOROLOGY.--The Peak of Teneriffe.--Electrical and + meteorological observations on the summit of Teneriffe. 10265 + +VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--Analysis of a Hand Fire Grenade.--By + CHAS. CATLETT and R.C. PRICE.--The contents of a fire + grenade and its origin. 10271 + + How to Catch and Preserve Moths and Butterflies.--Practical + directions for collectors. 10275 + + The Clavi Harp.--A new instrument, a harp played by means of + keys arranged on a keyboard--1 illustration. 10275 + + Inquiries Regarding the Incubator.--By P.H. JACOBS.--Notes + concerning the incubator described in a previous issue + (SUPPLEMENT, No. 630).--Practical points. 10265 + +IX. PHYSICS.--The Direct Optical Projection of Electro-dynamic + Lines of Force, and other Electro-dynamic Phenomena.--By Prof. + J.W. MOORE--Second portion of this profusely illustrated paper, + giving a great variety of experiments on the phenomena of + loop-shaped conductors.--26 illustrations. 10272 + + The Mechanics of a Liquid.--An ingenious method of measuring + the volume of fibrous and porous substances without immersion + in any liquid.--1 illustration. 10269 + +X. PHYSIOLOGY.--Artificial Mother for Infants.--An apparatus + resembling an incubator for infants that are prematurely + born.--Results attained by its use.--1 illustration. 10274 + + Gastrostomy.--Artificial feeding for cases of obstructed + oesophagus.--The apparatus and its application.--2 + illustrations. 10274 + +XI. PHOTOGRAPHY.--How to Make Photo-Printing Plates.--The + process of making relief plates for printers. 10271 + +XII. TECHNOLOGY.--Improved Current Meter.--A simple apparatus + for measuring air and water currents without indexes or other + complications.--1 illustration. 10270 + + The Flower Industry of Grasse.--Methods of manufacturing + perfumes in France.--The industry as practiced in the town + of Grasse. 10270 + + Volute Double Distilling Condenser.--A distiller and condenser + for producing fresh water from sea water.--3 illustrations. 10269 + + The Argand Burner.--The origin of the invention of the Argand + burner. 10275 + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: THE CROWN PRINCE OF GERMANY--PRINCE WILLIAM AND SON +[From a Photograph]] + + + + +THE CROWN PRINCE OF GERMANY--PRINCE WILLIAM AND HIS SON. + + +At a moment when the entire world has its eyes fixed upon the invalid +of the Villa Zurio, it appears to us to be of interest to publish the +portrait of his son, Prince William. The military spirit of the +Hohenzollerns is found in him in all its force and exclusiveness. It +was hoped that the accession of the crown prince to the throne of +Germany would temper the harshness of it and modernize its aspect, but +the painful disease from which he is suffering warns us that the +moment may soon come in which the son will be called to succeed the +Emperor William, his grandfather, of whom he is morally the perfect +portrait. Like him, he loves the army, and makes it the object of his +entire attention. No colonel more scrupulously performs his duty than +he, when he enters the quarters of the regiment of red hussars whose +chief he is. + +His solicitude for the army manifests itself openly. It is not without +pride that he regards his eldest son, who will soon be six years old, +and who is already clad in the uniform of a fusilier of the Guard. +Prince William is a soldier in spirit, just as harsh toward himself as +severe toward others. So he is the friend and emulator of Prince Von +Bismarck, who sees in him the depositary of the military traditions of +the house of Prussia, and who is preparing him by his lessons and his +advice to receive and preserve the patrimony that his ancestors have +conquered. + +Prince William was born January 27, 1859. On the 29th of February, +1881, he married Princess Augusta Victoria, daughter of the Duke of +Sleswick-Holstein. Their eldest son, little Prince William, +represented with his father in our engraving, was born at Potsdam, May +6, 1882.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + + + + +GENERAL F. PERRIER. + + +Francois Perrier, who was born at Valleraugue (Gard), on the 18th of +April, 1835, descended from an honorable family of Protestants, of +Cevennes. After finishing his studies at the Lyceum of Nimes and at +St. Barbe College, he was received at the Polytechnic School in 1853, +and left it in 1857, as a staff officer. + +Endowed with perseverance and will, he owed all his grades and all his +success to his splendid conduct and his important labors. Lieutenant +in 1857, captain in 1860, major of cavalry in 1874, lieutenant-colonel +in 1879, he received a year before his death the stars of +brigadier-general. He was commander of the Legion of Honor and +president of the council-general of his department. + +General Perrier long ago made a name for himself in science. After +some remarkable publications upon the trigonometrical junction of +France and England (1861) and upon the triangulation and leveling of +Corsica (1865), he was put at the head of the geodesic service of the +army in 1879. In 1880, the learned geodesian was sent as a delegate to +the conference of Berlin for settling the boundaries of the new +Greco-Turkish frontiers. In January of the same year, he was elected a +member of the Academy of Sciences, as successor to M. De Tessan. He +was a member of the bureau of longitudes from 1875. + +In 1882, Perrier was sent to Florida to observe the transit of Venus. +Thanks to his activity and ability, his observations were a complete +success. Thenceforward, his celebrity continued to increase until his +last triangulating operations in Algeria. + +[Illustration: GENERAL FRANCOIS PERRIER.] + +"Do you not remember," said Mr. Janssen recently to the Academy of +Sciences, "the feeling of satisfaction that the whole country felt +when it learned the entire success of that grand geodesic operation +that united Spain with our Algeria over the Mediterranean, and passed +through France a meridian arc extending from the north of England as +far as to the Sahara, that is to say, an arc exceeding in length the +greatest arcs that had been measured up till then? This splendid +result attracted all minds, and rendered Perrier's name popular. But +how much had this success been prepared by long and conscientious +labors that cede in nothing to it in importance? The triangulation and +leveling of Corsica, and the connecting of it with the Continent; the +splendid operations executed in Algeria, which required fifteen years +of labor, and led to the measurement of an arc of parallels of nearly +10 deg. in extent, that offers a very peculiar interest for the study of +the earth's figure; and, again, that revision of the meridian of +France in which it became necessary to utilize all the progress that +had been made since the beginning of the century in the construction +of instruments and in methods of observation and calculation. And it +must be added that General Perrier had formed a school of scientists +and devoted officers who were his co-laborers, and upon whom we must +now rely to continue his work." + +The merits of General Perrier gained him the honor of being placed at +the head of a service of high importance, the geographical service of +the army, to the organization of which he devoted his entire energy. + +In General Perrier, the man ceded in nothing to the worker and +scientist. Good, affable, generous, he joined liveliness and good +humor with courage and energy. Incessantly occupied with the +prosperity and grandeur of his country, he knew that true patriotism +does not consist in putting forth vain declamations, but in +endeavoring to accomplish useful and fruitful work.--_La Nature._ + +General Perrier died at Montpellier on the 20th of February, 1888. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PRESIDENT'S ANNUAL ADDRESS TO THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Delivered by the Rev. Dr. Dallinger, F.R.S., at the + annual meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society, Feb. 8, + 1888.--_Nature._] + + +Retrospect may involve regret, but can scarcely involve anxiety. To +one who fully appreciates the actual, and above all the potential, +importance of this society in its bearing upon the general progress of +scientific research in every field of physical inquiry, the +responsibilities of president will not be lightly, while they may +certainly be proudly, undertaken. + +I think it may be now fairly taken for granted that, as this society +has, from the outset, promoted and pointed to the higher scientific +perfection of the microscope, so now, more than ever, it is its +special function to place this in the forefront as its _raison +d'etre_. The microscope has been long enough in the hands of amateur +and expert alike to establish itself as an instrument having an +application to every actual and conceivable department of human +research; and while in the earliest days of this society it was +possible for a zealous Fellow to have seen, and been more or less +familiar with, all the applications to which it then had been put, it +is different to-day. Specialists in the most diverse areas of research +are assiduously applying the instrument to their various subjects, and +with results that, if we would estimate aright, we must survey with +instructed vision the whole ground which advancing science covers. + +From this it is manifest that this society cannot hope to infold, or +at least to organically bind to itself, men whose objects of research +are so diverse. + +But these are all none the less linked by one inseverable bond; it is +the microscope; and while, amid the inconceivable diversity of its +applications, it remains manifest that this society has for its +primary object the constant progress of the instrument--whether in its +mechanical construction or its optical appliances; whether the +improvements shall bear upon the use of high powers or low powers; +whether it shall be improvement that shall apply to its commercial +employment, its easier professional application, or its most exalted +scientific use; so long as this shall be the undoubted aim of the +Royal Microscopical Society, its existence may well be the pride of +Englishmen, and will commend itself more and more to men of all +countries. + +This, and this only, can lift such a society out of what I believe has +ceased to be its danger, that of forgetting that in proportion as the +optical principles of the microscope are understood, and the theory of +microscopical vision is made plain, the value of the instrument over +every region to which it can be applied, and in all the varied hands +that use it, is increased without definable limit. It is therefore by +such means that the true interests of science are promoted. + +It is one of the most admirable features of this society that it has +become cosmopolitan in its character in relation to the instrument, +and all the ever-improving methods of research employed with it. From +meeting to meeting it is not one country, or one continent even, that +is represented on our tables. Nay, more, not only are we made familiar +with improvements brought from every civilized part of the world, +referring alike to the microscope itself and every instrument devised +by specialists for its employment in every department of research; but +also, by the admirable persistence of Mr. Crisp and Mr. Jno. Mayall, +Jr., we are familiarized with every discovery of the old forms of the +instrument wherever found or originally employed. + +The value of all this cannot be overestimated, for it will, even where +prejudices as to our judgment may exist, gradually make it more and +more clear that this society exists to promote and acknowledge +improvements in every constituent of the microscope, come from +whatever source they may; and, in connection with this, to promote by +demonstrations, exhibitions, and monographs the finest applications of +the finest instruments for their respective purposes. + +To give all this its highest value, of course, the theoretical side of +our instrument must occupy the attention of the most accomplished +experts. We may not despair that our somewhat too practical past in +this respect may right itself in our own country; but meantime the +splendid work of German students and experts is placed by the wise +editors of our journal within the reach of all. + +I know of no higher hope for this important society than that it may +continue in ever increasing strength to promote, criticise, and +welcome from every quarter of the world whatever will improve the +microscope in itself and in any of its applications, from the most +simple to the most complex and important in which its employment is +possible. + +There are two points of some practical interest to which I desire for +a few moments to call your attention. The former has reference to the +group of organisms to which I have for so many years directed your +attention, viz., the "monads," which throughout I have called +"putrefactive organisms." + +There can be no longer any doubt that the destructive process of +putrefaction is essentially a process of fermentation. + +The fermentative saprophyte is as absolutely essential to the setting +up of destructive rotting or putrescence in a putrescible fluid as the +torula is to the setting up of alcoholic fermentation in a saccharine +fluid. Make the presence of torulae impossible, and you exclude with +certainty fermentative action. + +In precisely the same way, provide a proteinaceous solution, capable +of the highest putrescence, but absolutely sterilized, and placed in +an optically pure or absolutely calcined air; and while these +conditions are maintained, no matter what length of time may be +suffered to elapse, the putrescible fluid will remain absolutely +without trace of decay. + +But suffer the slightest infection of the protected and pure air to +take place, or, from some putrescent source, inoculate your sterilized +fluid with the minutest atom, and shortly turbidity, offensive scent, +and destructive putrescence ensue. + +As in the alcoholic, lactic, or butyric ferments, the process set up +is shown to be dependent upon and concurrent with the vegetative +processes of the demonstrated organisms characterizing these ferments; +so it can be shown with equal clearness and certainty that the entire +process of what is known as putrescence is equally and as absolutely +dependent on the vital processes of a given and discoverable series of +organisms. + +Now it is quite customary to treat the fermentative agency in +putrefaction as if it were wholly bacterial, and, indeed, the +putrefactive group of bacteria are now known as saprophytes, or +saprophytic bacteria, as distinct from morphologically similar, but +physiologically dissimilar, forms known as parasitic or pathogenic +bacteria. + +It is indeed usually and justly admitted that _B. termo_ is the +exciting cause of fermentative putrefaction. Cohn has in fact +contended that it is the distinctive ferment of all putrefactions, and +that it is to decomposing proteinaceous solutions what _Torula +cerevisiae_ is to the fermenting fluids containing sugar. + +In a sense, this is no doubt strictly true: it is impossible to find a +decomposing proteinaceous solution, at any stage, without finding this +form in vast abundance. + +But it is well to remember that in nature putrefactive ferments must +go on to an extent rarely imitated or followed in the laboratory. As a +rule, the pabulum in which the saprophytic organisms are provided and +"cultured" is infusions, or extracts of meat carefully filtered, and, +if vegetable matter is used, extracts of fruit, treated with equal +care, and if needful neutralized, are used in a similar way. To these +may be added all the forms of gelatine, employed in films, masses and +so forth. + +But in following the process of destructive fermentation as it takes +place in large masses of tissue, animal or vegetable, but far +preferably the former, as they lie in water at a constant temperature +of from 60 deg. to 65 deg. F., it will be seen that the fermentative process +is the work, not of one organism, nor, judging by the standard of our +present knowledge, of one specified class of vegetative forms, but by +organisms which, though related to each other, are in many respects +greatly dissimilar, not only morphologically, but also embryologically, +and even physiologically. + +Moreover, although this is a matter that will want most thorough and +efficient inquiry and research to understand properly its conditions, +yet it is sufficiently manifest that these organisms succeed each +other in a curious and even remarkable manner. Each does a part in the +work of fermentative destruction; each aids in splitting up into lower +and lower compounds the elements of which the masses of degrading +tissue are composed; while, apparently, each set in turn does by vital +action, coupled with excretion, (1) take up the substances necessary +for its own growth and multiplication; (2) carry on the fermentative +process; and (3) so change the immediate pabulum as to give rise to +conditions suitable for its immediate successor. Now the point of +special interest is that there is an apparent adaptation in the form, +functions, mode of multiplication, and order of succession in these +fermentative organisms, deserving study and fraught with instruction. + +Let it be remembered that the aim of nature in this fermentative +action is not the partial splitting of certain organic compounds, and +their reconstruction in simpler conditions, but the ultimate setting +free, by saprophytic action, of the elements locked up in great masses +of organic tissue--the sending back into nature of the only material +of which future organic structures are to be composed. + +I have said that there can be no question whatever that _Bacterium +termo_ is the pioneer of saprophytes. Exclude _B. termo_ (and +therefore with it all its congeners), and you can obtain no +putrefaction. But wherever, in ordinary circumstances, a decomposable +organic mass, say the body of a fish, or a considerable mass of the +flesh of a terrestrial animal, is exposed in water at a temperature of +60 deg. to 65 deg. F., _B. termo_ rapidly appears, and increases with a simply +astounding rapidity. It clothes the tissues like a skin, and diffuses +itself throughout the fluid. + +The exact chemical changes it thus effects are not at present clearly +known; but the fermentative action is manifestly concurrent with its +multiplication. It finds its pabulum in the mass it ferments by its +vegetative processes. But it also produces a visible change in the +enveloping fluid, and noxious gases continuously are thrown off. + +In the course of a week or more, dependent on the period of the year, +there is, not inevitably, but as a rule, a rapid accession of spiral +forms, such as _Spirillum volutans_, _S. undula_, and similar forms, +often accompanied by _Bacterium lineola_; and the whole interspersed +still with inconceivable multitudes of _B. termo_. + +These invest the rotting tissues liked an elastic garment, but are +always in a state of movement. These, again, manifestly further the +destructive ferment, and bring about a softness and flaccidity in the +decomposing tissues, while they without doubt, at the same time, have, +by their vital activity and possible secretions, affected the +condition of the changing organic mass. There can be, so far as my +observations go, no certainty as to when, after this, another form of +organism will present itself; nor, when it does, which of a limited +series it will be. But, in a majority of observed cases, a loosening +of the living investment of bacterial forms takes place, and +simultaneously with this, the access of one or two forms of my +putrefactive monads. They were among the first we worked at; and have +been, by means of recent lenses, among the last revised. Mr. S. Kent +named them _Cercomonas typica_ and _Monas dallingeri_ respectively. +They are both simple oval forms, but the former has a flagellum at +both ends of the longer axis of the body, while the latter has a +single flagellum in front. + +The principal difference is in their mode of multiplication by +fission. The former is in every way like a bacterium in its mode of +self-division. It divides, acquiring for each half a flagellum in +division, and then, in its highest vigor, in about four minutes, each +half divides again. + +The second form does not divide into two, but into many, and thus +although the whole process is slower, develops with greater rapidity. +But both ultimately multiply--that is, commence new generations--by +the equivalent of a sexual process. + +These would average about four times the size of _Bacterium termo_; +and when once they gain a place on and about the putrefying tissues, +their relatively powerful and incessant action, their enormous +multitude, and the manner in which they glide over, under, and beside +each other, as they invest the fermenting mass, is worthy of close +study. It has been the life history of these organisms, and not their +relations as ferment, that has specially occupied my fullest +attention; but it would be in a high degree interesting if we could +discover, or determine, what besides the vegetative or organic +processes of nutrition are being effected by one, or both, of these +organisms on the fast yielding mass. Still more would it be of +interest to discover what, if any, changes were wrought in the +pabulum, or fluid generally. For after some extended observations I +have found that it is only after one or other or both, of these +organisms have performed their part in the destructive ferment, that +subsequent and extremely interesting changes arise. + +It is true that in some three or four instances of this saprophytic +destruction of organic tissues, I have observed that, after the strong +bacterial investment, there has arisen, not the two forms just named, +nor either of them, but one or other of the striking forms now called +_Tetramitus rostratus_ and _Polytoma uvella_; but this has been in +relatively few instances. The rule is that _Cercomonas typica_ or its +congener precedes other forms, that not only succeed them in promoting +and carrying to a still further point the putrescence of the +fermenting substance, but appear to be aided in the accomplishment of +this by mechanical means. + +By this time the mass of tissue has ceased to cohere. The mass has +largely disintegrated, and there appears among the countless bacterial +and monad forms some one, and sometimes even three forms, that while +they at first swim and gyrate, and glide about the decomposing matter, +which is now much less closely invested by _Cercomonas typica_, or +those organisms that may have acted in its place, they also resort to +an entirely new mode of movement. + +One of these forms is _Heteromita rostrata_, which, it will be +remembered, in addition to a front flagellum, has also a long fiber or +flagellum-like appendage that gracefully trails as it swims. At +certain periods of its life they anchor themselves in countless +billions all over the fermenting tissues, and as I have described in +the life history of this form, they coil their anchored fiber, as does +a vorticellan, bringing the body to the level of the point of +anchorage, then shoot out the body with lightning-like rapidity, and +bring it down like a hammer on some point of the decomposition. It +rests here for a second or two, and repeats the process; and this is +taking place by what seems almost like rhythmic movement all over the +rotting tissue. The results are scarcely visible in the mass. But if a +group of these organisms be watched, attached to a small particle of +the fermenting tissue, it will be seen to gradually diminish, and at +length to disappear. + +Now, there are at least two other similar forms, one of which, +_Heteromita uncinata_, is similar in action, and the other of which, +_Dallingeria drysdali_, is much more powerful, being possessed of a +double anchor, and springing down upon the decadent mass with +relatively far greater power. + +Now, it is under the action of these last forms that in a period +varying from one month to two or three the entire substance of the +organic tissues disappears, and the decomposition has been designated +by me "exhausted"; nothing being left in the vessel but slightly +noxious and pale gray water, charged with carbonic acid, and a fine, +buff colored, impalpable sediment at the bottom. + +My purpose is not, by this brief notice, to give an exhaustive, or +even a sufficient account, of the progress of fermentative action, by +means of saprophytic organisms, on great masses of tissue; my +observations have been incidental, but they lead me to the conclusion +that the fermentative process is not only not carried through by what +are called saprophytic bacteria, but that a _series_ of fermentative +organisms arise, which succeed each other, the earlier ones preparing +the pabulum or altering the surrounding medium, so as to render it +highly favorable to a succeeding form. On the other hand, the +succeeding form has a special adaptation for carrying on the +fermentative destruction more efficiently from the period at which it +arises, and thus ultimately of setting free the chemical elements +locked up in dead organic compounds. + +That these later organisms are saprophytic, although not bacterial, +there can be no doubt. A set of experiments, recorded by me in the +proceedings of this society some years since, would go far to +establish this (_Monthly Microscopical Journal_, 1876, p. 288). But it +may be readily shown, by extremely simple experiments, that these +forms will set up fermentative decomposition rapidly if introduced in +either a desiccated or living condition, or in the spore state, into +suitable but sterilized pabulum. + +Thus while we have specific ferments which bring about definite and +specific results, and while even infusions of proteid substances may +be exhaustively fermented by saprophytic bacteria, the most important +of all ferments, that by which nature's dead organic masses are +removed, is one which there is evidence to show is brought about by +the successive vital activities of a series of adapted organisms, +which are forever at work in every region of the earth. + +There is one other matter of some interest and moment on which I would +say a few words. To thoroughly instructed biologists, such words will +be quite needless; but, in a society of this kind, the possibilities +that lie in the use of the instrument are associated with the +contingency of large error, especially in the biology of the minuter +forms of life, unless a well grounded biological knowledge form the +basis of all specific inference, to say nothing of deduction. + +I am the more encouraged to speak of the difficulty to which I refer, +because I have reason to know that it presents itself again and again +in the provincial societies of the country, and is often adhered to +with a tenacity worthy of a better cause. I refer to the danger that +always exists, that young or occasional observers are exposed to, amid +the complexities of minute animal and vegetable life, of concluding +that they have come upon absolute evidences of the transformation of +one minute form into another; that in fact they have demonstrated +cases of heterogenesis. + +This difficulty is not diminished by the fact that on the shelves of +most microscopical societies there is to be found some sort of +literature written in support of this strange doctrine. + +You will pardon me for allusion again to the field of inquiry in which +I have spent so many happy hours. It is, as you know, a region of life +in which we touch, as it were, the very margin of living things. If +nature were capricious anywhere, we might expect to find her so here. +If her methods were in a slovenly or only half determined condition, +we might expect to find it here. But it is not so. Know accurately +what you are doing, use the precautions absolutely essential, and +through years of the closest observation it will be seen that the +vegetative and vital processes generally, of the very simplest and +lowliest life forms, are as much directed and controlled by immutable +laws as the most complex and elevated. + +The life cycles, accurately known, of monads repeat themselves as +accurately as those of rotifers or planarians. + +And of course, on the very surface of the matter, the question +presents itself to the biologist why it should not be so. The +irrefragable philosophy of modern biology is that the most complex +forms of living creatures have derived their splendid complexity and +adaptations from the slow and majestically progressive variation and +survival from the simpler and the simplest forms. If, then, the +simplest forms of the present and the past were not governed by +accurate and unchanging laws of life, how did the rigid certainties +that manifestly and admittedly govern the more complex and the most +complex come into play? + +If our modern philosophy of biology be, as we know it is, true, then +it must be very strong evidence indeed that would lead us to conclude +that the laws seen to be universal break down and cease accurately to +operate where the objects become microscopic, and our knowledge of +them is by no means full, exhaustive, and clear. + +Moreover, looked at in the abstract, it is a little difficult to +conceive why there should be more uncertainty about the life processes +of a group of lowly living things than there should be about the +behavior, in reaction, of a given group of molecules. + +The triumph of modern knowledge is the certainty, which nothing can +shake, that nature's laws are immutable. The stability of her +processes, the precision of her action, and the universality of her +laws, is the basis of all science, to which biology forms no +exception. Once establish, by clear and unmistakable demonstration, +the life history of an organism, and truly some change must have come +over nature as a whole, if that life history be not the same to-morrow +as to-day; and the same to one observer, in the same conditions, as to +another. + +No amount of paradox would induce us to believe that the combining +proportions of hydrogen and oxygen had altered, in a specified +experimenter's hands, in synthetically producing water. + +We believe that the melting point of platinum and the freezing point +of mercury are the same as they were a hundred years ago, and as they +will be a hundred years hence. + +Now, carefully remember that so far as we can see at all, it must be +so with life. Life inheres in protoplasm; but just as you cannot get +_abstract matter_--that is, matter with no properties or modes of +motion--so you cannot get _abstract_ protoplasm. Every piece of living +protoplasm we see has a history; it is the inheritor of countless +millions of years. Its properties have been determined by its history. +It is the protoplasm of some definite form of life which has inherited +its specific history. It can be no more false to that inheritance than +an atom of oxygen can be false to its properties. + +All this, of course, within the lines of the great secular processes +of the Darwinian laws; which, by the way, could not operate at all if +caprice formed any part of the activities of nature. + +But let me give a practical instance of how what appears like fact may +override philosophy, if an incident, or even a group of incidents, +_per se_ are to control our judgment. + +Eighteen years ago I was paying much attention to vorticellae. I was +observing with some pertinacity _Vorticella convallaria_; for one of +the calices in a group under observation was in a strange and +semi-encysted state, while the remainder were in full normal activity. + +I watched with great interest and care, and have in my folio still the +drawings made at the time. The stalk carrying this individual calyx +fell upon the branch of vegetable matter to which the vorticellan was +attached, and the calyx became perfectly globular; and at length there +emerged from it a small form with which, in this condition, I was +quite unfamiliar; it was small, tortoise-like in form, and crept over +the branch on setae or hair-like pedicels; but, carefully followed, I +found it soon swam, and at length got the long neck-like appendage of +_Amphileptus anser_! + +Here then was the cup or calyx of a definite vorticellan form changing +into (?) an absolutely different infusorian, viz., _Amphileptus +anser_! + +Now I simply reported the _fact_ to the Liverpool Microscopical +Society, with no attempt at inference; but two years after I was able +to explain the mystery, for, finding in the same pond both _V. +convallaria_ and _A. anser_, I carefully watched their movements, and +saw the _Amphileptus_ seize and struggle with a calyx of +_convallaria_, and absolutely become encysted upon it, with the +results that I had reported two years before. + +And there can be no doubt but this is the key to the cases that come +to us again and again of minute forms suddenly changing into forms +wholly unlike. It is happily among the virtues of the man of science +to "rejoice in the truth," even though it be found at his expense; and +true workers, earnest seekers for nature's methods, in the obscurest +fields of her action, will not murmur that this source of danger to +younger microscopists has been pointed out, or recalled to them. + +And now I bid you, as your president, farewell. It has been all +pleasure to me to serve you. It has enlarged my friendships and my +interests, and although my work has linked me with the society for +many years, I have derived much profit from this more organic union +with it; and it is a source of encouragement to me, and will, I am +sure, be to you, that, after having done with simple pleasure what I +could, I am to be succeeded in this place of honor by so distinguished +a student of the phenomena of minute life as Dr. Hudson. I can but +wish him as happy a tenure of office as mine has been. + + * * * * * + + + + +INQUIRIES REGARDING THE INCUBATOR. + +P.H. JACOBS. + + +Space in the _Rural_ is valuable, and so important a subject as +artificial incubation cannot perhaps be made entirely plain to a +novice in a few articles; but as interested parties have written for +additional information, it may interest others to answer them here. +Among the questions asked are: "Does the incubator described in the +_Rural_ dispense entirely with the use of a lamp, using at intervals a +bucket of water to maintain proper temperature? I fear this will not +be satisfactory unless the incubator is kept in a warm room or +cellar." + +All incubators must be kept in a warm location, whether operated by a +lamp or otherwise. The warmer the room or cellar, the less warmth +required to be supplied. Bear in mind that the incubator recommended +has four inches of sawdust surrounding it, and more sawdust would +still be an advantage. The sawdust is not used to protect against the +outside temperature, but to absorb and hold a large amount of heat, +and that is the secret of its success. The directions given were to +first fill the tank with boiling water and allow it to remain for 24 +hours. In the meantime the sawdust absorbs the heat, and more boiling +water is then added until the egg-drawer is about 110 or 115 degrees. +By this time there is a quantity of stored heat in the sawdust. The +eggs will cool the drawer to 103. The loss of heat (due to its being +held by the sawdust) will be very slow. All that is needed then is to +supply that which will be lost in 12 hours, and a bucket of boiling +water should keep the heat about correct, if added twice a day, but it +may require more, as some consideration must be given to fluctuations +of the temperature of the atmosphere. The third week of incubation, +owing to animal heat from the embryo chicks, a bucket of boiling water +will sometimes hold temperature for 24 hours. No objection can be +urged against attaching a lamp arrangement, but a lamp is dangerous at +night, while the flame must be regulated according to temperature. The +object of giving the hot water method was to avoid lamps. We have a +large number of them in use (no lamps) here, and they are equal to any +others in results. + +With all due respect to some inquirers, the majority of them seem +afraid of the work. Now, there is some work with all incubators. What +is desired is to get rid of the anxiety. I stated that a bucket of +water twice a day would suffice. I trusted to the judgment of the +reader somewhat. Of course, if the heat in the egg drawer is 90 +degrees, and the weather cold, it may then take a wash boiler full of +water to get the temperature back to 103 degrees, but when it is at +103 keep it there, even if it occasionally requires two buckets of +boiling water. To judge of what may be required, let us suppose the +operator looks at the thermometer in the morning, and it is exactly +103 degrees. He estimates that it will lose a little by night, and +draws off half a bucket of water. At night he finds it at 102. Knowing +that it is on what we term "the down grade," he applies a bucket and a +half (always allowing for the night being colder than the day). As +stated, the sawdust will not allow the drawer to become too cold, as +it gives off heat to the drawer. And, as the sawdust absorbs, it is +not easy to have the heat too high. One need not even look at the +drawer until the proper times. No watching--the incubator regulates +itself. If a lamp is used, too much heat may accumulate. The flame +must be occasionally turned up or down, and the operator must remain +at home and watch it, while during the third week he will easily cook +his eggs. + +The incubator can be made at home for so small a sum (about $5 for the +tank, $1 for faucet, etc., with 116 feet of lumber) that it will cost +but little to try it. A piece of glass can be placed in front of the +egg drawer, if preferred. If the heat goes down to 90, or rises at +times to 105, no harm is done. But it works well, and hatches, the +proof being that hundreds are in use. I did not give the plan as a +theory or an experiment. They are in practical use here, and work +alongside of the more expensive ones, and have been in use for four +years. To use a lamp attachment, all that is necessary is to have a +No. 2 burner lamp with a riveted sheet-iron chimney, the chimney +fitting over the flame, like an ordinary globe, and extending the +chimney (using an elbow) through the tank from the rear, ending in +front. It should be soldered at the tank. The heat from the lamp will +then pass through the chimney and consequently warm the surrounding +water.--_Rural New-Yorker._ + +[For description and illustrations of this incubator see SUPPLEMENT, +No. 630.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PEAK OF TENERIFFE. + + +The Hon. Ralph Abercromby made a trip to the island of Teneriffe in +October, 1887, for the purpose of making some electrical and +meteorological observations, and now gives some of the results which +he obtained, which may be summarized as follows: The electrical +condition of the peak of Teneriffe was found to be the same as in +every other part of the world. The potential was moderately positive, +from 100 to 150 volts, at 5 ft. 5 in. from the ground, even at +considerable altitudes; but the tension rose to 549 volts on the +summit of the peak, 12,200 ft., and to 247 volts on the top of the +rock of Gayga, 7,100 feet. A large number of halos were seen +associated with local showers and cloud masses. The necessary ice dust +appeared to be formed by rising currents. The shadow of the peak was +seen projected against the sky at sunset. The idea of a southwest +current flowing directly over the northeast trade was found to be +erroneous. There was always a regular vertical succession of air +currents in intermediate directions at different levels from the +surface upward, so that the air was always circulating on a +complicated screw system. + + * * * * * + + + + +ESTRADE'S HIGH SPEED LOCOMOTIVE. + + +We illustrate a very remarkable locomotive, which has been constructed +from the designs of M. Estrade, a French engineer. This engine was +exhibited last year in Paris. Although the engine was built, M. +Estrade could not persuade any railway company to try it for him, and +finally he applied to the French government, who have at last +sanctioned the carrying out of experiments with it on one of the state +railway lines. The engine is in all respects so opposed to English +ideas that we have hitherto said nothing about it. As, however, it is +going to be tried, an importance is given to it which it did not +possess before; and, as a mechanical curiosity, we think it is worth +the consideration of our readers. + +In order that we may do M. Estrade no injustice, we reproduce here in +a condensed form, and in English, the arguments in its favor contained +in a paper written by M. Max de Nansouty, C.E., who brought M. +Estrade's views before the French Institution of Civil Engineers, on +May 21, 1886. M. Nansouty's paper has been prepared with much care, +and contains a great deal of useful data quite apart from the Estrade +engine. The paper in question is entitled "_Memoire relatif au +Materiel Roulant a Grand Vitesse_," D.M. Estrade. + +About thirty years ago, M. Estrade, formerly pupil of the Polytechnic +School, invented rolling stock for high speed under especial +conditions, and capable of leading to important results, more +especially with regard to speed. Following step by step the progress +made in the construction of railway stock, the inventor, from time to +time, modified and improved his original plan, and finally, in 1884, +arrived at the conception of a system entirely new in its fundamental +principles and in its execution. A description of this system is the +object of the memoir. + +The great number of types of locomotives and carriages now met with in +France, England, and the United States renders it difficult to combine +their advantages, as M. Estrade proposed to do, in a system responding +to the requirements of the constructor. His principal object, however, +has been to construct, under specially favorable conditions, a +locomotive, tender, and rolling stock adapted to each other, so as to +establish a perfect accord between these organs when in motion. It is, +in fact, a complete train, and not, as sometimes supposed, a +locomotive only, of an especial type, which has been the object he set +before him. Before entering into other considerations, we shall first +give a description of the stock proposed by M. Estrade. The idea of +the invention consists in the use of coupled wheels of large diameter +and in the adoption of a new system of double suspension. + +The locomotive and tender we illustrate were constructed by MM. Boulet +& Co. The locomotive is carried on six driving wheels, 8 feet 3 inches +in diameter. The total weight of the engine is thus utilized for +adhesion. The accompanying table gives the principal dimensions: + + +TABLE I. + + +---------------------------------------+ + | | ft. in. | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Total length of engine.| 32 8 | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Width between frames. | 4 1 | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Wheel base, total. | 16 9 | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Diameter of cylinder. | 1 61/2 | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Length of stroke. | 2 31/2 | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Grate surface. | 25 sq. feet. | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Total heating surface. | 1,400 sq. ft. | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Weight empty. | 38 tons. | + +-----------------------+---------------+ + |Weight full. | 42 tons. | + +---------------------------------------+ + + +The high speeds--77 to 80 miles an hour--in view of which this stock +has been constructed have, it will be seen, caused the elements +relative to the capacity of the boiler and the heating surfaces to be +developed as much as possible. It is in this, in fact, that one of the +great difficulties of the problem lies, the practical limit of +stability being fixed by the diameter of the driving wheels. Speed can +only be obtained by an expenditure of steam which soon becomes such as +rapidly to exhaust the engine unless the heating surface is very +large. + +The tender, also fitted with wheels of 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter, offers +no particular feature; it is simply arranged so as to carry the +greatest quantity of coal and water. + +M. Estrade has also designed carriages. One has been constructed by +MM. Reynaud, Bechade, Gire & Co., which has very few points in common +with those in general use. Independently of the division of the +compartments into two stories, wheels 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter are +employed, and the double system of suspension adopted. Two axles, 16 +ft. apart, support, by means of plate springs, an iron framing running +from end to end over the whole length, its extremities being curved +toward the ground. Each frame carries in its turn three other plate +springs, to which the body is suspended by means of iron tie-rods +serving to support it. This is then a double suspension, which at once +appears to be very superior to the systems adopted up to the present +time. The great diameter of the wheels has necessitated the division +into two stories. The lower story is formed of three equal parts, +lengthened toward the axles by narrow compartments, which can be +utilized for luggage or converted into lavatories, etc. Above is one +single compartment with a central passage, which is reached by +staircases at the end. All the vehicles of the same train are to be +united at this level by jointed platforms furnished with hand rails. +It is sufficient to point out the general disposition, without +entering into details which do not affect the system, and which must +vary for the different classes and according to the requirements of +the service. + +[Illustration: M. ESTRADE'S HIGH SPEED LOCOMOTIVE.] + +M. Nansouty draws a comparison between the diameters of the driving +wheels and cylinders of the principal locomotives now in use and those +of the Estrade engine as set forth in the following table. We only +give the figures for coupled engines: + + +TABLE II. + + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + | | Diameter of | Size of | | + | | driving wheels. | cylinder. | Position of | + | | ft. in. | in. in. | cylinder. | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Great Eastern | 7 0 | 18 x 24 | inside | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |South-Eastern | 7 0 | 19 x 26 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Glasgow and | | | | + |Southwestern | 6 1 | 18 x 26 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Midland, 1884 | 7 0 | 19 x 26 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |North-Eastern | 7 0 | 171/2 x 24 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |London and | | | | + |North-Western | 6 6 | 17 x 24 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Lancashire and | | | | + |Yorkshire | 6 0 | 171/2 x 26 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |North British | 6 4 | 17 x 24 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Nord | 7 0 | 17 x 24 | " | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Paris-Orleans, 1884 | 6 8 | 17 x 231/2 | outside. | + +--------------------+------------------+-----------+-------------+ + |Ouest | 6 0 | 171/4 x 251/2| " | + +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +This table, the examination of which will be found very instructive, +shows that there are already in use: For locomotives with single +drivers, diameters of 9 ft., 8 ft. 1 in., and 8 ft.; (2) for +locomotives with four coupled wheels, diameters 6 ft. to 7 ft. There +is therefore an important difference between the diameters of the +coupled wheels of 7 ft. and those of 8 ft. 3 in., as conceived by M. +Estrade. However, the transition is not illogically sudden, and if the +conception is a bold one, "it cannot," says M. Nansouty, "on the other +hand, be qualified as rash." + +He goes on to consider, in the first place: Especial types of +uncoupled wheels, the diameters of which form useful samples for our +present case. The engines of the Bristol and Exeter line are express +tender engines, adopted on the English lines in 1853, some specimens +of which are still in use.[1] These engines have ten wheels, the +single drivers in the center, 9 ft. in diameter, and a four-wheeled +bogie at each end. The driving wheels have no flanges. The bogie +wheels are 4 ft. in diameter. The cylinders have a diameter of 161/2 in. +and a piston stroke of 24 in. The boiler contains 180 tubes, and the +total weight of the engine is 42 tons. These locomotives, constructed +for 7 ft. gauge, have attained a speed of seventy-seven miles per +hour. + + [Footnote 1: M. Nansouty is mistaken. None of the Bristol and + Exeter tank engines with. 9 ft. wheels are in use, so far as we + know. ED. E.] + +The single driver locomotives of the Great Northern are powerful +engines in current use in England. The driving wheels carry 17 tons, +the heating surface is 1,160 square feet, the diameters of the +cylinders 18 in., and that of the driving wheels 8 ft. 1 in. We have +here, then, a diameter very near to that adopted by M. Estrade, and +which, together with the previous example, forms a precedent of great +interest. The locomotive of the Great Northern has a leading +four-wheeled bogie, which considerably increases the steadiness of the +engine, and counterbalances the disturbing effect of outside +cylinders. Acting on the same principles which have animated M. +Estrade, that is to say, with the aim of reducing the retarding +effects of rolling friction, the constructor of the locomotive of the +Great Northern has considerably increased the diameter of the wheels +of the bogie. In this engine all the bearing are inside, while the +cylinders are outside and horizontal. The tender has six wheels, also +of large dimensions. It is capable of containing three tons and a half +of coal and about 3,000 gallons of water. This type of engine is now +in current and daily use in England. + +M. Nansouty next considers the broad gauge Great Western engines with +8 ft. driving wheels. The diameters of their wheels approach those of +M. Estrade, and exceed considerably in size any lately proposed. M. +Nansouty dwells especially upon the boiler power of the Great Western +railway, because one of the objections made to M. Estrade's locomotive +by the learned societies has been the difficulty of supplying boiler +power enough for high speeds contemplated; and he deals at +considerable length with a large number of English engines of maximum +power, the dimensions and performance of which are too well known to +our readers to need reproduction here. + +Aware that a prominent weak point in M. Estrade's design is that, no +matter what size we make cylinders and wheels, we have ultimately to +depend on the boiler for power, M. Nansouty argues that M. Estrade +having provided more surface than is to be found in any other engine, +must be successful. But the total heating surface in the engine, which +we illustrate, is but 1,400 square feet, while that of the Great +Western engines, on which he lays such stress, is 2,300 square feet, +and the table which he gives of the heating surface of various English +engines really means very little. It is quite true that there are no +engines working in England with much over 1,500 square feet of +surface, except those on the broad gauge, but it does not follow that +because they manage to make an average of 53 miles an hour that an +addition of 500 square feet would enable them to run at a speed higher +by 20 miles an hour. There are engines in France, however, which have +as much as 1,600 square feet, as, for example, on the Paris-Orleans +line, but we have never heard that these engines attain a speed of 80 +miles an hour. + +Leaving the question of boiler power, M. Nansouty goes on to consider +the question of adhesion. About this he says: + +Is the locomotive proposed by M. Estrade under abnormal conditions as +to weight and adhesion? This appears to have been doubted, especially +taking into consideration its height and elegant appearance. We shall +again reply here by figures, while remarking that the adhesion of +locomotives increases with the speed, according to laws still unknown +or imperfectly understood, and that consequently for extreme speeds, +ignorance of the value of the coefficiency of adhesion f in the +formula + + d 2 I + fP = 0.65 p ------- - R + D + +renders it impossible to pronounce upon it before the trials earnestly +and justly demanded by the author of this new system. In present +practice f = 1/7 is admitted. M. Nansouty gives in a table a +_resume_ of the experience on this subject, and goes on: + +"The English engineers, as will be seen, make a single axle support +more than 17 tons. In France the maximum weight admitted is 14 tons, +and the constructor of the Estrade locomotive has kept a little below +this figure. The question of total weight appears to be secondary in a +great measure, for, taking the models with uncoupled wheels, the +English engines for great speed have on an average, for a smaller +total weight, an adhesion equal to that of the French locomotives. The +P.L.M. type of engine, which has eight wheels, four of which are +coupled, throws only 28.6 tons upon the latter, being 58 per cent. of +the total weight. On the other hand, that of the English Great Eastern +throws 68 per cent. of the total weight on the driving wheels. +Numerous other examples could be cited. We cannot, we repeat, give an +opinion rashly as to the calculation of adhesion for the high speed +Estrade locomotive before complete trials have taken place which will +enable us to judge of the particular coefficients for this entirely +new case." + +M. Nansouty then goes on to consider the question of curves, and says: + +"It has been asked, not without reason, notably by the Institution of +Civil Engineers of Paris, whether peculiar difficulties will not be +met with by M. Estrade's locomotive--with its three axles and large +coupled wheels--in getting round curves. We have seen in the preceding +tables that the driving wheels of the English locomotives with +independent wheels are as much as 8 ft. in diameter. The driving +wheels of the English locomotives with four coupled wheels are 7 ft. +in diameter. M. Estrade's locomotive has certainly six coupled wheels +with diameters never before tried, but these six coupled wheels +constitute the whole rolling length, while in the above engines a +leading axle or a bogie must be taken into account, independent, it is +true, but which must not be lost sight of, and which will in a great +measure equalize the difficulties of passing over the curves. + +"Is it opposed to absolute security to attack the line with driving +wheels? This generally admitted principle appears to rest rather on +theoretic considerations than on the results of actual experience. M. +Estrade, besides, sets in opposition to the disadvantages of attacking +the rails with driving wheels those which ensue from the use of wheels +of small diameter as liable to more wear and tear. We should further +note with particular care that the leading axle of this locomotive has +a certain transverse play, also that it is a driving axle. This +disposition is judicious and in accordance with the best known +principles." + +A careful perusal of M. Nansouty's memoir leaves us in much doubt as +to what M. Estrade's views are based on. So far as we understand him, +he seems to have worked on the theory that by the use of very large +wheels the rolling resistance of a train can be greatly diminished. On +this point, however, there is not a scrap of evidence derived from +railway practice to prove that any great advantage can be gained by +augmenting the diameters of wheels. In the next place, he is afraid +that he will not have adhesion enough to work up all his boiler power, +and, consequently, he couples his wheels, thereby greatly augmenting +the resistance of the engine. He forgets that large coupled wheels +were tried years ago on the Great Western Railway, and did not answer. +A single pair of drivers 8 ft. 3 in. in diameter would suffice to work +up all the power M. Estrade's boiler could supply at sixty miles an +hour, much less eighty miles an hour. On the London and Brighton line +Mr. Stroudley uses with success coupled leading wheels of large +diameter on his express engines, and we imagine that M. Estrade's +engine will get round corners safely enough, but it is not the right +kind of machine for eighty miles an hour, and so he will find out as +soon as a trial is made. The experiment is, however, a notable +experiment, and M. Estrade has our best wishes for his success.--_The +Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +CONCRETE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Read July 5, 1887, before the Western Society of + Engineers.] + +By JOHN LUNDIE. + + +The subject of cement and concrete has been so well treated of in +engineering literature, that to give an extended paper on the subject +would be but the collection and reiteration of platitudes familiar to +every engineer who has been engaged on foundation works of any +magnitude. It shall therefore be the object of this communication to +place before the society several notes, stated briefly and to the +point, rather as a basis for discussion than as an attempt at an +exhaustive treatment of the subject. + +Concrete is simply a low grade of masonry. It is a comparatively +simple matter to trace the line of continuity from heavy squared +ashlar blocks down through coursed and random rubble, to grouted +indiscriminate rubble, and finally to concrete. Improvements in the +manufacture of hydraulic cements have given an impetus to the use of +concrete, but its use is by no means of recent date. It is no uncommon +thing in the taking down of heavy walls several centuries old to find +that the method of building was to carry up face and back with rubble +and stiff mortar, and to fill the interior with bowlders and gravel, +the interstices of which were filled by grouting--the whole mass +becoming virtually a monolith. Modern quick-setting cement +accomplishes this object within a time consistent with the +requirements of modern engineering works; the formation of a +monolithic mass within a reasonable time and with materials requiring +as little handling as possible being the desideratum. + +The materials of concrete as used at present are cement, sand, gravel, +broken stone, and, of course, water. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to +say that one of the primary requirements in materials is that they +should be clean. Stone should be angular, gravel well washed, sand +coarse and sharp, cement fine and possessing a fair proportion of the +requirements laid down in the orthodox specification. The addition of +lime water, saccharated or otherwise, has been suggested as an +improvement over water pure and simple, but no satisfactory +experiments are on record justifying the addition of lime water. + +Regarding the mixing of cement and lime with saccharated water, the +writer made some experiments several months ago by mixing neat cement +and lime with pure water and with saccharated water, with the result +that the sugar proved positively detrimental to the cement, while it +increased the tenacity of briquettes of lime. + +Stone which will pass a 2 inch is usually specified for ordinary +concrete. It will be found that stone broken to this limit of size has +fifty per cent. of its bulk voids. This space must be filled by mortar +or preferably by gravel and mortar. If the mixing of concrete is +perfect, the proportion of stone, by bulk, to other materials should +be two to one. A percentage excess of other materials is, however, +usually allowed to compensate for imperfection in mixing. While an +excess of good mortar is not detrimental to concrete (as it will +harden in course of time to equal the stone), still on the score of +economy it is advisable to use gravel or a finer grade of stone in +addition to the 2 inch ring stone to fill the interstices--gravel is +cheaper than cement. The statement that excess in stone will give body +to concrete is a fallacy hardly worth contradicting. In short, the +proportion of material should be so graded that each particle of sand +should have its jacket of cement, necessitating the cement being finer +than the sand (this forms the mortar); then each pebble and stone +should have its jacket of mortar. The smaller the interstices between +the gravel and stones, the better. The quantity of water necessary to +make good concrete is a sorely debated question. The quantity +necessary depends on various considerations, and will probably be +different for what appears to be the same proportion of materials. It +is a well known fact that brick mortar is made very soft, and bricks +are often wet before being laid, while a very hard stone is usually +set with very stiff mortar. So in concrete the amount of water +necessarily depends, to a great extent, on the porosity or dryness of +the stone and other material used. But as to using a larger or smaller +quantity of water with given materials, as a matter of observation it +will be found that the water should only be limited by its effect in +washing away mortar from the stone. Where can better concrete be found +than that which has set under water? A certain definite amount of +water is necessary and sufficient to hydrate the cement; less than +that amount will be detrimental, while an excess can do no harm, +provided, as before mentioned, that it does not wash the mortar from +the stone. Again, dry concrete is apt to be very porous, which in +certain positions is a very grave objection to it--this, not only from +the fact of its porosity, but from the liability to disintegration +from water freezing in the crevices. + +Concrete, when ready to be placed in position, should be of the +consistency of a pulpy mass which will settle into place by its own +weight, every crevice being naturally filled. Pounding dry concrete is +apt to break adjacent work, which will never again set properly. There +should be no other object in pounding concrete than to assist it to +settle into the place it is intended to fill. This is one of the evils +concomitant with imperfection of mixing. The greater perfection of +mixing attained, the nearer we get to the ideal monolith. The less +handling concrete has after being mixed, the better. Immediately after +the mass is mixed setting commences; therefore the sooner it is in +position, the more perfect will be the hardened mass; and, on the +other hand, the more it is handled, the more is the process +interrupted and in like degree is the finished mass deteriorated. A +low drop will be found the best method of placing a batch in position. +Too much of a drop scatters the material and undoes the work of +thorough mixing. Let the mass drop and then let it alone. If of proper +temper, it will find its own place with very little trimming. Care +should be taken to wet adjacent porous material, or the wooden form +into which concrete is being placed; otherwise the water may be +extracted from the concrete, to its detriment. + +It has been found on removing boxing that the portion adjacent to the +wood was frequently friable and of poor quality, owing to the fact +just stated. It is usual to face or plaster concrete work after +removing the boxing. On breakwater work, where the writer was engaged, +the wall was faced with cement and flint grit, and this was found to +form a particularly hard and lasting protection to the face of the +work. + +Batches of concrete should be placed in position as if they were +stones in block masonry, as the union of one day's work with a +previous is not by any means so perfect as where one batch is placed +in contact with another which has not yet set. A slope cannot be added +to with the same degree of perfection that one horizontal layer can be +placed on another; consequently, where work must necessarily be +interrupted, it should be stepped, and not sloped off. + +Experience in concrete work has shown that its true place is in heavy +foundations, retaining walls, and such like, and then perfectly +independent of other material. Arches, thin walls, and such like are +very questionable structures in continuous concrete, and are on record +rather as failures than otherwise. This may to a certain degree be due +to the high coefficient of expansion Portland cement concrete has by +heat. This was found by Cunningham to be 0.000005 of its bulk for one +degree Fahrenheit. It is a matter which any intelligent observer may +remark, the invariable breakage of continuous concrete sidewalks, +while those made in small sections remain good. This may be traced to +expansion and contraction by heat, together with friction on the lower +side. + +In foundations, according to the same authority above quoted, properly +made Portland cement concrete may be trusted with a safe load of 25 +tons per square foot. + +In large masses concrete should be worked continuously, while in small +masses it should be moulded in small sections, which should be +independent of each other and simply form artificial stones. + +The facility with which concrete can be used in founding under water +renders it particularly suitable for subaqueous structures. The method +of dropping it from hopper barges in masses of 100 tons at a time, +inclosed in a bag of coarse stuff, has been successfully employed by +Dyce Cay and others. This can be carried on till the concrete appears +above water, when the ordinary method of boxing can be employed to +complete the work. This method was employed in the north pier +breakwater at Aberdeen, the breakwater being founded on the sand, with +a very broad base. The advantage of bags is apparent in the leveling +off of an uneven foundation. In breakwater works on the Tay, in +Scotland, where the writer was engaged, large blocks perforated +vertically were employed. These were constructed below high water +mark, and an air tight cover placed over them. They were lifted by +pontoons as the tide rose, and conveyed to and deposited in place, the +hollows being filled with air, serving to give buoyancy to the mass. +After placing in position the vertical hollows were filled with +concrete, so binding the whole together--they being placed vertically +over each other. + +As mentioned before, continuous stretches of concrete in small +sections should be guarded against, owing to expansion by heat; but +the fact of a few cracks appearing in heavy masses of concrete should +not cause apprehension. These occur from unequal settlement and other +causes. They should continue to be carefully grouted and faced until +settlement is complete. + +The use of concrete is becoming more and more general for foundation +works. The desideratum hitherto has been a perfect and at the same +time an economical mixer. Concrete can be mixed by hand and the +materials well incorporated, but this is an expensive and man-killing +method, as the handling of the wet mass by the shovel is extremely +hard work, besides which the slowness of the method allows part of a +large batch to set before the other is mixed, so that small batches, +with attendant extra handling, are necessary to make a good job. +Mixers with a multiplicity of knives to toss the material have been +used, but with little economical success. Of simple conveyers, such as +a worm screw, little need be said; they are not mixers, and it seems a +positive waste of time to pass material through a machine when it +comes out in little better shape than it is put in. A box of the shape +of a barrel has been used, it being trunnioned at the sides. The +objection to this is that the material is thrown from side to side as +a mass, there being a waste of energy in throwing about the material +in mass without accomplishing an equivalent amount of mixing. Then a +rectangular box has been used, trunnioned at opposite corners; but +here the grave objection is that the concrete collects in the corners, +and after a few turns it requires cleaning out, the material so +sticking in the corners that it gets clogged up and ceases to mix. + +The writer has just protected by letters patent a machine, in devising +which the following objects were borne in mind: + + 1st. That every motion of the machine should do some useful work. + Hitherto box or barrel mixers have gone on the principle of + throwing the material about indiscriminately, expecting that + somehow or other it would get mixed. + + 2d. That the sticking of the material anywhere within the mixer + should be obviated. + + 3d. That an easy discharge should be obtained. + + 4th. That the water should be introduced while the mixer + revolves. + +With these desiderata in view, a box was designed which in half a turn +gathers the material, then spreads it, and throws it from one side to +the other at the same time that water is being introduced through a +hollow trunnion. + +It is also so constructed that all the sides slope steeply toward the +discharge, and there is not a rectangular or acute angle within the +box. A machine has now been worked steadily for several weeks, putting +in the concrete in the foundations of the new Jackson Street bridge in +this city, by General Fitz-Simons. The result exceeds expectations. +The concrete is perfectly mixed, the discharge is simple, complete and +effective, and at the same time the cost of labor in mixing and +placing in position is lessened by 50 per cent. as compared with any +known to have been put in under similar circumstances.--_Jour. +Association of Engineering Societies._ + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE DESIGNING.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, + Philadelphia, Monday, Jan. 30, 1888. From the journal of the + Institute.] + +By JOHN E. SWEET. + + +"Carrying coals to Newcastle," the oft quoted comparison, fittingly +indicates the position I place myself in when attempting to address +members of this Institute on the subject of machine designing. + +Philadelphia, the birthplace of the great and nearly all the good work +in this, the noblest of all industrial arts, needs no help or praise +at my hands, but I hope her sons may be prevailed upon to do in their +right way what I shall try to do roughly--that is, formulate some +rules or establish principles by which we, who are not endowed with +genius, may so gauge our work as to avoid doing that which is truly +bad. No great author was ever made by studying grammar, rhetoric, +language, history, or by imitating some other author, however great. + +Neither has there ever been any great poet or artist produced by +training. But there are many writers who are not great authors, many +rhymsters who are not poets, and many painters who are not artists; +and while training will not make great men of them, it will help them +to avoid doing that which is absolutely bad, and so may it not be with +machine designing? If there are among you some who have a genius for +it, what I shall have to say will do you no good, for genius needs no +rules, no laws, no help, no training, and the sooner you let what I +have to say pass from your minds, the better. Rules only hamper the +man of genius; but for us, who either from choice or necessity work +away at machine designing without the gift, cannot some simple ruling +facts be determined and rules formulated or principles laid down by +which we can determine what is really good, and what bad? One of the +most important and one of the first things in the construction of a +building is the foundation, and the laws which govern its construction +can be stated in a breath, and ought to be understood by every one. +Assuming the ground upon which a building is to be built to be of +uniform density, _the width_ of the foundation should be in proportion +to the load, the foundation should taper equally on each side, and the +center of the foundation should be under the center of pressure. In +other words, it is as fatal to success to have too much foundation +under the light load as it is too little under a heavy one. + +Cannot we analyze causes and effects, cost and requirements, so as to +formulate some simple laws similar to the above by which we shall be +able to determine what is a good and what a bad arrangement of +machinery, foundation, framing or supports? A vast amount of work is +expended to make machines true, and the machines, or a large majority +of them, are expected to produce true work of some kind in turn. Then, +if this be admitted, cannot the following law be established, that +every machine should be so designed and constructed that when once +made true it will so remain, regardless of wear and all external +influences to which it is liable to be subjected? One tool maker says +that it is right, and another that it cannot be done. No matter +whether it can or cannot, is it not the thing wanted, and if so, is it +not an object worth striving for? One tool maker says that all machine +tools, engines, and machinery should set on solid stone foundations. +Should they? + +They do not always, for in substantial Philadelphia some machine tools +used by machine builders stand upon second floors, or, perhaps, higher +up. And of these machine tools none, or few at least, except those +mounted upon a single pedestal, are free from detrimental torsion +where the floor upon which they rest is distorted by unequal loading. +But, to first consider those of such magnitude as to render it +absolutely necessary to erect them--not rest them--on masonry, is due +consideration always taken to arrange an unequal foundation to support +the unequal loads?--and they cannot be expected to remain true if not. +When one has the good fortune to have a machine to design of such +extent that the masonry becomes the main part of it, what part of the +glory does he give to the mason? Is the masonry part of it always +satisfactory, and is not this resorting to the mason for a frame +rather than a support adopted on smaller machines than is necessary? +Is it necessary even in a planing machine of forty feet length of bed +and a thirty foot table? Could not the bed be cast in three pieces, +the center a rectangular box, 5 or 6 or 7 feet square, 20 feet long, +with internal end flanges, ways planed on its upper surface, and ends +squared off, a monster, perhaps, but if our civil engineers wanted +such a casting for a bridge, they'd get it. Add to this central +section two bevel pieces of half the length, and set the whole down +through the floor where your masonry would have been and rest the +whole on two cross walls, and you would have a structure that if once +made true would remain so regardless of external influences. Cost? +Yes; and so do Frodsham watches--more than "Waterbury." + +It may be claimed, in fact, I have seen lathes resting on six and +eight feet, engines on ten, and a planing machine on a dozen. Do they +remain true? Sometimes they do, and many times they do not. Is the +principle right? Not when it can be avoided; and when it cannot be +avoided, the true principle of foundation building should be +employed.... A strange example of depending on the stone foundation +for not simply support, but to resist strain, may be found in the +machines used for beveling the edges of boiler plate. Not so +particularly strange that the first one might have, like Topsy, +"growed," but strange because each builder copies the original. You +will remember it, a complete machine set upon a stone foundation, to +straighten and hold a plate, and another complete machine set down by +the side of it and bolted to the same stone to plane off the edge; a +lot of wasted material and a lot of wasted genius, it always seems to +me. Going around Robin Hood's barn is the old comparison. Why not hook +the tool carriage on the side of the clamping structure, and thus +dispense with one of the frames altogether? + +Many of the modern builders of what Chordal calls the hyphen Corliss +engine claim to have made a great advance by putting a post under the +center of the frame, but whether in acknowledgment that the frame +would be likely to go down or the stonework come up I could never make +out. What I should fear would be that the stone would come up and take +the frame with it. Every brick mason knows better than to bed mortar +under the center of a window sill; and this putting a prop under the +center of an engine girder seems a parallel case. They say Mr. Corliss +would have done the same thing if he had thought of it. I do not +believe it. If Mr. Corliss had found his frames too weak, he would +soon have found a way to make them stronger. + +John Richards, once a resident of this city, and likely the best +designer of wood-working machinery this country, if not the world, +ever saw, pointed out in some of his letters the true form for +constructing machine framing, and in a way that it had never been +forced on my mind before. As dozens, yes, hundreds, of new designs +have been brought out by machine tool makers and engine builders since +John Richards made a convert of me, without any one else, so far as I +know, having applied the principle in its broadest sense, I hope to +present the case to you in a material form, in the hope that it may be +more thoroughly appreciated. + +The usual form of lathe and planer beds or frames is two side plates +and a lot of cross girts; their duty is to guide the carriages or +tables in straight lines and carry loads resisting bending and +torsional strains. If a designer desires to make his lathe frame +stronger than the other fellows, he thinks, if he thinks at all, that +he will put in more iron, rather than, as he ought to think, How shall +I distribute the iron so it will do the most good? + +In illustration of this peculiar way of doing things, which is not +wholly confined to machine designers, I should like to relate a story, +and as I had to carry the large end of the joke, it may do for me to +tell it. + +While occupying a prominent position, and yet compelled to carry my +dinner, my wife thought the common dinner pail, with which you are +probably familiar (by sight, of course), was not quite the thing for a +professor (even by brevet) to be seen carrying through the streets. So +she interviewed the tinsmith to see if he could not get up something a +little more tony than the regulation fifty-cent sort. Oh, yes; he +could do that very nicely. How much would the best one he could make +cost? Well, if she could stand the racket, he could make one worth a +dollar. She thought she could, and the pail was ordered, made, and +delivered with pride. Perhaps you can guess the result. A facsimile of +the original, only twice the size. + +Now, this is a very fair illustration of the fallacy of making things +stronger by simply adding iron. To illustrate what I think a much +better way, I have had made these crude models (see Fig. 1), for the +full force of which, as I said before, I am indebted to John Richards; +and I would here add that the mechanic who has never learned anything +from John Richards is either a very good or very poor one, or has +never read what John Richards has written or heard what he has had to +say. + +Three models, as shown in Fig. 1, were exhibited; all were of the same +general dimensions and containing the same amount of material. The one +made on the box principle, c, proved to be fifty per cent. stiffer +in a vertical direction than either a or b, from twenty to fifty +times stiffer sidewise, and thirteen times more rigid against torsion +than either of the others. + +However strong a frame may be, its own weight and the weight of the +work upon it tends to spring it unless evenly distributed, and to +twist it unless evenly proportioned. For all small machines the single +post obviates all trouble, but for machine tools of from twice to a +half dozen times their own length the single post is not available. +Four legs are used for machines up to ten feet or so, and above that +legs various and then solid masonry. If the four legs were always set +upon solid masonry, and leveled perfectly when set, no question could +be raised against the usual arrangement, unless it be this: Ought they +not to be set nearly one-fourth the way from the end of the bed? or to +put it in another form: Will not the bed of an iron planing machine +twelve feet in length be equally as well supported by four legs if +each pair is set three feet from the ends--that is, six feet apart--as +by six legs, two pairs at the ends and one in the center, and the +pairs six feet apart? there being six feet of unsupported bed in +either case, with this advantage in favor of the four over the six, +settling of the foundation would not bend the bed. + +It is not likely that one-half of the four-legged machine tools used +in this country are resting upon stable foundations, nor that they +ever will be; and while this is a fact, it must also remain a fact +that they should be built so as to do their best on an unstable one. +Any one of the thousand iron planing machines of the country, if put +in good condition and set upon the ordinary wood floors, may be made +to plane work winding in either direction by shifting a moving load of +a few hundred pounds on the floor from one corner of the machine to +the other, and the ways of the ordinary turning lathe may be more +easily distorted still. Machine tool builders do not believe this, +simply because they have not tried it. That is, I suppose this must be +so, for the proof is so positive, and the remedy so simple, that it +does not seem possible they can know the fact and overlook it. The +remedy in the case of the planer is to rest the structure on the two +housings at the rear end and on a pair of legs about one-fourth of the +way back from the front, pivoted to the bed on a single bolt as near +the top as possible. + +[Illustration: a, b, c, Fig. 1, illustrate the models shown by +Mr. Sweet, which represented three forms of lathe and planer +construction. The box form, c, proved to be fifty per cent. stronger +in its vertical direction than either a or b, fifty times stronger +sideways than a and twenty times stronger than b, and more than +thirteen times stronger than either when subject to torsional strain. + +a, Fig. 2, represents an ordinary pinion tooth, and b shows one of +the same size strengthened by cutting put metal at the root; c and +d were models showing the same width of teeth extended to six times +the length, showing what would be their character if considered as +springs. ] + +A similar arrangement applies to the lathe and machine tools of that +character--that is, machines of considerable length in proportion to +their width, and with beds made sufficiently strong within themselves +to resist all bending and torsional strains, fill the requirements so +far as all except wear is concerned. That is, if the frames are once +made true, they will remain so, regardless of all external influences +that can be reasonably anticipated. + +Among wood-working machines there are many that cannot be built on the +single rectangular box plan--rested on three points of support. +Fortunately, the requirements are not such as demand absolute straight +and flat work, because in part from the fact that the material dealt +with will not remain straight and flat even if once made so, and in +the design of wood-working machinery it is of more importance to so +design that one section or element shall remain true within itself, +than that the various elements should remain true with one another. + +The lathe, the planing machine, the drilling machine, and many others +of the now standard machine tools will never be superseded, and will +for a long time to come remain subjects of alteration and attempted +improvement in every detail. The head stock of a lathe--the back gear +in particular--is about as hard a thing to improve as the link motion +of a locomotive. Some arrangement by which a single motion would +change from fast to slow, and a substitute for the flanges on the +pulleys, which are intended to keep the belt out of the gear, but +never do, might be improvements. If the flanges were cast on the head +stock itself, and stand still, rather than on the pulley, where they +keep turning, the belt would keep out from between the gear for a +certainty. One motion should fasten a foot stock, and as secure as it +is possible to secure it, and a single motion free it so it could be +moved from end to end of the bed. The reason any lathe takes more than +a single motion is because of elasticity in the parts, imperfection in +the planing, and from another cause, infinitely greater than the +others, the swinging of the hold-down bolts. + +Should not the propelling powers of a lathe slide be as near the point +of greatest resistance as possible, as is the case in a Sellers lathe, +and the guiding ways as close to the greatest resistance and +propelling power as possible, and all other necessary guiding surfaces +made to run as free as possible? + +A common expression to be found among the description of new lathes is +the one that says "the carriage has a long bearing on the ways." Long +is a relative word, and the only place I have seen any long slides +among the lathes in the market is in the advertisements. But if any +one has the courage to make a long one, they will need something +besides material to make a success of it. It needs only that the +guiding side that should be long, and that must be as rigid as +possible--nothing short of casting the apron in the same piece will be +strong enough, because with a long, elastic guide heavy work will +spring it down and wear it away at the center, and then with light +work it will ride at the ends, with a chattering cut as a consequence. + +An almost endless and likely profitless discussion has been indulged +in as to the proper way to guide a slide rest, and different opinions +exist. It is a question that, so far as principle is concerned, there +ought to be some way to settle which should not only govern the +question in regard to the slide rest of a lathe, but all slides that +work against a torsional resistance, as it may be called--that is, a +resistance that does not directly oppose the propelling power. In +other words, in a lathe the cutting point of the tool is not in line +with the lead screw or rack, and a twisting strain has to be resisted +by the slides, whereas in an upright drill the sliding sleeve is +directly over and in line with the drill, and subject to no side +strain. + +Does not the foregoing statement that "the propelling power should be +as near the resistance as possible, and the guide be as near in line +with the two as possible," embody the true principle? Neither of the +two methods in common use meets this requirement to its fullest +extent. The two-V New England plan seems like sending two men to do +what one can do much better alone; and the inconsistency of guiding by +the back edge of a flat bed is prominently shown by considering what +the result would be if carried to an extreme. If a slide such as is +used on a twenty inch lathe were placed upon a bed or shears twenty +feet wide, it would work badly, and that which is bad when carried to +an extreme cannot well be less than half bad when carried half way. + +The ease with which a cast iron bar can be sprung is many times +overlooked. There is another peculiarity about cast iron, and likely +other metals, which an exaggerated example renders more apparent than +can be done by direct statement. Cast iron, when subject to a bending +strain, acts like a stiff spring, but when subject to compression it +dents like a plastic substance. What I mean is this: If some plastic +substance, say a thick coating of mud in the street, be leveled off +true, and a board be laid upon it, it will fit, but if two heavy +weights be placed on the ends, the center will be thrown up in the air +far away from the mud; so, too, will the same thing occur if a +perfectly straight bar of cast iron be placed on a perfectly straight +planer bed--the two will fit; but when the ends of the bar are bolted +down, the center of the bar will be up to a surprising degree. And so +with sliding surfaces when working on oil. If to any extent elastic, +they will, when unequally loaded, settle through the oil where the +load exists and spring away where it is not. + +The tool post or tool holder that permits of a tool being raised or +lowered and turned around after the tool is set, without any sacrifice +of absolute stability, will be better than one in which either one of +these features is sacrificed. Handiness becomes the more desirable as +the machines are smaller, but handiness is not to be despised even in +a large machine, except where solidity is sacrificed to obtain it. + +The weak point in nearly all (and so nearly all that I feel pretty +safe in saying all) small planing machines is their absolute weakness +as regards their ability to resist torsional strain in the bed, and +both torsional and bending strain in the table. Is it an uncommon +thing to see the ways of a planer that has run any length of time cut? +In fact, is it not a pretty difficult thing to find one that is not +cut, and is this because they are overloaded? Not at all. Figure up at +even fifty pounds to the square inch of wearing surface what any +planer ought to carry, and you will find that it is not from +overloading. Twist the bed upon the floor (and any of them will twist +as easy as two basswood boards), and your table will rest the hardest +on two corners. Strap, or bolt, or wedge a casting upon the table, or +tighten up a piece between a pair of centers eight or ten inches above +the table, and bend the table to an extent only equal to the thickness +of the film of oil between the surface of the ways, and the large +wearing surface is reduced to two wearing points. In designing it +should always be kept in mind, or, in fact, it is found many times to +be the correct thing to do, to consider the piece as a stiff spring, +and the stiffer the better. The tooth of a gear wheel is a cast iron +spring, and if only treated as would be a spring, many less would be +broken. A point in evidence: + +The pinions in a train of rolls, which compel the two or more rolls to +travel in unison, are necessarily about as small at the pitch line as +the rolls themselves; they are subject to considerable strain and a +terrible hammering by back lash, and break discouragingly frequent, or +do when made of cast iron, if not of very coarse pitch, that is, with +very few teeth--eleven or twelve sometimes. + +In a certain case it became desirable to increase the number of teeth, +when it was found that the breakages occurred about as the square root +of their number. When the form was changed by cutting out at the root +in this form (Fig. 2), the breakage ceased. + +a, Fig. 2, shows an ordinary gear tooth, and b the form as +changed; c and d show the two forms of the same width, but +increased to six times the length. If the two are considered as +springs, it will be seen that d is much less likely to be broken by +a blow or strain. + +The remedy for the flimsy bed is the box section; the remedy for the +flimsy planer table is the deep box section, and with this advantage, +that the upper edge can be made to shelve over above the reversing +dogs to the full width between the housings. + +The parabolic form of housing is elegant in appearance, but +theoretically right only when of uniform cross section. In some of the +counterfeit sort the designers seem to have seen the original Sellers, +remembering the form just well enough to have got the curve wrong end +up, and knowing nothing of the principle, have succeeded in building a +housing that is absolutely weak and absolutely ugly, with just enough +of the original left to show from where it was stolen. If the housing +is constructed on the brace plan, should not the braces be straight, +as in the old Bement, and the center line of strain pass through the +center line of the brace? If the housing is to take the form of a +curve, the section should be practically uniform, and the curve drawn +by an artist. Many times housings are quite rigid enough in the +direction of the travel of the table, but weak against side pressure. +The hollow box section, with secure attachment to the bed and a deep +cross beam at the top, are the remedies. + +Raising and lowering cross heads, large and small, by two screws is a +slow and laborious job, and slow when done by power. Counterweights +just balancing the cross head, with metal straps rather than chains or +ropes, large wheels with small anti-friction journals, and the cross +head guarded by one post only, changes a slow to a quick arrangement, +and a task to a comfort. Housings of the hollow box section furnish an +excellent place for the counterweights. + +The moving head, which is not expected to move while under pressure, +seems to have settled into one form, and when hooked over a square +ledge at the top, a pretty satisfactory form, too. But in other +machines built in the form of planing machines, in which the head is +traversed while cutting, as is the case with the profiling machine, +the planer head form is not right. Both the propelling screw, or +whatever gives the side motion, should be as low down as possible, as +should also be the guide. + +There is a principle underlying the Sellers method of driving a planer +table that may be utilized in many ways. The endurance goes far beyond +any man's original expectations, and the explanation, very likely, +lies in the fact that the point of contact is always changing. To +apply the same principle to a common worm gear it is only necessary to +use a worm in a plain spur gear, with the teeth cut at an angle the +wrong way, and set the worm shaft at an angle double the amount, +rather than at 90 deg.. Such a worm gear will, I fancy, outwear a dozen of +the scientific sort. It would likely be found a convenience to have +the head of a planing machine traverse by a handle or crank attached +to itself, so it could be operated like the slide rest of a lathe, +rather than as is now the case from the end of the cross head. The +principle should be to have things convenient, even at an additional +cost. Anything more than a single motion to lock the cross head to the +housing or stanchions should not be countenanced in small planers at +least. Many of the inferior machines show marked improvements over the +better sorts, so far as handiness goes, while there is nothing to +hinder the handy from being good and the good handy. + +When we consider that since the post-drilling machine first made its +appearance, there have been added Blasdell's quick return, the +automatic feed, belt-driven spindles, back gears placed where they +ought to be, with many minor improvements, it is not safe to assume +that the end has been reached; and when we consider that as a piece of +machine designing, considered in an artistic sense entirely, the +Bement post drill is the finest the world ever saw (the Porter-Allen +engine not excepted, which is saying a good deal), is it not strange +that of all mechanical designs none other has taken on such outrageous +forms as this? + +One thing that would seem to be desirable, and that ordinary skill +might devise, is some sort of snap clutch by which the main spindle +could be stopped instantly by touching a trigger with the foot; many +drills and accidents would be saved thereby. Of the many special +devices I have seen for use on a drilling machine, one used by Mr. +Lipe might be made of universal use. It is in the form of a bracket or +knee adjustably attached to the post, which has in its upper surface a +V into which round pieces of almost any size can be fastened, so that +the drill will pass through it diametrically. It is not only useful in +making holes through round bars, but straight through bosses and +collars as well. + +The radial drill has got so it points its nose in all directions but +skyward, but whether in its best form is not certain. The handle of +the belt shipper, in none that I have seen, follows around within +reach of the drill as conveniently as one would like. + +As the one suggestion I have to make in regard to the shaping machine +best illustrates the subject of maintaining true wearing surfaces, I +will leave it until I reach that part of my paper. + +(_To be continued._) + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MECHANICS OF A LIQUID. + + +A liquid comes in handy sometimes in measuring the volume of a +substance where the length, breadth, and thickness is difficult to get +at. It is a very simple operation, only requiring the material to be +plunged under water and measure the amount of displacement by giving +close attention to the overflow. It is a process that was first +brought into use in the days when jewelers and silversmiths were +inclined to be a little dishonest and to make the most of their +earnings out of the rule of their country. If we remember rightly, the +voice of some one crying "Eureka" was heard about that time from +somebody who had been taking a bath up in the country some two miles +from home. Tradition would have us believe that the inventor left for +the patent office long before his bathing exercises were half through +with, and that he did the most of his traveling at a lively rate while +on foot, but it is more reasonable to suppose that bath tubs were in +use in those days, and that he noticed, as every good philosopher +should, that his bathing solution was running over the edge of the tub +as fast as his body sunk below the surface. Taking to the heels is +something that we hear of even at this late day. + +[Illustration] + +It was not many years ago that an inventor of a siphon noticed how +water could be drawn up hill with a lamp wick, and the thought struck +him that with a soaking arrangement of this kind in one leg of the +siphon a flow of water could be obtained that would always be kept in +motion. Without taking a second thought he dropped his work in the hay +field, and ran all the way to London, a distance of twenty miles, to +lay his scheme before a learned man of science. He must have felt like +being carried home on a stretcher when he learned that a performance +of this kind was a failure. Among the others who have given an +exhibition of this kind we notice an observer who was more successful. +Being an overseer in a cotton mill, he had only to run over to his +dining room and secure two empty fruit jars and pipe them up, as +shown. He had had trouble in measuring volume by the liquid process by +having everything he attempted to measure get a thorough wetting, and +there were many substances that were to be experimented upon that +would not stand this part of the operation, such as fibers and a +number of pulverized materials. One of the jars was packed in tight, +nearly half full of cotton, and the other left entirely empty. The +question now is to measure the volume of cotton without bringing any +of the fibers in contact with the water. The liquid is poured into the +tunnel in the upright tube under head enough to partially fill the +jars when the overflow that stands on a level with the line, D E, is +open to allow the air in each jar to adjust itself as the straight +portions are wanted to work from. The overflow is then closed and head +enough of water put on to compress the air in the empty jar down into +half its volume. It may take a pipe long enough to reach up into the +second story, but it need not be a large one, and pipes round a cotton +mill are plentiful. In the jar containing cotton the water has not +risen so high, there being not so much air to compress, and comes to +rest on the line, C. Now we have this simple condition to work from. +If the water has risen so as to occupy half of the space that has been +taken up by the amount of air in one jar, it must have done the same +in the other, and if it could have been carried to twice the extent in +volume would reach the bottom of the jar in the one containing nothing +but air, and to the line, H I, in the jar containing cotton. + +The fibers then must have had an amount of material substance about +them to fill the remaining space entirely full, so that a particle of +air could not be taken into account anywhere. The cotton has produced +the same effect that a solid substance would do if it just filled the +space shown above the line, H I, for the water has risen into half the +space that is left below it. This enables an overseer to look into the +material substance of textile fibers by bringing into use the +elasticity of atmospheric air, reserving the liquid process for +measuring volume to govern the amount of compressibility.--_Boston +Journal of Commerce._ + + * * * * * + + + + +VOLUTE DOUBLE DISTILLING CONDENSER. + + +This distiller and condenser which we illustrate has been designed, +says _Engineering_, for the purpose of obtaining fresh water from sea +water. It is very compact, and the various details in connection with +it may be described as follows: Steam from the boiler is admitted into +the evaporator through a reducing valve at a pressure of about 60 lb., +and passing through the volute, B, evaporates the salt water contained +in the chamber, C; the vapor thus generated passing through the pipe, +D, into the volute condenser, E, where it is condensed. The fresh +water thus obtained flows into the filter, from which it is pumped +into suitable drinking tanks. + +[Illustration: VOLUTE DOUBLE DISTILLING APPARATUS.] + +The steam from the boiler after passing through the volute, B, is +conveyed by means of a pipe to the second volute, H, where it is +condensed, and the water resulting is conveyed by means of a pump to +the hot well or feed tank. The necessary condensing water enters at J +and is discharged at K. The method of keeping the supply of salt water +in the evaporator at a constant level is very efficient and ingenious. +To the main circulating discharge pipe, a small pipe, L, is fitted, +which is in communication with the chamber, M, and through this the +circulating sea water runs back until it attains a working level in +the evaporator, when a valve in the end of pipe, L, is closed by the +action of the float, N, the regulation of admission being thus +automatic and certain. The steam from the boiler can be regulated by +means of a stop valve, and the pressure in the evaporator should not +exceed 4 lb., while the pressure gauge is so arranged that the +pressure in both condenser and evaporator is shown at the same time. A +safety valve is fitted at the top of the condenser, and an automatic +blow-off valve, P, is arranged to blow off when a certain density of +brine has been attained in the evaporator. The "Esco" triple pump +(Fig. 3), which has been specially manufactured for this purpose, has +three suctions and deliveries, one for circulating water, the second +for the condensed steam, and a third for the filtered drinking water, +so that the latter is kept fresh and clean. + +The condenser and pumps are manufactured by Ernest Scott & Co., Close +Works, Newcastle on Tyne, and were shown by them at the late +exhibition in their town. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED CURRENT METER. + + +Paul Kotlarewsky, of St. Petersburg, has invented an instrument for +measuring or ascertaining the velocity of water and air currents. + +Upon the shaft or axis of the propeller wheel, or upon a shaft geared +therewith, there is a hermetically closed tube or receptacle, D, which +is placed at right angles with the shaft, and preferably so that its +longitudinal axis shall intersect the axis of said shaft. In this tube +or receptacle is placed a weight, such as a ball, which is free to +roll or slide back and forth in the tube. The effect of this +arrangement is, that as the shaft revolves, the weight will drop +alternately toward opposite ends of the tube, and its stroke, as it +brings up against either end, will be distinctly heard by the observer +as well as felt by him if, as is usually the case, the apparatus when +in use is held by him. By counting the strokes which occur during a +given period of time, the number of revolutions during that period can +readily be ascertained, and from that the velocity of the current to +be measured can be computed in the usual way. + +When the apparatus is submerged in water, by a rope held by the +observer, it will at once adjust itself to the direction of the +current. The force of the current, acting against the wings or blades +of the propeller wheel, puts the latter in revolution, and the tube, +D, will be carried around, and the sliding weight, according to the +position of the tube, will drop toward and bring up against +alternately opposite ends of said tube, making two strokes for every +revolution of the shaft. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FLOWER INDUSTRY OF GRASSE. + + +A paper on this subject was read before the Chemists' Assistants' +Association on March 8, by Mr. F.W. Warrick, and was listened to with +much interest. + +Mr. Warrick first apologized for presenting a paper on such a +frivolous subject to men who had shown themselves such ardent +advocates of the higher pharmacy, of the "ologies" in preference to +the groceries, perfumeries, and other "eries." But if perfumery could +not hope to take an elevated position in the materiae pharmaceuticae, it +might be accorded a place as an adjunct, if only on the plea that +those also serve who only stand and wait. + +Mr. Warrick mentioned that his family had been connected with this +industry for many years, and that for many of the facts in the paper +he was indebted to a cousin who had had twenty years' practical +experience in the South, and who was present that evening. + + +GRASSE. + +The town of Grasse is perhaps more celebrated than any other for its +connection with the perfume industry in a province which is itself +well known to be its home. + +This, the department of the Alpes Maritimes, forms the southeastern +corner of France. Its most prominent geographical features are an +elevated mountain range, a portion of the Alps, and a long seaboard +washed by the Mediterranean--whence the name Alpes Maritimes. + +The calcareous hills round Grasse and to the north of Nice are more or +less bare, though they were at one time well wooded; the reafforesting +of these parts has, however, made of late great progress. Nearer the +sea vegetation is less rare, and there many a promontory excites the +just admiration of the visitor by its growth of olives, orange and +lemon trees, and odoriferous shrubs. Who that has ever sojourned in +this province can wonder that Goethe's Mignon should have ardently +desired a return to these sunny regions? + +Visitors on these shores on the first day of this year found Goethe's +lines more poetical than true-- + + Where a wind ever soft from the blue heaven blows, + And the groves are of laurel, and myrtle, and rose; + +for they gathered round their fires and coughed and groaned in chorus, +and entertained each other with accounts of their ailments. But this +was exceptional, and the climate of the Alpes Maritimes is on the +whole as near perfection as anything earthly can be. This, however, is +not due to its latitude, but rather to its happy protection from the +north by its Alps and to its being bathed on the south by the warm +Mediterranean and the soft breezes of an eastern wind (which evidently +there bears a different reputation to that which it does with us). The +mistral, or cold breeze from the hills, is indeed the only climatic +enemy, if we except an occasional earthquake. + +The town of Grasse itself is situated in the southern portion of the +department, and enjoys its fair share of the advantages this situation +affords. It is about ten miles from Cannes (Lord Brougham's creation), +and, as the crow flies, twenty-five miles from Nice, though about +forty miles by rail, for the line runs down to Cannes and thence along +the shore to Nice. + +Built on the side of a hill some 1,000 feet above the level of the +sea, the town commands magnificent views over the surrounding country, +especially in the direction of the sea, which is gloriously visible. +An abundant stream, the Foux, issuing from the rocks just above the +town, is the all productive genius of the place; it feeds a hundred +fountains and as many factories, and then gives life to the +neighboring fields and gardens. + +The population of Grasse is about 12,000, and the flora of its +environs represents almost all the botany of Europe. Among the +splendid pasture lands, 7,000 feet above the sea, are fields of +lavender, thyme, etc. From 7,000 to 6,000 feet there are forests of +pine and other gymnosperms. From 6,000 to 4,000 feet firs and the +beech are the most prominent trees. Between 4,000 and 2,000 feet we +find our familiar friends the oak, the chestnut, cereals, maize, +potatoes. Below this is the Mediterranean region. Here orange, lemon, +fig, and olive trees, the vine, mulberry, etc., flourish in the open +as well as any number of exotics, palms, aloes, cactuses, castor oil +plants, etc. It is in this region that nature with lavish hand bestows +her flowers, which, unlike their compeers in other lands, are not born +to waste their fragrance on the desert air or to die "like the bubble +on the fountain," but rather (to paraphrase George Eliot's lofty +words) to die, and live again in fats and oils, made nobler by their +presence. + +The following are the plants put under contribution by the perfume +factories of the district, viz., the orange tree, bitter and sweet, +the lemon, eucalyptus, myrtle, bay laurel, cherry laurel, elder; the +labiates; lavender, spike, thyme, etc.; the umbelliferous fennel and +parsley, the composite wormwood and tarragon, and, more delicate than +these, the rose, geranium, cassie, jasmin, jonquil, mignonette, and +violet. + + +THE PERFUME FACTORY. + +In the perfume factory everything is done by steam. Starting from the +engine room at the bottom, the visitor next enters the receiving room, +where early in the morning the chattering, patois-speaking natives +come to deliver the flowers for the supply of which they have +contracted. The next room is occupied with a number of steam-jacketed +pans, a mill, and hydraulic presses. Next comes the still room, the +stills in which are all heated by steam. In the "extract" department, +which is next reached, are large tinned-copper drums, fitted with +stirrers, revolving in opposite directions on vertical axes. +Descending to the cellar--the coolest part of the building--we find +the simple apparatus used in the process of enfleurage. The apparatus +is of two kinds. The smaller is a frame fitted with a sheet of stout +glass. A number of these, all of the same size, when placed one on the +top of the other, form a tolerably air tight box. The larger is a +frame fitted with wire netting, over which a piece of molleton is +placed. The other rooms are used for bottling, labeling, etc. + +The following are some of the details of the cultivation and +extraction of perfumes as given in Mr. Warrick's paper: + + +ORANGE PERFUMES. + +The orange tree is produced from the pip, which is sown in a sheltered +uncovered bed. When the young plant is about 4 feet high, it is +transplanted and allowed a year to gain strength in its new +surroundings. It is then grafted with shoots from the Portugal or +Bigaradier. It requires much care in the first few years, must be well +manured, and during the summer well watered, and if at all exposed +must have its stem covered up with straw in winter. It is not expected +to yield a crop of flowers before the fourth year after +transplantation. The flowering begins toward the end of April and +lasts through May to the middle of June. The buds are picked when on +the point of opening by women, boys, and girls, who make use of a +tripod ladder to reach them. These villagers carry the fruits (or, +rather, flowers) of their day's labor to a flower agent or +commissionnaire, who weighs them, spreads them out in a cool place +(the flowers, not the villagers), where they remain until 1 or 2 A.M.; +he then puts them into sacks, and delivers them at the factory before +the sun has risen. They are here taken in hand at once; on exceptional +days as many as 160 tons being so treated in the whole province. After +the following season, say end of June, the farmers prune their trees; +these prunings are carted to the factory, where the leaves are +separated and made use of. + +During the autumn the ground round about the trees is well weeded, dug +about, and manured. The old practice of planting violets under the +orange trees is being abandoned. Later on in the year those blossoms +which escaped extermination have developed into fruits. These, when +destined for the production of the oil, are picked while green. + +The orange trees produce a second crop of flowers in autumn, sometimes +of sufficient importance to allow of their being taken to the +factories, and always of sufficient importance to provide brides with +the necessary bouquets. + +Nature having been thus assisted to deliver these, her wonderful +productions, the flowers, the leaves, and the fruits of the orange +tree, at the factory, man has to do the rest. He does it in the +following manner: + +The flowers are spread out on the stone floor of the receiving room in +a layer some 6 to 8 inches deep; they are taken in hand by young +girls, who separate the sepals, which are discarded. Such of the +petals as are destined for the production of orange flower water and +neroli are put into a still through a large canvas chute, and are +covered with water, which is measured by the filling of reservoirs on +the same floor. The manhole of the still is then closed, and the +contents are brought to boiling point by the passage of superheated +steam through the coils of a surrounding worm. The water and oil pass +over, are condensed, and fall into a Florentine receiver, where the +oil floating on the surface remains in the flask, while the water +escapes through the tube opening below. A piece of wood or cork is +placed in the receiver to break up the steam flowing from the still; +this gives time for the small globules of oil to cohere, while it +breaks the force of the downward current, thus preventing any of the +oil being carried away. + +The first portions of the water coming from the still are put into +large tinned copper vats, capable of holding some 500 gallons, and +there stored, to be drawn off as occasion may require into glass +carboys or tinned copper bottles. This water is an article of very +large consumption in France; our English cooks have no idea to what an +extent it is used by the _chefs_ in the land of the "darned mounseer." + +The oil is separated by means of a pipette, filtered, and bottled off. +It forms the oil of neroli of commerce; 1,000 kilos. of the flowers +yield 1 kilo. of oil. That obtained from the flowers of the +Bigaradier, or bitter orange, is the finer and more expensive quality. + +The delicate scent of orange flowers can be preserved quite unchanged +by another and more gentle process, viz., that of maceration. It was +noticed by some individual, whose name has not been handed down to us, +that bodies of the nature of fat and oil are absorbers of the +odor-imparting particles exhaled by plants. This property was seized +upon by some other genius equally unknown to fame, who utilized it to +transfer the odor of flowers to alcohol. + +Where oil is used it is the very finest olive, produced by the trees +in the neighborhood. This is put into copper vats holding about 50 +gallons; 1 cwt. of flowers is added. After some hours the flowers are +strained out by means of a large tin sieve. The oil is treated with +another cwt. of flowers and still another, until sufficiently +impregnated. It is then filtered through paper until it becomes quite +bright; lastly it is put into tins, and is ready for exportation or +for use in the production of extracts. + +Where fat is employed as the macerating agent, the fat used is a +properly adjusted mixture of lard and suet, both of which have been +purified and refined during the winter months, and kept stored away in +well closed tins. + +One cwt. of the fat is melted in a steam-jacketed pan, and poured into +a tinned copper vat capable of holding from 5 to 6 cwt. About 1 cwt. +of orange flowers being added, these are well stirred in with a wooden +spatula. After standing for a few hours, which time is not sufficient +for solidification to take place, the contents are poured into shallow +pans and heated to 60 deg. C. The mixture thus rendered more fluid is +poured on to a tin sieve; the fat passes through, the flowers remain +behind. These naturally retain a large amount of macerating liquor. To +save this they are packed into strong canvas bags and subjected to +pressure between the plates of a powerful hydraulic press. The fat +squeezed out is accompanied by the moisture of the flowers, from which +it is separated by skimming. Being returned to the original vat, our +macerating medium receives another complement of flowers to rob of +their scent, and yet others, until the strength of the pomade desired +is reached. The fat is then remelted, decanted, and poured into tins +or glass jars. + +To make the extrait, the pomade is beaten up with alcohol in a special +air tight mixing machine holding some 12 gallons, stirrers moved by +steam power agitating the pomade in opposite directions. After some +hours' agitation a creamy liquid is produced, which, after resting, +separates, the alcohol now containing the perfume. By passing the +alcohol through tubes surrounded by iced water, the greater part of +the dissolved fat is removed. + +These are the processes applied to the flowers. The leaves are +distilled only for the oil of petit grain. This name was given to the +oil because it was formerly obtained from miniature orange fruits. +From 1,000 kilos. of leaves 2 kilos. of oil are obtained. + +The oil obtained from the fruit of the orange, like that of the lemon, +is extracted at Grasse by rolling the orange over the pricks of an +_ecueille_, an instrument with a hollow handle, into which the oil +flows. The oil is sometimes taken up by a sponge. Where the oil is +produced in larger quantities, as at Messina, more elaborate apparatus +is employed. A less fragrant oil is obtained by distilling the +raspings of the rind. + + +THE EUCALYPTUS, MYRTLE, ETC. + +Of later introduction than the trees of the orange family is the +Eucalyptus globulus, which, not being able to compete with the former +in the variety of nasal titillations it gives rise to, probably +consoles itself with coming off the distinct victor in the department +of power and penetration. The leaves and twigs of this tree are +distilled for oil. This oil is in large demand on the Continent, the +fact of there being no other species than the globulus in the +neighborhood being a guarantee of the uniformity of the product. + +Whereas the eucalyptus is but a newcomer in these regions, another +member of the same family, the common myrtle, can date its +introduction many centuries back. An oil is distilled from its leaves, +and also a water. + +Associated with the myrtle we find the leaves of the bay laurel, +forming the victorious wreaths of the ancients. The oil produced is +the oil of bay laurel, oil of sweet bay. This must not be confounded +with the oil of bays of the West Indies, the produce of the _Myrcia +acris_; nor yet with the cherry laurel, a member of yet another +family, the leaves of which are sometimes substituted for those of the +sweet bay. The leaves of this plant yield the cherry laurel water of +the B.P. It can hardly be said to be an article of perfumery. It also +yields an oil. + +Another water known to the British Pharmacopoeia is that produced from +the flowers of the elder, which flourishes round about Grasse. + +The rue also grows wild in these parts, and is distilled. + + +THE LABIATES. + +The family which overshadows all others in the quantity of essential +oils which it puts at the disposal of the Grassois and their neighbors +is that of the Labiatae. Foremost among these we have the lavender, +spike, thyme, and rosemary. These are all of a vigorous and hardy +nature and require no cultivation. The tops of these plants are +generally distilled _in situ_, under contract with the Grasse +manufacturer, by the villagers in the immediate vicinity. The higher +the altitude at which these grow, the more esteemed the oil. The +finest oil of lavender is produced by distilling the flowers only. +About 100 tons of lavender, 25 of spike, 40 of thyme, and 20 of +rosemary are sent out from Grasse every year. + +Among the less abundant labiates of these parts is the melissa, which +yields, however, a very fragrant oil. + +In the same family we have the sage and the sweet or common basil, +also giving up their essential oils on distillation. + + +THE UMBELLIFERS. + +Whereas the flowers of the labiate family are treated by the +distillers as favorites are by the gods, and are cut off in their +youth, those of the Umbelliferae are allowed to mature and develop into +the oil-yielding fruits. Its representatives, the fennel and parsley, +grow wild round about the town, and are laid under contribution by the +manufacturers. + +The Composites are represented by the wormwood and tarragon +(_Estragon_). + + +THE GERANIUM. + +Oil of geranium is produced from the rose or oak-leaved geranium, +cuttings of which are planted in well sheltered beds in October. +During the winter they are covered over with straw matting. In April +they are taken up, and planted in rows in fields or upon easily +irrigated terraces. Of water they require _quantum sufficit_; of +nature's other gift, which cheers and not inebriates--the glorious +sunshine--they cannot have too much. They soon grow into bushes three +or four feet high. At Nice they generally flower at the end of August. +At Grasse and cooler places they flower about the end of October. The +whole flowering plant is put into the still. + + +THE ROSE. + +Allied to the oil of geranium in odor are the products of the rose. +The Rose de Provence is the variety cultivated. It is grown on gentle +slopes facing the southeast. Young shoots are taken from a +five-year-old tree, and are planted in ground which has been well +broken up to a depth of three or four feet, in rows like vines. When +the young plant begins to branch out, the top of it is cut off about a +foot from the ground. During the first year the farmer picks off the +buds that appear, in order that the whole attention of the plant may +be taken up in developing its system. In the fourth or fifth year the +tree is in its full yielding condition. The flowering begins about +mid-April, and lasts through May to early June. On some days as many +as 150 tons of roses are gathered in the province of the Alpes +Maritimes. + +The buds on the point of opening are picked in the early morning. +Scott says they are "sweetest washed with morning dew." The purchaser +may think otherwise where the dew has to be paid for. + +The flowering season over, the trees are allowed to run wild. In +January they are pruned, and the branches left are entwined from tree +to tree all along the line, and form impenetrable fences. + +A rose tree will live to a good age, but does not yield much after its +seventh year. At that period it is dug up and burned, and corn, +potatoes, or some other crop is grown on the land for twelve months or +more. + +In the factory the petals are separated from the calyx, and are +distilled with water for the production of rose water and the otto. +For the production of the huile and pomade they are treated by +maceration. They are finished off, however, by the process of +enfleurage, in which the frames before alluded to are made use of. The +fat, or pomade, is spread on to the glass on both sides. The blossoms +are then lightly strewn on to the upper surface. A number of trays so +filled are placed one on the top of the other to a convenient height, +forming a tolerably air tight box. The next day the old flowers are +removed, and fresh ones are substituted for them. This is repeated +until the fat is sufficiently impregnated. From time to time the +surface of the absorbent is renewed by serrating it with a comb-like +instrument. This, of course, is necessary in order to give the hungry, +non-saturated lower layers a chance of doing their duty. + +Where oil is the absorbent, the wired frames are used in connection +with cloths. The cloth acts as the holder of the oil, and the flowers +are spread upon it, and the process is conducted in the same way as +with the frames with glass. + +From the pomade the extrait de rose is made in the same way as the +orange extrait. + + +CASSIE. + +The stronger, though less delicate, cassie is grown from seeds, which +are contained in pods which betray the connection of this plant with +the leguminous family. After being steeped in water they are sown in a +warm and well sheltered spot. When two feet high the young plant is +grafted and transplanted to the open ground--ground well exposed to +the sun and sheltered from the cold winds. It flourishes best in the +neighborhood of Grasse and Cannes. The season of flowering is from +October to January or February, according to the presence or absence +of frost. The flowers are gathered twice a week in the daytime, and +are brought to the factories in the evening. They are here subjected +to maceration. + + +JONQUIL. + +A plant of humbler growth is the jonquil. The bulbs of this are set +out in rows. The flowers put in an appearance about the end of March, +four or five on each stem. Each flower as it blooms is picked off at +the calyx. They are treated by maceration and enfleurage, chiefly the +latter. The harvesting period of the jonquil is of very short +duration, and it often takes two seasons for the perfumer to finish +off his pomades of extra strength. The crop is also very uncertain. + + +JASMIN. + +A more reliable crop is that of the jasmin. This plant is reared from +cuttings of the wild jasmin, which are put in the earth in rows with +trenches between. Level ground is chosen; if hillside only is +available, this is formed into a series of terraces. When strong +enough, the young stem is grafted with shoots of the _Jasminum +grandiflorum_. The first year it is allowed to run wild, the second it +is trained by means of rods, canes and other appliances. At the +approach of winter the plants are banked up with earth to half their +height. The exposed parts then die off. When the last frost of winter +is gone the earth is removed, and what remains of the shrub is trimmed +and tidied up for the coming season. It grows to four or five feet. +Support is given by means of horizontal and upright poles, which join +the plants of one row into a hedge-like structure. Water is provided +by means of the ditches already mentioned. When not used for this +purpose, the trenches allow of the passage of women and children to +gather the flowers. These begin to appear in sufficient quantity to +repay collecting about the middle of July. The jasmin is collected as +soon as possible after it blooms. This occurs in the evening, and up +to about August 15, early enough for the blossoms to be gathered the +same day. They are delivered at the factories at once, where they are +put on to the chassis immediately; the work on them continuing very +often till long after midnight. Later on in the year they are gathered +in the early morning directly the dew is off. The farmer is up +betimes, and as soon as he sees the blossoms are dry he sounds a bugle +(made from a sea shell) to announce the fact to those engaged to pick +for him. + + +TUBEROSE. + +The tuberose is planted in rows in a similar way to the jasmin. The +stems thrown up by the bulbs bear ten or twelve flowers. Each flower +as it blooms is picked off. The harvesting for the factories takes +place from about the first week in July to the middle of October. +There is an abundant yield, indeed, after this, but it is only of +service to the florist, the valued scent not being present in +sufficient quantity. The flowers are worked up at the factory directly +they arrive by the enfleurage process. + + +MIGNONETTE. + +The _reseda_, or mignonette, is planted from seed, as here in England. +The flowering tops are used to produce the huile or pomade. + + +VIOLETS. + +Last in order and least in size comes the violet. For "the flower of +sweetest smell is shy and lowly," and has taken a modest place in the +paper. + +Violets are planted out in October or April. October is preferred, as +it is the rainy season; nor are the young plants then exposed to the +heat of the sun or to the drought, as they would be if starting life +in April. + +The best place for them is in olive or orange groves, where they are +protected from the too powerful rays of the sun in summer and from the +extreme cold in winter. Specks of violets appear during November. By +December the green is quite overshadowed, and the whole plantation +appears of one glorious hue. For the leaves, having developed +sufficiently for the maintenance of the plant, rest on their oars, and +seem to take a silent pleasure in seeing the young buds they have +protected shoot past them and blossom in the open. + +The flowers are picked twice a week; they lose both color and flavor +if they are allowed to remain too long upon the plant. They are +gathered in the morning, and delivered at the factories by the +commissionnaires or agents in the afternoon, when they are taken in +hand at once. + +The products yielded by this flower are prized before all others in +the realms of perfumery, and cannot be improved; for, as one great +authority on all matters has said: "To throw a perfume on the violet +... were wasteful and ridiculous excess." + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO MAKE PHOTO. PRINTING PLATES. + + +The drawing intended for reproduction is pinned on a board and placed +squarely before a copying camera in a good, even light. The lens used +for this purpose must be capable of giving a perfectly sharp picture +right up to the edges, and must be of the class called rectilinear, +i.e., giving straight lines. The picture is then accurately focused +and brought to the required size. A plate is prepared in the dark room +by the collodion process, which is then exposed in the camera for the +proper time and developed in the ordinary way. After development, the +plate is fixed and strongly intensified, in order to render the white +portions of the drawings as opaque as possible. On looking through a +properly treated negative of this kind, it will be seen that the parts +representing the lines and black portions of the drawing are clear +glass, and the whites representing the paper a dense black. + +The negative, after drying, is ready for the next operation, i.e., +printing upon zinc. This is done in several ways. One method will, +however, be sufficient for the purpose here. I obtain a piece of the +bichromatized gelatine paper previously mentioned, and place it on the +face of the negative in a printing frame. This is exposed to sunlight +(if there is any) or daylight for a period varying from five to thirty +minutes, according to the strength of the light. This exposed piece of +paper is then covered all over with a thin coating of printing ink, +and wetted in a bath of cold water. In a few minutes the ink leaves +the white or protected parts of the paper, remaining only on the lines +where the light has passed through the negative and affected the +gelatine. We now have a transcript of the drawing in printing ink, on +a paper which, as soon as dry, is ready for laying down on a piece of +perfectly clean zinc, and passing through a press. The effect and +purpose of passing this cleaned sheet of zinc through the press in +contact with the picture on the gelatine paper is this: Owing to the +stronger attraction of the greasy ink for the clean metal than for the +gelatine, it leaves its original support, and attaches itself strongly +to the zinc, giving a beautifully sharp and clean impression of our +original drawing in greasy ink on the surface of the zinc. The zinc +plate is next damped and carefully rolled up with a roller charged +with more printing ink, and the image is thus made strong enough to +resist the first etching. This etching is done in a shallow bath, +which is so arranged that it can be rocked to and fro. For the first +etching, very weak solution of nitric acid and water is used. The +plate is placed with this acid solution in the bath, and steadily +rocked for five or ten minutes. The plate is then taken out, washed, +and again inked; then it is dusted over with powdered resin, which +sticks to the ink on the plate. After this the plate is heated until +the ink and resin on the lines melt together and form a strong +acid-resisting varnish over all the work. The plate is again put into +the acid etching bath and further etched. These operations are +repeated five or six times, until the zinc of the unprotected or white +part of the picture is etched deep enough to allow the lines to be +printed clean in a press, like ordinary type or an engraved wood +block. I ought perhaps to explain that between each etching the plate +is thoroughly inked, and that this ink is melted down the sides of the +line, so as to protect the sides as well as the top from the action of +the acid; were this neglected, the acid would soon eat out the lines +from below. The greatest skill and care is, therefore, necessary in +this work, especially so in the case of some of the exquisitely fine +blocks which are etched for some art publications. + +There are many details which are necessary to successful etching, but +those now given will be sufficient to convey to you generally the +method of making the zinc plate for the typographic block. After +etching there only remains the trimming of the zinc, a little touching +up, and mounting it on a block of mahogany or cherry of exact +thickness to render it type high, and it is now ready for insertion +with type in the printer's form. From a properly etched plate hundreds +of thousands of prints may be obtained, or it may be electrotyped or +stereotyped and multiplied indefinitely.--_G.S. Waterlow, Brit. Jour. +Photo._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF A HAND FIRE GRENADE. + +By CHAS. CATLETT and R.C. PRICE. + + +The analyses of several of these "fire extinguishers" have been +published, showing that they are composed essentially of an aqueous +solution of one or more of the following bodies; sodium, potassium, +ammonium, and calcium chlorides and sulphates, and in small amount +borax and sodium acetate; while their power of extinguishing fire is +but three or fourfold that of water. + +One of these grenades of a popular brand of which I have not found an +analysis was examined by Mr. Catlett with the following results: The +blue corked flask was so open as to show that it contained no gas +under pressure, and upon warming its contents, but 4 or 5 cubic inches +of a gas were given off. The grenade contained about 600 c.c. of a +neutral solution, which gave on analysis: + + + In 1000 c.c. In the Flask. + Grammes. Grains. + Calcium chloride¹ 92.50 850.8 + Magnesium " 18.71 173.2 + Sodium " 22.20 206.9 + Potassium " 1.14 10.6 + ------ ------ + 134.55 1241.5 + ¹Trace of bromide. + + +As this mixture of substances naturally suggested the composition of +the "mother liquors" from salt brines, Mr. Price made an analysis of +such a sample of "bittern" from the Snow Hill furnace, Kanawha Co., +W.Va., obtaining the following composition: + + + In 1000 c.c. In 200 c.c. + Grammes. Grains. + Calcium chloride¹ 299.70 925.8 + Magnesium " 56.93 175.7 + Strontium " 1.47 4.5 + Sodium " 20.16 62.2 + Potassium " 5.13 15.8 + ------ ------ + 383.39 1184.0 + ¹Trace of bromide. + + +There is of course some variation in the bittern obtained from +different brines, but it appears of interest to call attention to this +correspondence in composition, as indicating that the liquid for +filling such grenades is obtained by adding two volumes of water to +one of the "bittern." The latter statement is fairly proved by the +presence of the bromine, and certainly from an economical standpoint +such should be its method of manufacture.--_Amer. Chem. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +MOLECULAR WEIGHTS. + + +A new and most valuable method of determining the molecular weights of +non-volatile as well as volatile substances has just been brought into +prominence by Prof. Victor Meyer (_Berichte_, 1888, No. 3). The method +itself was discovered by M. Raoult, and finally perfected by him in +1886, but up to the present has been but little utilized by chemists. +It will be remembered that Prof. Meyer has recently discovered two +isomeric series of derivatives of benzil, differing only in the +position of the various groups in space. If each couple of isomers +possess the same molecular weight, a certain modification of the new +Van't Hoff-Wislicenus theory as to the position of atoms in space is +rendered necessary; but if the two are polymers, one having a +molecular weight n times that of the other, then the theory in its +present form will still hold. Hence it was imperative to determine +without doubt the molecular weight of some two typical isomers. But +the compounds in question are not volatile, so that vapor density +determinations were out of the question. In this difficulty Prof. +Meyer has tested the discovery of M. Raoult upon a number of compounds +of known molecular weights, and found it perfectly reliable and easy +of application. The method depends upon the lowering of the +solidifying point of a solvent, such as water, benzine, or glacial +acetic acid, by the introduction of a given weight of the substance +whose molecular weight is to be determined. The amount by which the +solidifying point is lowered is connected with the molecular weight, +M, by the following extremely simple formula: M = T x (P / C); where C +represents the amount by which the point of congelation is lowered, P +the weight of anhydrous substance dissolved in 100 grammes of the +solvent, and T a constant for the same solvent readily determined from +volatile substances whose molecular weights are well known. On +applying this law to the case of two isomeric benzil derivatives, the +molecular weights were found, as expected, to be identical, and not +multiples; hence Prof. Meyer is perfectly justified in introducing the +necessary modification in the "position in space" theory. Now that +this generalization of Raoult is placed upon a secure basis, it takes +its well merited rank along with that of Dulong and Petit as a most +valuable means of checking molecular weights, especially in +determining which of two or more possible values expresses the +truth.--_Nature._ + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 642, page 10258.] + + + + +THE DIRECT OPTICAL PROJECTION OF ELECTRO-DYNAMIC LINES OF FORCE AND +OTHER ELECTRO-DYNAMIC PHENOMENA.[1] + + [Footnote 1: An expansion of two papers read before the A.A.A.S. + at the Ann Arbor meeting.] + +By Prof. J.W. MOORE. + + +II. LOOPS. + +If the wire, with its lines of force, be bent into the form of a +vertical circle 1-1/8 in. in diameter, and fixed in a glass plate, +some of the lines of force will be seen parallel to the axis of the +circle. If the loop is horizontal, the lines become points. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14a.] + + +FIELDS OF LOOPS AND MAGNETS. + +Place now a vertical loop opposite to the pole of a short bar magnet +cemented to the glass plate with the N pole facing it. If the current +passes in one direction the field will be as represented by Fig. +14b; if it is reversed by the commutator, Fig. 14c is an image of +the spectrum. Applying Faraday's second principle, it appears that +attraction results in the first case, and repulsion in the second. The +usual method of stating the fact is, that if you face the loop and the +current circulates from left over to right, the N end of the needle +will be drawn into the loop. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14b.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14c.] + +It thus becomes evident that the loop is equivalent to a flat steel +plate, one surface of which is N and the other S. Facing the loop if +the current is right handed, the S side is toward you. + + +TO SHOW THE ACTUAL ATTRACTION AND REPULSION OF A MAGNET BY A "MAGNETIC +SHELL." + +Produce the field as before (Fig. 14), carry a suspended magnetic +needle over the field. It will tend to place itself parallel to the +lines of force, with the N pole in such a position that, if the +current passes clockwise as you look upon the plane of the loop, it +will be drawn into the loop. Reversing the position of the needle or +of current will show repulsion. + +Clerk Maxwell's method of stating the fact is that "every portion of +the circuit is acted on by a force urging it across the lines of +magnetic induction, so as to include a greater number of these lines +within the embrace of the circuit."[2] + + [Footnote 2: Electricity and Magnetism, Maxwell, p. 137, Sec.Sec. 489, + 490.] + +If the horizontal loop is used (Fig. 14a), the needle tries to +assume a vertical position, with the N or S end down, according to the +direction of the current. + +If it is desired to show that if the magnet is fixed and the loop +free, the loop will be attracted or repelled, a special support is +needed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +A strip (Fig. 15) of brass, J, having two iron mercury cups, K_{1} +K_{2}, screwed near the ends, one insulated from the strip, is +fastened upon the horizontal arm of the ring support, Fig. 9, already +described. The cups may be given a slight vertical motion for accurate +adjustment. Small conductors (Figs. 16, 17, 18), which are circles, +rectangles, solenoids, etc., may be suspended from the top of the +plate by unspun silk, with the ends dipping into the mercury. The +apparatus is therefore an Ampere's stand, with the weight of the +movable circuit supported by silk and with means of adjusting the +contacts. The rectangles or circles are about two inches in their +extreme dimension. Horizontal and vertical astatic system are also +used--Figs. 18, 18a. The apparatus may be used with either the +horizontal or vertical lantern. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16. Fig. 17.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 18. Fig. 18a.] + +If the rectangle or circle is suspended and a magnet brought near it +when the current passes, the loop will be attracted or repelled, as +the law requires. The experiments usually performed with De la Rive's +floating battery may be exhibited. + +The great similarity between the loop and the magnet may be shown by +comparing the fields above (Figs. 14b, 14c) with the actual fields +of two bar magnets, Figs. 19, 19a. + +It will be noticed that the lines in Fig. 19, where unlike poles are +opposite, are gathered together as in Fig. 14b,--where the N end of +the magnet faces the S side of the magnetic shell; and that in 19a, +where two norths face, the line of repulsion has the same general +character as in 14c, in which the N end of the magnet faces the N +side of the shell. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19a.] + +Instead of placing the magnet perpendicular to the plane of the loop, +it may be placed parallel to its plane. Fig. 14d shows the magnet +and loop both vertical. + +The field shows that the magnet will be rotated, and will finally take +for stable equilibrium an axial position, with the N end pointing as +determined by the rule already given. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14d.] + +If two loops are placed with their axes in the same straight line as +follows, Figs. 14f, 14g, a reproduction of Figs. 14b and 14c +will become evident. + +It is obvious from these spectra that the two loops attract or repel +each other according to the direction of the current, which fact may +be shown by bringing a loop near to another loop suspended from the +ring stand, Fig. 9, or by using the ordinary apparatus for that +purpose--De la Rive's battery and Ampere's stand. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14f.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14g.] + +If two loops are placed in the same vertical plane, as in Figs. 14h +and 14i, there will be attraction or repulsion, according to the +direction of the adjacent currents. The fields become the same as +Figs. 8 and 8a, as may be seen by comparing them with those figures. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14h.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14i.] + +Having thus demonstrated the practical identity of a loop and a +magnet, we proceed to examine the effects produced by loops on +straight wires. + +If the loop is placed with a straight wire in its plane along one +edge, there will be attraction or repulsion, according to the +direction of the two currents, Figs. 20 and 20a, which are obviously +the same as Figs. 8 and 8a. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20a.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20b.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20c.] + +If the wire is placed parallel to the plane of the loop and to one +side, Figs. 20b and 20c, there will be rotation (same as Figs. +4b and 4c). + +If the loop is horizontal and the wire vertical and on one side, the +Figs. 20d, 20e are the same as 4d and 4e. + +If the loop is horizontal and the wire vertical and axial, 20f and +20g, there will be rotation, and the figures are mere duplicates of +4g and 4h. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20d.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20e.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20f.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20g.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20h.] + +Fig. 20h shows a view of 20f when the wire is horizontal and the +plane of the loop vertical. It is like 4i. + +To verify these facts, suspend a loop from Ampere's stand, Fig. 9, and +bring a straight wire near. + +A small rectangle or circle may be hung in a similar manner. When the +circuit is closed, it tends to place itself with its axis in a N and S +direction through the earth's influence. The supposition of an E and W +horizontal earth current will explain this action. + +To exemplify rotation of a vertical wire by a horizontal loop, Fig. 21 +may be shown. + +A circular copper vessel with a glass bottom (Fig. 21) has wound +around its rim several turns of insulated wire. In the center of the +vessel is a metallic upright upon the top of which is balanced in a +mercury cup a light copper [inverted U] shaped strip. The ends of the +inverted U dip into the dilute sulphuric acid contained in the +circular vessel. + +The current passes from, the battery, up the pillar, down the legs of +the U to the liquid, thence through the insulated wire back to the +battery. + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.] + +This is the usual form of apparatus, modified in size for the vertical +or horizontal lantern. + +(_To be continued._) + + * * * * * + + + + +POISONS. + + +"Poisons and poisoning" was the subject of a discourse a few days ago +at the Royal Institution. The lecturer, Professor Meymott Tidy, began +by directing attention to the derivation of the word "toxicology," the +science of poisons. The Greek word [Greek: toxon] signified primarily +that specially oriental weapon which we call a bow, but the word in +the earliest authors included in its meaning the arrow shot from the +bow. Dioscorides in the first century A.D. uses the word [Greek: to +toxikon] to signify the poison to smear arrows with. Thus, by giving +an enlarged sense to the word--for words ever strive to keep pace, if +possible, with scientific progress, we get our modern and significant +expression toxicology as the science of poisons and of poisoning. A +certain grim historical interest gathers around the story of poisons. + +It is a history worth studying, for poisons have played their part in +history. The "subtil serpent" taught men the power of a poisoned fang. +Poison was in the first instance a simple instrument of open warfare. +Thus, our savage ancestors tipped their arrows with the snake poison +in order to render them more deadly. The use of vegetable extracts for +this purpose belongs to a later period. The suggestion is not +unreasonable that if war chemists with their powders, their gun +cotton, and their explosives had not been invented, warlike nations +would have turned for their _instrumenta belli_ to toxicologists and +their poisons. At any rate, the toxicologists may claim that the very +cradle of science was rocked in the laboratory of the toxicological +worker. Early in the history of arrow tipping the admixture of blood +with the snake poison became a common practice. Even the use of animal +fluids alone is recorded--e.g., the arrows of Hercules, which were +dipped in the gall of the Lernaean hydra. Hercules himself at last fell +a victim to the blood stained tunic of the dead Centaur Nessus. As +late as the middle of the last century Blumenbach persuaded one of his +class to drink 7 oz. of warm bullock's blood in order to disprove the +then popular notion that even fresh blood was a poison. The young man +who consented to drink the blood did not die a martyr to science. + +The first important question we have to answer is, What do we mean by +a poison? The law has not defined a poison, although it requires at +times a definition. The popular definition of a poison is "a drug +which destroys life rapidly when taken in small quantity." The terms +"small quantity" as regards amount, and "rapidly" as regards time, are +as indefinite as Hodge's "piece of chalk" as regards size. The +professor defined a poison as "any substance which otherwise than by +the agency of heat or electricity is capable of destroying life, +either by chemical action on the tissues of the living body or by +physiological action by absorption into the living system." This +definition excepted from the list of poisons all agencies that +destroyed life by a simple mechanical action, thus drawing a +distinction between a "poison" and a "destructive thing." It explains +why nitrogen is not a poison and why carbonic acid is, although +neither can support life. This point the lecturer illustrated. A +poison must be capable of destroying life. It was nonsense to talk of +a "deadly poison." If a body be a poison, it is deadly; if it be not +deadly, it is not a poison. Three illustrations of the chemical +actions of poisons were selected. The first was sulphuric acid. Here +the molecular death of the part to which the acid was applied was due +to the tendency of sulphuric acid to combine with water. The stomach +became charred. The molecular death of certain tissues destroyed the +general functional rhythmicity of the system until the disturbance +became general, somatic death (that is, the death of the entire body) +resulting. The second illustration was poisoning by carbonic oxide. +The professor gave an illustrated description of the origin and +properties of the coloring matter of the blood, known as _haemoglobin_, +drawing attention to its remarkable formation by a higher synthetical +act from the albumenoids in the animal body, and to the circumstance +that, contrary to general rule, both its oxidation and reduction may +be easily effected. It was explained that on this rhythmic action of +oxidizing and reducing _haemoglobin_ life depended. + +Carbonic oxide, like oxygen, combined with _haemoglobin_, produced a +comparatively stable compound; at any rate, a compound so stable that +it ceased to be the efficient oxygen carrier of normal _haemoglobin_. +This interference with the ordinary action of _haemoglobin_ constituted +poisoning by carbonic oxide. In connection with this subject the +lecturer referred to the use of the spectroscope as an analytical +agent, and showed the audience the spectrum of blood extracted from +the hat of the late Mr. Briggs (for the murder of whom Muller was +executed), and this was the first case in which the spectroscopic +appearances of blood formed the subject matter of evidence. The third +illustration of poisoning was poisoning by strychnine. Here again the +power of the drug for undergoing oxidation was illustrated. It was +noted that although our knowledge of the precise _modus operandi_ of +the poison was imperfect, nevertheless that the coincidence of the +first fit in the animal after its exhibition with the formation of +reduced _haemoglobin_ in the body was important. + +There followed upon this view of the chemical action of poison in the +living body this question: Given a knowledge of certain properties of +the elements--for example, their atomic weights, their relative +position according to the periodic law, their spectroscopic character, +and so forth--or given a knowledge of the molecular constitution, +together with the general physical and chemical properties of +compounds--in other words, given such knowledge of the element or +compound as may be learned in a laboratory--does such knowledge afford +us any clew whereby to predicate the probable action of the element or +of the compound respectively on the living body? The researches of +Blake, Rabuteau, Richet, Bouchardat, Fraser, and Crum-Brown were +discussed, the results of their observations being that at present we +were unable to determine toxicity or physiological action by any +general chemical or physical researches. The lecturer pointed out that +such relationship was scarcely to be expected. Poisons acted on +different tissues, while even the same poison, according to the dose +administered and other conditions, expended its toxic activity in +different ways. + +Further, the allotropic modifications of elements and the isomerism of +compounds increased the difficulties. Why should yellow phosphorus be +an active poison and red phosphorus be inert? Why should piperine be +the poison of all poisons to keep you awake, and morphine the poison +of all poisons to send you asleep, although to the chemist these two +bodies were of identical composition? The lecturer urged that the +science of medicine (for the poisons of the toxicologist were the +medicines of the physician) must be experimental. Guard jealously +against all wanton cruelty to animals; but to deprive the higher +creation of life and health lest one of the lower creatures should +suffer was the very refinement of cruelty. "Are ye not of much more +value then they?" spoke a still small voice amid the noisy babble of +well intentioned enthusiasts.--_London Times._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTIFICIAL MOTHER FOR INFANTS. + + +All the journals have recently narrated the curious story of the +triplets that were born prematurely at the clinic of Assas Street. +Placed at their birth in an apparatus constructed on the principle of +an incubator, in order to finish their development therein, these +frail beings are doing wonderfully well, thanks to the assiduous care +bestowed upon them, and are even showing, it appears, a true emulation +to become persons of importance. + +Every one now knows the incubator or "artificial hen"--that box with a +glass top in which, under the influence of a mild heat, hens' eggs, +laid upon wire cloth, hatch of themselves in a few days, and allow +pretty little chicks to make their way out of the cracked shell. + +This ingenious apparatus, which has been adopted by most breeders, +gives so good results that it has already supplanted the mother hens +in all large poultry yards, and at present, thanks to it, large +numbers of eggs that formerly ended in omelets are now changing into +chickens. + +Although not belonging to the same race, a number of children at their +birth are none the less delicate than these little chicks. + +There are some that are so puny and frail among the many brought into +the world by the anaemic and jaded women of the present generation +that, in the first days of their existence, their blood, incapable of +warming them, threatens at every instant to congeal in their veins. +There are some which, born prematurely, are so incapable of taking +nourishment of themselves, of breathing and of moving, that they would +be fatally condemned to death were not haste made to take up their +development where nature left it, in order to carry it on and finish +it. In such a case it is not, as might be supposed, to the +exceptionally devoted care of the mother that the safety of these +delicate existences is confided. As the sitting hen often interferes +with the hatching of her eggs by too much solicitude, so the most +loving and attentive mother, in this case, would certainly prove more +prejudicial than useful to her nursling. So, for this difficult task +that she cannot perform, there is advantageously substituted for her +what is known as an artificial mother. This apparatus, which is +identical with the one employed for the incubation of chickens, +consists of a large square box, supporting, upon a double bottom, a +series of bowls of warm water. Above these vessels, which are renewed +as soon as the temperature lowers, is arranged a basket filled with +cotton, and in this is laid, as in a nest, the weak creature which +could not exist in the open air. + +[Illustration: STILL BIRTH WARMING APPARATUS.] + +Through the glass in the cover, the mother has every opportunity of +watching the growth of her new born babe; but this is all that she is +allowed to do. The feeding of the infant, which is regulated by the +physician at regular hours, is effected by means of a special rubber +apparatus, through the aid of an intelligent woman who has sole charge +of this essential operation. The aeration of the little being, which +is no less important, is assured by a free circulation, in the box, of +pure warm air, which is kept at a definite temperature and is +constantly renewed through a draught flue. The least variations in the +temperature are easily seen through a horizontal thermometer placed +beneath the glass. + +Thus protected against all those bad influences that are often so +fatal at the inception of life, even to the healthiest babes, +preserved from an excess or insufficiency of food, sheltered from cold +and dampness, protected against clumsy handling and against pernicious +microbes, sickly or prematurely born babies soon acquire enough +strength in the apparatus to be able, finally, like others, to face +the various perils that await us from the cradle. + +The results that have been obtained for some time back at Paris, where +the surroundings are so unfavorable, no longer leave any doubt as to +the excellence of the process. At the lying-in clinic of Assas Street, +Doctors Farnier, Chantreuil, and Budin succeeded in a few days in +bringing some infants born at six months (genuine human dolls, +weighing scarcely more than from 21/4 to 41/2 pounds) up to the normal +weight of 71/2 pounds.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + + + + +GASTROSTOMY. + + +Surgery has, as is well known, made great progress in recent years. +Apropos of this subject, we shall describe to our readers an operation +that was recently performed by one of our most skillful surgeons, Dr. +Terrillon, under peculiar circumstances, in which success is quite +rare. The subject was a man whose oesophagus was obstructed, and who +could no longer swallow any food, or drink the least quantity of +liquid, and to whom death was imminent. Dr. Terrillon made an incision +in the patient's stomach, and, through a tube, enabled him to take +nourishment and regain his strength. We borrow a few details +concerning the operation from a note presented by the doctor at one of +the last meetings of the Academy of Medicine. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--FEEDING A PATIENT THROUGH A STOMACHAL TUBE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DETAILS OF THE TUBE. C, rubber tube for +leading food to the stomach, E; B B', rubber balls, which, inflated +with air by means of the tube, T, and rubber ball, P, effect a +hermetic closing; A, stopper for the tube, C; R, cock of the air +tube.] + +Mr. X., fifty-three years of age, is a strong man of arthritic +temperament. He has suffered for several years with violent gastralgia +and obstinate dyspepsia, for which he has long used morphine. The +oesophagal symptoms appear to date back to the month of September, +1887, when he had a painful regurgitation of a certain quantity of +meat that he had swallowed somewhat rapidly. + +Since that epoch, the passage of solid food has been either painful or +difficult, and often followed by regurgitation. The food seemed to +stop at the level of the pit of the stomach. So he gave up solid food, +and confined himself to liquids or semi-liquids, which readily passed +up to December 20, 1887. At this epoch, he remarked that liquids were +swallowed with difficulty, especially at certain moments, they +remaining behind the sternum and afterward slowly descending or being +regurgitated. This state of things was more marked especially in the +first part of January. He was successfully sounded several times, but +soon the sound was not able to pass. Doctors Affre and Bazenet got him +to come to Paris, where he arrived February 5, 1888. + +For ten days, the patient had not been able to swallow anything but +about a quart of milk or bouillon in small doses. As soon as he had +swallowed the liquid, he experienced distress over the pit of the +stomach, followed by painful regurgitations. For three days, every +attempt made by Dr. Terrillon to remove the obstacle that evidently +existed at the level of the cardia entirely failed. Several times +after such attempts a little blood was brought out, but there was +never any hemorrhage. + +The patient suffered, grew lean and impatient, and was unable to +introduce into his stomach anything but a few spoonfuls of water from +time to time. As he was not cachectic and no apparent ganglion was +found, and as his thoracic respiration was perfect, it seemed to be +indicated that an incision should be made in his stomach. The patient +at once consented. + +The operation was performed February 9, at 11 o'clock, with the aid of +Dr. Routier, the patient being under the influence of chloroform. A +small aperture was made in the wall of the stomach and a red rubber +sound was at once introduced in the direction of the cardia and great +tuberosity. This gave exit to some yellowish gastric liquid. The tube +was fixed in the abdominal wall with a silver wire. The operation took +three quarters of an hour. The patient was not unduly weakened, and +awoke a short time afterward. He had no nausea, but merely a burning +thirst. The operation was followed by no peritoneal reaction or fever. +Three hours afterward, bouillon and milk were injected and easily +digested. + +Passing in silence the technical details, which would not interest the +majority of our readers, we shall be content to say that Mr. X., +thanks to this alimentation, has regained his strength, and is daily +taking his food as shown in Fig. 1. The aperture made in the stomach +permits of the introduction of the rubber apparatus shown in Fig. 2, +the object of which is to prevent the egress of the liquids of the +stomach and at the same time to introduce food. A funnel is fitted to +the tube, and the liquid or semi-liquid food is directly poured into +the stomach. Digestion proceeds with perfect regularity, and Mr. X., +who has presented himself, of his own accord, before the Academy, and +whom we have recently seen, has resumed his health and good +spirits.--_La Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO CATCH AND PRESERVE MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES. + + +There is no part of our country in which one cannot form a beautiful +local collection, and any young person who wants amusement, +instruction, and benefit from two, three, or more weeks in the country +can find all in catching butterflies and moths, arranging them, and +studying them up. + +Provide yourself first with two tools, a net and a poison bottle. The +net may be made of any light material. I find the thinnest Swiss +muslin best. Get a piece of iron wire, not as heavy as telegraph wire, +bend it in a circle of about ten inches diameter, with the ends +projecting from the circle two or three inches; lash this net frame to +the end of a light stick four or five feet long. Sew the net on the +wire. The net must be a bag whose depth is not quite the length of +your arm--so deep that when you hold the wire in one hand you can +easily reach the bottom with the bottle (to be described) in the other +hand. Never touch wing of moth or butterfly with your fingers. The +colors are in the dusty down (as you call it), which comes off at a +touch. Get a glass bottle or vial, with large, open mouth, and cork +which you can easily put in and take out. The bottles in which +druggists usually get quinine are the most convenient. It should not +be so large that you cannot easily carry it in your pocket. Let the +druggist put in the bottle a half ounce of cyanide of potassium; on +this pour water to the depth of about three-fourths of an inch, and +then sprinkle in and mix gently and evenly enough plaster of Paris to +form a thick cream, which will _set_ in a cake in the bottom of the +vial. Let it stand open an hour to set and dry, then wipe out the +inside of the vial above the cake and keep it corked. This is the +regular entomological poison bottle, used everywhere. An insect put in +it dies quietly at once. It will last several months. + +These two tools, the net and the poison bottle, are your catching and +killing instruments. You know where to look for butterflies. Moths are +vastly more numerous, and while equally beautiful, present more +varieties of beauty than butterflies. They can be found by daylight in +all kinds of weather, in the grass fields, in brush, in dark woods, +sometimes on flowers. Many spend the daytime spread out, others with +close shut wings on the trunks of trees in dark woods. The night moths +are more numerous and of great variety. They come around lamps, set +out on verandas in the night, in great numbers. A European fashion is +to spread on tree trunks a sirup made of brown sugar and rum, and +visit them once in a while at night with net and lantern. Catch your +moth in the net, take him out of it by cornering him with the open +mouth of your poison bottle, so that you secure him unrubbed. + +Now comes the work of stretching your moths. This is easy, but must be +done carefully. Provide your own stretching boards. These can be made +anywhere with hammer and nail and strips of wood. You want two flat +strips of wood about seven-eighths or three-fourths of an inch thick +and eight to fourteen inches long, nailed parallel to each other on +another strip, so as to leave a narrow open space between the two +parallel strips. Make two or three or more of these, with the slit or +space between the strips of various widths, for large and small moths +and butterflies. Make as many of them, with as various widths of slit, +as your catches may demand. Take your moth by the feet, gently in your +fingers, put a long pin down through his body, set the pin down in the +slit of the stretching board, so that the body of the moth will be at +the top of the slit and the wings can be laid out flat on the boards +on each side. Have ready narrow slips of white paper. Lay out one +_upper_ wing flat, raising it gently and carefully by using the point +of a pin to draw it with, until the lower edge of this upper wing is +nearly at a right angle with the body. Pin it there temporarily with +one pin, carefully, while you draw up the _under_ wing to a natural +position, and pin that. Put a slip of paper over both wings, pinning +one end above the upper and the other below the under wing, thus +holding both wings flat on the stretching board. Take out the pins +first put in the wings and let the paper do the holding. Treat the +opposite wings in the same way. Put as many moths or butterflies on +your stretching board as it will hold, and let them remain in a dry +room for two, three, or more days, according to size of moths and +dampness of climate. Put them in sunshine or near a stove to hasten +drying. When dry, take off the slips of paper, lift the moth out by +the pin through the body, and place him permanently in your +collection.--_Wm. C. Prime, in N.Y. Jour. of Commerce._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CLAVI HARP. + + +The beautiful instrument which we illustrate to-day is the invention +of M. Dietz, of Brussels. His grandfather was one of the first +manufacturers of upright pianos, and being struck with the +difficulties and defects of the harp, constructed, in 1810, an +instrument _a cordes pincees a clavier_--the strings connected with a +keyboard. + +Many improvements have from time to time been made on this model, +which at last arrived at the perfection exhibited in the newly +patented clavi harp. The difficulty of learning to play the ordinary +harp, and the inherent inconveniences of the instrument, limit its +use. It is furnished with catgut strings, which are affected by all +the influences of temperature, and require to be frequently tuned. The +necessity of playing the strings with the fingers renders it difficult +to obtain equality in the sounds. It gives only the natural sounds of +the diatonic gamut, and in order to obtain changes of modulation, the +pedals must be employed. Harmonics and shakes are very difficult to +execute on the harp, and--last, but not least--it is not provided with +dampers. The external form of the clavi harp resembles that of the +harp, and all the cords, or strings, are visible. The mechanism which +produces the sound is put into motion directly a key is depressed, and +acts in a similar manner to the fingers of a harpist; the strings +being pulled, not struck. The clavi harp is free from all the +objections inherent in the ordinary harp. The strings are of a +peculiar metal, covered with an insulating material, which has for its +object the production of sounds similar to that obtained from catgut +strings, and to prevent the strings from falling out of tune. The +keyboard, exactly like that of a piano, permits of playing in all +keys, without the employment of pedals. The clavi harp has two pedals. +The first, connected with the dampers, permits the playing of +sustained sounds, or damping them instantaneously. The second pedal +divides certain strings into two equal parts, to give the harmonic +octaves; by the aid of this pedal the performer can produce ten +harmonic sounds simultaneously; on the ordinary harp only four +simultaneous harmonics are possible. An ordinary keyboard being the +intermediary between the performer and the movement of the mechanical +"fingers" which pluck the strings, perfect equality of manipulation is +secured. The mechanical "fingers" instantaneously quit the strings on +which they operate, and are ready for further action. The "fingers" +are covered with suitable material, so that their contact with the +strings takes place with the softness necessary to obtain the most +beautiful tones possible. + +[Illustration: THE CLAVI HARP.] + +The clavi harp is much lighter than the piano--so that it can easily +be moved from room to room, or taken into an orchestra, by one or two +persons--and is of an elegant form, favorable to artistic decoration. +Sufficient will have been said to give a general idea of the new +instrument. + +It is undeniable that at the present day that beautiful instrument, +the harp, is seldom played; still seldomer well played. This is +attributable to the difficulties it presents to pupils. Its seven +pedals must be employed in different ways when notes are to be raised +or lowered a semitone; chromatic passages easy of execution on the +piano are almost impracticable on the harp. The same may be said of +the shake; and it is only after long and exclusive devotion to its +study that the harp can become endurable in the hands of an amateur, +or the means of furnishing a professional harpist with a moderate +income. It is needless to point out how far, in these respects, the +harp is surpassed by the clavi harp. + +Vocalists who accompany themselves on the harp are forced, by the +extension of their arms to reach the lower strings, and by frequent +employment of their feet on the pedals, into postures and movements +unfavorable to voice production; but they can accompany themselves +with ease on the clavi harp. + +Composers are restricted in the introduction of harp passages in their +orchestral scores, owing to the paucity of harpists. In some cases, +composers have written harp passages beyond the possibility of +execution by a single harpist, and the difficulty and cost of +providing two harpists have been inevitable. These difficulties will +disappear, and composers may give full play to their inspirations, +when the harp is displaced by the clavi harp.--_Building News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ARGAND BURNER. + + +Argand, a poor Swiss, invented a lamp with a wick fitted into a hollow +cylinder, up which a current of air was permitted to pass, thus giving +a supply of oxygen to the interior as well as the exterior of the +circular frame. At first Argand used the lamp without a glass chimney. +One day he was busy in his work room and sitting before the burning +lamp. His little brother was amusing himself by placing a bottomless +oil flask over different articles. Suddenly he placed it upon the +flame of the lamp, which instantly shot up the long, circular neck of +the flask with increased brilliancy. It did more, for it flashed into +Argand's mind the idea of the lamp chimney, by which his invention was +perfected. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SUBTERRANEAN TEMPLES OF INDIA. + + +During the last fifteen years Bombay has undergone a complete +transformation, and the English are now making of it one of the +prettiest cities that it is possible to see. The environs likewise +have been improved, and thanks to the railways and _bungalows_ (inns), +many excursions may now be easily made, and tourists can thus visit +the wonders of India, such as the subterranean temples of Ajunta, +Elephanta, Nassik, etc., without the difficulties of heretofore. + +The excavations of Elephanta are very near Bombay, and the trip in the +bay by boat to the island where they are located is a delightful one. +The deplorable state in which these temples now exist, with their +broken columns and statues, detracts much from their interest. The +temples of Ajunta, perhaps the most interesting of all, are easier of +access, and are situated 250 miles from Bombay and far from the +railway station at Pachora, where it is necessary to leave the cars. +Here an ox cart has to be obtained, and thirty miles have to be +traveled over roads that are almost impassable. It takes the oxen +fifteen hours to reach the bungalow of Furdapore, the last village +before the temples, and so it is necessary to purchase provisions. In +these wild and most picturesque places, the Hindoos cannot give you a +dinner, even of the most primitive character. It was formerly thought +that the subterranean temples of India were of an extraordinary +antiquity. + +The Hindoos still say that the gods constructed these works, but of +the national history of the country they are entirely ignorant, and +they do not, so to speak, know how to estimate the value of a century. +The researches made by Mr. Jas. Prinsep between 1830 and 1840 have +enlightened the scientific world as to the antiquity of the monuments +of India. He succeeded in deciphering the Buddhist inscriptions that +exist in all the north of India beyond the Indus as far as to the +banks of the Bengal. These discoveries opened the way to the work done +by Mr. Turnour on the Buddhist literature of Ceylon, and it was thus +that was determined the date of the birth of Sakya Muni, the founder +of Buddhism. He was born 625 B.C. and his death occurred eighty years +later, in 543. It is also certain that Buddhism did not become a true +religion until 300 years after these events, under the reign of Aoska. +The first subterranean temples cannot therefore be of a greater +antiquity. Researches that have been made more recently have in all +cases confirmed these different results, and we can now no longer +doubt that these temples have been excavated within a period of +fourteen centuries. + +Dasaratha, the grandson of Aoska, first excavated the temples known +under the name of Milkmaid, in Behar (Bengal), 200 B.C., and the +finishing of the last monument of Ellora, dedicated by Indradyumna to +Indra Subha, occurred during the twelfth century of our era. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--FACADE OF THE TEMPLE OF PANDU LENA.] + +We shall speak first of the temples of Pandu Lena, situated in the +vicinity of Nassik, near Bombay. These are less frequented by +travelers, and that is why I desired to make a sketch of them (Fig. 1). +The church of Pandu Lena is very ancient. Inscriptions have been found +upon its front, and in the interior on one of the pillars, that teach +us that it was excavated by an inhabitant of Nassik, under the reign +of King Krishna, in honor of King Badrakaraka, the fifth of the +dynasty of Sunga, who mounted the throne 129 B.C. + +The front of this church, all carved in the rock, is especially +remarkable by the perfection of the ornaments. In these it is to be +seen that the artist has endeavored to imitate in rock a structure +made of wood. This is the case in nearly all the subterranean temples, +and it is presumable that the architects of the time did their +composing after the reminiscences of the antique wooden monuments that +still existed in India at their epoch, but which for a long time have +been forever destroyed. The large bay placed over the small front door +gives a mysterious light in the nave of the church, and sends the rays +directly upon the main altar or _dagoba_, leaving the lateral columns +and porticoes in a semi-obscurity well calculated to inspire +meditation and prayer. + +The temples and monasteries of Ajunta, too, are of the highest +interest. They consist of 27 grottoes, of which four only are churches +or _chaityas_. The 23 other excavations compose the monasteries or +_viharas_. Begun 100 B.C., they have remained since the tenth century +of our era as we now see them. The subterranean monasteries are +majestic in appearance. Sustained by superb columns with curiously +sculptured capitals, they are ornamented with admirable frescoes which +make us live over again the ancient Hindoo life. The paintings are +unfortunately in a sad state, yet for the tourist they are an +inexhaustible source of interesting observations. + +The excavations, which have been made one after another in the wall of +volcanic rock of the mountain, form, like the latter, a sort of +semicircle. But the churches and monasteries have fronts whose +richness of ornamentation is unequaled. The profusion of the +sculptures and friezes, ornamented with the most artistic taste, +strikes you with so much the more admiration in that in these places +they offer a perfect and varied _ensemble_ of the true type of the +Buddhist religion during this long period of centuries. The +picturesque landscape that surrounds these astonishing sculptures adds +to the beauty of these various pictures. + +The temples of Ellora are no less remarkable, but they do not offer +the same artistic _ensemble_. The excavations may be divided into +three series: ten of them belong to the religion of Buddha, fourteen +to that of Brahma, and six to the Dravidian sect, which resembles that +of Jaius, of which we still have numerous specimens in the Indies. +Excavated in the same amygdaloid rock, the temples and monasteries +differ in aspect from those of Ajunta, on account of the form of the +mountain. Ajunta is a nearly vertical wall. At Ellora, the rock has a +gentle slope, so that, in order to have the desired height for +excavating the immense halls of the _viharas_ or the naves of the +_chaityas_, it became necessary to carve out a sort of forecourt in +front of each excavation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PLAN OF THE TEMPLES OF KYLAS.] + +Some of the churches thus have their entrance ornamented with +porticoes, and the immense monasteries (which are sometimes three +stories high) with lateral entrances and facades. The mountain has +also been excavated in other places, so as to form a relatively narrow +entrance, which gives access to the internal court of one of these +monasteries. It thus becomes nearly invisible to whoever passes along +the road formed on the sloping side of the mountain. The greatest +curiosity among the monuments of Ellora is the group of temples known +by the name of Kylas (Fig. 2). The monks have excavated the rocky +slope on three faces so as to isolate completely, in the center, an +immense block, out of which they have carved an admirable temple (see +T in the plan, Fig. 2), with its annexed chapels. These temples are +thus roofless and are sculptured externally in the form of pagodas. +Literally covered with sculptures composed with infinite art, they +form a very unique collection. These temples seem to rest upon a +fantastic base in which are carved in alto rilievo all the gods of +Hindoo mythology, along with symbolic monsters and rows of elephants. +These are so many caryatides of strange and mysterious aspect, +certainly designed to strike the imagination of the ancient Indian +population (Fig. 3). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--SUBTERRANEAN TEMPLE AT ELLORA.] + +Two flights of steps at S and S (Fig. 2) near the main entrance of +Kylas lead to the top of this unique base and to the floor of the +temples. + +The interior of the central pagoda, ornamented with sixteen +magnificent columns, formerly covered, like the walls, with paintings, +and the central sanctuary that contains the great idol, are composed +with a perfect understanding of architectural proportions. + +Exit from this temple is effected through two doors at the sides. +These open upon a platform where there are five pagodas of smaller +size that equal the central temple in the beauty of their sculptures +and the elegance of their proportions. + +Around these temples great excavations have been made in the sides of +the mountain. At A (Fig. 2), on a level with the ground, is seen a +great cloister ornamented with a series of bass reliefs representing +the principal gods of the Hindoo paradise. The side walls contain +large, two-storied halls ornamented with superb sculptures of various +divinities. Columns of squat proportions support the ceilings. A small +stairway, X (Fig. 2), leads to one of these halls. Communication was +formerly had with its counterpart by a stone bridge which is now +broken. There still exist two (P) which lead from the floor of the +central temple to the first story of the detached pavilion or +_mantapa_, D, and to that of the entrance pavilion or _gopura_, C. At +G we still see two sorts of obelisks ornamented with arabesques and +designed for holding the fires during religious fetes. At E are seen +two colossal elephants carved out of the rock. These structures, made +upon a general plan of remarkable character, are truly without an +equal in the entire world. + +We may thus see how much art feeling the architects of these remote +epochs possessed, and express our wonder at the extreme taste that +presided over all these marvelous subterranean structures.--_A. +Tissandier, in La Nature._ + + * * * * * + +[NATURE.] + + + + + +TIMBER, AND SOME OF ITS DISEASES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No, 640, p. 10222.] + +By H. MARSHALL WARD. + + +IV. + +Before proceeding further it will be of advantage to describe another +tree-killing fungus, which has long been well known to mycologists as +one of the commonest of our toadstools growing from rotten stumps and +decaying wood-work such as old water pipes, bridges, etc. This is +_Agaricus melleus_ (Fig. 15), a tawny yellow toadstool with a ring +round its stem, and its gills running down on the stem and bearing +white spores, and which springs in tufts from the base of dead and +dying trees during September and October. It is very common in this +country, and I have often found it on beeches and other trees in +Surrey, but it has been regarded as simply springing from the dead +rotten wood, etc., at the base of the tree. As a matter of fact, +however, this toadstool is traced to a series of dark shining strings, +looking almost like the purple-black leaf stalks of the maidenhair +fern, and these strings branch and meander in the wood of the tree, +and in the soil, and may attain even great lengths--several feet, for +instance. The interest of all this is enhanced when we know that until +the last few years these long black cords were supposed to be a +peculiar form of fungus, and were known as _Rhizomorpha_. They are, +however, the subterranean vegetative parts (mycelium) of the agaric we +are concerned with, and they can be traced without break of continuity +from the base of the toadstool into the soil and tree (Fig. 16). I +have several times followed these dark mycelial cords into the timber +of old beeches and spruce fir stumps, but they are also to be found in +oaks, plums, various conifers, and probably may occur in most of our +timber trees if opportunity offers. + +The most important point in this connection is that _Agaricus melleus_ +becomes in these cases a true parasite, producing fatal disease in the +attacked timber trees, and, as Hartig has conclusively proved, +spreading from one tree to another by means of the rhizomorphs under +ground. Only the last summer I had an opportunity of witnessing, on a +large scale, the damage that can be done to timber by this fungus. +Hundreds of spruce firs with fine tall stems, growing on the hillsides +of a valley in the Bavarian Alps, were shown to me as "victims to a +kind of rot." In most cases the trees (which at first sight appeared +only slightly unhealthy) gave a hollow sound when struck, and the +foresters told me that nearly every tree was rotten at the core. I had +found the mycelium of _Agaricus melleus_ in the rotting stumps of +previously felled trees all up and down the same valley, but it was +not satisfactory to simply assume that the "rot" was the same in both +cases, though the foresters assured me it was so. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--A small group of _Agaricus (Armillaria) +melleus_. The toadstool is tawny yellow, and produces white spores; +the gills are decurrent, and the stem bears a ring. The fine hair-like +appendages on the pileus should be bolder.] + +By the kindness of the forest manager I was allowed to fell one of +these trees. It was chosen at hazard, after the men had struck a large +number, to show me how easily the hollow trees could be detected by +the sound. The tree was felled by sawing close to the roots; the +interior was hollow for several feet up the stem, and two of the main +roots were hollow as far as we could poke canes, and no doubt further. +The dark-colored rotting mass around the hollow was wet and spongy, +and consisted of disintegrated wood held together by a mesh work of +the rhizomorphs. Further outward the wood was yellow, with white +patches scattered in the yellow matrix, and, again, the rhizomorph +strands were seen running in all directions through the mass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Sketch of the base of a young tree (s) killed +by _Agaricus melleus_, which has attacked the roots, and developed +rhizomorphs at r, and fructifications. To the right the +fructifications have been traced by dissection to the rhizomorph +strands which produced them.] + +Not to follow this particular case further--since we are concerned +with the general features of the diseases of timber--I may pass to the +consideration of the diagnosis of this disease caused by _Agaricus +melleus_, as contrasted with that due to _Trametes radiciperda_. + +Of course no botanist would confound the fructification of the +_Trametes_ with that of the _Agaricus_; but the fructifications of +such fungi only appear at certain seasons, and that of _Trametes +radiciperda_ may be underground, and it is important to be able to +distinguish such forms in the absence of the fructifications. + +The external symptoms of the disease, where young trees are concerned, +are similar in both cases. In a plantation at Freising, in Bavaria, +Prof. Hartig showed me young Weymouth pines (_P. Strobus_) attacked +and killed by _Agaricus melleus_. The leaves turn pale and yellow, and +the lower part of the stem--the so-called "collar"--begins to die and +rot, the cortex above still looking healthy. So far the symptoms might +be those due to the destructive action of other forms of tree-killing +fungi. + +On uprooting a young pine, killed or badly attacked by the agaric, the +roots are found to be matted together with a ball of earth permeated +by the resin which has flowed out; this is very pronounced in the case +of some pines, less so in others. On lifting up the scales of the +bark, there will be found, not the silky white, delicate mycelium of +the _Trametes_, but probably the dark cord-like rhizomorphs; there may +also be flat white rhizomorphs in the young stages, but they are +easily distinguished. These dark rhizomorphs may also be found +spreading around into the soil from the roots, and they look so much +like thin roots indeed that we can at once understand their +name--rhizomorph. The presence of the rhizomorphs and (in the case of +the resinous pines) the outflow of resin and sticking together of soil +and roots are good distinctive features. No less evident are the +differences to be found on examining the diseased timber, as +exemplified by Prof. Hartig's magnificent specimens. The wood attacked +assumes brown and bright yellow colors, and is marked by sharp brown +or nearly black lines, bounding areas of one color and separating them +from areas of another color. In some cases the yellow color is quite +bright--canary yellow, or nearly so. The white areas scattered in this +yellow matrix have no black specks in them, and can thus be +distinguished from those due to the _Trametes_. In advanced stages the +purple-black rhizomorphs will be found in the soft, spongy wood. + +The great danger of _Agaricus melleus_ is its power of extending +itself beneath the soil by means of the spreading rhizomorphs; these +are known to reach lengths of several feet, and to pass from root to +root, keeping a more or less horizontal course at a depth of six or +eight inches or so in the ground. On reaching the root of another +tree, the tips of the branched rhizomorph penetrate the living cortex, +and grow forward in the plane of the cambium, sending off smaller +ramifications into the medullary rays and (in the case of the pines, +etc.) into the resin passages. The hyphae of the ultimate twigs enter +the tracheides, vessels, etc., of the wood, and delignify them, with +changes of color and substance as described. Reference must be made to +Prof. Hartig's publications for the details which serve to distinguish +histologically between timber attacked by _Agaricus melleus_ and by +_Trametes_ or other fungi. Enough has been said to show that diagnosis +is possible, and indeed to an expert not difficult. + +It is at least clear from the above sketch that we can distinguish +these two kinds of diseases of timber, and it will be seen on +reflection that this depends on knowledge of the structure and +functions of the timber and cambium on the one hand and proper +acquaintance with the biology of the fungi on the other. It is the +victory of the fungus over the timber in the struggle for existence +which brings about the disease; and one who is ignorant of these +points will be apt to go astray in any reasoning which concerns the +whole question. Any one knowing the facts and understanding their +bearings, on the contrary, possesses the key to a reasonable treatment +of the timber; and this is important, because the two diseases +referred to can be eradicated from young plantations and the areas of +their ravages limited in older forests. + +Suppose, for example, a plantation presents the following case. A tree +is found to turn sickly and die, with the symptoms described, and +trees immediately surrounding it are turning yellow. The first tree is +at once cut down, and its roots and timber examined, and the diagnosis +shows the presence of _Agaricus melleus_ or of _Trametes radiciperda_, +as the case may be. Knowing this, the expert also knows more. If the +timber is being destroyed by the _Trametes_, he knows that the +ravaging agent can travel from tree to tree by means of roots in +contact, and he at once cuts a ditch around the diseased area, taking +care to include the recently infected and neighboring trees. Then the +diseased timber is cut, because it will get worse the longer it +stands, and the diseased parts burnt. If _Agaricus melleus_ is the +destroying agent, a similar procedure is necessary; but regard must be +had to the much more extensive wanderings of the rhizomorphs in the +soil, and it may be imperative to cut the moat round more of the +neighboring trees. Nevertheless, it has also to be remembered that the +rhizomorphs run not far below the surface. However, my purpose here is +not to treat this subject in detail, but to indicate the lines along +which practical application of the truths of botanical science may be +looked for. The reader who wishes to go further into the subject may +consult special works. Of course the spores are a source of danger, +but need be by no means so much so where knowledge is intelligently +applied in removing young fructifications. + +I will now pass on to a few remarks on a class of disease-producing +timber fungi which present certain peculiarities in their biology. The +two fungi which have been described are true parasites, attacking the +roots of living trees, and causing disease in the timber by traveling +up the cambium, etc., into the stem; the fungi I am about to refer to +are termed wound parasites, because they attack the timber of trees at +the surfaces of wounds, such as cut branches, torn bark, frost cracks, +etc., and spread from thence into the sound timber. When we are +reminded how many sources of danger are here open in the shape of +wounds, there is no room for wonder that such fungi as these are so +widely spread. Squirrels, rats, cattle, etc., nibble or rub off bark; +snow and dew break branches; insects bore into stems; wind, hail, +etc., injure young parts of trees, and in fact small wounds are formed +in such quantities that if the fructifications of such fungi as those +referred to are permitted to ripen indiscriminately, the wonder is not +that access to the timber is gained, but rather that a tree of any +considerable age escapes at all. + +One of the commonest of these is _Polyporus sulphureus_, which does +great injury to all kinds of standing timber, especially the oak, +poplar, willow, hazel, pear, larch, and others. It is probably well +known to all foresters, as its fructification projects horizontally +from the diseased trunks as tiers of bracket-shaped bodies of a +cheese-like consistency; bright yellow below, where the numerous +minute pores are, and orange or somewhat vermilion above, giving the +substance a coral-like appearance. I have often seen it in the +neighborhood of Englefield Green and Windsor, and it is very common in +England generally. + +If the spore of this _Polyporus_ lodges on a wound which exposes the +cambium and young wood, the filaments grow into the medullary rays and +the vessels and soon spread in all directions in the timber, +especially longitudinally, causing the latter to assume a warm brown +color and to undergo decay. In the infested timber are to observed +radial and other crevices filled with the dense felt-like mycelium +formed by the common growth of the innumerable branched filaments. In +bad cases it is possible to strip sheets of this yellowish white felt +work out of the cracks, and on looking at the timber more closely (of +the oak, for instance), the vessels are found to be filled with the +fungus filaments, and look like long white streaks in longitudinal +sections of the wood--showing as white dots in transverse sections. + +It is not necessary to dwell on the details of the histology of the +diseased timber; the ultimate filaments of the fungus penetrate the +walls of all the cells and vessels, dissolve and destroy the starch in +the medullary rays, and convert the lignified walls of the wood +elements back again into cellulose. This evidently occurs by some +solvent action, and is due to a ferment excreted from the fungus +filaments, and the destroyed timber becomes reduced to a brown mass of +powder. + +I cannot leave this subject without referring to a remarkably +interesting museum specimen which Prof. Hartig showed and explained to +me last summer. This is a block of wood containing an enormous +irregularly spheroidal mass of the white felted mycelium of this +fungus, _Polyporus sulphureus_. The mass had been cut clean across, +and the section exposed a number of thin brown ovoid bodies embedded +in the closely woven felt; these bodies were of the size and shape of +acorns, but were simply hollow shells filled with the same felt-like +mycelium as that in which they were embedded. They were cut in all +directions, and so appeared as circles in some cases. These bodies +are, in fact, the outer shells of so many acorns, embedded in and +hollowed out by the mycelium of _Polyporus sulphureus_. Hartig's +ingenious explanation of their presence speaks for itself. A squirrel +had stored up the acorns in a hollow in the timber, and had not +returned to them--what tragedy intervenes must be left to the +imagination. The _Polyporus_ had then invaded the hollow, and the +acorns, and had dissolved and destroyed the cellular and starchy +contents of the latter, leaving only the cuticularized and corky +shells, looking exactly like fossil eggs in the matrix. I hardly think +geology can beat this for a true story. + +The three diseases so far described serve very well as types of a +number of others known to be due to the invasion of timber and the +dissolution of the walls of its cells, fibers, and vessels by +hymenomycetous fungi, i.e., by fungi allied to the toadstools and +polypores. They all "rot" the timber by destroying its structure and +substance, starting from the cambium and medullary rays. + +To mention one or two additional forms, _Trametes Pini_ is common on +pines, but, unlike its truly parasitic ally, _Tr. radiciperda_, which +attacks sound roots, it is a wound parasite, and seems able to gain +access to the timber only if the spores germinate on exposed surfaces. +The disease it produces is very like that caused by its ally; probably +none but an expert could distinguish between them, though the +differences are clear when the histology is understood. + +_Polyporus fulvus_ is remarkable because its hyphae destroy the middle +lamella, and thus isolate the tracheides in the timber of firs; +_Polyporus borealis_ also produces disease in the timber of standing +conifers; _Polyporus igniarius_ is one of the commonest parasites on +trees such as the oak, etc., and produces in them a disease not unlike +that due to the last form mentioned; _Polyporus dryadeus_ also +destroys oaks, and is again remarkable because its hyphae destroy the +middle lamella. + +With reference to the two fungi last mentioned I cannot avoid +describing a specimen in the Museum of Forest Botany in Munich, since +it seems to have a possible bearing on a very important question of +biology, viz., the action of soluble ferments. + +It has already been stated that some of these tree-killing fungi +excrete ferments which attack and dissolve starch grains, and it is +well known that starch grains are stored up in the cells of the +medullary rays found in timber. Now, _Polyporus dryadeus_ and _P. +igniarius_ are such fungi; their hyphae excrete a ferment which +completely destroys the starch grains in the cells of the medullary +rays of the oak, a tree very apt to be attacked by these two +parasites, though _P. igniarius_, at any rate, attacks many other +dicotyledonous trees as well. It occasionally happens that an oak is +attacked by both of these polyporei, and their mycelia become +intermingled in the timber; when this is the case, the _starch grains +remain intact in those cells which are invaded simultaneously by the +hyphae of both fungi_. Prof. Hartig lately showed me longitudinal +radial sections of oak timber thus attacked, and the medullary rays +showed up as glistening white plates. These plates consist of nearly +pure starch; the hyphae have destroyed the cell walls, but left the +starch intact. It is easy to suggest that the two ferments acting +together exert (with respect to the starch) a sort of inhibitory +action one on the other; but it is also obvious that this is not the +ultimate explanation, and one feels that the matter deserves +investigation. + +It now becomes a question--What other types of timber diseases shall +be described? Of course the limits of a popular article are too narrow +for anything approaching an exhaustive treatment of such a subject, +and nothing has as yet been said of several other diseases due to +crust-like fungi often found on decaying stems, or of others due to +certain minute fungi which attack healthy roots. Then there is a class +of diseases which commence in the bark or cortex of trees, and extend +thence into the cambium and timber: some of these "cankers," as they +are often called, are proved to be due to the ravages of fungi, though +there is another series of apparently similar "cankers" which are +caused by variations in the environment--the atmosphere and weather +generally. + +It would need a long article to place the reader _au courant_ with the +chief results of what is known of these diseases, and I must be +content here with the bare statement that these "cankers" are in the +main due to local injury or destruction of the cambium. If the normal +cylindrical sheet of cambium is locally irritated or destroyed, no one +can wonder that the thickening layers of wood are not continued +normally at the locality in question; the uninjured cells are also +influenced, and abnormal cushions of tissue formed, which vary in +different cases. Now, in "cankers" this is--put shortly--what happens: +it may be, and often is, due to the local action of a parasitic +fungus; or it may be, and, again, often is, owing to injuries produced +by the weather, in the broad sense, and saprophytic organisms may +subsequently invade the wounds. + +The details as to how the injury thus set up is propagated to other +parts--how the "canker" spreads into the bark and wood around--_are_ +details, and would require considerable space for their description: +the chief point here is again the destructive action of mycelia of +various fungi, which by means of their powers of pervading the cells +and vessels of the wood, and of secreting soluble ferments which break +down the structure of the timber, render the latter diseased and unfit +for use. The only too well known larch disease is a case in point; but +since this is a subject which needs a chapter to itself, I may pass on +to more general remarks on what we have learned so far. + +It will be noticed that, whereas such fungi as _Trametes radiciperda_ +and _Agaricus melleus_ are true parasites which can attack the living +roots of trees, the other fungi referred to can only reach the +interior of the timber from the exposed surfaces of wounds. It has +been pointed out along what lines the special treatment of the former +diseases must be followed, and it only remains to say of the latter: +take care of the cortex and cambium of the tree, and the timber will +take care of itself. It is unquestionably true that the diseases due +to wound parasites can be avoided if no open wounds are allowed to +exist. Many a fine oak and beech perishes before its time, or its +timber becomes diseased and a high wind blows the tree down, because +the spores of one of these fungi alight on the cut or torn surface of +a pruned or broken branch. Of course it is not always possible to +carry out the surgical operations, so to speak, which are necessary to +protect a tree which has lost a limb, and in other cases no doubt +those responsible have to discuss whether it costs more to perform the +operations on a large scale than to risk the timber. With these +matters I have nothing to do here, but the fact remains that by +properly closing over open wounds, and allowing the surrounding +cambium to cover them up, as it will naturally do, the term of life of +many a valuable tree can be prolonged, and its timber not only +prevented from becoming diseased and deteriorating, but actually +increased in value. + +There is no need probably for me to repeat that, although the present +essay deals with certain diseases of timber due to fungi, there are +other diseases brought about entirely by inorganic agencies. Some of +these were touched upon in the last article, and I have already put +before the readers of _Nature_ some remarks as to how trees and their +timber may suffer from the roots being in an unsuitable medium. + +In the next paper it is proposed to deal with the so-called "dry rot" +in timber which has been felled and cut up--a disease which has +produced much distress at various times and in various countries. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. 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